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2,000 | Hierarchy | For the various types of hierarchy, see hierarchy (disambiguation). A hierarchy is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.), in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another. The word derives from the Greek (hierarchia), from ἱεράρχης (hierarches), "president of sacred rites, high-priest" and that from (hieros), "sacred" + (arkho), "to lead, to rule" Hierarches, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus Online Etymology Dictionary . The word can also refer to a series of such items so arranged. The first use of the word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1880, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Pseudo-Dionysius used the word both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy His term is derived from the Greek for 'Bishop' (hierarch), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in more general settings. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or horizontally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate other organizational patterns. Indirect hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction. All parts of the hierarchy which are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers, neither of whom is the other's boss, but both of whose chains of command will eventually meet. These relationships can be formalized mathematically; see Hierarchy (mathematics). Computation and electronics Large electronic devices such as computers are usually composed of modules, which are themselves created out of smaller components (integrated circuits), which in turn are internally organized using hierarchical methods (e.g. using standard cells). The order of tasks in a computational algorithm is often managed hierarchically, with repeated loops nested within one another. Computer files in a file system are stored in an hierarchy of directories in most operating systems. In object-oriented programming, classes are organized hierarchically; the relationship between two related classes is called inheritance. In the Internet, IP addresses are increasingly organized in an hierarchy (so that the routing will continue to function as the Internet grows). Modern computer architectures also organize memory in a hierarchical arrangement. Computer graphic imaging (CGI) Within most CGI and computer animation programs is the use of hierarchies. On a 3D model of a human, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation of almost everything built as a 3D digital model. Biology Biological taxonomy In biology, the study of taxonomy is one of the most conventionally hierarchical kinds of knowledge, placing all living beings in a nested structure of divisions related to their probable evolutionary descent. Most evolutionary biologists assert a hierarchy extending from the level of the specimen (an individual living organism — say, a single newt), to the species of which it is a member (perhaps the Eastern Newt), outward to further successive levels of genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. (A newt is a kind of salamander (family), and all salamanders are types of amphibians (class), which are all types of vertebrates (phylum).) Essential to this kind of reasoning is the proof that members of a division on one level are more closely related to one another than to members of a different division on the same level; they must also share ancestry in the level above. Thus, the system is hierarchical because it forbids the possibility of overlapping categories. For example, it will not permit a 'family' of beings containing some examples that are amphibians and others that are reptiles — divisions on any level do not straddle the categories of structure that are hierarchically above it. (Such straddling would be an example of heterarchy.) Hierarchy in Organisms Organisms are also commonly described as assemblies of parts (organs) which are themselves assemblies of yet smaller parts. When we observe that the relationship of cell to organ is like that of the relationship of organ to body, we are invoking the hierarchical aspects of physiology. (The term "organic" is often used to describe a sense of the small imitating the large, which suggests hierarchy, but isn't necessarily hierarchical.) The analogy of organ to body also extends to the relationship of a living being as a system that might resemble an ecosystem consisting of several living beings; physiology is thus hierarchically nested in ecology. Rolf Sattler has shown how one can look at biological organization in a non-hierarchical way and that this non-hierarchical perspective reveals aspects of continuity and undivided wholeness that are obscured by the hierarchical perspective Sattler, R. 1986. Biophilosophy - Analytic and Holistic Perspectives. New York: Springer Sattler, R. 2008, Wilber’s AQAL Map and Beyond. Chapter 1: Hierarchy and Beyond http://beyondwilber.ca Sattler, R. 2006, Plant morphology - Continuum Morphology and Process Morphology Physics In physics, the standard model of reasoning on the nature of the physical world decomposes large bodies down to their smallest particle components. Observations on the subatomic (particle) level are often seen as fundamental constituent axioms, on which conclusions about the atomic and molecular levels depend. The relationships of energy and gravity between celestial bodies are, in turn, dependent upon the atomic and molecular properties of smaller bodies. In energetics, energy quality is sometimes used to quantify energy hierarchy. Language and semiotics In linguistics, especially in the work of Noam Chomsky, and of later generative linguistics theories, such as Ray Jackendoff's, words or sentences are often broken down into hierarchies of parts and wholes. Hierarchical reasoning about the underlying structure of language expressions leads some linguists to the hypothesis that the world's languages are bound together in a broad array of variants subordinate to a single Universal Grammar. Hierarchical verbal alignment In some languages, such as Cree and Mapudungun, subject and object on verbs are distinguished not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons. In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject. In music, the structure of a composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature. The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine." Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory. In all of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. However, feminists, marxists, critical theorists and others analyze hierarchy in terms of the values and power that it arbitrarily assigns to one group over another. Containment hierarchy A containment hierarchy of the subsumption kind is a collection of strictly nested sets. Each entry in the hierarchy designates a set such that the previous entry is a strict superset, and the next entry is a strict subset. For example, all rectangles are quadrilaterals, but not all quadrilaterals are rectangles, and all squares are rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares. (See also: Taxonomy.) A containment hierarchy of the compositional kind refers to parts and wholes, as well as to rates of change. Generally the bigger changes more slowly. Parts are contained in wholes and change more rapidly than do wholes. In geometry: {shape {polygon {quadrilateral {rectangle {square}}}}} In biology:subsumption hierarchy {animal {bird {bird of prey|raptor {eagle {golden eagle}}}}} compositional hierarchy: [population [organism [biological cell [macromolecule]]]] The Chomsky hierarchy in formal languages: recursively enumerable, context-sensitive, context-free, and regular In physics: subsumption hierarchy {elementary particle {fermion {lepton {electron}}}} compositional hierarchy: [galaxy [star system [[[star]]] References Further reading Valerie Ahl & Timothy F. H. Allen (1996). Hierarchy Theory. New York: Columbia University Press. Julie Nelson (1992). "Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics". Economics and Philosophy, 8:103–125. A. Rosenbaum (1999). Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie. Paris: Desclee de Brouwer. Exploration, Exploitation, and Knowledge Management Strategies in Multi-Tier Hierarchical Organizations on SSRN External links Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory — S.N. 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2,001 | Free_verse | Free verse - also known as vers libre - is a term describing various styles of poetry that are written without using a strict rhyme scheme, but still recognizable as poetry by virtue of complex patterns of one sort or another that readers will perceive to be part of a coherent whole. G. Burns Cooper, Mysterious Music: Rhythm and Free Verse, Stanford University Press, 1998 Types Philip Hobsbaum identifies three major types of free verse: Free iambic verse, which is an extension of the work of the Jacobean dramatists. Practitioners of this sort of free verse include: T. S. Eliot, Hart Crane, and W. H. Auden. Cadenced verse in the manner of Walt Whitman. Free verse proper, where the discrepancies and variations of meter are centre stage. Cadenced verse is today based on rhythmical phrases that are more irregular than those of traditional poetic meter. When it is used, it tends to follow a looser pattern than would be expected in formal verse. Free verse does away with the structuring devices of regular meter and rhyme schemes; other traditional elements of expression, such as diction and syntax may still be prominent. History The ideal of the early practitioners of free verse was well described by Ezra Pound, who wrote: "As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome." Pound, Ezra. "A Retrospect," Pavannes and Divisions Knopf, 1918, p. 95 D. H. Lawrence wrote that Whitman "pruned away his clichés — perhaps his clichés of rhythm as well as of phrase" and that all one could do with free verse was "get rid of the stereotyped movements and the old hackneyed associations of sound and sense". D. H. Lawrence, from introduction to New Poems Some poets have explained that free verse, despite its freedom, must still display some elements of form. Pound's friend T. S. Eliot wrote: "No verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job." in the essay "The Music of Poetry" 1942 Donald Hall goes as far as to say that "the form of free verse is as binding and as liberating as the form of a rondeau." Donald Hall, in the essay 'Goatfoot, Milktongue, Twinbird' in the book of the same title. 1978. ISBN 0-472-40000-2. Some poets have considered free verse restrictive in its own way. In 1922 Robert Bridges voiced his reservations in the essay 'Humdrum and Harum-Scarum.' Robert Frost later remarked that writing free verse was like "playing tennis without a net". Precursors As the name vers libre suggests, this technique of using more irregular cadences is often said to derive from the practices of 19th century French poets such as Gustave Kahn and Jules Laforgue in his Derniers vers of 1890. However, in English the sort of cadencing that we now recognize as a variety of free verse can be traced back at least as far as the King James Bible. Walt Whitman, who based his verse approach on the Bible, was the major precursor for modern poets writing free verse, though they were reluctant to acknowledge his influence. Many poets of the Victorian era experimented with form. Christina Rossetti, Coventry Patmore, and T. E. Brown all wrote examples of unpatterned rhymed verse. Matthew Arnold's poem Philomela contains some rhyme but is very free. Poems such as W. E. Henley's 'Discharged' (from his In Hospital sequence), and Robert Louis Stevenson's poems 'The Light-Keeper' and 'The Cruel Mistress' can be counted early examples of free verse. see note 25 on page LX of The Penguin Book of Victorian Verse Penguin Classics, 1999. ISBN 0-14-044578-1 In France, a few pieces in Arthur Rimbaud's prose poem collection Illuminations were arranged in manuscript in lines, rather than prose. In the Netherlands, tachtiger (i.e. member of 1880s generation of innovative poets) Frederik van Eeden employed the form at least once (in his poem Waterlelie ["water lily"] De waterlelie < Frederik van Eeden <4umi word ). Goethe (particularly in some early poems, such as Prometheus) and Hölderlin used it occasionally, due in part to a misinterpretation of the meter used in Pindar's poetry; in Hölderlin's case, he also continued to write unmetered poems after discovering this error. References Charles O. Hartman, Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody, Northwestern University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-8101-1316-3 Philip Hobsbaum, Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form H. T. Kirby-Smith, The Origins of Free Verse, University of Michigan, 1996. ISBN 0-472-08565-4. Timothy Steele, Missing Measures Modern Poetry and the Revolt Against Meter, University of Arkansas Press, 1990. 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2,002 | Antonio_Agliardi | Antonio Agliardi (September 4, 1832 – May 1, 1915) was a Roman Catholic Cardinal, archbishop, and papal diplomat. He was born at Cologno (Bergamo), Italy. He studied theology and canon law, and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the pope to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was appointed secretary to the Congregation of the Propaganda. In 1884, he was created by Pope Leo XIII Archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to India as an Apostolic Delegate to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the concordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed secretary of the Congregation super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis. In 1889 he became papal nuncio at Munich and in 1892 at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes that divided Hungary in 1895, he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in 1896 was recalled. In the consistory of 1896 he was elevated to Cardinal Priest of Santi Nereo e Achilleo. In 1899 he was made Cardinal Bishop of Albano. In 1903, he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the Apostolic Chancery in the Secretariat of State in 1908. He died in Rome and was buried in Bergamo. References Catholic-Hierarchy.org | Antonio_Agliardi |@lemmatized antonio:1 agliardi:1 september:1 may:1 roman:1 catholic:3 cardinal:3 archbishop:2 papal:2 diplomat:1 bear:1 cologno:1 bergamo:2 italy:1 study:1 theology:1 canon:1 law:1 act:1 parish:1 priest:2 native:1 diocese:1 twelve:1 year:2 send:2 pope:2 canada:1 bishop:2 chaplain:1 return:1 appoint:2 secretary:2 congregation:2 propaganda:1 create:1 leo:1 xiii:1 caesarea:1 partibus:1 india:2 apostolic:2 delegate:1 report:1 establishment:1 hierarchy:2 visit:1 carry:1 term:1 concordat:1 arrange:1 portugal:1 super:1 negotiis:1 ecclesiae:1 extraordinariis:1 become:2 nuncio:1 munich:1 vienna:1 allow:1 involve:1 ecclesiastical:1 dispute:1 divide:1 hungary:1 make:2 subject:1 formal:1 complaint:1 hungarian:1 government:1 recall:1 consistory:1 elevate:1 santi:1 nereo:1 e:1 achilleo:1 albano:1 name:1 vice:1 chancellor:2 church:1 chancery:1 secretariat:1 state:1 die:1 rome:1 bury:1 reference:1 org:1 |@bigram pope_leo:1 leo_xiii:1 papal_nuncio:1 vice_chancellor:1 |
2,003 | International_Criminal_Court | The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt) International Criminal Court is sometimes abbreviated as ICCt to distinguish it from several other organisations abbreviated as ICC. However, the more common abbreviation ICC is used in this article. is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression (although it cannot currently exercise jurisdiction over the crime of aggression). The court came into being on 1 July 2002 — the date its founding treaty, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, entered into force — and it can only prosecute crimes committed on or after that date. The official seat of the court is in The Hague, Netherlands, but its proceedings may take place anywhere. , 108 states are members of the Court; A further 40 countries have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute. However, a number of states, including China, Russia, India and the United States, are critical of the court and have not joined. http://www.hindu.com/2009/03/04/stories/2009030455100900.htm The ICC can generally exercise jurisdiction only in cases where the accused is a national of a state party, the alleged crime took place on the territory of a state party, or a situation is referred to the court by the United Nations Security Council. The court is designed to complement existing national judicial systems: it can exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such crimes. Primary responsibility to investigate and punish crimes is therefore left to individual states. To date, the court has opened investigations into four situations: Northern Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic and Darfur. The court has indicted fourteen people; seven of whom remain free, two have died, and five are in custody. The ICC's first trial, of Congolese militia leader Thomas Lubanga, began on 26 January 2009. Mike Corder, 26 January 2009. International court begins case of Congo warlord. The Associated Press. Accessed 26 January 2009. History In 1948, following the Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals, the United Nations General Assembly recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind committed during World War II. At the request of the General Assembly, the International Law Commission drafted two draft statutes by the early 1950s but these were shelved as the Cold War made the establishment of an international criminal court politically unrealistic. Gary T. Dempsey, 16 July 1998. Reasonable Doubt: The Case Against the Proposed International Criminal Court. The Cato Institute. Accessed 31 December 2006. Benjamin B. Ferencz, an investigator of Nazi war crimes after World War II and the Chief Prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen Trial, one of the twelve military trials held by the U.S. authorities at Nuremberg, later became a vocal advocate of the establishment of an international rule of law and of an International Criminal Court. In his first book published in 1975, entitled Defining International Aggression-The Search for World Peace, he argued for the establishment of such an international court. Benjamin B Ferencz, Biography The idea was revived in 1989 when A. N. R. Robinson, then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, proposed the creation of a permanent international court to deal with the illegal drug trade. International Criminal Court, 20 June 2006. Election of Mr Arthur N.R. Robinson to the Board of Directors of the Victims Trust Fund. Accessed 3 May 2007. While work began on a draft statute, the international community established ad hoc tribunals to try war crimes in the former Yugoslavia The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, established in 1993. and Rwanda, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, established in 1994. further highlighting the need for a permanent international criminal court. Coalition for the International Criminal Court. History of the ICC. Accessed 31 December 2006. Following years of negotiations, the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, with the aim of finalising a treaty. On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, and Yemen. Michael P. Scharf, August 1998. Results of the Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court. The American Society of International Law. Accessed 4 December 2006. The Rome Statute became a binding treaty on 11 April 2002, when the number of countries that had ratified it reached 60. Amnesty International, 11 April 2002. The International Criminal Court — a historic development in the fight for justice. Accessed 20 March 2008. The Statute legally came into force on 1 July 2002, and the ICC can only prosecute crimes committed after that date. The first bench of 18 judges was elected by an Assembly of States Parties in February 2003. They were sworn in at the inaugural session of the court on 1 March 2003. Coalition for the International Criminal Court. Judges and the Presidency. Accessed 5 December 2006. The court issued its first arrest warrants on 8 July 2005, International Criminal Court, 14 October 2005. Warrant of Arrest unsealed against five LRA Commanders. Accessed 5 December 2006. and the first pre-trial hearings were held in 2006. International Criminal Court, 9 November 2006. Prosecutor presents evidence that could lead to first ICC trial. Accessed 5 December 2006. Membership As of March 2009, 108 countries have joined the court, including nearly all of Europe and South America, and roughly half the countries in Africa. United Nations Treaty Collection. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Accessed 5 October 2008. International Criminal Court, 2008. The States Parties to the Rome Statute. Accessed 5 October 2008. Coalition for the International Criminal Court, 18 July 2008. . Accessed 5 October 2008. However, these countries only account for a minority of the world's population. The International Criminal Court at Work: Challenges and Successes in the Fight against Impunity, Coalition for the International Criminal Court-Berlin, 2007-09-21, Retrieved 2008-03-21 A further 40 states have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute; the law of treaties obliges these states to refrain from “acts which would defeat the object and purpose” of the treaty. The 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Article 18. Accessed 23 November 2006. In 2002, two of these states, the United States and Israel, "unsigned" the Rome Statute, indicating that they no longer intend to become states parties and, as such, they have no legal obligations arising from their signature of the statute. John R Bolton, 6 May 2002. International Criminal Court: Letter to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan. US Department of State. Accessed 23 November 2006. Jurisdiction Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court Article 5 of the Rome Statute grants the court jurisdiction over four groups of crimes, which it refers to as the “most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole”: the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. The statute defines each of these crimes except for aggression: it provides that the court will not exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression until such time as the states parties agree on a definition of the crime and set out the conditions under which it may be prosecuted. Article 5 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Many states wanted to add terrorism and drug trafficking to the list of crimes covered by the Rome Statute; however, the states were unable to agree on a definition for terrorism and it was decided not to include drug trafficking as this might overwhelm the court's limited resources. United Nations Department of Public Information, December 2002. The International Criminal Court. Accessed 5 December 2006. India lobbied to have the use of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction included as war crimes but this move was also defeated. Dilip Lahiri, 17 July 1998. Explanation of vote on the adoption of the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Embassy of India, Washington, D.C. Accessed 31 December 2006. India has expressed concern that “the Statute of the ICC lays down, by clear implication, that the use of weapons of mass destruction is not a war crime. This is an extraordinary message to send to the international community.” Some commentators have argued that the Rome Statute defines crimes too broadly or too vaguely. For example, China has argued that the definition of ‘war crimes’ goes beyond that accepted under customary international law. Lu Jianping and Wang Zhixiang. “China's Attitude Towards the ICC” in Journal of International Criminal Justice, July 2005. A Review Conference is due to take place in the first half of 2010. Assembly of States Parties, 14 December 2007. . Accessed 20 March 2008. Among other things, the conference will review the list of crimes contained in Article 5. Article 123 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. (See also Rolf Einar Fife, 21 November 2006, . Accessed 5 December 2006.) The final resolution on adoption of the Rome Statute specifically recommended that terrorism and drug trafficking be reconsidered at this conference. Amnesty International, 2 November 2006. International Criminal Court: Concerns at the fifth session of the Assembly of States Parties. Accessed 20 March 2008. Territorial jurisdiction During the negotiations that led to the Rome Statute, a large number of states argued that the court should be allowed to exercise universal jurisdiction. However, this proposal was defeated due in large part to opposition from the United States. Elizabeth Wilmhurst, 1999. ‘Jurisdiction of the Court’, p. 136. In Roy S Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. ISBN 90-411-1212-X. A compromise was reached, allowing the court to exercise jurisdiction only under the following limited circumstances: where the person accused of committing a crime is a national of a state party (or where the person's state has accepted the jurisdiction of the court); where the alleged crime was committed on the territory of a state party (or where the state on whose territory the crime was committed has accepted the jurisdiction of the court); or where a situation is referred to the court by the UN Security Council. Articles 12 & 13 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Temporal jurisdiction The court's jurisdiction does not apply retroactively: it can only prosecute crimes committed on or after 1 July 2002 (the date on which the Rome Statute entered into force). Where a state becomes party to the Rome Statute after that date, the court can exercise jurisdiction automatically with respect to crimes committed after the statute enters into force for that state. Article 11 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. The ICC's temporary headquarters in The Hague Complementarity The ICC is intended as a court of last resort, investigating and prosecuting only where national courts have failed. Article 17 of the Statute provides that a case is inadmissible if: Article 20, paragraph 3, specifies that, if a person has already been tried by another court, the ICC cannot try them again for the same conduct unless the proceedings in the other court: Structure The ICC is governed by an Assembly of States Parties. International Criminal Court. Assembly of States Parties. Accessed 2 January 2008. The court consists of four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry. International Criminal Court. Structure of the Court. Accessed 23 November 2006. Assembly of States Parties The court's management oversight and legislative body, the Assembly of States Parties, consists of one representative from each state party. Article 112 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Each state party has one vote and "every effort" has to be made to reach decisions by consensus. If consensus cannot be reached, decisions are made by vote. The Assembly is presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are elected by the members to three-year terms. The Assembly meets in full session once a year in New York or The Hague, and may also hold special sessions where circumstances require. Sessions are open to observer states and non-governmental organisations. Amnesty International, 11 November 2007. Assembly of States Parties of the International Criminal Court. Accessed 2 January 2008. The Assembly elects the judges and prosecutors, decides the court's budget, adopts important texts (such as the Rules of Procedure and Evidence), and provides management oversight to the other organs of the court. Article 46 of the Rome Statute allows the Assembly to remove from office a judge or prosecutor who "is found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or "is unable to exercise the functions required by this Statute". Article 46 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. The states parties cannot interfere with the judicial functions of the court. Coalition for the International Criminal Court. Assembly of States Parties. Accessed 2 January 2008. Disputes concerning individual cases are settled by the Judicial Divisions. At the seventh session of the Assembly of States Parties in November 2008, the Assembly decided that the Review Conference of the Rome Statute shall be held in Kampala, Uganda, during the first semester of 2010. Uganda to host Rome Statute Review Conference, Hague Justice Portal Presidency Philippe Kirsch, President of the Court from 2003 to 2009 The Presidency is responsible for the proper administration of the court (apart from the Office of the Prosecutor). International Criminal Court. The Presidency. Accessed 21 July 2007. It comprises the President and the First and Second Vice-Presidents — three judges of the court who are elected to the Presidency by their fellow judges for a maximum of two three-year terms. Article 38 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. The current President is Sang-Hyun Song, who was elected on 11 March 2009. International Criminal Court, 11 March 2009. Judge Song (Republic of Korea) elected President of the International Criminal Court; Judges Diarra (Mali) and Kaul (Germany) elected First and Second Vice-Presidents respectively. Accessed 11 March 2009. Judicial Divisions The Judicial Divisions consist of the 18 judges of the court, organized into three divisions — the Pre-Trial Division, Trial Division and Appeals Division — which carry out the judicial functions of the court. International Criminal Court. Chambers. Accessed 21 July 2007. Judges are elected to the court by the Assembly of States Parties. They serve nine-year terms and are not generally eligible for re-election. All judges must be nationals of states parties to the Rome Statute, and no two judges may be nationals of the same state. Article 36 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. They must be “persons of high moral character, impartiality and integrity who possess the qualifications required in their respective States for appointment to the highest judicial offices”. The Prosecutor or any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a judge from "any case in which his or her impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground". Article 41 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Any request for the disqualification of a judge from a particular case is decided by an absolute majority of the other judges. A judge may be removed from office if he or she "is found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or is unable to exercise his or her functions. The removal of a judge requires both a two-thirds majority of the other judges and a two-thirds majority of the states parties. Office of the Prosecutor The Office of the Prosecutor is responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions. International Criminal Court. Office of the Prosecutor. Accessed 21 July 2007. It is headed by the Prosecutor, who is assisted by two Deputy Prosecutors. The Rome Statute provides that the Office of the Prosecutor shall act independently; Article 42 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. as such, no member of the Office may seek or act on instructions from any external source, such as states, international organisations, non-governmental organisations or individuals. The Prosecutor may open an investigation under three circumstances: when a situation is referred to him by a state party; when a situation is referred to him by the United Nations Security Council, acting to address a threat to international peace and security; or when the Pre-Trial Chamber authorises him to open an investigation on the basis of information received from other sources, such as individuals or non-governmental organisations. Any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a prosecutor from any case "in which their impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground". Requests for the disqualification of prosecutors are decided by the Appeals Division. A prosecutor may be removed from office by an absolute majority of the states parties if he or she "is found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties" or is unable to exercise his or her functions. However, critics of the court argue that there are “insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges” and “insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses”. US Department of State, 30 July 2003. Frequently Asked Questions About the U.S. Government's Policy Regarding the International Criminal Court (ICC). Accessed 31 December 2006. Henry Kissinger says the checks and balances are so weak that the prosecutor “has virtually unlimited discretion in practice”. Henry A. Kissinger. “The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction”. Foreign Affairs, July/August 2001, p. 95. Accessed 31 December 2006. As of March 2009, the Prosecutor is Luis Moreno-Ocampo of Argentina, who was elected by the Assembly of States Parties on 21 April 2003 International Criminal Court, 24 April 2003. Election of the Prosecutor. Accessed 21 July 2007. for a term of nine years. Registry The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration and servicing of the court. International Criminal Court. The Registry. Accessed 21 July 2007. This includes, among other things, “the administration of legal aid matters, court management, victims and witnesses matters, defence counsel, detention unit, and the traditional services provided by administrations in international organisations, such as finance, translation, building management, procurement and personnel”. The Registry is headed by the Registrar, who is elected by the judges to a five-year term.. The current Registrar is Silvana Arbia, who was elected on 28 February 2009. Headquarters, offices and detention unit The official seat of the court is in The Hague, Netherlands, but its proceedings may take place anywhere. Article 3 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. The legal relationship between the ICC and the Netherlands is governed by a headquarters agreement, which entered into force on 1 March 2008. (See International Criminal Court, 2008: . Accessed 1 June 2008.) The court is currently housed in interim premises on the eastern edge of The Hague. Coalition for the International Criminal Court, 2006. Building — ICC Premises. Accessed 18 June 2007. The court intends to construct permanent premises in Alexanderkazerne, to the north of The Hague. Assembly of States Parties, 14 December 2007. . Accessed 20 March 2008. The ICC also maintains a liaison office in New York International Criminal Court, January 2007. Socorro Flores Liera Head of the Liaison Office to the UN. Accessed 10 June 2008. and field offices in places where it conducts its activities. As of 18 October 2007, the court had field offices in Kampala, Kinshasa, Bunia, Abéché and Bangui. International Criminal Court, 18 October 2007. The Registrar Inaugurates the ICC Field Office in Bangui . Accessed 10 June 2008. The ICC's detention centre comprises twelve cells on the premises of the Scheveningen branch of the Haaglanden Penal Institution, The Hague. Emma Thomasson, 28 February 2006. ICC says cells ready for Uganda war crimes suspects. Reuters. Accessed 18 June 2007. Suspects held by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia are held in the same prison and share some facilities, like the fitness room, but have no contact with suspects held by the ICC. The detention unit is close to the ICC's future headquarters in Alexanderkazerne. International Criminal Court, 18 October 2005. , p. 23. Accessed 18 June 2007. As of March 2009, the detention centre houses five suspects: Thomas Lubanga, Germain Katanga, Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, Jean-Pierre Bemba and former Liberian President Charles Taylor. Taylor is being tried under the mandate and auspices of the Special Court for Sierra Leone, but his trial is being held at the ICC's facilities in The Hague because of political and security concerns about holding the trial in Freetown. BBC News, 20 June 2006. Q&A: Trying Charles Taylor. Accessed 11 January 2007. Alexandra Hudson, 31 May 2007. "Warlord Taylor's home is lonely Dutch prison". Reuters. Accessed 27 July 2007. Procedure Rights of the accused The Rome Statute provides that all persons are presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt, Article 66 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. and establishes certain rights of the accused and persons during investigations. The rights of persons during an investigation are provided in Article 55. Rights of the accused are provided in Part 6, especially Article 67. See also Amnesty International, 1 August 2000. The International Criminal Court: Fact sheet 9 — Fair trial guarantees. Accessed 20 March 2008. These include the right to be fully informed of the charges against him or her; the right to have a lawyer appointed, free of charge; the right to a speedy trial; and the right to examine the witnesses against him or her and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his or her behalf. Some argue that the protections offered by the ICC are insufficient. According to one conservative think-tank, the Heritage Foundation, “Americans who appear before the court would be denied such basic constitutional rights as trial by a jury of one's peers, protection from double jeopardy, and the right to confront one's accusers.” Brett D. Schaefer, 9 January 2001. Overturning Clinton's Midnight Action on the International Criminal Court. The Heritage Foundation. Accessed 23 November 2006. The Human Rights Watch argues that the ICC standards are sufficient, saying, “the ICC has one of the most extensive lists of due process guarantees ever written”, including “presumption of innocence; right to counsel; right to present evidence and to confront witnesses; right to remain silent; right to be present at trial; right to have charges proved beyond a reasonable doubt; and protection against double jeopardy”. Human Rights Watch. Myths and Facts About the International Criminal Court. Accessed 31 December 2006. According to David Scheffer, who led the US delegation to the Rome Conference (and who voted against adoption of the treaty), “when we were negotiating the Rome treaty, we always kept very close tabs on, ‘Does this meet U.S. constitutional tests, the formation of this court and the due process rights that are accorded defendants?’ And we were very confident at the end of Rome that those due process rights, in fact, are protected, and that this treaty does meet a constitutional test.” CNN, 2 January 2000. Burden of Proof transcript. Accessed 31 December 2006. In order to ensure “equality of arms” between defence and prosecution teams, the ICC has established an independent Office of Public Counsel for the Defence (OPCD) to provide logistical support, advice and information to defendants and their counsel. Katy Glassborow, 21 August 2006. Defending the Defenders. Global Policy Forum. Accessed 3 May 2007. International Criminal Court. Rights of the Defence. Accessed 3 May 2007. The OPCD also helps to safeguard the rights of the accused during the initial stages of an investigation. International Criminal Court, 2005. Report of the International Criminal Court for 2004. Accessed 3 May 2007. However, Thomas Lubanga's defence team say they have been given a smaller budget than the Prosecutor and that evidence and witness statements have been slow to arrive. Stephanie Hanson, 17 November 2006. Africa and the International Criminal Court. Council on Foreign Relations. Accessed 23 November 2006. Victim participation and reparations One of the great innovations of the Statute of the International Criminal Court and its Rules of Procedure and Evidence is the series of rights granted to victims. International Criminal Court. Victims and witnesses. Accessed 22 June 2007. Ilaria Bottigliero, April 2003. "The International Criminal Court — Hope for the Victims", 32 SGI Quarterly, pp. 13-15. Accessed 24 July 2007. For the first time in the history of international criminal justice, victims have the possibility under the Statute to present their views and observations before the Court. Participation before the Court may occur at various stages of proceedings and may take different forms. Although it will be up to the judges to give directions as to the timing and manner of participation. Participation in the Court's proceedings will in most cases take place through a legal representative and will be conducted ”in a manner which is not prejudicial or inconsistent with the rights of the accused and a fair and impartial trial”. The victim-based provisions within the Rome Statute provide victims with the opportunity to have their voices heard and to obtain, where appropriate, some form of reparation for their suffering. It is this balance between retributive and restorative justice that will enable the ICC, not only to bring criminals to justice but also to help the victims themselves obtain justice. Article 43(6) establishes a Victims and Witnesses Unit to provide "protective measures and security arrangements, counseling and other appropriate assistance for witnesses, victims who appear before the Court, and others who are at risk on account of testimony given by such witnesses." Article 43(6) of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Article 68 sets out procedures for the "Protection of the victims and witnesses and their participation in the proceedings." Article 68 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. The court has also established an Office of Public Counsel for Victims, to provide support and assistance to victims and their legal representatives. International Criminal Court, 17 October 2006. {{PDFlink|Report on the activities of the Court|151 KB}}. Accessed 18 June 2007. Article 79 of the Rome Statute establishes a Trust Fund to make financial reparations to victims and their families. International Criminal Court. Trust Fund for Victims. Accessed 22 June 2007. Participation of victims in proceedings The Rome Statute contains provisions which enable victims to participate in all stages of the proceedings before the Court. Hence victims may file submissions before the Pre-Trial Chamber when the Prosecutor requests its authorisation to investigate. They may also file submissions on all matters relating to the competence of the Court or the admissibility of cases. More generally, victims are entitled to file submissions before the Court chambers at the pre-trial stage, during the proceedings or at the appeal stage. The rules of procedure and evidence stipulate the time for victim participation in proceedings before the Court. They must send a written application to the Court Registrar and more precisely to the Victims' Participation and Reparation Section, which must submit the application to the competent Chamber which decides on the arrangements for the victims' participation in the proceedings. The Chamber may reject the application if it considers that the person is not a victim. Individuals who wish to make applications to participate in proceedings before the Court must therefore provide evidence proving they are victims of crimes which come under the competence of the Court in the proceedings commenced before it. The Section prepared standard forms and a booklet to make it easier for victims to file their petition to participate in the proceedings. It should be stipulated that a petition may be made by a person acting with the consent of the victim, or in their name when the victim is a child or if any disability makes this necessary. Victims are free to choose their legal representative who must be equally as qualified as the counsel for the defence (this may be a lawyer or person with experience as a judge or prosecutor) and be fluent in one of the Court's two working languages (English or French). In order to ensure the efficiency of proceedings, particularly in cases where there are a large number of victims, the competent Chamber may ask victims to choose a shared legal representative. If the victims are unable to appoint one, the Chamber may ask the Registrar to appoint one or more shared legal representatives. The Victims' Participation and Reparation Section is responsible for assisting victims with the organisation of their legal representation before the Court. When a victim or a group of victims does not have the means to pay for a shared legal representative appointed by the Court, they may request financial aid from the Court to pay counsel. Counsel may participate in the proceedings before the Court by filing submissions and attending the hearings. The Registry, and within it the Victims' Participation and Reparation Section, has many obligations with regard to notification of the proceedings to the victims in order to keep them fully informed of progress. Thus, it is stipulated that the Section must notify victims, who have communicated with the Court in a given case or situation, of any decisions by the Prosecutor not to open an investigation or not to commence a prosecution, so that these victims can file submissions before the Pre-Trial Chamber responsible for checking the decisions taken by the Prosecutor under the conditions laid down in the Statute. The same notification is required before the confirmation hearing in the Pre-Trial Chamber in order to allow the victims to file all the submissions they require. All decisions taken by the Court are then notified to the victims who participated in the proceedings or to their counsel. The Victims' Participation and Reparation Section has wide discretion to use all possible means to give adequate publicity to the proceedings before the Court (local media, requests for co-operation sent to Governments, aid requested from NGOs or other means). Reparation for victims For the first time in the history of humanity, an international court has the power to order an individual to pay reparation to another individual; it is also the first time that an international criminal court has had such power. Pursuant to article 75, the Court may lay down the principles for reparation for victims, which may include restitution, indemnification and rehabilitation. On this point, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court has benefited from all the work carried out with regard to victims, in particular within the United Nations. The Court must also enter an order against a convicted person stating the appropriate reparation for the victims or their beneficiaries. This reparation may also take the form of restitution, indemnification or rehabilitation. The Court may order this reparation to be paid through the Trust Fund for Victims, which was set up by the Assembly of States Parties in September 2002. In order to be able to apply for reparation, victims have to file a written application with the Registry, which must contain the evidence laid down in Rule 94 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence. The Victims' Participation and Reparation Section prepared standard forms to make this easier for victims. They may also apply for protective measures for the purposes of confiscating property from the persons prosecuted. The Victims' Participation and Reparation Section is responsible for giving all appropriate publicity to these reparation proceedings in order to enable victims to make their applications. These proceedings take place after the person prosecuted has been declared guilty of the alleged facts. The Court has the option of granting individual or collective reparation, concerning a whole group of victims or a community, or both. If the Court decides to order collective reparation, it may order that reparation to be made through the Victims' Fund and the reparation may then also be paid to an inter-governmental, international or national organisation. Co-operation by states not party to Rome Statute One of the principles of international law is that a treaty does not create either obligations or rights for third states (pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt) without their consent, and this is also enshrined in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Article 34 of the Vienna Convention from 1969. Accessed 30 October 2008. The co-operation of the non-party states with the ICC is envisioned by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to be of voluntary nature. Article 85 (5)(a) of the Rome Statute. Accessed 30 October 2008. However, even states that have not acceded to the Rome Statute might still be subjects to an obligation to co-operate with ICC in certain cases. Zhu, Wenqi. "On co-operation by states not party to the International Criminal Court." International Review of the Red Cross, no. 861 (2006), p. 87-110. When a case is referred to the ICC by the UN Security Council all UN member states are obliged to co-operate, since its decisions are binding for all of them. Article 25 of the UN Charter. Accessed 30 October 2008. Also, there is an obligation to respect and ensure respect for international humanitarian law, which stems from the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I, Article 89 of Additional Protocol I from 1977. Accessed on 30 October 2008. which reflects the absolute nature of IHL. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. the United States of America), Merits, Judgment, ICJ Reports 1986, p. 114, para. 220. Although the wording of the Conventions might not be precise as to what steps have to be taken, it has been argued that it at least requires non-party states to make an effort not to block actions of ICC in response to serious violations of those Conventions. In relation to co-operation in investigation and evidence gathering, it is implied from the Rome Statute Article 99 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 30 October 2008. that the consent of a non-party state is a prerequisite for ICC Prosecutor to conduct an investigation within its territory, and it seems that it is even more necessary for him to observe any reasonable conditions raised by that state, since such restrictions exist for states party to the Statute. Taking into account the experience of the ICTY (which worked with the principle of the primacy, instead of complementarity) in relation to co-operation, some scholars have expressed their pessimism as to the possibility of ICC to obtain co-operation of non-party states. As for the actions that ICC can take towards non-party states that do not co-operate, the Rome Statute stipulates that the court may inform the Assembly of States Parties or Security Council, when the matter was referred by it, when non-party state refuses to co-operate after it has entered into an ad hoc arrangement or an agreement with the court. Article 87(5) of the Rome Statute. Accessed on 30 October 2008. Amnesties and national reconciliation processes It is unclear to what extent the ICC is compatible with reconciliation processes that grant amnesty to human rights abusers as part of agreements to end conflict. Anthony Dworkin, December 2003. "Introduction" in The International Criminal Court: An End to Impunity? Crimes of War Project. Accessed 18 September 2007. Article 16 of the Rome Statute allows the Security Council to prevent the court from investigating or prosecuting a case, and Article 53 allows the Prosecutor the discretion not to initiate an investigation if he or she believes that “an investigation would not serve the interests of justice”. Article 53 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Former ICC President Philippe Kirsch has said that "some limited amnesties may be compatible" with a country's obligations genuinely to investigate or prosecute under the statute. It is sometimes argued that amnesties are necessary to allow the peaceful transfer of power from abusive regimes. By denying states the right to offer amnesty to human rights abusers, the International Criminal Court may make it more difficult to negotiate an end to conflict and a transition to democracy. For example, the outstanding arrest warrants for four leaders of the Lord's Resistance Army are regarded by some as an obstacle to ending the insurgency in Uganda. Tim Cocks, 30 May 2007. “Uganda urges traditional justice for rebel crimes”. Reuters. Accessed 31 May 2007. Alasdair Palmer, 14 January 2007. “When victims want peace, not justice”. The Sunday Telegraph. Accessed 15 January 2007. Czech politician Marek Benda argues that “the ICC as a deterrent will in our view only mean the worst dictators will try to retain power at all costs”. Alena Skodova, “Czech parliament against ratifying International Criminal Court”. Radio Prague, 12 April 2002. Accessed 11 January 2007. However, the United Nations See, for example, Kofi Annan, 4 October 2000. Report of the Secretary-General on the establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone, para. 22. Accessed 31 December 2006. and the International Committee of the Red Cross Jean-Marie Henckaerts & Louise Doswald-Beck, 2005. Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I: Rules, pp. 613-614. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521005280. maintain that granting amnesty to those accused of war crimes and other serious crimes is a violation of international law. Relationship with the United Nations The UN Security Council has referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC Unlike the International Court of Justice, the ICC is legally and functionally independent from the United Nations. However, the Rome Statute grants certain powers to the United Nations Security Council. Article 13 allows the Security Council to refer to the court situations that would not otherwise fall under the court's jurisdiction (as it did in relation to the situation in Darfur, which the court could not otherwise have prosecuted as Sudan is not a state party). Article 16 allows the Security Council to require the court to defer from investigating a case for a period of 12 months. Article 16 of the Rome Statute. Accessed 20 March 2008. Such a deferral may be renewed indefinitely by the Security Council. The court cooperates with the UN in many different areas, including the exchange of information and logistical support. International Criminal Court, 1 February 2007. UN Secretary-General visits ICC. Accessed 1 February 2007. The court reports to the UN each year on its activities, International Criminal Court, August 2006. {{PDFlink|Report of the International Criminal Court for 2005-2006|68.5 KB}}. Accessed 14 May 2007. and some meetings of the Assembly of States Parties are held at UN facilities. The relationship between the court and the UN is governed by a “Relationship Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations”. {{PDFlink|Negotiated Relationship Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations|130 KB}}. Accessed 23 November 2006. Coalition for the International Criminal Court, 12 November 2004. . Accessed 23 November 2006. Finance Contributions to the ICC's budget, 2008 The ICC is financed by contributions from the states parties. The amount payable by each state party is determined using the same method as the United Nations: Assembly of States Parties, 14 December 2007. . Accessed 20 March 2008. each state's contribution is based on the country’s capacity to pay, which reflects factors such as a national income and population. The maximum amount a single country can pay in any year is limited to 22% of the court's budget; Japan paid this amount in 2008. The court spent €80.5 million in 2007, Assembly of States Parties, 26 May 2008. . Accessed 10 July 2008. and the Assembly of States Parties has approved a budget of €90,382,100 for 2008 Assembly of States Parties, 14 December 2007. . Accessed 20 March 2008. and €101,229,900 for 2009. Assembly of States Parties, 21 November 2008. . Accessed 5 January 2009. As of September 2008, the ICC’s staff consisted of 571 persons from 83 states. International Criminal Court, 29 October 2008. {{PDFlink|Report on the activities of the Court}}. Accessed 26 January 2009. Investigations The court has received complaints about alleged crimes in at least 139 countries but, as of March 2009, the Prosecutor has opened investigations into just four situations: Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic and Darfur. International Criminal Court, 2007. Situations and Cases. Accessed 26 January 2009. Uganda Joseph Kony, wanted by the ICC for war crimes and crimes against humanity In December 2003, the government of Uganda, a state party, referred to the Prosecutor the situation concerning the Lord’s Resistance Army in Northern Uganda. International Criminal Court, 29 January 2004. President of Uganda refers situation concerning the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) to the ICC. Accessed 11 January 2007. On 8 July 2005, the court issued its first arrest warrants for the Lord's Resistance Army leader Joseph Kony, his deputy Vincent Otti, and LRA commanders Raska Lukwiya, Okot Odiambo, and Dominic Ongwen. Lukwiya was killed in battle on 12 August 2006, International Criminal Court, 11 July 2007. . Accessed 24 January 2008. and Otti was killed in 2007, apparently by Kony. BBC News, 23 January 2008. Uganda's LRA confirm Otti death. Accessed 24 January 2008. The LRA's leaders have repeatedly demanded immunity from ICC prosecution in return for an end to the insurgency. Associated Press, 30 May 2007. Human Rights Watch: Ugandan rebels must face justice, even if not before international court. Accessed 24 January 2008. The government of Uganda says it is considering establishing a national criminal tribunal that meets international standards, thereby allowing the ICC warrants to be set aside. Agence France-Presse, 23 January 2008. Uganda's mato oput ritual: forgiveness for brutal 20-year war. Accessed 24 January 2008. Democratic Republic of the Congo In March 2004, the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, a state party, referred to the Prosecutor “the situation of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court allegedly committed anywhere in the territory of the DRC since the entry into force of the Rome Statute, on 1 July 2002.” International Criminal Court, 19 April 2004. Prosecutor receives referral of the situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Accessed 11 January 2007. International Criminal Court, 23 June 2004. The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court opens its first investigation. Accessed 11 January 2007. On 17 March 2006, Thomas Lubanga, former leader of the Union of Congolese Patriots militia in Ituri, became the first person to be arrested under a warrant issued by the court, for allegedly “conscripting and enlisting children under the age of fifteen years and using them to participate actively in hostilities”. International Criminal Court, 17 March 2006. First arrest for the International Criminal Court. Accessed 11 January 2007. His trial was due to begin on 23 June 2008, International Criminal Court, 13 March 2008. The trial in the case of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo will commence on 23 June 2008. Accessed 14 April 2008. but it was halted on 13 June when the court ruled that the Prosecutor's refusal to disclose potentially exculpatory material had breached Lubanga's right to a fair trial. International Criminal Court, 13 June 2008. {{PDFlink|Decision on the consequences of non-disclosure of exculpatory materials covered by Article 54(3)(e) agreements and the application to stay the prosecution of the accused, together with certain other issues raised at the Status Conference on 10 June 2008|2.11 MB}}. Accessed 17 June 2008. The Prosecutor had obtained the evidence from the United Nations and other sources on condition of confidentiality, but the judges ruled that the Prosecutor had incorrectly applied the relevant provision of the Rome Statute and, as a consequence, "the trial process has been ruptured to such a degree that it is now impossible to piece together the constituent elements of a fair trial". International Criminal Court, 16 June 2008. Trial Chamber I ordered the release of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo - Implementation of the decision is pending. Accessed 2 July 2008. The court lifted this suspension on 18 November 2008, Agence France-Presse, 18 November 2008. ICC's long-delayed first trial to start January. Accessed 18 November 2008. and Lubanga's trial began on 26 January 2009. Two more suspects, Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, have also been surrendered to the court by the Congolese authorities. International Criminal Court, 18 October 2007. Second arrest: Germain Katanga transferred into the custody of the ICC. Accessed 18 October 2007. International Criminal Court, 7 February 2008. Third detainee for the International Criminal Court: Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui. Retrieved on 7 February 2008. Both men are charged with six counts of war crimes and three counts of crimes against humanity, relating to an attack on the village of Bogoro on 24 February 2003, in which at least 200 civilians were killed, survivors were imprisoned in a room filled with corpses, and women and girls were sexually enslaved. International Criminal Court, 2 July 2007. . Accessed 18 October 2007. International Criminal Court, 6 July 2007. . Retrieved on 7 February 2008. The charges against both men include murder, sexual slavery and using children under the age of fifteen to participate actively in hostilities. Central African Republic In December 2004, the government of the Central African Republic, a state party, referred to the Prosecutor “the situation of crimes within the jurisdiction of the court committed anywhere on the territory of the Central African Republic since 1 July 2002, the date of entry into force of the Rome Statute.” International Criminal Court, 15 December 2006. . Accessed 11 January 2007. On 22 May 2007, the Prosecutor announced his decision to open an investigation, International Criminal Court, 22 May 2007. Prosecutor opens investigation in the Central African Republic. Accessed 31 May 2007. International Criminal Court, 22 May 2007. . Accessed 31 May 2007. focusing on allegations of killing and rape in 2002 and 2003, a period of intense fighting between government and rebel forces. Nora Boustany, 23 May 2007. “Court Examines Alleged Abuses in Central African Republic”, The Washington Post, p. A16. Accessed 31 May 2007. On 23 May 2008, the court issued an arrest warrant for Jean-Pierre Bemba, a former Vice President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, charging him with war crimes and crimes against humanity, committed when he interfered in the the events in the Central African Republic in 2002 and 2003. International Criminal Court, 24 May 2008 Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo arrested for crimes allegedly committed in the Central African Republic. Accessed 25 May 2008. He was arrested near Brussels the following day. On 3 July, 2008 he was surrendered to the ICC. International Criminal Court, 3 July 2008 Surrender of Jean-Pierre Bemba to the International Criminal Court. Accessed 28 September 2008. Darfur, Sudan On 31 March 2005, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1593, referring “the situation prevailing in Darfur since 1 July 2002” to the Prosecutor. United Nations Security Council, 31 March 2006. Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, To Prosecutor of International Criminal Court. Accessed 11 January 2007. In February 2007 the Prosecutor announced that two men — Sudanese humanitarian affairs minister Ahmad Muhammad Harun and Janjaweed militia leader Ali Kushayb — had been identified as key suspects, accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Sonja Pace, 27 February 2007. "International Court Names Top Suspects in Darfur War Crimes". Voice of America. Accessed 27 February 2007. On 2 May 2007, the court issued arrest warrants for the two men. Alexandra Hudson, 2 May 2007. ICC judges issue arrest warrants for Darfur suspects. Reuters. Accessed 3 May 2007. However, Sudan says the court has no jurisdiction over this matter, and refuses to hand over the suspects. On 14 July 2008, the Prosecutor accused Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. International Criminal Court, 14 July 2008. ICC Prosecutor presents case against Sudanese President, Hassan Ahmad AL BASHIR, for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in Darfur. Accessed 14 July 2008. The court issued an arrest warrant for al-Bashir on 4 March 2009 for war crimes and crimes against humanity, but ruled that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute him for genocide. BBC News, 4 March 2009. Warrant issued for Sudan's Bashir . Accessed 4 March 2009. Al-Bashir was the first sitting head of state indicted by the ICC. Bashir denies all the charges, describing them as "not worth the ink they are written in". [ http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83299 SUDAN: The case against Bashir] Other complaints As of 4 October 2007, the Prosecutor had received 2889 communications International Criminal Court, 18 October 2007. {{PDFlink|Report on the activities of the Court|91.8 KB}}. Accessed 25 November 2007. about alleged crimes in at least 139 countries. International Criminal Court, 10 February 2006. . Accessed 22 June 2007. After initial review, however, the vast majority of these communications were dismissed as “manifestly outside the jurisdiction of the Court”. On 10 February 2006, the Prosecutor published a letter responding to complaints he had received concerning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Luis Moreno-Ocampo, 9 February 2006. . Accessed 23 November 2006. He noted that "the International Criminal Court has a mandate to examine the conduct during the conflict, but not whether the decision to engage in armed conflict was legal", and that the court's jurisdiction is limited to the actions of nationals of states parties. He concluded that there was a reasonable basis to believe that a limited number of war crimes had been committed in Iraq, but that the crimes allegedly committed by nationals of states parties did not appear to meet the required gravity threshold for an ICC investigation. See also Command responsibility Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC) List of war crimes Nuremberg Principles United States and the International Criminal Court Notes and references Further reading Bruce Broomhall, International Justice and the International Criminal Court: Between Sovereignty and the Rule of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press (2003). ISBN 019927424X. Anne-Marie de Brouwer, Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence: The ICC and the Practice of the ICTY and the ICTR. Antwerp - Oxford: Intersentia (2005). ISBN 90-5095-533-9. Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta & John R.W.D. Jones (eds.), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press (2002). ISBN 978-0-19-829862-5. Hans Köchler, Global Justice or Global Revenge? International Criminal Justice at the Crossroads. Vienna/New York: Springer, 2003, ISBN 3-211-00795-4. Steven C. Roach (ed.) Governance, Order, and the International Criminal Court: Between Realpolitik and a Cosmopolitan Court. Oxford: Oxford University Press (2009). ISBN 9780199546732 Roy S Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute. The Hague: Kluwer Law International (1999). ISBN 90-411-1212-X. Roy S Lee & Hakan Friman (eds.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence. Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers (2001). ISBN 1-57105-209-7. Madeline Morris (ed.), "The United States and the International Criminal Court", Law and Contemporary Problems, Winter 2001, vol. 64, no. 1. Retrieved 2007-07-24. William A Schabas, An Introduction to the International Criminal Court (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2004). ISBN 0-521-01149-3. Benjamin N. Schiff. Building the International Criminal Court. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-521-694472-8 Nicolaos Strapatsas, "Universal Jurisdiction and the International Criminal Court", Manitoba Law Journal, 2002, vol. 29, p. 2. Lyal S. Sunga, "The Crimes within the Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (Part II, Articles 5-10)", European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 377-399 (April 1998). Lyal S. Sunga, "The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation" (Brill) (1997). External links Official websites Official website of the ICC United Nations website on the Rome Statute Non-governmental organisations The Coalition for the International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court by Amnesty International USA Victims' Rights Working Group | International_Criminal_Court |@lemmatized international:150 criminal:120 court:223 icc:59 icct:2 sometimes:2 abbreviate:2 distinguish:1 several:1 organisation:9 however:12 common:1 abbreviation:1 use:7 article:41 permanent:5 tribunal:7 prosecute:15 individual:9 genocide:5 crime:64 humanity:10 war:24 aggression:6 although:3 cannot:4 currently:2 exercise:10 jurisdiction:25 come:3 july:32 date:7 founding:1 treaty:13 rome:63 statute:73 enter:5 force:8 commit:17 official:4 seat:2 hague:11 netherlands:3 proceeding:21 may:57 take:13 place:7 anywhere:4 state:88 member:4 country:12 sign:2 ratify:4 number:5 include:10 china:4 russia:1 india:4 united:25 critical:1 join:2 http:2 www:2 hindu:1 com:1 story:1 htm:1 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2,004 | Ampicillin | Ampicillin is a beta-lactam antibiotic that has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. It is considered part of the aminopenicillin family and is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of spectrum and level of activity. It can sometimes result in non-allergic reactions that range in severity from a rash (e.g. patients with mononucleosis) to potentially lethal anaphylaxis. Mechanism of action Belonging to the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics, ampicillin is able to penetrate Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin only by the presence of an amino group. That amino group helps the drug penetrate the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin acts as a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase. Transpeptidase is needed by bacteria to make their cell walls. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis, which ultimately leads to cell lysis. Ampicillin, like other β-lactam antibiotics does not only block the division of bacteria, including cyanobacteria, but also the division of cyanelles, the photosynthetic organelles of the Glaucophytes, and the division of chloroplasts of bryophytes. In contrast, it has no effect on the plastids of the highly developed vascular plants. This is supporting the endosymbiotic theory and indicates an evolution of plastid division in land plants Britta Kasten und Ralf Reski (1997): β-lactam antibiotics inhibit chloroplast division in a moss (Physcomitrella patens) but not in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Journal of Plant Physiology 150, 137-140. . Indications Ampicillin is closely related to amoxicillin, another type of penicillin, and both are used to treat urinary tract infections, otitis media, uncomplicated community-acquired pneumonia, Haemophilus influenzae, salmonellosis and Listeria meningitis. It is used with flucloxacillin in the combination antibiotic co-fluampicil for empiric treatment of cellulitis; providing cover against Group A streptococcal infection whilst the flucloxacillin acts against the Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. Of concern is the number of bacteria that become resistant to Ampicillin necessitating combination therapy or use of other antibiotics. All Pseudomonas and most strains of Klebsiella and Aerobacter are considered resistant. Use in research Ampicillin is often used as a selective agent in molecular biology to confirm the uptake of genes (e.g., of plasmids) by bacteria (e.g., E. coli). A gene that is to be inserted into a bacterium is coupled to a gene coding for an ampicillin resistance (in E. coli, usually the bla (TEM-1) gene, coding for β-lactamase). The treated bacteria are then grown in a medium containing ampicillin (50-100mg/L). Only the bacteria that successfully take up the desired genes become ampicillin resistant, and therefore contain the other desired gene as well. It can be used with Cloaxicillin as well. As a powder ampicillin is white with slight yellow cast and is soluble in water (150mg/ml). External links References | Ampicillin |@lemmatized ampicillin:11 beta:2 lactam:4 antibiotic:6 use:7 extensively:1 treat:2 bacterial:2 infection:3 since:1 consider:2 part:1 aminopenicillin:1 family:1 roughly:1 equivalent:1 amoxicillin:2 term:1 spectrum:1 level:1 activity:1 sometimes:1 result:1 non:1 allergic:1 reaction:1 range:1 severity:1 rash:1 e:5 g:3 patient:1 mononucleosis:1 potentially:1 lethal:1 anaphylaxis:1 mechanism:1 action:1 belong:1 penicillin:3 group:4 able:1 penetrate:2 gram:3 positive:1 negative:2 bacteria:8 differ:1 presence:1 amino:2 help:1 drug:1 outer:1 membrane:1 act:2 competitive:1 inhibitor:1 enzyme:1 transpeptidase:2 need:1 make:1 cell:3 wall:2 inhibit:2 third:1 final:1 stage:1 synthesis:1 ultimately:1 lead:1 lysis:1 like:1 β:3 block:1 division:5 include:1 cyanobacteria:1 also:1 cyanelles:1 photosynthetic:1 organelle:1 glaucophytes:1 chloroplast:2 bryophyte:1 contrast:1 effect:1 plastid:2 highly:1 developed:1 vascular:1 plant:3 support:1 endosymbiotic:1 theory:1 indicate:1 evolution:1 land:1 britta:1 kasten:1 und:1 ralf:1 reski:1 moss:1 physcomitrella:1 patens:1 tomato:1 lycopersicon:1 esculentum:1 journal:1 physiology:1 indication:1 closely:1 relate:1 another:1 type:1 urinary:1 tract:1 otitis:1 medium:2 uncomplicated:1 community:1 acquire:1 pneumonia:1 haemophilus:1 influenzae:1 salmonellosis:1 listeria:1 meningitis:1 flucloxacillin:2 combination:2 co:1 fluampicil:1 empiric:1 treatment:1 cellulitis:1 provide:1 cover:1 streptococcal:1 whilst:1 staphylococcus:1 aureus:1 bacterium:2 concern:1 number:1 become:2 resistant:3 necessitating:1 therapy:1 pseudomonas:1 strain:1 klebsiella:1 aerobacter:1 research:1 often:1 selective:1 agent:1 molecular:1 biology:1 confirm:1 uptake:1 gene:6 plasmid:1 coli:2 insert:1 couple:1 cod:2 resistance:1 usually:1 bla:1 tem:1 lactamase:1 treated:1 grow:1 contain:2 l:1 successfully:1 take:1 desire:1 therefore:1 desired:1 well:2 cloaxicillin:1 powder:1 white:1 slight:1 yellow:1 cast:1 soluble:1 water:1 ml:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram beta_lactam:2 lactam_antibiotic:4 bacterial_infection:1 allergic_reaction:1 potentially_lethal:1 gram_positive:1 gram_negative:2 outer_membrane:1 competitive_inhibitor:1 cell_lysis:1 vascular_plant:1 closely_relate:1 urinary_tract:1 tract_infection:1 otitis_medium:1 haemophilus_influenzae:1 staphylococcus_aureus:1 molecular_biology:1 e_coli:2 external_link:1 |
2,005 | Oxbridge | Oxbridge college seen from the outside Oxbridge was is a composite of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England, and the term is now used to refer to them collectively, often with implications of perceived superior intellectual or social status. 'Oxbridge' can be used as a noun refering to either or both universities or as an adjective describing them or their students. Meaning In addition to being a collective term, Oxbridge is often used as shorthand for characteristics that the two institutions share: They are the two oldest universities in continuous operation in England. Both were founded more than 800 years ago, and continued as England's only universities until the 19th century. Between them they have educated a large number of Britain's most prominent scientists, writers and politicians, Famous alumni and students of Cambridge University as well as noted figures in many other fields. Because of their age, they have established similar institutions and facilities such as printing houses (Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press), botanical gardens (University of Oxford Botanic Garden and Cambridge University Botanic Garden), museums (the Ashmolean and the Fitzwilliam), legal deposit libraries (the Bodleian and the Cambridge University Library), and debating societies (the Oxford Union and the Cambridge Union). Rivalry between Oxford and Cambridge also has a long history, dating back to around 1209 when Cambridge was founded by scholars taking refuge from hostile Oxford townsmen, and celebrated to this day in varsity matches such as the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. Each has a similar collegiate structure, whereby the University is a co-operative of its constituent colleges, who are responsible for supervisions/tutorials (the principal teaching method) and pastoral care. They are the top-scoring institutions in cross-subject UK university rankings, so they are targeted by ambitious pupils, parents and schools. Entrance is competitive and some schools promote themselves based on their achievement of Oxbridge offers. Both universities comprise many buildings of great beauty and antiquity, sited on level terrain ideal for cycling, near slow-moving rivers suitable for rowing and punting. Oxford and Cambridge have common approaches to undergraduate admissions. Until the mid-1980s, entry was typically by sitting special entrance exams. Applications must be made at least three months early, and, with only minor exceptions (e.g. Organ Scholars), are mutually exclusive for first undergraduate degrees so, in any one year, candidates may only apply to Oxford or Cambridge, not both. Because most candidates are predicted to achieve top grades at A level, interviews are usually used to check whether the course is well suited to the applicant's interests and aptitudes, and to look for evidence of self-motivation, independent thinking, academic potential and ability to learn through the tutorial system. The word Oxbridge may also be used pejoratively: as a descriptor of social class (referring to the professional classes who dominated the intake of both universities at the beginning of the twentieth century), as shorthand for an elite that "continues to dominate Britain's political and cultural establishment," or to describe a "pressure-cooker" culture that attracts and then fails to support overachievers "who are vulnerable to a kind of self-inflicted stress that can all too often become unbearable" and high-flying state school students who find "coping with the workload very difficult in terms of balancing work and life" and "feel socially out of [their] depth." Origins Although both universities were founded more than seven centuries ago, the term 'Oxbridge' is relatively young. In William Thackeray's novel Pendennis, published in 1849, the main character attends the fictional Boniface College, Oxbridge. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, this is the first recorded instance of the word. Virginia Woolf used it, citing Thackeray, in her 1929 essay A Room of One's Own. By 1957 the term was used in the Times Educational Supplement and in Universities Quarterly by 1958. When expanded, the universities are almost always referred to as "Oxford and Cambridge", the order in which they were founded. A notable exception is Japan's Cambridge and Oxford Society, probably arising from the fact that the Cambridge Club was founded there first, and also had more members than its Oxford counterpart when they amalgamated in 1905. Related terms Thackeray's Pendennis also introduced the term Camford as another combination of the university names — "he was a Camford man and very nearly got the English Prize Poem" — although this term has never achieved the same degree of usage as Oxbridge. Other words have been derived from the term "Oxbridge". One example is "Doxbridge", an annual inter-collegiate sports tournament between some of the colleges of Durham, Oxford, and Cambridge. The term "Loxbridge" (referring to London, Oxford, and Cambridge) is sometimes used, and was also used as the name of a history conference now referred to as AMPAH. However, such terms are only used for specific groups, and none has achieved widespread use. References See also Third oldest university in England debate List of fictional Oxbridge colleges Ivy League External links University of Cambridge University of Oxford The Boat Race The Varsity Match | Oxbridge |@lemmatized oxbridge:11 college:5 see:2 outside:1 composite:1 university:21 oxford:16 cambridge:17 england:4 term:11 use:11 refer:5 collectively:1 often:3 implication:1 perceived:1 superior:1 intellectual:1 social:2 status:1 noun:1 refering:1 either:1 adjective:1 describe:2 student:3 meaning:1 addition:1 collective:1 shorthand:2 characteristic:1 two:2 institution:3 share:1 old:2 continuous:1 operation:1 found:5 year:2 ago:2 continue:2 universities:1 century:3 educate:1 large:1 number:1 britain:2 prominent:1 scientist:1 writer:1 politician:1 famous:1 alumnus:1 well:2 noted:1 figure:1 many:2 field:1 age:1 establish:1 similar:2 facility:1 printing:1 house:1 press:2 botanical:1 garden:3 botanic:2 museum:1 ashmolean:1 fitzwilliam:1 legal:1 deposit:1 library:2 bodleian:1 debate:2 society:2 union:2 rivalry:1 also:6 long:1 history:2 date:1 back:1 around:1 scholar:2 take:1 refuge:1 hostile:1 townsman:1 celebrate:1 day:1 varsity:2 match:2 boat:2 race:2 collegiate:2 structure:1 whereby:1 co:1 operative:1 constituent:1 responsible:1 supervision:1 tutorial:2 principal:1 teach:1 method:1 pastoral:1 care:1 top:2 scoring:1 cross:1 subject:1 uk:1 ranking:1 target:1 ambitious:1 pupil:1 parent:1 school:3 entrance:2 competitive:1 promote:1 base:1 achievement:1 offer:1 comprise:1 building:1 great:1 beauty:1 antiquity:1 sit:2 level:2 terrain:1 ideal:1 cycling:1 near:1 slow:1 move:1 river:1 suitable:1 row:1 punt:1 common:1 approach:1 undergraduate:2 admission:1 mid:1 entry:1 typically:1 special:1 exam:1 application:1 must:1 make:1 least:1 three:1 month:1 early:1 minor:1 exception:2 e:1 g:1 organ:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 first:3 degree:2 one:3 candidate:2 may:2 apply:1 predict:1 achieve:3 grade:1 interview:1 usually:1 check:1 whether:1 course:1 suit:1 applicant:1 interest:1 aptitude:1 look:1 evidence:1 self:2 motivation:1 independent:1 thinking:1 academic:1 potential:1 ability:1 learn:1 system:1 word:3 pejoratively:1 descriptor:1 class:2 professional:1 dominate:2 intake:1 beginning:1 twentieth:1 elite:1 political:1 cultural:1 establishment:1 pressure:1 cooker:1 culture:1 attract:1 fail:1 support:1 overachiever:1 vulnerable:1 kind:1 inflicted:1 stress:1 become:1 unbearable:1 high:1 fly:1 state:1 find:1 cop:1 workload:1 difficult:1 balance:1 work:1 life:1 feel:1 socially:1 depth:1 origins:1 although:2 seven:1 relatively:1 young:1 william:1 thackeray:3 novel:1 pendennis:2 publish:1 main:1 character:1 attend:1 fictional:2 boniface:1 accord:1 english:2 dictionary:1 record:1 instance:1 virginia:1 woolf:1 cite:1 essay:1 room:1 time:1 educational:1 supplement:1 quarterly:1 expand:1 almost:1 always:1 order:1 notable:1 japan:1 probably:1 arise:1 fact:1 club:1 member:1 counterpart:1 amalgamate:1 relate:1 introduce:1 camford:2 another:1 combination:1 names:1 man:1 nearly:1 get:1 prize:1 poem:1 never:1 usage:1 derive:1 example:1 doxbridge:1 annual:1 inter:1 sport:1 tournament:1 durham:1 loxbridge:1 london:1 sometimes:1 name:1 conference:1 ampah:1 however:1 specific:1 group:1 none:1 widespread:1 reference:1 third:1 list:1 ivy:1 league:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram botanical_garden:1 botanic_garden:2 co_operative:1 pastoral_care:1 entrance_exam:1 mutually_exclusive:1 twentieth_century:1 pressure_cooker:1 virginia_woolf:1 ivy_league:1 external_link:1 |
2,006 | Diaeresis | In linguistics, diaeresis, or dieresis, is the pronunciation of two adjacent vowels in two separate syllables rather than as a diphthong, and it is also the name of the diacritic mark ( ¨ ) used to prompt the reader to pronounce adjacent vowels in this manner. The word dieresis comes from the Greek noun διαίρεσις (diaíresis, "division," or literally, "choice between"), which derives from the verb (diaireîn). An example is the first two vowels in the word cooperate. This word might also be spelled co-operate or, using the diaeresis, coöperate. The opposite phenomenon is known as synaeresis. Orthography The dieresis is a diacritic mark ( ¨ ) used in English to indicate that two adjacent vowels are to be pronounced separately Bringhurst, p 306. as in Noël and naïve, the names Zoë and Chloë and words like reënter and coöperate. Despite its long history in English, the dieresis is decreasingly common in modern usage, though The New Yorker magazine Diaeresis at the Word of Day is a prominent exception. Dutch uses the same mark in a similar way, (for example coëfficiënt), but as with English there is now a preference for hyphenation - so zeeëend (seaduck) is now spelled zee-eend. Other languages indicate phonological diaeresis with different diacritics, such as the acute accent in Spanish and Portuguese. For example, the Portuguese words saia "skirt" and saía "I used to leave" (Brazilian pronunciation) differ in that the sequence forms a diphthong in the former (synaeresis), but is a hiatus in the latter (diaeresis). The dieresis diacritic mark is unrelated to the often identical-looking umlaut in German, and the decorative "heavy metal umlaut" of bands such as Blue Öyster Cult and Motörhead. Prosody In prosody, diaeresis means the division made in a line or a verse when the end of a foot coincides with the end of a word. See also Hiatus (linguistics) Pausa Synaeresis Syllable Diphthong Notes References Bringhurst, Robert (1992 [2004]). The Elements of Typographic Style, version 3.0. Vancouver, Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4. | Diaeresis |@lemmatized linguistics:2 diaeresis:6 dieresis:5 pronunciation:2 two:4 adjacent:3 vowel:4 separate:1 syllable:2 rather:1 diphthong:3 also:3 name:2 diacritic:4 mark:5 use:5 prompt:1 reader:1 pronounce:2 manner:1 word:7 come:1 greek:1 noun:1 διαίρεσις:1 diaíresis:1 division:2 literally:1 choice:1 derive:1 verb:1 diaireîn:1 example:3 first:1 cooperate:1 might:1 spell:2 co:1 operate:1 coöperate:2 opposite:1 phenomenon:1 know:1 synaeresis:3 orthography:1 english:3 indicate:2 separately:1 bringhurst:2 p:1 noël:1 naïve:1 zoë:1 chloë:1 like:1 reënter:1 despite:1 long:1 history:1 decreasingly:1 common:1 modern:1 usage:1 though:1 new:1 yorker:1 magazine:1 day:1 prominent:1 exception:1 dutch:1 similar:1 way:1 coëfficiënt:1 preference:1 hyphenation:1 zeeëend:1 seaduck:1 zee:1 eend:1 language:1 phonological:1 different:1 acute:1 accent:1 spanish:1 portuguese:2 saia:1 skirt:1 saía:1 leave:1 brazilian:1 differ:1 sequence:1 form:1 former:1 hiatus:2 latter:1 unrelated:1 often:1 identical:1 look:1 umlaut:2 german:1 decorative:1 heavy:1 metal:1 band:1 blue:1 öyster:1 cult:1 motörhead:1 prosody:2 mean:1 make:1 line:1 verse:1 end:2 foot:1 coincide:1 see:1 pausa:1 note:1 reference:1 robert:1 element:1 typographic:1 style:1 version:1 vancouver:1 hartley:1 isbn:1 |@bigram acute_accent:1 blue_öyster:1 öyster_cult:1 |
2,007 | Black_Sabbath | Black Sabbath are an English rock band, formed in Birmingham in 1968 by Ozzy Osbourne (lead vocals), Tony Iommi (guitar), Geezer Butler (bass), and Bill Ward (drums and percussion). The band has since experienced multiple lineup changes, with a total of twenty-two former members. Originally formed as a heavy blues-rock band named Earth, the band began incorporating occult- and horror-inspired lyrics with tuned-down guitars, changing their name to Black Sabbath and achieving multiple gold and platinum records in the 1970s. As one of the first and most influential heavy metal bands of all time, Black Sabbath helped define the genre with releases such as 1970s quadruple-platinum Paranoid. They were ranked by MTV as the "Greatest Metal Band" of all time, and have sold over fifteen million records in the United States alone. Ozzy Osbourne was fired from the band in 1979, and while initially replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio, Black Sabbath would see a revolving lineup in the 1980s and 1990s that included vocalists Ian Gillan, Glenn Hughes, Ray Gillen and Tony Martin. The original lineup reunited with Osbourne in 1997 and released a live album, Reunion, which spawned the Grammy Award-winning single "Iron Man" in 2000, thirty years after the song's initial release on the album Paranoid. The early 1980s line-up featuring Iommi, Butler, Dio, and Vinny Appice reformed in 2006 under the moniker Heaven and Hell, a title taken from the 1980 Black Sabbath song and album of the same name. In February 2009, Heaven and Hell announced that they are recording a new album, The Devil You Know, released on 28 April 2009. History Formation and early days (1968–1969) Following the breakup of their previous band Mythology in 1968, guitarist Tony Iommi and drummer Bill Ward sought to form a heavy blues band in Aston, Birmingham. The group enlisted bassist Geezer Butler and vocalist Ozzy Osbourne, who had played together in a band called Rare Breed, Osbourne having placed an advertisement in a local music shop: "Ozzy Zig requires gig- has own PA". The new group was initially named The Polka Tulk Blues Company, after an Indian clothes emporium, and also featured slide guitarist Jimmy Phillips and saxophonist Alan "Aker" Clarke. After shortening the name to Polka Tulk, the band changed their name to Earth, and continued as a four-piece without Phillips and Clarke. Earth played club shows in England, Denmark, and Germany; their set-list consisted of cover songs by Jimi Hendrix, Blue Cheer, and Cream, as well as lengthy improvised blues jams. In December 1968, Iommi abruptly left Earth to join Jethro Tull. Although his stint with the band would be short-lived, Iommi made an appearance with Jethro Tull on the The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus TV show. Unsatisfied with the direction of Jethro Tull, Iommi returned to Earth in January 1969. "It just wasn't right, so I left", Iommi said. "At first I thought Tull were great, but I didn't much go for having a leader in the band, which was Ian Anderson's way. When I came back from Tull, I came back with a new attitude altogether. They taught me that to get on you got to work for it." While playing shows in England in 1969, the band discovered they were being mistaken for another English group named Earth, and decided to change their name again. A movie theatre across the street from the band's rehearsal room was showing the 1963 Boris Karloff horror film Black Sabbath. While watching people line up to see the film, Butler noted that it was "strange that people spend so much money to see scary movies". Following that, he wrote the lyrics for a song called "Black Sabbath," which was inspired by the work of occult writer Dennis Wheatley, along with a vision that Butler had of a black-hooded figure standing at the foot of his bed. Ozzy Osbourne: Behind the Music by VH1; first aired 1998-04-19 Making use of the musical tritone, also known as "The Devil's Interval", the song's ominous sound and dark lyrics pushed the band in a darker direction, a stark contrast to the popular music of the late 1960s, which was dominated by flower power, folk music, and hippie culture. Inspired by the new sound, the band changed their name to Black Sabbath in August 1969, and made the decision to focus on writing similar material, in an attempt to create the musical equivalent of horror films. Black Sabbath and Paranoid (1970–1971) Black Sabbath were signed to Philips Records in December 1969, and released their first single, "Evil Woman" through Philips subsidiary Fontana Records in January 1970. Later releases were handled by Philips' newly formed progressive rock label, Vertigo Records. Although the single failed to chart, the band were afforded two days of studio time in late January to record their debut album with producer Rodger Bain. Iommi recalls recording live: "We thought 'We have two days to do it and one of the days is mixing.' So we played live. Ozzy was singing at the same time, we just put him in a separate booth and off we went. We never had a second run of most of the stuff." The eponymous Black Sabbath was released on Friday the 13th, February 1970. The album reached number 8 in the UK Albums Chart, and following its US release in May 1970 by Warner Bros. Records, the album reached number 23 on the Billboard 200, where it remained for over a year. While the album was a commercial success, it was widely panned by critics, with Lester Bangs of Rolling Stone dismissing the album as "discordant jams with bass and guitar reeling like velocitised speedfreaks all over each other's musical perimeters, yet never quite finding synch". It has since been certified platinum in both US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and in the UK by British Phonographic Industry (BPI). To capitalise on their chart success in the US, the band quickly returned to the studio in June 1970, just four months after Black Sabbath was released. The new album was initially set to be named War Pigs after the song "War Pigs", which was critical of the Vietnam War. However Warner changed the title of the album to Paranoid, fearing backlash by supporters of the Vietnam War. The album's lead-off single "Paranoid" was written in the studio at the last minute. As Bill Ward explains: "We didn't have enough songs for the album, and Tony just played the (Paranoid) guitar lick and that was it. It took twenty, twenty-five minutes from top to bottom." The single was released ahead of the album in September 1970 and reached number four on the UK charts, remaining Black Sabbath's only top ten hit. Black Sabbath released their second full-length album, Paranoid in the UK in October 1970. Pushed by the success of the "Paranoid" single, the album hit number one in the UK. The US release was held until January 1971, as the Black Sabbath album was still on the charts at the time of Paranoid'''s UK release. The album broke into the top ten in the US in March 1971, and would go on to sell four million copies in the US, with virtually no radio airplay. The album was again panned by rock critics of the era, but modern-day reviewers such as AllMusic's Steve Huey cite Paranoid as "one of the greatest and most influential heavy metal albums of all time", which "defined the sound and style of heavy metal more than any other record in rock history". Paranoid's chart success allowed the band to tour the US for the first time in December 1970, which spawned the release of the album's second single "Iron Man". Although the single failed to reach the top 40, "Iron Man" remains one of Black Sabbath's most popular songs, as well as the bands highest charting US single until 1998's "Psycho Man". Master of Reality and Volume 4 (1971–1973) In February 1971, Black Sabbath returned to the studio to begin work on their third album. Following the chart success of Paranoid, the band were afforded more studio time, along with a "briefcase full of cash" to buy drugs. "We were getting into coke, bigtime", Ward explained. "Uppers, downers, Quaaludes, whatever you like. It got to the stage where you come up with ideas and forget them, because you were just so out of it." Production completed in April 1971, and in July the band released Master of Reality, just six months after the release of Paranoid. The album reached the top ten in both the US and UK, and was certified gold in less than two months, eventually receiving platinum certification in the 1980s and Double Platinum in the early 21st century. Master of Reality contained Black Sabbath's first acoustic songs, alongside fan favourites such as "Children of the Grave" and "Sweet Leaf". Critical response of the era was again unfavourable, with Lester Bangs of Rolling Stone dismissing Master of Reality as "naïve, simplistic, repetitive, absolute doggerel", although the very same magazine would later place the album at number 298 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list, compiled in 2003. Following the Master of Reality world tour in 1972, Black Sabbath took its first break in three years. As Bill Ward explained: "The band started to become very fatigued and very tired. We'd been on the road non-stop, year in and year out, constantly touring and recording. I think Master of Reality was kind of like the end of an era, the first three albums, and we decided to take our time with the next album." In June 1972, the band reconvened in Los Angeles to begin work on their next album at the Record Plant. The recording process was plagued with problems, many as a result of substance abuse issues. While struggling to record the song "Cornucopia" after "sitting in the middle of the room, just doing drugs", Bill Ward was nearly fired from the band. "I hated the song, there were some patterns that were just... horrible" Ward said. "I nailed it in the end, but the reaction I got was the cold shoulder from everybody. It was like 'Well, just go home, you're not being of any use right now.' I felt like I'd blown it, I was about to get fired". The album was originally titled "Snowblind" after the song of the same name, which deals with cocaine abuse. The record company changed the title at the last minute to Black Sabbath Vol. 4, with Ward stating "There was no Volume 1, 2 or 3, so it's a pretty stupid title really". Black Sabbath's Volume 4 was released in September 1972, and while critics of the era were again dismissive of the album, it achieved gold status in less than a month, and was the band's fourth consecutive release to sell a million copies in the US. With more time in the studio, Volume 4 saw the band starting to experiment with new textures, such as strings, piano, orchestration and multi-part songs. The song "Tomorrow's Dream" was released as a single—the band's first since Paranoid—but failed to chart. Following an extensive tour of the US, the band travelled to Australia for the first time in 1973, and later mainland Europe. Sabbath Bloody Sabbath and Sabotage (1973–1976) Following the Volume 4 world tour, Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles to begin work on their next release. Pleased with the Volume 4 album, the band sought to recreate the recording atmosphere, and returned to the Record Plant studio in Los Angeles. With new musical innovations of the era, the band were surprised to find that the room they had used previously at the Record Plant was replaced by a "giant synthesiser". The band rented a house in Bel Air and began writing in the summer of 1973, but in part because of substance issues and fatigue, they were unable to complete any songs. "Ideas weren't coming out the way they were on Volume 4 and we really got discontent" Iommi said. "Everybody was sitting there waiting for me to come up with something. I just couldn't think of anything. And if I didn't come up with anything, nobody would do anything." Tony Iommi and Ozzy Osbourne on stage at the California Jam festival on 6 April 1974. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC in the US, exposing the band to a new audience. After a month in Los Angeles with no results, the band opted to return to England, where they rented Clearwell Castle in The Forest of Dean. "We rehearsed in the dungeons and it was really creepy but it had some atmosphere, it conjured up things, and stuff started coming out again". While working in the dungeon, Iommi stumbled onto the main riff of "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath", which set the tone for the new material. Recorded at Morgan Studios in London by Mike Butcher and building off the stylistic changes introduced on Volume 4, new songs incorporated synthesisers, strings, and complex arrangements. Yes keyboardist Rick Wakeman was brought in as a session player, appearing on "Sabbra Cadabra" . In November 1973, Black Sabbath released the critically acclaimed Sabbath Bloody Sabbath. For the first time in their career, the band began to receive favourable reviews in the mainstream press, with Gordon Fletcher of Rolling Stone calling the album "an extraordinarily gripping affair", and "nothing less than a complete success". Later reviewers such as AllMusics Eduardo Rivadavia cite the album as a "masterpiece, essential to any heavy metal collection," while also displaying "a newfound sense of finesse and maturity". The album marked the band's fifth consecutive platinum selling album in the US, reaching number four on the UK charts, and number eleven in the US. The band began a world tour in January 1974, which culminated at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California on 6 April 1974. Attracting over 200,000 fans, Black Sabbath appeared alongside such 70's pop giants as Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Earth, Wind & Fire, Seals & Crofts, and Eagles. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC Television in the US, exposing the band to a wider American audience. In 1974, the band shifted management, signing with notorious English manager Don Arden. The move caused a contractual dispute with Black Sabbath's former management, and while on stage in the US, Osbourne was handed a subpoena that led to two years of litigation. Black Sabbath began work on their sixth album in February 1975, again in England at Morgan Studios in Willesden, this time with a decisive vision to differ the sound from Sabbath, Bloody Sabbath. "We could've continued and gone on and on, getting more technical, using orchestras and everything else which we didn't particularly want to. We took a look at ourselves, and we wanted to do a rock album - Sabbath, Bloody Sabbath wasn't a rock album, really." Produced by Black Sabbath and Mike Butcher, Sabotage was released in July 1975. Again the album initially saw favourable reviews, with Rolling Stone stating "Sabotage is not only Black Sabbath's best record since Paranoid, it might be their best ever", although later reviewers such as Allmusic noted that "the magical chemistry that made such albums as Paranoid and Volume 4 so special was beginning to disintegrate". Sabotage reached the top 20 in both the US and the UK, but was the band's first release not to achieve Platinum status in the US, having only achieving Gold certification. Although the album's only single "Am I Going Insane (Radio)" failed to chart, Sabotage features fan favourites such as "Hole in the Sky", and "Symptom of the Universe". Black Sabbath toured in support of Sabotage with openers Kiss, but were forced to cut the tour short in November 1975, following a motorcycle accident in which Osbourne ruptured a muscle in his back. In December 1975, the band's record companies released a greatest hits record without input from the band, titled We Sold Our Soul for Rock 'n' Roll. The album charted throughout 1976, eventually selling two million copies in the US. Technical Ecstasy and Never Say Die! (1976–1979) Black Sabbath began work for their next album at Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, in June 1976. To expand their sound, the band added keyboard player Gerry Woodruffe, who also appeared to a lesser extent on Sabotage. Technical Ecstasy, released on 25 September 1976, was met with mixed reviews. For the first time the reviews did not become more favorable as time passed, two decades after its release AllMusic gave the album two stars, and noted that the band was "unravelling at an alarming rate". The album featured less of the doomy, ominous sound of previous efforts, and incorporated more synthesisers and uptempo rock songs. Technical Ecstasy failed to reach the top 50 in the US, and was the band's second consecutive release not to achieve platinum status, although it was later certified gold in 1997. The album included "Dirty Women", which remains a live staple, as well as Bill Ward's first lead vocal on the song "It's Alright". Touring in support of Technical Ecstasy began in November 1976, with openers Boston and Ted Nugent in the US, and completed in Europe with AC/DC in April 1977. In November 1977, while in rehearsal for their next album, and just days before the band was set to enter the studio, Ozzy Osbourne quit the band. "The last Sabbath albums were just very depressing for me", Osbourne said. "I was doing it for the sake of what we could get out of the record company, just to get fat on beer and put a record out." Former Fleetwood Mac and Savoy Brown vocalist Dave Walker was brought into rehearsals in October 1977 and the band began working on new songs. Black Sabbath made their first and only appearance with Walker on vocals, playing an early version of the song "Junior's Eyes" on the BBC Television program "Look! Hear!". Tony Iommi in 2005. Osbourne initially set out to form a solo project, which featured ex-Dirty Tricks members John Frazer-Binnie, Terry Horbury, and Andy Bierne. As the new band were in rehearsals in January 1978, Osbourne had a change of heart and rejoined Black Sabbath. "Three days before we were due to go into the studio, Ozzy wanted to come back to the band," Iommi explained. "He wouldn't sing any of the stuff we'd written with the other guy, so it made it very difficult. We went into the studio with basically no songs. We'd write in the morning so we could rehearse and record at night. It was so difficult, like a conveyor belt, because you couldn't get time to reflect on stuff. 'Is this right? Is this working properly?' It was very difficult for me to come up with the ideas and putting them together that quick." The band spent five months at Sounds Interchange Studios in Toronto, Canada, writing and recording what would become Never Say Die!. "It took quite a long time," Iommi said. "We were getting really drugged out, doing a lot of dope. We'd go down to the sessions, and have to pack up because we were too stoned, we'd have to stop. Nobody could get anything right, we were all over the place, everybody's playing a different thing. We'd go back and sleep it off, and try again the next day." The album was released in September 1978, reaching number twelve in the UK, and number 69 in the US. Press response was again unfavourable and again did not improve over time with Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic stating two decades after its release that the album's "unfocused songs perfectly reflected the band's tense personnel problems and drug abuse." The album featured the singles "Never Say Die" and "Hard Road", both of which cracked the top 40 in the UK, and the band made their second appearance on the Top of the Pops, performing "Never Say Die". It took nearly 20 years for the album to be certified Gold in the US. Touring in support of Never Say Die! began in May 1978 with openers Van Halen. Reviewers called Black Sabbath's performance "tired and uninspired", a stark contrast to the "youthful" performance of Van Halen, who were touring the world for the first time. The band filmed a performance at the Hammersmith Odeon in June 1978, which was later released on DVD as Never Say Die. The final show of the tour, and Osbourne's last appearance with the band (until later reunions) was in Albuquerque, New Mexico on 11 December. Following the tour, Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles and again rented a house in Bel Air, where they spent nearly a year working on material for the next album. With pressure from the record label, and frustrations with Osbourne's lack of ideas coming to a head, Tony made the decision to fire Ozzy Osbourne in 1979. "At that time, Ozzy had come to an end", Iommi said. "We were all doing a lot of drugs, a lot of coke, a lot of everything, and Ozzy was getting drunk so much at the time. We were supposed to be rehearsing and nothing was happening. It was like 'Rehearse today? No, we'll do it tomorrow.' It really got so bad that we didn't do anything. It just fizzled out." Drummer Bill Ward, who was close with Osbourne, was chosen by Tony to break the news to the singer. "I hope I was professional, I might not have been, actually. When I'm drunk I am horrible, I am horrid," Ward said. "Alcohol was definitely one of the most damaging things to Black Sabbath. We were destined to destroy each other. The band were toxic, very toxic." Heaven and Hell and Mob Rules (1979–1982) Sharon Arden, (later Sharon Osbourne) daughter of Black Sabbath manager Don Arden, suggested former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio to replace Ozzy Osbourne in 1979. Dio officially joined in June, and the band began writing their next album. With a notably different vocal style from Osbourne's, Dio's addition to the band marked a change in Black Sabbath's sound. "They were totally different altogether", Iommi explains. "Not only voice-wise, but attitude-wise. Ozzy was a great showman, but when Dio came in, it was a different attitude, a different voice and a different musical approach, as far as vocals. Dio would sing across the riff, whereas Ozzy would follow the riff, like in "Iron Man". Ronnie came in and gave us another angle on writing." Geezer Butler temporarily left the band in September 1979, and was initially replaced by Geoff Nicholls of Quartz on bass. The new lineup returned to Criteria Studios in November to begin recording work, with Butler returning to the band in January 1980, and Nicholls moving to keyboards. Produced by Martin Birch, Heaven and Hell, was released on 25 April 1980, to critical acclaim. Over a decade after its release AllMusic said the album was "one of Sabbath's finest records, the band sounds reborn and re-energised throughout". Heaven and Hell peaked at number 9 in the UK, and number 28 in the US, the band's highest charting album since Sabotage. The album would eventually sell a million copies in the US, and the band embarked on an extensive world tour, making their first live appearance with Dio in Germany on 17 April 1980. Black Sabbath toured the US throughout 1980 with Blue Öyster Cult on the "Black and Blue" tour, with a show at Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York filmed and released theatrically in 1981 as Black and Blue. On 26 July 1980, the band played at a sold out Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles with Journey, Cheap Trick, and Molly Hatchet to 75,000 fans. The next day, the band appeared at the 1980 Day on the Green at Oakland Coliseum. While on tour, Black Sabbath's former label in England issued a live album culled from a seven-year old performance, entitled Live at Last without any input from the band. The album reached number five on the British charts, and saw the re-release of "Paranoid" as a single, which reached the top 20. Vocalist Ronnie James Dio On 18 August 1980, after a show in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Bill Ward was fired from Black Sabbath. "I was sinking very quickly", Ward later said. "I was an unbelievable drunk, I was drunk twenty-four hours a day. When I went on stage, the stage wasn't so bright. It felt like I was dying inside. The live show seemed so bare, Ron was out there doing his thing and I just went 'It's gone'. I like Ronnie, but musically, he just wasn't for me." Concerned with Ward's declining health, Iommi brought in drummer Vinny Appice, without informing Ward. "They didn't talk to me, they booted me from my chair and I wasn't told about that. I knew they'd have to bring in a drummer to save the (tour), but I'd been with the band for years and years, since we were kids. And then Vinny was playing and it was like 'What the fuck?' It hurt a lot." The band completed the Heaven and Hell world tour in February 1981, and returned to the studio to begin work on their next album. Black Sabbath's second studio album produced by Martin Birch and featuring Ronnie James Dio as vocalist, Mob Rules was released in October 1981, to be well received by fans, but less so by the critics. Rolling Stone reviewer J. D. Considine gave the album one star, claiming "Mob Rules finds the band as dull-witted and flatulent as ever". Like most of the band's earlier work, time helped to improve the opinions of the music press, a decade after its release, AllMusic'''s Eduardo Rivadavia called Mob Rules "a magnificent record". The album was certified gold, and reached the top 20 on the UK charts. The album's title track "The Mob Rules", which was recorded at John Lennon's old house in England, also featured in the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal, although the film version is an alternate take, and differs from the album version. Unhappy with the quality of 1980's Live at Last, the band recorded another live album—titled Live Evil—during the Mob Rules world tour, across the United States in Dallas, San Antonio, and Seattle, in 1982. During the mixing process for the album, Iommi and Butler had a falling out with Dio. Iommi and Butler accused Dio of sneaking into the studio at night to raise the volume of his vocals. In addition, Dio was not satisfied with the pictures of him in the artwork. "Ronnie wanted more say in things," Iommi said. "And Geezer would get upset with him and that is where the rot set in. Live Evil is when it all fell apart. Ronnie wanted to do more of his own thing, and the engineer we were using at the time in the studio didn't know what to do, because Ronnie was telling him one thing and we were telling him another. At the end of the day, we just said, 'That's it, the band is over'". "When it comes time for the vocal, nobody tells me what to do. Nobody! Because they're not as good as me, so I do what I want to do," Dio later said. "I refuse to listen to Live Evil, because there are too many problems. If you look at the credits, the vocals and drums are listed off to the side. Open up the album and see how many pictures there are of Tony, and how many there are of me and Vinny". Ronnie James Dio left Black Sabbath in November 1982 to start his own band, and took drummer Vinny Appice with him. Live Evil was released in January 1983, but was overshadowed by Ozzy Osbourne's Speak of the Devil, a platinum selling live album that contained only Black Sabbath songs, released five months earlier. Born Again (1983–1984) Left with just two original members, Tony Iommi and Geezer Butler began auditioning new singers for the band's next release. After failed attempts with the likes of Whitesnake's David Coverdale, Samson's Nicky Moore, and Lone Star's John Sloman, the band settled on former Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan to replace Ronnie James Dio in 1983. While the project was not initially set to be called Black Sabbath, pressures from the record label forced the group to retain the name. The band entered The Manor Studios in Shipton-on-Cherwell, Oxfordshire, England, in June 1983 with a returned and newly sober Bill Ward on drums. Born Again was met with mixed reviews from fans and critics alike. The album reached number four on the UK charts, and number 39 in the US. However, even a decade after its release AllMusics Eduardo Rivadavia called the album "dreadful", noting that "Gillan's bluesy style and humorous lyrics were completely incompatible with the lords of doom and gloom". Although he performed on the album, drummer Bill Ward was unable to tour because of the pressures of the road, and quit the band in 1984. "I fell apart with the idea of touring," Ward later said. "I got so much fear behind touring, I didn’t talk about the fear, I drank behind the fear instead and that was a big mistake." Ward was replaced by former Electric Light Orchestra drummer Bev Bevan for the Born Again world tour, which began in Europe with Diamond Head, and later in the US with Quiet Riot and Night Ranger. The band headlined the 1983 Reading Festival, adding the Deep Purple song "Smoke on the Water" to their set list. The tour in support of Born Again included a giant set of the Stonehenge monument. In a move that would be later parodied in the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap, the band made a mistake in ordering the set piece. As Geezer Butler later explained: Hiatus and Seventh Star (1984–1986) Following the completion of the Born Again tour in March 1984, vocalist Ian Gillan left Black Sabbath to re-join Deep Purple. The band enlisted Los Angeles vocalist David Donato. The new lineup wrote and rehearsed throughout 1984, and eventually recorded a demo with producer Bob Ezrin in October. Unhappy with the results, the band parted ways with Donato shortly after. Disillusioned with the band's revolving lineup, bassist Geezer Butler quit Black Sabbath in November 1984 to form a solo band. "When Ian Gillan took over that was the end of it for me", Butler later said. "I thought it was just a joke and I just totally left. When we got together with Gillan it was not supposed to be a Black Sabbath album. After we had done the album we gave it to Warner Bros. and they said they were going to put it out as a Black Sabbath album and we didn’t have a leg to stand on. I got really disillusioned with it and Gillan was really pissed off about it. That lasted one album and one tour and then that was it." Following Butler's exit, sole remaining original member Tony Iommi put Black Sabbath on hiatus, and began work on a solo album with keyboardist Geoff Nicholls. While working on new material, the original Black Sabbath lineup were offered a spot at Bob Geldof's Live Aid benefit concert; the band agreed, performing at the Philadelphia show, on 13 July 1985. The event marked the first time the original lineup appeared on stage since 1978, and also featured reunions of The Who and Led Zeppelin. Returning to his solo work, Iommi enlisted bassist Dave Spitz and drummer Eric Singer, and initially intended to use multiple singers, including Rob Halford of Judas Priest, ex-Deep Purple and Trapeze vocalist Glenn Hughes, and ex-Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio. "We were going to use different vocalists on the album, guest vocalists, but it was so difficult getting it together and getting releases from their record companies. Glenn Hughes came along to sing on one track and we decided to use him on the whole album." The band spent the remainder of the year in the studio, recording what would become Seventh Star. Warner Bros. refused to release the album as a Tony Iommi solo release, instead insisting on using the name Black Sabbath. Pressured by the band's manager, Don Arden, the two compromised and released the album as "Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi" in January 1986. "It opened up a whole can of worms really," Iommi explained, "because I think if we could have done it as a solo album, it would have been accepted a lot more." Seventh Star, which sounded little like a Black Sabbath album, incorporated more hard rock elements popularised by the 1980s Sunset Strip hard rock scene, and was panned by the critics of the era, although later reviewers such as AllMusic gave the album favourable reviews, calling the album "often misunderstood and underrated". The new lineup rehearsed for six weeks, preparing for a full world tour, although the band were again forced to use the Black Sabbath name. "I was into the 'Tony Iommi project', but I wasn't into the Black Sabbath moniker," Hughes said. "The idea of being in Black Sabbath didn't appeal to me whatsoever. Glenn Hughes singing in Black Sabbath is like James Brown singing in Metallica. It wasn't gonna work". Just four days before the start of the tour, vocalist Glenn Hughes got into a bar fight with the band's production manager John Downing which splintered the singer's orbital bone. The injury interfered with Hughes' ability to sing, and the band brought in vocalist Ray Gillen to continue the tour with W.A.S.P. and Anthrax, although nearly half of the US dates would eventually be cancelled because of poor ticket sales. One vocalist whose status is disputed, both inside and outside Black Sabbath, is Christian evangelist Jeff Fenholt. He has insisted that he was a singer in Black Sabbath between January and May 1985. Tony Iommi has never confirmed this, as he was working on a solo release that was later named as a Sabbath album. Fenholt gives a detailed account of his time with Iommi and Sabbath in Garry Sharpe-Young's book Sabbath Bloody Sabbath: The Battle for Black Sabbath. The Eternal Idol, Headless Cross, and Tyr (1986–1990) Black Sabbath began work on new material in October 1986 at Air Studios in Montserrat with producer Jeff Glixman. The recording was wrought with problems from the beginning, as Glixman left after the initial sessions, and was replaced by producer Vic Coppersmith-Heaven. Bassist Dave Spitz quit over "personal issues", and ex-Rainbow bassist Bob Daisley was brought in. Daisley re-recorded all of the bass tracks, and wrote the album's lyrics, but before the album was complete, he left to join Gary Moore's solo band, taking drummer Eric Singer with him. After problems with second producer Coppersmith-Heaven, the band returned to Morgan Studios in England in January 1987 to work with new producer Chris Tsangarides. While working in the UK, new vocalist Ray Gillen abruptly left Black Sabbath to form Blue Murder with John Sykes. The band enlisted ex-Alliance vocalist Tony Martin to re-record Gillen's tracks, and former drummer Bev Bevan to complete a few percussion overdubs. Before the release of the new album, Black Sabbath accepted an offer to play six shows at Sun City, South Africa during the apartheid. The band drew criticism from activists and artists involved with Artists United Against Apartheid, who had been boycotting South Africa since 1985. Drummer Bev Bevan refused to play the shows, and was replaced by Terry Chimes, formerly of The Clash. After nearly a year in production, The Eternal Idol was released on 8 December 1987 and ignored by contemporary reviewers. On-line internet era reviews were mixed. AllMusic said that "Martin's powerful voice added new fire" to the band, and the album contained "some of Iommi's heaviest riffs in years." Blender gave the album two stars, claiming the album was "Black Sabbath in name only". The album would stall at #66 in the UK, while peaking at 168 in the US. The band toured in support of Eternal Idol in Germany, Italy and for the first time, Greece. Unfortunately, in part because of a backlash from promoters over the South Africa incident, other European shows were cancelled. Bassist Dave Spitz left the band shortly before the tour, and was replaced by Jo Burt, formerly of Virginia Wolf. Following the poor commercial performance of Eternal Idol, Black Sabbath were dropped by Vertigo Records and Warner Bros. Records, and signed with I.R.S. Records. The band took time off in 1988, returning in August to begin work on their next album. As a result of the recording troubles with Eternal Idol, Tony Iommi opted to produce the band's next album himself. "It was a completely new start", Iommi said. "I had to rethink the whole thing, and decided that we needed to build up some credibility again". Iommi enlisted ex-Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell, longtime keyboardist Nicholls and session bassist Laurence Cottle, and rented a "very cheap studio in England". Black Sabbath released Headless Cross in April 1989, and again ignored by contemporary reviewers. Eventualy, AllMusic would give the album four stars, calling Headless Cross "the finest non-Ozzy or Dio Black Sabbath album". Anchored by the number 62 charting single "Headless Cross", the album reached number 31 on the UK charts, and number 115 in the US. Queen guitarist Brian May, a friend of Iommi's, played a guest solo on the song "When Death Calls". Following the album's release, the band added touring bassist Neil Murray, formerly of Whitesnake. The ill-fated Headless Cross US tour began in May 1989 with openers Kingdom Come and Silent Rage, but because of poor ticket sales, the tour was cancelled after just eight shows. The European leg of the tour began in September, where the band were enjoying chart success. After a string of Japanese shows, the band embarked on a 23 date Russian tour with Girlschool. Black Sabbath was one of the first bands to tour Russia, after Mikhail Gorbachov opened the country to western acts for the first time in 1989. The band returned to the studio in February 1990 to record Tyr, the follow-up to Headless Cross. While not technically a concept album, some of the album's lyrical themes are loosely based on Norse mythology. Tyr was released on 6 August 1990, and reached number 24 on the UK albums chart, but was the first Black Sabbath release not to break the Billboard 200 in the US. The album again would receive mixed internet-era reviews, with AllMusic noting that the band "mix myth with metal in a crushing display of musical synthesis," while Blender gave the album just one star, claiming that "Iommi continues to besmirch the Sabbath name with this unremarkable collection". The band toured in support of Tyr with Circus of Power in Europe, but the final seven UK dates were cancelled because of poor ticket sales. For the first time in their career, the band's touring cycle did not include US dates. Dehumanizer (1990–1993) Following a performance in 1990, both Ronnie James Dio and Geezer Butler (pictured) expressed interest in rejoining Black Sabbath While on his own Lock Up The Wolves US tour in August 1990, former Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio was joined on stage at the Minneapolis Forum by former Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler to perform "Neon Knights". Following the show, the two expressed interest in rejoining Black Sabbath. Butler convinced Iommi, who in turn broke up the current lineup, dismissing vocalist Tony Martin and bassist Neil Murray. "I do regret that in a lot of ways", Iommi said. "We were at a good point then. We decided to [reunite with Dio] and I don't even know why, really. There's the financial aspect, but that wasn't it. I seemed to think maybe we could recapture something we had". Ronnie James Dio and Geezer Butler joined Tony Iommi and Cozy Powell in the fall of 1990 to begin working on the next Black Sabbath release. While rehearsing in November, Powell suffered a broken hip when his horse died, falling on the drummer's legs. Unable to complete work on the album, Powell was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice, and the band entered the studio with producer Reinhold Mack. The year-long recording process was plagued with problems, primarily stemming from writing tension between Tony Iommi and Ronnie James Dio, as some songs were re-written multiple times. "Dehumanizer took a long time, it was just hard work", Iommi said. "We took too long on it, that album cost us a million dollars, which is bloody ridiculous". Dio later recalled the album as difficult, but worth the effort. "It was something we had to really wring out of ourselves, but I think that's why it works", he said. "Sometimes you need that kind of tension, or else you end up making the Christmas album". The resulting album, Dehumanizer was released on 22 June 1992. In the US, the album was released on 30 June 1992 by Reprise Records, as Ronnie James Dio and his namesake band were still under contract with the label at the time. While the album received mixed it was the band's biggest commercial success in ten years. Anchored by the top 40 rock radio single "TV Crimes", the album peaked at number 44 on the Billboard 200. The album also featured the song "Time Machine", a version of which had been recorded for the 1992 film Wayne's World. Black Sabbath began touring in support of Dehumanizer in July 1992 with Testament, Danzig, Prong, and Exodus. While on tour, former vocalist Ozzy Osbourne announced his first retirement, and invited Black Sabbath to open for his solo band at the final two shows of his No More Tours tour in Costa Mesa, California. The band agreed, aside from vocalist Ronnie James Dio, who said: Dio quit Black Sabbath following a show in Oakland, California on 13 November 1992, one night before the band were set to appear at Osbourne's retirement show. Judas Priest vocalist Rob Halford stepped in at the last minute, performing two nights with the band. Iommi and Butler also joined Osbourne and former drummer Bill Ward on stage for the first time since 1985's Live Aid concert, performing a brief set of Black Sabbath songs. Cross Purposes and Forbidden (1993–1996) Drummer Vinny Appice left the band following the reunion show to join Ronnie James Dio's solo band, later appearing on Dio's Strange Highways and Angry Machines. Iommi and Butler enlisted former Rainbow drummer Bobby Rondinelli, and reinstated former vocalist Tony Martin. The band returned to the studio to work on new material, again not originally intended to be released under the Black Sabbath name. As Geezer Butler explains: Under pressure from their record label, the band released their seventeenth studio album, Cross Purposes, on 8 February 1994, under the Black Sabbath name. The album again received mixed reviews, with Blender giving the album two stars, calling Soundgarden's 1994 album Superunknown "a far better Sabbath album than this by-the-numbers potboiler". Allmusic's Bradley Torreano called Cross Purposes "the first album since Born Again that actually sounds like a real Sabbath record". The album just missed the Top 40 in the UK reaching number 41, and also reached 122 on the Billboard 200 in the US. Cross Purposes contained the song "Evil Eye", which was co-written by Van Halen guitarist Eddie Van Halen, although uncredited because of record label restrictions. Touring in support of Cross Purposes began in February with Morbid Angel and Motörhead in the US. The band filmed a live performance at the Hammersmith Apollo on 13 April 1994, which was released on VHS accompanied by a CD, entitled Cross Purposes Live. After the European tour with Cathedral and Godspeed in June 1994, drummer Bobby Rondinelli quit the band and was replaced by original Black Sabbath drummer Bill Ward for five shows in South America. Following the touring cycle for Cross Purposes, bassist Geezer Butler again quit the band. "I finally got totally disillusioned with the last Sabbath album, and I much preferred the stuff I was writing to the stuff Sabbath were doing". Butler formed a solo project called GZR, and released Plastic Planet in 1995. The album contained the song "Giving Up the Ghost", which was critical of Tony Iommi for carrying on with the Black Sabbath name, with the lyrics: You plagiarized and parodied / the magic of our meaning / a legend in your own mind / left all your friends behind / you can't admit that you're wrong / the spirit is dead and gone. Following Butler's departure, newly returned drummer Bill Ward once again left the band. Iommi reinstated former members Neil Murray on bass, and Cozy Powell on drums, effectively reuniting the Tyr lineup. The band enlisted Body Count guitarist Ernie C to produce the new album, which was recorded in London in the fall of 1994. The album featured a guest vocal on "Illusion of Power" by Body Count vocalist Ice T. The resulting Forbidden, was released on 8 June 1995, but failed to chart in the US or the UK. The album was widely panned by critics; Allmusic's Bradley Torreano said "with boring songs, awful production, and uninspired performances, this is easily avoidable for all but the most enthusiastic fan"; while Blender magazine called Forbidden "an embarrassment ... the band’s worst album". Black Sabbath embarked on a world tour in July 1995 with openers Motörhead and Tiamat, but two months into the tour, drummer Cozy Powell left the band, citing health issues, and was replaced by former drummer Bobby Rondinelli. After completing Asian dates in December 1995, Tony Iommi put the band on hiatus, and began work on a solo album with former Black Sabbath vocalist Glenn Hughes, and former Judas Priest drummer Dave Holland. The album was not officially released following its completion, although a widely traded bootleg called Eighth Star surfaced soon after. The album was officially released in 2004 as The 1996 DEP Sessions, with Holland's drums re-recorded by session drummer Jimmy Copley. In 1997, Tony Iommi disbanded the current lineup to officially reunite with Ozzy Osbourne and the original Black Sabbath lineup. Vocalist Tony Martin claimed that an original lineup reunion had been in the works since the band's brief reunion at Ozzy Osbourne's 1992 Costa Mesa show, and that the band released subsequent albums to fulfill their record contract with I.R.S. records. Martin later recalled Forbidden as a "filler album that got the band out of the label deal, rid of the singer, and into the reunion. However I wasn’t privy to that information at the time". I.R.S. Records released a compilation album in 1996 to fulfill the band's contract, entitled The Sabbath Stones, which featured songs from Born Again to Forbidden. Reunion (1997–present) Ozzy Osbourne in 2007. In the summer of 1997, Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler, and Ozzy Osbourne officially reunited to co-headline the Ozzfest festival tour along side Osbourne's solo band. The lineup featured Osbourne's drummer Mike Bordin filling in for Bill Ward, who was unable to participate because of previous commitments with his solo project, The Bill Ward Band. In December 1997, the group was joined by Ward, marking the first reunion of the original four members since Osbourne's 1992 "retirement show". The original lineup recorded two shows at the Birmingham NEC, which were released as the double live album Reunion on 20 October 1998. Reunion reached number eleven on the Billboard 200, and went platinum in the US. The album spawned the single "Iron Man", which won Black Sabbath its first Grammy award in 2000 for Best Metal Performance, 30 years after the song was originally released. Reunion also featured two new studio tracks, "Psycho Man" and "Selling My Soul", both of which cracked the top 20 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Shortly before the band embarked on a European tour in the summer of 1998, drummer Bill Ward suffered a heart attack and was temporarily replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice. Ward returned in time for the US tour with openers Pantera, which began in January 1999 and continued through the summer, headlining the annual Ozzfest tour. Following the Ozzfest appearances, the band was put on hiatus while members worked on solo material. Tony Iommi released his first official solo album, Iommi, in 2000, while Osbourne continued work on his next solo release, Down to Earth. Black Sabbath returned to the studio to work on new material with all four original members and producer Rick Rubin in the spring of 2001, but the sessions were halted when Osbourne was called away to finish tracks for his solo album in the summer of 2001. "It just came to an end", Iommi said. "We didn't go any further, and it's a shame because [the songs] were really Iommi commented on the difficulty getting all of the band members together to work on material: In March 2002, Ozzy Osbourne's Emmy winning reality TV show "The Osbournes" debuted on MTV, and quickly became a worldwide hit. The show introduced Osbourne to a broader audience and to capitalise, the band's back catalogue label, Sanctuary Records released a double live album Past Lives, which featured concert material recorded in the 70's, including the previously unofficial Live at Last album. The band remained on hiatus until the summer of 2004 when they returned to headline Ozzfest 2004 and 2005. In November 2005, Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame, and in March 2006, after eleven years of eligibility, the band were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. At the awards ceremony Metallica played two Black Sabbath songs, "Hole in the Sky" and "Iron Man" in tribute to the band. The Dio Years and Heaven and Hell Vinnie Appice performing a drum solo with Heaven and Hell at Katowice in 2007 While Ozzy Osbourne was working on new solo material in 2006, Rhino Records released The Dio Years, a compilation of songs culled from the four Black Sabbath releases featuring Ronnie James Dio. For the release, Iommi, Butler, Dio and Appice reunited to write and record three new songs. The Dio Years was released on 3 April 2007, reaching number 54 on the Billboard 200, while the single "The Devil Cried" reached number 37 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. Pleased with the results, Iommi and Dio decided to reunite the Heaven and Hell era lineup for a world tour. While the lineup of Osbourne, Butler, Iommi and Ward were still officially called Black Sabbath, the new lineup opted to call themselves Heaven and Hell, after the album of the same name, to avoid confusion. Drummer Bill Ward was initially set to participate, but dropped out before the tour began, and was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice, effectively reuniting the lineup that had featured on the Mob Rules and Dehumanizer albums. Heaven and Hell toured the US with openers Megadeth and Machine Head, and recorded a live album and DVD in New York on 30 March 2007, entitled Live from Radio City Music Hall. In November 2007, Dio confirmed that the band have plans to record a new studio album, which was recorded in the following year. In April 2008 the band announced the upcoming release of a new box set and their participation in The Metal Masters Tour, alongside Judas Priest, Motörhead and Testament. The box set, The Rules of Hell, featuring remastered versions of all the Dio fronted Black Sabbath albums, is set to be supported by the Metal Masters Tour. In 2009, the band announced the name of their debut studio album, The Devil You Know, released on April 28. Trademark suit On May 26, 2009 Osbourne filed suit in a federal court in New York against Iommi alleging that he illegally claimed the band name. Iommi noted that he has been the only band member for the full forty one years of the band, and that his bandmates relinquished their rights to the name in the 1980s, therefore claiming more rights to the name of the band. Although, in the suit Osbourne is seeking 50% ownership of the trademark he has said the he hope these proceedings will lead to equal ownership among the four original members. Musical style Although Black Sabbath have gone through many lineups and stylistic changes, their original sound focused on ominous lyrics and doomy music, often making use of the musical tritone, also called the "devil's interval". Standing in stark contrast to popular music of the early 1970s, Black Sabbath's dark sound was dismissed by rock critics of the era. Much like many of their early heavy metal contemporaries, the band received virtually no airplay on rock radio. As the band's primary songwriter, Tony Iommi wrote the majority of Black Sabbath's music, while Osbourne would write vocal melodies, and bassist Geezer Butler would write lyrics. The process was sometimes frustrating for Iommi, who often felt pressured to come up with new material. "If I didn't come up with anything, nobody would do anything." On Iommi's influence, Osbourne later said: Early Black Sabbath albums feature tuned-down guitars, which contributed to the dark feel of the music. In 1966, before forming Black Sabbath, guitarist Tony Iommi suffered an accident while working in a sheet metal factory, losing the tips of two fingers on his right hand. Iommi almost gave up music, but was urged by a friend to listen to Django Reinhardt, a jazz guitarist who lost the use of two fingers. Inspired by Reinhardt, Iommi created two thimbles made of plastic and leather to cap off his missing fingers. The guitarist began using lighter strings, and detuning his guitar, to better grip the strings with his prosthetics, a move which inadvertently gave the music a darker feel". Early in the band's history Iommi experimented with different tuning, including 3 semi-tuning, or C tuning, before settling on semi-tune down, or half-step tuning. Legacy Black Sabbath are arguably the most influential heavy metal band of all time. The band helped to create the genre with ground breaking releases such as Paranoid, an album that Rolling Stone magazine said "changed music forever", and called the band "the Beatles of heavy metal". Time Magazine called Paranoid "the birthplace of heavy metal", placing it in their Top 100 Albums of All Time. MTV placed Black Sabbath at number one on their Top Ten Heavy Metal Bands and VH1 placed them at number two on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock. VH1 ranked Black Sabbath's "Iron Man" the number one song on their 40 Greatest Metal Songs countdown. Allmusic's William Ruhlmann said: Influence Black Sabbath's influence on heavy metal is almost unparalleled, the band are cited as highly influential by countless bands, including Metallica, Iron Maiden, Anthrax, Iced Earth, Opeth, Pantera, Megadeth, The Smashing Pumpkins, Di Perna, Alan. "Zero Worship", Guitar World. December 1995. Slipknot, the Foo Fighters, Fear Factory, Candlemass, and Godsmack. Two gold selling tribute albums have been released, Nativity in Black Volume 1 & 2, including songs by Sepultura, White Zombie, Type O Negative, Faith No More, Machine Head, System of a Down and Monster Magnet. Metallica's Lars Ulrich, who, along with bandmate James Hetfield inducted Black Sabbath into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006, said "Black Sabbath is and always will be synonymous with heavy metal", while Hetfield said "Sabbath got me started on all that evil-sounding shit, and it's stuck with me. Tony Iommi is the king of the heavy riff." Ex-Guns N' Roses guitarist Slash said of the Paranoid album: "There's just something about that whole record that, when you're a kid and you're turned onto it, it's like a whole different world. It just opens up your mind to another dimension...Paranoid is the whole Sabbath experience; very indicative of what Sabbath meant at the time. Tony's playing style — doesn’t matter whether it's off 'Paranoid' or if it's off 'Heaven and Hell' — it's very distinctive." Anthrax guitarist Scott Ian said "I always get the question in every interview I do, 'What are your top five metal albums?' I make it easy for myself and always say the first five Sabbath albums." Lamb of God's Chris Adler said "If anybody who plays heavy metal says that they weren't influenced by Black Sabbath's music, then I think that they're lying to you. I think all heavy metal music was, in some way, influenced by what Black Sabbath did." Members Current line-up Ozzy Osbourne – lead vocals (1968–1977, 1978–1979, 1985, 1994, 1997–present) Tony Iommi – guitars (1968–present) Geezer Butler – bass (1968–1980, 1980–1985, 1985, 1990–1994, 1997–present) Bill Ward – drums, percussion (1968–1980, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1994, 1997–1998, 1998–present) Discography Black Sabbath (1970) Paranoid (1970) Master of Reality (1971) Black Sabbath Vol. 4 (1972) Sabbath Bloody Sabbath (1973) Sabotage (1975) Technical Ecstasy (1976) Never Say Die! (1978) Heaven and Hell (1980) Mob Rules (1981) Born Again (1983) Seventh Star (1986) The Eternal Idol (1987) Headless Cross (1989) Tyr (1990) Dehumanizer (1992) Cross Purposes (1994) Forbidden (1995) See also List of honorific titles in popular music Notes References External links Official Black Sabbath site | Black_Sabbath |@lemmatized black:113 sabbath:137 english:3 rock:20 band:155 form:9 birmingham:3 ozzy:25 osbourne:42 lead:7 vocal:11 tony:32 iommi:65 guitar:8 geezer:15 butler:29 bass:6 bill:18 ward:30 drum:7 percussion:3 since:12 experience:2 multiple:4 lineup:21 change:12 total:1 twenty:4 two:25 former:22 member:12 originally:4 heavy:18 blue:9 name:25 earth:9 begin:30 incorporate:4 occult:2 horror:3 inspire:4 lyric:8 tuned:1 achieve:5 gold:8 platinum:10 record:59 one:19 first:30 influential:4 metal:22 time:42 help:3 define:2 genre:2 release:76 quadruple:1 paranoid:23 rank:2 mtv:3 great:8 sell:10 fifteen:1 million:6 united:2 state:5 alone:1 fire:7 initially:9 replace:14 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2,008 | Four_Freedoms | The Four Freedoms are goals famously articulated by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, urged by wife Eleanor Roosevelt and friend Jon Run, on January 6, 1941. In an address also known as the Four Freedoms speech, FDR proposed four points as fundamental freedoms humans "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy: Freedom of speech and expression Freedom of religion Freedom from want Freedom from fear His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went beyond the traditional American Constitutional values protected by the First Amendment, and endorsed a right to economic security and an internationalist view of foreign policy that have come to be central tenets of modern American liberalism. They also anticipated what would become known decades later as the "human security" paradigm in social science and economic development. The Declarations The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following United Nations The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt regarding her inspiration behind the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A (1948). Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which reads, "Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the common people,...." Disarmament FDR called for "a world-wide reduction of armaments" as a goal for "the future days, which we seek to make secure" but one that was "attainable in our own time and generation." More immediately, though, he called for a massive build-up of U.S. arms production: "Every realist knows that the democratic way of life is at this moment being' directly assailed in every part of the world… The need of the moment is that our actions and our policy should be devoted primarily—almost exclusively—to meeting this foreign peril. … [T]he immediate need is a swift and driving increase in our armament production. … I also ask this Congress for authority and for funds sufficient to manufacture additional munitions and war supplies of many kinds, to be turned over to those nations which are now in actual war with aggressor nations. … Let us say to the democracies: '…We shall send you, in ever-increasing numbers, ships, planes, tanks, guns. …'" - Franklin D. Roosevelt Norman Rockwell's paintings "Freedom of Speech" President Roosevelt's Four Freedoms speech inspired a set of four Four Freedoms paintings by Norman Rockwell. The four paintings were published in The Saturday Evening Post on February 20, February 27, March 6 and March 13 in 1943. The paintings were accompanied in the magazine by matching essays on the Four Freedoms. (See also, Freedom from Fear (painting)). The United States Department of the Treasury toured Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings around the country after their publication in 1943. The Four Freedoms Tour raised over $130,000,000 in war bond sales. Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings were also reproduced as postage stamps by the United States Post Office. The New Jersey muralist Michael Lenson (1903-1972) likewise responded to Roosevelt’s speech in a pictorial way, painting a mural titled “The Four Freedoms” for the Fourteenth Street School in Newark, New Jersey. Monument FDR commissioned sculptor Walter Russell to design a monument to be dedicated to the first hero of the war. The Four Freedoms Monument was created in 1941, and was dedicated at Madison Square Garden in New York in 1943. Awards The Franklin D. Roosevelt Institute honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg, Netherlands during alternate years. Among the laureates have been: Liv Ullman Paul Newman Joanne Woodward Harry S. Truman John F. Kennedy Jimmy Carter Averell Harriman Coretta Scott King Elie Wiesel Tip O'Neill William Brennan Mike Mansfield H.R.H. Princess Juliana of the Netherlands Václav Havel Mikhail Gorbachev The Dalai Lama H.M. Juan Carlos of Spain Shimon Peres Brent Scowcroft Bill Clinton Use in popular culture In the game series Splinter Cell there are numerous references to the Four Freedoms, with the commanding officer of protagonist Sam Fisher, stating at one point, "this is four freedoms territory", indicating that the situation (in the game plot) has gotten so grave that one or more of the Four Freedoms are threatened. In the opening sequence of the first game, the Four Freedoms are displayed in text version as a splash screen at the opening of the game, with a fifth freedom added: The freedom to protect the other four—by any means necessary. It is this "fifth freedom" that the game's protagonist operates under. Marvel Comics superhero team the Fantastic Four is based in the Four Freedoms Plaza building. See also Liberalism in the United States Four Freedoms (European Union) Fifth Freedom The Free Software Definition, often called "the four freedoms" within the free software community Freedom from Fear (painting) Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945, a Pulitzer-winning history of the era External links Full text and audio of the Four Freedoms speech. An excerpt of the Four Freedoms section is also available. Full text of the Four Freedoms speech. 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2,009 | International_Space_Station | The International Space Station (ISS) is a research facility currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. On-orbit construction of the station began in 1998, and is scheduled to be complete by 2011, with operations continuing until around 2015. , the ISS is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit, larger than any previous space station. The ISS programme is a joint project among the space agencies of the United States (National Aeronautics and Space Administration - NASA), Russia (Russian Federal Space Agency - RKA), Japan (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency - JAXA), Canada (Canadian Space Agency - CSA) and ten European nations (European Space Agency - ESA). The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) participates through a separate contract with NASA. The Italian Space Agency (ASI) similarly has separate contracts for various activities not done within the framework of ESA's ISS projects (where Italy also fully participates). China has reportedly expressed interest in the project, especially if it would be able to work with the RKA, although it is not involved. The space station is in a Low Earth Orbit, and can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It orbits at an altitude of approximately above the surface of the Earth, travelling at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres (17,227 mi) per hour, completing 15.7 orbits per day. The ISS has been continuously staffed since the first resident crew, Expedition 1, entered the station on 2 November 2000. This has provided a permanent human presence in space for the last . Prior to May 2009, the station had the capacity for a crew of three. However, to fulfil an active research programme, since the arrival of Expedition 20, it has been staffed by a resident crew of six. The crew of Expedition 20 is currently aboard. Early crew members all came from the Russian and American space programmes until German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter joined the Expedition 13 crew in July 2006, becoming the first crew member from another space agency. The station has been visited by astronauts from 16 different nations, and it was the destination of the first six space tourists. Purpose The International Space Station serves primarily as a research laboratory and is the largest ever launched into orbit. The station offers an advantage over spacecraft such as NASA's Space Shuttle because it is a long-term platform in the space environment, allowing long-duration studies to be performed, both on specific experiments and on the human crews that operate them. Long-term expedition crews conduct science daily (approximately 160 man-hours a week), across a wide variety of fields, including human research, life sciences, physical sciences, and Earth observation, as well as education and technology demonstrations. , 90 science investigations had been conducted on the ISS over 64 months of continuous research. In addition, there have been nine research racks and more than 7,700 kg (17,000 lb) of research equipment and facilities launched to the station. Scientific findings, in fields ranging from basic science to exploration research, are being published every month. The ISS also provides a testing location for efficient, reliable spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars, allowing for equipment to be evaluated in the relatively safe location of Low Earth Orbit. This provides experience in maintaining, repairing, and replacing systems on-orbit, which will be essential in operating spacecraft further from Earth. This aspect of ISS operations reduces mission risks, and advances the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. Finally, in addition to the scientific and research aspects of the station, there are numerous opportunities for educational outreach and international cooperation. The crews of the ISS provide educational opportunities for students back home on Earth, including student-developed experiments, educational demonstrations, student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, NASA investigator experiments, and ISS engineering activities. The ISS programme itself, and the international cooperation that it represents, allows 14 nations to live and work together in space, providing important lessons that can be taken forward into future multi-national missions. Scientific research One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station. The main fields of research include biology, physics, astronomy, and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the US segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with a goal to increase the utilisation of the ISS by other Federal entities and the private sector. A comparison between fire on Earth (left) and fire in a microgravity environment, such as that found on the ISS (right). One research goal is to improve the understanding of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects currently being studied include muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shifts. The data obtained from these studies will be used to make space colonisation and lengthy space travel feasible. At the present time, current levels of bone loss and muscular atrophy would pose a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet following a lengthy space cruise. The effect of near-weightlessness on non-human subjects is being considered as well. Researchers are investigating the relation of the near-weightless environment of outer space to evolution, development and growth, and the internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space. Researchers are investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity, enabling them to better model the behaviour of fluids in the future. Due to the ability to almost completely combine fluids in microgravity, physicists are interested in investigating the combinations of fluids that will not normally mix well on Earth. In addition, by examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight regarding superconductivity. Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, studying the efficiency of burning and control of emissions & pollutants. These findings may improve our understanding of energy production, and in turn have an economic and environmental impact. There are also plans to use the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe. One component assisting in these various studies is the ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC). Developed by NASA, there are currently 4 of these units set to be launched to the ISS. As currently envisioned, the ELCs will be delivered on two separate Space Shuttle missions. They will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space, and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to process experimental data locally. Delivery is currently scheduled for STS-129 in November 2009, and STS-133 in May 2010. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment, is also scheduled to be added to the station. This device will be launched on STS-134 in 2010, and will be mounted externally on the Integrated Truss Structure. The AMS will search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays. The experiments conducted will help researchers study the formation of the universe, and search for evidence of dark matter and antimatter. Origins docked to Mir on STS-71, during the Shuttle-Mir Programme. Originating during the Cold War, the International Space Station represents a union of several space station projects from various nations. During the early 1980s, NASA had planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. In addition, the Soviets were planning a replacement for Mir to be constructed during the 1990s called Mir-2. Due to budgetary and design constraints, however, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests. With the fall of the Soviet Union ending the Cold War and Space Race, Freedom was nearly canceled by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the eventual cancellation of Mir-2, with only the base block of that station, DOS-8, having been constructed. Similar difficulties were being faced by the U.S. and other nations with plans for space stations. This prompted U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national, space station project. In June 1992, U.S. president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration by signing the 'Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes'. This agreement called for setting up a short, joint space programme, during which one U.S. astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a space shuttle. In September 1993, U.S. Vice-president Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station. They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the US would be heavily involved in the Mir programme in the years ahead, as part of an agreement that later became the Shuttle-Mir Programme. The ISS programme was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies, including Freedom, Mir-2 (with DOS-8 later becoming Zvezda), ESA's Columbus, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory. When the first module, Zarya, was launched in 1998, the station was expected to be completed by 2003. Due to delays, however, the estimated completion date has been put back to 2011. Space station Assembly and structure Astronaut Ron Garan during an ISS assembly spacewalk on STS-124. The assembly of the International Space Station, a major aerospace engineering endeavour, began in November 1998. the station is approximately 81% complete. The first segment of the ISS, Zarya, was launched into orbit on 20 November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket, followed two weeks later by the first of three 'node' modules, Unity, launched aboard STS-88. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years until the Russian module Zvezda was added in July 2000, allowing a maximum crew of three people to occupy the ISS continuously. The first resident crew, Expedition 1, was sent later that year in November. The year 2000 also saw the arrival of two segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, the Z1 and P6 trusses, providing the embryonic station with communications, guidance, electrical grounding (on Z1), and power via a pair of solar array wings, located on the P6 truss. Over the next two years the station continued to expand with a Soyuz rocket delivering the Pirs docking compartment. Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock to orbit, in addition to the station's robot arm Canadarm2, and several more segments of the truss structure. The expansion schedule was brought to an abrupt halt, however, following the destruction of the on STS-107 in 2003. The resulting hiatus in the Space Shuttle programme halted station assembly until the launch of Discovery on STS-114 in 2005. A video tour of the habitable part of the ISS from January 2009. The official return to assembly was marked by the arrival of Atlantis, flying STS-115, delivering the station's second set of solar arrays. These were later followed by several more truss segments and a third set of arrays on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. This major expansion of the station's power generating capabilities meant that more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and as a result the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were followed shortly after by the first two components of Kibō, the Japanese Experiment Module. In March 2009, STS-119 marked the completion of the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. , the station consisted of ten pressurised modules and the complete Integrated Truss Structure. Awaiting launch is the final section of Kibō, the third and final American node, Tranquility, the European Robotic Arm and several Russian modules. Also awaiting launch is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is scheduled for launch on what is currently manifested as the final space shuttle flight, STS-134, in September 2010. Assembly is expected to be completed by 2011, by which point the station will have a mass in excess of 400 metric tons (440 short tons). Pressurised modules When completed, the ISS will consist of fourteen pressurised modules with a combined volume of around 1,000 m³. These modules include laboratories, docking compartments, airlocks, nodes and living quarters. Ten of these components are already in orbit, with the remaining four awaiting launch. Each module was or will be launched either by the Space Shuttle, Proton rocket or Soyuz rocket. {| class="wikitable" border="1" style="width:auto; margin:auto;" |- style="background:#EFEFEF;" ! Module ! Assembly mission ! Launch date ! Launch system ! width="100" | Nation ! width="82" | Isolated View ! width="82" | Station View |- | rowspan="2" | Zarya (FGB) | 1A/R | 20 November 1998 | Proton-K | Russia (Builder)US (Financier) | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | Provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance during initial assembly. Now serves as a storage module, both inside the pressurised section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. |- | rowspan="2" | Unity (Node 1) | 2A | 4 December 1998 | Space Shuttle , STS-88 | US | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The first 'node' module, connecting the American section of the station to the Russian section (via PMA-1), and providing berthing locations for the Z1 truss, Quest airlock, Destiny laboratory and Tranquility. |- | rowspan="2" | Zvezda (Service Module) | 1R | 12 July 2000 | Proton-K | Russia | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The station's service module, which provides the main living quarters for resident crews, environmental systems and attitude and orbit control. It also provides docking locations for Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft and the Automated Transfer Vehicle. The addition of the module rendered the ISS permanently habitable for the first time. |- | rowspan="2" | Destiny (US Laboratory) | 5A | 7 February 2001 | Space Shuttle , STS-98 | US | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The primary research facility for US payloads aboard the ISS. Destiny provides a research facility for general experiments with space for 24 International Standard Payload Racks, some of which are used for environmental systems and crew daily living equipment. Destiny features a optically perfect window, the largest such window ever produced for use in space, and serves as the mounting point for most of the station's Integrated Truss Structure. |- | rowspan="2" | Quest (Joint Airlock) | 7A | 12 July 2001 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-104 | US | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The primary airlock for the ISS, hosting spacewalks with both US EMU and Russian Orlan spacesuits. Quest consists of two segments, the equipment lock that stores spacesuits and equipment, and the crew lock from which astronauts can exit into space. |- | rowspan="2" | Pirs (Docking Compartment) | 4R | 14 September 2001 | Soyuz-U | Russia | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | Pirs provides the ISS with additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and allows egress and ingress for spacewalks by cosmonauts using Russian Orlan spacesuits, in addition to providing storage space for these spacesuits. |- | rowspan="2" | Harmony (Node 2) | 10A | 23 October 2007 | Space Shuttle , STS-120 | Europe (Builder)US (Financier) | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The second of the station's node modules, Harmony is the utility hub of the ISS. The module contains four racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data, and acts as a central connecting point for several other components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms (CBMs). The European Columbus and Japanese Kibō laboratories are permanently berthed to the module, and US Space Shuttle Orbiters dock to the ISS via PMA-2, attached to Harmonys front port. In addition, the module serves as a berthing port for the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules during logistics flights. |- | rowspan="2" | Columbus (European Laboratory) | 1E | 7 February 2008 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-122 | Europe | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The primary research facility for European payloads aboard the ISS, Columbus provides a generic laboratory as well as facilities specifically designed for biology, biomedical research and fluid physics. Several mounting locations are affixed to the exterior of the module, which provide power and data to external experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials International Space Station Experiment, and Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A number of expansions are planned to study quantum physics and cosmology. |- | rowspan="2" | Experiment Logistics Module (JEM-ELM) | 1J/A | 11 March 2008 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-123 | Japan | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the ELM provides storage and transportation facilities to the laboratory, with a pressurised section to serve internal payloads and an unpressurised section to serve external payloads. |- | rowspan="2" | Japanese Pressurised Module (JEM-PM) | 1J | 31 May 2008 | Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-124 | Japan | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the PM is the core module of Kibō to which the ELM and Exposed Facility are berthed. The laboratory is the largest single ISS module and contains a total of 23 racks, including 10 experiment racks. The module is used to carry out research in space medicine, biology, Earth observations, materials production, biotechnology, and communications research. The PM also serves as the mounting location for an external platform, the Exposed Facility (EF), that allows payloads to be directly exposed to the harsh space environment. The EF is serviced by the module's own robotic arm, the JEM-RMS, which is also mounted on the PM. |- | colspan="7" style="background: white; borders: none;" | |- style="background:#EFEFEF;" ! colspan="7" | Scheduled to be launched |- style="background:#EFEFEF;" ! Module ! Assembly mission ! Launch date ! Launch system ! width="100" | Nation ! width="82" | Isolated View ! width="82" | Station View |- | rowspan="2" | Mini-Research Module 2 | 5R | 10 November 2009 | Soyuz-FG | Russia | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | This Russian component of the ISS, MRM2 will be used for docking of Soyuz and Progress ships, as an airlock for spacewalks and as an interface for scientific experiments. |- | rowspan="2" | Tranquility(Node 3) | 20A | c. February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (Builder)US (Financier) | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The last of the station's US nodes, Tranquility will contain an advanced life support system to recycle wastewater for crew use and generate oxygen for the crew to breathe. The node also provides four berthing locations for more attached pressurised modules or crew transportation vehicles, in addition to the permanent berthing location for the station's Cupola. |- | rowspan="2" | Cupola | 20A | c. February 2010 | Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130 | Europe (Builder)US (Financier) | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | The Cupola is an observatory module that will provide ISS crew members with a direct view of robotic operations and docked spacecraft, as well as an observation point for watching the Earth. The module will come equipped with robotic workstations for operating the SSRMS and shutters to prevent its windows from being damaged by micrometeorites. |- | rowspan="2" | Mini-Research Module 1 | ULF4 | c. May 2010 | Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-132 | Russia | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- style="border-bottom: 3px solid gray" | colspan="4" | MRM1 will be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station. |- | rowspan="2" | Multipurpose Laboratory Module | 3R | c. December 2011 | Proton-M | Russia | rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2" | |- | colspan="4" | The MLM will be Russia's primary research module as part of the ISS and will be used for general microgravity experiments, docking, and cargo logistics. The module provides a crew work and rest area, and will be equipped with a backup attitude control system that can be used to control the station's attitude. |} Cancelled modules Several planned pressurised modules have been cancelled, including the Centrifuge Accommodations Module, for producing varying levels of artificial gravity, the Habitation Module, which was to serve as the station's living quarters (sleep stations are now spread throughout the station), and several Russian modules, including two Russian Research Modules, planned to be used for general experimentation. Power supply The ISS in 2001, showing the solar panels on Zarya and Zvezda, in addition to the US P6 solar arrays. The source of electrical power for the ISS is the Sun. Light is converted into electricity through the use of solar arrays. Before assembly flight 4A (space shuttle mission STS-97, launched 30 November 2000) the only power sources were the Russian solar panels attached to the Zarya and Zvezda modules. The Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts DC, as does the space shuttle. In the remainder of the station, electricity is provided by the solar arrays attached to the truss at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts DC. These arrays are arranged as four pairs of wings, and each pair is capable of generating nearly 32.8 kW of DC power. Power is stabilised and distributed at 160 volts DC before being converted to the user-required 124 volts DC. This high-voltage distribution line allows for smaller power lines, thus reducing weight. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters. This feature has become essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform, because the Russian segment now depends on the US-built solar arrays for power. The solar arrays normally track the Sun to maximise the amount of solar power. Each array is about 375 m² (450 yd²) in area and long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun in each orbit by rotating the alpha gimbal, while the beta gimbal adjusts for the angle of the sun from the orbital plane. Until the main truss structure arrived, the arrays were in a temporary position perpendicular to the final orientation. In this configuration, as shown in the image to the right, the beta gimbal was used for the main solar tracking. Another tracking option, the Night Glider mode, can be used to reduce the effects of drag produced by the tenuous upper atmosphere, through which the station flies, by orienting the solar arrays edgewise to the velocity vector. Attitude control The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several control moment gyroscopes (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, with Destiny forward of Unity, the P truss on the port side, and Pirs on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated—a situation whereby a CMG exceeds its operational range or cannot track a series of rapid movements—it can lose its ability to control station attitude. In this event, the Russian attitude control system is designed to take over automatically, using thrusters to maintain station attitude, allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This scenario has only occurred once, during Expedition 10. When a space shuttle is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during STS-117 as the S3/S4 truss was being installed. Altitude control The ISS is maintained at an orbit from a minimum altitude of 278 km (173 mi) to a maximum of 460 km (286 mi). The normal maximum limit is 425 km (264 mi) to allow Soyuz rendezvous missions. As the ISS constantly loses altitude because of slight atmospheric drag, it needs to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year. These effects vary from day to day, however, because of changes in the density of the outer atmosphere caused by changes in solar activity. This reboost can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, a docked space shuttle, a Progress resupply vessel, or by ESA's ATV. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) to be boosted several kilometres higher. In December 2008 NASA signed an agreement with the Ad Astra Rocket Company which may result in the testing on the ISS of a VASIMR plasma propulsion engine. {{cite web|url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2008/12/13/ad-astra-fly-vasimr-engine-iss/|title=Ad Astra To Fly VASIMR Engine on ISS|accessdate=2009-05-29} This technology could, in the future, allow ISS station keeping to be done much more economically than at present. Microgravity At the station's orbital altitude, the gravity from the Earth is 88% of that at sea level. The state of weightlessness is caused by the constant free fall of the ISS. Due to the equivalence principle, free fall is indiscernible from a state of zero gravity, however the environment on the station is instead often described as microgravity, as it is imperfect due to four effects: The drag resulting from the residual atmosphere. Vibratory acceleration caused by mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS. Orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes (or thrusters). The spatial separation from the real centre of mass of the ISS—any part of the ISS not at the exact centre of mass will tend to follow its own orbit. However, as each point is physically part of the station, this is impossible, and so each component is subject to small accelerations from the forces which keep them attached to the station as it orbits. This is also called the tidal force. Life support Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels, and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew. This process includes recycling fluid from the sink, shower, toilet, and condensation from the air. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar oxygen generation system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station. If required, the crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters. The atmosphere on board the ISS is maintained to have a composition similar to that of the Earth's atmosphere. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi), the same as at sea level on Earth. Sightings Because of the size of the International Space Station (about that of an American football field) and the large reflective area offered by its solar panels, ground based observation of the station is possible with the naked eye if the observer is in the right location at the right time—in many cases, the station is one of the brightest naked-eye objects in the sky, although it is visible only for brief periods of time, ranging from two to five minutes. In order to view the station, the following conditions need to be fulfilled, assuming the weather is clear: The station must be above the observer's horizon, and it must pass within about 2000 km of the observing site (the closer the better); it must be dark enough at the observer's location for stars to be visible; and the station must be in sunlight rather than in the Earth's shadow. It is common for the third condition to begin or end during what would otherwise be a good viewing opportunity. In the evening, this will cause the station to suddenly fade and disappear as it moves further from the dusk, going from west to east. In the reverse situation, it may suddenly appear in the sky as it approaches the dawn. Politics and financing As a multinational project, the legal and financial aspects of the ISS are complex. Issues of concern include the ownership of modules, station utilisation by participating nations, and responsibilities for station resupply. The main legal document establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA). This international treaty was signed on 28 January 1998 by the primary nations involved in the Space Station project: the United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. This set the stage for a second layer of agreements, called Memoranda of Understanding (MOU), between NASA and ESA, CSA, RKA and JAXA. These agreements are then further split, such as for the contractual obligations between nations, and trading of partners rights and obligations. Use of the Russian Orbital Segment is also negotiated at this level. Hardware allocation within the other sections of the station has been assigned as follows: Columbus: 51% for ESA, 46.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Kibō: 51% for JAXA, 46.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Destiny: 97.7% for NASA and 2.3% for CSA. Crew time, electrical power and rights to purchase supporting services (such as data upload and download and communications) are divided 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA, and 2.3% for CSA. In addition to these main intergovernmental agreements, Brazil has a contract with NASA to supply hardware. In return, NASA will fly one Brazilian to the station during the ISS programme. Italy also has a separate contract with NASA to provide similar services, although Italy also takes part in the programme directly via its membership in the ESA. The most cited figure of an overall cost estimate for the ISS ranges from 35 billion to 100 billion USD. ESA, the only agency actually stating potential overall costs, estimates €100 billion for the entire station over a period of 30 years. Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is not straightforward, as it is difficult to determine which costs should actually be attributed to the ISS programme, or how the Russian contribution should be measured. End of mission/deorbit plans A report in late May 2009 stated that RKK Energia has been asked to look at ways to remove the Russian modules from the station when the "end of mission" is reached some time between 2015 and 2020. NASA has responsibility for de-orbit and is said to intend this around 2020. As the Russian modules have the motors that would be used for controlled de-orbit, this poses a potential issue if Russia taken that capability to a new, on-going station. Other options include using a European Automated Transfer Vehicle. One option stated for an ongoing station is for Russia to build a ball-shaped, six-port module to which existing modules could be attached. Later modules would also be launched to provide a Russian outpost for later missions to the Moon and Mars. The report quotes an unnamed Russian engineer stated that experience from Mir indicates that, except for micrometeorite damage, a thirty year life should be possible, given that the Russian modules have been built with on-orbit refurbishment in mind. Life on board Expeditions Each permanent station crew is given a sequential Expedition number: , , and so on. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year, and they commence following the official handover of the station from one Expedition commander to another. Expeditions 1 through 6 consisted of three person crews, but the Columbia accident led to a reduction to two crew members from Expeditions 7 to 12. Expedition 13 saw the restoration of the station crew to three, and the station has been permanently staffed as such since. Whilst only three crew members are permanently on the station, however, several expeditions, such as Expedition 16, have consisted of up to six individual astronauts or cosmonauts, with individuals being flown up and down to the station on various individual flights. , the current expedition to ISS is Expedition 19, which is planned to be the final three member expedition to the station. Following the arrival of Expedition 20, the station will be staffed by a resident crew of six, following expansion of the station's living volume and capabilities from STS-115 onwards. The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. , it has had 213 non-distinct visitors comprising 167 individual people. Mir had 137 non-distinct visitors. Crew schedule Astronaut Peggy Whitson in the doorway of a sleeping rack in the Destiny laboratory The time zone used on board the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, sometimes informally called GMT). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. During visiting space shuttle missions, the ISS crew will mostly follow the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the shuttle mission. Because the sleeping periods between the UTC time zone and the MET usually differ, the ISS crew often has to adjust its sleeping pattern before the space shuttle arrives and after it leaves to shift from one time zone to the other in a practice known as sleep shifting. A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then breakfasts and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control on the ground before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30, when the daily schedule is complete. In general, the crew works 10 hours per day on a weekday, and 5 hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time being their own for relaxation, games or work catch-up. Station operations Mission control centres As an international project, the various components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at various control centres across the globe, including: NASA's Mission Control Center at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, serves as the primary control facility for the US segment of the ISS, and also controls the various Space Shuttle missions that visit the station. NASA's Payload Operations and Integration Center at Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, serves as the centre that coordinates all payload operations in the US Segment. Roskosmos's TsUP at Korolyov, Moscow, controls the Russian Orbital Segment of the ISS, in addition to individual Soyuz and Progress missions. ESA's Columbus Control Centre at the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany, controls the European Columbus research laboratory. ESA's ATV Control Centre, at the Toulouse Space Centre (CST) in Toulouse, France, controls flights of the unmanned European Automated Transfer Vehicle. JAXA's JEM Control Centre and HTV Control Centre at Tsukuba Space Centre (TKSC) in Tsukuba, Japan, are responsible for operating the Japanese Experiment Module complex and all flights of the unmanned Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle respectively. CSA's MSS Control at Saint-Hubert, Quebec, Canada, controls and monitors the Mobile Servicing System, or Canadarm2. Visiting spacecraft The approaching the ISS during STS-118. Spacecraft from three different space agencies visit the International Space Station, serving a variety of purposes. The Automated Transfer Vehicle from the European Space Agency has provided resupply services to the station. Also serving the station in this capacity is the Russian Roskosmos Progress spacecraft. In addition, Russia also supplies a Soyuz spacecraft, used for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, which is replaced every six months. Finally, the United States services the ISS through its Space Shuttle programme. Space shuttle missions provide resupply missions, assembly and logistics flights, and crew rotation. , there have been 18 Soyuz, 32 Progress, 1 ATV and 28 Space Shuttle flights to the station. Expeditions require, on average, 2,722 kg of supplies, and , crews had consumed a total of 19,000 meals. Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average twice three times annually respectively, with the ATV planned to visit annually from 2010 onwards. , there are three spacecraft docked with the ISS: Soyuz TMA-14 is at the Zvezda Service Module's aft docking port. The spacecraft has brought two members of Expedition 19, Russian Commander Gennady Padalka and American Flight Engineer Michael R. Barratt, to the station, in addition to Spaceflight Participant Charles Simonyi. Progress M-02M is at Pirs's nadir docking port. Used to used to resupply the ISS, it is the second Progress-M 11F615A60 spacecraft to be flown. Soyuz TMA-15 is at ''Zaryas nadir docking port. The spacecraft brought three members of Expedition 20, Commander Roman Romanenko and Flight Engineers Frank De Winne and Robert Thirsk, who became the first Canadian to fly aboard a Soyuz spacecraft. Throughout the remainder of the station's operating life, a variety of spacecraft by various ISS program members are planned with the intent to service the ISS. Currently under construction and planned for operation in 2009, is the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), which is intended as a resupply vehicle for the JAXA Kibō modules. Still in initial funding stages is the Russian Kliper spacecraft, which, if it comes to fruition in 2012 as planned, is intended as a replacement of the Soyuz spacecraft. Being designed at this moment is the American Orion spacecraft, with plans to launch starting from 2014 as another resupply spacecraft and provide crew rotation. In hopes of bridging the gap between the Space Shuttle and Orion, NASA has started the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program to develop commercial spacecraft services dedicated to the station. Space tourism Mark Shuttleworth, the second space tourist to visit the ISS. , six space tourists have visited the ISS, each paying around US$25 million. The tourists, or Spaceflight participants, were launched and returned via Russian crew rotation missions on Soyuz spacecraft. The last space tourist flight to the ISS took place in April 2009. After that, the station will be upgraded to a 6-person permanent crew, meaning that no more Soyuz seats will be available to Space Adventures, the company which runs the visits. Other projects Japanese scientists and origami masters propose to launch a flotilla of paper planes from the ISS in early 2009. The mission will take place during STS-127. Around 30 planes will make the descent, each gliding downward over what is expected to be the course of several months. If one of the planes survives to Earth, it will have made the longest flight ever by a paper plane, traversing some 400 km (250 mi), and will have demonstrated the feasibility of slow-speed, low-friction atmospheric reentry. A prototype of the origami aeroplane passed a durability test in a wind tunnel in March 2008, and Japan's space agency adopted it for feasibility studies. During an EVA in Expedition 14, a special golf ball equipped with a tracking device was hit from the station and sent into its own low Earth orbit. The stunt was paid for by a Canadian golf equipment manufacturer. The ISS was the location for the first space wedding, during which Russian cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko, flying Expedition 7, married Ekaterina Dmitrieva, who was in Texas at the time. Notes The ISS against the blackness of space and the thin line of Earth's atmosphere, taken from the as the two spacecraft begin their separation. a. Name of the ISS in the languages of participating countries: (Kokusai uchū sutēshon) (Myezhdunarodnaya kosmichyeskaya stantsiya)'' b. Ten European countries are participating: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Austria, Finland, and Ireland chose not to participate, the United Kingdom withdrew from the preliminary agreement, and Portugal, Greece, Luxembourg and the Czech Republic joined ESA after the agreement had been signed. References External links Official International Space Station webpages of the participating space agencies NASA Roskosmos (in Russian) RKK Energia (in English) Canadian Space Agency European Space Agency Japanese Space Agency Italian Space Agency Brazilian Space Agency Interactive/Multimedia NASA's ISS interactive reference guide NASA's ISS image gallery search page Current position of the ISS ISS WebCam | International_Space_Station |@lemmatized international:16 space:107 station:111 iss:34 research:23 facility:11 currently:8 assemble:1 low:7 earth:22 orbit:22 construction:2 begin:8 schedule:8 complete:9 operation:7 continue:3 around:6 large:6 artificial:2 satellite:1 previous:1 programme:14 joint:3 project:10 among:1 agency:20 united:6 state:11 national:4 aeronautics:1 administration:2 nasa:24 russia:14 russian:35 federal:2 rka:3 japan:8 aerospace:3 exploration:4 jaxa:6 canada:4 canadian:4 csa:7 ten:4 european:14 nation:10 esa:13 brazilian:3 aeb:1 participate:8 separate:4 contract:4 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kliper:1 fruition:1 orion:2 bridge:1 gap:1 commercial:2 dedicate:1 tourism:1 shuttleworth:1 pay:2 million:1 april:1 upgrade:1 seat:1 available:1 adventure:1 run:1 origami:2 master:1 propose:1 flotilla:1 paper:2 descent:1 glide:1 downward:1 course:1 survive:1 traverse:1 demonstrate:1 feasibility:2 friction:1 reentry:1 prototype:1 aeroplane:1 durability:1 wind:1 tunnel:1 adopt:1 eva:1 special:1 golf:2 hit:1 stunt:1 manufacturer:1 wedding:1 yuri:1 malenchenko:1 marry:1 ekaterina:1 dmitrieva:1 note:1 blackness:1 thin:1 name:1 language:1 country:2 kokusai:1 uchū:1 sutēshon:1 myezhdunarodnaya:1 kosmichyeskaya:1 stantsiya:1 austria:1 finland:1 ireland:1 choose:1 kingdom:1 withdrew:1 preliminary:1 portugal:1 greece:1 luxembourg:1 czech:1 republic:1 reference:2 link:1 webpage:1 english:1 interactive:2 multimedia:1 guide:1 gallery:1 page:1 webcam:1 |@bigram iss_programme:5 naked_eye:3 kilometre_mi:1 esa_astronaut:1 space_shuttle:29 kg_lb:1 microgravity_environment:1 muscle_atrophy:1 muscular_atrophy:1 cosmic_ray:2 matter_antimatter:1 soviet_union:1 w_bush:1 boris_yeltsin:1 vice_president:1 prime_minister:1 soyuz_rocket:2 abrupt_halt:1 sts_sts:2 pressurise_module:5 metric_ton:1 class_wikitable:1 margin_auto:1 background_efefef:3 rowspan_rowspan:15 gray_colspan:14 soyuz_spacecraft:5 shuttle_atlantis:3 atlantis_sts:3 atomic_clock:1 rowspan_colspan:1 volt_dc:4 http_www:1 atmospheric_pressure:1 carbon_dioxide:1 activated_charcoal:1 understanding_mou:1 contractual_obligation:1 trading_partner:1 upload_download:1 billion_usd:1 astronaut_cosmonaut:1 sunrise_sunset:1 lyndon_b:1 huntsville_alabama:1 emergency_evacuation:1 spaceflight_participant:2 charles_simonyi:1 come_fruition:1 mark_shuttleworth:1 demonstrate_feasibility:1 czech_republic:1 external_link:1 interactive_multimedia:1 |
2,010 | Key_escrow | Key escrow (also known as a fair cryptosystem) is an arrangement in which the keys needed to decrypt encrypted data are held in escrow so that, under certain circumstances, an authorized third party may gain access to those keys. These third parties may include businesses, who may want access to employees' private communications, or governments, who may wish to be able to view the contents of encrypted communications. The technical problem is a largely structural one since access to protected information must be provided only to the intended recipient and at least one third party. The third party should be permitted access only under carefully controlled conditions, as for instance, a court order. Thus far, no system design has been shown to meet this requirement fully on a technical basis alone. All proposed systems also require correct functioning of some social linkage, as for instance the process of request for access, examination of request for 'legitimacy' (as by a court), and granting of access by technical personnel charged with access control. All such linkages / controls have serious problems from a system design security perspective. On a national level, this is controversial in many countries due to technical mistrust of the security of the escrow arrangement (due to a long history of less than adequate protection of others' information by assorted organizations, public and private, even when the information is held only under an affirmative legal obligation to protect it from unauthorized access), and to a mistrust of the entire system even if it functions as designed. Thus far, no key escrow system has been designed which meets both objections and nearly all have failed to meet even one. External links The risks of key escrow | Key_escrow |@lemmatized key:5 escrow:5 also:2 know:1 fair:1 cryptosystem:1 arrangement:2 need:1 decrypt:1 encrypt:1 data:1 hold:2 certain:1 circumstance:1 authorized:1 third:4 party:4 may:4 gain:1 access:8 include:1 business:1 want:1 employee:1 private:2 communication:2 government:1 wish:1 able:1 view:1 content:1 encrypted:1 technical:4 problem:2 largely:1 structural:1 one:3 since:1 protect:2 information:3 must:1 provide:1 intend:1 recipient:1 least:1 permit:1 carefully:1 control:3 condition:1 instance:2 court:2 order:1 thus:2 far:2 system:5 design:4 show:1 meet:3 requirement:1 fully:1 basis:1 alone:1 propose:1 require:1 correct:1 functioning:1 social:1 linkage:2 process:1 request:2 examination:1 legitimacy:1 granting:1 personnel:1 charge:1 serious:1 security:2 perspective:1 national:1 level:1 controversial:1 many:1 country:1 due:2 mistrust:2 long:1 history:1 less:1 adequate:1 protection:1 others:1 assorted:1 organization:1 public:1 even:3 affirmative:1 legal:1 obligation:1 unauthorized:1 entire:1 function:1 objection:1 nearly:1 fail:1 external:1 link:1 risk:1 |@bigram key_escrow:3 external_link:1 |
2,011 | Christian_alternative_rock | Christian alternative music (ACM) is a form of hard music which is lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview. ACM is not limited to styles such as alternative rock, but also includes rap and hip hop artists. Unlike CCM, ACM generally emphasizes musical style over lyrical content. The degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist. History Christian alternative music has its roots in the early 1980s, as the earliest efforts at Christian punk and new wave music were recorded by artists like Daniel Amos, Andy McCarroll and Moral Support, Undercover, The 77s, Adam Again, Quickflight, Youth Choir (later renamed The Choir), Lifesavers Underground, Michael Knott, The Altar Boys, Breakfast with Amy, C.I.A., Steve Taylor, 4-4-1, David Edwards, Black Carnation and Vector. By the 1990s, many of these bands were being carried by independent labels because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream Christian pop music. These early labels (most now-defunct) included Blonde Vinyl, Frontline, Exit, and Refuge. The modern market is currently supported by labels such as Tooth & Nail, Gotee and Floodgate. These companies are often children of or partially owned by general market labels such as Warner, EMI, and Capitol Records, giving successful artists an opportunity to "cross over" into mainstream markets. The style is sometimes mixed with alternative metal and rap-rock influences, in cases such as Pillar. References See also HM: The Hard Music Magazine True Tunes News 7ball External links God Save the Teens: Local Kids Seek a New Kind of Church Through Hardcore and Hip-Hop by Lauren Sandler in the Village Voice 30 May - 5 June 2001 Review As I Lay Dying and Norma Jean by Ben Bishop in The Hard Music Magazine Rock and Pop > Christian Punk and Hardcore in the Yahoo! Directory Godcore.com - Christian Music Database | Christian_alternative_rock |@lemmatized christian:7 alternative:4 music:10 acm:3 form:1 hard:3 lyrically:2 ground:1 worldview:1 limit:1 style:3 rock:3 also:2 include:2 rap:2 hip:2 hop:2 artist:5 unlike:1 ccm:1 generally:1 emphasizes:1 musical:1 lyrical:1 content:1 degree:1 faith:1 appear:1 vary:1 history:1 root:1 early:3 effort:1 punk:2 new:2 wave:1 record:2 like:1 daniel:1 amos:1 andy:1 mccarroll:1 moral:1 support:2 undercover:1 adam:1 quickflight:1 youth:1 choir:2 later:1 rename:1 lifesaver:1 underground:1 michael:1 knott:1 altar:1 boys:1 breakfast:1 amy:1 c:1 steve:1 taylor:1 david:1 edward:1 black:1 carnation:1 vector:1 many:1 band:1 carry:1 independent:1 label:4 tend:1 complex:1 often:2 controversial:1 mainstream:2 pop:2 defunct:1 blonde:1 vinyl:1 frontline:1 exit:1 refuge:1 modern:1 market:3 currently:1 tooth:1 nail:1 gotee:1 floodgate:1 company:1 child:1 partially:1 general:1 warner:1 emi:1 capitol:1 give:1 successful:1 opportunity:1 cross:1 sometimes:1 mixed:1 metal:1 influence:1 case:1 pillar:1 reference:1 see:1 hm:1 magazine:2 true:1 tune:1 news:1 external:1 link:1 god:1 save:1 teen:1 local:1 kid:1 seek:1 kind:1 church:1 hardcore:2 lauren:1 sandler:1 village:1 voice:1 may:1 june:1 review:1 lay:1 die:1 norma:1 jean:1 ben:1 bishop:1 yahoo:1 directory:1 godcore:1 com:1 database:1 |@bigram hip_hop:2 external_link:1 hardcore_hip:1 norma_jean:1 |
2,012 | Demographics_of_the_Cook_Islands | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Cook Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 12,271 (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: NA 15-64 years: NA 65 years and over: NA Population growth rate -2.23% (2006 est.) Birth rate 22.18 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 5.2 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate -0.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 24.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 71.14 years Male: 69.2 years Female: 73.1 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 3.14 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality Noun: Cook Islander(s) Adjective: Cook Islander Ethnic groups Polynesian (full blood) 81.3%, Polynesian and European 7.7%, Polynesian and non-European 7.7%, European 2.4%, other 0.9% Religions Christian (majority of populace are members of the Cook Islands Christian Church) Languages English (official), Rarotongan, Tongarevan (Penrhyn), Rakahanga-Manihiki, Pukapukan language Literacy Definition: NA Total population: NA% Male: NA% Female: NA% See also: Cook Islands | Demographics_of_the_Cook_Islands |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:10 cook:5 island:2 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:2 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:8 age:1 structure:1 year:6 na:7 growth:1 rate:6 birth:4 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 total:3 male:2 female:2 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 islander:2 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 polynesian:3 full:1 blood:1 european:3 non:1 religion:1 christian:2 majority:1 member:1 islands:1 church:1 languages:1 english:1 official:1 rarotongan:1 tongarevan:1 penrhyn:1 rakahanga:1 manihiki:1 pukapukan:1 language:1 literacy:1 definition:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 cook_islands:1 literacy_definition:1 |
2,013 | Erlang_(programming_language) | Erlang is a general-purpose concurrent programming language and runtime system. The sequential subset of Erlang is a functional language, with strict evaluation, single assignment, and dynamic typing. For concurrency it follows the Actor model. It was designed by Ericsson to support distributed, fault-tolerant, soft-real-time, non-stop applications. The first version was designed and implemented by Joe Armstrong in 1986. About the Author It supports hot swapping so code can be changed without stopping a system. Erlang was originally a proprietary language within Ericsson, but was released as open source in 1998. The Ericsson implementation primarily runs interpreted virtual machine code, but it also includes a native code compiler (supported on most but not all platforms), developed by the High Performance Erlang Project (HiPE) at Uppsala University. It also now supports interpretation via script as of R11B-5. Creating and managing processes is trivial in Erlang, whereas threads are considered a complicated and error-prone topic in most languages. Though all concurrency is explicit in Erlang, processes communicate using message passing instead of shared variables, which removes the need for locks. Erlang is named after A. K. Erlang. It is sometimes thought that its name is an abbreviation of Ericsson Language, owing to its origin inside Ericsson. According to Bjarne Däcker, who headed the Computer Science Lab at the time, this duality is intentional. Erlang, the mathematician? Functional language A factorial algorithm implemented in Erlang: -module(fact). % This is the file 'fact.erl', the module and the filename MUST match -export([fac/1]). % This exports the function 'fac' of arity 1 (1 parameter, no type, no name) fac(0) -> 1; % If 0, then return 1, otherwise (note the semicolon ; meaning 'else') fac(N) -> N * fac(N-1). % Recursively determine, then return the result % (note the period . meaning 'endif' or 'function end') A quicksort algorithm implementation: %% quicksort:quicksort(List) %% Sort a list of items -module(quicksort). % This is the file 'quicksort.erl' -export([quicksort/1]). % A function 'quicksort' with 1 parameter is exported (no type, no name) quicksort([]) -> []; % If the list [] is empty, return an empty list (nothing to sort) quicksort([Pivot|Rest]) -> % Compose recursively a list with 'Front' % from 'Pivot' and 'Back' from 'Rest' quicksort([Front || Front <- Rest, Front < Pivot]) ++ [Pivot] ++ quicksort([Back || Back <- Rest, Back >= Pivot]). The above example recursively invokes the function quicksort until nothing remains to be sorted. The expression [Front || Front <- Rest, Front < Pivot] is a list comprehension, meaning “Construct a list of elements Front such that Front is a member of Rest and Front is less than Pivot”. A compare function can be used, however, if the order on which Erlang bases its return value (true or false) needs to be changed. If, for example, we want an ordered list where a < 1 evaluates true. The following code would sort lists according to length: % This is file 'listsort.erl' (the compiler is made this way) -module(listsort). % Export 'by_length' with 1 parameter (don't care of the type and name) -export([by_length/1]). by_length(Lists) -> % Use 'qsort/2' and provides an anonymous function as parameter (!!!) qsort(Lists, fun(A,B) when is_list(A), is_list(B) -> length(A) < length(B) end). qsort([], _)-> []; % If list is empty, return an empty list (discard the second parameter) qsort([Pivot|Rest], Smaller) -> qsort([X || X <- Rest, Smaller(X,Pivot)], Smaller) % Concatenate 'X' from 'Rest' ++ [Pivot] ++ % Use the anonymous fun (here named 'Smaller') to test the 'Pivot' qsort([Y ||Y <- Rest, not(Smaller(Y, Pivot))], Smaller). % Concatenate 'Y' from 'Rest' Concurrency and distribution oriented language Erlang's main strength is support for concurrency. It has a small but powerful set of primitives to create processes and communicate between them. Processes are the primary means to structure an Erlang application. Erlang processes are neither operating system processes nor operating system threads, but lightweight processes somewhat similar to Java's original “green threads” (the Java Virtual Machine now uses native threads). Like operating system processes (and unlike green threads and operating system threads) they have no shared state between them. The estimated minimal overhead for each is 300 words (4 bytes per word on 32-bit platforms, 8 bytes per word on 64-bit platforms), so many of them can be created without degrading performance (A benchmark with 20 million processes was tried ). Erlang has supported symmetric multiprocessing since release R11B of May 2006. Process communication is done via a shared-nothing asynchronous message passing system: every process has a “mailbox”, a queue of messages sent by other processes, that are not yet consumed. A process uses the receive primitive to retrieve messages that match desired patterns. A message-handling routine tests messages in turn against each pattern, until one of them matches. When the message is consumed (removed from the mailbox) the process resumes execution. A message may comprise any Erlang structure, including primitives (integers, floats, characters, atoms), tuples, lists, and functions. The code example below shows the built-in support for distributed processes: % Create a process and invoke the function web:start_server(Port, MaxConnections) ServerProcess = spawn(web, start_server, [Port, MaxConnections]), % Create a remote process and invoke the function % web:start_server(Port, MaxConnections) on machine RemoteNode RemoteProcess = spawn(RemoteNode, web, start_server, [Port, MaxConnections]), % Send a message to ServerProcess (asynchronously). The message consists of a tuple % with the atom "pause" and the number "10". ServerProcess ! {pause, 10}, % Receive messages sent to this process receive a_message -> do_something; {data, DataContent} -> handle(DataContent); {hello, Text} -> io:format("Got hello message: ~s", [Text]); {goodbye, Text} -> io:format("Got goodbye message: ~s", [Text]) end. As the example shows, processes may be created on remote nodes, and communication with them is transparent (that is, communication with remote processes is done exactly as communication with local processes). Concurrency supports the primary method of error-handling in Erlang. When a process crashes, it neatly exits and sends a message to the controlling process which can take action. This way of error handling may increase maintainability and reduce complexity of code. Hot code loading and modules Code is loaded and managed as "module" units, the module is a compilation unit. The system can keep two versions of a module in memory at the same time, and processes can concurrently run code from each. The versions are referred to the "new" and the "old" version. A process will not move into the new version until it makes an external call to its module. An example of the mechanism of hot code loading: %% A process whose only job is to keep a counter. %% First version -module(counter). -export([start/0, codeswitch/1]). start() -> loop(0). loop(Sum) -> receive {increment, Count} -> loop(Sum+Count); {counter, Pid} -> Pid ! {counter, Sum}, loop(Sum); code_switch -> ?MODULE:codeswitch(Sum) % Force the use of 'codeswitch/1' from the latest MODULE version end. codeswitch(Sum) -> loop(Sum). For the second version, we add the possibility to reset the count to zero. %% Second version -module(counter). -export([start/0, codeswitch/1]). start() -> loop(0). loop(Sum) -> receive {increment, Count} -> loop(Sum+Count); reset -> loop(0); {counter, Pid} -> Pid ! {counter, Sum}, loop(Sum); code_switch -> ?MODULE:codeswitch(Sum) end. codeswitch(Sum) -> loop(Sum). Only when receiving a message consisting of the atom 'code_switch' will the loop execute an external call to codeswitch/1 (?MODULE is a preprocessor macro for the current module). If there is a new version of the "counter" module in memory, then its codeswitch/1 function will be called. The practice of having a specific entry-point into a new version allows the programmer to transform state to what is required in the newer version. In our example we keep the state as an integer. In practice systems are built up using design principles from the Open Telecom Platform which leads to more code upgradable designs. Successful hot code loading is a tricky subject, code needs to be written to make use of Erlang's facilities. Distribution Ericsson released Erlang as open source to ensure its independence from a single vendor and to increase awareness of the language. Erlang, together with libraries and the real-time distributed database Mnesia, forms the Open Telecom Platform (OTP) collection of libraries. Ericsson and a few other companies offer commercial support for Erlang. Since it was released as open source in 1998, Erlang has been used by several companies worldwide, including Nortel and T-Mobile. Although Erlang was designed to fill a niche and has remained an obscure language for most of its existence, its popularity is growing due to demand for concurrent services. Projects using Erlang include ejabberd - an XMPP instant messaging server, Wings 3D - a 3D modeller, the Yaws web server, Nitrogen - an event-driven web framework with support for Web 2.0 features, Yahoo! Delicious, http://blog.socklabs.com/2008/09/erlang_is_delicious_cufp_slide and the Facebook Chat system. http://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=16787213919&id=9445547199&index=2 , Erlang is under active development with regular releases. It is available for several Unix-like operating systems (including Mac OS X) and for Microsoft Windows. Clones Erlang has inspired several clones of its concurrency facilities for other languages: C#: Retlang Python: Candygram JavaScript: Er.js Lisp: Termite Scheme, erlang-in-lisp, CL-MUPROC, Distel PHP: PHP/Erlang Ruby: Erlectricity Scala Reia Notes Further reading Joe Armstrong (Pragmatic Bookshelf, 2007, ISBN 978-1-9343560-0-5). “Programming Erlang, Software for a Concurrent World”. Mattsson, H., Nilsson, H., Wikstrom, C.: “Mnesia - A distributed robust DBMS for telecommunications applications.” First International Workshop on Practical Aspects of Declarative Languages (PADL'99) (1999) pages 152-163 J. Armstrong, R. Virding, C. Wikström, M. Williams (Prentice Hall, 1996, ISBN 0-13-508301-X) "Concurrent Programming in Erlang" Martin Logan, Eric Merritt, Richard Carlsson, and Robert Calco (Manning MEAP, 2008, ISBN 1933988789) "Concurrent Programming with Erlang/OTP" External links Open Source Erlang website History Early history of Erlang (by Bjarne Däcker) A History of Erlang (by Joe Armstrong) Erlang: The Movie (google video) (high quality version) Websites and directories trapexit - Erlang community site | Erlang_(programming_language) |@lemmatized erlang:36 general:1 purpose:1 concurrent:5 program:4 language:11 runtime:1 system:11 sequential:1 subset:1 functional:2 strict:1 evaluation:1 single:2 assignment:1 dynamic:1 typing:1 concurrency:6 follow:1 actor:1 model:1 design:5 ericsson:7 support:10 distribute:1 fault:1 tolerant:1 soft:1 real:2 time:4 non:1 stop:2 application:3 first:3 version:13 implement:2 joe:3 armstrong:4 author:1 hot:4 swap:1 code:13 change:2 without:2 originally:1 proprietary:1 within:1 release:5 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2,014 | Nepalese_Armed_Forces | Plane at Tribhuvan International Airport in Kathmandu The Military of Nepal basically consists of the Armed Nepalese Force. History Nepal unification campaign was a turning point in the history of the Nepalese army. Since unification was not possible without a strong army, the management of the armed forces had to be exceptional. Apart from the standard Malla era temples in Kathmandu army being organized in Gorkha, technicians and experts had to be brought in from abroad to manufacture war materials. After the Gorkhali troops captured Nuwakot, the neighbouring principality of Kathmandu (Kantipur) in the year 1744, the Gorkhali armed forces came to be known as the Royal Nepalese Army. Their gallantry, sincerity and simplicity impressed even the enemy so much that the British East- India Company started recruiting Nepalese into their forces. Since the British had fought against the RNA, which was till that time, still colloquially known as "Army of Gorkha" or "Gorkhali" army, the British took to calling their new soldiers "Gurkhas". There is still some misunderstanding that the Royal Nepalese Army is a part of the British and Indian Armies. The Gurkha Rifles existing in India and Britain are part of foreign military organizations where Nepalese are recruited.The RNA, although righfully the true heir of the title of "The original Army of the Gorkha". The proud National Army of the sovereign and independent Hindu Kingdom of Nepal with an unbroken history since the year 1744. The fact that Nepal and the Nepalese people have never been subjugated by any colonial power is a significant achievement of the Royal Nepalese Army. Prithvi Narayan Shah the Great was the founder of the Royal Nepalese Army. Organization The current command and control organization of Nepal's army is set forth in the 1990 Constitution. As of January 2007, it is still Nepal's active constitution. However, the current government has said that it plans to replace the 1990 constitution with a new one. The timeframe for this new constitution is unknown as of now and the possibility remains that the 1990 constitution will only be amended or left as is. It is simply too early to know how this will work out. Until a new or amended constitution comes into effect, the basic layout of command and control is as follows: Now Interim Constitution of Nepal 2008 Supreme Command Article 119 of the 1990 constitution states that: "His Majesty the King is the Supreme Commander of the Royal Nepal Army." However, following the People's Power revolution in April 2006, the 1990 constitution has been replaced by an interim constitution which has removed the King from anything to do with the army. The army is now answerable to the civilian and the multi-party government. After, Dr. Ram Baran Yadav was elected president of Nepal on 23 July 2008 http://www.nepalnews.com/archive/2008/jul/jul23/news08.php , the President of Nepal is the supreme commander of Nepal Army. The National Defence Council This Council used to have three members, the Prime Minister, the Defence Minister, and the Chief of the Army Staff. In accordance with the Constitution, the King (as Supreme Commander) used to "operate and use" the "Royal Nepal Army on the recommendtion" of this council. However, this is no longer the case as the king has been removed from his position as the supreme commander of the army. Ranks Paramadhipati:"Grand" "Commander-in-Chief" -President of Nepal Field Marshal [5 star general] Pradhan Senapati: " General" but usually translated as "Chief of the Army Staff" [4 star general] Lieutenant General [3 star general] Major General [2 star general] Brigadier General [ 1 star general] Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major Captain Lieutenant Second Lieutenant Honorary LIeutenant :Exceptional post, only given to subedar majors as an honor when they are going to be retired. Subedar Major Subedar Jamdar Hawaldar Major Hawaldar Nayak Lance Nayak Shipahi Battles of Unification campaigns Nepalese army fights various battles on the unification campaign these battles of Nepal unification help royal Nepalese army to gain more experiences with a gift of Unified Nepal. Battles of Nepal Unification Campaign Engagements Battle against Mir Kassim The fortress of Makawanpur has a historical and military significance for the Nepalese. It was here that the Nepalese defeated superior forces of Mir Kassim in 1763 and seized 500 guns and two cannons. Later on, these weapons were used by Nepalese troops and four companies were established regular, namely, Srinath, Kalibox, Barda Bahadur (Bardabahini) and Sabuj. (Purano) Gorakh Company was established a few months later. It was the first rank and file system beginning a proper organizational history for the Royal Nepalese Army. The battle against Mir Kassim troops was the first battle of the Royal Nepalese Army against a foreign power. Sardar Nandu Shah was the fortress Commander of Makawanpur with 400 troops, some guns and home-made traditional weapons like Dhanu, Khukuri, Talwar, Ghuyatro etc. They devised different hit-and-run strategies to surprise the enemy. A spoiling attack base was set up on the Taplakhar mountain ridge for night operations. Mir Kassim's renowned warrior, Gurgin Khan was the commander on the other side with approximately 2,500 troops with cannons, guns, ammunition and a very good logistics back up. Their attack base was at the bottom of the Makawanpur Gadhi hill. They had planned a night attack. When the enemy’s heavy forces marched on December 1762 and arrived at Harnamadi in January 1763, they found all the local houses already evacuated and the area short of food provisions. Makawanpur Gadhi was on top of a mountain, about nine kilometers uphill from the Harnamadi area. Although the Nepalese had physically occupied all the fortresses enroute, the enemy was able to initially push them back to the Makawanpur Gadhi area. About 300 enemy launched a strong attack on 20 January 1763 putting the Nepalese still more on the defensive. But they were totally surprised when they were resting in Taplakhar, as Kaji Bamsa Raj Pandey led a downhill attack on them Kaju Naharsigh Basnyat led an uphill attack from below them and Nandu Shah led a frontal attack. The smooth coordination among the three, leading their, by now battle-hardened, troops in the dark of the night, led the bewildered enemy to scatter. About 1700 of them died and 30 Nepalese soldiers were lost in that battle. The Nepalese captured 500 rifles and two canons with other military equipment. More importantly, the battle led to the beginning of a proper organization of the Royal Nepalese Army nepalarmy.mil.np/organisation/images/history.pdf . Other major engagements Battle of Pauwa Gadhi against Captain Kinloch- 1767 AD Anglo-Nepal War 1814 AD First Nepal - Tibet War The relations started forming sour after the Malla rulers started to mint impure silver coins just before their downfall. The Tibetans demanded that the coins be replaced by pure silver ones. When Prithvi Narayan Shah took over, he found that it would be a great loss to him if he conceded to the Tibetan demands. That case remained unsolved due to his untimely demise. Queen Mother Rajendra Laxmi, the Regent of minor King Rana Bahadur Shah, inherited the coinage problem which reached the culminating point in 1888 AD. Another sore point in Nepal-Tibet relations was Nepal’s decision to provide refuge to Syamarpa Lama with his 14 Tibetan followers. He had fled from Tibet to Nepal on religious and political grounds. Yet another cause for conflict was the low quality salt being provided by Tibetans to Nepal. All salt came from Tibet in those days. Tibet ignored the Nepalese ultimatums and that promoted the preparations for war. Nepal was soon preparing to launch multi-directional attacks. Kerung Axis: Kaji Balbhadra Shah was the main Commander of the offensive attack from Kerung axis. Kaji Kirtimansingh Basnyat, Sardar Amarsingh Thapa and Bhotu Pandey were the subordinate commanders under him. Approximately 6,000 troops and 3,200 porters were despatched for this operation. Their main objective was to capture Dirgacha through Kerung. The march of the troops was delayed because Balbhadra Shah became seriously ill. They crossed Kerung on 20 July, 1788 and captured Jhunga on the 3rd of August 1788. Bhotu Pandey was captured by the Tibetans. The Nepalese troops were reinforced with 2,000 more troops and Bhotu Pandey was freed from the Tibetans on 14 October, 1788. Kuti Axis (I):Shree Krishna Shah was the Commander and Kaji Ranajit Pandey, Sardar Parath Bhandari, Captain Harsa Panta, Captain Naharsingh Basnyat and Captain Shiva Narayan Khatri were the subordinate commanders under him. About 5,800 soldiers and 3,000 porters were allotted for the offensive operation. Later on, Kaji Abhimansingh Basnyat and Ranajit Kunwar also joined this offensive. The Dalai Lama was taken by surprise and to protect his sovereignty, he initiated a parallel approach whereby he asked military help from Sovan Shahi, the King of Jumla in West Nepal, and requested him to launch guerrilla activities and revolt against the Nepalese Army in and around Jumla. Sovan Shahi did revolt at Humla and captured some fortresses. The Dalai Lama also asked for military help from the Chinese Emperor. Additionally, he himself and Panchen Lama of Dirgacha wrote a secret letter ot East India Company seeking military assistance. The Tibetans also initiated propaganda about having constructed a new road through the Tigri valley and establishing a post at the front. They also rumoured that they had assembled an Army of 1,25,000 men. But the Tibetans could get nothing from Jumla, China or the East India Company. Kuti Axis (II):Kaji Damodar Pandey was leading his troops with subordinate commanders Bom Shah, Dev Dutta Thapa and others. He was given about 4,000 troops and his objective was to capture Dirgacha via the Kuti axis. The Battles Nepalese troops, having crossed the Himalayas captured Chhochyang and Kuti in June 1788 and Sikarjong on 3 August, 1788, in spite of many difficult logistic limitations. Later, Bahadur Shah was able to provide some reinforcements and improve some logistics arrangements. Still that was not enough and progress was slow. When the Nepalese were about to capture Dirgacha via both Kuti and Kerung, the Tibetans started to make compromises with Nepalese commanders. Bahadur Shah started negotiations, ultimately arriving at a solution. Prisoners were handed back to the Tibetans. Tibet was ready to pay tributes to the tune of Rs. 50,000 in silver coins per annum to Nepal and a treaty was signed on 2 June 1789 in Kerung. The treaty is called the ‘Treaty of Kerung’ by historians Rasuwa Gadhi and Timure were the firm bases in the first Nepal-Tibet war. Syabru Besi and Rasuwa Gadhi were Strategic points in this war. Likewise, Listi and Duguna villages were the main bases for offensive operations against Tibet. They were the forward most dumping places of the Royal Nepalese Army. Although Rasuwa Gadhi and Duguna Gadhi Fortresses were not constructed at the time, the places themselves were important because of their military significance. Nepal-Tibet/China War Last Nepal-Tibet War Foreign Involvements Royal Nepal Army in Indian Sepoy Mutiny Royal Nepal Army in The First World War 1914-1918 Royal Nepal Army in Waziristhan War Royal Nepal Army in Afghan War –1919 Royal Nepal Army in The Second World War Royal Nepal Army in Hyderbad Action - 1948 Domestic Operations Disarmament of the Khampas - 1974 In 1974, The Royal Nepalese Army (RNA) was mobilized to disarm the Tibetan Khampas who had been using Nepalese soil to engage gureilla war against the invading the Chinese forces. The Khampas had secretly created their base in Mustang (north-west Nepal) and were operating from there against China. The RNA, under immerse diplomatic presseure from China and the international community moved nine infantry units towards the Khampa post in Mustang and gave them an ultimatum to either disarm themselves and surrender or face consequences. The terms and conditions of their surrender was that they would be given Nepalese citizenship, land, and some money. The Khampa commander Wang Di agreed to surrender but eventually fled the camp. He was later killed in Doti, far-western Nepal by RNA forces while trying to loot a Nepal Police post. This was first time that the RNA was mobilized in such a large number domestically. Nepali Maoist Peoples War International Operations A Nepalese UN soldier. Nepal Army's long association with UN Peace Support Operations began with the deployment of five Military Observers in the Middle East, Lebanon (UNOGIL/ United Nations Observer Group in Lebanon) in 1958. And the first Nepalese contingent, Purano Gorakh battalion was deployed in Egypt in 1974. Nepal Army\'s participation in the UN peacekeeping operations spans a period of 50 years covering Nepal army involved UN Missions are 31, in which over sixty thousand six hundred and fifty two (61,094) Nepalese soldiers have served in support of UN peacekeeping endeavors. The Nepal Army has contributed outstanding Force Commanders, elite military contingent, impartial military observers and dedicated staff officers. Their devotion to duty and excellent performance has been widely acclaimed. Nepalese troops have taken part in some of the most difficult operations, and have suffered casualties in the service of the UN. Till now, No. of Nepalese Nepal Army's personnel lost lives in UN Peace keeping missions duty are 54 and 57 were disabled. Nepalese troops have won universal admiration for their professional excellence. Its most significant contribution has been of peace and stability in Africa. It has demonstrated its unique capacity of sustaining large troop commitments over prolonged periods. Presently, Nepal is ranked as the fourth largest troop contributing country (TCC) to the UN. Time and again, Nepal has risked the lives of its soldiers in peacekeeping efforts of the UN, not for any strategic gain, but in the service of an ideal. Missions A member of the Nepalese Quick Reactionary Force (QRF) stands ready with a variant of the Galil assault rifle. United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), UNOSOMII the UN Protective Force (UNPROFOR), UN Operational Mission Somalia II, UNMIH the United Nations Mission in Haiti. UNAMSIL - Currently, Nepal is sending an 800-man battalion to serve in the peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL). UNMIS - The Nepalese Army has sent a protection company , comprising of 200 personnel in United Nations Mission In Sudan. RCHQ - The RCHQ, KASSALA is also manned by the Nepalese Staffs. U.S./Nepal military relations The U.S.-Nepali military relationship focuses on support for democratic institutions, civilian control of the military, and the professional military ethic to include respect for human rights. Both countries have had extensive contact over the years. Nepali Army units and Nepalese Army Air Service units have served with distinction alongside American forces in places such as Haiti, Iraq, and Somalia. U.S.-Nepali military engagement continues today through IMET, Enhanced International Peacekeeping Capabilities (EIPC), and various conferences and seminars. The U.S. military sends many Nepalese Army officers to America to attend military schooling such as the Command and General Staff College and the U.S. Army War College. The IMET budget for FY2001 was $220,000. The EPIC program is an interagency program between the Department of Defense and the Department of State to increase the pool of international peacekeepers and to promote interoperability. Nepal received about $1.9 million in EPIC funding. Commander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC) coordinates military engagement with Nepal through the Office of Defense Cooperation (ODC). The ODC Nepal is located in the American Embassy, Kathmandu. Statistics Military branches: Nepalese Army (includes Nepalese Army Air Service),Armed Police Force Nepal Nepalese Police Force Military manpower - military age: 17 years of age Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 6,674,014 (2003 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 3,467,511 (2003 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 303,222 (2003 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $57.22 million (FY02) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.1% (FY02) Gurkhas Nepal is also notable for the Gurkhas. Significant sections of the British Army and Indian Army are recruited from this ethnic group. This arrangement comes from the days of the British East India Company's rule of India when Company troops tried to invade Nepal and were beaten back. Both sides were impressed with the other, and Gurkhas were recruited into the Company's forces. The Gurkhas remained loyal during the Indian Mutiny of 1858 and were kept on in the Indian Army thereafter. Upon Indian independence in 1947, some units went to British service and some to Indian service, with a Britain-India-Nepal Tripartite Agreement signed between the three nations. The Gurkhas are feared troops, and their signature weapon is the extremely effective kukri. Equipment Vehicles ManufacturerTypeNumberOriginsDetails Norinco WZ551B APC 100 similar to Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé Tata Motors LPTA 1615 TC (4x4) light truck 800 GAZ BTR-70 APC 135 / Daimler Ferret Armoured Car 40 Ordnance Factory Board Indian Mine Protected Vehicle/APC 240 based Alvis plc/BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa Casspir on Stallion MKIII truck chassis ZIL ZIL 131 100 Maruti Suzuki Maruti Gypsy jeep 220 Artillery ManufacturerTypeNumberOriginsDetails 94mm QF 3.7 inch AA gun 5 SPG-9 Rocket-propelled grenade system 100 Russia 25mm gun (Indian Field Gun) 100 75 mm Pack Howitzer 6 3.7 inch Mountain Howitzer 100 105 mm artillery pack 14 81 mm mortar 100 120 mm M43 mortar 1070 1000 delivered for free from India PKT 5000 Given free of charge from India Bren light machine gun 100 14.5 mm Type 56 AD Guns 30 40 mm L60 AD Guns 2 Aircraft This is a list of currently-active aircraft in use with the Nepalese Army Air Service: AircraftOriginTypeVersionIn serviceNotes Aérospatiale SA 316 Alouette III light utility helicopter 4 Upgraded Mil Mi-14 transport helicopter 4 Upgraded for "hot and high" conditions Antonov An-3 Transport aircraft 7 Mil Mi-24 Hind combat/light transport helicoptor 2 Refurbished and upgraded Mil Mi-4 utility helicopter 2 Tupolev Tu-204 Transport aircraft 2 Antonov An-24 Transport aircraft 3 Ilyushin Il-114 Transport aricraft 3 1 is a Chinese version named MA60 Tupolev Tu-334 Transport aircraft 1 Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil Light utility helicopter 2 Upgraded Eurocopter AS 332 Super Puma utility helicopter AS 332L 2 Streched civil version with uprated engines, lengthened fuselage, more cabin space, increased fuel capacity and airline like interior. Antonov An-140 transport aircraft 2 Indian license-produced HAL Dhruv Utility helicopter 4 Improved Aérospatiale Lama light utility helicopter 4 Indian license-produced SA 315B variant Mil Mi-17 Hip-H transport helicopter 5 2 delivered free of charge from UK and 3 bought by Nepal government; one of the MI-17 helicopters got damaged in April 2006 during clashes in Sarlahi District between security forces and the Maoist People's Liberation Army. It has been repaired. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/06/news/nepal.php Antonov An-28 STOL transport and patrol aircraft 22 2 are British version, 1 is Polish version Facilities In all Nepal there are 36 airfields that are able to support military operations. Flowing named based are paved and able to support in all time military operation. Tribhuvan Airport Kathmandu, Chandragadhi Airport Jhapa Biratnagar Airport Biratnagar Janakpur Airport Janakpur Simara Airport Bara Bharatpur Airport, Bharatpur Meghuli Airport, Bharatpur Pokhara Airport Pokhara Jomsom Airport Mustang Dang Airport Tribhuvannagar Nepalgunj Airport Nepalgunj Surkhet Airport Birendranagar Jumla Airport Jumla Dipayal Airport Doti Mahendranagar Airport Mahendranagar Dhangadhi Airport Army pilots training School The Nepal Army Air service has its flying and Helicopter Pilots training school since from 2004 within the 11no. Brigade, it is the only Helicopter Pilots training school in Nepal,(there is a fixed-wing pilot training school in Bharatpur, Nepal by private pilots training school) This school produces army air service pilots and civilian too. This school provide the MI-17, Lancers, and Ecureuil Helicopter flying training. References See also Nepal Armed Police Force Nepal Nepal Police Nepalese Army Air Service http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/upload/img_400/13C69.jpg External links Official website of the Nepal Army Official website of the Armed Police Force of Nepal | Nepalese_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized plane:1 tribhuvan:2 international:5 airport:17 kathmandu:5 military:31 nepal:64 basically:1 consist:1 arm:3 nepalese:47 force:19 history:5 unification:6 campaign:4 turning:1 point:4 army:58 since:4 possible:1 without:1 strong:2 management:1 armed:3 exceptional:2 apart:1 standard:1 malla:2 era:1 temple:1 organize:1 gorkha:3 technician:1 expert:1 bring:1 abroad:1 manufacture:1 war:15 material:1 gorkhali:3 troop:19 capture:9 nuwakot:1 neighbouring:1 principality:1 kantipur:1 year:5 come:4 know:3 royal:18 gallantry:1 sincerity:1 simplicity:1 impress:1 even:1 enemy:6 much:1 british:8 east:5 india:9 company:9 start:5 recruit:4 fight:2 rna:6 till:2 time:5 still:5 colloquially:1 take:4 call:2 new:5 soldier:6 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2,015 | Boiling_point | The boiling point of an element or a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid. Section 17.43, page 321 Section 27, page 15 A liquid in a vacuum environment has a lower boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid in a high pressure environment has a higher boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point of liquids varies with and depends upon the surrounding environmental pressure. The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. General Chemistry Glossary Purdue University website page Section 71, page 224 At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form bubbles inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point is now (as of 1982) defined by IUPAC as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar. Notation for States and Processes, Significance of the Word Standard in Chemical Thermodynamics, and Remarks on Commonly Tabulated Forms of Thermodynamic Functions See page 1274 The heat of vaporization is the amount of energy required to convert or vaporize a saturated liquid (i.e., a liquid at its boiling point) into a vapor. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the vapor/liquid surface escape into the vapor phase. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid. Saturation temperature and pressure A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a saturated vapor contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing). Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Usually, boiling points are published with respect to atmospheric pressure (101.325 kilopascals or 1 atm). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point. If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature is known, the normal boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation thus: where: = the normal boiling point, K = the ideal gas constant, 8.314 J · K-1 · mol-1= is the vapor pressure at a given temperature, atm= the heat of vaporization of the liquid, J/mol= the given temperature, K= the natural logarithm to the base e Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased so is saturation temperature. If the temperature in a system remains constant (an isothermal system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased. The boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F) at standard pressure. On top of Mount Everest the pressure is about 260 mbar (26.39 kPa) so the boiling point of water is 69 °C. (156.2 °F). For purists, the normal boiling point of water is 99.97 degrees Celsius at a pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa). Until 1982 this was also the standard boiling point of water, but the IUPAC now recommends a standard pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa). At this slightly reduced pressure, the standard boiling point of water is 99.61 degrees Celsius. Relation between the normal boiling point and the vapor pressure of liquids A typical vapor pressure chart for various liquids The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid. The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids. As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points. For example, at any given temperature, propane has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point(-42.1 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of propane (the purple line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure. In terms of intermolecular interactions, the boiling point represents the point at which the liquid molecules possess enough thermal energy to overcome the various intermolecular attractions binding the molecules as liquid (eg. dipole-dipole attraction, instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attractions, and hydrogen bonds) and therefore incur a phase change into the next phase (gas). Therefore the boiling point of a liquid is also an indicator of the strength of weak attractive forces between the liquid's molecules. Properties of the elements The element with the lowest boiling point is helium. Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure. Due to the experimental difficulty of precisely measuring extreme temperatures without bias, there is some discrepancy in the literature as to whether tungsten or rhenium has the higher boiling point. See also Boiling delay Boiling-point elevation Critical temperature Joback method (Estimation of normal boiling points from molecular structure) External links References | Boiling_point |@lemmatized boil:18 point:43 element:3 substance:1 temperature:25 vapor:27 pressure:50 liquid:41 equal:3 environmental:3 surround:3 section:3 page:5 vacuum:1 environment:2 low:7 boiling:27 atmospheric:9 high:7 word:2 varies:1 depend:1 upon:1 normal:9 also:6 call:1 special:1 case:1 defined:1 sea:1 level:1 atmosphere:2 general:1 chemistry:1 glossary:1 purdue:1 university:1 website:1 become:2 sufficient:1 overcome:2 lift:1 form:2 bubble:2 inside:1 bulk:1 standard:7 define:1 iupac:2 occurs:1 bar:2 notation:1 state:1 process:3 significance:1 chemical:1 thermodynamics:1 remark:1 commonly:1 tabulate:1 thermodynamic:1 function:1 see:3 heat:4 vaporization:3 amount:1 energy:8 require:1 convert:1 vaporize:1 saturated:3 e:4 may:1 change:2 evaporation:2 surface:2 phenomenon:1 molecule:4 locate:1 near:1 escape:2 phase:10 hand:1 anywhere:1 result:2 formation:1 within:1 saturation:14 contain:1 much:2 thermal:7 without:3 conversely:1 contains:1 little:1 condense:3 mean:1 corresponding:2 say:1 saturate:1 addition:1 transition:1 system:5 remain:2 constant:3 isobaric:1 begin:2 remove:1 similarly:2 additional:1 apply:1 corresponds:1 thus:2 dependent:1 usually:1 publish:1 respect:1 kilopascals:1 atm:4 elevation:2 increase:4 increased:1 critical:3 gas:3 property:2 identical:1 cannot:2 beyond:1 likewise:1 decrease:2 decreasing:1 triple:2 reach:1 reduce:1 certain:1 know:1 calculate:1 use:1 clausius:1 clapeyron:1 equation:1 k:4 ideal:1 j:2 mol:2 give:4 natural:1 logarithm:1 base:1 direct:1 relationship:1 isothermal:1 tend:1 flash:1 water:5 c:3 f:2 top:1 mount:1 everest:1 mbar:1 kpa:3 purist:1 degree:2 celsius:2 recommend:1 slightly:1 reduced:1 relation:1 typical:1 chart:4 various:2 right:1 graph:1 versus:1 variety:1 example:1 propane:2 curve:1 purple:1 line:2 intersect:1 horizontal:1 one:1 absolute:1 term:1 intermolecular:2 interaction:1 represent:1 molecules:1 possess:1 enough:1 attraction:3 bind:1 eg:1 dipole:4 instantaneous:1 induce:1 hydrogen:1 bond:1 therefore:2 incur:1 next:1 indicator:1 strength:1 weak:1 attractive:1 force:1 helium:1 rhenium:2 tungsten:2 exceed:1 due:1 experimental:1 difficulty:1 precisely:1 measure:1 extreme:1 bias:1 discrepancy:1 literature:1 whether:1 delay:1 joback:1 method:1 estimation:1 molecular:1 structure:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram vapor_pressure:15 boiling_point:26 atmospheric_pressure:8 heat_vaporization:3 vapor_liquid:2 mount_everest:1 degree_celsius:2 intermolecular_interaction:1 dipole_dipole:1 instantaneous_dipole:1 hydrogen_bond:1 external_link:1 |
2,016 | Blue_Streak_(missile) | The Blue Streak missile was a British ballistic missile designed in 1955. The ballistic missile programme was cancelled in 1960 but the rocket was used as the first-stage of the European satellite launcher Europa. Tested at Woomera test range, Australia, the Blue Streak project was finally cancelled in 1972. Background Post-war Britain's nuclear weapons armament was initially based on free-fall bombs delivered by the V bomber force. It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a credible threat a ballistic missile was essential. There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so that Britain could remain a major post-war power. The use of an American missile would have appeared to hand control to the United States. In April 1954 the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles. The United States would develop an Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) of 5,000 nautical mile (9,300 km) range, while the United Kingdom with United States support would develop a Medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) of 2,000 nautical mile (3,700 km) range. The proposal was accepted as part of the Wilson-Sandys Agreement of August 1954 which provided for collaboration, exchange of information and mutual planning of development programmes. The decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US. Initial requirements for the booster were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough with input on the rocket engine design from the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott. De Havilland won the contract to build the missile, and it was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled Rocketdyne S3D engine, developed by Rolls-Royce, called RZ2. Two variants of this engine were developed: the first provided a static thrust of and the second (intended for the three stage satellite launch vehicle) . The engines were unique at that time in that they could be vectored by seven degrees in flight and could therefore be used to guide the vehicle. This configuration, however, put considerable pressure on the autopilot which had to cope with the problem of a vehicle whose weight was diminishing rapidly and that was steered by large engines whose thrust remained more or less constant. The vibration was also a problem, particularly at engine cut-off, and the later development of the autopilot for the satellite launcher was, in itself, a considerable achievement. Subcontractors included the Sperry Gyroscope Company who produced the guidance system whilst the warhead itself was designed by the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. Doubts arose as the cost escalated from the first tentative figure of £50m submitted to the Treasury in early 1955, to £300m in late 1959. The programme was crawling along when compared with the speed of development in the US and the Soviet Union. Cancellation Eventually the project was cancelled because of its lack of credibility as a deterrent. Some considered the cancellation of Blue Streak to be not only a blow to British military-industrial efforts, but also to Commonwealth ally Australia, which had its own vested interest in the project. The missiles used liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants. Whilst the vehicle could be left fully laden with 20+ tonnes of kerosene, the 60 tonnes of liquid oxygen had to be loaded immediately before launch or icing became a problem. Due to this, fuelling the rocket took 15 minutes, which would have made it useless as a rapid response to an attack. The missile was vulnerable to a pre-emptive attack, launched without warning or in the absence of any heightening of tension sufficient to warrant readying the missile, if such a circumstance were ever likely. To protect the missiles against a pre-emptive strike while being fuelled, the idea of siting the missiles in underground silos was developed. These would have been designed to withstand a one megaton blast at a distance of half a mile (800 m) and were a British innovation, subsequently exported to the US. However, finding sites for these silos proved extremely difficult and RAF Spadeadam in Cumbria was the only site where construction was undertaken. The best sites for silo construction were the more stable rock strata in parts of southern England, but the construction of many underground silos in the countryside carried enormous economic, social, and political cost. As no site in Britain provided enough space for test flights, a test site was established at Woomera, South Australia. Whitehall opposition to the project grew, and it was eventually cancelled on the ostensible grounds that it would be too vulnerable to a first-strike attack. Lord Mountbatten had spent considerable effort arguing that the project should be cancelled at once in favour of his Navy being armed with nuclear weapons, capable of pre-emptive strike. Around £84m had been spent. The British government transferred its hopes to the Anglo-American Skybolt missile, before the project's cancellation by the USA as its ICBM program reached maturity. The British instead purchased the Polaris system from the Americans, carried in British-built submarines. Civilian Programme After the cancellation as a military project, there was reluctance to cancel the project because of the huge cost incurred. Blue Streak would have become the first stage of a projected all British satellite launcher known as "Black Prince": the second stage was derived from the Black Knight test vehicle, and the orbital injection stage was a small hydrogen peroxide/kerosene motor. This launcher never progressed beyond the design stage. This also proved too expensive, and the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) was set up. This used Blue Streak as the first stage, with French and German second and third stages. The Blue Streak first stage was successfully tested three times at the Woomera test range in Australia as part of the ELDO programme. Although a total of eight launches were made of the multi-stage vehicle, the French and German components proved unreliable leading to the project's final cancellation, and the end of Blue Streak. The final launch was made at the French site of Kourou in French Guiana. The full launch history of Blue Streak is as follows, (Taken from the "Europa SLV Historiograph", produced by HSD Ltd): Flight No. Second stage (Corali) Third Stage (Astris) Payload Launch date Mission Notes F1 n/a n/a n/a 5 June 1964 Successful flight F2 n/a n/a n/a 21 October 1964 Successful flight F3 n/a n/a n/a 23 March 1965 Successful flight F4 untested untested untested 24 May 1966 Successful flight F5 untested untested untested 15 November 1966 Successful flight F6.1 failed untested untested 4 June 1967 2nd stage failed to ignite F6.2 failed failed failed 6 December 1967 2nd stage failed to separate F7 successful failed failed 29 November 1968 3rd stage failure after separation F8 successful failed failed 3 July 1969 3rd stage failure after separation F9 successful successful failed 24 June 1970 Fairing failed to separate F11 successful successful failed 5 November 1970 Guidance system failed F12 untested untested untested n/a Delivered to French Guiana F13 untested untested untested n/a Delivered to Scottish Aeronautical Museum, Edinburgh F14 untested untested untested n/a Delivered to Deutsches Museum, Munich F15 untested untested untested n/a Delivered to Euro Space Center, Redu, Belgium F16 n/a n/a n/a n/a Not finally assembled F17 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed F18 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed Related projects A range of proposals were made between 1957 and 1972 for a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 117. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 , however, none of these were ever built in full and today only exist in design. The Blue Streak was eventually tested as the first stage of the Europa rocket, designed by the European Launcher Development Organisation, Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 153. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 although this too ended in failure due to lack of funds, despite the fact that Blue Streak itself worked almost perfectly. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 151. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 Most, although not all, designs were based on using Blue Streak as a first stage, and a usually modified Black Knight as a second stage. http://members.aol.com/nicholashl/ukspace/hill.pdf Royal Aircraft Establishment proposals 1957 proposal In 1957 a carrier rocket based on a simple combination of Blue Streak and Black Knight was proposed by Desmond King Hele and Doreen Gilmour of the Royal Aircraft Establishment. This was at a time before either rocket had even been tested. Payloads were estimated to be around 1,034 kg (2,280 lb) to a 370 km (200 nmi) orbit and 960 kg (2,117 lb) to a 740 km (400 nmi) orbit. However, the design was considered to be inefficient and difficult because of the large differences in the diameters of the 3 metre (10 foot) wide Blue Streak and the metre-wide (3 feet) Black Knight. Fitting satellites into a three foot payload fairing could also have been a challenge. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 118. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 Nevertheless, these difficulties were also encountered with successful American rockets including the Thor and Atlas. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 119. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 1972 proposal In 1972, RAE suggested using Blue Streak as the first stage of a two-stage to orbit rocket, with an American Centaur upper stage. The Centaur second stage would have either been built in the UK under licence or imported directly from the USA. Both the Centaur and Blue Streak had proved to be very reliable up to this point, and since they were both already designed development costs would have been low. Furthermore, it had a payload of 870-920 kg to a geosynchronous orbit with, and 650-700 kg without the use of additional booster rockets. centaur De Havilland/British Interplanetary Society proposal In 1959 de Havilland suggested solving the problem of the Blue Streak/Black Knight geometry by compressing the 10 by 1 metre (30 by 3 foot) Black Knight into a 10 foot diameter sphere. Although this seemed logical, the development costs proved to be too high for the limited budget of the programme. Saunders Roe proposals Black Prince In 1959, a year before the cancellation of the Blue Streak as a missile, the government requested that the RAE and Saunders Roe design a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak and Black Knight. This design used Blue Streak as a first stage and a 137 centimetre (54 inch) second stage based on the Black Knight. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 124. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 Several different third stages would be available, depending on the required payload and orbit. Examples of orbits suggested by Saunders Roe and the RAE were a 556 km (300 nmi) orbit for 'experiments in stellar UV spectroscopy', a 556-1,296 km (300-700 nmi) orbit for 'enabling investigations of the Earth's radiation belts,' and a 556-185,200 km (300-100,000 nmi) orbit for a 'Space probe.' Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 125. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 There were some problems with the design, however. The relative power of the rocket reduced with altitude. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 127. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 The solution requested by the government and provided by Saunders Roe was to use a high-energy cryogenic upper stage which would increase the payload to 408 kg (900 lb) to a 9,260 km (5,000 nmi) orbit, and 272 kg (600 lb) to a 16,670 km (9,000 nmi) orbit. The cost of developing the upper stage stage was estimated to be £5-7 million. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 130. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 It was planned that Black Prince would be a Commonwealth project, however since the government of John Diefenbaker in Canada was already spending more money than publicly acknowledged on Alouette and Australia was not interested in the project, these two countries were unwilling to contribute. South Africa was no longer a member of the Commonwealth. New Zealand was only likely to make "modest" contributions. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 126. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 France, however showed an interest, although they were suspected of trying to gain technical information for their own missile programmes. Despite this, Saunders Roe continued to design new configurations even after the formal cancellation of the Black Prince programme. SLAVE Saunders Roe later proposed a design where Blue Streak would form the first stage, the second stage would be a slightly stretched version of the second stage used on the Black Arrow rocket, and the third stage would be a Waxwing solid motor, which was also used on Black Arrow. It would have been capable of putting around 1360 kg (3000 lb) into low Earth orbit and a few hundred kilograms into a geostationary orbit. It is thought that Saunders Roe were considering communications satellites as a possible payload for this rocket, since they designed a pair of solid motors under the payload that would be able to accurately place a satellite in the correct geostationary orbit. They believed such a rocket would be a success since access to both Russian and American rockets was restricted. Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 123. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 Hill, C N: "A Vertical Empire.", page 220. Imperial College Press, 2001 ISBN 1-86094-267-9 The proposal was known as Satellite LAunch VEhicle, or SLAVE. SpaceUK - The Alternative Black Arrow Blue Streak today Following the cancellation of the Blue Streak project some of the remaining rockets were preserved at: The National Space Centre in Leicester, England. The Deutsches Museum at Oberschleißheim near Munich The National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, Scotland. The Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium. An RZ2 engine is on display at Armagh Planetarium, Northern Ireland. Footage from the Blue Streak launch was briefly incorporated into The Prisoner's final episode, "Fall Out". A part of the Blue Streak rocket launched on June 5, 1964 from Woomera, Australia, found 50 km SE of Woomera in 1980 is on display at Giles Weather Station. Another piece was located in 2006 but its exact location has been kept secret by the finders. The titanium structure of a German third stage was, for some time, sited on the edge of a gravel pit in Gloucestershire. See also List of missiles Rainbow Codes Black Arrow Black Knight Skylark Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom Martu External links http://www.spaceuk.org/bstreak/bstreak.htm http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluestreak.htm http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/6133/bluestreak.html Blue Streak including newsreel footage RAF Spadeadam National Museum of Scotland description of the Museum of Flight exhibit Free papermodel of a blue streak missile British Public information film on the Blue Streak at the National Archives (15 minutes Quicktime and Windows Media formats) BBC Radio 4 – "The Archive Hour – Britain's Space Race". 11 August 2007. A cutaway drawing of the Blue Streak References | Blue_Streak_(missile) |@lemmatized blue:29 streak:29 missile:20 british:9 ballistic:6 design:17 programme:9 cancel:6 rocket:19 use:11 first:12 stage:34 european:3 satellite:8 launcher:6 europa:3 test:9 woomera:5 range:6 australia:6 project:15 finally:2 background:1 post:2 war:2 britain:5 nuclear:3 weapon:4 armament:1 initially:1 base:6 free:2 fall:2 bomb:1 deliver:5 v:1 bomber:1 force:1 soon:1 become:3 clear:1 want:1 credible:1 threat:1 essential:1 political:2 need:1 independent:1 deterrent:2 could:6 remain:3 major:1 power:3 american:7 would:18 appear:1 hand:1 control:1 united:5 state:3 april:1 propose:3 joint:1 development:9 develop:7 intercontinental:1 icbm:2 nautical:2 mile:3 km:10 kingdom:2 support:1 medium:2 mrbm:1 proposal:8 accept:1 part:6 wilson:1 sandys:1 agreement:1 august:2 provide:4 collaboration:1 exchange:1 information:3 mutual:1 planning:1 decision:1 influence:1 learn:1 u:4 initial:1 requirement:1 booster:2 make:6 royal:3 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2,017 | E_(mathematical_constant) | List of numbers – Irrational numbers ζ(3) – √2 – √3 – √5 – φ – α – e – – δ The area under the graph y = 1/x is equal to 1 over the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ e. e is the unique number a, such that the value of the derivative (the slope of the tangent line) of the exponential function f (x) = ax (blue curve) at the point x = 0 is exactly 1. For comparison, functions 2x (dotted curve) and 4x (dashed curve) are shown; they are not tangent to the line of slope 1 (red). The mathematical constant e is the unique real number such that the area above the x-axis and below the curve y=1/x for 1 ≤ x ≤ e is exactly 1. It turns out that, consequently, the area for 1 ≤ x ≤ et is t. Also, the function ex has the same value as the slope of the tangent line, for all values of x. Keisler, H.J. Derivatives of Exponential Functions and the Number e More generally, the only functions equal to their own derivatives are of the form Cex, where C is a constant. Keisler, H.J. General Solution of First Order Differential Equation The function ex so defined is called the exponential function, and its inverse is the natural logarithm, or logarithm to base e. The number e is also commonly defined as the base of the natural logarithm (using an integral to define the latter), as the limit of a certain sequence, or as the sum of a certain series (see alternative characterizations below). The number e is one of the most important numbers in mathematics, alongside the additive and multiplicative identities 0 and 1, the constant , and the imaginary unit i. (All five of these constants together comprise Euler's identity.) The number e is sometimes called Euler's number after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler. (e is not to be confused with γ – the Euler–Mascheroni constant, sometimes called simply Euler's constant.) The number e is irrational; it is not a ratio of integers (root of a linear polynomial). Furthermore, it is transcendental; it is not a root of any polynomial with integer coefficients. The numerical value of e truncated to 20 decimal places is . History The first references to the constant were published in 1618 in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier. O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson, E.F.; The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive: "The number e"; University of St Andrews Scotland (2001) However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of natural logarithms calculated from the constant. It is assumed that the table was written by William Oughtred. The "discovery" of the constant itself is credited to Jacob Bernoulli, who attempted to find the value of the following expression (which is in fact e): The first known use of the constant, represented by the letter b, was in correspondence from Gottfried Leibniz to Christiaan Huygens in 1690 and 1691. Leonhard Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in 1727, and the first use of e in a publication was Euler's Mechanica (1736). While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c, e was more common and eventually became the standard. The exact reasons for the use of the letter e are unknown, but it may be because it is the first letter of the word exponential. Another possibility is that Euler used it because it was the first vowel after a, which he was already using for another number, but his reason for using vowels is unknown. Applications The compound-interest problem Jacob Bernoulli discovered this constant by studying a question about compound interest. One example is an account that starts with $1.00 and pays 100% interest per year. If the interest is credited once, at the end of the year, the value is $2.00; but if the interest is computed and added twice in the year, the $1 is multiplied by 1.5 twice, yielding $1.00×1.5² = $2.25. Compounding quarterly yields $1.00×1.254 = $2.4414…, and compounding monthly yields $1.00×(1.0833…)12 = $2.613035…. Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit (the force of interest) for more and smaller compounding intervals. Compounding weekly yields $2.692597…, while compounding daily yields $2.714567…, just two cents more. Using n as the number of compounding intervals, with interest of 1/n in each interval, the limit for large n is the number that came to be known as e; with continuous compounding, the account value will reach $2.7182818…. More generally, an account that starts at $1, and yields (1+R) dollars at simple interest, will yield eR dollars with continuous compounding. Bernoulli trials The number e itself also has applications to probability theory, where it arises in a way not obviously related to exponential growth. Suppose that a gambler plays a slot machine that pays out with a probability of one in n and plays it n times. Then, for large n (such as a million) the probability that the gambler will win nothing at all is (approximately) 1⁄e. This is an example of a Bernoulli trials process. Each time the gambler plays the slots, there is a one in one million chance of winning. Playing one million times is modelled by the binomial distribution, which is closely related to the binomial theorem. The probability of winning k times out of a million trials is; In particular, the probability of winning zero times (k=0) is This is very close to the following limit for 1⁄e: Derangements Another application of e, also discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with Pierre Raymond de Montmort is in the problem of derangements, also known as the hat check problem. Grinstead, C.M. and Snell, J.L. Introduction to probability theory (published online under the GFDL), p. 85. Here n guests are invited to a party, and at the door each guest checks his hat with the butler who then places them into labeled boxes. But the butler does not know the name of the guests, and so must put them into boxes selected at random. The problem of de Montmort is: what is the probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box. The answer is: As the number n of guests tends to infinity, pn approaches 1⁄e. Furthermore, the number of ways the hats can be placed into the boxes so that none of the hats is in the right box is exactly n!⁄e, rounded to the nearest integer. Knuth (1997) The Art of Computer Programming Volume I, Addison-Wesley, p. 183. Asymptotics The number e occurs naturally in connection with many problems involving asymptotics. A prominent example is Stirling's formula for the asymptotics of the factorial function, in which both the numbers e and enter: A particular consequence of this is . e in calculus The natural log at e, ln(e), is equal to 1 The principal motivation for introducing the number e, particularly in calculus, is to perform differential and integral calculus with exponential functions and logarithms. See, for instance, Kline, M. (1998) Calculus: An intuitive and physical approach, Dover, section 12.3 "The Derived Functions of Logarithmic Functions." A general exponential function y=ax has derivative given as the limit: The limit on the right-hand side is independent of the variable x: it depends only on the base a. When the base is e, this limit is equal to one, and so e is symbolically defined by the equation: Consequently, the exponential function with base e is particularly suited to doing calculus. Choosing e, as opposed to some other number, as the base of the exponential function makes calculations involving the derivative much simpler. Another motivation comes from considering the base-a logarithm. This is the approach taken by Klein (1998). Considering the definition of the derivative of logax as the limit: where the substitution u = h/x was made in the last step. The last limit appearing in this calculation is again an undetermined limit which depends only on the base a, and if that base is e, the limit is one. So symbolically, The logarithm in this special base is called the natural logarithm (often represented as "ln"), and it also behaves well under differentiation since there is no undetermined limit to carry through the calculations. There are thus two ways in which to select a special number a=e. One way is to set the derivative of the exponential function ax to ax. The other way is to set the derivative of the base a logarithm to 1/x. In each case, one arrives at a convenient choice of base for doing calculus. In fact, these two bases are actually the same, the number e. Alternative characterizations Other characterizations of e are also possible: one is as the limit of a sequence, another is as the sum of an infinite series, and still others rely on integral calculus. So far, the following two (equivalent) properties have been introduced: 1. The number e is the unique positive real number such that 2. The number e is the unique positive real number such that The following three characterizations can be proven equivalent: 3. The number e is the limit Similarly: 4. The number e is the sum of the infinite series where n! is the factorial of n. 5. The number e is the unique positive real number such that . 6. The expression below reaches a maximum when : . 7. The expression below reaches a minimum when : . Properties Calculus As in the motivation, the exponential function f(x) = ex is important in part because it is the unique nontrivial function (up to multiplication by a constant) which is its own derivative and therefore its own antiderivative as well: Exponential-like functions The number x = e is where the global maximum occurs for the function: More generally, x = n√e is where the global maximum occurs for the function The infinite tetration converges only if e−e ≤ x ≤ e1/e, due to a theorem of Leonhard Euler. Number theory The real number e is irrational (see proof that e is irrational), and furthermore is transcendental (Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem). It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose (compare with Liouville number); the proof was given by Charles Hermite in 1873. It is conjectured to be normal. Complex numbers The exponential function ex may be written as a Taylor series Because this series keeps many important properties for ex even when x is complex, it is commonly used to extend the definition of ex to the complex numbers. This, with the Taylor series for sin and cos x, allows one to derive Euler's formula: which holds for all x. The special case with x = is known as Euler's identity: Consequently, from which it follows that, in the principal branch of the logarithm, Furthermore, using the laws for exponentiation, which is de Moivre's formula. The case, is commonly referred to as Cis(x). Differential equations The general function is the solution to the differential equation: Representations The number e can be represented as a real number in a variety of ways: as an infinite series, an infinite product, a continued fraction, or a limit of a sequence. The chief among these representations, particularly in introductory calculus courses is the limit given above, as well as the series given by evaluating the above power series for ex at x=1. Still other less common representations are also available. For instance, e can be represented as an infinite simple continued fraction: Or, in a more compact form : which can be written more harmoniously by allowing zero: Hofstadter, D. R., "Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought" Basic Books (1995) Many other series, sequence, continued fraction, and infinite product representations of e have also been developed. Stochastic representations In addition to the deterministic analytical expressions for representation of e, as described above, there are some stochastic protocols for estimation of e. In one such protocol, random samples of size n from the uniform distribution on (0, 1) are used to approximate e. If then the expectation of U is e: . Russell, K. G. (1991) Estimating the Value of e by Simulation The American Statistician, Vol. 45, No. 1. (Feb., 1991), pp. 66-68. Dinov, ID (2007) Estimating e using SOCR simulation, SOCR Hands-on Activities (retrieved December 26, 2007). Thus sample averages of U variables will approximate e. Known digits The number of known digits of e has increased dramatically during the last decades. This is due both to the increase of performance of computers as well as to algorithmic improvements. Sebah, P. and Gourdon, X.; The constant e and its computation Gourdon, X.; Reported large computations with PiFast + Number of known decimal digits of e Date Decimal digits Computation performed by 1748 18 Leonhard Euler New Scientist 21st July 2007 p.40 1853 137 William Shanks 1871 205 William Shanks 1884 346 J. Marcus Boorman 1946 808 ? 1949 2,010 John von Neumann (on the ENIAC) 1961 100,265 Daniel Shanks & John Wrench 1981 116,000 Stephen Gary Wozniak (on the Apple II Byte Magazine Vol 6, Issue 6 (June 1981) p.392) "The Impossible Dream: Computing e to 116,000 places with a Personal Computer" ) 1994 10,000,000 Robert Nemiroff & Jerry Bonnell 1997 May 18,199,978 Patrick Demichel 1997 August 20,000,000 Birger Seifert 1997 September 50,000,817 Patrick Demichel 1999 February 200,000,579 Sebastian Wedeniwski 1999 October 869,894,101 Sebastian Wedeniwski 1999 November 21 1,250,000,000 Xavier Gourdon 2000 July 10 2,147,483,648 Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon 2000 July 16 3,221,225,472 Colin Martin & Xavier Gourdon 2000 August 2 6,442,450,944 Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon 2000 August 16 12,884,901,000 Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon 2003 August 21 25,100,000,000 Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon 2003 September 18 50,100,000,000 Shigeru Kondo & Xavier Gourdon 2007 April 27 100,000,000,000 Shigeru Kondo & Steve Pagliarulo English Version of PI WORLD 2009 May 6 200,000,000,000 Shigeru Kondo & Steve Pagliarulo English Version of PI WORLD In computer culture In contemporary internet culture, individuals and organizations frequently pay homage to the number e. For example, in the IPO filing for Google, in 2004, rather than a typical round-number amount of money, the company announced its intention to raise $2,718,281,828, which is e billion dollars to the nearest dollar. Google was also responsible for a mysterious billboard First 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of e - Brain Tags that appeared in the heart of Silicon Valley, and later in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Austin, Texas. It read {first 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of e}.com (now defunct). Solving this problem and visiting the advertised web site led to an even more difficult problem to solve, which in turn leads to Google Labs where the visitor is invited to submit a resume. The first 10-digit prime in e is 7427466391, which starts as late as at the 99th digit. (A random stream of digits has a 98.4% chance of starting a 10-digit prime sooner.) In another instance, the computer scientist Donald Knuth let the version numbers of his program METAFONT approach e. The versions are 2, 2.7, 2.71, 2.718, and so forth. Notes References Maor, Eli; e: The Story of a Number, ISBN 0-691-05854-7 External links The number e to 1 million places and 2 and 5 million places Earliest Uses of Symbols for Constants e the EXPONENTIAL - the Magic Number of GROWTH - Keith Tognetti, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia An Intuitive Guide To Exponential Functions & e at BetterExplained.com "The story of e", by Robin Wilson at Gresham College, 28 February 2007 (available for audio and video download) Class Library for Numbers (part of the GiNaC distribution) includes example code for computing e to arbitrary precision. The SOCR resource provides a hands-on activity and an interactive Java applet (Uniform E-Estimate Experiment) for computing e using a simulation based on uniform distribution. | E_(mathematical_constant) |@lemmatized list:2 number:50 irrational:4 ζ:1 φ:1 α:1 e:81 δ:1 area:3 graph:1 x:24 equal:4 interval:4 unique:6 value:8 derivative:9 slope:3 tangent:3 line:3 exponential:15 function:23 f:3 ax:4 blue:1 curve:4 point:1 exactly:3 comparison:1 dot:1 dash:1 show:1 red:1 mathematical:1 constant:16 real:6 axis:1 turn:2 consequently:3 et:1 also:10 ex:7 keisler:2 h:3 j:6 generally:3 form:2 cex:1 c:3 general:3 solution:2 first:10 order:1 differential:4 equation:4 define:4 call:4 inverse:1 natural:5 logarithm:11 base:14 commonly:3 use:15 integral:3 latter:1 limit:16 certain:2 sequence:5 sum:3 series:10 see:3 alternative:2 characterization:4 one:13 important:3 mathematics:2 alongside:1 additive:1 multiplicative:1 identity:3 imaginary:1 unit:1 five:1 together:1 comprise:1 euler:12 sometimes:2 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2,018 | KHAD | Khadamat-e Etela'at-e Dawlati (Persian 'خدمات اطلاعات دولتی') (English: "State Information Agency"), almost always known by its acronym KHAD (or KhAD), is the main security agency and intelligence agency of Afghanistan, and also served as the secret police during the Soviet occupation. Successor to AGSA and KAM, KHAD was nominally part of the Afghan state, but it was firmly under the control of the Soviet KGB until 1989. In January 1986, its status was upgraded, and it was thereafter officially known as the "Ministry of State Security"(Wizarat-i Amaniyyat-i Dawlati, or WAD). After the December 1979 Soviet invasion, KAM was renamed and came under the control of the KGB. This was an agency specifically created for the suppression of the Democratic Republic's internal opponents. However, KHAD has continued to operate after the fall of the Soviet backed government in 1992 and acted as the intelligence arm of the United Front or "Northern Alliance" during the Civil war in Afghanistan (1996–2001). Directors of KHAD and its predecessors No. Organization Director Took office Left office Political party 01 AGSA Assadullah Sarwari April 1978 September 1979 PDPA - Khalq 02 KAM Asadullah Amin September 1979 December 1979 PDPA - Khalq 03 KhAD Mohammad Najibullah January 1980 May 1986 PDPA - Parcham 04 KhAD - WAD Ghulam Faruq Yakubi May 1986 April 1992 PDPA - Parcham 05 KhAD Mohammed Fahim April 1992 December 2004 United Front Organization Little is known of its internal organization, but KHAD's system of informers and operatives extended into virtually every aspect of Afghan life, especially in the government-controlled urban areas. Aside from its secret police work, KHAD supervised ideological education at schools and colleges, ran a special school for war orphans, and recruited young men for the militia. Its importance to Moscow was reflected in the fact that it was chiefly responsible for the training of a new generation of Afghans who could be loyal to the Soviet Union. Another important area was work with tribes and ethnic minorities. KHAD collaborated with the Ministry of Nationalities and Tribal Affairs to foster support for the regime in the countryside. KHAD also directed its attention to Afghanistan's Hindu and Sikh religious minorities KHAD was also responsible for co-opting religious leaders. It funded an official body known as the Religious Affairs Directorate and recruited pro-regime ulama and mosque attendants to spy on worshipers. Some sources give 60 percent of the PDPA party membership as belonging to the armed forces, Sarandoy, or KHAD. Political factions KHAD also had a political role that was clearly unintended by the Soviets. It was initially headed by Mohammad Najibullah, until he became President of Afghanistan in 1986. Najibullah and other high officials were Parchamis. As head of the KHAD apparatus, Najibullah was also extremely powerful. Consequently, KHAD evolved into a Parchami stronghold, equally zealous in the suppression of enemies of the revolution. Thus, KHAD was zealous in suppressing Khalqis in the government and in the armed forces. There was a bitter rivalry between Najibullah and Sayed Muhammad Gulabzoi. Gulabzoi, a Khalq sympathizer, was Minister of the Interior and commander of Sarandoy ("Defenders of the Revolution"), the national gendarmerie. Gulabzoi was one of the few prominent Khalqis remaining in office in a Parcham-dominated regime. In late 1985, Najibullah was promoted to be a secretary on the PDPA Central Committee; in this capacity he may be able to exercise party authority over all security organs, including those attached to the Khalq-dominated defense and interior ministries. It was assumed to be a reward for the efficiency and ruthlessness of the secret police, which was in sharp contrast to the performance of the poorly trained and demoralized armed forces. Involvement in the civil war In the mid-1980s, KHAD enjoyed a formidable measure of autonomy in relation to other Afghan state institutions. KHAD reportedly had some success in penetrating the leadership councils of several resistance groups, most of which were headquartered in Pakistan. By the mid-1980s KHAD had gained a fearsome reputation as the eyes, ears, and scourge of the regime. Its influence was pervasive and its methods lawless. KHAD's activities reached beyond the borders of Afghanistan to neighboring Pakistan and Iran. On January 29, 1981 its headquarters in Kabul were attacked and destroyed by mujahideen troops. After establishment of Karzai government in 2001, KHAD was reestablished and Gen. Arif of the Northern Alliance became its chief. KHAD was directly controlled by the defense minister Mohammed Fahim, who previously controlled it from 1992 until the Taliban took Kabul in 1996. There are some complains that KHAD was used as a tool against opponents by the Northern Alliance. Human rights abuses KHAD was also accused of human rights abuses in the mid-1980s. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 M. Hassan Kakar. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0520208935 KhAD as an Agency of Suppression These included the use of torture, the use of predetermined "show trials" to dispose of political prisoners, and widespread arbitrary arrest and detention. Secret trials and the execution of prisoners without trial were also common. It was especially active and aggressive in the urban centers, especially in Kabul. Organizations such as Amnesty International continued to publish detailed reports of KHAD's use of torture and of inhumane conditions in the country's prisons and jails. The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World By Christopher Andrew, Vasili Mitrokhin. Basic Books, 2005. ISBN 0465003117 p. 408 KHAD also operated eight detention centers in the capital, which were located at KHAD headquarters, at the Ministry of the Interior headquarters, and at a location known as the Central Interrogation Office. The most notorious of the Communist-run detention centers was Pul-e-Charkhi prison, where 27,000 political prisoners were murdered. Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan by Robert D. Kaplan. Vintage, 2001. ISBN 1400030250 p.115 Kabul's prison of death BBC, February 27, 2006 Recently mass graves of executed prisoners have been uncovered dating back to the Soviet era. In pictures: Afghan mass grave BBC, July 5, 2007 Notes | KHAD |@lemmatized khadamat:1 e:3 etela:1 dawlati:2 persian:1 خدمات:1 اطلاعات:1 دولتی:1 english:1 state:4 information:1 agency:5 almost:1 always:1 know:5 acronym:1 khad:30 main:1 security:3 intelligence:2 afghanistan:7 also:8 serve:1 secret:4 police:3 soviet:8 occupation:1 successor:1 agsa:2 kam:3 nominally:1 part:1 afghan:6 firmly:1 control:5 kgb:3 january:3 status:1 upgrade:1 thereafter:1 officially:1 ministry:4 wizarat:1 amaniyyat:1 wad:2 december:3 invasion:2 rename:1 come:1 specifically:1 create:1 suppression:3 democratic:1 republic:1 internal:2 opponent:2 however:1 continue:2 operate:2 fall:1 backed:1 government:4 act:1 arm:1 united:2 front:2 northern:3 alliance:3 civil:2 war:3 director:2 predecessor:1 organization:4 take:2 office:4 leave:1 political:5 party:3 assadullah:1 sarwari:1 april:3 september:2 pdpa:6 khalq:4 asadullah:1 amin:1 mohammad:2 najibullah:6 may:3 parcham:3 ghulam:1 faruq:1 yakubi:1 mohammed:2 fahim:2 little:1 system:1 informer:1 operative:1 extend:1 virtually:1 every:1 aspect:1 life:1 especially:3 urban:2 area:2 aside:1 work:2 supervise:1 ideological:1 education:1 school:2 college:1 run:2 special:1 orphan:1 recruit:2 young:1 men:1 militia:1 importance:1 moscow:1 reflect:1 fact:1 chiefly:1 responsible:2 training:1 new:1 generation:1 could:1 loyal:1 union:1 another:1 important:1 tribe:1 ethnic:1 minority:2 collaborate:1 nationality:1 tribal:1 affair:2 foster:1 support:1 regime:4 countryside:1 direct:1 attention:1 hindu:1 sikh:1 religious:3 co:1 opt:1 leader:1 fund:1 official:2 body:1 directorate:1 pro:1 ulama:1 mosque:1 attendant:1 spy:1 worshiper:1 source:1 give:1 percent:1 membership:1 belonging:1 armed:3 force:3 sarandoy:2 faction:1 role:1 clearly:1 unintended:1 initially:1 head:2 become:2 president:1 high:1 parchamis:1 apparatus:1 extremely:1 powerful:1 consequently:1 evolve:1 parchami:1 stronghold:1 equally:1 zealous:2 enemy:1 revolution:2 thus:1 suppress:1 khalqis:2 bitter:1 rivalry:1 say:1 muhammad:1 gulabzoi:3 sympathizer:1 minister:2 interior:3 commander:1 defender:1 national:1 gendarmerie:1 one:1 prominent:1 remain:1 dominate:2 late:1 promote:1 secretary:1 central:2 committee:1 capacity:1 able:1 exercise:1 authority:1 organ:1 include:2 attach:1 defense:2 assume:1 reward:1 efficiency:1 ruthlessness:1 sharp:1 contrast:1 performance:1 poorly:1 train:1 demoralize:1 involvement:1 mid:3 enjoy:1 formidable:1 measure:1 autonomy:1 relation:1 institution:1 reportedly:1 success:1 penetrate:1 leadership:1 council:1 several:1 resistance:1 group:1 headquarter:1 pakistan:3 gain:1 fearsome:1 reputation:1 eye:1 ear:1 scourge:1 influence:1 pervasive:1 method:1 lawless:1 activity:1 reach:1 beyond:1 border:1 neighbor:1 iran:1 headquarters:3 kabul:4 attack:1 destroy:1 mujahideen:1 troop:1 establishment:1 karzai:1 reestablish:1 gen:1 arif:1 chief:1 directly:1 previously:1 taliban:1 complains:1 use:4 tool:1 human:2 right:2 abuse:2 accuse:1 response:1 hassan:1 kakar:1 berkeley:1 university:1 california:1 press:1 isbn:3 torture:2 predetermined:1 show:1 trial:3 dispose:1 prisoner:4 widespread:1 arbitrary:1 arrest:1 detention:3 execution:1 without:1 common:1 active:1 aggressive:1 center:3 amnesty:1 international:1 publish:1 detailed:1 report:1 inhumane:1 condition:1 country:1 prison:3 jail:1 world:2 go:1 way:1 battle:1 third:1 christopher:1 andrew:1 vasili:1 mitrokhin:1 basic:1 book:1 p:2 eight:1 capital:1 locate:1 location:1 interrogation:1 notorious:1 communist:1 pul:1 charkhi:1 murder:1 soldier:1 god:1 islamic:1 warrior:1 robert:1 kaplan:1 vintage:1 death:1 bbc:2 february:1 recently:1 mass:2 graf:1 executed:1 uncover:1 date:1 back:1 era:1 picture:1 grave:1 july:1 note:1 |@bigram soviet_backed:1 mohammad_najibullah:2 soviet_union:1 hindu_sikh:1 bitter_rivalry:1 amnesty_international:1 andrew_vasili:1 vasili_mitrokhin:1 |
2,019 | Arianism | Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (ca. AD 250–336), a Christian priest, who was first ruled a heretic at the First Council of Nicea, later exonerated and then pronounced a heretic again after his death. Arius lived and taught in Alexandria, Egypt. The most controversial of his teachings dealt with the relationship between God the Father and the person of Jesus, saying that Jesus was not of one substance with the Father and that there had been a time before he existed. This teaching of Arius conflicts with other christological positions held by Church theologians (and subsequently maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and most Protestant Churches). The term "Arianism" is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded the Son of God, the Logos, as a created being (as in Arianism proper and Anomoeanism) or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created (as in "Semi-Arianism"). Origin Arius posed the question, "Is Jesus unbegotten?" In other words, he taught that God the Father and the Son did not exist together eternally. Further, Arius taught that the pre-incarnate Jesus was a divine being created by (and possibly inferior to) the Father at some point, before which the Son did not exist. In English-language works, it is sometimes said that Arians believe that Jesus is or was a "creature"; in this context, the word is being used in its original sense of "created being." That doctrine that Arius wrote was based on Scriptures such as John 14:28 where Jesus says that the father is "greater than I" to John 17:20-26 where Jesus asks that the Apostles become "one as we are one" so that all of them including Jesus and God become one. This is interpreted as indicating that the oneness refers to thought and will, and not a unity in a Trinity. Of all the various disagreements within the Christian Church, the Arian controversy has held the greatest force and power of theological and political conflict, with the possible exception of the Protestant Reformation. The conflict between Arianism and Trinitarian beliefs was the first major doctrinal confrontation in the Church after the legalization of Christianity by the Roman Emperor Constantine I. The controversy over Arianism began to rise in the late 3rd century and extended over the greater part of the 4th century and involved most church members, simple believers, priests and monks as well as bishops, emperors and members of Rome's imperial family. Yet, such a deep controversy within the Church could not have materialized in the 3rd and 4th centuries without some significant historical influences providing the basis for the Arian doctrines. Most orthodox or mainstream Christian historians define and minimize the Arian conflict as the exclusive construct of Arius and a handful of rogue bishops engaging in heresy. Of the roughly three hundred bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicea, only three bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed. However to minimize the extent of Arianism ignores the fact that extremely prominent Emperors such as Constantius II, the first Christian Emperor, and Valens were Arians, as well as prominent Gothic, Vandal and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and that none of these groups were out of the mainstream of the Roman Empire in the 4th century. After the dispute over Arius politicized the debate and a catholic or general solution to the debate was sought, with a great majority holding to the Trinitarian position, the Arian position was declared officially to be heterodox. Lucian of Antioch, though a canonized Saint of the Catholic Church for his eventual heroic martyrdom, had contended for a christology very similar to what would later be known as Arianism and is thought to have contributed much to its development. Arius was a student of Lucian's private academy in Antioch. The Ebionites, among other early Christian groups, may also have maintained similar doctrines that can be associated with formal Lucian and Arian Christology. While Arianism continued to dominate for several decades even within the family of the Emperor, the Imperial nobility and higher-ranking clergy, in the end it was Trinitarianism which prevailed politically and thus theologically in the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century. Arianism, which had been taught by the Arian missionary Ulfilas to the Germanic tribes, was dominant for some centuries among several Germanic tribes in western Europe, especially Goths and Lombards (and significantly for the late Empire, the Vandals), but ceased to be the mainstream belief by the 8th century. Trinitarianism remained the dominant doctrine in all major branches of the Eastern and Western Church and later within Protestantism, although there have been several anti-Trinitarian movements, some of which acknowledge various similarities to classical Arianism. Beliefs Because most extant written material on Arianism was written by its opponents, the nature of Arian teachings is difficult to define precisely today. The letter of Auxentius, The letter can be found at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html. a 4th-century Arian bishop of Milan, regarding the missionary Ulfilas, gives the clearest picture of Arian beliefs on the nature of the Trinity: God the Father ("unbegotten"), always existing, was separate from the lesser Jesus Christ ("only-begotten"), born before time began and creator of the world. The Father, working through the Son, created the Holy Spirit, who was subservient to the Son as the Son was to the Father. The Father was seen as "the only true God." 1 Corinthians 8:5-6 was cited as proof text: A letter from Arius to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia succinctly states the core beliefs of the Arians: The First Council of Nicaea and its aftermath A 4th-century miniature of the Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius's teaching. In 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean. By 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius' doctrine and formulated the Original Nicene Creed NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils | Christian Classics Ethereal Library , forms of which are still recited in Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and some Protestant services. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios, or Consubstantiality, meaning "of the same substance" or "of one being". (The Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.) The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the divinity of Christ (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch). Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine and was sent to earth for the salvation of mankind but that Jesus Christ was not equal to the Father (infinite, primordial origin) and to the Holy Spirit (giver of life). Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father "The oneness of Essence, the Equality of Divinity, and the Equality of Honor of God the Son with the God the Father." Orthodox Dogmatic Theology: A Concise Exposition Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky pages 92–95 since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of "like" essence or being (see homoiousia) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia). Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity, and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another. The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 1991. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) V Lossky pg50-51 God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated. Orthodox Dogmatic Theology: A Concise Exposition Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky pages 57 As quoted by John Damascene: God is unoriginate, unending, eternal, constant, uncreated, unchanging, unalterable, simple, incomplex, bodiless, invisible, intangible, indescribable, without bounds, inaccessible to the mind, uncontainable, incomprehensible, good, righteous, that Creator of all creatures, the almighty Pantocrator. According to the teaching of Arius, the preexistent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a created being, of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance to the Creator; his opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God, and that this was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological term for this submission is kenosis. This Ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was a distinct being of God in existence or reality (hypostasis), which the Latin fathers translated as persona. Jesus was God in essence, being and or nature (ousia), which the Latin fathers translated as substantia. Constantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais—and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea. The Emperor also ordered all copies of the Thalia, the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned. However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II, who was an Arian Christian, was exiled. Although he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius' rehabilitation. At the First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius; after this, Constantine had Athanasius banished, since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in AD 336. Arius, however, died on the way to this event in Constantinople. This was the same day Arius' own bishop prayed that if his heresy was to be propagated, the Lord take him in death that night- or better, Arius. Some scholars also suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Edward Gibbons "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Chapter 21, (1776-88), Jonathan Kirsch, "God Against the Gods: The History of the War Between Monotheism and Polytheism", 2004, and Charles Freeman, "The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason", 2002. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favour, and when Constantine, who had been a catechumen much of his adult life, accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia. The theological debates reopen The Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the homoousios, the central term of the Nicene creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata, who had advocated a monarchianist Christology. Both the man and his teaching, including the term homoousios, had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269. Hence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire, actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made bishop of Constantinople. Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene creed, especially Athanasius of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II. As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term homoiousios (alike in substance) to the Nicene homoousios, while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and coeternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called "semi-Arians" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (homoios) the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (anhomoios) the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third. The debates between these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Sardica in 343, the Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no less than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, leading the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: "The highways were covered with galloping bishops." None of these attempts was acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world "awoke with a groan to find itself Arian." After Constantius' death in 361, his successor Julian, a devotee of Rome's pagan gods, declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this had the objective of further increasing dissension among Christians. The Emperor Valens, however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the "Homoian" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire, (e.g., Hilarius of Poitiers to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene creed and the homoousios and the Eastern semi-Arians. Theodosius and the Council of Constantinople It was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Theodosius' wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I, who adhered to the Nicene creed. This allowed for settling the dispute. Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, November 24, 380, he expelled the Homoian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory Nazianzus, the leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian published an edict Sozomen's Church History VII.4 that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so. Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed of 381, The text of this version of the Nicene creed is available at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.ix.iii.html. which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes: see Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples. Arianism in the early medieval Germanic kingdoms However, during the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople, the Gothic convert Ulfilas (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic barbarians across the Danube, a mission favored for political reasons by emperor Constantius II. Ulfilas' initial success in converting this Germanic people to an Arian form of Christianity was strengthened by later events. When the Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire and founded successor-kingdoms in the western part, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century. Ceiling Mosaic of the Arian Baptistry The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church. In contrast, in the Arian German kingdoms established on the wreckage of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the majority population Nicene. Many scholars see the persistence of the Germanic Arianism as a strategy to differentiate the Germanic elite from the local inhabitants and culture and to maintain their group identity. Most Germanic tribes were generally tolerant of the Nicene beliefs of their subjects. However, the Vandals tried for several decades to force their Arian belief on their North African Nicene subjects, exiling Nicene clergy, dissolving monasteries, and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Christians. By the beginning of the 8th century, these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors (Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity (Visigoths, Lombards). The Franks were unique among the Germanic peoples in that they entered the empire as pagans and converted to Nicene(Catholic) Christianity directly, guided by their king Clovis. Frassetto, Michael, Encyclopedia of barbarian Europe, (ABC-CLIO, 2003), 128. Remnants of Arianism in the West However, much of southeastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire. St Gregory of Tours at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html: The inhibiting and paralyzing force of superstitious beliefs penetrated to every department of life, and the most primary and elementary activities of society were influenced. War, for example, was not a simple matter of a test of strength and courage, but supernatural matters had to be taken carefully into consideration. When Clovis said of the Goths in southern Gaul, "I take it hard that these Arians should hold a part of the Gauls; let us go with God's aid and conquer them and bring the land under our dominion", [note: see p. 45 (Book II:37)] he was not speaking in a hypocritical or arrogant manner but in real accordance with the religious sentiment of the time. What he meant was that the Goths, being heretics, were at once enemies of the true God and inferior to the orthodox Franks in their supernatural backing. Considerations of duty, strategy, and self-interest all reinforced one another in Clovis's mind. However, it was not always the orthodox side that won. We hear of a battle fought a few years before Gregory became bishop of Tours between king Sigibert and the Huns, [note: Book IV:29] in which the Huns " by the use of magic arts caused various false appearances to arise before their enemies and overcame them decisively. Medieval Study Guide to Gregory of Tours History of the Franks. In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was finally suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries (in part due to the advance of Islam). Later, during the Protestant reformation, a religious sect in Poland known as the Polish Brethren were commonly referred to as Arians due to their rejection of the Trinity. "Arian" as a polemical epithet In many ways, the conflict around Arian beliefs in the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries helped firmly define the centrality of the Trinity in Nicene Christian theology. As the first major intra-Christian conflict after Christianity's legalization, the struggle between Nicenes and Arians left a deep impression on the institutional memory of Nicene churches. Archbishop Dmitri of the Orthodox Church in America said Islam is the largest descendant of Arianism today. There is some superficial similarity in Islam's teaching that Jesus was a great prophet, but very distinct from God, although Islam sees Jesus as a human messenger of God without the divine properties that Arianism attributes to Christ. Islam sees itself as a continuation of the Jewish and Christian traditions and reveres many of the same prophets, though Islam denies the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus and historical Arians claimed it. Thus, over the past 1,500 years, some Christians have used the term Arian to refer to those groups that see themselves as worshiping Jesus Christ or respecting his teachings, but do not hold to the Nicene creed. Despite the frequency with which this name is used as a polemical label, there has been no historically continuous survival of Arianism into the modern era. There have been religious movements holding beliefs that either they, or their opponents, have considered Arian. To quote the Encyclopaedia Britannica'''s article on Arianism: "In modern times some Unitarians are virtually Arians in that they are unwilling either to reduce Christ to a mere human being or to attribute to him a divine nature identical with that of the Father." "Arianism." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Deluxe Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. However, their doctrines cannot be considered representative of traditional Arian doctrines or vice-versa. Another religious movement with a strong Arian belief are the Jehovah's Witnesses. Jesus Christ is considered divine but not equal to the one God. See also Arian controversy Arius Semi-Arianism Subordinationist Christology Unitarianism Unitarian Christianity Biblical Unitarianism Germanic Christianity Nontrinitarianism Non-Trinitarian churches Shituf References Bibliography Athanasius of Alexandria, History of the Arians Part I Part II Part III Part IV Part V Part VI Part VII Part VIII Lewis Ayres, Nicaea and its Legacy: An Approach to Fourth-Century Trinitarian Theology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Mark Belletini, Arius in the Mirror: The Alexandrian Dissent And How It Is Reflected in Modern Unitarian Universalist Practice and Discourse http://firstuucolumbus.org/sermons/ariuspaper.htm Ivor J. Davidson, A Public Faith, Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, ISBN 0-8010-1275-9 R.P.C. Hanson, The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318-381 (T&T Clark, 1988). J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, 1978, ISBN 0-06-064334-X Sarah Parvis, Marcellus of Ancyra And the Lost Years of the Arian Controversy 325-345 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006). William C. Rusch, The Trinitarian Controversy, (Sources of Early Christian Thought), 1980, ISBN 0-8006-1410-0 John Henry Newman, Arians of the Fourth Century, 1833 Schaff, Philip Theological Controversies and the Development of Orthodoxy, History of the Christian Church, Vol III, Ch. IX Williams, Rowan, Arius: Heresy and Tradition'', rev. edn. 2001, ISBN 0-8028-4969-5 Documents of the Arian Controversy (2007, German and original languages only, Berlin and New York: Walter De Gruyter, 2007) Notes External links THE ARIANS OF THE FOURTH CENTURY by JOHN HENRY “CARDINAL” NEWMAN in "btm" format Catholic Encyclopeia: Arianism Christian Cyclopedia: Arianism Concordia Cyclopedia: Arianism (page 1) (page 2) (page 3) Arian Catholic Church and Theological Society (Arian Catholic viewpoint) Believe: Arianism Jewish Encyclopedia: Arianism Concise Summary of the Arian Controversy English translations of all extant letters relating to early Arianism A map of early sympathizers with Arius | Arianism |@lemmatized arianism:35 theological:8 teaching:12 arius:37 ca:1 ad:3 christian:20 priest:2 first:11 rule:1 heretic:3 council:17 nicea:3 later:5 exonerate:1 pronounce:1 death:4 live:1 teach:5 alexandria:7 egypt:1 controversial:1 dealt:1 relationship:3 god:28 father:22 person:2 jesus:21 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2,020 | Martin_Waldseemüller | Martin Waldseemüller (Latinized Martinus Ilacomilus or Hylacomylus, c. 1470 – c. 1521/1522) was a German cartographer. He and Matthias Ringmann are credited with the first recorded usage of the word America, on the 1507 map Universalis Cosmographia in honor of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci. Life Waldseemüller was born in Freiburg im Breisgau (his mother was from Radolfzell) and studied at the University of Freiburg. On April 25, 1507, working at St. Deodatus (German: Sankt Diedel) in the duchy of Lotharingia (today Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, France), he produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". The globular and wall maps were accompanied by a book Cosmographiae Introductio, an introduction to cosmography. The book includes a translation to Latin of the Quattuor Americi Vespuccij navigationes (Four Voyages of Americo Vespucci), which is apparently a letter written by Amerigo Vespucci, although some historians consider it to have been a forgery written by its supposed recipient in Italy. The Cosmographiae describes why the name America was used: ab Americo Inventore ...quasi Americi terram sive Americam (from Amerigo the discoverer ...as if it were the land of Americus, thus America). In 1513 Waldseemüller appears to have had second thoughts about the name, probably due to contemporary protests about Vespucci’s role in the discovery and naming of America. In his reworking of the Ptolemy atlas, the continent is labelled simply Terra Incognita (unknown land). Despite the revision, 1,000 copies of the world maps had since been distributed, and the original suggestion took hold. While North America was still called Indies in documents for some time, it was eventually called America as well. The wall map was lost for a long time, but a copy was found in a castle at Wolfegg in southern Germany by Joseph Fischer in 1901. It is still the only copy known to survive, and it was purchased by the Library of Congress in 2001. "Library of Congress Acquires Only Known Copy of 1507 World Map Compiled by Martin Waldseemüller", Library of Congress, 2001-07-23 Four copies of the globular map survive in the form of "gores": printed maps that were intended to be cut out and pasted onto a ball. Only one of these lies in the Americas today, residing at the James Ford Bell Library, University of Minnesota. See also Waldseemüller map Naming of America Discoverer of the Americas Richard Amerike History of cartography References John Hessler, The Naming of America: Martin Waldseemüller's 1507 World Map and the Cosmographiae Introductio, Library of Congress, 2007 David Brown, "16th-Century Mapmaker's Intriguing Knowledge", Washington Post, 2008-11-17, p. A7 External links The Cosmographiæ Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller (Facsimile), via Google Books. Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Waldseemüller written by Joseph Fischer. "16th-Century Mapmaker's Intriguing Knowledge", David Brown, The Washington Post. November 17, 2008; Page A07. "You Are Here—The Library of Congress buys 'America's birth certificate'.", John J. Miller, The Wall Street Journal. 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2,021 | John_Napier | For other people with the same name, see John Napier (disambiguation). John Napier of Merchistoun (1550 – 4 April 1617) - also signed as Neper, Nepair - named Marvellous Merchiston, was a Scottish mathematician, physicist, astronomer/astrologer and 8th Laird of Merchistoun, son of Sir Archibald Napier of Merchiston. He is most remembered as the inventor of logarithms and Napier's bones, and for popularizing the use of the decimal point. Napier's birth place, Merchiston Tower, Edinburgh, Scotland, is now part of Edinburgh Napier University. After dying of gout, Napier was buried in St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh. Advances in mathematics His work, Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (1614) contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables of natural logarithms. His invention of logarithms was quickly taken up at Gresham College, and the leading English mathematician Henry Briggs arranged to visit Napier in 1615. Among the matters they discussed was a re-scaling of Napier's logarithms, in which the presence of the mathematical constant e (more accurately, the integer part of e times a large power of 10) was a practical difficulty. Napier delegated to Briggs the computation of a revised table. The computational advance available via logarithms, the converse of powered numbers or exponential notation, was such that it made calculations by hand much quicker. :s:Napier, John (DNB00) The way was opened to later scientific advances, in astronomy, dynamics, physics; and also in astrology. Napier made further contributions. He improved Simon Stevin's decimal notation. Arab lattice multiplication, used by Fibonacci, was made more convenient by his introduction of Napier's bones, a multiplication tool using a set of numbered rods. He may have worked largely in isolation, but he had contact with Tycho Brahe who corresponded with his friend John Craig. Craig certainly announced the discovery of logarithms to Brahe in the 1590s (the name itself came later); there is a story from Anthony à Wood, perhaps not well substantiated, that Napier had a hint from Craig that Longomontanus, Brahe's follower, was working in a similar direction. :s:Craig, John (d. 1620) Theology Napier had a strong interest in the Book of Revelation, from his student days at St Salvator's College, St Andrews. Under the influence of the sermons of Christopher Goodman, he developed a strongly anti-papal reading. He further used the Book of Revelation for chronography, to predict the Apocalypse, in A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John, which he regarded as his most important work. Napier believed that the end of the world would occur in 1688 or 1700. In his dedication of the Plaine Discovery to James VI, dated 29 Jan. 1593-4, Napier urged the king to see "that justice be done against the enemies of God's church," and counselled him "to reform the universal enormities of his country, and first to begin at his own house, family, and court." The volume includes nine pages of English verse by himself. It met with success at home and abroad. In 1600 Michiel Panneel produced a Dutch translation, and this reached a second edition in 1607. In 1602 the work appeared at La Rochelle in a French version, by Georges Thomson, revised by Napier, and that also went through several editions (1603, 1605, and 1607). A new edition of the English original was called for in 1611, when it was revised and corrected by the author, and enlarged by the addition of A Resolution of certain Doubts proponed by well-affected brethren;'this appeared simultaneously at Edinburgh and London. The author stated that he still intended to publish a Latin edition, but it never appeared. A German translation, by Leo de Dromna, of the first part of Napier's work appeared at Gera in 1611, and of the whole by Wolfgang Meyer at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1615. Astrology and the occult John Napier In addition to his mathematical and religious interests, Napier was commonly believed to be a magician, and is thought to have dabbled in alchemy and necromancy. It was said that he would travel about with a black spider in a small box, and that his black rooster was his familiar spirit. Scotsman article about John Napier Scotsman article specifically about Napier's interest in the occult Napier used this rooster to find out which of his servants had been stealing from his home. He would shut the suspects one at a time in a room with the bird, telling them to stroke it. The rooster would then tell Napier which of them was guilty. Actually, what would happen is that he would secretly coat the rooster with soot. Servants who were innocent would have no qualms about stroking it but the guilty one would only pretend he had, and when Napier examined their hands, the one with the clean hands was guilty. John Napier and the Devil Another occasion which may have contributed to his reputation as a sorcerer involved a neighbour whose pigeons were found to be eating Napier's grain. Napier warned him that from now on he intended to keep any pigeons found on his property. The next day, it is said, Napier was witnessed surrounded by unusually passive pigeons which he was scooping up and putting in a sack. The previous night he had soaked some peas in brandy, and then sown them. Come morning, the pigeons had gobbled them up, rendering themselves incapable of flight. A Biography of John Napier A contract still exists for a treasure hunt, made between John Napier and one Robert Logan of Restalrig. Napier was to search Fast Castle for treasure allegedly hidden there, wherein it is stated that Napier should "...do his utmost diligence to search and seek out, and by all craft and ingine to find out the same, or make it sure that no such thing has been there." Eponyms An alternative unit to the decibel used in electrical engineering, the neper, is named after John Napier, as is Edinburgh Napier University in Edinburgh, Scotland. The crater Neper on the Moon is named after him. http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/ List of works (1593) A Plaine Discovery of the Whole Revelation of St. John. (1614) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio (a translation into English by Edward Wright was published in 1616). (1617) Rabdologiæ seu Numerationis per Virgulas libri duo (published posthumously). (1619) Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio (written before the Descriptio, but published posthumously by his son Robert) (1839) De arte logistica See also List of universities named after people Scientific revolution Notes References Diploudis, Alexandros. Undusting Napier's Bones. Heriot-Watt University, 1997. "John Napier." Math & Mathematicians: The History of Math Discoveries around the World. 2 vols. U*X*L, 1999. John Napier. The History of Computing Project. John Napier--Short biography and translation of work on logarithms Johnston, Ian. Scots genius who paved way for Newton's discoveries. The Scotsman, May 14, 2005. Intro to Spherical Trig. Includes discussion of The Napier circle and Napier's rules EEBO (Early English Books Online) has electronic copies of some of his work, in facsimilies of editions of Napier's time (subscription or Athens login required). | John_Napier |@lemmatized people:2 name:6 see:3 john:16 napier:43 disambiguation:1 merchistoun:2 april:1 also:4 sign:1 neper:3 nepair:1 marvellous:1 merchiston:3 scottish:1 mathematician:3 physicist:1 astronomer:1 astrologer:1 laird:1 son:2 sir:1 archibald:1 remembered:1 inventor:1 logarithm:6 bone:3 popularize:1 use:6 decimal:2 point:1 birth:1 place:1 tower:1 edinburgh:6 scotland:2 part:3 university:4 die:1 gout:1 bury:1 st:5 cuthbert:1 church:2 advance:3 mathematics:1 work:9 mirifici:3 logarithmorum:3 canonis:3 descriptio:3 contain:1 fifty:1 seven:1 page:3 explanatory:1 matter:2 ninety:1 table:2 natural:1 invention:1 quickly:1 take:1 gresham:1 college:2 lead:1 english:5 henry:1 briggs:2 arrange:1 visit:1 among:1 discuss:1 scaling:1 presence:1 mathematical:2 constant:1 e:2 accurately:1 integer:1 time:3 large:1 power:1 practical:1 difficulty:1 delegate:1 computation:1 revise:3 computational:1 available:1 via:1 converse:1 powered:1 number:1 exponential:1 notation:2 make:5 calculation:1 hand:3 much:1 quicker:1 way:2 open:1 later:2 scientific:2 astronomy:1 dynamic:1 physic:1 astrology:2 contribution:1 improve:1 simon:1 stevin:1 arab:1 lattice:1 multiplication:2 fibonacci:1 convenient:1 introduction:1 tool:1 set:1 numbered:1 rod:1 may:3 largely:1 isolation:1 contact:1 tycho:1 brahe:3 correspond:1 friend:1 craig:4 certainly:1 announce:1 discovery:6 come:2 story:1 anthony:1 à:1 wood:1 perhaps:1 well:2 substantiate:1 hint:1 longomontanus:1 follower:1 similar:1 direction:1 theology:1 strong:1 interest:3 book:3 revelation:4 student:1 day:2 salvator:1 andrew:1 influence:1 sermon:1 christopher:1 goodman:1 develop:1 strongly:1 anti:1 papal:1 reading:1 far:1 chronography:1 predict:1 apocalypse:1 plaine:3 whole:3 regard:1 important:1 believe:2 end:1 world:2 would:8 occur:1 dedication:1 james:1 vi:1 date:1 jan:1 urge:1 king:1 justice:1 enemy:1 god:1 counsel:1 reform:1 universal:1 enormity:1 country:1 first:2 begin:1 house:1 family:1 court:1 volume:1 include:2 nine:1 verse:1 meet:1 success:1 home:2 abroad:1 michiel:1 panneel:1 produce:1 dutch:1 translation:4 reach:1 second:1 edition:5 appear:4 la:1 rochelle:1 french:1 version:1 george:1 thomson:1 go:1 several:1 new:1 original:1 call:1 correct:1 author:2 enlarge:1 addition:2 resolution:1 certain:1 doubt:1 proponed:1 affected:1 brother:1 simultaneously:1 london:1 state:2 still:2 intend:2 publish:4 latin:1 never:1 german:1 leo:1 de:2 dromna:1 gera:1 wolfgang:1 meyer:1 frankfurt:1 main:1 occult:2 religious:1 commonly:1 magician:1 think:1 dabble:1 alchemy:1 necromancy:1 say:2 travel:1 black:2 spider:1 small:1 box:1 rooster:4 familiar:1 spirit:1 scotsman:3 article:2 specifically:1 find:4 servant:2 steal:1 shut:1 suspect:1 one:4 room:1 bird:1 tell:2 stroke:2 guilty:3 actually:1 happen:1 secretly:1 coat:1 soot:1 innocent:1 qualm:1 pretend:1 examine:1 clean:1 devil:1 another:1 occasion:1 contribute:1 reputation:1 sorcerer:1 involve:1 neighbour:1 whose:1 pigeon:4 eat:1 grain:1 warn:1 keep:1 property:1 next:1 witness:1 surround:1 unusually:1 passive:1 scoop:1 put:1 sack:1 previous:1 night:1 soak:1 pea:1 brandy:1 sow:1 morning:1 gobble:1 render:1 incapable:1 flight:1 biography:2 contract:1 exist:1 treasure:2 hunt:1 robert:2 logan:1 restalrig:1 search:2 fast:1 castle:1 allegedly:1 hide:1 wherein:1 utmost:1 diligence:1 seek:1 craft:1 ingine:1 sure:1 thing:1 eponyms:1 alternative:1 unit:1 decibel:1 electrical:1 engineering:1 crater:1 moon:1 http:1 planetarynames:1 wr:1 usgs:1 gov:1 list:2 edward:1 wright:1 rabdologiæ:1 seu:1 numerationis:1 per:1 virgulas:1 libri:1 duo:1 posthumously:2 constructio:1 write:1 arte:1 logistica:1 revolution:1 note:1 reference:1 diploudis:1 alexandros:1 undusting:1 heriot:1 watt:1 math:2 history:2 around:1 vols:1 u:1 x:1 l:1 compute:1 project:1 short:1 logarithms:1 johnston:1 ian:1 scot:1 genius:1 pave:1 newton:1 intro:1 spherical:1 trig:1 discussion:1 circle:1 rule:1 eebo:1 early:1 online:1 electronic:1 copy:1 facsimilies:1 subscription:1 athens:1 login:1 require:1 |@bigram napier_bone:3 gresham_college:1 simon_stevin:1 tycho_brahe:1 la_rochelle:1 usgs_gov:1 libri_duo:1 publish_posthumously:2 |
2,022 | Cambrian | The Cambrian is the first geological period of the Phanerozoic eon, lasting from ; it is succeeded by the Ordovician. Its subdivisions, and indeed its base, are somewhat in flux. The period was established by Adam Sedgwick, who named it after Cambria, the classical name for Wales, where Britain's Cambrian rocks are best exposed. The Cambrian is unique in its unusually high proportion of lagerstatte. These are sites of exceptional preservation, where 'soft' parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells. This means that, paradoxically, our understanding of the Cambrian biota surpasses that of later periods. The Cambrian period marked a profound change in life on Earth. Before the Cambrian, life was on the whole small and simple. Complex organisms became gradually more common in the millions of years immediately preceding the Cambrian, but it wasn't until this period that mineralised - hence readily fossilised - organisms became common. This diversification of lifeforms was relatively rapid, and is termed the Cambrian explosion. This explosion produced the first representatives of most modern phyla, but on the whole, most Cambrian animals look alien to today's eyes, falling in the evolutionary stems of modern groups. While life prospered in the oceans, the land was barren - with nothing more than a microbial 'crud' gracing the soils. Apart from tentative evidence suggesting that some animals floundered around on land, most of the continents resembled deserts spanning from horizon to horizon. Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents, which had resulted from the relatively recent breakup of the preceding supercontinent Pannotia. The seas were relatively warm, and polar ice was absent. Stratigraphy Despite the long recognition of its distinction from younger Ordovician rocks and older Precambrian rocks it was not until 1994 that this time period was internationally ratified. The base of the Cambrian is defined on a complex assemblage of trace fossils known as the Trichophycus pedum assemblage. A. Knoll, M. Walter, G. Narbonne, and N. Christie-Blick (2004) "The Ediacaran Period: A New Addition to the Geologic Time Scale." Submitted on Behalf of the Terminal Proterozoic Subcommission of the International Commission on Stratigraphy. Nevertheless, the Treptichnus pedum, a reference ichnofossil for the lower boundary of the Cambrian, its usage for the stratigraphic detection of this boundary is always risky because of occurrence of very similar trace fossils belonging to the Treptichnids group well below the T. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the western USA. The stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. M.A. Fedonkin, B.S. Sokolov, M.A. Semikhatov, N.M.Chumakov (2007). "Vendian versus Ediacaran: priorities, contents, prospectives." In: edited by M. A. Semikhatov "The Rise and Fall of the Vendian (Ediacaran) Biota. Origin of the Modern Biosphere. Transactions of the International Conference on the IGCP Project 493, August 20-31, 2007, Moscow." Moscow: GEOS. A. Ragozina, D. Dorjnamjaa, A. Krayushkin, E. Serezhnikova (2008). "Treptichnus pedum and the Vendian-Cambrian boundary". 33 Intern. Geol. Congr. August 6- 14, 2008, Oslo, Norway. Abstracts. Section HPF 07 Rise and fall of the Ediacaran (Vendian) biota. P. 183. Subdivisions The Cambrian period follows the Ediacaran and is followed by the Ordovician period. The Cambrian is divided into four epochs or series and ten ages or stages. Currently only two series and four stages are named and have a GSSP. Since the international stratigraphic subdivision is not yet complete, many local subdivisions are still widely used. In some of these subdivisions the Cambrian is divided into three epochs with locally differing names — the Early Cambrian (Caerfai or Waucoban, ), Middle Cambrian (St Davids or Albertian, ) and Furongian (; also known as Late Cambrian, Merioneth or Croixan). Rocks of these epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle, or Upper Cambrian. Each of the local epochs are divided into several stages. The Cambrian is divided into several regional faunal stages of which the Russian-Kazakhian system is most used in international parlance: Chinese North American Russian-Kazakhian Australian Regional CAMBRIAN Furongian Ibexian (part) Ayusokkanian Datsonian Dolgellian (Trempealeauan, Fengshanian) Payntonian Sunwaptan Sakian Iverian Festiniogian (Franconian, Changshanian) Steptoan Aksayan Idamean Maentwrogian Marjuman Batyrbayan Mindyallan Middle Cambrian Maozhangian Mayan Boomerangian Zuzhuangian Delamaran Amgan Undillian Zhungxian Florian Templetonian Dyeran Ordian Early Cambrian Longwangmioan Toyonian Lenian Changlangpuan Montezuman Botomian Qungzusian Atdabanian Meishuchuan Tommotian PRECAMBRIAN Nemakit-Daldynian* * In Russian tradition the lower boundary of the Cambrian of the Siberian Platform is suggested to be defined at the base of the Tommotian Stage. Cambrian dating The time range for the Cambrian has classically been thought to have been from about 500 Ma to about 570 Ma. The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early arthropods known as trilobites and also unusual forms known as archeocyathids (literally 'ancient cup') that are thought to be the earliest sponges and also the first non-microbial reef builders. The end of the period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event. Fossil discoveries and radiometric dating in the last quarter of the 20th century have called these dates into question. Date inconsistencies as large as 20 Ma are common between authors. Framing dates of ca. () 545 to 490 Ma were proposed by the International Subcommission on Global Stratigraphy as recently as 2002. A radiometric date from New Brunswick puts the end of the first stage of the Cambrian around 511 Ma. This leaves 21 Ma for the other two stages of the Cambrian. A more precise date of 542 ± 0.3 Ma for the extinction event at the beginning of the Cambrian has recently been submitted. The rationale for this precise dating is interesting in itself as an example of paleological deductive reasoning. Exactly at the Cambrian boundary there is a marked fall in the abundance of carbon-13, a "reverse spike" that paleontologists call an excursion. It is so widespread that it is the best indicator of the position of the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in stratigraphic sequences of roughly this age. One of the places that this well-established carbon-13 excursion occurs is in Oman. Amthor (2003) describes evidence from Oman that indicates the carbon-isotope excursion relates to a mass extinction: the disappearance of distinctive fossils from the Precambrian coincides exactly with the carbon-13 anomaly. Fortunately, in the Oman sequence, so too does a volcanic ash horizon from which zircons provide a very precise age of 542 ± 0.3 Ma (calculated on the decay rate of uranium to lead). This new and precise date tallies with the less precise dates for the carbon-13 anomaly, derived from sequences in Siberia and Namibia. It is presented here as likely to become accepted as the definitive age for the start of the Phanerozoic eon, and thus the start of the Paleozoic era and the Cambrian period. Geography Reconstructions of Cambrian geography contain relatively large sources of error. They suggest that a global supercontinent, Pannotia, was in the process of breaking up, with Laurentia (North America) and Siberia having separated from the main mass of the Gondwana supercontinent to form isolated landmasses. Most continental land mass was clustered in the southern hemisphere. With a lack of sea ice – the great glaciers of the Marinoan Snowball Earth were long melted – the sea level was high, which led to large areas of the continents being flooded in warm, shallow seas ideal for thriving life. The sea levels fluctuated somewhat, suggesting that there were 'ice ages', associated with pulses of expansion and contraction of a south polar ice cap. Fauna The Cambrian marked a step change in the diversity and composition of Earth's biosphere. The incumbent Ediacaran biota suffered a mass extinction at the base of the period, which corresponds to an increase in the abundance and complexity of burrowing behaviour. This behaviour had a profound and irreversible effect on the substrate, and occurred around the same time as the Cambrian explosion saw the seemingly rapid appearance of representatives of all but one of the modern phyla. There are even suggestions that some Cambrian organisms ventured onto land, producing the trace fossils Protichnites and Climactichnites. Many modes of preservation are unique to the Cambrian period, resulting in an unusually high proportion of lagerstatte; see the list at the end of the article. Flora Generally it is accepted that there were no land plants at this time, although it is likely that a microbial "scum" comprising fungi, algae and possibly lichens covered the land. See also Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events List of fossil sites (with link directory) References Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. Gould, Stephen Jay; Wonderful Life: the Burgess Shale and the Nature of Life (New York: Norton, 1989) External links Biostratigraphy - includes information on Cambrian trilobite biostratigraphy Dr. Sam Gon's trilobite pages (contains numerous Cambrian trilobites) Examples of Cambrian Fossils Paleomap Project Report on the web on Amthor and others from Geology vol. 31 Weird Life on the Mats | Cambrian |@lemmatized cambrian:42 first:4 geological:1 period:13 phanerozoic:2 eon:2 last:2 succeed:1 ordovician:4 subdivision:5 indeed:1 base:4 somewhat:2 flux:1 establish:2 adam:1 sedgwick:1 name:4 cambria:1 classical:1 wale:1 britain:1 rock:4 best:2 expose:1 unique:2 unusually:2 high:3 proportion:2 lagerstatte:2 site:2 exceptional:1 preservation:2 soft:1 part:2 organism:4 preserve:1 well:3 resistant:1 shell:1 mean:1 paradoxically:1 understanding:1 biota:4 surpass:1 late:2 mark:2 profound:2 change:3 life:7 earth:3 whole:2 small:1 simple:1 complex:2 become:3 gradually:1 common:3 million:1 year:1 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2,023 | Antibiotic_resistance | Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of antibiotics. It is a specific type of drug resistance. Antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection acting upon random mutation, but it can also be engineered by applying an evolutionary stress on a population. Once such a gene is generated, bacteria can then transfer the genetic information in a horizontal fashion (between individuals) by plasmid exchange. If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called multiresistant or, informally, a superbug. The term antimicrobial resistance is sometimes used to explicitly encompass organisms other than bacteria. Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through transformation protocols. This can aid in implanting artificial genes into the microorganism. If the resistance gene is linked with the gene to be implanted, the antibiotic can be used to kill off organisms that lack the new gene. Causes and risk factors Schematic representation of how antibiotic resistance evolves via natural selection. The top section represents a population of bacteria before exposure to an antibiotic. The middle section shows the population directly after exposure, the phase in which selection took place. The last section shows the distribution of resistance in a new generation of bacteria. The legend indicates the resistance levels of individuals. Antibiotic resistance can be a result of horizontal gene transfer Ochiai, K., Yamanaka, T Kimura K and Sawada, O (1959) Inheritance of drug resistance (and its tranfer) between Shigella strains and Between Shigella and E.coli strains. Hihon Iji Shimpor 1861: 34 (in Japanese) , and also of unlinked point mutations in the pathogen genome and a rate of about 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication. The antibiotic action against the pathogen can be seen as an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will result in a fully resistant colony. Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the number of resistant organisms which develop . Overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as second- and third-generation cephalosporins, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance. Other factors contributing towards resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, the impregnation of household items and children's toys with low levels of antibiotics, and the administration of antibiotics by mouth in livestock for growth promotion. Researchers have recently demonstrated the bacterial protein LexA may play a key role in the acquisition of bacterial mutations. Mechanisms The four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are: Drug inactivation or modification: e.g. enzymatic deactivation of Penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Alteration of target site: e.g. alteration of PBP—the binding target site of penicillins—in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Alteration of metabolic pathway: e.g. some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides. Instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to utilizing preformed folic acid. Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability and/or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface. Resistant pathogens Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus (colloquially known as "Staph aureus" or a Staph infection) is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found on the mucous membranes and the skin of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium in which penicillin resistance was found—in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. Methicillin was then the antibiotic of choice, but has since been replaced by oxacillin due to significant kidney toxicity. MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) was first detected in Britain in 1961 and is now "quite common" in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all S. aureus infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin. This left vancomycin as the only effective agent available at the time. However, strains with intermediate (4-8 ug/ml) levels of resistance, termed GISA (glycopeptide intermediate Staphylococcus aureus) or VISA (vancomycin intermediate Staphylococcus aureus), began appearing in the late 1990s. The first identified case was in Japan in 1996, and strains have since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. The first documented strain with complete (>16 ug/ml) resistance to vancomycin, termed VRSA (Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) appeared in the United States in 2002. A new class of antibiotics, oxazolidinones, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, linezolid, is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid-resistance in Staphylococcus aureus was reported in 2003. CA-MRSA (Community-acquired MRSA) has now emerged as an epidemic that is responsible for rapidly progressive, fatal diseases including necrotizing pneumonia, severe sepsis and necrotizing fasciitis. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is the most frequently identified antimicrobial drug-resistant pathogen in US hospitals. The epidemiology of infections caused by MRSA is rapidly changing. In the past 10 years, infections caused by this organism have emerged in the community. The 2 MRSA clones in the United States most closely associated with community outbreaks, USA400 (MW2 strain, ST1 lineage) and USA300, often contain Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) genes and, more frequently, have been associated with skin and soft tissue infections. Outbreaks of community-associated (CA)-MRSA infections have been reported in correctional facilities, among athletic teams, among military recruits, in newborn nurseries, and among active homosexual men. CA-MRSA infections now appear to be endemic in many urban regions and cause most CA-S. aureus infections. Streptococcus and Enterococcus Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus: GAS) infections can usually be treated with many different antibiotics. Early treatment may reduce the risk of death from invasive group A streptococcal disease. However, even the best medical care does not prevent death in every case. For those with very severe illness, supportive care in an intensive care unit may be needed. For persons with necrotizing fasciitis, surgery often is needed to remove damaged tissue. Strains of S. pyogenes resistant to macrolide antibiotics have emerged, however all strains remain uniformly sensitive to penicillin. Resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to penicillin and other beta-lactams is increasing worldwide. The major mechanism of resistance involves the introduction of mutations in genes encoding penicillin-binding proteins. Selective pressure is thought to play an important role, and use of beta-lactam antibiotics has been implicated as a risk factor for infection and colonization. Streptococcus pneumoniae is responsible for pneumonia, bacteremia, otitis media, meningitis, sinusitis, peritonitis and arthritis. Penicillin-resistant pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (commonly known as pneumococcus), was first detected in 1967, as was penicillin-resistant gonorrhea. Resistance to penicillin substitutes is also known as beyond S. aureus. By 1993 Escherichia coli was resistant to five fluoroquinolone variants. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is commonly resistant to isoniazid and rifampin and sometimes universally resistant to the common treatments. Other pathogens showing some resistance include Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Streptococci. Enterococcus faecium is another superbug found in hospitals. Penicillin-Resistant Enterococcus was seen in 1983, vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) in 1987, and Linezolid-Resistant Enterococcus (LRE) in the late 1990s. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a highly prelevant opportunistic pathogen. One of the most worrisome characteristics of P. aeruginosa consists in its low antibiotic susceptibility. This low susceptibility is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally-encoded antibiotic resistance genes and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes. Besides intrinsic resistance, P. aeruginosa easily develop acquired resistance either by mutation in chromosomally-encoded genes, or by the horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance determinants. Development of multidrug resistance by P. aeruginosa isolates requires several different genetic events that include acquisition of different mutations and/or horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. Hypermutation favours the selection of mutation-driven antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa strains producing chronic infections, whereas the clustering of several different antibiotic resistance genes in integrons favours the concerted acquisition of antibiotic resistance determinants. Some recent studies have shown that phenotypic resistance associated to biofilm formation or to the emergence of small-colony-variants may be important in the response of P. aeruginosa populations to antibiotics treatment. Clostridium difficile Clostridium difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal disease in hospitals world wide. Gerding D.N., Johnson S., Peterson L.R., Mulligan M.E. and Silva J. Jr. (1995). Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect. Control. Hosp. Epidemiol. 16:459-477. Clindamycin-resistant C. difficile was reported as the causative agent of large outbreaks of diarrheal disease in hospitals in New York, Arizona, Florida and Massachusetts between 1989 and 1992. Geographically dispersed outbreaks of C. difficile strains resistant to fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as Cipro (ciprofloxacin) and Levaquin (levofloxacin), were also reported in North America in 2005. Salmonella and E. coli E. coli and Salmonella come directly from contaminated food. Of the meat that is contaminated with E. coli, eighty percent of the bacteria are resistant to one or more drugs made; it causes bladder infections that are resistant to antibiotics (“HSUS Fact Sheet”). Salmonella was first found in humans in the 1970s and in some cases is resistant to as many as nine different antibiotics (“HSUS Fact Sheet”). When both bacterium are spread, serious health conditions arise. Many people are hospitalized each year after becoming infected, and some die as a result. Acinetobacter baumannii On the 5th November 2004 , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported an increasing number of Acinetobacter baumannii bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the Iraq/Kuwait region during Operation Iraqi Freedom and in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom were treated. Most of these showed multidrug resistance (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested. Medscape abstract on Acinetobacter baumannii: Acinetobacter baumannii: An Emerging Multidrug-resistant Threat. Role of animals Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) is acknowledged to be a human commensal and pathogen. MRSA has been found in cats, dogs and horses, where it can cause the same problems as it does in humans. Owners can transfer the organism to their pets and vice-versa, and MRSA in animals is generally believed to be derived from humans. The United States Food and Drug Administration has responsibility for determining the safety of food as well as drugs. Drugs are frequently used for animals the same way they are used in people – to treat illness and improve the health of the animals. Drugs are used in animals that are used as human food, such as cows, pigs, chickens, fish, etc., and these drugs can affect the safety of the meat, milk, and eggs produced from those animals. Therefore, FDA has the responsibility to review drugs intended for use in food animals, and to be sure that the use of the drugs does not result in harmful residues in food or create resistant pathogens that can harm human health. For example, farm animals, particularly pigs, are believed to be able to infect people with MRSA. In 1951, the FDA approved the use of antibiotics in animal feed without a veterinary medical prescription; Concerns about resistance have been revisited several times since then, and most antimicrobials have not been shown to be a hazard. Europe quickly followed suit. As the spread of drug-resistant bacteria became a concern, countries began questioning the practice. In 1969, Britain issued the Swann Report UK Swann report , which recommended that human therapeutic antibiotics be banned from being used as growth promoters in agriculture. The report was largely ignored. It's pointed out by industry, that most of the routine feed drugs are either not used in human medicine, or are older compounds that have long been superseded by later-generation drugs. Nearly 30 years later, the World Health Organization concluded that antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feeds should be prohibited (in the absence of risk assessments). And in 1998, European Union health ministers voted to ban four antibiotics widely used to promote animal growth (despite their scientific panel's recommendations). Regulation banning the use of antibiotics in European feed, with the exception of two antibiotics in poultry feeds, became effective in 2006. With good animal husbandry and hygiene, there shouldn't be adverse effects, health-wise or production-wise, from not using antibiotics in animal feed. In Scandinavia, there's evidence that the ban has led to a lower prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in (non-hazardous) animal bacterial populations. Meanwhile, in the poultry industry, the ban hasn't had a deleterious effect. Economic performance in poultry production wasn't adversely affected either. Whether banning feed drugs has had any actual benefit to public health has been the topic of several reviews. Foodborne incidence and resistance patterns in humans, have not declined in countries featuring animal bans, in fact some have increased. Meanwhile, there were higher mortality in swine populations following bans. the "success" of Scandinavain and EU bans is therefore highly questionable as a useful policy, according to several published reviews. In the United States, antibiotic use in animal feeds remains controversial, due to a well-financed anti-agricultural campaign. The FDA first called for restrictions in 1997 1977 FDA report , which generated many studies and reports on the issue. In 1980, the Institute of Medicine reviewed the subject and recommended that more studies be conducted. NAP.edu 1980 study In 1999, the General Accounting Office (GAO) also concluded that the evidence was inconclusive. A follow-up 2004 GAO study 2004 GAO study found that evidence existed of antibiotic-resistant bacteria being transferred from animals to humans. But since federal agencies don't collect data on antibiotic use in animals, conclusions on the potential impact on human health couldn't be made. Therefore, antibiotics are still used in U.S. animal feed—along with evidence of other worrisome ingredients. Growing U.S. consumer concern about using antibiotics in animal feed has led to a niche market of "antibiotic-free" animal products, but this small market is unlikely to change entrenched industry-wide practices. Within FDA, the animal drug review duties have been assigned to one of the Agency’s operating units, the Center for Veterinary Medicine. Their guidance is used to evaluate all types and uses of antimicrobials, including what some refer to as subtherapeutic use. Although that term has not been defined by regulation, it describes the use of a product to boost an animal’s ability to grow and produce more food, instead of treating or preventing an infectious disease. It could also be used to evaluate antimicrobials if they are used for growth promotion, and for antimicrobials that are products of genetic engineering. Antimicrobials are used with animals that we use to produce food for human consumption, including cows (for beef and milk production), pigs, chickens, turkeys, fish, and sheep, to increase production. Antimicrobials are used in feeds for some species, and the animals fed the antimicrobial feeds often grow faster while consuming less feed than animals not given antimicrobials in feed. In addition to determining whether the use of a drug would result in residues left in the meat, milk, or eggs, FDA must ensure that the use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals does not lead to the development of resistant bacteria that can become a public health concern. This document is one way that drug sponsors can submit information that address the issue of the microbial safety of antimicrobial new animal drugs. A sponsor is free to use other scientifically valid approaches to demonstrate the safety of their proposed product. CVM first said in December 1999 that it would consider the question of the fostering of antimicrobial resistance when reviewing antimicrobials for use in animals. That announcement was followed a year later with what was called FDA’s “Framework Document,” which first described the FDA’s plan to use risk assessments of the development of antimicrobial resistance in determining the safety of antimicrobials for food-producing animals. The guidance document was first published as a draft in September 2002, to allow the scientific community to comment on the concept and on the science FDA used to develop the guidance document. The FDA allows the use of antimicrobials because they are a valuable tool that veterinarians can use to treat sick animals, and so livestock producers can use antimicrobials to produce meat, milk, and eggs more efficiently. In 2001, the Union of Concerned Scientists estimated that greater than 70% of the antibiotics used in the US are given to food animals (e.g. chickens, pigs and cattle) in the absence of disease Executive summary from the UCS report "Hogging It: Estimates of Antimicrobial Abuse in Livestock", January 2001 . This 2001 report, however, has been shown to over-estimate animal usage rates. Antibiotic use in food animal production has been associated with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria including Salmonella, Campylobacter, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus, among others. There is substantial evidence from the US and European Union that these resistant bacteria cause antibiotic-resistant infections in humans. The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), the American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA) have called for substantial restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production including an end to all "non-therapeutic" uses. The food animal and pharmaceutical industries have fought hard to prevent new regulations that would limit the use of antibiotics in food animal production, pointing out that while concerns exist, risk assessments and actual data have demonstrated little to no risk in this area. For example, in 2000 the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced their intention to rescind approval for fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emergence of fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter infections in humans. The final decision to ban fluoroquinolones from use in poultry production was not made until 5 years later because of challenges from the food animal and pharmaceutical industries. Today, there are two federal bills (S. 549 US Senate Bill S. 549: Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2007 and H.R. 962 US House Bill H.R. 962: Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2007 ) aimed at phasing out "non-therapeutic" antibiotics in US food animal production. These bills are nominally endorsed by many public health and medical organizations including the American Nurses Association (ANA)), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) , and the American Public Health Association (APHA) . Other professional groups, notably animal science, food science, veterinary, and industry groups do not support this legislation, however, pointing out that current uses are not shown to be hazardous and have legitimate disease prevention roles. Alternatives Prevention Rational use of antibiotics may reduce the chances of development of opportunistic infection by antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to dysbacteriosis. In one study the use of fluoroquinolones are clearly associated with Clostridium difficile infection, which is a leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea in the United States, and a major cause of death, worldwide. Vaccines do not suffer the problem of resistance because a vaccine enhances the body's natural defenses, while an antibiotic operates separately from the body's normal defenses. Nevertheless, new strains may evolve that escape immunity induced by vaccines. While theoretically promising, anti-staphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between Staphylococcus species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is under way. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), realizing the need for the reduction of antibiotic use, has been working on two alternatives. One alternative is to prevent diseases by adding Cytokines instead of antibiotics to animal feed. These proteins are made in the body naturally after a disease, so they do not contribute to making antibiotics resistant (“Alternatives to Antibiotics”). Furthermore, studies on using Cytokines have shown that they also enhance the growth of animals like antibiotics. Cytokines do not endanger human health because they are a natural protein. Secondly, CSIRO is working on vaccines for diseases. If the animals were vaccinated for the disease, then farms wouldn’t have to be worries about diseases spreading. Also, it would save money for the farmers by protecting animals from dying (“Alternatives to Antibiotics”). Both alternatives provide safe ways to prevent diseases without the use of antibiotics. Phage therapy Phage therapy, an approach that has been extensively researched and utilized as a therapeutic agent for over 60 years, especially in the Soviet Union, is an alternative that might help with the problem of resistance. Phage Therapy was widely used in the United States until the discovery of antibiotics, in the early 1940s. Bacteriophages or "phages" are viruses that invade bacterial cells and, in the case of lytic phages, disrupt bacterial metabolism and cause the bacterium to lyse. Phage Therapy is the therapeutic use of lytic bacteriophages to treat pathogenic bacterial infections. Bacteriophage therapy is an important alternative to antibiotics in the current era of multidrug resistant pathogens. A review of studies that dealt with the therapeutic use of phages from 1966–1996 and few latest ongoing phage therapy projects via internet showed: phages were used topically, orally or systemically in Polish and Soviet studies. The success rate found in these studies was 80–95% with few gastrointestinal or allergic side effects. British studies also demonstrated significant efficacy of phages against Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp and Staphylococcus aureus. US studies dealt with improving the bioavailability of phage. Phage therapy may prove as an important alternative to antibiotics for treating multidrug resistant pathogens. Development of new drugs Until recently, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics. That is no longer the case. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry R&D, and the increasing prevalence of resistant bacteria. Infectious disease physicians are alarmed by the prospect that effective antibiotics may not be available to treat seriously ill patients in the near future. The pipeline of new antibiotics is drying up. Major pharmaceutical companies are losing interest in the antibiotics market because these drugs may not be as profitable as drugs that treat chronic (long-term) conditions and lifestyle issues. The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibiotics. One of the possible strategies towards this objective is the rational localization of bioactive phytochemicals. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds including those having antibacterial activity. Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity and a large number of plant products have been shown to inhibit growth of pathogenic bacteria. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal. For example the combination of 5'-methoxyhydnocarpine and berberine in herbs like Hydrastis canadensis and Berberis vulgaris can block the MDR-pumps that cause multidrug resistance. This has been shown for Staphylococcus aureus. Archaeocins is the name given to a new class of potentially useful antibiotics that are derived from the Archaea group of organisms. Eight archaeocins have been partially or fully characterized, but hundreds of archaeocins are believed to exist, especially within the haloarchaea. The prevalence of archaeocins is unknown simply because no one has looked for them. The discovery of new archaeocins hinges on recovery and cultivation of archaeal organisms from the environment. For example, samples from a novel hypersaline field site, Wilson Hot Springs, recovered 350 halophilic organisms; preliminary analysis of 75 isolates showed that 48 were archaeal and 27 were bacterial. In research published online on October 22, 2008 in Nature, a team of scientists pinpointed the place on bacteria where the antibiotic myxopyronin launches its attack, and why that attack is successful. The myxopyronin binds to and inhibits the crucial bacterial enzyme, RNA polymerase. The myxopyronin changes the structure of the switch-2 segment of the enzyme, inhibiting its function of reading and transmitting DNA code. This prevents RNA polymerase from delivering genetic information to the ribosomes, causing the bacteria to die. Researchers Find Clue to Antibiotic Resistance Newswise, Retrieved on October 22, 2008. One of the major causes of antibiotic resistance is the decrease of effective drug concentrations at their target place, due to the increased action of ABC transporters. Since ABC transporter blockers can be used in combination with current drugs to increase their effective intracellular concentration, the possible impact of ABC transporter inhibitors is of great clinical interest. ABC transporter blockers that may be useful to increase the efficacy of current drugs have entered clinical trials and are available to be used in therapeutic regimes. Applications Antibiotic resistance is an important tool for genetic engineering. By constructing a plasmid which contains an antibiotic resistance gene as well as the gene being engineered or expressed, a researcher can ensure that when bacteria replicate, only the copies which carry along the plasmid survive. This ensures that the gene being manipulated passes along when the bacteria replicates. The most commonly used antibiotics in genetic engineering are generally "older" antibiotics which have largely fallen out of use in clinical practice. These include: ampicillin kanamycin tetracycline chloramphenicol Industrially the use of antibiotic resistance is disfavored since maintaining bacterial cultures would require feeding them large quantities of antibiotics. Instead, the use of auxotrophic bacterial strains (and function-replacement plasmids) is preferred. See also Drug resistance Multidrug resistance Antibacterial soap Bacterial conjugation Drug of last resort Efflux Nosocomial infection Pesticide resistance LexA Tuberculosis List of environment topics References “Alternatives to Antibiotics Reduce Animal Disease”. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization. 9 Jan., 2006. 16 Apr., 2009 <http://www.csiro.au/solutions/Alternatives-to-antibodies.html#>. Footnotes External links The History Cause and Treatment of Antibiotic Resistant Infections CDC Article on Hospital Acquired MRSA CDC Article on Community Acquired MRSA CDC Guideline "Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006" ReAct Action on Antibiotic Resistance Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus—Guidelines for Healthcare Workers Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics Prudent Use of Antibiotics Information about phage therapy – a possible alternative to antibiotics in case of resistant infections Antibiotic-resistance genes as markers Once necessary, now undesirable CBS Article on Phage Therapy and Antibiotic Resistance Hospitals: Breeding the Superbug? Article on MRSA infections in hospitals, Allianz Knowledge, May 2008 BURDEN of Resistance and Disease in European Nations - An EU-Project to estimate the financial burden of antibiotic resistance in European Hospitals Extending the Cure: Policy Research to Extend Antibiotic Effectiveness 2003 New Guidance for Industry on Antimicrobial Drugs for Food Animals Questions and Answers, U.S. FDA SciDev.net Antibiotic Resistance spotlight The Science and Development Network is an online science and development network focused on news and information important to the developing world Do Bugs Need Drugs? | Antibiotic_resistance |@lemmatized antibiotic:93 resistance:58 ability:3 microorganism:4 withstand:1 effect:4 specific:1 type:2 drug:37 evolves:2 via:3 natural:4 selection:4 act:3 upon:1 random:1 mutation:8 also:11 engineer:2 apply:1 evolutionary:1 stress:1 population:7 gene:18 generate:2 bacteria:24 transfer:6 genetic:6 information:5 horizontal:4 fashion:1 individual:2 plasmid:4 exchange:1 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2,024 | Journalism | Journalism is the production of news reports and editorials through media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the Internet. Journalists—be they writers, editors, photographers, broadcast presenters or producers—serve as the main purveyors of information and opinion in contemporary society. From informal beginnings in Europe of the 18th century, stimulated by the arrival of mechanized printing—in due course by mass production and in the 20th century by electronic communications technology—today's journalistic enterprises include large corporations with global distribution. The formal status of journalism has varied historically and still varies greatly from country to country. The modern state and hierarchical power structures in general have tended to consider unrestricted flow of information as a potential threat, and inimical to their own proper function. Censorship, governmental restriction or even active repression of individual journalists and non-state organs of communication continue to cause, at best, intermittent trouble in most countries. Few formal democracies and no authoritarian governments make provision for protection of press freedom implied by the term Fourth Estate. The Fourth Estate - Media Analysis A Compromised Fourth Estate? - Journalism Studies The rise of internet technology, in particular the advent of blogging and social networking software, further destabilize journalism as defined traditionally, and its practitioners as a distinct professional category. Combined with the increasing transfer of advertising revenue from print and broadcast media to the internet, the full effect of the arrival of the "citizen journalist" — potentially positive (proliferation having thus far proved more difficult to police) as well as negative— is not yet known. Media Journalism on its way to the reader: statue of a newspaper delivery boy at the Texas Press Association in Austin Print A story is a single article, news item or feature, usually concerning a single event, issue, theme, or profile of a person. Correspondents report news occurring in the main, locally, from their own country, or from foreign cities where they are stationed. Most reporters file information or write their stories electronically from remote locations. In many cases, breaking stories are written by staff members, through information collected and submitted by other reporters who are out on the field gathering information for an event that has just occurred and needs to be broadcast instantly. Radio and television reporters often compose stories and report "live" from the scene. Some journalists also interpret the news or offer opinions and analysis to readers, viewers, or listeners. In this role, they are called commentators or columnists. Reporters take notes and also take photographs or shoot videos, either on their own, or through a photographer or camera person. In the second phase, they organize the material, determine the focus or emphasis (identify the peg), and finally write their stories. The story is then edited by news or copy-editors, who function from the news desk. The headline of the story is decided by the news desk, and practically never by the reporter or the writer of the piece. Often, the news desk also heavily re-writes or changes the style and tone of the first draft prepared by the reporter / writer originally. Finally, a collection of stories that have been picked for the newspaper or magazine edition, are laid out on dummy (trial) pages, and after the chief editor has approved the content, style and language in the material, it is sent for publishing. The writer is given a byline for the piece that is published; his or her name appears alongside the article. This process takes place according to the frequency of the publication. News can be published in a variety of formats (broadsheet, tabloid, magazine and periodical publications) as well as periods (daily, weekly, semi-weekly, fortnightly or monthly). Television In a broadcast system (television), journalists or reporters are also involved with editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research, and in working on the visual narrative of the story. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the news story at the beginning or end of the video clip. In television or broadcast journalism, news analysts (also called news-casters or news anchors) examine, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources of information. Anchors present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters (news correspondents). News films ("clips") can vary in length; there are some which may be as long as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have also begun to host special documentary films that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail. The desk persons categorise news stories with various formats according to the merit of the story. Such formats include AVO, AVO Byte, Pkg, VO SOT, VOX POP, and Ancho Visual. The AVO, or Anchor Voice Over, is the short form of news. The story is written in a gist. According to the script visual is edited. The anchor reads the news while the visual is broadcast simultaneously. Generally, the duration of an AVO is 30 to 40 seconds. The script is three to four lines. At first the anchor starts to read the news, and, after reading one or one-and-a-half lines, the visual is aired, overlapping the face of anchor. The AVO Byte has two parts: An AVO, and one or more bytes. This is the same as an AVO, except that as soon as the AVO ends, the Byte is aired. The Pkg has three parts: Anchor, Voice Over, and Sign Off. At first a Script is written. A voice over anchor reads the anchor or anchor intro part. Wire services "Wire services" are typically news agencies that provide news to publications, broadcasters and media houses by the minute. They work through technical tie-ups and arrangements with practically all mainstream news organizations, who pay them for the content that they provide. The public does not have direct access to this content, unless it is featured by a local newspaper or television channel. Most of these agencies, like Agence France-Presse, Reuters or the Associated Press for instance, work on international, local, and national fronts. Often, routine news is sourced directly from these agencies, by the news desk. Routine news is information related to announcements, press conferences, statements made by government or corporate officials, and any other mundane facts. The news desk receives updates from agencies every few minutes. Information related to the outbreak of a calamity, or important developments concerning national issues is usually obtained from agencies itself. These news items often go without any reporter's byline, that is, the credit is given to the newspaper in general, or is attributed to the agency that has sent out the information (or "broken the story"). If not very impactful, they are carried as small news briefs. On television, these items are the snippets displayed on the ticker: the rolling text at the bottom of the screen. Reporters who work for agencies do not usually get any credit for their work, as it is sent out as an "agency copy". Wire agencies are extremely important to the functioning of journalism; they are the backbones of most news organisations today, who heavily depend on them for important, routine content. They provide the material that an organisation may not be able to cover through its own limited resources alone. Exclusive stories on the contrary, are the stories or news items that a publication or channel has obtained through its own resources; it is when a reporter associated with a particular organization has found certain information through personal sources, and not through public announcements or from PR officials. The exclusivity of a story is also dependent on the condition that no other news channel or publication carries it simultaneously. Often, a reporter may find an exclusive story, but finds that it has lost its exclusivity when his or her source gives out that information to other newspapers and channels. While routine stories may provide the basic material that is required, exclusive stories are the ones that form the editorial identity or the voice of the newspaper. Morning newspapers are obliged to carry both routine and exclusive news; afternoon editions usually have to go a step further and work hard on follow-ups and their own exclusive stories. Most afternoon dailies do not carry routine news at all. Their content is lighter, and is meant to be a second reflection of the day's events. Magazines and weeklies also focus entirely on features and exclusive stories. Internet The Internet has allowed the formal and informal publication of news stories through mainstream media outlets as well as blogs and other self-published news stories. Journalists working on the Internet are J-Bloggers, a term coined by Australian Media Academic Dr Nicola Goc to describe journalists who [blog] and [blog]gers who produce journalism. "J-Bloggers: Internet bloggers acting in the role of journalists disseminating newsworthy information, who subscribe to the journalistic ideals of an obligation to the truth and the public's right to know" (Media and Journalism: Theory to Practice (2008) Melbourne: OUP, p45) . The web has also seen the development of Online Newspapers and Online magazine. Many of these could be the way forward for local media. Newscasters Newscasters function at large stations and networks that usually specialize in a particular type of news, such as sports or weather. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecast weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained meteorologists and develop their own weather forecasts. Sportscasters select, write, and deliver sports news. This may include interviews with sports personalities and coverage of games and other sporting events. Article topics and writing Articles are written about topics that are considered notable by the editors of the publication, with notability varying depending on the focus and audience of the publisher. Large agencies or companies may have reporters that are specialized to discuss specific topics (a beat); smaller agencies are more likely to have a small number of reporters covering all areas of interest. Investigative reports may cover lengthy stories that require days or weeks to gather sufficient information. Articles must be produced to meet a limited deadline determined by the broadcast or print time of the specific publication and working hours may vary according to the deadlines set and depending on projects or last-minute developments may be long or irregular. Styles Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see Feature style) written by journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalistic writing. Feature articles are usually longer forms of writing; more attention is paid to style than in straight news reports. They are often combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors. Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the story, he or she must also find a creative and interesting way to write it. The lead (or first two paragraphs of the story; see Nut graph) must grab the reader's attention and yet accurately embody the ideas of the article. In the last half of the 20th Century the line between straight news reporting and feature writing has blurred. Journalists and publications today experiment with different approaches to writing. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson are some of these examples. Urban and alternative weekly newspapers go even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines include more features than straight news. Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows that claimed to be news shows were not considered as such by traditional critics, because their content and methods do not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio, on the other hand, is considered a good example of mixing straight news reporting, features, and combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other US public radio news organizations have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear distinction between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations. Sports journalism Sports journalism covers many aspects of human athletic competition, and is an integral part of most journalism products, including newspapers, magazines, and radio and television news broadcasts. While some critics don't consider sports journalism to be true journalism, the prominence of sports in Western culture has justified the attention of journalists to not just the competitive events in sports, but also to athletes and the business of sports. Sports journalism in the United States has traditionally been written in a looser, more creative and more opinionated tone than traditional journalistic writing; the emphasis on accuracy and underlying fairness is still a part of sports journalism. An emphasis on the accurate description of the statistical performances of athletes is also an important part of sports journalism. Science journalism Science journalism is a relatively new branch of journalism, in which journalists' reporting conveys information on science topics to the public. Science journalists must understand and interpret very detailed, technical and sometimes jargon-laden information and render it into interesting reports that are comprehensible to consumers of news media. Scientific journalists also must choose which developments in science merit news coverage, as well as cover disputes within the scientific community with a balance of fairness to both sides but also with a devotion to the facts. Investigative journalism Investigative journalism, in which journalists investigate and expose unethical, immoral, and illegal behavior by individuals, businesses and government agencies, can be complicated, time-consuming and expensive — requiring teams of journalists, months of research, interviews (sometimes repeated interviews) with numerous people, long-distance travel, computers to analyze public-record databases, or use of the company's legal staff to secure documents under freedom of information laws. Because of its inherently confrontational nature, this kind of reporting is often the first to suffer from budget cutbacks or interference from outside the news department. Investigative reporting done poorly can also expose journalists and media organizations to negative reaction from the subjects of investigations and the public, and accusations of gotcha journalism. When conducted correctly it can bring the attention of the public and government to problems and conditions that the public deem need to be addressed, and can win awards and recognition to the journalists involved and the media outlet that did the reporting. New journalism New Journalism was the name given to a style of 1960s and 1970s news writing and journalism which used literary techniques deemed unconventional at the time. The term was codified with its current meaning by Tom Wolfe in a 1973 collection of journalism articles. It is typified by using certain devices of literary fiction, such as conversational speech, first-person point of view, recording everyday details and telling the story using scenes. Though it seems undisciplined at first, new journalism maintains elements of reporting including strict adherence to factual accuracy and the writer being the primary source. To get "inside the head" of a character, the journalist asks the subject what they were thinking or how they felt. Because of its unorthodox style, new journalism is typically employed in feature writing or book-length reporting projects. Many new journalists are also writers of fiction and prose. In addition to Wolfe, writers whose work has fallen under the title "new journalism" include Norman Mailer, Hunter S. Thompson, Joan Didion, Truman Capote, George Plimpton and Gay Talese. Gonzo journalism Gonzo journalism is a type of journalism popularized by the American writer Hunter S. Thompson, author of Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72 and The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved, among other stories and books. Gonzo journalism is characterized by its punchy style, rough language, and ostensible disregard for conventional journalistic writing forms and customs. More importantly, the traditional objectivity of the journalist is given up through immersion into the story itself, as in New Journalism, and the reportage is taken from a first-hand, participatory perspective, sometimes using an author surrogate such as Thompson's Raoul Duke. Gonzo journalism attempts to present a multi-disciplinary perspective on a particular story, drawing from popular culture, sports, political, philosophical and literary sources. Gonzo journalism has been styled eclectic or untraditional. It remains a feature of popular magazines such as Rolling Stone magazine. It has a good deal in common with new journalism and on-line journalism (see above). "Celebrity" or "people" journalism Another area of journalism that grew in stature in the 20th Century is 'celebrity' or 'people' journalism, which focuses on the personal lives of people, primarily celebrities, including movie and stage actors, musical artists, models and photographers, other notable people in the entertainment industry, as well as people who seek attention, such as politicians, and people thrust into the attention of the public, such as people who do something newsworthy. Once the province of newspaper gossip columnists and gossip magazines, celebrity journalism has become the focus of national tabloid newspapers like the National Enquirer, magazines like People and Us Weekly, syndicated television shows like Entertainment Tonight, Inside Edition, The Insider, Access Hollywood, and Extra, cable networks like E!, A&E Network and The Biography Channel, and numerous other television productions and thousands of websites. Most other news media provide some coverage of celebrities and people. Celebrity journalism differs from feature writing in that it focuses on people who are either already famous or are especially attractive, and in that it often covers celebrities obsessively, to the point of these journalists behaving unethically in order to provide coverage. Paparazzi, photographers who would follow celebrities incessantly to obtain potentially embarrassing photographs, have come to characterize celebrity journalism. "Convergence journalism" An emerging form of journalism, which combines different forms of journalism, such as print, photographic and video, into one piece or group of pieces. Convergence journalism can be found in the likes of CNN and many other news sites. The Washington Post has a notable amount of this. Ambush journalism Ambush journalism refers to aggressive tactics practiced by journalists to suddenly confront and question people who otherwise do not wish to speak to a journalist. The practice has particularly been applied by television journalists, on news shows like The O'Reilly Factor http://thinkprogress.org/2009/03/23/watters-ambush/ and 60 Minutes and by Geraldo Rivera and other local television reporters conducting investigations. The practice has been sharply criticized by journalists and others as being highly unethical and sensational, while others defend it as the only way to attempt to provide those subject to it an opportunity to comment for a report. This can usually be discerned by the level of physical aggression the journalist displays and in the time allowed for an uninterrupted answer. Other Advocacy journalism Citizen journalism Social news Participatory Media Community journalism Environmental journalism Fashion journalism Innovation journalism Online journalism Parachute journalism Service journalism Video journalism Trade journalism Role of journalism in a democracy In the 1920s, as modern journalism was just taking form, writer Walter Lippmann and American philosopher John Dewey debated over the role of journalism in a democracy. Their differing philosophies still characterize a debate about the role of journalism in society and the nation-state. Lippmann understood that journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public and policy making elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, distilled it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. Lippman put it this way: The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. That was the role of journalists. Lippmann believed that the public would affect the decision-making of the elite with their vote. In the meantime, the elite (i.e. politicians, policy makers, bureaucrats, scientists, etc.) would keep the business of power running. In Lippman's world, the journalist's role was to inform the public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes. Effectively that kept the public at the bottom of the power chain, catching the flow of information that is handed down from experts/elites. Dewey, on the other hand, believed the public was not only capable of understanding the issues created or responded to by the elite, it was in the public forum that decisions should be made after discussion and debate. When issues were thoroughly vetted, then the best ideas would bubble to the surface. Dewey believed journalists should do more than simply pass on information. He believed they should weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community journalism." This concept of community journalism is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content. It's important to note that while there is an assumption of equality, Dewey still celebrates expertise. Dewey believes the shared knowledge of many is far superior to a single individual's knowledge. Experts and scholars are welcome in Dewey's framework, but there is not the hierarchical structure present in Lippman's understanding of journalism and society. According to Dewey, conversation, debate, and dialogue lie at the heart of a democracy. While Lippman's journalistic philosophy might be more acceptable to government leaders, Dewey's approach is a better description of how many journalists see their role in society, and, in turn, how much of society expects journalists to function. Americans, for example, may criticize some of the excesses committed by journalists, but they tend to expect journalists to serve as watchdogs on government, businesses and other actors, enabling people to make informed decisions on the issues of the time. The elements of journalism According to The Elements of Journalism, a book by Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel, there are nine elements of journalism . In order for a journalist to fulfill their duty of providing the people with the information they need to be free and self-governing. They must follow these guidelines: Journalism's first obligation is to the truth. Its first loyalty is to the citizens. Its essence is discipline of verification. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover. It must serve as an independent monitor of power. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise. It must strive to make the significant interesting, and relevant. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience. In the April 2007 edition of the book , they have added one additional element, the rights and responsibilities of citizens to make it a total of ten elements of journalism. Professional and ethical standards In the UK, all newspapers are bound by the Code of Practice of the Press Complaints Commission http://www.pcc.org.uk/cop/practice.html; Press Complaints Commission Code of Practice . This includes points like respecting people's privacy and ensuring accuracy. However, the Media Standards Trust has criticised the PCC, claiming it needs to be radically changed to secure public trust of newspapers. Roy Greenslade - Media watchdog attacks PCC as ineffective, unaccountable and opaque; http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/greenslade/2009/feb/09/pcc-newspapers This is in stark contrast to the media climate prior to the 20th Century, where the media market was dominated by smaller newspapers and pamphleteers who usually had an overt and often radical agenda, with no presumption of balance or objectivity. Recognition of excellence in journalism There are several professional organizations, universities and foundations that recognize excellence in journalism in the USA. The Pulitzer Prize, administered by Columbia University in New York City, is awarded to newspapers, magazines and broadcast media for excellence in various kinds of journalism. The Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism gives the Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Awards for excellence in radio and television journalism, and the Scripps Howard Foundation gives the National Journalism Awards in 17 categories. The Society of Professional Journalists gives the Sigma Delta Chi Award for journalism excellence. In the television industry, the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences gives awards for excellence in television journalism. Failing to uphold standards Such a code of conduct can, in the real world, be difficult to uphold consistently. Journalists who believe they are being fair or objective may give biased accounts -- by reporting selectively, trusting too much to anecdote, or giving a partial explanation of actions. (See Media bias.) Even in routine reporting, bias can creep into a story through a reporter's choice of facts to summarize, or through failure to check enough sources, hear and report dissenting voices, or seek fresh perspectives. A news organization's budget inevitably reflects decision-making about what news to cover, for what audience, and in what depth. Those decisions may reflect conscious or unconscious bias. When budgets are cut, editors may sacrifice reporters in distant news bureaus, reduce the number of staff assigned to low-income areas, or wipe entire communities from the publication's zone of interest. Publishers, owners and other corporate executives, especially advertising sales executives, can try to use their powers over journalists to influence how news is reported and published. Journalists usually rely on top management to create and maintain a "firewall" between the news and other departments in a news organization to prevent undue influence on the news department. One journalism magazine, Columbia Journalism Review, has made it a practice to reveal examples of executives who try to influence news coverage, of executives who do not abuse their powers over journalists, and of journalists who resist such pressures. Self-censorship is a growing problem in journalism, particularly in covering countries that sharply restrict press freedom. As commercial pressure in the media marketplace grows, media organizations are loath to lose access to high-profile countries by producing unflattering stories. For example, CNN admitted that it had practiced self-censorship in covering the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq in order to ensure continued access after the regime had thrown out other media. CNN correspondent Christiane Amanpour also complained of self-censorship during the invasion of Iraq due to the fear of alienating key audiences in the US. There are claims that the media are also avoiding covering stories about repression and human rights violations by the Israeli and Iranian regimes in order to maintain a presence in those countries. Reporting versus editorializing Generally, publishers and consumers of journalism draw a distinction between reporting — "just the facts" — and opinion writing, often by restricting opinion columns to the editorial page and its facing or "op-ed" (opposite the editorials) page. Unsigned editorials are traditionally the official opinions of the paper's editorial board, while op-ed pages may be a mixture of syndicated columns and other contributions, frequently with some attempt to balance the voices across some political or social spectrum. The distinction between reporting and opinion can break down. In the UK, the Press Complaints Commission states that "the Press, whilst free to be partisan, must distinguish clearly between comment, conjecture and fact" Press Complaints Commission's Code of Practice but some commentators have suggested there can sometimes be a blurring of opinion and fact. http://www.journoworld.co.uk/Comment_in_Newspapers.html; JournoWorld - Writing Comment Complex stories often require summarizing and interpretation of facts, especially if there is limited time or space for a story. Stories involving great amounts of interpretation are often labelled "news analysis," but still run in a paper's news columns. The limited time for each story in a broadcast report rarely allows for such distinctions. Legal status Journalists around the world often write about the governments in their nations, and those governments have widely varying policies and practices towards journalists, which control what they can research and write, and what press organizations can publish. Many Western governments guarantee the freedom of the press, and do relatively little to restrict press rights and freedoms, while other nations severely restrict what journalists can research and/or publish. Journalists in many nations have enjoyed some privileges not enjoyed by members of the general public, including better access to public events, crime scenes and press conferences, and to extended interviews with public officials, celebrities and others in the public eye. These privileges are available because of the perceived power of the press to turn public opinion for or against governments, their officials and policies, as well as the perception that the press often represents their consumers. These privileges extend from the legal rights of journalists but are not guaranteed by those rights. Sometimes government officials may attempt to punish individual journalists who irk them by denying them some of these privileges extended to other journalists. Nations or jurisdictions that formally license journalists may confer special privileges and responsibilities along with those licenses, but in the United States the tradition of an independent press has avoided any imposition of government-controlled examinations or licensing. Some of the states have explicit shield laws that protect journalists from some forms of government inquiry, but those statutes' definitions of "journalist" were often based on access to printing presses and broadcast towers. A national shield law has been proposed. In some nations, journalists are directly employed, controlled or censored by their governments. In other nations, governments who may claim to guarantee press rights actually intimidate journalists with threats of arrest, destruction or seizure of property (especially the means of production and dissemination of news content), torture or murder. Journalists who elect to cover conflicts, whether s between nations or insurgencies within nations, often give up any expectation of protection by government, if not giving up their rights to protection by government. Journalists who are captured or detained during a conflict are expected to be treated as civilians and to be released to their national government. Right to protect confidentiality of sources Journalists' interaction with sources sometimes involves confidentiality, an extension of freedom of the press giving journalists a legal protection to keep the identity of a source private even when demanded by police or prosecutors; withholding sources can land journalists in contempt of court, or in jail. The scope of rights granted to journalists varies from nation to nation; in the United Kingdom, for example, the government has had more legal rights to protect what it considers sensitive information, and to force journalists to reveal the sources of leaked information, than the United States. Other nations, particularly Zimbabwe and the People's Republic of China, have a reputation of persecuting journalists, both domestic and foreign. In the United States, there has never been a right to protect sources in a federal court. Some states provide varying degrees of such protection. However, federal courts will refuse to force journalists to reveal sources, unless the information the court seeks is highly relevant to the case, and there's no other way to get it. Journalists, like all citizens, who refuse to testify even when ordered to can be found in contempt of court and fined or jailed. Right of access Journalists often depend on freedom of information legislation to access information held by the government. These rights also vary from nation to nation. United States In the United States, the Freedom of Information Act guarantees journalists the right to obtain copies of government documents, although the government has the right to black out some information from these documents. Other federal legislation also controls access to information. Some states have more open policies for making information available, and some states have acted in the last decade to broaden those rights. New Jersey has updated and broadened its freedom of information legislation to better define what kinds of government documents can be withheld from public inquiry. India In India, the Right to Information Act was passed in 2005, giving citizens the right to access state and national records. RTI Act, India, 2005 Media Development Organizations There exist several organizations that use journalism as a form of media development. Such organizations include Search for Common Ground, BBC World Service Trust, and Journalists for Human Rights. Current State In 2008, journalism came under heavy fire. The decline of print newspapers has lead to a sharp increase in job cuts for journalists. In 2008 alone, approximately 16,000 journalists were terminated Desparate Battle to Save America's Struggling Newspapers --a budgetary response to declining subscription dollars and the inability to adapt to a free-news-driven society. With advertising revenues taking a harsh rapping from the transitional shift of a subscription-based/advertising model to online ad placements, the discrepancy in advertising revenue is making it difficult for traditional newspapers to survive. The Tribune Company (owner of the LA Times) filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy; Tribune Co. files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection The Rocky Mountain Times (one of the countries oldest newspapers) closed its doors after 150 years of business; Rocky Mountain News Closes Its Doors The Christian Science Monitor transitioned from its daily newspaper edition to online distribution; CSM Online Only 120 newspapers closed their doors in the first three months of 2009; Newspapers fold as readers defect and economy sours newspaper circulation is down 7% in the first six months of 2009. Newspaper Circulation Declines 7% in the last six months Newspapers are forced to maximize their current staff in a response to declining advertising and circulation revenue. Media Trends As formerly relied upon revenues shore-up, newspapers are exploring radically new ways of reaching readers. The New York Times--a media company striving to be ahead of the curve--has partnered with Amazon's Kindle DX to bring current subcribers and Kindle users NYT content. Kindle DX: Size Might Matter After All This, along with other social media properties, are ways in which traditional media is fighting to stay relevant in the digital age. See also Creative nonfiction History of journalism History of American newspapers Jazz journalism Journalism ethics and standards Journalism in Australia Journalism education Journalism school Objectivity (journalism) Pen & Pencil Club Reporters without borders Yellow journalism Bus plunge (nickname for a type of short news story) Online newspaper Online magazine References External links For all external links see: be-x-old:Журналістыка | Journalism |@lemmatized journalism:98 production:4 news:76 report:19 editorial:6 medium:31 newspaper:33 magazine:14 radio:7 television:18 internet:7 journalist:72 writer:9 editor:5 photographer:4 broadcast:13 presenter:1 producer:1 serve:3 main:2 purveyor:1 information:35 opinion:8 contemporary:1 society:8 informal:2 beginning:2 europe:1 century:5 stimulate:1 arrival:2 mechanized:1 printing:1 due:2 course:1 mass:2 electronic:1 communication:2 technology:2 today:3 journalistic:7 enterprise:1 include:11 large:3 corporation:1 global:1 distribution:2 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2,025 | Guanine | Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine, consisting of a fused pyrimidine-imidazole ring system with conjugated double bonds. Being unsaturated, the bicyclic molecule is planar. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine. Basic principles Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA. Guanine has two tautomeric forms, the major keto form (see figures) and rare enol form. It binds to cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. In cytosine, the amino group acts as the hydrogen donor and the C-2 carbonyl and the N-3 amine as the hydrogen-bond acceptors. Guanine has a group at C-6 that acts as the hydrogen acceptor, while the group at N-1 and the amino group at C-2 act as the hydrogen donors. The first isolation of guanine was reported in 1844 from the excreta of sea birds, known as guano, which was used as a source of fertilizer. About fifty years later, Fischer determined the structure and also showed that uric acid can be converted to guanine. Facial treatments using the droppings, or guano, from Japanese nightingales is currently in favor in New York, reportedly because the guanine in the droppings produces a clear, "bright" skin tone that some people find desirable to attain. Guanine can be hydrolyzed with strong acid to glycine, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Guanine is first deaminated to xanthine. Guanine oxidizes more readily than adenine, the other purine-derivative base in DNA. Its high melting point of 350°C reflects the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxo and amino groups in the molecules in the crystal. Because of this intermolecular bonding, guanine is relatively insoluble in water, but it is soluble in dilute acids and bases. Syntheses Trace amounts of guanine form by the polymerization of ammonium cyanide (NH4CN). Two experiments conducted by Levy et al. showed that heating 10 mol·L−1 NH4CN at 80 °C for 24 hours gave a yield of 0.0007%, while using 0.1 mol·L−1 NH4CN frozen at -20 °C for 25 years gave a 0.0035% yield. These results indicate guanine could arise in frozen regions of the primitive earth. In 1984, Yuasa reported a 0.00017% yield of guanine after the electrical discharge of NH3, CH4, C2H6, and 50 mL of water, followed by a subsequent acid hydrolysis. However, it is unknown whether the presence of guanine was not simply a resultant contaminant of the reaction. - quotes the Yuasa paper and cites the possibility of there being a contaminant in the reaction. 5NH3 + CH4 + 2C2H6 + H2O → C5H8N5O (guanine) + (25/2)H2 A Fischer-Tropsch synthesis can also be used to form guanine, along with adenine, uracil, and thymine. Heating an equimolar gas mixture of CO, H2, and NH3 to 700 °C for 15 to 24 minutes, followed by quick cooling and then sustainted reheating to 100 to 200 °C for 16 to 44 hours with an alumina catalyst, yielded guanine and uracil: 5CO + (1/2)H2 + 5NH3 → C5H8N5O (guanine) + 4H2O Another possible abiotic route was explored by quenching a 90% N2–10%CO–H2O gas mixture high-temperature plasma Traube's synthesis involves heating 2,4,5-triamino-1,6-dihydro-6-oxypyrimidine (as the sulfate) with formic acid for several hours. Traube purine synthesis Other uses In 1656 in Paris, François Jaquin (a rosary maker) extracted from scales of some fishes the so-called pearl essence, crystalline guanine forming G-quadruplexes. In the cosmetics industry, crystalline guanine is used as an additive to various products (e.g., shampoos), where it provides a pearly iridescent effect. It is also used in metallic paints and simulated pearls and plastics. It provides shimmering luster to eye shadow and nail polish. Guanine crystals are rhombic platelets composed of multiple transparent layers, but they have a high index of refraction that partially reflects and transmits light from layer to layer, thus producing a pearly luster. It can be applied by spray, painting, or dipping. It may irritate the eyes. Its alternatives are mica, faux pearl (from ground shells), and aluminium and bronze particles. In nature, the Oarfish is covered with skin made of guanine. See also Guanine deaminase cytosine References Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry". Prentice Hall (New Jersey). 3rd Edition, 2002. Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines". The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds. Wiley-Interscience (New York). 1971. External links Computational Chemistry Wiki Good Guanine reference | Guanine |@lemmatized guanine:28 one:1 five:1 main:1 nucleobases:1 find:2 nucleic:1 acid:6 dna:5 rna:3 others:1 adenine:4 cytosine:6 thymine:3 uracil:4 pair:1 formula:1 derivative:2 purine:4 consist:1 fused:1 pyrimidine:1 imidazole:1 ring:1 system:1 conjugated:1 double:1 bond:4 unsaturated:1 bicyclic:1 molecule:2 planar:1 nucleoside:1 call:2 guanosine:1 basic:1 principle:2 along:2 present:1 whereas:1 usually:1 see:3 two:2 tautomeric:1 form:6 major:1 keto:1 figure:1 rare:1 enol:1 bind:1 three:1 hydrogen:6 amino:3 group:5 act:3 donor:2 c:8 carbonyl:1 n:2 amine:1 acceptor:2 first:2 isolation:1 report:2 excreta:1 sea:1 bird:1 know:1 guano:2 use:6 source:1 fertilizer:1 fifty:1 year:2 later:1 fischer:2 determine:1 structure:1 also:4 show:2 uric:1 convert:1 facial:1 treatment:1 droppings:2 japanese:1 nightingale:1 currently:1 favor:1 new:3 york:2 reportedly:1 produce:2 clear:1 bright:1 skin:2 tone:1 people:1 desirable:1 attain:1 hydrolyze:1 strong:1 glycine:1 ammonia:1 carbon:2 dioxide:1 monoxide:1 deaminate:1 xanthine:1 oxidizes:1 readily:1 base:2 high:3 melting:1 point:1 reflect:2 intermolecular:2 oxo:1 crystal:2 bonding:1 relatively:1 insoluble:1 water:2 soluble:1 dilute:1 synthesis:4 trace:1 amount:1 polymerization:1 ammonium:1 cyanide:1 experiment:1 conduct:1 levy:1 et:1 al:1 heat:3 mol:2 l:3 hour:3 give:2 yield:4 frozen:2 result:1 indicate:1 could:1 arise:1 region:1 primitive:1 earth:1 yuasa:2 electrical:1 discharge:1 ml:1 follow:2 subsequent:1 hydrolysis:1 however:1 unknown:1 whether:1 presence:1 simply:1 resultant:1 contaminant:2 reaction:2 quote:1 paper:1 cite:1 possibility:1 tropsch:1 equimolar:1 gas:2 mixture:2 co:2 minute:1 quick:1 cooling:1 sustainted:1 reheat:1 alumina:1 catalyst:1 another:1 possible:1 abiotic:1 route:1 explore:1 quench:1 temperature:1 plasma:1 traube:2 involve:1 triamino:1 dihydro:1 oxypyrimidine:1 sulfate:1 formic:1 several:1 us:1 paris:1 françois:1 jaquin:1 rosary:1 maker:1 extract:1 scale:1 fish:1 pearl:3 essence:1 crystalline:2 g:3 quadruplexes:1 cosmetic:1 industry:1 additive:1 various:1 product:1 e:1 shampoo:1 provide:2 pearly:2 iridescent:1 effect:1 metallic:1 paint:1 simulated:1 plastic:1 shimmer:1 luster:2 eye:2 shadow:1 nail:1 polish:1 rhombic:1 platelet:1 compose:1 multiple:1 transparent:1 layer:3 index:1 refraction:1 partially:1 transmits:1 light:1 thus:1 apply:1 spray:1 painting:1 dip:1 may:1 irritate:1 alternative:1 mica:1 faux:1 ground:1 shell:1 aluminium:1 bronze:1 particle:1 nature:1 oarfish:1 cover:1 make:1 deaminase:1 reference:2 horton:1 h:2 r:2 moran:1 ochs:1 rawn:1 j:2 scrimgeour:1 k:1 biochemistry:1 prentice:1 hall:1 jersey:1 edition:1 lister:1 part:1 ii:1 chemistry:2 heterocyclic:1 compound:1 wiley:1 interscience:1 external:1 link:1 computational:1 wiki:1 good:1 |@bigram nucleic_acid:1 dna_rna:2 adenine_cytosine:2 hydrogen_bond:3 bond_acceptor:1 uric_acid:1 carbon_dioxide:1 carbon_monoxide:1 et_al:1 fischer_tropsch:1 formic_acid:1 index_refraction:1 irritate_eye:1 prentice_hall:1 heterocyclic_compound:1 wiley_interscience:1 external_link:1 computational_chemistry:1 |
2,026 | Hydroxyl | Hydroxyl in chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an oxygen atom and a hydrogen atom connected by a covalent bond (single bond). The neutral form is a hydroxyl radical and the hydroxyl anion is called a hydroxide. When the oxygen atom is linked to a larger molecule the hydroxyl group is a functional group (OH) . Hydroxide (HO¯ or ¯OH anion) is a polyatomic ion with a charge of negative one. Hydroxide anion is a base and is used to make solutions or compounds basic. Hydroxyl group The term hydroxyl group is used to describe the functional group –OH when it is a substituent in an organic compound. Organic molecules containing a hydroxyl group are known as alcohols (the simplest of which have the formula CnH2n+1–OH). Hydroxyl radical 3D model of Hydroxl group. The hydroxyl radical, ·OH, is the neutral form of the hydroxide ion. Hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and, as a consequence, short-lived; however, they form an important part of radical chemistry. Hydroxyl free radicals cause oxidative cells, particularly erythrocytes (or red blood cells). These free radicals cause damage to DNA, lipids, and proteins. Glucose-6 phosphate dehydroganase (G6PD) is an enzyme the body produces to destroy OH-, before it starts damaging the cells. People with G6PD deficiency are protected against malaria because the plasmodium (the parasites that cause malaria) cannot survive in the damaged blood cells. On the other hand, people with G6PD deficiency are prone to jaundice and kidney disease. See also Hydronium Oxide Hydroxy | Hydroxyl |@lemmatized hydroxyl:11 chemistry:2 stand:1 molecule:3 consist:1 oxygen:2 atom:3 hydrogen:1 connect:1 covalent:1 bond:2 single:1 neutral:2 form:3 radical:7 anion:3 call:1 hydroxide:4 link:1 large:1 group:7 functional:2 oh:6 ho:1 polyatomic:1 ion:2 charge:1 negative:1 one:1 base:1 use:2 make:1 solution:1 compound:2 basic:1 term:1 describe:1 substituent:1 organic:2 contain:1 know:1 alcohol:1 simplest:1 formula:1 model:1 hydroxl:1 highly:1 reactive:1 consequence:1 short:1 live:1 however:1 important:1 part:1 free:2 cause:3 oxidative:1 cell:4 particularly:1 erythrocytes:1 red:1 blood:2 damage:3 dna:1 lipid:1 protein:1 glucose:1 phosphate:1 dehydroganase:1 enzyme:1 body:1 produce:1 destroy:1 start:1 people:2 deficiency:2 protect:1 malaria:2 plasmodium:1 parasite:1 cannot:1 survive:1 hand:1 prone:1 jaundice:1 kidney:1 disease:1 see:1 also:1 hydronium:1 oxide:1 hydroxy:1 |@bigram hydrogen_atom:1 covalent_bond:1 hydroxyl_radical:4 polyatomic_ion:1 organic_compound:1 hydroxide_ion:1 glucose_phosphate:1 kidney_disease:1 |
2,027 | Latin | Latin (lingua Latīna, ) is an Italic language historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Through the Roman conquest, Latin spread throughout the Mediterranean and a large part of Europe. Romance languages such as Italian, French, Catalan, Romanian, Spanish, and Portuguese are descended from Latin, while many others, especially European languages, including English, have inherited and acquired much of their vocabulary from Latin. It was the international language of science and scholarship in central and western Europe until the 17th century, then it was gradually replaced by vernacular languages, especially French, becoming the new lingua franca of Europe. There are two main varieties of Latin: Classical Latin, the literary dialect used in poetry and prose, and Vulgar Latin, the form of the language spoken by ordinary people. Vulgar Latin was preserved as a spoken language in much of Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire, and by the 9th century diverged into the various Romance languages. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Latin survived as the lingua franca of educated classes in the West, and this survival was reinforced by the adoption of Latin by the Catholic Church. In this milieu, it survived as a mother tongue at least into the second millennium A.D. and is referred to as Medieval Latin. The Renaissance briefly reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken language, through its adoption by the Renaissance Humanists. After the 16th century, the popularity of Medieval Latin began to decline, although it remained in use for academic discourse and publication until the 18th century. Few people still speak it in the present day. Latin lives on in the form of Ecclesiastical Latin used for edicts and papal bulls issued by the Catholic Church. Much Latin vocabulary is used in science, academia, and law. Classical Latin, the literary language of the late Republic and early Empire, is still taught in many primary, grammar, and secondary schools, often combined with Greek in the study of Classics, though its role has diminished since the early 20th century. The Latin alphabet, together with its modern variants such as the English, Spanish and French alphabets, is the most widely used alphabet in the world. History The Duenos inscription, from the 6th century BC, is the earliest known Old Latin text. Latin is a member of the Italic languages. In the 9th or 8th century BC, the Italic languages were brought to the Italian peninsula by migrating tribes, and the dialect spoken in Latium around the River Tiber, where Roman civilization would develop, evolved into Latin. Although surviving Roman literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, the actual spoken language of the Western Roman Empire among ordinary people was what is known as Vulgar Latin, which differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Orthography A replica of the Old Roman Cursive inspired by the Vindolanda tablets The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from 1407 To write Latin, the Romans used the Latin alphabet, derived from the Old Italic alphabet, which itself was derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet flourishes today as the writing system for the Romance, Celtic, Germanic (including English), and some Slavic (such as Polish) languages, among others. The ancient Romans did not use punctuation; macrons (although they did use apices to distinguish between long and short vowels); the letters j, u or w; lowercase letters (although they did have a cursive script); or interword spacing (though dots were occasionally placed between words that would otherwise be difficult to distinguish). So, a sentence originally written as: LVGETEOVENERESCVPIDINESQVE would be rendered in a modern edition as Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque or with macrons Lūgēte, Ō Venerēs Cupīdinēsque. and translated as Mourn, O Venuses and Cupids The Roman cursive script is commonly found on the many wax tablets excavated at sites such as forts, an especially extensive set having been discovered at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall in Britain. Curiously enough, most of the Vindolanda tablets show spaces between words, though spaces were avoided in monumental inscriptions from that era. Legacy The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and, eventually, Vulgar Latin began to diverge into various dialects. Vulgar Latin gradually evolved into a number of distinct Romance languages by the 9th century. These were, for many centuries, only oral languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was still the official language of Portugal until 1296 when Portuguese replaced it. Many of these "daughter" languages, including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan, Romansh and Romanian flourished, the differences between them growing greater and more formal over time. Out of the Romance languages, Italian is the most conservative descendant of Latin in terms of vocabulary, and Sardinian is the most conservative in terms of phonology. Foreign Languages: Italian, specifically, "Sardinian in fact conserves many archaic features from Latin which disappeared in Italian, such as the hard k-sound in words like chelu, where Italian has cielo." Some of the differences between Classical Latin and the Romance languages have been used in attempts to reconstruct Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance languages have distinctive stress on certain syllables, whereas Latin had this feature in addition to distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo logudorese, there is distinctive length of consonants as well as stress; in Spanish and Portuguese, only distinctive stress; while in French length (for most speakers) and stress are no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost grammatical case. Columbia University Language Resource Center There has also been a major Latin influence in English. In the medieval period, much of this borrowing occurred through ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century, or indirectly after the Norman Conquest, through the Anglo-Norman language. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed "inkhorn" or "inkpot" words, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some were so useful that they survived. Imbibe and extrapolate are inkhorn terms created from Latin words. Many of the most common polysyllabic "English" words are simply adapted Latin forms, in a large number of cases adapted by way of Old French. Latin mottos are adopted by many organizations. Pronunciation Grammar Latin is a synthetic, fusional language: affixes (often suffixes, which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed stems to express gender, number, and case in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns—a process called declension. Affixes are attached to fixed stems of verbs, as well, to denote person, number, tense, voice, mood, and aspect—a process called conjugation. Nouns There are six main Latin noun cases. These play a major part in determining a noun's syntactic role in the sentence, so word order is not as important in Latin as it is in some other languages, such as English. Because of noun cases, words can often be moved around in a sentence without significantly altering its meaning, though the emphasis will have been altered. The cases, with their most important uses, are these: Nominative: used when the noun is the subject of the sentence or phrase, or when functioning as a predicative of the subject. The thing or person acting (e.g., The boy runs. Puer currit.) Genitive: used when the noun is the possessor of an object (example: "the horse of the man", or "the man's horse"—in both of these cases, the word man would be in the genitive case when translated into Latin). Also indicates material of which something greater is made (example: "a group of people"; "a number of gifts"—people and gifts would be in the genitive case). Some nouns are genitive with special verbs and adjectives too. (e.g., The cup is full of wine. Poculum plenum vini est. The master of the slave had beaten him. Dominus servi eum verberaverat.) Dative: used when the noun is the indirect object of the sentence, with special verbs, with certain prepositions, and if used as agent, reference, or even possessor. (e.g., The merchant hands over the stola to the woman. Mercator feminae stolam tradit.) Accusative: used when the noun is the direct object of the sentence/phrase, with certain prepositions, or as the subject of an infinitive. The thing or person having something done to them. (e.g., The slave woman carries the wine. Ancilla vinum portat.) Ablative: used when the noun demonstrates separation or movement from a source, cause, agent, or instrument, or when the noun is used as the object of certain prepositions; adverbial. Vocative: used when the noun is used in a direct address. The vocative form of a noun is the same as the nominative except for second declension nouns ending in -us. The -us becomes an -e or if it ends in -ius (such as filius) then the ending is just -i (fili) (as opposed to the plural nominative (filii). (e.g., "Master!" shouted the slave. "Domine!" servus clamavit.) There is also a seventh case, called the Locative case, used to indicate a location and services (corresponding to the English "in" or "at"). This is far less common than the other six cases of Latin nouns and usually applies to cities, small towns, and small islands, along with a few common nouns. In the first and second declension singular, its form coincides with the genitive (Roma becomes Romae, "in Rome"). In the plural, and in the other declensions, it coincides with the dative and ablative (Athenae becomes Athenis, "at Athens"). Latin lacks definite and indefinite articles; thus puer currit can mean either "the boy runs" or "a boy runs". Verbs Verbs in Latin are usually identified by four main conjugations, groups of verbs with similarly inflected forms. The first conjugation is typified by active infinitive forms ending in -āre, the second by active infinitives ending in -ēre, the third by infinitives ending in -ere, and the fourth by active infinitives ending in -īre. However, there are exceptions to these rules. Further, there is a subset of the 3rd conjugation, the -iō verbs, which behave somewhat like the 4th conjugation. There are six general tenses in Latin (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect), three grammatical moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive, in addition to the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive and supine), three persons (first, second, and third), two numbers (singular and plural) , two voices (active and passive), and a few aspects. Verbs are described by four principal parts: The first principal part is the first person singular, present tense, indicative mood, active voice form of the verb (or passive voice for verbs lacking an active voice). The second principal part is the present infinitive active (or passive, as above) form. The third principal part is the first person singular, perfect indicative active (or passive when there is no active) form. The fourth principal part is the supine form, or alternatively, the nominative singular, perfect passive participle form of the verb. The fourth principal part can show either one gender of the participle, or all three genders (-us for masculine, -a for feminine, and -um for neuter). It can also be the future participle when the verb cannot be made passive. Instruction in Latin A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the University Library of Graz The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in secondary schools and in universities is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using the language for the purpose of oral communication, as many modern concepts, such as those encountered in technology, have no accepted modern linguistic equivalents, and no formal organization for adopting new words. Thus the skills of reading and writing are heavily emphasized, while speaking and listening skills are de-emphasized (usually passively, through omission). However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the Living Latin movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can be taught in the same way that modern "living" languages are taught, i.e., as a means of both spoken and written communication. This approach to learning the language assists speculative insight into how ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; patterns in Latin poetry and literature can be difficult to identify without an understanding of the sounds of words. Living Latin instruction is provided in the Vatican, and some institutions in the U.S. like the University of Kentucky. In Great Britain, the Classical Association encourages this approach, and Latin language books describing the adventures of a mouse called Minimus have been published. In the United States, the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members) encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League encourages college students to continue their studies of the language. Many international auxiliary languages have been heavily influenced by Latin. Interlingua, which lays claim to a sizeable following, is sometimes considered a simplified, modern version of the language. Latino sine Flexione, popular in the early 20th century, is a language created from Latin with its inflections dropped. Latin translations of modern literature such as Paddington Bear, Winnie the Pooh, Olivia, Tintin, Asterix, Harry Potter, Le Petit Prince, Max und Moritz, How the Grinch Stole Christmas, and The Cat in the Hat are intended to bolster interest in the language. Modern use of Latin The signs at Wallsend Metro station are in English and Latin as a tribute to Wallsend's role as one of the outposts of the Roman empire. Today, Latin terminology is widely used, among other fields, in philosophy, medicine, biology, and law, in terms and abbreviations such as subpoena duces tecum, q.i.d. (quater in die: "four times a day"), and inter alia (among other things). The Latin terms are used in isolation, as technical terms. The largest organization that still uses Latin in official contexts is the Roman Catholic Church (particularly in the Latin Rite). Although the Mass of Paul VI is usually said in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, particularly in the Vatican. Indeed, Latin is still the official standard language of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the Second Vatican Council merely authorized that the liturgical books be translated and optionally used in the vernacular languages. Latin is the official language of the Holy See. In situations when lingual neutrality is preferred, such as in scientific names for organisms, Latin is typically the language of choice, followed by Greek. Some films of relevant ancient settings, such as Sebastiane and The Passion of the Christ, have been made with dialogue in Latin for purposes of realism. Occasionally, Latin dialogues are used due to its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/TV series as the Exorcist and Lost (Jughead). Subtitles are usually employed for the benefit of audiences who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics. Many organizations today have Latin mottos, such as "Semper Paratus" (always ready), the motto of the United States Coast Guard, and "Semper fidelis" (always faithful), the motto of the United States Marine Corps. Several of the states of the United States also have Latin mottos, such as "Montani Semper Liberi" (Mountaineers are always free), the state motto of West Virginia, and "Esse Quam Videri" (To be rather than to seem), that of North Carolina. The University Orator at the University of Cambridge makes a speech in Latin marking the achievements of each of the honorands at the annual Honorary Degree Congregations. These degree ceremonies as well as the formal proceedings of other degree ceremonies are conducted in Latin. Harvard and Princeton also holds a portion of their graduation ceremonies in Latin. Also Latin Grammar has been taught in most Italian schools since the 18th century, for example in the Classico (School of fine arts) and Scientifico (Science school) Latin is still one of the primary subjects, together with Italian and Mathematics. See also Latin language AP Latin Literature Latin alphabet Alphabets derived from the Latin Latin characters in Unicode Latin-1 Western Latin character sets (computing) List of Latin letters Latin encyclopedia Latin Wikipedia (Vicipaedia) Latin grammar Latin conjugation Latin declension Latin mnemonics Latin school Golden line Latin literature Latin poetry List of Latin language poets Panegyrici Latini Latin profanity Latin spelling and pronunciation Latin regional pronunciation Traditional English pronunciation of Latin Latinism Greek and Latin roots in English Latin honors Latin influence in English Latinisation List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Latin phrases List of Latin words with English derivatives List of Latinised names List of legal Latin terms List of songs with Latin lyrics List of Latin place names in Europe Latin culture Ancient Rome Culture of ancient Rome Romanization (cultural) Brocard Carmen Possum Dog Latin pig Latin Hiberno-Latin Interlingua Internationalism Judeo-Latin Latin liturgy Latin Mass Latin Rite Macaronic Latin Latino sine Flexione Loeb Classical Library Romance languages Romance peoples Historical periods Notes Clackson, James, and Geoffrey Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2007), Pp. viii, 324. References Bennett, Charles E., Latin Grammar (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908) N. Vincent: "Latin", in The Romance Languages, M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0-19-520829-3 Waquet, Françoise, Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1-85984-402-2; translated from the French by John Howe. Wheelock, Frederic, Latin: An Introduction (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0-06-078423-7 Frank Palmer Grammar External links English - Latin A search engine for English to Latin translations Open Latin Dictionary English-Latin dictionary with wiki-like user editable vocabulary Dictionary of Latin phrases LATdict Online Latin Dictionary currently contains 39,225 Latin word entries, and 229,345 searchable English words Latin language history and Classical Latin texts translated into English. Latin dictionary access to thousands of Latin terms, Latin phrases, Latin expressions and Latin words. Latin dictionary plugin for Mac OS X's Dictionary.app. Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar, from the University of Notre Dame Latin Etymology, An Etymological Dictionary of the Latin Language Latin for Beginners at Publicliterature.org Latin Language, origin and history, grammar, vocabulary, texts, etc. Latin Online from the University of Texas at Austin Latinum — Anglice et Latine — Extensive Latin language learning podcast. National Latin Exam Omniamundamundis, Latin texts from fourteen ancient Roman authors Online Latin Community Web forum for discussion of Latin language both in Latin and in Schola Latina Universalis, a version of Comenius's Orbis Sensualium Pictus The Latin Library A collection of Latin texts: classical, Christian, medieval, and modern. See also The Latin Library The Perseus Project, a resource for classical languages and literature Understanding Anatomical Latin, explaining common medical/anatomical forms Learn Latin Academia Thules offers online courses on Roman History, Philosophy, Archaeology, Religion, Language, Military Arts, Law. Advanced Latin - covers the next stages. Beginners' Latin - UK Government website for learning Latin (UK National Archives) Free public domain Latin textbooks - from TextKit.com Latin for Beginners - an ebook of a 1911 Latin textbook Latin grammar - interactive (Java) MP3 Audio of the Latin Text 1962 Ordo Missae Simplicissimus - free Ecclesiastical Latin course Robinson Crusoe in Latin Real Latin Dictionary Contemporary usage An Drouizig - Latin Spell-checker Classical Academic Press, online Latin vocabulary review Ephemeris, a Latin newspaper online Latin Google, Latin version of Google Memoria Press, editorial articles about the benefits of the study of Latin be-x-old:Лацінская мова | Latin |@lemmatized latin:182 lingua:3 latīna:1 italic:4 language:55 historically:1 speak:5 latium:2 ancient:7 rome:5 roman:16 conquest:2 spread:2 throughout:2 mediterranean:1 large:3 part:8 europe:6 romance:12 italian:10 french:7 catalan:2 romanian:3 spanish:4 portuguese:4 descend:1 many:12 others:2 especially:3 european:1 include:3 english:20 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2,028 | Gavin_MacLeod | Gavin MacLeod (born February 28, 1930) is an American actor most notable for playing Murray Slaughter on The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Captain Merrill Stubing on The Love Boat. He is the stepfather of Drew Steele, of the rock band the Surf Punks. Life and career Early years Born Allan George See in Mount Kisco, New York, he grew up in Pleasantville and studied acting at Ithaca College, graduating in 1952. His father, a gas station attendant, was a Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indian. After serving in the Air Force, he moved to New York City and worked at Radio City Music Hall while looking for acting work. At about this time he changed his name, drawing "Gavin" from a cerebral palsy victim in a TV drama, and "MacLeod" from his Ithaca drama coach, Beatrice MacLeod. Career His first movie appearance was in I Want To Live!, a 1958 prison drama starring Susan Hayward. He was soon noticed by Blake Edwards, who in 1958 cast him as a neurotic harried navy yeoman in Operation Petticoat with Cary Grant and Tony Curtis. Operation Petticoat proved to be a breakout role for MacLeod, and he was soon cast in another Edwards comedy, High Time, with Bing Crosby. MacLeod also appeared as the villain on TV shows of the late 1950s and early 1960s. He played the role of a drug pusher, 'Big Chicken', in two episodes of the first season of Hawaii Five-O. His first regular TV role came in 1962 as Joseph "Happy" Haines on McHale's Navy. MacLeod's role as Murray Slaughter on The Mary Tyler Moore Show won him lasting fame, and two Golden Globe nominations, followed by another three nominations for his The Love Boat work. Conversion During the mid-'80s, MacLeod and his then ex-wife Patti became Evangelical Christians and remarried (see TPE "Conversations 12/25/2005"). Professional responsibility as a senior actor on the set of The Love Boat weighed heavily on his mind to the extent that he "very selfishly" (his words) divorced Patti. His wife, trying to mend their marriage, then spent the next 3 years seeking help with psychiatrists on both the west and the east coast. Then one day, his wife received a telephone call from Patti Palmer, first wife of Jerry Lewis. Patti Palmer then invited her to a Christian prayer group with a number of famous actresses in it. "From that day, I started to think about her. Something told me to call Patti. I called Patti. I went back to see her the following Monday and things haven't been the same since." MacLeod asked her what had happened. She then explained everything to him including that she had given her life to Christ. Interview on The Bob Rogers Show, Radio 2CH 10:29 AEDT 27 October 2008. Following his conversion and remarriage, he and his wife wrote about struggles with divorce and alcoholism in Back On Course: The Remarkable Story of a Divorce That Ended in Remarriage. The MacLeods have been hosts on the Trinity Broadcasting Network for 14 years, primarily hosting a show about marriage called Back on Course (see TBN "Our Programs"). Gavin MacLeod appeared in Rich Christiano's Time Changer, a movie about time travel and how the morals of society have moved away from the Bible. He also has the lead role in Christiano's The Secrets of Jonathan Sperry. Current work MacLeod currently serves as the honorary Mayor of Pacific Palisades. He has been a representative for Princess Cruises for 23 years and is an MC for them, especially when new ships are launched. He is also an MC for a travel agent show. In December 2008, he conducted the Colorado Symphony in Denver. With the help of a New York writer, he is working on a biography of his life. Filmography I Want To Live! Compulsion Pork Chop Hill Operation Petticoat The Gene Krupa Story Twelve Hours to Kill High Time The Party (1968) Kelly's Heroes (1970) The Crimebusters McHale's Navy Joins the Air Force Time Changer (2002) The Sand Pebbles The Secrets of Jonathan Sperry Television My Favorite Martian Mr. Lucky The Untouchables The Suite Life On Deck Dan Raven Perry Mason Dr. Kildare The Investigators The Dick Van Dyke Show The Munsters The Twilight Zone Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. McHale's Navy The Andy Griffith Show The Man from U.N.C.L.E. Hogan's Heroes The Rat Patrol Combat! The Big Valley It Takes a Thief Hawaii Five-O The Road West (in 1967 episode "The Eighty-Seven Dollar Bride" with Cloris Leachman) Mary Tyler Moore The Love Boat The King of Queens That '70s Show Scruples (1980 TV Mini Series as Curt Arvey) The Suite Life on Deck Footnotes External links NNDB Entry Archive of American Television Interview with Gavin MacLeod in Jan 3, 2003 on Google Video TBN page | Gavin_MacLeod |@lemmatized gavin:4 macleod:12 born:1 february:1 american:2 actor:2 notable:1 play:2 murray:2 slaughter:2 mary:3 tyler:3 moore:3 show:9 captain:1 merrill:1 stub:1 love:4 boat:4 stepfather:1 drew:1 steele:1 rock:1 band:1 surf:1 punk:1 life:5 career:2 early:2 year:4 bear:1 allan:1 george:1 see:4 mount:1 kisco:1 new:4 york:3 grow:1 pleasantville:1 study:1 act:2 ithaca:2 college:1 graduate:1 father:1 gas:1 station:1 attendant:1 chippewa:1 ojibwa:1 indian:1 serve:2 air:2 force:2 move:2 city:2 work:5 radio:2 music:1 hall:1 look:1 time:6 change:1 name:1 draw:1 cerebral:1 palsy:1 victim:1 tv:4 drama:3 coach:1 beatrice:1 first:4 movie:2 appearance:1 want:2 live:2 prison:1 star:1 susan:1 hayward:1 soon:2 notice:1 blake:1 edward:2 cast:2 neurotic:1 harried:1 navy:4 yeoman:1 operation:3 petticoat:3 cary:1 grant:1 tony:1 curtis:1 prove:1 breakout:1 role:5 another:2 comedy:1 high:2 bing:1 crosby:1 also:3 appear:2 villain:1 late:1 drug:1 pusher:1 big:2 chicken:1 two:2 episode:2 season:1 hawaii:2 five:2 regular:1 come:1 joseph:1 happy:1 haines:1 mchale:3 win:1 last:1 fame:1 golden:1 globe:1 nomination:2 follow:2 three:1 conversion:2 mid:1 ex:1 wife:5 patti:6 become:1 evangelical:1 christian:2 remarry:1 tpe:1 conversation:1 professional:1 responsibility:1 senior:1 set:1 weigh:1 heavily:1 mind:1 extent:1 selfishly:1 word:1 divorce:3 try:1 mend:1 marriage:2 spend:1 next:1 seek:1 help:2 psychiatrist:1 west:2 east:1 coast:1 one:1 day:2 receive:1 telephone:1 call:4 palmer:2 jerry:1 lewis:1 invite:1 prayer:1 group:1 number:1 famous:1 actress:1 start:1 think:1 something:1 tell:1 go:1 back:3 following:1 monday:1 thing:1 since:1 ask:1 happen:1 explain:1 everything:1 include:1 give:1 christ:1 interview:2 bob:1 rogers:1 aedt:1 october:1 remarriage:2 write:1 struggle:1 alcoholism:1 course:2 remarkable:1 story:2 end:1 host:2 trinity:1 broadcasting:1 network:1 primarily:1 tbn:2 program:1 rich:1 christiano:2 changer:2 travel:2 moral:1 society:1 away:1 bible:1 lead:1 secret:2 jonathan:2 sperry:2 current:1 currently:1 honorary:1 mayor:1 pacific:1 palisade:1 representative:1 princess:1 cruise:1 mc:2 especially:1 ship:1 launch:1 agent:1 december:1 conduct:1 colorado:1 symphony:1 denver:1 writer:1 biography:1 filmography:1 compulsion:1 pork:1 chop:1 hill:1 gene:1 krupa:1 twelve:1 hour:1 kill:1 party:1 kelly:1 hero:2 crimebusters:1 join:1 sand:1 pebbles:1 television:2 favorite:1 martian:1 mr:1 lucky:1 untouchable:1 suite:2 deck:2 dan:1 raven:1 perry:1 mason:1 dr:1 kildare:1 investigator:1 dick:1 van:1 dyke:1 munsters:1 twilight:1 zone:1 gomer:1 pyle:1 u:2 c:2 andy:1 griffith:1 man:1 n:1 l:1 e:1 hogan:1 rat:1 patrol:1 combat:1 valley:1 take:1 thief:1 road:1 eighty:1 seven:1 dollar:1 bride:1 cloris:1 leachman:1 king:1 queen:1 scruple:1 mini:1 series:1 curt:1 arvey:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 nndb:1 entry:1 archive:1 jan:1 google:1 video:1 page:1 |@bigram mary_tyler:3 tyler_moore:3 cerebral_palsy:1 cary_grant:1 bing_crosby:1 golden_globe:1 globe_nomination:1 patti_palmer:2 jerry_lewis:1 pork_chop:1 gene_krupa:1 perry_mason:1 van_dyke:1 twilight_zone:1 andy_griffith:1 external_link:1 |
2,029 | Demographics_of_Montserrat | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Montserrat, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 8,400 (2002 estimate) note: an estimated 8,000 refugees left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995; many have returned. Pre-eruption population was 13,000 in 1994. Age structure: 0-14 years: 23.4% (male 1,062; female 1,041) 15-64 years: 65.3% (male 2,805; female 3,066) 65 years and over: 11.4% (male 537; female 484) (2003 est.) Median age: total: 27.8 years male: 27.7 years female: 27.9 years (2002) Population growth rate: 4.5% (2003 est.) Birth rate: 17.57 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate: 7.34 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate: 195.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.11 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 7.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) female: 6.43 deaths/1,000 live births male: 9.05 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: total population: 78.36 years male: 76.24 years female: 80.59 years (2003 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.8 children born/woman (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA% HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA Nationality: noun: Montserratian(s) adjective: Montserratian Ethnic groups: black, white - mainly of mixed Irish and African descent Religions: Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Seventh-Day Adventist, other Christian denominations Languages: English Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 97% male: 97% female: 97% (1970 est.) See also : Montserrat:'' Montserratian British Source CIA World Factbook | Demographics_of_Montserrat |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:12 montserrat:2 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 estimate:1 note:1 estimated:1 refugee:1 leave:1 island:1 follow:1 resumption:1 volcanic:1 activity:1 july:1 many:1 return:1 pre:1 eruption:1 age:3 structure:1 year:12 male:12 female:12 est:10 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:4 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 na:3 people:1 nationality:1 noun:1 montserratian:3 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 black:1 white:1 mainly:1 mixed:1 irish:1 african:1 descent:1 religion:1 anglican:1 methodist:1 roman:1 catholic:1 pentecostal:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 christian:1 denomination:1 language:1 english:1 literacy:1 definition:1 ever:1 attend:1 school:1 see:1 also:1 british:1 source:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:4 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 day_adventist:1 literacy_definition:1 |
2,030 | Outback | A tourism sign post Yalgoo, Western Australia |The Dingo Fence near Coober Pedy Fitzgerald River National Park in Western Australia The Outback is the remote arid areas of Australia, although the term colloquially can refer to any lands outside of the main urban areas. The term "the outback" is generally used to refer to locations that are comparatively more remote than those areas deemed "the bush". Overview The outback is home to the Australian feral camel, donkey and dingo. The Dingo fence was built to restrict dingo movements into agricultural areas towards the south east of the continent. The marginally fertile parts are primarily utilised as rangelands and have been traditionally used for sheep or cattle grazing, on cattle stations which are leased from the Federal Government. While small areas of the outback consist of clay soils the majority has exceedingly infertile palaeosols. Riversleigh, in Queensland, is one of Australia's most renowned fossil sites and was recorded as a World Heritage site in 1994. The 100 km² area contains fossil remains of ancient mammals, birds and reptiles of Oligocene and Miocene age. History Early European exploration of inland Australia was sporadic. More focus was on the more accessible and fertile coastal areas. The first party to successfully cross the Blue Mountains just outside Sydney was led by Gregory Blaxland in 1813, 25 years after the colony was established. People starting with John Oxley in 1817, 1818 and 1821, followed by Charles Sturt in 1829-1830 attempted to follow the westward-flowing rivers to find an "inland sea", but these were found to all flow into the Murray River and Darling River which turn south. Over the period 1858 to 1861, John McDouall Stuart led six expeditions north from Adelaide into the outback, culminating in successfully reaching the north coast of Australia and returning, without the loss of any of the party's members' lives. This contrasts with the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition in 1860-61 which was much better funded, but resulted in the deaths of three of the four members of the transcontinental party. The Overland Telegraph line was constructed in the 1870s along the route identified by Stuart, who had found enough water to support the needed repeater stations. Exploration of the outback continued in the 1950s when Len Beadell explored, surveyed and built many roads in support of the nuclear weapons tests at Emu Field and Maralinga and rocket testing on the Woomera Prohibited Area. Mineral exploration continues as new mineral deposits are identified and developed. Mining Other than agriculture and tourism, the main economic activity in this vast and sparsely settled area is mining. Owing to the complete absence of mountain building and glaciation since the Permian (in many areas since the Cambrian) ages, the outback is extremely rich in iron, aluminium, manganese and uranium ores, and also contains major deposits of gold, nickel, lead and zinc ores. Because of its size, the value of grazing and mining is considerable. Major mines and mining areas in the outback include opals at Coober Pedy, Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs, metals at Broken Hill, Tennant Creek, Olympic Dam and the remote Challenger Mine. Oil and gas are extracted in the Cooper Basin around Moomba. In Western Australia the Argyle diamond mine in the Kimberley (Western Australia) is the world's biggest producer of natural diamonds and contributes approximately one-third of the world's natural supply. The Pilbara region's economy is dominated by mining and petroleum industries. The Pilbara’s oil and gas industry is the region’s largest export industry earning $5.0 billion in 2004/05 accounting for over 96% of the State's production. source - http://www.pdc.wa.gov.au/industry/types-of-industries/oil-and-gas.aspx Most of Australia's iron ore is also mined in the Pilbara and it also has one of the world's major manganese mines, Woodie Woodie. Population Owing to the low and erratic rainfall over most of the outback, combined with soils which are usually not very fertile, inland Australia is relatively sparsely settled. More than 90 percent of Australians live in urban areas on the coast. However the outback and the history of its exploration and settlement provides Australians with a culturally valued backdrop, and stories of swagmen, squatters, and bushrangers are central to the national ethos. The song Waltzing Matilda, which is about a swagman and squatters, is probably Australia's best internationally known and most well-loved song. Aboriginal communities in outback regions have not been displaced as they have been in areas of intensive agriculture and large cities, in coastal areas. So a significant proportion of the country's indigenous population lives in the Outback, in areas such as the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara lands in northern South Australia. Medicine Flying over western New South Wales. Near the bottom of the picture, a squiggly line appears; apparently, a creek created by recent rain. Owing to the wide expanses and remoteness of people in the outback, a 'Flying Doctor Service' exists to provide medical services and medevac to remote areas. This service was created in 1928 in Cloncurry, Queensland by the Very Reverend John Flynn (known as Flynn of the Outback). The aim of the service is to provide medical care, primary and emergency, to people who cannot reach hospitals or general practitioners. Regular Clinics are flown out to remote communities, with consultations held in a specially built clinic, in a homestead, or even under the wing of the plane. In addition The Royal Flying doctors Service provides Air Ambulance to remote areas, Hospital to Hospital Transport and Telephone and Radio consultations. In Queensland RFDS nurses are RIPRN endorsed so that they can offer a greater level of knowledge and skills to outback people. Often in areas where there may be no doctor in the town. Education In most outback communities, the number of children is too small for a conventional school to operate. Children are educated at home by the School of the Air. Originally the teachers communicated with the children via radio, but now satellite telecommunication is used instead. Some children attend boarding school, mostly only those in secondary school. Terminology Culturally, many urban Australians have had very generalised terms for the otherwise complex range of environments that exist within the inland and tropical regions of the continent. Regional terminology can be very specific to specific locations in each mainland state. The concept of 'back' country, which initially meant land beyond the settled regions, was in existence in 1800. Crossing of the Blue Mountains and other exploration of the inland however gave a different dimension to the perception. The term "outback" was first used in print in 1869, when the writer clearly meant west of Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. Coupe, Sheena (ed.), Frontier Country, Vol. 1, Weldon Russell Publishing, Willoughby, 1989, ISBN 1 875202 01 3 It is colloquially said that 'the outback' is located "beyond the Black Stump". The location of the black stump may be some hypothetical location or may vary depending on local custom and folklore. It has been suggested that the term comes from the Black Stump Wine Saloon that once stood about 10 kilometres out of Coolah, New South Wales on the Gunnedah Road. It is claimed that the saloon, named after the nearby Black Stump Run and Black Stump Creek, was an important staging post for traffic to north-west New South Wales and it became a marker by which people gauged their journeys. The MacDonnell Ranges in the Northern Territory are found in the centre of the country. "The Never-Never" is a term referring to remoter parts of the Australian outback. The outback can be also referred to as "back of beyond", "back o' Bourke" although these terms are more frequently used when referring to something a long way from anywhere, or a long way away. The well-watered north of the continent is often called the "Top End" and the arid interior "The Red Centre", owing to its vast amounts of red soil and sparse greenery amongst its landscape. Wildlife A Brumby in the Outback The Australian Outback is full of very well-adapted wildlife, although much of it may not be immediately visible to the casual observer. Many animals rest during the heat of the day, such as kangaroos and native dogs, the dingo. Birdlife is prolific, most often seen at waterholes at dawn and dusk. Huge flocks of budgerigars, cockatoos, corellas and galahs are often sighted. Various species of snakes and lizards bask in the sun in winter, on bare ground or roads, but they are rarely seen during the summer months. Feral animals such as Camels thrive in central Australia, brought to Australia by the early Afghan drivers. Wild horses known as 'brumbies,' are station horses that have run wild. Feral pigs, foxes, cats and rabbits are also imported animals that degrade the environment, and time and money is spent eradicating them, to help protect fragile rangelands. Tourism There are many popular tourist attractions in the outback. Some of the well known destinations include: Alice Springs Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame Birdsville Broome Coober Pedy Uluru (Ayers Rock) Devils Marbles Kakadu National Park Katherine Gorge The Olgas (Kata Tjuta) Kings Canyon (Watarrka) MacDonnell Ranges Mount Isa Monkey Mia Mount Augustus National Park Willandra Lakes Region Gosses Bluff crater, one of a number of meteor impact craters that can be found across outback Australia. Visitors to the outback often drive their own or rented vehicles, or take organised tours. Travel through remote areas on main roads is easily done and requires no advance planning. However travel through very remote areas, on isolated tracks, requires advance planning and a suitable, reliable vehicle (usually a four wheel drive). On very remote routes considerable supplies and equipment may be required, this can include prearranged caches. It is not advisable to travel into these especially remote areas with a single vehicle, unless fully equipped with good communication technology (eg a satellite phone, EPIRB etc). Many visitors prefer to travel in these areas in a convoy. Deaths from tourists and locals becoming stranded on outback trips occasionally occur, invariably because insufficient water and food supplies were taken, and/or because people have walked away from their vehicle in search of help. Travellers through very remote areas should always inform a reliable person of their route and expected destination arrival time, and remember that a vehicle is much easier to locate in an aerial search, than a person, so in the event of a breakdown, they must not leave their vehicle. Year of the Outback 2002 In 2002 the Western Australian Tourism Commission promoted the outback of Western Australia as part of its promotional programmes. Transport A road sign warning of potentially dangerous conditions ahead. The outback is criss-crossed by historic tracks, roads and highways. Most of the highways have an excellent bitumen surface and other major roads are usually well-maintained dirt roads. Tracks in very sandy or exceedingly rocky areas may require high-clearance four wheel drives and spare fuel, tyres, food and water before attempting to travel them, however most outback roads are easily traversed in ordinary vehicles, provided care is taken. Drivers unused to dirt roads should be especially cautious - it is recommended that drivers reduce their speed, drive with extra care, and avoid driving at night because animals can stray on to roads. Travelling in remote areas in northern Australia is not advisable during the wet season (November to April), as heavy tropical downpours can quickly make dirt roads impassable. In the remotest parts of Australia fuel sellers are located hundreds of kilometres apart, so spare fuel must be carried or refuelling spots calculated carefully in order not to run out of fuel in between towns. The Stuart Highway runs from north to south through the centre of the continent, roughly paralleled by the Adelaide-Darwin railway. There is a proposal to develop some of the roads running from the SW to the NE to create an all-weather road named the Outback Highway, crossing the continent diagonally from Laverton, Western Australia (north of Kalgoorlie, through the Northern Territory to Winton, in Queensland. Air transport is relied on for mail delivery in some areas, owing to sparse settlement and wet-season road closures. Most outback mines have an airstrip and many have a fly-in fly-out workforce. Most outback sheep stations and cattle stations have an airstrip and quite a few have their own light plane. Medical and ambulance services are provided by the Royal Flying Doctor Service. The School of the Air is a radio-based school using the RFDS radios. Birdsville Track Burke Developmental Road Canning Stock Route Colson Track Connie Sue Highway French Line Gary Highway Gibb River Road Great Central Road Gunbarrel Highway K1 Line Kalumburu Road Kidson Track Lasseter Highway Oodnadatta Track Peninsula Developmental Road Plenty Highway Rig Road Sandover Highway Strzelecki Track Tallawana Track Tanami Track WAA Line Notable Towns/Cities Alice Springs, Northern Territory Tennant Creek, Northern Territory Broken Hill, New South Wales Coober Pedy, South Australia Mount Isa, Queensland Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Western Australia References Further reading Outback Online Video Guide overlander.tv Dwyer Andrew (2007) OUTBACK- Recipes and Stories from the Campfire Miegunyah Press ISBN 978 0 522 85380 3 Read, Ian G.(1995) Australia's central and western outback : the driving guide Crows Nest, N.S.W. Little Hills Press. 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2,031 | French_fries | French fries (North American English, sometimes capitalized ), chips (British English), fries, or french-fried potatoes (formal) are thin strips of potato that have been deep-fried. They are popular in many countries and go by many names in various languages. A distinction is sometimes made between fries and chips. North Americans often refer to any elongated pieces of fried potatoes as fries, while in other parts of the world, long slices of potatoes are sometimes called fries to contrast them with the thickly cut strips, which are often referred to as chips. French fries are known as frites or pommes frites in many parts of Europe, and have names that mean "french potatoes" in others (Icelandic Franskar kartöflur, Finnish Ranskalaiset perunat). Etymology Oven baked The straightforward explanation of the term is that it means potatoes fried in the French sense of the verb "to cook", which can mean either sautéing or deep-grease frying, while its French origin, frire, unambiguously means deep-frying, frites being its past participle used with a plural feminine substantive, as in pommes de terre frites ("deep-fried potatoes"). Thomas Jefferson, famous for serving French dishes, wrote exactly the latter French expression. In the early 20th century, the term "French fried" was being used for foods such as onion rings or chicken, apart from potatoes. The verb "to french", though not attested until after "French fried potatoes" had appeared , can refer to "julienning" of vegetables as is acknowledged by some dictionaries, "french : (...) Usage: often capitalized – 1 : to trim the meat from the end of the bone of (as a chop) – 2 : to cut (green beans) in thin lengthwise strips before cooking" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed.) while others only refer to trimming the meat off the shanks of chops. "to French: to prepare, as a chop, by partially cutting the meat from the shank and leaving bare the bone so as to fit it for convenient handling" (Oxford English Dictionary) In the UK, "Frenched" lamb chops (particularly for serving as a "rack of lamb") have the majority of the fat removed together with a small piece of fatty meat from between the ends of the chop bones, leaving mainly only the meat forming the "eye" of the chop attached. Culinary origin Belgium Belgian historian Jo Gerard recounts that potatoes were already fried in 1680 in the Spanish Netherlands, in the area of "the Meuse valley between Dinant and Liège, Belgium. The poor inhabitants of this region allegedly had the custom of accompanying their meals with small fried fish, but when the river was frozen and they were unable to fish, they cut potatoes lengthwise and fried them in oil to accompany their meals." J. Gérard, Curiosités de la table dans les Pays-Bas Belgiques, s.l., 1781. A Belgian legend claims that the term "French" was introduced when British or American soldiers arrived in Belgium during World War I, and consequently tasted Belgian fries. They supposedly called them "French", as it was the official language of the Belgian Army at that time. Whether or not Belgians invented them, "frites" became the national snack and a substantial part of both national dishes, making the Belgians their largest per capita consumers in Europe and their "symbolic" creators. France Many Americans attribute the dish to France — although in France they are almost exclusively thought of as Belgian — and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson. "Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches" ("Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small cuttings") in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801-1809) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien. It is worth noting, though, that France had recently annexed what is now Belgium, and would retain control over it until the Congress of Vienna of 1815 brought it under Dutch control. In addition, from 1813 Ude, Louis. The French Cook on, recipes for what can be described as french fries, occur in popular American cookbooks. By the late 1850s, one of these mentions the term "French fried potatoes". Recipes for fried potatoes (not clearly specified how) in French cookbooks date back at least to Menon's Les soupers de la cour (1755). It is true that eating potatoes was promoted in France by Parmentier, but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular. In French, they are simply called "pommes de terres frites" or, more commonly, simply "pommes frites" or "frites". Spain Some claim that the dish was invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared via the New World colonies, and assumes the first appearance to have been as an accompaniment to fish dishes in Galicia, from which it spread to the rest of the country and further to the Spanish Netherlands, more than a century before Belgium was created there. Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Friet-museum in Antwerp, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila fried the first chips, referring also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine. (Feb 25 2007 found archived as "Nieuw boek van frietprofessor Paul Ilegems over frietkotcultuur" 20051213.3133206672696574) Spreading popularity United Kingdom The first chip fried in Britain was apparently on the site of Oldham's Tommyfield Market in 1860. In Scotland, chips were first sold in Dundee, "...in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city’s Greenmarket." United States' world-wide influence French fry production at a restaurant with thermostatic temperature control. Although the thicker cut British style of fried potato was already a popular dish in most Commonwealth countries, the thin style of french fries has been popularized worldwide in part by U.S.-based fast food chains like McDonald's and Burger King. This came about through the introduction of the frozen french fry invented by the J.R. Simplot Company of Idaho in the early 1950s. Before the handshake deal between Ray Kroc of McDonald's and Jack Simplot, potatoes were hand-cut and peeled in the restaurants, but Simplot's frozen product reduced preparation time and aided the expansion of the McDonald's franchise. In the 2000s Pre-made french fries have been available for home cooking since the 1970s, usually having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag. Later varieties of french fries include those which have been battered and breaded, and many U.S. fast food and casual-food chains have turned to dusting with kashi, dextrin, and flavors coating for crispier fries with particular tastes. Results with batterings and breadings, followed by microwaving, have not achieved widespread critical acceptance. Oven frying delivers a dish different from the traditionally fried item. Variants Sweet potato fries served with a restaurant meal in Harvard Square. French fries have numerous variants, such as "thick-cut fries", "shoestring fries", "jojo fries", "crinkle fries", and "curly fries". They can also be coated with breading and spices, which include garlic powder, onion powder, black pepper, paprika, and salt to create "seasoned fries", or cut thickly with the skin left on to create potato wedges, or without the skin to create "steak fries", essentially the American equivalent of the British "chip". Sometimes, french fries are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation (having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory): these are often sold frozen and are called "oven fries" or "oven chips". In France, the thick-cut fries are called "pommes Pont-Neuf" Evelyn Saint-Ange, Paul Aratow (translator), La Bonne Cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange: The Essential Companion for Authentic French Cooking, Larousse, 1927, translation Ten Speed Press, 2005, ISBN 1-580-08605-5, p. 553. or simply "pommes frites", about 10 mm; thinner variants are "pommes allumettes" (matchstick potatoes), ±7 mm, and "pommes pailles" (potato straws), 3-4 mm (roughly ⅜, ¼ and ⅛ inch respectively). The two-bath technique is standard (Bocuse). "Pommes gaufrettes" or "waffle fries" are not typical french fried potatoes, but actually crisps obtained by quarter turning the potato before each next slide over a grater and deep-frying just once. Jean Ceustermans, a Belgian chef patented "steppegras" ("prairie grass"), his variety of extremely thin-cut French fried potatoes developed in 1968 while working in Germany. The name refers to a dish including its particular sauce, and to his restaurant. In Australia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and elsewhere, the term "French fries" was made popular by American fast food franchises setting up restaurants and serving narrow-cut (shoestring) fries. Traditional "chips" in the United Kingdom and Ireland are usually cut much thicker, typically between ⅜ and ½ inches (9.5-13 mm) square in cross-section and cooked twice, making them less crunchy on the outside and fluffier on the inside. Since the surface-to-volume ratio is lower, they have a lower fat content. Chips are part of the popular take-away dish fish and chips. In Australia, the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand, few towns are without a chip shop (colloquially, a chippie/chippy/chipper). In an interview, Burger King president Donald Smith said that his chain's fries are sprayed with a sugar solution shortly before being packaged and shipped to individual outlets. The sugar caramelizes in the cooking fat, producing the golden color customers expect. Without it, the fries would be nearly the same color outside as inside: pasty yellow. Smith believes that McDonald's also sugar-coats its fries. McDonalds was assumed to fry their fries for a total time of about 15 to 20 minutes, and with fries fried at least twice. The fries appear to contain beef lard, or shortening. Curly fries Curly fries Curly fries are a kind of french fry characterized by their unique spring-like shape. They are generally made from whole potatoes that are cut using a specialised spiral slicer. Sometimes they are packaged for preparation at home, often in frozen packs. In the US they can also be found at a number of restaurants and fast food outlets like Arby's, where they are most often served with cups of dipping cheese; although other condiments, such as ketchup, fry sauce, or sweet chili sauce and sour cream, may be served with curly fries. Accompaniments Chili cheese fries French fries are almost always salted just after cooking. They are then served with a variety of condiments, notably ketchup, curry, curry ketchup (mildly hot mix of the former), hot or chili sauce, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, tzatziki, feta cheese, garlic sauce, fry sauce, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, brown sauce, vinegar (especially malt vinegar), lemon, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, gherkins, very small pickled onions, poutine (especially Quebec, Canada), or honey. Fish and chips. Besides being a popular snack in themselves, french fried potatoes as a side dish to specific food or an integral part of a named dish often typify a country: In Belgium, steamed mussels: mosselen-friet (Dutch) or moules-frites (French), a popular summer dish when the mussels arrive, typically from Zeeland. Also biefstuk-friet or bifteck-frites (which may be served with beef or horse steak), with plainly seasoned fries or served with a Belgian sauce, and usually a simple salad. A quick and inexpensive traditional meal is a deep fried egg on top of a plate of chips. A notorious Belgian tradition is putting mayonnaise on fries, although a typical frietkot will offer dozens of other sauces. Some claim the typical American ketchup/fries pairing is a variation of mayo/fries. In Algeria, grilled Merguez: Frites-merguez. In the Netherlands, kroket and frikandel are the most accompaniments. In France, grilled steak: steak-frites. In Hungary, Wiener Schnitzel or other roasted meat served with green salad, as a regular Sunday meal. In Spain, fried eggs: huevos fritos con patatas. In the United Kingdom, chips are a popular staple. "Chip shops" (or "chippies") commonly serve several dishes with chips such as cod ("fish and chips") and battered sausage (sausage supper). British cafes, on the other hand, serve more traditional fare, such as fried eggs (double egg and chips). Sometimes served with a British full breakfast. In the United States, hamburgers: Burger and fries, and chili and melted American cheese: Chili cheese fries. In Canada, gravy and cheese curds: poutine. In Germany, sausage with curry-flavored ketchup: Currywurst. In Norway, Finland, and Sweden, kebab, hamburgers, and sausages. In Portugal, chips are served along with dry rice (arroz seco), a usual combination, that is not the complete dish, that can include grilled chicken (Piri-Piri chicken), espetada, omelette or eggs, beef (prego no prato), and several other dishes and lettuce. In the Middle East, chips are served in pita bread with breaded chicken or falafel, along with cucumber and tomato, and condiments such as hummus, tahini, or tzatziki. In Chile, chips are served with fried eggs, fried onions, and a steak in a national dish called "Bistec a lo Pobre" (Poor Man's Steak) Preparation When freshly made, french fried potatoes are best cooked at least twice. Soaking the cut potatoes in ice water helps remove some of the excess starch from the surface. The potatoes should be par-cooked at a lower temperature (320°F/160°C) for 6–8 minutes until limp and the color changes from white to blond. (Thick-cut "steak fries" or "chips" should be cooked 10–12 minutes.) This ensures that the center of the potato stick is cooked all the way through; skipping this step results in fries that are either undercooked in the middle or overcooked on the outside. The potatoes should be allowed to cool and dry for at least 10 minutes. Meanwhile, the oil should be reheated to a higher temperature (365°F/185°C). The rested potatoes should be cooked until golden, slightly puffy, and crisp, 1–2 minutes. Health aspects Fries cooking in oil. French fries can contain a large amount of fat (usually saturated) or oils from frying. Some researchers have suggested that the high temperatures used for frying such dishes may have results harmful to health (see acrylamides). In the United States about ¼ of vegetables consumed are prepared as french fries and are proposed to contribute to widespread obesity. Frying french fries in beef tallow adds saturated fat to the diet. Replacing tallow with tropical oils such as palm oil simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. Replacing tallow with partially hydrogenated oil reduces cholesterol but adds trans fat, which has been shown to both raise LDL cholesterol and lower HDL cholesterol. Canola oil could also be used, but beef lard is probably best for flavoring. The cooking on right picture uses gas stove for fast oil temperature re-gain and better heat control. Many restaurants now advertise their use of unsaturated oils. Five Guys, for example, advertises their fries are prepared in peanut oil. Legal issues In 1994, the well-known owner of Stringfellows nightclub in London, Peter Stringfellow, took exception to McCain Foods' use of the name "Stringfellows" for a brand of long thin french fries and took them to court. He lost the case (Stringfellows v McCain Food (GB) Ltd (1994)) on the basis that there was no connection in the public mind between the two uses of the name, and therefore McCain's product would not have caused the nightclub to lose any sales. In New Zealand in 1995 some branches of the local fast food chain Georgie Pie took to calling their French fries "Kiwi Fries", in opposition to the French resumption of nuclear testing in the South Pacific. In early 2003 some members of the U.S. congress proposed calling french fries freedom fries in response to France's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq. By 2006 the menu at the House restaurant had reverted to calling them french fries. In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture, with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. Although this move was mostly for trade reasons (french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a "processed food"), this received significant media attention partially due to the documentary Super Size Me. See also Deep frying Chip pan Deep fryer Vacuum fryer Fry sauce Home fries Freedom fries Potato wedges Poutine Notes References Bocuse, Paul. La Cuisine du marché'', Paris, 1992. External links The Official French Fries Pages -- information and fan site (1996-pres.) 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2,032 | Hopwood_Award | The Hopwood Awards are a major scholarship program at the University of Michigan, founded by Avery Hopwood. Under the terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent American dramatist and member of the Class of 1905 of The University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood's estate was given to the Regents of the University for the encouragement of creative work in writing. The first awards were made in 1931, and today the Hopwood Program offers approximately $120,000 in prizes every year to young aspiring writers at the University of Michigan. Previous Hopwood winners include Max Apple, John Malcolm Brinnin, John Ciardi, Lyn Coffin, Mary Gaitskill, Kristin Hatch, Robert Hayden, Lawrence Joseph, Jane Kenyon, Elizabeth Kostova, Arthur Miller, Howard Moss, Davi Napoleon, Frank O'Hara, Marge Piercy, Davy Rothbart, Betty Smith, Nancy Willard, and Maritta Wolff. Contests and prizes The Graduate and Undergraduate Hopwood Contest Awards are offered in the following genres: drama/screenplay, essay, the novel, short fiction and poetry. These awards are classified under two categories, Graduate or Undergraduate, except the novel and drama/screenplay, which are combined categories. Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in the range of $1000 to $6000. Summer Hopwood Contest This contest is open only to students who take writing courses during spring and summer terms. Hopwood Underclassmen Contest This contest is open only to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses. See also University of Michigan Arthur Miller External links Hopwood Awards References Napoleon, Davi: The Rewards of the Hopwood Michigan Alumus, Spring 1999. A past winner and judge explores the values and dangers of this literary competition. | Hopwood_Award |@lemmatized hopwood:11 award:6 major:1 scholarship:1 program:2 university:5 michigan:5 found:1 avery:2 term:2 prominent:1 american:1 dramatist:1 member:1 class:1 one:1 fifth:1 mr:1 estate:1 give:1 regent:1 encouragement:1 creative:1 work:1 write:1 first:1 make:1 today:1 offer:2 approximately:1 prize:2 every:1 year:1 young:1 aspire:1 writer:1 previous:1 winner:2 include:1 max:1 apple:1 john:2 malcolm:1 brinnin:1 ciardi:1 lyn:1 coffin:1 mary:1 gaitskill:1 kristin:1 hatch:1 robert:1 hayden:1 lawrence:1 joseph:1 jane:1 kenyon:1 elizabeth:1 kostova:1 arthur:2 miller:2 howard:1 moss:1 davi:2 napoleon:2 frank:1 hara:1 marge:1 piercy:1 davy:1 rothbart:1 betty:1 smith:1 nancy:1 willard:1 maritta:1 wolff:1 contest:7 graduate:2 undergraduate:2 following:1 genre:1 drama:2 screenplay:2 essay:1 novel:2 short:1 fiction:1 poetry:1 classify:1 two:1 category:2 except:1 combine:1 amount:1 vary:1 usually:1 fall:1 range:1 summer:2 open:2 student:1 take:1 writing:2 course:2 spring:2 underclassmen:1 freshman:1 sophomore:1 enrol:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 reward:1 alumus:1 past:1 judge:1 explore:1 value:1 danger:1 literary:1 competition:1 |@bigram marge_piercy:1 freshman_sophomore:1 external_link:1 |
2,033 | Henri_Bergson | Henri-Louis Bergson (; 18 October 1859–4 January 1941) was a major French philosopher, influential in the first half of the 20th century. Biography Overview Bergson was born in the Rue Lamartine in Paris, not far from the Palais Garnier (the old Paris opera house) in 1859, the year of the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. He was descended from a Polish Jewish family (originally Bereksohn) on his father's, the musician, Michał Bergson's side, while his mother, Katherine Levison, daughter of a Yorkshire doctor, was from an English and Irish Jewish background. The Bereksohns were a famous Jewish entrepreneurial family of Polish descent. Henri Bergson's great-great-grandfather, Szmul Jakubowicz Sonnenberg, called Zbytkower, was a prominent banker and King Stanisław August Poniatowski's protégé http://www.wprost.pl/ar/140524/Z-ziemi-polskiej-do-Nobla/?O=140524&pg=2 PL http://dziedzictwo.polska.pl/katalog/skarb,Testament_starozakonnego_Berka_Szmula_Sonnenberga_z_1818_roku,gid,261356,cid,3312.htm?body=descPL . His family lived in London for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the English language from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents crossed the English Channel and settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized citizen of the Republic. He married Louise Neuberger, a cousin of Marcel Proust, in 1891. They had a daughter, Jeanne, who was born deaf in 1896. His sister, Mina Bergson (also known as Moina Mathers), married the English occult author Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, a leader of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and the couple later relocated to Paris as well. Bergson lived the quiet life of a French professor. Its chief landmarks were the publication of his four principal works: in 1889, Time and Free Will (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience); in 1896, Matter and Memory (Matière et mémoire); in 1907, Creative Evolution (L'Evolution créatrice); and in 1932, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion (Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion). He was named in 1900 as professor in the College of France, holding the Chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy, which he held until 1904. He then replaced Gabriel Tarde in the Chair of Modern Philosophy, which he held until 1920. His courses were attended by a large public. Education and career Bergson attended the Lycée Fontaine (now known as the Lycée Condorcet) in Paris from 1868 to 1878. Having received a Jewish religious education, he of course read the Bible, including the Genesis. Between 14 and 16, however, he lost his faith. According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of the theory of evolution, according to which humanity shares common ancestry with modern primates and was not necessarily created directly by God Henri Hude, Bergson, Paris, Editions universitaires, 1990, 2 volumes, quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau in the 21 December 2006 course at the College of France . While there he won a prize for his scientific work and another, in 1877 when he was eighteen, for the solution of a mathematical problem. His solution was published the following year in Annales de Mathématiques. It was his first published work. After some hesitation as to whether his career should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of the humanities, he decided in favour of the latter, to the dismay of his teachers Anne Fagot-Largeau, 21 December 2006 course at the College of France (audio file of the course) . When he was nineteen, he entered the famous École Normale Supérieure. During this period, he read Herbert Spencer . He obtained there the degree of Licence-ès-Lettres, and this was followed by that of Agrégation de philosophie in 1881 . The same year he received a teaching appointment at the Lycée in Angers, the ancient capital of Anjou. Two years later he settled at the Lycée Blaise-Pascal in Clermont-Ferrand, capital of the Puy-de-Dôme département. The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an excellent edition of extracts from Lucretius, with a critical study of the text and the materialist cosmology of the poet (1884), a work whose repeated editions are sufficient evidence of its useful place in the promotion of classical study among the youth of France. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the Auvergne region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation Time and Free Will, which was submitted, along with a short Latin thesis on Aristotle (L'idée de lieu chez Aristote), for his doctoral degree which was awarded by the University of Paris in 1889. The work was published in the same year by Félix Alcan. He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the Pre-Socratics, in particular on Heraclitus . Bergson dedicated Time and Free Will to Jules Lachelier, then public education minister, who was a disciple of Félix Ravaisson and the author of a rather important philosophical work On the Founding of Induction (Du fondement de l'induction, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism." (Lachelier was born in 1832, Ravaisson in 1813 . Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the Ecole Normale Supérieure. Cf. his memorial address on Ravaisson, who died in 1900 .) Bergson settled again in Paris, and after teaching for some months at the municipal college, known as the College Rollin, he received an appointment at the Lycée Henri-Quatre, where he remained for eight years. There, he read Charles Darwin and gave a course on him . Although he previously endorsed Lamarckism and its theory of the heritability of acquired characteristics, he then preferred Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variations, which were more compatible with his continuist vision of life . In 1896 he published his second large work, entitled Matter and Memory. This rather difficult, but brilliant, work investigates the function of the brain, undertakes an analysis of perception and memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relation of body and mind. Bergson had spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in Matter and Memory, where he showed a thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations which had been carried out during the period. In 1898 Bergson became Maître de conférences at his Alma Mater, L'Ecole Normale Supérieure, and was later promoted to a Professorship. The year 1900 saw him installed as Professor at the Collège de France, where he accepted the Chair of Greek and Latin Philosophy in succession to Charles L'Eveque. At the First International Congress of Philosophy, held in Paris during the first five days of August, 1900, Bergson read a short, but important, paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in the Law of Causality" (Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité). In 1901 Felix Alcan published a work which had previously appeared in the Revue de Paris, entitled Laughter (Le rire), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions. This essay on the meaning of comedy was based on a lecture which he had given in his early days in the Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life are valuable. The main thesis of the work is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. We laugh at people who fail to adapt to the demands of society, if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in there being "something mechanical encrusted on the living". p.39 Seth Benedict Graham A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT 2003 p.2 In 1901 Bergson was elected to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques, and became a member of the Institute. In 1903 he contributed to the Revue de métaphysique et de morale a very important essay entitled Introduction to Metaphysics (Introduction à la metaphysique), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books. He detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in the Creative Evolution Anne Fagot-Largeau, 21 December 2006 course at the College of France (audio file of the course) . On the death of Gabriel Tarde, the eminent sociologist, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him in the Chair of Modern Philosophy. From the 4th to 8 September of that year he was at Geneva attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion (Le cerveau et la pensée: une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at Heidelberg. His third major work, Creative Evolution, appeared in 1907, and is undoubtedly the most widely known and most discussed. It constitutes one of the most profound and original contributions to the philosophical consideration of the theory of evolution. Imbart de la Tour remarked that Creative Evolution was a milestone of new direction in thought. By 1918, Alcan, the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions per annum for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles, but among the general reading public. At that time, Bergson had already studied extensively biology, being aware of the theory of fecundation (as shown by the first chapter of the Creative Evolution), which had only recently emerged, in the 1885s — which was no small feat for a philosopher specialized in history of philosophy, in particular Greek and Latin philosophy . He also most certainly had read, apart of Darwin, Haeckel, from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings , as well as Hugo de Vries, whom he quoted his mutation theory of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism) . He also quoted Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, the successor of Claude Bernard at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the College of France, etc. Relationship with James and Pragmatism Bergson came to London in 1908 where he met William James, the Harvard philosopher who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of the French professor. The two became great friends. James's impression of Bergson is given in his Letters under date of 4 October 1908: "So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy." As early as 1880 James had contributed an article in French to the periodical La Critique philosophique, of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled Le Sentiment de l'Effort. Four years later a couple of articles by him appeared in the journal Mind: "What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology." Of these articles the first two were quoted by Bergson in his 1889 work, Time and Free Will. In the following years 1890-91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work, The Principles of Psychology, in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson. Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding since 1870 (registered from time to time by various articles which culminated in "The Principles"), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's. It has been suggested that Bergson owes the root ideas of his first book to the 1884 article by James, "On Some Omissions of Introspective Psychology," which he neither refers to nor quotes. This article deals with the conception of thought as a stream of consciousness, which intellect distorts by framing into concepts. Bergson replied to this insinuation by denying that he had any knowledge of the article by James when he wrote Les données immédiates de la conscience. The two thinkers appear to have developed independently until almost the close of the century. They are further apart in their intellectual position than is frequently supposed. Both have succeeded in appealing to audiences far beyond the purely academic sphere, but only in their mutual rejection of "intellectualism" as final is their real unanimity. Although James was slightly ahead in the development and enunciation of his ideas, he confessed that he was baffled by many of Bergson's notions. James certainly neglected many of the deeper metaphysical aspects of Bergson's thought, which did not harmonize with his own, and are even in direct contradiction. In addition to this, Bergson can hardly be considered a pragmatist. For him, "utility," far from being a test of truth, was in fact the reverse: a synonym for error. Nevertheless, William James hailed Bergson as an ally. Early in the century (1903) he wrote: "I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read since years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that that philosophy has a great future, it breaks through old cadres and brings things into a solution from which new crystals can be got." The most noteworthy tributes paid by him to Bergson were those made in the Hibbert Lectures (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at Manchester College, Oxford, shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he has received from Bergson's thought, and refers to the confidence he has in being "able to lean on Bergson's authority." The influence of Bergson had led him "to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that logic is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be." It had induced him, he continued, "to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably" as a method, for he found that "reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it." These remarks, which appeared in James's book A Pluralistic Universe in 1909, compelled many English and American readers to an investigation of Bergson's philosophy for themselves. A certain handicap existed in that his greatest work had not then been translated into English. James, however, encouraged and assisted Dr. Arthur Mitchell in his preparation of the English translation of Creative Evolution. In August 1910 James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see the completion of the translation, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. In the following year the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work was the result. By a coincidence, in that same year (1911), Bergson penned a preface of sixteen pages entitled Truth and Reality for the French translation of James's book, "Pragmatism". In it he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, coupled with certain important reservations. In April (5th to 11th) Bergson attended the Fourth International Congress of Philosophy held at Bologna, in Italy, where he gave an address on "Philosophical Intuition". In response to invitations he visited England in May of that year, and on several subsequent occasions. These visits were well received. His speeches offered new perspectives and elucidated many passages in his three major works: Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory, and Creative Evolution. Although necessarily brief statements, they developed and enriched the ideas in his books and clarified for English audiences the fundamental principles of his philosophy. The lectures on Change Bergson visited the University of Oxford, where he delivered two lectures entitled The Perception of Change (La perception du changement), which were published in French in the same year by the Clarendon Press. As he had a delightful gift of lucid and brief exposition, when the occasion demands such treatment, these lectures on Change formed a most valuable synopsis or brief survey of the fundamental principles of his thought, and served the student or general reader alike as an excellent introduction to the study of the larger volumes. Oxford honoured its distinguished visitor by conferring upon him the degree of Doctor of Science. Two days later he delivered the Huxley Lecture at the University of Birmingham, taking for his subject Life and Consciousness. This subsequently appeared in The Hibbert Journal (October, 1911), and since revised, forms the first essay in the collected volume Mind-Energy (L'Energie spirituelle). In October he was again in England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at University College London four lectures on La Nature de l'Ame. In 1913 he visited the United States of America, at the invitation of Columbia University, New York, and lectured in several American cities, where he was welcomed by very large audiences. In February, at Columbia University, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects: Spirituality and Freedom and The Method of Philosophy. Being again in England in May of the same year, he accepted the Presidency of the British Society for Psychical Research, and delivered to the Society an impressive address: Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research (Fantômes des vivants et recherche psychique). Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his works began to appear in a number of languages: English, German, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Hungarian, Polish and Russian. In 1914 he was honoured by his fellow-countrymen in being elected as a member of the Académie française. He was also made President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques, and in addition he became Officier de la Légion d'honneur, and Officier de l'Instruction publique. Bergson found disciples of many varied types, and in France movements such as Neo-Catholicism or Modernism on the one hand and Syndicalism on the other, endeavoured to absorb and to appropriate for their own immediate use and propaganda some of the central ideas of his teaching. That important continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, Le Mouvement socialiste, suggested that the realism of Karl Marx and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and that, therefore, supporters of Marxian socialism should welcome a philosophy such as that of Bergson. Other writers, in their eagerness, asserted the collaboration of the Chair of Philosophy at the College de France with the aims of the Confédération Générale du Travail and the Industrial Workers of the World. It was claimed that there is harmony between the flute of personal philosophical meditation and the trumpet of social revolution. While social revolutionaries were endeavouring to make the most out of Bergson, many leaders of religious thought, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them endeavoured to find encouragement and stimulus in his work. The Roman Catholic Church, however, which still believed that finality was reached in philosophy with the work of Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century, and consequently had made that mediaeval philosophy her official, orthodox, and dogmatic view, took the step of banning Bergson's three books, accused of pantheism (that is, of conceiving of God as immanent to his Creation and of being himself created in the process of the Creation ) by placing them upon the Index of prohibited books (Decree of 1 June 1914). Later life In 1914, the Scottish Universities arranged for Bergson to deliver the famous Gifford Lectures, and one course was planned for the spring and another for the autumn. The first course, consisting of eleven lectures, under the title of The Problem of Personality, was delivered at the University of Edinburgh in the Spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. Bergson was not, however, silent during the conflict, and he gave some inspiring addresses. As early as 4 November, 1914, he wrote an article entitled Wearing and Nonwearing forces (La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas), which appeared in that unique and interesting periodical of the poilus, Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française. A presidential address, The Meaning of the War, was delivered in December, 1914, to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques. Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by The Daily Telegraph in honour of the King of the Belgians, King Albert's Book (Christmas, 1914). In 1915 he was succeeded in the office of President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques by Alexandre Ribot, and then delivered a discourse on The Evolution of German Imperialism. Meanwhile he found time to issue at the request of the Minister of Public Instruction a brief summary of French Philosophy. Bergson did a large amount of travelling and lecturing in America during the war. He participated to the negotiations which led to the entry of the United States in the war. He was there when the French Mission under René Viviani paid a visit in April and May 1917, following upon America's entry into the conflict. Viviani's book La Mission française en Amérique (1917), contains a preface by Bergson. Early in 1918 he was officially received by the Académie française, taking his seat among "The Select Forty" as successor to Emile Ollivier, the author of the large and notable historical work L'Empire libéral. A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier. In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus he shows us the central idea of his own philosophy in action. To no other philosopher has it fallen, during his lifetime, to have his philosophical principles so vividly and so terribly tested. As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals were not readily accessible, he agreed to the request of his friends that these should be collected and published in two volumes. The first of these was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in 1919 . It bears the title Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures (L'Energie spirituelle: essais et conférences). The advocate of Bergson's philosophy in England, Dr. Wildon Carr, prepared an English translation under the title Mind-Energy. The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, "Life and Consciousness", in a revised and developed form under the title "Consciousness and Life". Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, L'Ame et le Corps, which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul. The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, The Psycho-Physiological Paralogism (Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique), which now appears as Le cerveau et la pensée: une illusion philosophique. Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort. The volume is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of "tension" and "detension" as applied to the relation of matter and mind. In June 1920, the University of Cambridge honoured him with the degree of Doctor of Letters. In order that he might be able to devote his full time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, Bergson was relieved of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy at the Collège de France. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his disciple, the mathematician and philosopher Edouard Le Roy, who supported a conventionalist stance on the foundations of mathematics, which was adopted by Bergson See Chapter III of The Creative Evolution . Le Roy, who also succeeded to Bergson at the Académie française and was a fervent Catholic, extended to revealed truth his conventionalism, leading him to privilege faith, heart and sentiment to dogmas, speculative theology and abstract reasonings. Like Bergson's, his writings were placed on the Index by the Vatican. Bergson then published Duration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe (Durée et simultanéité), a book on physics which was followed by a polemical conversation with Albert Einstein at the French Society of Philosophy . The latter book has been often considered as one of his worst, many alleging that his knowledge of physics was very insufficient, and that the book did not follow up contemporary developments on physics . It was not published in the 1951 Edition du Centenaire in French, which contained all of his other works, and was only published later in a work gathering different essays, titled Mélanges. Duration and simultaneity took advantage of Bergson's experience at the League of Nations, where he presided starting in 1920 the International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation (the ancestor of the UNESCO, which included Einstein, Marie Curie, etc.) . Living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1927 for having written The Creative Evolution. Because of serious rheumatics ailments, he could not travel to Stockholm, and send instead a text which has been published in La Pensée et le mouvant . After his retirement from the Collège, Bergson began to fade into obscurity, because he was suffering from a degenerative illness (rheumatics, which left him half paralyzed ). He completed his new work, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion, which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality, religion and art, in 1935. It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past. He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all of the posts and honours previously awarded him, rather than accept exemption from the antisemitic laws imposed by the Vichy government. Bergson wanted to convert to Catholicism writing on February 7, 1937 in his own testimony: My thinking has always brought me nearer to Catholicism, in which I saw the perfect compliment to Judaism. Israel Zolli, Before the Dawn, New York, 1954, p.71 Though wanting to convert to Catholicism he held off instead and showed solidarity with his fellow Jews by signing the registry books. http://www.egs.edu/resources/bergson.html A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Henri Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, Hauts-de-Seine. Philosophy One of Bergson's main problems is to think novelty as pure creation, instead of as the unraveling of a predetermined program. His is a philosophy of pure mobility, unforeseeable novelty, creativity and freedom, which can thus be characterized as a process philosophy. It touches upon such topics as time and identity, free will, perception, change, memory, consciousness, language, the foundation of mathematics and the limits of reason. The topics can be found explored in Henri Bergson's Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness, Matter and Memory, Creative Evolution, and The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics. Criticizing Kant's theory of knowledge exposed in the Critique of Pure Reason and his conception of truth — which he compares to Plato's conception of truth as its symmetrical inversion (order of nature/order of thought) — he attempted to redefine the relations between science and metaphysics, intelligence and intuition, and insisted on the necessity of increasing thought's possibility through the use of intuition, which would be, according to him, the only way of approaching a knowledge of the absolute and of real life, understood as pure duration. Because of his (relative) criticism of intelligence, he makes a frequent use of images and metaphors in his writings in order to avoid the use of concepts, which he considers fail to touch the whole of reality, being only a sort of abstract net thrown on things. For instance, he says in The Creative Evolution (chap.III) that thought in itself would never have thought it possible for the human being to swim, as it cannot deduce swimming from walking. For swimming to be possible, man must throw itself in water, and only then can thought consider swimming as possible. Intelligence, for Bergson, is a practical faculty rather than a pure speculative faculty, a product of evolution used by man to survive. If metaphysics is to avoid "false problems", it should not extend to pure speculation the abstract concepts of intelligence, but rather use intuition Elie Duhring, « Fantômes de problèmes », published by the Centre International d'Etudes de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine (short version first published in Le magazine littéraire, n°386, April 2000 (issue dedicated to Bergson) . The Creative Evolution was in particular an attempt to think the continuous creation of life, which explicitly pitted itself against Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy — Spencer had attempted to transpose Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in philosophy and to construct a cosmology based on this theory; he was also the inventor of the expression "survival of the fittest." Although Spencer is considered as an important influence of Bergson, some have downplayed it, as it seems that Bergson would have very early criticized him . Henri Bergson’s Lebensphilosophie (Philosophy of Life) can be seen as a response to the mechanistic philosophies of his time Henri Bergson, The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics, pages 11 to 13. , but also to the failure of finalism . Indeed, he considers that finalism is unable to explain "duration" and the "continuous creation of life", as it only explains life as the progressive development of an initially determined program — a notion which remains, for example, in the expression of a "genetic program" ; such a description of finalism was adopted, for instance, by Leibniz . Bergson thought that it was impossible to plan beforehand the future, as time itself unraveled unforeseen possibilities. Indeed, a historical event could always be explained retrospectively by its conditions of possibility. But, in the introduction to the Pensée et le mouvant, he explains that such an event created retrospectively its causes, taking the example of the creation of a work of art, for example a symphony: it was impossible to predict what would be the symphony of the future, as if the musician knew what symphony would be the best for his time, he would realize it. In his words, the effect created its cause. Henceforth, he attempted to find a third way between mechanism and finalism, through the notion of an original impulse, the élan vital, in life, which dispersed itself through evolution into contradictory tendencies (he substituted to the finalist notion of a teleological aim a notion of an original impulse). Duration The foundation of Henri Bergson’s philosophy is his theory of Duration, which he discovered when trying to improve the inadequacies of Herbert Spencer’s philosophy. A theory of time and consciousness, the Duration is introduced in his doctoral theses Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness as a response to another of his influences: Immanuel Kant. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Time and Free Will has to be seen as an attack on Kant, for whom freedom belongs to a realm outside of space and time. Kant believed freewill could only exist outside of time and space, that we could therefore not know whether or not it exists, and that it is nothing but a pragmatic faith. Bergson’s response was to show that Kant, along with many other philosophers, had confused time with its spatial representation. Henri Bergson, Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness, Author's Preface. In reality, the Duration is unextended yet heterogeneous, and so its parts cannot be juxtaposed as a succession of distinct parts, with one causing the other. This made determinism an impossibility and freewill pure mobility, which is what Bergson identified as being the Duration. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy For Bergson — and perhaps this is his greatest insight — freedom is mobility. Intuition The Duration then is a unity and a multiplicity, but, being mobile, it cannot be grasped through immobile concepts. Hence the only way to grasp it is through Bergson’s method of intuition. Two images from Henri Bergson’s An Introduction to Metaphysics may help us grasp intuition, the limits of concepts, and the ability of intuition to grasp the absolute. The first is that of a city. Analysis, or the creation of concepts through the divisions of points of view, can only ever give us a model of the city through a construction of photographs taken from every possible point of view, yet it can never give us the dimensional value of walking in the city itself. This can only be grasped through intuition, as can the experience of reading a line of Homer. One may translate the line and pile commentary upon commentary, but this commentary too shall never grasp the simple dimensional value of experiencing the poem in its originality itself. The method of intuition, then, is that of getting back to the things themselves. Henri Bergson, The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics, pages 160 to 161. Élan Vital The third essential concept of Bergson’s, after Duration and intuition, is the Élan vital. An idea with the goal of explaining evolution, the Élan vital first appeared in 1907’s Creative Evolution. Élan vital is a kind of vital impetus which explains evolution in a less mechanical and more lively manner, as well as the creative impulse of mankind. This concept led Bergson to be characterized by several authors as a supporter of vitalism—although he criticized it explicitly in The Creative Evolution, as he thought, against Driesch and Johannes Reinke (whom he cited) that there is neither "purely internal finality nor clearly cut individuality in nature" L'Evolution créatrice, pp. 42-44; pp. 226-227 : <blockquote>Hereby lies the stumbling block of vitalist theories (...) It is thus in vain that one pretends to reduce finality to the individuality of the living being. If there is finality in the world of life, it encompasses the whole of life in one indivisible embrace.<ref>L'Evolution créatrice, pp. 42-43</ref></blockquote> Laughter In the idiosyncratic Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic, Bergson develops a theory not of laughter, but of how laughter can be provoked (see his objection to Delage, published on the 23rd edition of the essay). He describes the process of laughter (refusing to give a conceptual definition which would not approach its reality), used in particular by comics and clowns, as the caricature of the mechanism nature of humans (habits, automatic acts, etc.), one of the two tendencies of life (degradation towards inert matter and mechanism, and continual creation of new forms). However, Bergson warns us that laughter’s criteria of what should be laughed at is not a moral criteria and that it can in fact cause serious damage to a person’s self-esteem. Henri Bergson's theory of laughter. A brief summary. This essay made his opposition to the Cartesian theory of the animal-machine obvious. Criticisms and reception From his first publications, Bergson's philosophy attracted strong criticism from different angles, although he was also very popular and durably influenced French philosophy — the epistemologist Gaston Bachelard, for example, explicitly alluded to him in the last pages of his 1938 book (The Formation of the Scientific Mind). The mathematician Edouard Le Roy was Bergson's main disciple. Others influenced by Bergson include Vladimir Jankélévitch, who wrote a book on him (Henri Bergson) in 1931, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin and Gilles Deleuze who wrote Le bergsonisme in 1966 (transl. 1988). Bergson is also often classified as an influence upon the process philosophy of (beside Deleuze) Alfred North Whitehead, as well as the phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty and Emmanuel Lévinas. Dermot Moran, Introduction to Phenomenology, pages 322 and 393. The Greek author Nikos Kazantzakis studied under Bergson in Paris and his writing and philosophy were profoundly influenced as a result. Peter Bien, Three Generations of Greek Writers, Published by Efstathiadis Group, Athens, 1983 Many writers of the early 20th century criticized his intuitionism, indeterminism, psychologism and unique interpretation of the scientific impulse. Among those who explicitly criticized Bergson (either in published articles or letters) were Bertrand Russell (see his short book on the subject), George Santayana (see his study on the author in "Winds of Doctrine"), G. E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Julien Benda (see his book on the subject), T. S. Eliot, Paul Valéry (despite some recent claims otherwise), Andre Gide (see below), Jean Piaget (see his book Insights and Illusions of Philosophy 1972), Marxists philosophers such as Theodor W. Adorno (see "Against Epistemology"), Lucio Colletti (see "Hegel and Marxism"), , Jean-Paul Sartre (see his early book Imagination — although Sartre also appropriated himself Bergsonian thesis on novelty as pure creation - see Situations I, Gallimard 1947, p.314) and Georges Politzer (see the latter's two books on the subject: Le Bergsonisme, une Mystification Philosophique and La fin d'une parade philosophique: le Bergsonisme both of which had a tremendous effect on French existential phenomenology), as well as (the non-Marxist) Maurice Blanchot (see Bergson and Symbolism), American philosophers such as Irving Babbitt, Arthur Lovejoy, Josiah Royce, The New Realists (Ralph B. Perry, E. B. Holt, and William P. Montague), The Critical Realists (Durant Drake, Roy W. Sellars, C. A. Strong, and A. K. Rogers), Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Roger Fry (see his letters), Julian Huxley (in Evolution: The Modern Synthesis) and Virginia Woolf (for the latter, see Ann Banfield, The Phantom Table). Bergson was accused by the Vatican of being pantheistic, while free-thinkers, who formed a large part of the teachers and professors of the French Third Republic, accused him of spiritualism. Still others have characterized his philosophy as a materialist emergentism — Samuel Alexander and C. Lloyd Morgan explicitly claimed Bergson as their forebearer . According to Henri Hude (1990, II, p.142), who supports himself on the whole of Bergson's works as well as his now published courses, accusing him of pantheism is a "counter-sense". Hude alleges that a mystical experience, roughly outlined at the end of Les Deux sources de la morale et de la religion, is the inner principle of his whole philosophy, although this has been contested by other commentators. Charles Sanders Peirce took strong exception to being aligned with Bergson. In response to a letter comparing his work with that of Bergson he wrote, “a man who seeks to further science can hardly commit a greater sin than to use the terms of his science without anxious care to use them with strict accuracy; it is not very gratifying to my feelings to be classed along with a Bergson who seems to be doing his prettiest to muddle all distinctions.” William James’s students resisted the assimilation of his work to that of Bergson’s. See, for example, Horace Kallen’s book on the subject James and Bergson. As Jean Wahl described the “ultimate disagreement” between James and Bergson in his System of Metaphysics: “for James, the consideration of action is necessary for the definition of truth, according to Bergson, action...must be kept from our mind if we want to see the truth.” Gide even went so far as to say that future historians will over-estimate Bergson’s influence on art and philosophy just because he was the self-appointed spokesman for “the spirit of the age.” As early as the 1890s, Santayana attacked certain key concepts in Bergson’s philosophy, above all his view of the New and the indeterminate: “the possibility of a new and unaccountable fact appearing at any time,” he writes in his book on Lotze, “does not practically affect the method of investigation;...the only thing given up is the hope that these hypotheses may ever be adequate to the reality and cover the process of nature without leaving a remainder. This is no great renunciation; for that consummation of science...is by no one really expected.” According to Santayana and Russell, Bergson projected false claims onto the aspirations of scientific method, which Bergson needed to make in order to justify his prior moral commitment to freedom. Russell takes particular exception to Bergson’s understanding of number in chapter two of Time and Free-will. According to Russell, Bergson uses an outmoded spatial metaphor (“extended images”) to describe the nature of mathematics as well as logic in general. “Bergson only succeeds in making his theory of number possible by confusing a particular collection with the number of its terms, and this again with number in general,” writes Russell (see The Philosophy of Bergson and A History of Western Philosophy). Further still, the élan vital was seen to be a projection of the inner life, a moral feeling, onto the world at large. The external world, according to certain theories of probability, provides less and less indeterminism with further refinement of scientific method. In brief, the moral, psychological, and aesthethic demand for the new, the underivable and the unexplained should not be confused with our imagination of the universe at large. A difference remains between our inner sense of becoming and the non-human character of the outer world, which, according to the ancient materialist Lucretius should not be characterized as either one of becoming or being, creation or destruction (De Rerum Natura). See also Duration Intuition Élan vital Philosophy of biology Process philosophy Alfred North Whitehead William James Gilles Deleuze Charles Peguy Notes Bibliography Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness 1910. (Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience 1889) Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41767-0 – Bergson's doctoral dissertationMatter and Memory 1911. (Matière et mémoire 1896) Zone Books 1990: ISBN 0-942299-05-1, Dover Publications 2004: ISBN 0-486-43415-XLaughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic 1901. (Le rire) Green Integer 1998: ISBN 1-892295-02-4, Dover Publications 2005: ISBN 0-486-44380-9Creative Evolution 1910. (L'Evolution créatrice 1907) University Press of America 1983: ISBN 0-8191-3553-4, Dover Publications 1998: ISBN 0-486-40036-0, Kessinger Publishing 2003: ISBN 0-7661-4732-0, Cosimo 2005: ISBN 1-59605-309-7Mind-energy 1920. (L'Energie spirituelle 1919) McMillan. – a collection of essays and lecturesDuration and Simultaneity: Bergson and the Einsteinian Universe 1922. Clinamen Press Ltd. ISBN 1-903083-01-XThe Two Sources of Morality and Religion 1932. (Les Deux Sources de la Morale et de la Religion) University of Notre Dame Press 1977: ISBN 0-268-01835-9The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics 1946. (La Pensée et le mouvant 1934) Citadel Press 2002: ISBN 0-8065-2326-3 – essay collection, sequel to Mind-Energy, including 1903's "An Introduction to Metaphysics" External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Henri Bergson (1859-1941) with collection of subpages Henri Bergson Francia, 1859-1941 Life and works Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941) Education and career Relationship with James Henri Bergson's theory of laughter. A brief summary. « 'A History of Problems' : Bergson and the French Epistemological Tradition », by Elie During Works online Works by Henri Bergson in French at "La Philosophie" Complete works in French on the "Classiques des sciences sociales" website L'Evolution créatrice (in the original French, 1907) 1911 English translation of Creative Evolution'' (html) multiple formats at Internet Archive 1910 English translation of Time and Free Will (html) multiple formats at Internet Archive 1911 English translation of Matter and Memory (html) multiple formats at Internet Archive | Henri_Bergson |@lemmatized henri:21 louis:1 bergson:129 october:4 january:2 major:3 french:19 philosopher:8 influential:1 first:14 half:2 century:5 biography:1 overview:1 bear:4 rue:1 lamartine:1 paris:11 far:5 palais:1 garnier:1 old:2 opera:1 house:2 year:22 publication:9 charles:7 darwin:6 origin:2 specie:1 descend:1 polish:3 jewish:4 family:3 originally:1 bereksohn:1 father:1 musician:2 michał:1 side:1 mother:2 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2,034 | Mayotte | Mayotte (, ; Shimaore (Swahili dialect): Maore, ; Malagasy: Mahori), officially the Departmental Collectivity of Mayotte (), is an overseas collectivity of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre (or Mahoré), a smaller island, Petite-Terre (or Pamanzi), and several islets around these two. Mayotte is in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, between northern Madagascar and northern Mozambique. The territory is geographically part of the Comoro Islands, but has been politically separate since the 1970s. The territory is also known as Mahoré, the native name of its main island, especially by advocates of its inclusion in the Union of Comoros. A referendum on becoming an overseas department of France in 2011 was held on 29 March 2009. The outcome was a 95.5 per cent vote in favour of changing the island's status from a French "overseas community" to become France's 101st département. | Mayotte votes to become France's 101st department Geography Map of the Comoros with Mayotte Beach scenery in Mayotte. The main island, Grande-Terre (or Mahoré), geologically the oldest of the Comoros, is 39 kilometres (24 mi) long and 22 kilometres (13½ mi) wide, and its highest point is Mount Benara (; Shimaore: Mlima Bénara) at 660 metres (2,165 ft) above sea level. Because of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A coral reef encircling much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi was the capital of Mayotte until 1977. It is situated on Petite-Terre (or Pamanzi), which at 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mahoré. Mayotte is a member of the Indian Ocean Commission, with a separate membership rather than as part of the Comoros. History For the history of Mayotte before 1974 see also History of the Comoros. In 1500 the Maore or Mawuti (contraction of the Arabic جزيرة الموت Jazīrat al-Mawt(meaning island of the dead/of death and corrupted to Mayotte in French) sultanate was established on the island. In 1503, Mayotte was observed by Portuguese explorers, but not colonized. In 1832, it was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina on Madagascar; in 1833 conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali (Mohéli island in French); on 19 November 1835 again conquered by the Ndzuwani Sultanate (Anjouan sultanate in French; a governor was installed with the unusual Islamic style of Qadi (from the Arabic قاض which means judge), sort of a 'Resident Magistrate' in British terms), but in 1836 regained its independence under a last local Sultan. Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other Comoros in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago that voted in referendums in 1974 and 1976 to retain its link with France and forgo independence (with 63.8% and 99.4% of votes respectively). The Comoros continue to claim the island, and a draft 1976 United Nations Security Council resolution supported by 11 of the 15 members of the Council would have recognized Comororian sovereignty over Mayotte, but France vetoed the resolution (the last time, , that France cast a lone veto in the Council). The United Nations General Assembly has adopted a series of resolutions on the issues, whose tenor can be gauged from their title: "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte" up to 1995. Since 1995, the subject of Mayotte has not been discussed by the General Assembly. On March 29, 2009, a referendum was held in Mayotte about joining France as full part of the French Republic. The local population approved the referendum by a majority of 95.2% and thus will become integral part of France in 2011. It will then get the same healthcare and welfare system as France but will also pay more taxes. Islamic law will be progressively abolished and be replaced by uniform French civil code. Mayotte vote en faveur de la départementalisation, Le Monde, March 29, 2009 Sea near Mamoudzou Politics Politics of Mayotte takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic French overseas community, whereby the President of the General Council is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Mayotte also sends one deputy to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate. The situation of Mayotte proved to be unwieldy for France: while the local population very largely did not want to be independent from France and join the Comoros, some international criticism from post-colonial leftist regimes was heard about Mayotte's ongoing ties to France. Furthermore, the peculiar local administration of Mayotte, largely ruled by customary Muslim law, would be difficult to integrate into the legal structures of France, not to mention the costs of bringing the standards of living to levels close to those of metropolitan France. For these reasons, the laws passed by the national parliament had to state specifically that they applied to Mayotte for them to be applicable on Mayotte. The status of Mayotte was changed in 2001 towards one very close to the status of the departments of mainland France, with the particular designation of departmental community, although the island is still claimed by the Comoros. This change was approved by 73% of voters in a referendum. After the constitutional reform of 2003 it became an overseas community while retaining the title departmental community of Mayotte. After the local referendum that occurred in March 2009 and that massively approved a constitutional reform with about 95% of voters, Mayotte will become a new overseas departement (or DOM, département d'outre-mer), further increasing its links with the legal and social system used in La Réunion and in the metropole. This will require abandoning some customary laws, adopting the standard French civil code, and reforming the judiciary, educational, social and fiscal systems, over a period of about 20 years. In addition, the department will become fully eligible to fundings from the European Union (to which it will be fully integrated) like the four other French DOMs. Administrative divisions Mayotte is divided into 17 communes. There are also 19 cantons (not shown here) each of which corresponds to one of the communes, except for the commune of Mamoudzou which is divided into three cantons. There are no arrondissements. Communes of Mayotte <table> Dzaoudzi Pamandzi Mamoudzou Dembeni Bandrele Kani-Kéli Bouéni Chirongui Sada Ouangani Chiconi Tsingoni M'Tsangamouji Acoua Mtsamboro Bandraboua Koungou </tr> </table> Transport No railways or waterways. Highways: total: 93 kilometres (58 mi) paved : 72 kilometres (45 mi) unpaved : 21 kilometres (13 mi) Ports and harbours: Dzaoudzi "Longoni" (Koungou) Airports: Dzaoudzi Pamandzi International Airport with paved runways: 1 (2002) Economy The official currency of Mayotte is the euro. INSEE estimated that the total GDP of Mayotte amounted to 610 million euros in 2001 (US$547 million at 2001 exchanges rates; US$903 million at Jan. 2008 exchange rates). In that same year the GDP per capita of Mayotte was 3,960 euros (US$3,550 at 2001 exchanges rates; US$5,859 at Jan. 2008 exchange rates), which was 9 times higher than the GDP per capita of the Comoros that year, but only a third of the GDP per capita of Réunion and 16% of the GDP per capita of Metropolitan France. Demographics As of the July 2007 census there were 186,452 people living in Mayotte. According to the 2002 census, 64.7% of the people living in Mayotte were born in Mayotte, 3.9% were born in the rest of the French Republic (either metropolitan France or overseas France except Mayotte), 28.1% were immigrants from the Comoros, 2.8% were immigrants from Madagascar, and the remaining 0.5% came from other countries. Population history 1958 1966 1978 1985 1991 1997 2002 2007 23,364 32,607 47,246 67,205 94,410 131,320 160,265 186,452 <small>Official figures from past censuses. Religion The main religion in Mayotte is Islam. BBC News Languages A survey was conducted by the French Ministry of National Education in 2006 among pupils registered in CM2 (equivalent to fifth grade in the US and Year 6 in England and Wales). Questions were asked regarding the languages spoken by the pupils as well as the languages spoken by their parents. According to the survey, the ranking of mother tongues is the following (ranked by number of first language speakers in the total population; note that percentages add up to more than 100% because some people are natively bilingual): Shimaore: 55.1% Shindzwani: 22.3% Kibushi: 13.6% Shingazidja: 7.9% French: 1.4% Shimwali: 0.8% Arabic: 0.4% Kiantalaotsi: 0.2% Other: 0.4% However, when also counting second language speakers (e.g. someone whose mother tongue is Shimaore but who also speaks French as a second language) then the ranking becomes: Shimaore: 88.3% French: 56.9% Shindzwani: 35.2% Kibushi: 28.8% Shingazidja: 13.9% Arabic: 10.8% Shimwali: 2.6% Kiantalaotsi: 0.9% Other: 1.2% Indigenous The native languages of Mayotte are: Shimaore, a swahili dialect heavily influenced by French and Malagasy Kibushi, a western dialect of the Malagasy language (the language of Madagascar) heavily influenced by Shimaore and Arabic Kiantalaotsi, another western dialect of the Malagasy language also heavily influenced by Shimaore and Arabic Arabic, essentially learnt in the Quranic schools Kibushi is spoken in the south and north-west of Mayotte, while Shimaore is spoken elsewhere. Non-indigenous French French is the only official language of Mayotte. It is the language used by the administrations and the school system. It is the language most used by televisions and radios as well as in commercial announcements and billboards. In spite of this, Mayotte is one of the French overseas territories where the knowledge of French is the least developed, as shown by the figures above. At the 2002 census, only 55% of people older than 15 y/o declared they could read and write French, although this figure is higher than those who can read and write Shimaore (41%) or Arabic (33%). With the mandatory schooling of children and the economic development both implemented by the French central state, the French language has progressed significantly on Mayotte in recent years. The survey conducted by the Ministry of National Education showed that while first and second language speakers of French represented 56.9% of the population in general, this figure was only 37.7% for the parents of CM2 pupils, but reached 97.0% for the CM2 pupils themselves (whose age is between 10 and 14 in general). Already there are instances of families speaking only French to their children in the hope of helping their social advancement. With French schooling and French language television, many young people turn to French or use many French words when speaking Shimaore and Kibushi, leading some to fear that these native languages of Mayotte could either disappear or become some sort of French-based creole. Other Various dialects of the Comorian language essentially imported by immigrants who have arrived in Mayotte since 1974: Shindzwani (the dialect of Anjouan, or Nzwani), Shingazidja (the dialect of Grande Comore, or Ngazidja), and Shimwali (the dialect of Mohéli, or Mwali). Shingazidja and Shimwali on the one hand and Shimaore on the other hand are hardly mutually intelligible. Shindzwani and Shimaore are perfectly mutually intelligible. Music See also Geography of Mayotte Demographics of Mayotte Politics of Mayotte Economy of Mayotte Communications in Mayotte French overseas departments and territories Administrative divisions of France Islands administered by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans 2008 invasion of Anjouan References External links IleMayotte.com The Mayotte Portal (in French and English) Mayotte at WorldStatesmen.org Comité du tourisme de Mayotte Official tourism website "Voyages...Visages" - Another way of travelling and seeing Analysis of the linguistic situation on Mayotte be-x-old:Маёта | Mayotte |@lemmatized mayotte:53 shimaore:13 swahili:2 dialect:8 maore:2 malagasy:4 mahori:1 officially:1 departmental:3 collectivity:2 overseas:9 france:22 consisting:1 main:4 island:15 grande:3 terre:4 mahoré:4 small:2 petite:2 pamanzi:2 several:2 islet:2 around:1 two:2 northern:3 mozambique:2 channel:1 indian:3 ocean:3 madagascar:4 territory:4 geographically:1 part:4 comoro:1 politically:1 separate:2 since:3 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2,035 | Color | Color is an important part of human expression. Color or colour See American and British English spelling differences (in American and British English, respectively) is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, yellow, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light (distribution of light energy versus wavelength) interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors. Color categories and physical specifications of color are also associated with objects, materials, light sources, etc., based on their physical properties such as light absorption, reflection, or emission spectra. Colors can be identified by their unique RGB and HSV values (see List of colors). Typically, only features of the composition of light that are detectable by humans (wavelength spectrum from 380 nm to 740 nm, roughly) are included, thereby objectively relating the psychological phenomenon of color to its physical specification. Because perception of color stems from the varying sensitivity of different types of cone cells in the retina to different parts of the spectrum, colors may be defined and quantified by the degree to which they stimulate these cells. These physical or physiological quantifications of color, however, do not fully explain the psychophysical perception of color appearance. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics. It includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range (that is, what we commonly refer to simply as light). Physics of color Continuous optical spectrum (designed for monitors with gamma 1.5). +The colors of the visible light spectrum color wavelength interval frequency intervalred~ 700–630 nm~ 430–480 THzorange~ 630–590 nm~ 480–510 THzyellow~ 590–560 nm~ 510–540 THzgreen~ 560–490 nm~ 540–610 THzblue~ 490–450 nm~ 610–670 THzviolet~ 450–400 nm~ 670–750 THz +Color, wavelength, frequency and energy of lightColor/nm/1014 Hz/104 cm−1/eV/kJ mol−1Infrared>1000<3.00<1.00<1.24<120Red7004.281.431.77171Orange6204.841.612.00193Yellow5805.171.722.14206Green5305.661.892.34226Blue4706.382.132.64254Violet4207.142.382.95285Near ultraviolet30010.03.334.15400Far ultraviolet<200>15.0>5.00>6.20>598 Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength (or frequency) and its intensity. When the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 380 nm to 740 nm), it is known as "visible light". Most light sources emit light at many different wavelengths; a source's spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations. In fact, one may formally define a color as a class of spectra that give rise to the same color sensation, although such classes would vary widely among different species, and to a lesser extent among individuals within the same species. In each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question. Spectral colors The familiar colors of the rainbow in the spectrum – named using the Latin word for appearance or apparition by Isaac Newton in 1671 – include all those colors that can be produced by visible light of a single wavelength only, the pure spectral or monochromatic colors. The table at right shows approximate frequencies (in terahertz) and wavelengths (in nanometers) for various pure spectral colors. The wavelengths are measured in vacuum (see refraction). The color table should not be interpreted as a definitive list – the pure spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors is a matter of culture, taste, and language. A common list identifies six main bands: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Newton's conception included a seventh color, indigo, between blue and violet – but most people do not distinguish it, and most color scientists do not recognize it as a separate color; it is sometimes designated as wavelengths of 420–440 nm. The intensity of a spectral color may alter its perception considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is brown, and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green. For discussion of non-spectral colors, see below. Color of objects The upper disk and the lower disk have exactly the same objective color, and are in identical gray surrounds; based on context differences, humans perceive the squares as having different reflectances, and may interpret the colors as different color categories; see same color illusion. The color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Physically, objects can be said to have the color of the light leaving their surfaces, which normally depends on the spectrum of the incident illumination and the reflectance properties of the surface, as well as potentially on the angles of illumination and viewing. Some objects not only reflect light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves (see below), which contribute to the color also. And a viewer's perception of the object's color depends not only on the spectrum of the light leaving its surface, but also on a host of contextual cues, so that the color tends to be perceived as relatively constant: that is, relatively independent of the lighting spectrum, viewing angle, etc. This effect is known as color constancy. Some generalizations of the physics can be drawn, neglecting perceptual effects for now: Light arriving at an opaque surface is either reflected "specularly" (that is, in the manner of a mirror), scattered (that is, reflected with diffuse scattering), or absorbed – or some combination of these. Opaque objects that do not reflect specularly (which tend to have rough surfaces) have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter more and which they scatter less (with the light that is not scattered being absorbed). If objects scatter all wavelengths, they appear white. If they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black. Opaque objects that specularly reflect light of different wavelengths with different efficiencies look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by those differences. An object that reflects some fraction of impinging light and absorbs the rest may look black but also be faintly reflective; examples are black objects coated with layers of enamel or lacquer. Objects that transmit light are either translucent (scattering the transmitted light) or transparent (not scattering the transmitted light). If they also absorb (or reflect) light of varying wavelengths differentially, they appear tinted with a color determined by the nature of that absorption (or that reflectance). Objects may emit light that they generate themselves, rather than merely reflecting or transmitting light. They may do so because of their elevated temperature (they are then said to be incandescent), as a result of certain chemical reactions (a phenomenon called chemoluminescence), or for other reasons (see the articles Phosphorescence and List of light sources). Objects may absorb light and then as a consequence emit light that has different properties. They are then called fluorescent (if light is emitted only while light is absorbed) or phosphorescent (if light is emitted even after light ceases to be absorbed; this term is also sometimes loosely applied to light emitted because of chemical reactions). For further treatment of the color of objects, see structural color, below. To summarize, the color of an object is a complex result of its surface properties, its transmission properties, and its emission properties, all of which factors contribute to the mix of wavelengths in the light leaving the surface of the object. The perceived color is then further conditioned by the nature of the ambient illumination, and by the color properties of other objects nearby, via the effect known as color constancy and via other characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Color perception Normalized typical human cone cell responses (S, M, and L types) to monochromatic spectral stimuli Development of theories of color vision Main article: Color theory Although Aristotle and other ancient scientists had already written on the nature of light and color vision, it was not until Newton that light was identified as the source of the color sensation. In 1810, Goethe published his comprehensive Theory of Colors. In 1801 Thomas Young proposed his trichromatic theory, based on the observation that any color could be matched with a combination of three lights. This theory was later refined by James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz. As Helmholtz puts it, "the principles of Newton's law of mixture were experimentally confirmed by Maxwell in 1856. Young's theory of color sensations, like so much else that this marvellous investigator achieved in advance of his time, remained unnoticed until Maxwell directed attention to it." Hermann von Helmholtz, Physiological Optics – The Sensations of Vision, 1866, as translated in Sources of Color Science, David L. MacAdam, ed., Cambridge: MIT Press, 1970. At the same time as Helmholtz, Ewald Hering developed the opponent process theory of color, noting that color blindness and afterimages typically come in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white). Ultimately these two theories were synthesized in 1957 by Hurvich and Jameson, who showed that retinal processing corresponds to the trichromatic theory, while processing at the level of the lateral geniculate nucleus corresponds to the opponent theory. Palmer, S.E. (1999). Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-16183-4. In 1931, an international group of experts known as the Commission internationale de l'éclairage (CIE) developed a mathematical color model, which mapped out the space of observable colors and assigned a set of three numbers to each. Color in the eye This image (when viewed in full size, 1000 pixels wide) contains 1 million pixels, each of a different color. The human eye can distinguish about 10 million different colors The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths. The retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as violet, with wavelengths around 420 nm. (Cones of this type are sometimes called short-wavelength cones, S cones, or, misleadingly, blue cones.) The other two types are closely related genetically and chemically. One of them (sometimes called long-wavelength cones, L cones, or, misleadingly, red cones) is most sensitive to light we perceive as yellowish-green, with wavelengths around 564 nm; the other type (sometimes called middle-wavelength cones, M cones, or, misleadingly, green cones) is most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534 nm. Light, no matter how complex its composition of wavelengths, is reduced to three color components by the eye. For each location in the visual field, the three types of cones yield three signals based on the extent to which each is stimulated. These values are sometimes called tristimulus values. The response curve as a function of wavelength for each type of cone is illustrated above. Because the curves overlap, some tristimulus values do not occur for any incoming light combination. For example, it is not possible to stimulate only the mid-wavelength (so-called "green") cones; the other cones will inevitably be stimulated to some degree at the same time. The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human color space. It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors. The other type of light-sensitive cell in the eye, the rod, has a different response curve. In normal situations, when light is bright enough to strongly stimulate the cones, rods play virtually no role in vision at all. "Under well-lit viewing conditions (photopic vision), cones ...are highly active and rods are inactive." On the other hand, in dim light, the cones are understimulated leaving only the signal from the rods, resulting in a colorless response. (Furthermore, the rods are barely sensitive to light in the "red" range.) In certain conditions of intermediate illumination, the rod response and a weak cone response can together result in color discriminations not accounted for by cone responses alone. Color in the brain The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are shown. The ventral stream is responsible for color perception. While the mechanisms of color vision at the level of the retina are well-described in terms of tristimulus values (see above), color processing after that point is organized differently. A dominant theory of color vision proposes that color information is transmitted out of the eye by three opponent processes, or opponent channels, each constructed from the raw output of the cones: a red-green channel, a blue-yellow channel and a black-white "luminance" channel. This theory has been supported by neurobiology, and accounts for the structure of our subjective color experience. Specifically, it explains why we cannot perceive a "reddish green" or "yellowish blue," and it predicts the color wheel: it is the collection of colors for which at least one of the two color channels measures a value at one of its extremes. The exact nature of color perception beyond the processing already described, and indeed the status of color as a feature of the perceived world or rather as a feature of our perception of the world, is a matter of complex and continuing philosophical dispute (see qualia). Nonstandard color perception Color deficiency If one or more types of a person's color-sensing cones are missing or less responsive than normal to incoming light, that person can distinguish fewer colors and is said to be color deficient or color blind (though this latter term can be misleading; almost all color deficient individuals can distinguish at least some colors). Some kinds of color deficiency are caused by anomalies in the number or nature of cones in the retina. Others (like central or cortical achromatopsia) are caused by neural anomalies in those parts of the brain where visual processing takes place. Tetrachromacy While most humans are trichromatic (having three types of color receptors), many animals, known as tetrachromats, have four types. These include some species of spiders, most marsupials, birds, reptiles, and many species of fish. Other species are sensitive to only two axes of color or do not perceive color at all; these are called dichromats and monochromats respectively. A distinction is made between retinal tetrachromacy (having four pigments in cone cells in the retina, compared to three in trichromats) and functional tetrachromacy (having the ability to make enhanced color discriminations based on that retinal difference). As many as half of all women, but only a small percentage of men, are retinal tetrachromats. The phenomenon arises when an individual receives two slightly different copies of the gene for either the medium- or long-wavelength cones, which are carried on the x-chromosome, accounting for the differences between genders. For some of these retinal tetrachromats, color discriminations are enhanced, making them functional tetrachromats. Synesthesia In certain forms of synesthesia, perceiving letters and numbers (grapheme–color synesthesia) or hearing musical sounds (music–color synesthesia) will lead to the unusual additional experiences of seeing colors. Behavioral and functional neuroimaging experiments have demonstrated that these color experiences lead to changes in behavioral tasks and lead to increased activation of brain regions involved in color perception, thus demonstrating their reality, and similarity to real color percepts, albeit evoked through a non-standard route. Afterimages After exposure to strong light in their sensitivity range, photoreceptors of a given type become desensitized. For a few seconds after the light ceases, they will continue to signal less strongly than they otherwise would. Colors observed during that period will appear to lack the color component detected by the desensitized photoreceptors. This effect is responsible for the phenomenon of afterimages, in which the eye may continue to see a bright figure after looking away from it, but in a complementary color. Afterimage effects have also been utilized by artists, including Vincent van Gogh. Color constancy There is an interesting phenomenon which occurs when an artist uses a limited color palette: the eye tends to compensate by seeing any grey or neutral color as the color which is missing from the color wheel. E.g., in a limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black and white, a mixture of yellow and black will appear as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of purple, and pure grey will appear bluish. The trichromatic theory discussed above is strictly true only if the whole scene seen by the eye is of one and the same color, which of course is unrealistic. In reality, the brain compares the various colors in a scene, in order to eliminate the effects of the illumination. If a scene is illuminated with one light, and then with another, as long as the difference between the light sources stays within a reasonable range, the colors of the scene will nevertheless appear constant to us. This was studied by Edwin Land in the 1970s and led to his retinex theory of color constancy. Color naming Colors vary in several different ways, including hue (red vs. orange vs. blue), saturation, brightness, and gloss. Some color words are derived from the name of an object of that color, such as "orange" or "salmon", while others are abstract, like "red". Different cultures have different terms for colors, and may also assign some color names to slightly different parts of the spectrum: for instance, the Chinese character 青 (rendered as qīng in Mandarin and ao in Japanese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of "青." In the 1969 study Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, Brent Berlin and Paul Kay describe a pattern in naming "basic" colors (like "red" but not "red-orange" or "dark red" or "blood red", which are "shades" of red). All languages that have two "basic" color names distinguish dark/cool colors from bright/warm colors. The next colors to be distinguished are usually red and then yellow or green. All languages with six "basic" colors include black, white, red, green, blue and yellow. The pattern holds up to a set of twelve: black, grey, white, pink, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and azure (distinct from blue in Russian and Italian but not English). Associations Individual colors have a variety of cultural associations such as national colors (in general described in individual color articles and color symbolism). The field of color psychology attempts to identify the effects of color on human emotion and activity. Chromotherapy is a form of alternative medicine attributed to various Eastern traditions. Measurement and reproduction of color Relation to spectral colors The CIE 1931 color space chromaticity diagram. The outer curved boundary is the spectral (or monochromatic) locus, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the colors depicted depend on the color space of the device on which you are viewing the image, and therefore may not be a strictly accurate representation of the color at a particular position, and especially not for monochromatic colors. Most light sources are mixtures of various wavelengths of light. However, many such sources can still have a spectral color insofar as the eye cannot distinguish them from monochromatic sources. For example, most computer displays reproduce the spectral color orange as a combination of red and green light; it appears orange because the red and green are mixed in the right proportions to allow the eye's red and green cones to respond the way they do to orange. A useful concept in understanding the perceived color of a non-monochromatic light source is the dominant wavelength, which identifies the single wavelength of light which produces a sensation most similar to the light source. Dominant wavelength is roughly akin to hue. There are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (mixtures of red and violet light, from opposite ends of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray and white) and colors such as pink, tan, and magenta. Two different light spectra which have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. This is exemplified by the white light that is emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum consisting of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although reflected colors from objects can look different. (This is often exploited e.g. to make fruit or tomatoes look more brightly red in shops.) Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called primaries. This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television and other media. There are a number of methods or color spaces for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the particular application. No mixture of colors, though, can produce a fully pure color perceived as completely identical to a spectral color, although one can get very close for the longer wavelengths, where the chromaticity diagram above has a nearly straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green. Because of this, and because the primaries in color printing systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the gamut. The CIE chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut. Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the acquisition devices, like cameras or scanners. The characteristics of the color sensors in the devices are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye. In effect, acquisition of colors that have some special, often very "jagged," spectra caused for example by unusual lighting of the photographed scene can be relatively poor. Species that have color receptors different from humans, e.g. birds that may have four receptors, can differentiate some colors that look the same to a human. In such cases, a color reproduction system 'tuned' to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate results for the other observers. The next problem is different color response of different devices. For color information stored and transferred in a digital form, color management technique based on ICC profiles attached to color data and to devices with different color response helps to avoid deformations of the reproduced colors. The technique works only for colors in gamut of the particular devices, e.g. it can still happen that your monitor is not able to show you real color of your goldfish even if your camera can receive and store the color information properly and vice versa. Pigments and reflective media Pigments are chemicals that selectively absorb and reflect different spectra of light. When a surface is painted with a pigment, light hitting the surface is reflected, minus some wavelengths. This subtraction of wavelengths produces the appearance of different colors. Most paints are a blend of several chemical pigments, intended to produce a reflection of a given color. Pigment manufacturers assume the source light will be white, or of roughly equal intensity across the spectrum. If the light is not a pure white source (as in the case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting), the resulting spectrum will appear a slightly different color. Red paint, viewed under blue light, may appear black. Red paint is red because it reflects only the red components of the spectrum. Blue light, containing none of these, will create no reflection from red paint, creating the appearance of black. Structural color Structural colors are colors caused by interference effects rather than by pigments. Color effects are produced when a material is scored with fine parallel lines, formed of a thin layer or of two or more parallel thin layers, or otherwise composed of microstructures on the scale of the color's wavelength. If the microstructures are spaced randomly, light of shorter wavelengths will be scattered preferentially to produce Tyndall effect colors: the blue of the sky, the luster of opals, and the blue of human irises. If the microstructures are aligned in arrays, for example the array of pits in a CD, they behave as a diffraction grating: the grating reflects different wavelengths in different directions due to interference phenomena, separating mixed "white" light into light of different wavelengths. If the structure is one or more thin layers then it will reflect some wavelengths and transmit others, depending on the layers' thickness. Structural color is studied in the field of thin-film optics. A layman's term that describes particularly the most ordered or the most changeable structural colors is iridescence. Structural color is responsible for the blues and greens of the feathers of many birds (the blue jay, for example), as well as certain butterfly wings and beetle shells. Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in peacock feathers, soap bubbles, films of oil, and mother of pearl, because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle. Numerous scientists have carried out research in butterfly wings and beetle shells, including Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke. Since 1942, electron micrography has been used, advancing the development of products that exploit structural color, such as "photonic" cosmetics. Additional terms Colorfulness, chroma, purity, or saturation: how "intense" or "concentrated" a color is. Hue: the color's direction from white, for example in a color wheel or chromaticity diagram. Shade: a color made darker by adding black. Tint: a color made lighter by adding white. Value, brightness, or lightness: how light or dark a color is. Colors of the rainbow Red = , orange = , yellow = , green = , blue = , indigo = , violet = . See also International Color Consortium International Commission on Illumination List of colors Neutral color Primary color Secondary color Tertiary color Complementary color Rainbow References External links and sources Bibliography Database on Color Theory, Buenos Aires University Color, Contrast & Dimension in News Design Comparative article examining Goethean and Newtonian Color The Creation of Color in Eighteenth-Century Europe Why are things colored? Why Should Engineers and Scientists Be Worried About Color? 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2,036 | E._P._Thompson | E.P.Thompson Edward Palmer Thompson (February 3, 1924, Oxford – August 28, 1993, Worcester), was an English historian, writer, socialist and peace campaigner. He is probably best known today for his historical work on the British radical movements in the late-18th and early-19th centuries, in particular his book The Making of the English Working Class (1963), but he also published influential biographies of William Morris (1955) and (posthumously) William Blake (1993) and was a prolific journalist and essayist as well as publishing one novel and a collection of poetry. He was one of the principal intellectual members of the Communist Party, and, though he left the party in 1956 over the Soviet invasion of Hungary, nevertheless remained a Marxist, calling for a rebellion against Stalinism as a prerequisite for the restoration of communists' "confidence in our own revolutionary perspectives." "Reasoning rebellion: E.P. Thompson, British Marxist Historians, and the making of dissident political mobilization". 22 September 2002. Goliath ECNext. Retrieved 9 March 2009. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-2476038/Reasoning-rebellion-E-P-Thompson.html Thompson played a key role in the first New Left in Britain in the late 1950s. He was a vociferous left-wing socialist critic of the Labour governments of 1964-70 and 1974-79, and during the 1980s he was the leading intellectual light of the movement against nuclear weapons in Europe. Early life Thompson was born in Oxford to Methodist missionary parents; his older brother was the officer William Frank Thompson (19201944) who died while aiding the Bulgarian communist partisans in World War II. He was educated at Kingswood School, Bath. During World War II he served in a tank corps in Italy, and then studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he joined the Communist Party. In 1946 he formed the Communist Party Historians Group along with Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm, Rodney Hilton, Dona Torr and others. This group launched the influential journal Past and Present in 1952. William Morris Thompson's first major work was his biography of William Morris, written while he was a member of the Communist Party. Subtitled From Romantic to Revolutionary, it was part of an effort by the Communist Party Historians' Group, inspired by Torr, to emphasise the domestic roots of Marxism in Britain at a time when the Communist Party was under attack for always following the Moscow line, but it was also an attempt to take Morris back from the critics who had emphasised his art and downplayed his politics for more than 50 years. Although Morris' political work is well to the fore, Thompson also used his literary talents to comment on aspects of Morris' work, such as his early Romantic poetry, which had previously received relatively little consideration. As the preface to the 2nd edition (1976) notes, the first edition (1955) appears to have received relatively little attention from the literary establishment because of its then-unfashionable Marxist viewpoint. However, the somewhat rewritten second edition was much better received. The first New Left After Nikita Khruschev's "secret speech" to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, which revealed that the Soviet party leadership had long been aware of Stalin's crimes, Thompson (with John Saville and others) started a dissident publication inside the CP, called The Reasoner. Six months later, he and most of his comrades left the party in disgust at the Soviet invasion of Hungary. But he remained what he called a "socialist humanist", and with Saville and others set up the New Reasoner, a journal that sought to develop a democratic socialist alternative to what its editors saw as the ossified official Marxism of the Communist and Trotskyist parties and the managerialist cold war social democracy of the Labour Party and its international allies. The New Reasoner was the most important organ of what became known as the "New Left", an informal movement of dissident leftists closely associated with the nascent movement for nuclear disarmament in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The New Reasoner combined with the Universities and Left Review to form New Left Review in 1960, though Thompson and others fell out with the group around Perry Anderson who took over the journal in 1962. The fashion ever since has been to describe the Thompson et al. New Left as "the first New Left" and the Anderson et al. group, which by 1968 had embraced Tariq Ali and various Trotskyists, as the second. Thompson subsequently allied himself with the annual Socialist Register publication, and was (with Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall) one of the editors of the 1967 May Day Manifesto, one of the key left-wing challenges to the 1964-70 Labour government of Harold Wilson. The Making of the English Working Class Thompson's most influential work was and remains The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963 while he was working at the University of Leeds. It told the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below: "I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the Luddite cropper, the 'obsolete' hand-loom weaver, the 'Utopian' artisan, and even the deluded follower of Joanna Southcott, from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties". Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class." To Thompson, class was not a structure, but a relationship: "And class happens when some men, as a result of common experiences (inherited or shared), feel and articulate the identity of their interests as between themselves, and as against other men whose interests are different from (and usually opposed to) theirs. The class experience is largely determined by the productive relations into which men are born--or enter involuntarily. Class-consciousness is the way in which these experiences are handled in cultural terms: embodied in traditions, value-systems, ideas, and institutional forms. If the experience appears as determined, class-consciousness does not. We can see a logic in the responses of similar occupational groups undergoing similar experiences, but we cannot predicate any law. Consciousness of class arises in the same way in different times and places, but never in just the same way." By re-defining class as a relationship that changed over time, Thompson proceeded to demonstrate how class was worthy of historical investigation, thus opening the gates for a generation of labor historians, such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes. A major work of research and synthesis, it was also important in historiographical terms: with it, Thompson demonstrated the power of an historical Marxism rooted in the experience of real flesh-and-blood workers. It remains on university reading lists 40 years after its publication. Thompson wrote the book whilst living in Siddal, Halifax, West Yorkshire and based some of the work on his experiences with the local Halifax population. Freelance polemicist Thompson left the University of Warwick in protest at the commercialisation of the academy, documented in the book Warwick University Limited (1971). He continued to teach and lecture as a visiting professor, particularly in the United States, but increasingly worked as a freelance writer. He turned to freelancing, contributing many essays to New Society, Socialist Register and historical journals. In 1978 he published The Poverty of Theory, (here he famously describes counterfactualism as "unhistorical shit") which attacked the structuralist Marxism of Louis Althusser and his followers in Britain on New Left Review, and which provoked a book-length response from Perry Anderson, Arguments Within English Marxism. During the late 1970s he acquired a large public audience as a critic of the then Labour government's disregard of civil liberties; his writings from this time are collected in Writing By Candlelight (1980). Voice of the peace movement From 1980, Thompson was the most prominent intellectual of the revived movement for nuclear disarmament, revered by activists throughout the world. In Britain, his pamphlet Protest and Survive, a parody on the government leaflet Protect and Survive, played a major role in the revived strength of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Just as important, Thompson was, with Ken Coates, Mary Kaldor and others, an author of the 1980 Appeal for European Nuclear Disarmament, calling for a nuclear-free Europe from Poland to Portugal, which was the founding document of European Nuclear Disarmament. Confusingly, END was both a Europe-wide campaign that comprised a series of large public conferences (the END Conventions), and a small British pressure group. Thompson played a key role in both END and CND throughout the 1980s, speaking at innumerable public meetings, corresponding with hundreds of fellow activists and sympathetic intellectuals, and doing more than his fair share of committee work. He had a particularly important part in opening a dialogue between the west European peace movement and dissidents in Soviet-dominated eastern Europe, particularly in Hungary and Czechoslovakia, for which he was denounced as a tool of American imperialism by the Soviet authorities. He wrote dozens of polemical articles and essays during this period, which are collected in the books Zero Option (1982) and The Heavy Dancers (1985). He also wrote an extended essay attacking the ideologists on both sides of the cold war, Double Exposure (1985) and edited a collection of essays opposing Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative, Star Wars (1985). An excerpt from a speech given by Thompson featured in the computer game Deus Ex Machina (1984). William Blake The last book Thompson finished was Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law (1993). The product of years of research and published shortly after his death, it shows convincingly how far Blake was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English civil war. Personal life Thompson married fellow left wing historian Dorothy Towers in 1948. She has contributed major studies on women in the Chartist movement, and of Queen Victoria (subtitled 'Gender and Power'), and was Professor of History at the University of Birmingham. They had three children. Kate Thompson, the award-winning children's writer, is their youngest child. Interview Reputation Keith Thomas, former President of the British Academy, wrote of Customs in Common, "This book signals the return to historical writing of one of the most eloquent, powerful and independent voices of our time. At his best he is capable of a passionate, sardonic eloquence which is unequalled." (The Observer) Key Works The Making of the English Working Class London: Victor Gollancz (1963); 2nd edition with new postscript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968, third edition with new preface 1980. "Time, Work-Discipline and Industrial Capitalism," Past and Present, no. 38 (December 1967), pp. 56–97. (Seminal essay on change in conceptions of time and work brought about by the transition to industrial capitalism). Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century, 1971 Warwick University Limited, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971. Open Letter to Leszek Kolakowski, Socialist Register, 1974 Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act, London: Allen Lane, 1975; with a new poscript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977. (editor) Albion's Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England, London: Allen Lane, 1975. William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary (1st ed. London: Lawrence & Wishart 1955, revised 2nd ed. New York: Pantheon, 1976). The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays, London: Merlin Press, 1978. Writing by Candlelight, London: Merlin Press, 1980. Protest and Survive, London: Penguin, 1980. Zero Option, London: Merlin Press, 1982. The Heavy Dancers, London: Merlin Press, 1985. Double Exposure, London: Merlin Press, 1985. Star Wars, London: Penguin, 1985. The Sykaos Papers, London: Bloomsbury, 1988. Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture, London: Merlin Press, 1991. Exterminism and the Cold War," Verso Editions, 1982. Making History: Writings on History and Culture, 1994. Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law, 1993. The Romantics: England in a Revolutionary Age, 1997. The Collected Poems, (Poetry, first pub. 1999). References Further reading Anderson, Perry Arguments within English Marxism, London: Verso, 1980. Johnson, R. "Edward Thompson, Eugence Genovese and Socialist-humanist History", pages 79–100 from History Workshop Journal, Volume 6, 1978. Kaye, Harvey The British Marxist Historians, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984. Harvey J. Kaye and Keith McClelland, editors E.P.Thompson: Critical Perspectives Polity Press, London, 1990. Merrill, M. "Interview with E.P. Thompson" pages 5–25 from Visions of History edited by H. Abelove, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976.New Left Review pages 3–25, Volume 201, 1993. Palmer, B.D. The Making of E.P. Thompson: Marxism, Humanism, and History, Toronto: New Hogtown Press, 1981. Palmer, B.D. E.P. Thompson Objections and Oppositions, New York: Verso, 1994. Radical History Review'', pages 152-164, Volume 58, 1994. | E._P._Thompson |@lemmatized e:7 p:7 thompson:33 edward:2 palmer:3 february:1 oxford:2 august:1 worcester:1 english:9 historian:7 writer:3 socialist:8 peace:3 campaigner:1 probably:1 best:2 know:2 today:1 historical:5 work:16 british:5 radical:3 movement:8 late:5 early:5 century:4 particular:1 book:8 making:6 working:4 class:15 also:6 publish:5 influential:3 biography:2 william:9 morris:7 posthumously:1 blake:5 prolific:1 journalist:1 essayist:1 well:2 one:5 novel:1 collection:2 poetry:3 principal:1 intellectual:4 member:2 communist:10 party:12 though:2 leave:13 soviet:6 invasion:2 hungary:3 nevertheless:1 remain:5 marxist:4 call:4 rebellion:3 stalinism:1 prerequisite:1 restoration:1 confidence:1 revolutionary:4 perspective:2 reason:2 dissident:5 political:3 mobilization:1 september:1 goliath:2 ecnext:2 retrieve:1 march:1 http:1 com:1 html:1 play:3 key:4 role:3 first:7 new:19 britain:4 vociferous:1 left:3 wing:3 critic:3 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2,037 | Co-NP | In computational complexity theory, co-NP is a complexity class. A problem is a member of co-NP if and only if its complement is in complexity class NP. In simple terms, co-NP is the class of problems for which efficiently verifiable proofs of no instances, sometimes called counterexamples, exist. An example of an NP-complete problem is the subset sum problem: given a finite set of integers is there a non-empty subset which sums to zero? The complementary problem is in co-NP and asks: "given a finite set of integers, does every non-empty subset have a nonzero sum?" To give a proof of a "no" instance one must specify a non-empty subset which does sum to zero. This proof is then easy to verify. P, the class of polynomial time solvable problems, is a subset of both NP and co-NP. P is thought to be a strict subset in both cases (and demonstrably cannot be strict in one case but not the other). NP and co-NP are also thought to be unequal. If so, then no NP-complete problem can be in co-NP and no co-NP-complete problem can be in NP. This can be shown as follows. Assume that there is an NP-complete problem that is in co-NP. Since all problems in NP can be reduced to this problem it follows that for all problems in NP we can construct a non-deterministic Turing machine that decides the complement of the problem in polynomial time, i.e., NP is a subset of co-NP. From this it follows that the set of complements of the problems in NP is a subset of the set of complements of the problems in co-NP, i.e., co-NP is a subset of NP. Since we already knew that NP is a subset of co-NP it follows that they are the same. The proof for the fact that no co-NP-complete problem can be in NP is symmetrical. If a problem can be shown to be in both NP and co-NP, that is generally accepted as strong evidence that the problem is probably not NP-complete (since otherwise NP = co-NP). An example of a problem which is known to be in NP and in co-NP is integer factorization: given positive integers m and n determine if m has a factor less than n and greater than one. Membership in NP is clear; if m does have such a factor then the factor itself is a certificate. Membership in co-NP is more subtle; one must list the prime factors of m and provide a primality certificate for each one. Integer factorization is often confused with the closely related primality problem. Both primality testing and factorization have long been known to be NP and co-NP problems. The AKS primality test, published in 2002, proves that primality testing also lies in P, while factorization may or may not have a polynomial-time algorithm. Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, Nitin Saxena, "PRIMES is in P", Annals of Mathematics 160 (2004), no. 2, pp. 781�793. References External links | Co-NP |@lemmatized computational:1 complexity:3 theory:1 co:19 np:39 class:4 problem:21 member:1 complement:4 simple:1 term:1 efficiently:1 verifiable:1 proof:4 instance:2 sometimes:1 call:1 counterexample:1 exist:1 example:2 complete:6 subset:10 sum:4 give:4 finite:2 set:4 integer:5 non:4 empty:3 zero:2 complementary:1 asks:1 every:1 nonzero:1 one:5 must:2 specify:1 easy:1 verify:1 p:4 polynomial:3 time:3 solvable:1 think:2 strict:2 case:2 demonstrably:1 cannot:1 also:2 unequal:1 show:2 follow:4 assume:1 since:3 reduce:1 construct:1 deterministic:1 turing:1 machine:1 decide:1 e:2 already:1 know:3 fact:1 symmetrical:1 generally:1 accept:1 strong:1 evidence:1 probably:1 otherwise:1 factorization:4 positive:1 n:2 determine:1 factor:4 less:1 great:1 membership:2 clear:1 certificate:2 subtle:1 list:1 prime:1 provide:1 primality:5 often:1 confuse:1 closely:1 related:1 testing:1 long:1 aks:1 test:2 publish:1 prove:1 lie:1 may:2 algorithm:1 manindra:1 agrawal:1 neeraj:1 kayal:1 nitin:1 saxena:1 prim:1 annals:1 mathematics:1 pp:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram computational_complexity:1 np_complete:6 deterministic_turing:1 turing_machine:1 integer_factorization:2 closely_related:1 primality_test:2 manindra_agrawal:1 external_link:1 |
2,038 | Casiquiare_canal | Map of the Cassiquiare canal based on Alexander von Humboldt 1799 observations. The Casiquiare river is a distributary of the upper Orinoco, which flows southward into the Rio Negro. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems; it is the largest river on the planet that links two major river systems, a so-called bifurcation. Discovery In 1744 a Jesuit priest called Father Roman, while ascending the Orinoco river, met some Portuguese slave-traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco. La Condamine, seven months later, was able to give to the Académie française an account of Father Roman's voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this waterway, first reported by Father Acuña in 1639. But little credence was given to Father Roman's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of Yturriaga and Solano. In 1800 German scientist Alexander von Humboldt and French botanist Aimé Bonpland explored the river. During the 1924-25 Alexander H. Rice, Jr. expedition of Harvard University, he traveled up the Orinoco, traversed the Casiquiare canal, and descended the Rio Branco to the Amazon at Manaus. It was the first expedition to use aerial photography and shortwave radio for mapping of the region. In 1968 the Casiquiare was navigated by an SRN6 hovercraft during a National Geographic expedition. Geography The origin of Casiquiare at the River Orinoco is below the mission of La Esmeralda at , and is about above sea level. Its mouth at the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon River, is near the town of San Carlos and is above sea level. The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about . Its width, at its bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately , with a current towards the Negro of ; but as it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large and small, which it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches , even in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about wide. The volume of water the Casiquiare captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course. In flood-time it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch which it throws off to the westward called the Itinivini, which leaves it at a point about above its mouth. In the dry season it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east. The Casiquiare is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon. To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending the Terni branch of the Atabapo affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is across, with undulating ground, nowhere over high, with swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin. References Sources VARESCHI, Volkmar. Orinoco arriba. A través de Venezuela siguiendo a Humboldt. Caracas: Ediciones Lectura, 1959 Notes External links Alexander von Humboldt and the Casiquiare River Wikimapia satellite image displaying locations of both the beginning (principio) and the end (desague) of the Casiquiare Canal. | Casiquiare_canal |@lemmatized map:1 cassiquiare:1 canal:7 base:1 alexander:4 von:3 humboldt:4 observation:1 casiquiare:10 river:11 distributary:1 upper:2 orinoco:12 flow:1 southward:1 rio:7 negro:9 form:1 unique:1 natural:1 amazon:5 system:2 large:3 planet:1 link:2 two:1 major:1 call:5 bifurcation:2 discovery:1 jesuit:1 priest:1 father:4 roman:3 ascend:2 meet:1 portuguese:1 slave:1 trader:1 settlement:1 accompany:1 return:1 way:1 afterwards:1 retrace:1 route:2 la:2 condamine:1 seven:1 month:1 later:1 able:1 give:2 académie:1 française:1 account:1 voyage:1 thus:1 confirm:1 existence:1 waterway:1 first:2 report:1 acuña:1 little:2 credence:1 statement:1 verify:1 spanish:1 boundary:1 line:1 commission:1 yturriaga:1 solano:1 german:1 scientist:1 french:1 botanist:1 aimé:1 bonpland:1 explore:1 h:1 rice:1 jr:1 expedition:3 harvard:1 university:1 travel:1 traverse:1 descend:1 branco:1 manaus:1 use:2 aerial:1 photography:1 shortwave:1 radio:1 mapping:1 region:1 navigate:1 hovercraft:1 national:1 geographic:1 geography:1 origin:1 mission:1 esmeralda:1 sea:2 level:2 mouth:3 affluent:2 near:1 town:1 san:1 carlos:1 general:2 course:2 south:3 west:3 length:1 include:1 winding:1 width:1 approximately:1 current:1 towards:1 gain:1 volume:2 numerous:1 tributary:1 stream:2 small:3 receive:1 en:1 velocity:1 increase:1 wet:1 season:2 reach:3 even:1 certain:1 stretch:1 broaden:1 considerably:1 approach:1 wide:1 water:2 capture:1 comparison:1 accumulate:1 flood:1 time:1 say:1 second:1 connection:1 branch:3 throw:1 westward:1 itinivini:1 leave:1 point:1 dry:1 shallow:1 obstruct:1 sandbank:1 rapid:2 granite:1 rock:1 shore:1 densely:1 wooded:1 soil:1 fertile:1 along:1 slope:2 plain:1 run:1 east:1 generally:1 suppose:1 sluggish:1 flat:1 tableland:1 great:1 find:1 contact:1 perhaps:1 cut:1 back:1 would:1 belong:1 entirely:1 much:2 short:1 facile:1 connexion:1 basin:1 isthmus:2 pimichin:2 terni:3 atabapo:1 although:1 somewhat:1 obstructed:1 believe:1 could:1 easily:1 make:1 navigable:1 craft:1 across:2 undulating:1 ground:1 nowhere:1 high:1 swamp:1 marsh:1 transit:1 canoe:1 haul:1 reference:1 source:1 vareschi:1 volkmar:1 arriba:1 través:1 de:1 venezuela:1 siguiendo:1 caracas:1 ediciones:1 lectura:1 note:1 external:1 wikimapia:1 satellite:1 image:1 display:1 location:1 beginning:1 principio:1 end:1 desague:1 |@bigram von_humboldt:3 orinoco_flow:1 rio_negro:6 jesuit_priest:1 slave_trader:1 la_condamine:1 académie_française:1 aerial_photography:1 shortwave_radio:1 en_route:1 amazon_basin:1 swamp_marsh:1 external_link:1 |
2,039 | Gaussian_elimination | In linear algebra, Gaussian elimination is an efficient algorithm for solving systems of linear equations, finding the rank of a matrix, and calculating the inverse of an invertible square matrix. Gaussian elimination is named after German mathematician and scientist Carl Friedrich Gauss. Elementary row operations are used to reduce a matrix to row echelon form. An extension of this algorithm, Gauss–Jordan elimination, reduces the matrix further to reduced row echelon form. Gaussian elimination alone is sufficient for many applications. History The method of Gaussian elimination appears in Chapter Eight, Rectangular Arrays, of the important Chinese mathematical text Jiuzhang suanshu or The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Its use is illustrated in eighteen problems, with two to five equations. The first reference to the book by this title is dated to 179 CE, but parts of it were written as early as approximately 150 BCE. Calinger, pp 234–236 It was commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century. However, the method was invented in Europe independently by Carl Friedrich Gauss when developing the method of least squares in his 1809 publication Theory of Motion of Heavenly Bodies. Katz, §18.1.2 Algorithm overview The process of Gaussian elimination has two parts. The first part (Forward Elimination) reduces a given system to either triangular or echelon form, or results in a degenerate equation with no solution, indicating the system has no solution. This is accomplished through the use of elementary row operations. The second step uses back substitution to find the solution of the system above. Stated equivalently for matrices, the first part reduces a matrix to row echelon form using elementary row operations while the second reduces it to reduced row echelon form, or row canonical form. Another point of view, which turns out to be very useful to analyze the algorithm, is that Gaussian elimination computes a matrix decomposition. The three elementary row operations used in the Gaussian elimination (multiplying rows, switching rows, and adding multiples of rows to other rows) amount to multiplying the original matrix with invertible matrices from the left. The first part of the algorithm computes an LU decomposition, while the second part writes the original matrix as the product of a uniquely determined invertible matrix and a uniquely determined reduced row-echelon matrix. Example Suppose the goal is to find and describe the solution(s), if any, of the following system of linear equations: The algorithm is as follows: eliminate from all equations below , and then eliminate from all equations below . This will put the system into triangular form. Then, using back-substitution, each unknown can be solved for. In our example, we eliminate from by adding to , and then we eliminate from by adding to . Formally: The result is: Now we eliminate from by adding to : The result is: This result is a system of linear equations in triangular form, and so the first part of the algorithm is complete. The second part, back-substitution, consists of solving for the unknowns in reverse order. Thus, we can easily see that Then, can be substituted into , which can then be solved easily to obtain Next, and can be substituted into , which can be solved to obtain Thus, the system is solved. Some systems cannot be reduced to triangular form, yet still have at least one valid solution: for example, if had not occurred in and after our first step above, the algorithm would have been unable to reduce the system to triangular form. However, it would still have reduced the system to echelon form. In this case, the system does not have a unique solution, as it contains at least one free variable. The solution set can then be expressed parametrically (that is, in terms of the free variables, so that if values for the free variables are chosen, a solution will be generated). In practice, one does not usually deal with the actual systems in terms of equations but instead makes use of the augmented matrix (which is also suitable for computer manipulations). This, then, is the Gaussian Elimination algorithm applied to the augmented matrix of the system above, beginning with: which, at the end of the first part of the algorithm looks like this: That is, it is in row echelon form. At the end of the algorithm, if the Gauss–Jordan elimination is applied we are left with That is, it is in reduced row echelon form, or row canonical form. Other applications Finding the inverse of a matrix Suppose is a matrix and you need to calculate its inverse. The identity matrix is augmented to the right of , forming a matrix (the block matrix ). Through application of elementary row operations and the Gaussian elimination algorithm, the left block of can be reduced to the identity matrix , which leaves in the right block of . If the algorithm is unable to reduce to triangular form, then is not invertible. In practice, inverting a matrix is rarely required. Most of the time, one is really after the solution of a particular system of linear equations. Atkinson (1989), p. 514 General algorithm to compute ranks and bases The Gaussian elimination algorithm can be applied to any matrix . If we get "stuck" in a given column, we move to the next column. In this way, for example, some matrices can be transformed to a matrix that has a reduced row echelon form like (the *'s are arbitrary entries). This echelon matrix contains a wealth of information about : the rank of is 5 since there are 5 non-zero rows in ; the vector space spanned by the columns of has a basis consisting of the first, third, fourth, seventh and ninth column of (the columns of the ones in ), and the *'s tell you how the other columns of can be written as linear combinations of the basis columns. Analysis Gaussian elimination to solve a system of n equations for n unknowns requires n(n+1) / 2 divisions, (2n3 + 3n2 − 5n)/6 multiplications, and (2n3 + 3n2 − 5n)/6 subtractions, for a total of approximately 2n3 / 3 operations. So it has a complexity of . This algorithm can be used on a computer for systems with thousands of equations and unknowns. However, the cost becomes prohibitive for systems with millions of equations. These large systems are generally solved using iterative methods. Specific methods exist for systems whose coefficients follow a regular pattern (see system of linear equations). The Gaussian elimination can be performed over any field. Gaussian elimination is numerically stable for diagonally dominant or positive-definite matrices. For general matrices, Gaussian elimination is usually considered to be stable in practice if you use partial pivoting as described below, even though there are examples for which it is unstable. Golub and Van Loan, §3.4.6 Higher order tensors Gaussian elimination does not generalize in any simple way to higher order tensors (matrices are order 2 tensors); even computing the rank of a tensor of order greater than 2 is a difficult problem. Pseudocode As explained above, Gaussian elimination writes a given m × n matrix A uniquely as a product of an invertible m × m matrix S and a row-echelon matrix T. Here, S is the product of the matrices corresponding to the row operations performed. The formal algorithm to compute from follows. We write for the entry in row , column in matrix . The transformation is performed "in place", meaning that the original matrix is lost and successively replaced by . i := 1 j := 1 while (i ≤ m and j ≤ n) do Find pivot in column j, starting in row i: maxi := i for k := i+1 to m do if abs(A[k,j]) > abs(A[maxi,j]) then maxi := k end if end for if A[maxi,j] ≠ 0 then swap rows i and maxi, but do not change the value of i Now A[i,j] will contain the old value of A[maxi,j]. divide each entry in row i by A[i,j] Now A[i,j] will have the value 1. for u := i+1 to m do subtract A[u,j] * row i from row u Now A[u,j] will be 0, since A[u,j] - A[i,j] * A[u,j] = A[u,j] - 1 * A[u,j] = 0. end for i := i + 1 end if j := j + 1 end while This algorithm differs slightly from the one discussed earlier, because before eliminating a variable, it first exchanges rows to move the entry with the largest absolute value to the "pivot position". Such "partial pivoting" improves the numerical stability of the algorithm; some variants are also in use. The column currently being transformed is called the pivot column. Proceed from left to right, letting the pivot column be the first column, then the second column, etc. and finally the last column before the vertical line. For each pivot column, do the following two steps before moving on to the next pivot column: Locate the diagonal element in the pivot column. This element is called the pivot. The row containing the pivot is called the pivot row. Divide every element in the pivot row by the pivot to get a new pivot row with a 1 in the pivot position. Get a 0 in each position below the pivot position by subtracting a suitable multiple of the pivot row from each of the rows below it. Upon completion of this procedure the augmented matrix will be in row-echelon form and may be solved by back-substitution. See also Frontal solver Gauss-Jordan elimination Grassmann's algorithm is a numerically stable variant of Gaussian elimination. The algorithm avoids subtractions so is less sensitive to errors caused by subtraction of two roughly equal numbers. Notes References Atkinson, Kendall A. An Introduction to Numerical Analysis, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989. ISBN 0-471-50023-2. . Golub, Gene H., and Van Loan, Charles F. Matrix computations, 3rd edition, Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 1996. ISBN 0-8018-5414-8. . Lipschutz, Seymour, and Lipson, Mark. Schaum's Outlines: Linear Algebra. Tata McGraw-hill edition.Delhi 2001. pp. 69-80. External links A program that performs Gaussian elimination similarly to a human working on paper It produces exact solutions to systems with rational coefficients. It also understands complex rational numbers. Works with floating point numbers, too. Gaussian elimination www.math-linux.com. Gaussian elimination as java applet at some local site. Only takes natural coefficients. Gaussian elimination at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute LinearEquations.c Gaussian elimination implemented using C language | Gaussian_elimination |@lemmatized linear:8 algebra:2 gaussian:22 elimination:26 efficient:1 algorithm:21 solve:9 system:22 equation:13 find:5 rank:4 matrix:36 calculate:2 inverse:3 invertible:5 square:2 name:1 german:1 mathematician:1 scientist:1 carl:2 friedrich:2 gauss:5 elementary:5 row:36 operation:7 use:13 reduce:13 echelon:13 form:18 extension:1 jordan:3 far:1 alone:1 sufficient:1 many:1 application:3 history:1 method:6 appear:1 chapter:2 eight:1 rectangular:1 array:1 important:1 chinese:1 mathematical:2 text:1 jiuzhang:1 suanshu:1 nine:1 art:1 illustrate:1 eighteen:1 problem:2 two:4 five:1 first:10 reference:2 book:1 title:1 date:1 ce:1 part:9 write:5 early:1 approximately:2 bce:1 calinger:1 pp:2 comment:1 liu:1 hui:1 century:1 however:3 invent:1 europe:1 independently:1 develop:1 least:3 publication:1 theory:1 motion:1 heavenly:1 body:1 katz:1 overview:1 process:1 forward:1 give:3 either:1 triangular:6 result:4 degenerate:1 solution:10 indicate:1 accomplish:1 second:5 step:3 back:4 substitution:4 state:1 equivalently:1 reduces:1 canonical:2 another:1 point:2 view:1 turn:1 useful:1 analyze:1 compute:5 decomposition:2 three:1 multiply:2 switch:1 add:4 multiple:2 amount:1 original:3 left:2 lu:1 product:3 uniquely:3 determine:2 example:5 suppose:2 goal:1 describe:2 following:1 follow:4 eliminate:6 put:1 unknown:3 formally:1 complete:1 consist:1 reverse:1 order:5 thus:2 easily:2 see:3 substitute:2 obtain:2 next:3 cannot:1 yet:1 still:2 one:6 valid:1 occur:1 would:2 unable:2 case:1 unique:1 contain:4 free:3 variable:4 set:1 express:1 parametrically:1 term:2 value:5 choose:1 generate:1 practice:3 usually:2 deal:1 actual:1 instead:1 make:1 augmented:2 also:4 suitable:2 computer:2 manipulation:1 apply:3 begin:1 end:7 look:1 like:2 leave:3 reduced:1 need:1 identity:2 augment:2 right:3 block:3 invert:1 rarely:1 require:2 time:1 really:1 particular:1 atkinson:2 p:1 general:2 base:1 get:3 stuck:1 column:18 move:3 way:2 transform:2 arbitrary:1 entry:4 wealth:1 information:1 since:2 non:1 zero:1 vector:1 space:1 span:1 basis:2 consisting:1 third:1 fourth:1 seventh:1 ninth:1 tell:1 combination:1 analysis:2 n:6 unknowns:1 division:1 multiplication:1 subtraction:3 total:1 complexity:1 thousand:1 cost:1 become:1 prohibitive:1 million:1 large:2 generally:1 iterative:1 specific:1 exist:1 whose:1 coefficient:3 regular:1 pattern:1 perform:4 field:1 numerically:2 stable:3 diagonally:1 dominant:1 positive:1 definite:1 consider:1 partial:2 pivoting:2 even:2 though:1 unstable:1 golub:2 van:2 loan:2 high:2 tensor:4 generalize:1 simple:1 great:1 difficult:1 pseudocode:1 explain:1 correspond:1 formal:1 transformation:1 place:1 meaning:1 lose:1 successively:1 replace:1 j:19 pivot:16 start:1 maxi:6 k:3 ab:2 swap:1 change:1 old:1 divide:2 u:8 subtract:2 differs:1 slightly:1 discuss:1 earlier:1 exchange:1 absolute:1 position:4 improve:1 numerical:3 stability:1 variant:2 currently:1 call:3 proceed:1 let:1 etc:1 finally:1 last:1 vertical:1 line:1 locate:1 diagonal:1 element:3 every:1 new:2 upon:1 completion:1 procedure:1 may:1 frontal:1 solver:1 grassmann:1 avoids:1 less:1 sensitive:1 error:1 cause:1 roughly:1 equal:1 number:3 note:1 kendall:1 introduction:1 edition:3 john:2 wiley:1 son:1 york:1 isbn:2 gene:1 h:1 charles:1 f:1 computation:1 hopkins:1 baltimore:1 lipschutz:1 seymour:1 lipson:1 mark:1 schaum:1 outline:1 tata:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 delhi:1 external:1 link:1 program:1 similarly:1 human:1 work:2 paper:1 produce:1 exact:1 rational:2 understand:1 complex:1 float:1 www:1 math:1 linux:1 com:1 java:1 applet:1 local:1 site:1 take:1 natural:1 holistic:1 institute:1 linearequations:1 c:2 implement:1 language:1 |@bigram gaussian_elimination:22 carl_friedrich:2 friedrich_gauss:2 row_echelon:10 liu_hui:1 invertible_matrix:3 uniquely_determine:2 iterative_method:1 numerically_stable:2 pivot_column:6 pivot_row:5 wiley_son:1 mcgraw_hill:1 external_link:1 java_applet:1 holistic_numerical:1 |
2,040 | NetBSD | NetBSD is a freely redistributable, open source version of the Unix-derivative Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) computer operating system. It was the second open source BSD descendant to be formally released, after 386BSD, and continues to be actively developed. Noted for its portability and quality of design and implementation, it is often used in embedded systems and as a starting point for the porting of other operating systems to new computer architectures. History NetBSD was originally derived from the 4.3BSD release from the Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley, via the Networking/2 and 386BSD releases. The project began as a result of frustration within the 386BSD developer community with the pace and direction of the operating system's development. The four founders of the NetBSD project, Chris Demetriou, Theo de Raadt, Adam Glass and Charles Hannum, felt that a more open development model would be beneficial to the project; one which was centered on portable, clean, correct code. Their aim was to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system. The name "NetBSD" was suggested by de Raadt, based on the importance and growth of networks such as the Internet at that time, and distributed, collaborative nature of its development. The NetBSD source code repository was established on March 21, 1993 and the first official release, NetBSD 0.8, was made in April, 1993. This was derived from 386BSD 0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. The first multi-platform release, NetBSD 1.0, was made in October 1994. Later the same year, for disputed reasons, one of the founders, Theo de Raadt, was forced out of the project. He later founded a new project, OpenBSD, from a forked version of NetBSD 1.0 near the end of 1995. In 1998, NetBSD 1.3 introduced the pkgsrc packages collection. The current stable release of NetBSD is version 5.0 (April 29, 2009). Symmetric multiprocessing NetBSD has had support for SMP since the NetBSD 2.0 release in 2004, which was initially implemented using the giant lock approach. During the development cycle of the NetBSD 5 release, major work was done to improve SMP support; most of the kernel subsystems were modified to be MP safe and use the fine-grained locking approach. New synchronization primitives were implemented and scheduler activations was replaced with a 1:1 threading model in February 2007. Significant changes from NetBSD 4.0 to 5.0 A scalable M2 thread scheduler was implemented, though the old 4.4BSD scheduler is still provided as an option. Threaded software interrupts were implemented to improve synchronization. The virtual memory system, memory allocator and trap handling were made MP safe. The file system framework, including the VFS and major file systems were modified to be MP safe. Since April, 2008 the only subsystems running with a giant lock are the network protocols and most device drivers. Security NetBSD provides various features in the security area. The Kernel Authorization framework (or Kauth) is a subsystem managing all authorization requests inside the kernel, and used as system-wide security policy. It allows external modules to plug-in the authorization process. NetBSD also incorporates exploit mitigation features, ASLR, MPROTECT and Segvguard from PaX project, and GCC Stack Smashing Protection (SSP, or also known as ProPolice) compiler extensions. The Verified Executables (or Veriexec) is an in-kernel file integrity subsystem in NetBSD. It allows the user to set the digital fingerprints (hashes) of files in the system to monitor by the Veriexec, and prevent the execution of them. For example, one can allow Perl to run only scripts that match the fingerprints. The cryptographic device driver (CGD) provides functionality which allows using the disks or partitions (including CDs and DVDs) for encrypted storage in NetBSD. Portability NetBSD has been ported to a large number of 32- and 64-bit architectures, from VAX minicomputers to Pocket PC PDAs. The NetBSD motto is "Of course it runs NetBSD." As of 2007, NetBSD supports 54+ hardware platforms (comprising around 17 different processor architectures). Although the Linux 2.6 kernel includes support for more processor architectures, NetBSD supports more platforms than any single Linux distribution. The kernel and userland for these platforms are all built from a central unified source-code tree managed by CVS. Currently, unlike other kernels such as μClinux, the NetBSD kernel requires the presence of an MMU in any given target architecture. Because of the centralized source code management, and portable design, feature additions (which are not hardware specific) can benefit all platforms immediately, with little or no re-porting required. NetBSD’s portability is due to a number of interfaces for bus space and DMA. Using this portability layer, device drivers are somewhat isolated from the hardware platform. This allows a single driver to be easily used on several platforms by hiding details of exactly how the driver talks to the hardware and dramatically reduces the amount of work needed to port it to a new architecture. This enables, for instance, a driver for a specific PCI card to work whether that card is in a PCI slot on an IA-32, Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC, or other architecture with a PCI bus. Also, a single driver for a specific device can operate via several different buses (eg. ISA, PCI, PC card, etc). In comparison, Linux device driver code often needs to be reworked for every new architecture. As a consequence, in recent porting efforts by NetBSD and Linux developers, NetBSD has taken much less time to port to new hardware. This platform independence aids the development of embedded systems, particularly since NetBSD 1.6, when the entire toolchain of compilers, assemblers, linkers, and other tools fully supported cross-compiling. The NetBSD cross-compiling framework allows a complete NetBSD system for an architecture to be built from another system of different architecture (usually faster or with more hardware resources), even on different operating system since the framework supports most POSIX-compliant systems. Several embedded systems using NetBSD have required no additional software development other than toolchain and target rehost. (c) 2003 Wasabi Systems Inc. All rights reserved. This paper may not be sold or distributed without the permission of Wasabi Systems Inc. (www.wasabisystems.com). Citations and quotations from this document must include the copyright notice. In 2005, as a demonstration of NetBSD's portability and suitability for embedded applications, Technologic Systems, a vendor of embedded systems hardware, designed and demonstrated a NetBSD-powered kitchen toaster. Commercial ports to embedded platforms, including the AMD Geode LX800, Freescale PowerQUICC processors, Marvell Orion, AMCC 405 family of PowerPC processors, Intel XScale IOP and IXP series, are available from and supported by Wasabi Systems. Uses NetBSD was used in NASA's SAMS-II Project of measuring the microgravity environment on the International Space Station, and for investigations of TCP for use in satellite networks. NetBSD's clean design, high performance and scalability, and support for many architectures suits the operating system for use in the embedded devices and servers, especially networking, industries. A commercial real-time operating system, QNX, uses a network stack which is based on NetBSD code , and provides various drivers ported from NetBSD. Force10 Networks uses NetBSD as the underlying operating system that powers FTOS (the Force10 Operating System), which is used in high scalability switch/routers. Force10 also made a donation to the NetBSD Foundation in 2007 to help further research and the open development community. Wasabi Systems provides a commercial Wasabi Certified® BSD product based on NetBSD with proprietary enterprise features and extensions, which are focused on embedded, server and storage applications. NetBSD was used in NASA's SAMS-II Project of measuring the microgravity environment on the International Space Station , and for investigations of TCP for use in satellite networks. In 2004, SUNET used NetBSD to set the Internet2 Land Speed Record. NetBSD was chosen "due to the scalability of the TCP code". The operating system of the T-Mobile Sidekick LX 2009 smartphone is expected to be based on NetBSD. Licensing All of the NetBSD kernel and most of the core userland source code is released under the terms of the BSD License (two, three, and four-clause variants). This essentially allows everyone to use, modify, redistribute or sell it as they wish, as long as they do not remove the copyright notice and license text (the four-clause variants also include terms relating to publicity material). Thus, the development of products based on NetBSD is possible without having to make modifications to the source code public. In contrast, the GPL stipulates that changes to source code of a product must be released to the product recipient when products derived from those changes are released. On June 20, 2008, the NetBSD Foundation announced a transition to the two clause BSD license, citing concerns with UCB support of clause 3 and industry applicability of clause 4. NetBSD also includes the GNU development tools and other packages, which are covered by the GPL and other open source licenses. Compatibility with other operating systems At the source code level, NetBSD is very nearly entirely compliant with POSIX.1 (IEEE 1003.1-1990) standard and mostly compliant with POSIX.2 (IEEE 1003.2-1992). NetBSD also provides system call-level binary compatibility on the appropriate processor architectures with several UNIX-derived and UNIX-like operating systems, including Linux, other BSD variants like FreeBSD, Apple's Darwin, Solaris and SunOS 4. This allows NetBSD users to run many applications that are only distributed in binary form for other operating systems, usually with no significant loss of performance. A variety of "foreign" disk filesystem formats are also supported in NetBSD, including FAT, NTFS, Linux ext2fs, Mac OS X UFS, RISC OS FileCore/ADFS and AmigaOS Fast File System. Releases The following table lists major NetBSD releases and their notable features in reverse chronological order. Minor and patch releases are not included. Major releases Release date Notable features and changes5.0April 29, 2009Rewritten threading subsystem based on a 1:1 model and rewritten scheduler implementation. Support for kernel preemption, POSIX real-time scheduling extensions, processor-sets, and dynamic CPU sets for thread affinity. Added jemalloc memory allocator. A metadata journaling for FFS, known as WAPBL (Write Ahead Physical Block Logging). Rewritten kernel modules framework, which will replace old LKMs.4.0December 19, 2007Added support for slab allocator, iSCSI target, CARP, tmpfs, Xen 3. Kernel Authorization framework, Veriexec and other security extensions. 3.0December 23, 2005Support for Xen 2.0 was added. Support for filesystems > 2 terabytes added. Pluggable Authentication Modules added. OpenBSD Packet Filter was integrated as an alternative to IPFilter. UFS directory hash support. 2.0December 09, 2004Addition of native POSIX threads and SMP support on i386 and other platforms. AMD64 architecture added. Support for UFS2 and SMBFS, addition of kqueue. 1.6September 14, 2002Unified Buffer Cache (UBC) was introduced, which unifies the filesystem and virtual memory caches of file data. Zero-copy support for TCP and UDP transmit path. Ten new platforms supported. New implementation of cross-building (build.sh) infrastructure. Added support for multibyte LC_CTYPE locales. 1.5December 06, 2000IPv6 and IPsec were added to the network stack. OpenSSL and OpenSSH imported. New implementation of rc.d system start-up mechanism. Start of migration to ELF-format binaries. A ktruss utility for kernel tracing was added. Six new platforms supported, including SPARC64. Added FFS soft updates and support for NTFS. 1.4May 12, 1999UVM, a rewritten virtual memory subsystem, was introduced. Added RAIDframe, a software RAID implementation, and imported IPFilter. Completion of the integration of all remaining 4.4BSD Lite-2 kernel improvements. Ports to Power Macintosh and NeXTcube/station systems added. Added full USB support. 1.3March 09, 1998XFree86 source tree was made a supported part of the distribution. Support for ISA Plug and Play, PCMCIA, ATAPI and APM added. ext2fs and FAT32 filesystems added. The pkgsrc packages collection system was introduced. 1.2October 04, 1996Support for NFSv3, SCSI scanner and medium changer devices added. NTP phase-locked loop added in kernel. Ports for ARM and Sharp X68k systems added. 1.1November 26, 1995Ports for DEC Alpha, Atari TT/Falcon030 and MVME68k systems added. Binary emulation facility added. Generic audio subsystem introduced. 1.0October 26, 1994The first multi-platform release, supporting the PC, HP 9000 Series 300, Amiga, 68k Macintosh, Sun-4c series and the PC532. Also in this release, the legally encumbered Net/2-derived source code was replaced with equivalent code from 4.4BSD-lite, in accordance with the USL v BSDi lawsuit settlement. Addition of shared libraries and Kerberos 5. 0.9August 20, 1993Contained many enhancements and bug fixes. This was still a PC-platform-only release, although by this time work was underway to add support for other architectures. Support for loadable kernel modules (LKM). 0.8April 20, 1993The first official release, derived from 386BSD 0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. Until 2004, NetBSD 1.x releases were made at roughly annual intervals, with minor "patch" releases in between. From release 2.0 onwards, each major NetBSD release corresponds to an incremented major version number, i.e. the major releases following 2.0 are 3.0, 4.0 and so on. The previous minor releases are now divided into two categories: x.y "stable" maintenance releases and x.y.z releases containing only security and critical fixes. The pkgsrc packages collection NetBSD features pkgsrc (short for "package source"), a framework for building third-party application software packages that will install almost "automagically". The pkgsrc collection consists of more than 8100 packages as of . Building packages such as KDE, GNOME, the Apache server or Perl is performed simply by typing make install in the appropriate directory. This will fetch the source code, unpack, patch, configure, build and install the package such that it can be removed again later. An alternative to compiling from source is to use a precompiled binary package. Either way, any prerequisites/dependencies will be installed automatically by the package system, with no need for manual intervention. Following its mantra of portability, pkgsrc has been made portable not only across the hardware platforms that run NetBSD, but also — with the help of an autoconf-based bootstrap system — on several other Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, other BSD variants like FreeBSD and OpenBSD, Solaris, Darwin/Mac OS X, IRIX, Interix and others. pkgsrc has also been adopted as the official package system for DragonFly BSD (announcement). Logo The NetBSD "flag" logo, designed by Grant Bissett, was introduced in 2004 and is an abstraction of their older logo, designed by Shawn Mueller in 1994. This was based on the famous World War II photograph Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, which some perceived as culturally insensitive and inappropriate for an international project. Governance structure The NetBSD Foundation is the legal entity that owns the intellectual property and trademarks associated with NetBSD, and has obtained 501(c)3 non-profit organisation status with respect to U.S. taxation. The members of the foundation are NetBSD developers who have CVS commit access. The NetBSD Foundation has a Board of Directors, elected by the voting of members for two years. Hosting Hosting for the project is provided primarily by the Internet Systems Consortium Inc, the Luleå University of Technology, Columbia University, and Western Washington University. Mirrors for the project are spread around the world and provided by volunteers and supporters of the project. See also Comparison of BSD operating systems Comparison of operating systems Debian GNU/NetBSD DragonFly BSD FreeBSD MirOS BSD OpenBSD PC-BSD References Bibliography External links NetBSD homepage Official NetBSD blog NetBSD wiki Jibbed a NetBSD based Live CD BSD News, Search Engine, Forums and Tutorials Binary packages from pkgsrc bulk builds at , and #netbsd on freenode NetBSD CVS Digest NetBSD shell account at Super Dimensional Fortress and polarhome Wasabi Systems supported hardware platforms Recent Security Enhancements in NetBSD UBC: An Efficient Unified I/O and Memory Caching Subsystem for NetBSD An Implementation of Scheduler Activations on the NetBSD Operating System An Implementation of User-level Restartable Atomic Sequences on the NetBSD Operating System The UVM Virtual Memory System The Evolution of NetBSD International Space Station message 1 and message 2 Internet2 SUNET Internet2 Land Speed Record Waving the flag: NetBSD developers speak about version 4.0 Charles Hannum's views on the state of NetBSD, August 2006 Hubert Feyrer's NetBSD Blog What Makes An Operating System "Portable"? by Hubert Feyrer #NetBSD Community Blog Open Source licensing, BSD compared to GPL be-x-old:NetBSD | NetBSD |@lemmatized netbsd:80 freely:1 redistributable:1 open:6 source:16 version:7 unix:4 derivative:1 berkeley:2 software:5 distribution:3 bsd:15 computer:3 operate:13 system:50 second:1 descendant:1 formally:1 release:30 continue:1 actively:1 develop:1 note:1 portability:6 quality:2 design:6 implementation:7 often:2 use:18 embedded:5 starting:1 point:1 porting:3 new:10 architecture:14 history:1 originally:1 derive:6 research:2 group:1 university:4 california:1 via:2 networking:2 project:12 begin:1 result:1 frustration:1 within:1 developer:4 community:3 pace:1 direction:1 operating:7 development:9 four:3 founder:2 chris:1 demetriou:1 theo:2 de:3 raadt:3 adam:1 glass:1 charles:2 hannum:2 felt:1 model:3 would:1 beneficial:1 one:3 center:1 portable:4 clean:2 correct:1 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2,041 | Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte | Johann Gottlieb Fichte (May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher. He was one of the founding figures of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, a movement that developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant. Fichte is often perceived as a figure whose philosophy forms a bridge between the ideas of Kant and the German Idealist Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of self-consciousness or self-awareness. Like Descartes and Kant before him, the problem of subjectivity and consciousness motivated much of his philosophical rumination. Fichte also wrote political philosophy, and is thought of by some as the father of German nationalism. Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War Against the Jews 1933–1945 Life and work Fichte was born in Rammenau, Upper Lusatia. In 1780, he began study at the Jena theology seminary. In 1784, without completing his degree, Fichte ended his studies. Fichte worked as a private tutor in Zürich, and in 1790 he became engaged to Johanna Rahn, who happened to be the niece of the famous poet F. G. Klopstock. In 1790, Fichte began to study the works of Kant, which were to have a lasting effect on the trajectory of his life and thought. Not long after meeting Kant in Königsberg, Fichte published his first work, Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (1792), a book that investigates the connections between divine revelation and Kant's Critical philosophy. The first edition of the book was published, without Kant or Fichte's knowledge, without Fichte's name and signed preface; it was thus mistakenly thought to be a new work by Kant himself. Traditionally, it has been assumed that either the omission was an accident or a deliberate attempt by the publisher to move copies. In either case, Fichte did not plan it, and in fact only heard of the accident much later; he writes to his fiancée: "Why did I have to have such utterly strange, excellent, unheard-of good luck?" See Garrett Green's Introduction to Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Everyone, including the first reviews of the book, assumed Kant was the author; when Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work and author, Fichte's reputation skyrocketed: "...the most shocking and astonishing news...nobody but Kant could have written this book. This amazing news of a third sun in the philosophical heavens has set me into such confusion..." Letter from Jens Baggeson to Karl Reinhold. Quoted in Editor's Introduction to Fichte, Early Philosophical Writings. London: Cornell University Press, 1988. Fichte died of typhus at the age of fifty-two. His son, Immanuel Hermann Fichte, also made contributions to philosophy. Fichte's philosophical writings In mimicking Kant's difficult style, Fichte produced works that were barely intelligible. "He made no hesitation in pluming himself on his great skill in the shadowy and obscure, by often remarking to his pupils, that 'there was only one man in the world who could fully understand his writings; and even he was often at a loss to seize upon his real meaning.' " Robert Blakely, History of the Philosophy of Mind, Vol. IV, p. 114, London: Longmans, 1850 This remark was often mistakenly attributed to Hegel. Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of noumena, of "things in themselves", the supra-sensible reality beyond the categories of human reason. Fichte saw the rigorous and systematic separation of "things in themselves" (noumena) and things "as they appear to us" (phenomena) as an invitation to skepticism. Rather than invite such skepticism, Fichte made the radical suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a noumenal world and instead accept the fact that consciousness does not have a grounding in a so-called "real world". In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in anything outside of itself. His student (and critic), Schopenhauer, wrote: Central Theory In his work Foundations of Natural Right (1796), Fichte argued that self-consciousness was a social phenomenon — an important step and perhaps the first clear step taken in this direction by modern philosophy. A necessary condition of every subject's self-awareness, for Fichte, is the existence of other rational subjects. These others call or summon (fordern auf) the subject or self out of its unconsciousness and into an awareness of itself as a free individual. Fichte's account proceeds from the general principle that the I must set itself up as an individual in order to set itself up at all, and that in order to set itself up as an individual it must recognize itself as it were to a calling or summons (Aufforderung) by other free individual(s) — called, moreover, to limit its own freedom out of respect for the freedom of the other. The same condition applied and applies, of course, to the other(s) in its development. Hence, mutual recognition of rational individuals turns out to be a condition necessary for the individual 'I' in general. This argument for intersubjectivity is so central to the conception of selfhood developed in the Jena Science of Logic (aka 'Wissenschaftslehre') that Fichte, in his later lectures (his Nova Methodo), incorporated it into his revised presentation of the very foundations of his system, where the summons takes its place alongside original feeling, which takes the place of the earlier Anstoss (see below) as both a limit upon the absolute freedom of the I and a condition for the positing of the same. This idea is an elaboration and extension of his central philosophical work, The Science of Knowledge (aka 'Wissenschaftslehre'), where he showed that consciousness of the self depends upon resistance or a check by something that is understood as not part of the self yet is not immediately ascribable to a particular sensory perception. The I ('Das Ich') itself sets this situation up for itself (it posits itself). To 'set' (setzen) does not mean to 'create' the objects of consciousness. The principle in question simply states that the essence of an I lies in the assertion of ones own self-identity, i.e., that consciousness presupposes self-consciousness. Such immediate self-identify, however, cannot be understood as a psychological fact, nor as an act or accident of some previously existing substance or being. It is an action of the I, but one that is identical with the very existence of this same I. In Fichte's technical terminology, the original unity of self-consciousness is to be understood as both an action and as the product of the same I, as a fact and/or act (Tathandlung), a unity that is presupposed by and contained within every fact and every act of empirical consciousness, though it never appears as such therein. The 'I' must set (setzen) itself in order to be an 'I' at all; but it can set itself only insofar as it sets itself up as limited. Moreover, it cannot even set for itself its own limitations, in the sense of producing or creating these limits. The finite I cannot be the ground of its own passivity. Instead, for Fichte, if the 'I' is to set itself off at all, it must simply discover itself to be limited, a discovery that Fichte characterizes as a repulse or resistance (Anstoss) to the free practical activity of the I. Such an original limitation of the I is, however, a limit for the I only insofar as the I sets it out as a limit. The I does this, according to Fichte's analysis, by setting its own limitation, first, as only a feeling, then as a sensation, then as an intuition of a thing, and finally as a summons of another person. The Anstoss thus provides the essential impetus that first sets in motion the entire complex train of activities that finally result in our conscious experience both of ourselves and others as empirical individuals and of the world around us. Though Anstoss (spelled Anstoß in German) plays a similar role as the thing in itself does in Kantian philosophy, unlike Kant, Fichte's Anstoss is not something foreign to the I. Instead, it denotes the I's original encounter with its own finitude. Rather than claim that the Not-I is the cause or ground of the Anstoss, Fichte argues that non-I is set-up by the I precisely in order to explain to itself the anstoss, that is, in order to become conscious of anstoss. Though the Wissenschaftslehre demonstrates that such an Anstoss must occur if self-consciousness is to come about, it is quite unable to deduce or to explain the actual occurrence of such an Anstoss — except as a condition for the possibility of consciousness. Accordingly, there are strict limits to what can be expected from any a priori deduction of experience, and this limitation, for Fichte, equally applies to Kant's transcendental philosophy. According to Fichte, transcendental philosophy can explain that the world must have space, time, and causality, but it can never explain why objects have the particular sensible properties they happen to have or why I am this determinate individual rather than another. This is something that the I simply has to discover at the same time that it discovers its own freedom, and indeed, as a condition for the latter. Other works Fichte also developed a theory of the state based on the idea of self-sufficiency. In his mind, the state should control international relations, the value of money, and remain an autarky. Because of this necessity to have relations with other rational beings in order to achieve consciousness, Fichte writes that there must be a 'relation of right,' in which there is a mutual recognition of rationality by both parties. In an earlier work from 1793 dealing with the ideals and politics of the French Revolution: Beiträge zur Berichtigung der Urteile des Publikums über die Französische Revolution (Contributions to the Correction of the Public's Judgment concerning the French Revolution), he called Jews a "state within a state" that could "undermine" the German nation (GA I/1: pp. 292–293). In regard to Jews getting "civil rights," he wrote that this would only be possible if one managed "to cut off all their heads in one night, and to set new ones on their shoulders, which should contain not a single Jewish idea." (ibid.) Fichte was used by nationalist circles before and during the First World War to enhance national sentiments. Final Period in Berlin Tombs of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and his wife Johanna Marie, Dorotheenstaedtischer Friedhof (cemetery), Berlin Some of Fichte's most well-known works are from the last decade of his life, where he gave lecture courses in Berlin to the public at large on a wide variety of topics. These include two works from 1806: The Characteristics of the Present Age, where Fichte outlines his theory of different historical and cultural epochs, and a semi-mystical work: The Way Towards the Blessed Life; or, the Doctrine of Religion, which contains his most extensive thoughts on religion. And in 1808 he gave a series of speeches in French-occupied Berlin, Addresses to the German Nation, which was to become his most controversial work for its German chauvinism. In 1810, in part because educational themes in Addresses..., although the University itself was designed along lines put forward by Wilhelm von Humboldt and in part because of his earlier work at Jena University, Fichte was made the first Chair of Philosophy at the new Berlin University, where he was also made rector. Fichte also continued to give private and university lectures on further versions of his Wissenschaftslehre. However, apart from a brief work of barely 15 pages from 1810: The Science of Knowledge in its General Outline, Fichte did not publish any of these lecture courses. A small selection was published thirty years after Fichte's death by his son, but the vast majority has only recently been made available in the last decades of the twentieth century, in the Gesamtausgabe. These writings include substantially reworked versions of the Wissenschaftslehre from the years 1810, 1811 and 1813, as well as a Doctrine of Right (1812), a Doctrine of Ethics (1812). Collected Works in German The new standard edition of Fichte's works in German, which supersedes all previous editions, is the Gesamtausgabe (Collected Works or Complete Edition, commonly abbreviated as 'GA'), prepared by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences: Gesamtausgabe der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften approx. 40 volumes. Edited by Reinhard Lauth, Erich Fuchs, Hans Gliwitzky, Ives Radrizzani, Günter Zöller, et al., Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt 1962 ff. (to be completed in 2010). It is organized into four parts. Part I: Published Works Part II: Unpublished Writings Part III: Correspondence Part IV: Lecture Transcripts. Works in English Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation. Trans. Garrett Green. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978 (Translation of Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung, 1st ed. 1792, 2nd ed. 1793). Early Philosophical Writings Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. (Contains Selections from Fichte's Writings and Correspondence from the Jena period, 1794–1799). Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge (1794/95, 2nd ed. 1802). Translation of: Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre, Fichte's first major exposition of the Wissenschaftlehre. In: The Science of Knowledge, trans. and ed. Peter Heath and John Lachs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Foundations of Natural Right. Trans. Michael Baur. Ed. Frederick Neuhouser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. (Translation of Grundlage des Naturrechts 1796/97). Foundations of Transcendental Philosophy (Wissenschaftslehre) nova methodo (1798/99). Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992. The System of Ethics according to the Principles of the Wissenschaftslehre (1798). Ed. and trans. Daniel Breazeale and Günter Zöller. Cambridge University Press, 2005. Introductions to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings. Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Indianapolis, and Cambridge: Hackett, 1994. (Contains mostly writings from the late Jena period, 1797–1799). The Vocation of Man . Trans. Peter Preuss. Indianapolis. (Translation of Die Bestimmung des Menschen (1800). A Crystal Clear Report to the General Public Concerning the Actual Essence of the Newest Philosophy: An Attempt to Force the Reader to Understand. Trans. John Botterman and William Rash. In: Philosophy of German Idealism, pp. 39–115. (Translation of Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere Publikum über das Wesen der neuesten Philosophie, 1801). The Science of Knowing: J. G. Fichte's 1804 Lectures on the Wissenschaftslehre. Ed. and trans. Walter W. Wright. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. 2005. Characteristics of the Present Age (Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters, 1806). In: The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte, 2 vols., trans. and ed. William Smith. London: Chapman, 1848/49. Reprint, London: Thoemmes Press, 1999. Addresses to the German Nation (1808), ed. and trans. Gregory Moore. Cambridge University Press, 2008. Secondary Sources Arash Abizadeh. "Was Fichte an Ethnic Nationalist?" History of Political Thought 26.2 (2005): 334–359. Daniel Breazeale. "Fichte's 'Aenesidemus' Review and the Transformation of German Idealism" The Review of Metaphysics 34 (1980/1) 545–68. Daniel Breazeale and Thomas Rockmore (eds) Fichte: Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1997. Franks, Paul, All or Nothing: Systematicity, Transcendental Arguments, and Skepticism in German Idealism, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005 Dieter Henrich. "Fichte's Original Insight" Contemporary German Philosophy 1 (1982) 15–52. T. P. Hohler. Imagination and Reflection: Intersubjectivity. Fichte's 'Grundlage' of 1794. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1982. Wayne Martin. Idealism and Objectivity: Understanding Fichte's Jena Project. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. Frederick Neuhouser. Fichte's Theory of Subjectivity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Peter Suber. "A Case Study in Ad Hominem Arguments: Fichte's Science of Knowledge," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 23, 1 (1990) 12–42. Robert R Williams. Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. Gunther Zoller. Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Rainer Schafer. Johann Gottlieb Fichtes >Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre< von 1794. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006. Ulrich Schwabe. Indivdiuelles und Transindividuelles Ich. Die Selbstindividuation reiner Subjektivität und Fichtes "Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo". Paderborn 2007. References External links Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge The North American Fichte Society Works by Fichte, original German texts Internationale Johann-Gottlieb-Fichte-Gesellschaft KULTUR & KONGRESSWERK-fichte - Eventlocation in Magdeburg, named after Johann-Gottlieb Fichte Works online Addresses to the German Nation (1922). (Trs. R.F. Jones and G.H. Turnbull.) IA (UToronto) The Destination of Man (1846). (Tr. Mrs. Percy Sinnett.) IA (UToronto) (French) Doctrine de la science (Paris, 1843). Google (Harvard) Google (Oxford) Google (UMich) Johann Gottlieb Fichte’s Popular Works (1873). (Tr. William Smith.) IA (UToronto) New Exposition of the Science of Knowledge (1869). (Tr. A.E. Kroeger.) Google (Harvard) Google (NYPL) IA (UToronto) On the Nature of the Scholar (1845). (Tr. William Smith.) IA (UToronto) The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1848–49). (Tr. William Smith.) Volume 1, 1848. Google (Oxford) IA (UToronto) 4th ed., 1889. IA (UIllinois) IA (UToronto) Volume 2, 1849. IA (UToronto) 4th ed., 1889. Google (Stanford) IA (UIllinois) IA (UToronto) The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge (1897). (Tr. A.E. Kroeger.) Google (UMich) IA (UToronto) The Science of Knowledge (1889). (Tr. A.E. Kroeger.) IA (UToronto) The Science of Rights (1889). (Tr. A.E. Kroeger.) IA (UCal) (German) Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung (Königsberg, 1792). 2nd ed., 1793. Gallica Google (Oxford) Google (Oxford-Taylor) The Vocation of Man (1848). (Tr. William Smith.) Google (Oxford) 1910. Google (UCal) The Vocation of the Scholar (1847). (Tr. William Smith.) IA (UCal) The Way Towards the Blessed Life (1849). (Tr. William Smith.) 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2,042 | Brooklyn_Historic_Railway_Association | Cars under wire on Red Hook The Brooklyn Historic Railway Association's (BHRA) shop, trolley barn and offices are located in Red Hook, Brooklyn, New York, on the historic Beard Street Piers (circa 1870). BHRA had a fleet of 16 trolleys (15 PCC trolleys and a leased 1897 trolley car from Oslo, Norway). Restoration of Brooklyn's trolley routes was hampered due to the New York City Department of Transportation (DOT) withdrawing its support from the project. Construction was stopped on a 7-block extension to the line due to the removal and scrapping of rails, ties, and other items of railroad equipment by the DOT, which were stored on land that was slated for the "Fairway" supermarket project. The BHRA's origin began with the rediscovery of the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel by Bob Diamond in 1980. BHRA was formed in 1982 to restore the historic tunnel. The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (constructed in 1844) is the world's oldest subway tunnel. BHRA successfully filed and received designation for the tunnel on the National Register of Historic Places. As of June 30, 2003, BHRA was ordered to remove and fill in all trolley tracks on public streets by the DOT. The DOT revoked consent for the project to proceed or exist on city streets. Shortly thereafter, BHRA completely ceased operation. Most of the PCC trolleys were removed from Brooklyn. Only the trolleys that are on the Beard Street Pier itself remain. Plans call for moving the remaining four trolleys to the Atlantic Avenue tunnel, as soon as it becomes practical. The BHRA organized tours of the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel were suspended for a time, but were resumed in 2007. BHRA is planning more Atlantic Avenue tunnel tours throughout 2008. See also Atlantic Avenue tunnel External links Forgotten New York Brooklyn Historic Railway Association | Brooklyn_Historic_Railway_Association |@lemmatized car:2 wire:1 red:2 hook:2 brooklyn:5 historic:5 railway:2 association:2 bhra:9 shop:1 trolley:9 barn:1 office:1 locate:1 new:3 york:3 beard:2 street:4 pier:2 circa:1 fleet:1 pcc:2 leased:1 oslo:1 norway:1 restoration:1 route:1 hamper:1 due:2 city:2 department:1 transportation:1 dot:4 withdraw:1 support:1 project:3 construction:1 stop:1 block:1 extension:1 line:1 removal:1 scrapping:1 rail:1 tie:1 item:1 railroad:1 equipment:1 store:1 land:1 slat:1 fairway:1 supermarket:1 origin:1 begin:1 rediscovery:1 atlantic:6 avenue:6 tunnel:9 bob:1 diamond:1 form:1 restore:1 construct:1 world:1 old:1 subway:1 successfully:1 file:1 receive:1 designation:1 national:1 register:1 place:1 june:1 order:1 remove:2 fill:1 track:1 public:1 revoke:1 consent:1 proceed:1 exist:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 completely:1 ceased:1 operation:1 remain:2 plan:2 call:1 move:1 four:1 soon:1 become:1 practical:1 organize:1 tour:2 suspend:1 time:1 resume:1 throughout:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 forget:1 |@bigram oslo_norway:1 shortly_thereafter:1 external_link:1 |
2,043 | Confucianism | A Confucian temple in Wuwei, People's Republic of China. 'Confucianism' () is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucious (Kǒng Fūzǐ, or K'ung-fu-tzu, lit. "Master Kung", 551–479 BC). It focuses on human morality and right action. And it is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia. It might be considered a state religion of some East Asian countries, because of governmental promotion of Confucian values. Cultures and countries strongly influenced by Confucianism include China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Chinese people, such as Singapore. The basic teachings of Confucianism stress the importance of education for moral development of the individual so that the state can be governed by moral virtue rather than by the use of coercive laws. Levinson, David; Christensen, Karen "Encyclopedia of Modern Asia (2002) pg 157 History Confucius was a sage and social philosopher of China whose teachings have for many centuries influenced East Asia, including China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and Vietnam. His ideas were not accepted during his lifetime, and he frequently bemoaned the fact that he remained unemployed by any of the feudal lords.Confucius did not leave any writings of his own. Instead, we have only texts with recollections, passed down from his disciples and their students. This factor is further complicated by the "burning of the books and burial of the scholars". Confucius was a sage who worried about the troubled times in which he lived. He went from place to place trying to spread his political ideas and influence to the many kings contending for supremacy in China. In the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (772–221 BCE), successive kings of the Zhou gradually became mere figureheads. In this power vacuum, the rulers of small states began to vie with one another for military and political dominance. Deeply persuaded of the need for his mission ("If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state"); (Analects XVIII, 6), Confucius tirelessly promoted the virtues of ancient illustrious sages such as the Duke of Zhou. Confucius tried to amass sufficient political power to found a new dynasty, as when he planned to accept an invitation from a rebel to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East"(Analects XV, 5). As the common saying that Confucius was a "king without a crown" indicates, however, he never gained the opportunity to apply his ideas. He was expelled from states many times and eventually returned to his homeland to spend the last part of his life teaching. The Analects of Confucius, the closest primary source we have for his thoughts, relates his sayings and discussions with rulers and disciples in short passages. There is considerable debate over how to interpret the Analects. To judge from what has remained, Confucius did not rely on deductive reasoning to convince his listeners. Instead, he used figures of rhetoric such as analogy and aphorism to explain his ideas. Because his sayings draw heavily on a specific cultural milieu, distant in place and time, European and American readers might find his philosophy muddled or unclear. However, Confucius claimed that he sought "a unity all-perverted" (Analects XV, 3) and that there was "one single thread binding my way together" (IV, 15). The first real Confucian system may have been created by his disciples, or by their disciples. During the philosophically fertile period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, great early figures of Confucianism such as Mencius and Xun Zi (not to be confused with Sun Zi) developed Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. Both had to fight contemporary ideas and gain the ruler's confidence through argumentation and reasoning. Mencius enriched Confucianism with a fuller explanation of human nature, of what is needed for good government, and of what morality is. He founded his idealist doctrine on the claim that human nature is essentially good. Xun Zi opposed many ideas of Mencius, and built a structured system upon the idea that human nature is essentially bad, and therefore needed to be educated and exposed to the rites. Some of Xun Zi's disciples, such as Han Feizi and Li Si, became Legalists (advocates of a kind of law-based extreme statism, quite distant from virtue-based Confucianism); they conceived the state system that allowed Qin Shi Huang to unify China through strong state control of every human activity. The culmination of the Confucian dream of unification and peace in China can therefore be argued to have come from Legalism—a school of thought almost diametrically opposed to his reliance on rites and virtue. Confucianism as passed down to the 19th and 20th centuries derives primarily from the school of the Neo-Confucians, led by Zhu Xi, who gave Confucianism renewed vigor in the Song and later dynasties. Neo-Confucianism combined Taoist and Buddhist ideas with existing Confucian ideas to create a more complete system of metaphysics. At the same time, many forms of Confucianism have historically declared themselves opposed to the Buddhist and Taoist belief systems. Confucianism was chosen by Han Wudi (141–86 BC) for use as a political system to govern the Chinese state. Despite its loss of influence during the Tang Dynasty, Confucian doctrine remained a mainstream Chinese orthodoxy for two millennia until the 20th century. It was still dominant in most parts of China until it was attacked by radical Chinese thinkers as the vanguard of a pre-modern system and an obstacle to China's modernization, eventually culminating in its repression during China's Cultural Revolution. Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism has been revived in China itself, and both interest in and debate about Confucianism have surged. Also a main part of Confucianism was part of the Han Dynasty, where it was one of the three most common or main religions. Statue of Confucius on Chongming Island in Shanghai The Rites Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously. (Analects II, 3) The above quotation explains an essential difference between legalism and ritualism, and points to a key difference between European-based and East Asian societies, particularly in the realm of an individual's moral compass and accountability before the law. As with all translations of literature from ancient sources, excessively literal analysis of one particular translation may lead to unfounded conclusions. An example would be this translation of the very same passage: The Master said, "Guide the by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame. Guide them by virtue, keep them in line with the rites, and they will, besides having a sense of shame, reform themselves." (Analects II, 3) Translations from the 18th century to the present have varied widely. Comparison of these many sources is needed for a true "general consensus" of what message Confucius meant to imply. Confucius argues that under law, external authorities administer punishments after illegal actions, so people generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behavior are internalized and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing face. In this sense, "rite" () is an ideal form of social norm. The Chinese character for "rites", or "ritual", previously had the religious meaning of "sacrifice". Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of each person's correct place in society. Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Internally, rites indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them. Internalization is the main process in ritual. Formalized behavior becomes progressively internalized, desires are channeled and personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk," in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behavior to be absorbed by individuals. Obeying ritual with sincerity makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself: Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, become timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness. (Analects VIII, 2) Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict. It divides people into categories, and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a place in society and a proper form of behavior. Music, which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an exception, as it transcends such boundaries and "unifies the hearts". Although the Analects heavily promote the rites, Confucius himself often behaved other than in accord with them; for example, when he cried at his preferred disciple's death, or when he consented to meet a fiendish princess (VI, 26). Later, more rigid ritualists forgot that ritual is "more than presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12), and strayed from their master's position. Governance Confucian temple in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Republic of China To govern by virtue, let us compare it to the North Star: it stays in its place, while the myriad stars wait upon it. (Analects II, 1) Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the Great Learning, and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of wu wei (): the less the king does, the more gets done. By being the "calm center" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole. This idea may be traced back to early shamanistic beliefs, such as king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. The very character for "king" () shows the three levels of the universe, united by a single line. Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and counselors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the people. Meritocracy In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes. (Analects XV, 39) Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see Analects VII, 1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire and H. G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue. Jūnzǐ (君子), which had meant "noble man" before Confucius' work, slowly assumed a new connotation in the course of his writings, rather as "gentleman" did in English. A virtuous plebeian who cultivates his qualities can be a "gentleman", while a shameless son of the king is only a "small man". That he admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures in Chinese society. Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honor to the whole family. The Chinese examination system seems to have been started in 165 BCE, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations. Confucius praised those kings who left their kingdoms to those most qualified rather than to their elder sons. His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statesmen with a strong sense of state and duty, known as Rujia (). During the Warring States Period and the early Han dynasty, China grew greatly and the need arose for a solid and centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write administrative papers. As a result, Confucianism was promoted and the men it produced became an effective counter to the remaining landowner aristocrats who threatened the unity of the state. Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of "state religion", with authoritarianism, a kind of legitimism, paternalism, and submission to authority used as political tools to rule China. Most emperors used a mix of legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. Themes in Confucian thought A simple way to appreciate Confucian thought is to consider it as being based on varying levels of honesty. In practice, the elements of Confucianism accumulated over time and matured into the following forms: Ritual In Confucianism the term "ritual" (Chinese 禮, pinyin lǐ) was soon extended to include secular ceremonial behavior, and eventually referred also to the propriety or politeness which colors everyday life. Rituals were codified and treated as a comprehensive system of norms. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties. After his death, people regarded him as a great authority on ritual behaviors. It is important to note that "ritual" has developed a specialized meaning in Confucianism, as opposed to its usual religious meanings. In Confucianism, the acts of everyday life are considered ritual. Rituals are not necessarily regimented or arbitrary practices, but the routines that people often engage in, knowingly or unknowingly, during the normal course of their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads to a content and healthy society, and to content and healthy people, is one purpose of Confucian philosophy. Relationships Relationships are central to Confucianism. Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. This theme of mutuality is prevalent in East Asian cultures even to this day. Social harmony—the great goal of Confucianism—therefore results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. When Duke Jing of Qi asked about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony, Confucius replied: There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son. (Analects XII, 11, trans. Legge) Filial piety "Filial piety" () is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead (including even remote ancestors). The term "filial" (meaning "of a child") characterizes the respect that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents. This relationship was extended by analogy to a series of five relationships (): Chinese Legal Theories The Five Bonds: Ruler to Subject Father to Son Husband to Wife Elder Brother to Younger Brother Friend to Friend Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the veneration of ancestors. The only relationship where respect for elders wasn't stressed was the Friend to Friend relationship. In all other relationships, high reverence was held for elders. In time filial piety was also built into the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers often exercised enormous power over their children. Much the same was true of other unequal relationships. The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is The Book of Filial Piety, a work attributed to Confucius and his son but almost certainly written in the 3rd century BCE. Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day. Loyalty Loyalty () is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane. It is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the realpolitik of the class relations in his time; he did not propose that "might makes right", but that a superior who had received the "Mandate of Heaven" (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Loyalty was also an extension of one's duties to friends, family, and spouse. Loyalty to one's family came first, then to one's spouse, then to one's ruler, and lastly to one's friends. Loyalty was considered one of the greater human virtues. Confucius also realized that loyalty and filial piety can potentially conflict. Humanity Confucius was concerned with people's individual development, which he maintained took place within the context of human relationships. Ritual and filial piety are indeed the ways in which one should act towards others, but from an underlying attitude of humaneness. Confucius' concept of humaneness () is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the Ethic of reciprocity, or the Golden Rule: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." Confucius never stated whether man was born good or evil, Homer H. Dubs: 'Nature in the Teaching of Confucius', p. 233 noting that 'By nature men are similar; by practice men are wide apart' Lun Yu (Yang Huo) 13/05/2009 - implying that whether good or bad, Confucius must have perceived all men to be born with intrinsic similarities, but that man is conditioned and influenced by study and practise. Rén also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks rén, Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to behave humanely. Rén is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler, exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the "Mandate of Heaven", the right to rule. A ruler lacking such a mandate need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower Mencius did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be considered. The gentleman The term jūnzǐ () is crucial to classical Confucianism. Confucianism exhorts all people to strive for the ideal of a "gentleman" or "perfect man". A succinct description of the "perfect man" is one who "combines the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman." In modern times the masculine translation in English is also traditional and is still frequently used. Elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected to act as moral guides to the rest of society. They were to: cultivate themselves morally; show filial piety and loyalty where these are due; cultivate humanity, or benevolence. The great exemplar of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the tragedy of his life was that he was never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state. The opposite of the Jūnzǐ was the Xiǎorén (). The character 小 in this context means petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, or materialistic. Rectification of names Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality. Fundamentally, then, social disorder can stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was Zhèngmíng (). He gave an explanation of zhengming to one of his disciples. Zi-lu said, "The ruler of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?" The Master replied, "What is necessary is to rectify names." "So! indeed!" said Zi-lu. "You are wide of the mark! Why must there be such rectification?" The Master said, "How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve. If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." (Analects XIII, 3, tr. Legge) Xun Zi chapter (22) "On the Rectification of Names" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names () that directly corresponded with actualities (), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong. Influence in 17th Century Europe "Life and works of Confucius, by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687. The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China. The first was Michele Ruggieri who had returned from China to Italy in 1588, and carried on translating in Latin Chinese classics, while residing in Salerno Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687. "Windows into China", John Parker, p.25, ISBN 0890730504 It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation, John Hobson, p194-195, ISBN 0521547245 Debates Promotion of corruption Like some other political philosophies, Confucianism is reluctant to employ laws. In a society where relationships are considered more important than the laws themselves, if no other power forces government officers to take the common interest into consideration, corruption and nepotism may arise. As lower-ranking government officers' salaries were often far lower than the minimum required to raise a family, while high-ranking officials (even though extremely rich and powerful) receive a salary of a value much lower than their self-perceived contribution (for example their incomes are often substantially less than a successful merchant), Chinese society was frequently affected by those problems. Even if some means to control and reduce corruption and nepotism have been successfully used in China, Confucianism is criticized for not providing such a means itself. Religion or Philosophy debate There is debate about the classification of Confucianism as a religion or a philosophy. Many attributes common among religions—such as ancestor worship, ritual, and sacrifice—apply to the practice of Confucianism; however, the religious features found in Confucian texts can be traced to non-Confucian Chinese belief. The position adopted by many schools is that Confucianism is a moral science or philosophy. Centre for Confucian Science (Korea) Introduction to Confucianism Names for Confucianism Several names for Confucianism exist in Chinese. "School of the scholars" () "Teaching of the scholars" () "Study of the scholars" () "Teaching of Confucius" () Three of these use the Chinese character rú, meaning "scholar". These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead center on the figure or ideal of the Confucian scholar; however, the suffixes of jiā, jiào, and xué carry different implications as to the nature of Confucianism itself. Rújiā contains the character jiā, which literally means "house" or "family". In this context, it is more readily construed as meaning "school of thought", since it is also used to construct the names of philosophical schools contemporary with Confucianism: for example, the Chinese names for Legalism and Mohism end in jiā. Rújiào and Kǒngjiào contain the Chinese character jiào, the noun "teach", used in such as terms as "education", or "educator". The term, however, is notably used to construct the names of religions in Chinese: the terms for Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and other religions in Chinese all end with jiào. Rúxué contains xué 'study'. The term is parallel to -ology in English, being used to construct the names of academic fields: the Chinese names of fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, political science, economics, and sociology all end in xué. See also Wen Tianxiang Temple of Confucius Confucian view of marriage Confucianism in Indonesia Confucian art Boston Confucians Homosexuality and Confucianism Korean Confucianism Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism in Japan New Confucianism References Further reading Creel, Herrlee G. Confucius and the Chinese Way. Reprint. New York: Harper Torchbooks. (Originally published under the title Confucius -- the Man and the Myth.) Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred ISBN 1-57766-010-2. Ivanhoe, Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. 2nd rev. ed., Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Nivison, David S. The Ways of Confucianism. Chicago: Open Court Press. Max Weber, The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. Yao, Xinzhong. (2000) An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. External links Interfaith Online: Confucianism Confucian Documents at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive. 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2,044 | Andrea_Alciato | Emblema CLXXXIX stating Mentem, non formam, plus pollere. Andrea Alciato, commonly known as Alciati (Andreas Alciatus) (January 12, 1492 - 1550), was an Italian jurist and writer. He is regarded as the founder of the French school of legal humanists. Biography Alciati was born in Alzate Brianza, near Milan, and settled in France in the early 16th century. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. Alciati is most famous for his Emblemata, published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the emblem book, which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Great Britain. Alciati died at Pavia in 1550. Works Annotationes in tres libros Codicis (1515) Emblematum libellus (1522) Opera omnia (Basel 1546-49) Rerum Patriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV (Milan, 1625) a history of Milan, References External links Alciato at Glasgow - Reproductions of 22 editions of Alciato's emblems from 1531 to 1621 Description, Reproduction and translation Memorial University of Newfoundland Emblemata Latin text, Antwerp 1577, full digital facsimile, CAMENA Project | Andrea_Alciato |@lemmatized emblema:1 clxxxix:1 state:1 mentem:1 non:1 formam:1 plus:1 pollere:1 andrea:1 alciato:3 commonly:1 know:1 alciati:4 andreas:1 alciatus:1 january:1 italian:1 jurist:1 writer:1 regard:1 founder:1 french:1 school:1 legal:2 humanist:1 biography:1 bear:1 alzate:1 brianza:1 near:1 milan:3 settle:1 france:1 early:1 century:1 display:1 great:2 literary:1 skill:1 exposition:1 law:2 one:1 first:1 interpret:1 civil:1 history:2 language:1 literature:1 antiquity:1 substitute:1 original:1 research:1 servile:1 interpretation:1 glossators:1 publish:2 many:1 work:2 annotation:1 tacitus:1 famous:1 emblemata:2 dozen:1 edition:2 onward:1 collection:1 short:1 latin:2 verse:1 text:2 accompany:1 woodcut:1 create:1 entire:1 european:1 genre:1 emblem:2 book:1 attain:1 enormous:1 popularity:1 continental:1 europe:1 britain:1 die:1 pavia:1 annotationes:1 tres:1 libros:1 codicis:1 emblematum:1 libellus:1 opera:1 omnia:1 basel:1 rerum:1 patriae:1 seu:1 historiae:1 mediolanensis:1 libri:1 iv:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 glasgow:1 reproduction:2 description:1 translation:1 memorial:1 university:1 newfoundland:1 antwerp:1 full:1 digital:1 facsimile:1 camena:1 project:1 |@bigram opera_omnia:1 external_link:1 |
2,045 | John_Tenniel | 1889 Self-portrait Sir John Tenniel Caterpillar using a hookah. An illustration from Alice in Wonderland Sir John Tenniel (28 February 1820 – 25 February 1914) was an English illustrator. He drew many topical cartoons and caricatures for Punch in the late 19th century, including the iconic dropping the pilot, but is best remembered today for his illustrations in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass. He was born in London and educated himself for his career, although he became a probationer, and then a student, of the Royal Academy. In 1836 he sent his first picture to the exhibition of the Society of British Artists, and in 1845 contributed a cartoon, An Allegory of Justice, to a competition for designs for the mural decoration of the new Palace of Westminster. For this he received a £200 premium and a commission to paint a fresco in the Upper Waiting Hall (or Hall of Poets) in the House of Lords. In spite of his tendency towards high art, he was already known and appreciated as a humorist, and his early companionship with Charles Keene fostered and developed his talent for scholarly caricature. Tenniel was blinded in one eye while fencing with his father in 1840. At Christmas 1850 he was invited by Mark Lemon to fill the position of joint cartoonist (with John Leech) on Punch. He had been selected on the strength of his illustrations to Aesop's Fables. He contributed his first drawing in the initial letter appearing on p. 224, vol. xix. His first cartoon was Lord Jack the Giant Killer: it showed Lord John Russell assailing Cardinal Wiseman. In 1865 he illustrated the first edition of Alice in Wonderland. The first print run of 2,000 was shelved because Tenniel had objections over the print quality; a new edition, released in December of the same year but carrying an 1866 date, was quickly printed and became an instant best-seller, securing Tenniel's lasting fame in the process. Tenniel's illustrations for both books have taken their place among the most famous literary illustrations ever made. They were used as a model for the costumes in Paramount Pictures' Alice in Wonderland. Tenniel's illustrations for the 'Alice' books were engraved onto blocks of wood, to be printed in the woodcut process. The original wood blocks are now in the collection of the Bodleian Library in Oxford. They are not usually on public display, but were exhibited in 2003. This illustration from Through the Looking Glass accompanied the poem "Jabberwocky". In his career Tenniel contributed around 2300 cartoons, innumerable minor drawings, double-page cartoons for Punch's Almanac and other special numbers, and 250 designs for Punch's Pocket-books. He was knighted in 1893. Several of Tenniel's political cartoons expressed strong hostility to Irish Nationalism, with Fenians and Land leagues depicted as monstrous, ape-like brutes, while "Hibernia"—the personification of Ireland—was depicted as a beautiful, helpless young girl threatened by these monsters and turning for protection to "her elder sister", the powerful armoured Britannia. When he retired in January 1901, Tenniel was honoured with a farewell banquet (12 June), at which AJ Balfour, then Leader of the House of Commons, presided. Public exhibitions of Sir John Tenniel's work were held in 1895 and in 1900. Sir John Tenniel is also the author of one of the mosaics, Leonardo da Vinci, in the South Court in the Victoria and Albert Museum; while his highly stippled water-colour drawings appeared from time to time in the exhibitions of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours, of which he had been elected a member in 1874. "The Nemesis of Neglect", 1888 Punch cartoon commenting on the Jack the Ripper murders Works illustrated Juvenile Verse and Picture Book, (1846) Undine (1846) Aesop's Fables, 100 drawings (1848) Blair's Grave (1858) Shirley Brooks's The Gordian Knot (1860) Shirley Brooks's The Silver Cord (1861) Moore's Lalla Rookh, 69 drawings (1861) Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1866) The Mirage of Life, 1867 Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass (1870) In collaboration Pollok's Course of Time (1857) Poets of the Nineteenth Century (1857) Poe's Works (1857) Home Affections (1858) Cholmondeley Pennell's Puck on Pegasus (1863) The Arabian Nights (1863) English Sacred Poetry (1864) Legends and Lyrics (1865) Tupper's Proverbial Philosophy Barry Cornwall's Poems, and other books He also contributed to Once a Week, the Art Union publications, etc. Notes External links John Tenniel's illustrations for Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass More about John Tenniel and the making of the illustrations for the Alice in Wonderland books A collection of Tenniel's Civil War-era illustrations Gill Stoker's Tenniel website | John_Tenniel |@lemmatized self:1 portrait:1 sir:4 john:8 tenniel:16 caterpillar:1 use:2 hookah:1 illustration:10 alice:8 wonderland:7 february:2 english:2 illustrator:1 draw:1 many:1 topical:1 cartoon:7 caricature:2 punch:5 late:1 century:2 include:1 iconic:1 drop:1 pilot:1 best:2 remember:1 today:1 lewis:3 carroll:3 adventure:3 look:4 glass:4 bear:1 london:1 educate:1 career:2 although:1 become:2 probationer:1 student:1 royal:2 academy:1 send:1 first:5 picture:3 exhibition:3 society:1 british:1 artist:1 contribute:4 allegory:1 justice:1 competition:1 design:2 mural:1 decoration:1 new:2 palace:1 westminster:1 receive:1 premium:1 commission:1 paint:1 fresco:1 upper:1 wait:1 hall:2 poet:2 house:2 lord:3 spite:1 tendency:1 towards:1 high:1 art:2 already:1 know:1 appreciate:1 humorist:1 early:1 companionship:1 charles:1 keene:1 foster:1 develop:1 talent:1 scholarly:1 blind:1 one:2 eye:1 fence:1 father:1 christmas:1 invite:1 mark:1 lemon:1 fill:1 position:1 joint:1 cartoonist:1 leech:1 select:1 strength:1 aesop:2 fable:2 drawing:5 initial:1 letter:1 appear:2 p:1 vol:1 xix:1 jack:2 giant:1 killer:1 show:1 russell:1 assail:1 cardinal:1 wiseman:1 illustrate:2 edition:2 print:4 run:1 shelve:1 objection:1 quality:1 release:1 december:1 year:1 carry:1 date:1 quickly:1 instant:1 seller:1 secure:1 last:1 fame:1 process:2 book:6 take:1 place:1 among:1 famous:1 literary:1 ever:1 make:1 model:1 costume:1 paramount:1 engrave:1 onto:1 block:2 wood:2 woodcut:1 original:1 collection:2 bodleian:1 library:1 oxford:1 usually:1 public:2 display:1 exhibit:1 accompany:1 poem:2 jabberwocky:1 around:1 innumerable:1 minor:1 double:1 page:1 almanac:1 special:1 number:1 pocket:1 knight:1 several:1 political:1 express:1 strong:1 hostility:1 irish:1 nationalism:1 fenians:1 land:1 league:1 depict:2 monstrous:1 ape:1 like:1 brute:1 hibernia:1 personification:1 ireland:1 beautiful:1 helpless:1 young:1 girl:1 threaten:1 monster:1 turn:1 protection:1 elder:1 sister:1 powerful:1 armoured:1 britannia:1 retire:1 january:1 honour:1 farewell:1 banquet:1 june:1 aj:1 balfour:1 leader:1 common:1 preside:1 work:3 hold:1 also:2 author:1 mosaic:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 south:1 court:1 victoria:1 albert:1 museum:1 highly:1 stippled:1 water:2 colour:2 time:3 institute:1 painter:1 elect:1 member:1 nemesis:1 neglect:1 comment:1 ripper:1 murder:1 juvenile:1 verse:1 undine:1 blair:1 grave:1 shirley:2 brook:2 gordian:1 knot:1 silver:1 cord:1 moore:1 lalla:1 rookh:1 mirage:1 life:1 collaboration:1 pollok:1 course:1 nineteenth:1 poe:1 home:1 affection:1 cholmondeley:1 pennell:1 puck:1 pegasus:1 arabian:1 night:1 sacred:1 poetry:1 legend:1 lyric:1 tupper:1 proverbial:1 philosophy:1 barry:1 cornwall:1 week:1 union:1 publication:1 etc:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 making:1 civil:1 war:1 era:1 gill:1 stoker:1 website:1 |@bigram john_tenniel:6 alice_wonderland:4 lewis_carroll:3 carroll_alice:2 adventure_wonderland:3 palace_westminster:1 aesop_fable:2 tenniel_illustration:3 paramount_picture:1 bodleian_library:1 poem_jabberwocky:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 jack_ripper:1 nineteenth_century:1 external_link:1 |
2,046 | Transport_in_Greenland | The transportation system in Greenland is very unusual in that Greenland has no railways, no inland waterways, and virtually no roads between towns. There are 150 km (90 mi) of roads in the whole country; 60 km (40 mi) of the roads are paved. Ony two towns are connected by a road, Ivittuut and Kangilinnguit; the rest are isolated. Historically the major means of transportation have been by boat around the coast in summer and by dog sled in winter, particularly in the north and east. There are ports at Ilulissat, Kangerlussuaq (also known by its Danish name Søndre Strømfjord), Qaqortoq, Narsaq, Nuuk (Godthåb), Aasiaat and Sisimiut. Several other towns have also small ports. The only two users of the harbors are Royal Arctic Line and Arctic Umiaq Line. While Germany occupied Denmark during World War II, the United States controlled Greenland and built airports there. The airports were codenamed Bluie West One through to Bluie West Eight on the west of the island and Bluie East One to Bluie East Four on the eastern side. The largest of those airports, Bluie West Eight, now renamed Kangerlussuaq Airport, remains the international hub for travel to Greenland, as it is the only airport that has a large enough runway to service jumbo jets. American authorities at one time entertained the idea of building a road from Kangerlussuaq to the second largest airport, in Narsarsuaq, several hundred kilometres (miles) to the south. The idea was abandoned after feasibility studies failed to prove it was possible. Greenland now has 18 airstrips, 14 of which are paved. All domestic flights are operated by Air Greenland. The name was anglicized in 2002 from the Danish Grønlandsfly. International flights are limited to thrice weekly flights from Copenhagen to Kangerlussuaq and also to Narsarsauq with Air Greenland. Air Iceland fly from Reykjavík to Narsarsuaq and Nuuk during the summer. It offers also "day trips to the wilderness" from Reykjavík to Kulusuk on the east coast. Air Iceland flies to Ittoqqortoormiit over Kulusuk once or twice a week throughout the year. | Transport_in_Greenland |@lemmatized transportation:2 system:1 greenland:7 unusual:1 railway:1 inland:1 waterways:1 virtually:1 road:5 town:3 km:2 mi:2 whole:1 country:1 pave:2 ony:1 two:2 connect:1 ivittuut:1 kangilinnguit:1 rest:1 isolate:1 historically:1 major:1 mean:1 boat:1 around:1 coast:2 summer:2 dog:1 sled:1 winter:1 particularly:1 north:1 east:4 port:2 ilulissat:1 kangerlussuaq:4 also:4 know:1 danish:2 name:2 søndre:1 strømfjord:1 qaqortoq:1 narsaq:1 nuuk:2 godthåb:1 aasiaat:1 sisimiut:1 several:2 small:1 user:1 harbor:1 royal:1 arctic:2 line:2 umiaq:1 germany:1 occupied:1 denmark:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 united:1 state:1 control:1 build:2 airport:6 codenamed:1 bluie:5 west:4 one:3 eight:2 island:1 four:1 eastern:1 side:1 large:3 rename:1 remain:1 international:2 hub:1 travel:1 enough:1 runway:1 service:1 jumbo:1 jet:1 american:1 authority:1 time:1 entertain:1 idea:2 second:1 narsarsuaq:2 hundred:1 kilometre:1 mile:1 south:1 abandon:1 feasibility:1 study:1 fail:1 prove:1 possible:1 airstrip:1 domestic:1 flight:3 operate:1 air:4 anglicize:1 grønlandsfly:1 limit:1 thrice:1 weekly:1 copenhagen:1 narsarsauq:1 iceland:2 fly:2 reykjavík:2 offer:1 day:1 trip:1 wilderness:1 kulusuk:2 ittoqqortoormiit:1 twice:1 week:1 throughout:1 year:1 |@bigram dog_sled:1 jumbo_jet:1 thrice_weekly:1 |
2,047 | Off_topic | A contribution is on-topic if it is within the bounds of the current discussion and off-topic if not. The terms are normally used in the context of mailing lists, discussion groups, discussion forums, bulletin boards, newsgroups, and wikis. It is a common courtesy to mark a new off-topic posting or email by beginning it with "OT" - for example in a forum discussing the Linux operating system someone might post: "OT: Wow, did you feel that earthquake?". The term "off topic" is also used to indicate a discussion venue where anything other than matters specifically addressed by the website/mailing list/discussion group in question is addressed. For example, an off topic category on an automobile related discussion forum may include talk about video games (which presumably have nothing to do with automobiles). There are a variety of sites dedicated entirely to random discussion that have nothing to do with anything and off-topic posting is the norm. On the other hand are specific subject groups and lists where it is generally considered bad form and a breach of netiquette to discuss any topic that is not germane to the group. Off topic posters include individual members of topic-specific groups who use the mailing list as a forum to espouse their support or dissent of issues or causes that have nothing to do with the reason the group has assembled. Posting off-topic messages to deliberately aggravate other members is referred to as "trolling", and is common in some forums. References http://www.newsreaders.com/guide/netiquette.html http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ia_nq_send.htm See also Netiquette | Off_topic |@lemmatized contribution:1 topic:10 within:1 bound:1 current:1 discussion:7 term:2 normally:1 use:3 context:1 mail:2 list:4 group:6 forum:5 bulletin:1 board:1 newsgroups:1 wikis:1 common:2 courtesy:1 mark:1 new:1 posting:2 email:1 begin:1 ot:2 example:2 discuss:2 linux:1 operate:1 system:1 someone:1 might:1 post:2 wow:1 feel:1 earthquake:1 also:2 indicate:1 venue:1 anything:2 matter:1 specifically:1 address:2 website:1 question:1 category:1 automobile:2 relate:1 may:1 include:2 talk:1 video:1 game:1 presumably:1 nothing:3 variety:1 site:1 dedicate:1 entirely:1 random:1 norm:1 hand:1 specific:2 subject:1 generally:1 consider:1 bad:1 form:1 breach:1 netiquette:3 germane:1 poster:1 individual:1 member:2 mailing:1 espouse:1 support:1 dissent:1 issue:1 cause:1 reason:1 assemble:1 message:1 deliberately:1 aggravate:1 referred:1 troll:1 reference:1 http:2 www:2 newsreader:1 com:2 guide:1 html:1 livinginternet:1 htm:1 see:1 |@bigram bulletin_board:1 mailing_list:1 http_www:2 |
2,048 | Michael_Palin | Michael Edward Palin, CBE (born 5 May 1943) is an English comedian, actor, writer and television presenter best known for being one of the members of the comedy group Monty Python and for his travel documentaries. Palin wrote most of his material with Terry Jones. Before Monty Python, they had worked on other shows such as The Ken Dodd Show, The Frost Report and Do Not Adjust Your Set. Palin appeared in some of the most famous Python sketches, including "The Dead Parrot", "The Lumberjack Song", "The Spanish Inquisition", "Bicycle Repairman" and "Spam". Palin continued to work with Jones, co-writing Ripping Yarns. He has also appeared in several films directed by fellow Python Terry Gilliam and made notable appearances in other films such as A Fish Called Wanda, for which he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In a 2005 poll to find The Comedian's Comedian, he was voted the 30th favourite by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. [http://www.answers.com/topic/the-comedian-s-comedian The Comedian's Comedian], URL accessed 13 December 2006 After Python, he began a new career as a travel writer. His journeys have taken him across the world, the North and South Poles, the Sahara desert, the Himalayas and most recently, Eastern Europe. In 2000 Palin became a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his services to television. Early life and career Palin was born in Broomhill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, the second child and only son of Mary Rachel Lockhart (née Ovey) and Edward Moreton Palin. Michael Palin Biography (1943-) His father was an engineer working for a steel firm. He started his education at Birkdale Preparatory School, Sheffield, and later Shrewsbury School. His sister Angela was nine years older than he. Despite the age gap the two had a close relationship until her death. She committed suicide in June 1987. The wandering man When he was five years old, Palin had his first acting experience at Birkdale playing Martha Cratchit in a school performance of A Christmas Carol. At the age of ten, Palin, still interested in acting, made a comedy monologue and read a Shakespeare play to his mother while playing all the parts. Ross, 200 After his school days in 1962 he went on to read modern history at Brasenose College, Oxford. With fellow student Robert Hewison he performed and wrote, for the first time, comedy material at a university Christmas party. Michael Palin biography Terry Jones, also a student in Oxford, saw that performance and began writing together with Hewison and Palin. In the same year Palin joined the Brightside and Carbrook Co-Operative Society Players and first gained fame when he won an acting award at a Co-Op drama festival. He also performed in the Oxford Revue with Jones. In 1966 he married Helen Gibbins, whom he first met in 1959 on holiday in Southwold in Suffolk — the county to which he has returned in recent years to live. This meeting was later fictionalised in Palin's play East of Ipswich. Ross, 57 The couple have three children and a grandchild. While still a baby, his son William briefly appeared in Monty Python and the Holy Grail as Sir Not-appearing-in-this-film. After finishing university in 1965 Palin became a presenter on a comedy pop show called Now! for the television contractor Television Wales and the West. Michael Palin by John Oliver at BFI Screen Online, URL accessed 13 December, 2006 At the same time Palin was contacted by Jones, who had left university a year earlier, for assistance in writing a theatrical documentary about sex through the ages. Although this project was eventually abandoned, it brought Palin and Jones together as a writing duo and led them to write comedy for various BBC programmes, such as The Ken Dodd Show, The Billy Cotton Bandshow, and The Illustrated Weekly Hudd. Biography at Pythonet.org, URL accessed 17 December, 2006 They collaborated in writing lyrics for an album by Barry Booth called Diversions. They were also in the team of writers working for The Frost Report, whose other members included Frank Muir, Barry Cryer, Marty Feldman, Ronnie Barker, Ronnie Corbett, Dick Vosburgh, and future Monty Python members Graham Chapman, John Cleese and Eric Idle. Although the members of Monty Python had already encountered each other over the years, The Frost Report was the first time all the British members of Monty Python (its sixth member, Terry Gilliam, was at that time an American citizen) worked together. During the run of The Frost Report the Palin/Jones team contributed material to two shows starring John Bird: The Late Show and A series of Bird's. For A series of Bird's the Palin/Jones team had their first experience of writing narrative instead of the short sketches they were accustomed to conceiving. Following The Frost Report the Palin/Jones team worked both as actors and writers on the show Twice a fortnight with Graeme Garden, Bill Oddie and Jonathan Lynn, and the successful children's comedy show Do Not Adjust Your Set with Idle and David Jason. The show also featured musical numbers by the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, including future Monty Python musical collaborator Neil Innes. The animations for Do Not Adjust Your Set were made by Terry Gilliam, who joined the cast on Cleese's recommendation and began working with the Palin/Jones team for the first time. Eager to work with Palin Ross, 91 sans Jones, Cleese later asked him to perform in How to Irritate People together with Chapman and Tim Brooke-Taylor. The Palin/Jones team were reunited for The Complete and Utter History of Britain. During this period Cleese contacted Palin about doing the show that would ultimately become Monty Python's Flying Circus. On the strength of their work on The Frost Report and other programmes, Cleese and Chapman had been offered a show by the BBC, but Cleese was reluctant to do a two-man show for various reasons, among them Chapman's reputedly difficult personality. At the same time the success of Do Not Adjust Your Set had led Palin, Jones, Idle, and Gilliam to be offered their own series and, while it was still in production, Palin agreed to Cleese's proposal and brought along Idle, Jones, and Gilliam. Thus the formation of the Monty Python troupe has been referred to as a result of Cleese's desire to work with Palin and the chance circumstances that brought the other four members into the fold. The Pythons Autobiography By The Pythons; Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Michael Palin, John Chapman, David Sherlock, Bob McCabe; Thomas Dunne Books; 2003 Monty Python Palin performs The Lumberjack Song, with Connie Booth as his "best girl." In Monty Python, Palin played various roles, which ranged from manic enthusiasm (such as the lumberjack of the Lumberjack Song) to unflappable calmness (such as the Dead Parrot vendor, Cheese Shop proprietor, or Postal Clerk). As a straight man he was often a foil to the rising ire of characters portrayed by John Cleese. Palin frequently wrote with Terry Jones for the sketches, including "The Lumberjack Song" and "Spam". Some sketches Palin wrote by himself (or began by himself), such as the "Spanish Inquisition sketch", in which a fairly widespread catchphrase was created: "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" These sketches take everyday situations: idle chatter in the sitting room; dining out—and introduce an unexpected rogue element: Cardinals of the Spanish Inquisition; an impossibly overweight man with the improbable surname of Creosote. From here, Palin and Jones commence to elaborate upon the newly created environment, carrying it to logical or illogical extremes: having waiter Cleese feed Mr. Creosote until he actually explodes, showering the other diners in viscera; or attempting to torture innocent old ladies with cushions and comfy chairs. Other performances Palin in the Ripping Yarns episode: The Testing of Eric Olthwaite After the Monty Python television series ended in 1974, the Palin/Jones team worked on Ripping Yarns, an intermittent television comedy series broadcast over three years from 1976. They had earlier colloborated on the play "Secrets" from the BBC series Black and Blue in 1973. Palin also appeared in All You Need Is Cash (1978) as Eric Manchester (based on Derek Taylor), the press agent for The Rutles. In 1982, Palin wrote and starred in The Missionary, co-starring Maggie Smith. In it, he plays the Reverend Charles Fortescue, who is recalled from Africa to aid prostitutes. He appeared in Terry Gilliam's films Time Bandits, Jabberwocky, and Brazil. His biggest international role in a movie outside of Python was as stuttering would-be assassin Ken Pile in A Fish Called Wanda, for which he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The film was such a success that Cleese reunited the main cast almost a decade later to make Fierce Creatures. After filming for Fierce Creatures finished, Palin went on a travel journey for a BBC documentary and, returning a year later, found that the end of Fierce Creatures had failed at test screenings and had to be reshot. Palin plays a torturer in film Brazil. Apart from Fierce Creatures, Palin's last film role was a small part in The Wind in the Willows, a film directed by and starring Terry Jones. Palin also appeared with John Cleese in his documentary, The Human Face. Palin was in the cast of You've Got Mail, the Tom Hanks/Meg Ryan romantic comedy as a subplot novelist, but his role was eventually cut entirely for reasons that remain opaque. He also assisted Campaign for Better Transport (UK) and others with campaigns on sustainable transport, particularly those relating to urban areas, and has been president of the campaign since 1986. Campaign for Better Transport website Palin has also appeared in serious drama. In 1991 Palin worked as producer and actor in the film American Friends based upon a real event in the life of his great grandfather, a fellow at St John's College, Oxford. American Friends at Rotten Tomatoes.com, URL accessed 13 December 2006 In that same year he also played the part of a headmaster in Alan Bleasdale's Channel 4 drama series G.B.H.. Palin also had a small cameo role in Australian soap opera Home and Away. He played an English surfer with a fear of sharks, who interrupts a heart-to-heart between two main characters to ask whether there were any sharks in the sea. This was filmed while he was in Australia for the Full Circle series, with a segment about the filming of the role featuring in the series. In 2008 Palin reportedly entered talks with Terry Gilliam to step in for Jean Rochefort and play Don Quixote alongside Johnny Depp in the relaunched production of The Man Who Killed Don Quixote. Main production start is planned for 2009. Television documentaries Travel Palin's first travel documentary was part of the 1980 BBC Television series Great Railway Journeys of the World, in which, humorously reminiscing about his childhood hobby of train spotting, he travelled throughout the UK by train, from London to the Kyle of Lochalsh, via Manchester, York, Edinburgh and Inverness. At the Kyle of Lochalsh, Palin bought the station's long metal platform sign and is seen lugging it back to London with him. In 1994, Palin travelled through Ireland for the same series, entitled "Derry to Kerry". In a quest for family roots, he attempted to trace his great grandmother — Brita Gallagher — who set sail from Ireland 150 years ago during the Great Famine (1845-1849), bound for a new life in Burlington, New Jersey. The series is a trip along the Palin family line. Starting in 1989, Palin appeared as presenter in a series of travel programmes made for the BBC. It was after the veteran TV globetrotter Alan Whicker and journalist Miles Kington turned down presenting the first of these, Around the World in 80 Days, that gave Palin the opportunity to present his first and subsequent travel shows. These programmes have been broadcast around the world in syndication, and were also sold on VHS tape and later on DVD: Michael Palin: Around the World in 80 Days (Travel 1988; Programme release 1989): travelling as closely as possible the path described in the famous Jules Verne story without using aircraft. Pole to Pole (Travel 1991; Programme release 1992): travelling from the North Pole to the South Pole, following as closely as possible the 30 degree line of longitude, over as much land as possible, i.e., through Europe and Africa. Full Circle with Michael Palin (Travel 1996/97; Programme release 1997): in which he circumnavigated the lands around the Pacific Ocean counter-clockwise; a journey of 80,000 kilometres starting on Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait and taking him through Asia, Oceania and the Americas. Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure (1999): retracing the footsteps of Ernest Hemingway through the United States, Europe, Africa, and the Caribbean. Sahara with Michael Palin (Travel 2001/02; Programme release 2002): in which he trekked around and through the world's largest desert. Himalaya with Michael Palin (Travel 2003/04; Programme release 2004): in which he travels through the Himalaya region. Michael Palin's New Europe (Travel 2006/07; Programme release 2007): in which he travels through Eastern Europe. Following each trip, Palin wrote a book about his travels, providing information and insights not included in the TV programme. Each book is illustrated with photographs by Basil Pao, the stills photographer who was on the team. (Exception: the first book, Around the World in 80 Days, contains some pictures by Pao but most are by other photographers.) All seven of these books were also made available as audio books, and all of them are read by Palin himself. Around the World in 80 Days and Hemingway Adventure are unabridged, while the other four books were made in both abridged and unabridged versions, although the unabridged versions can be very difficult to find. For four of the trips a photography book was made by Pao, each with an introduction written by Palin. These are large coffee-table style books with pictures printed on glossy paper. The majority of the pictures are of various people encountered on the trip, as informal portraits or showing them engaged in some interesting activity. Some of the landscape photos are displayed as two-page spreads. Palin's travel programmes are responsible for a phenomenon termed the "Palin effect": areas of the world that he has visited suddenly become popular tourist attractions — for example, the significant increase in the number of tourists interested in Peru after Palin visited Machu Picchu. In a 2006 survey of "15 of the world's top travel writers" by The Observer, Palin named Peru's Pongo de Mainique (canyon below the Machu Picchu) his "favourite place in the world". Art and history In recent years, Palin has written and presented occasional documentary programmes on artists that interest him. The first, on Scottish painter Anne Redpath, was Palin on Redpath in 1997. In The Bright Side of Life (2000), Palin continued on a Scottish theme, looking at the work of the Scottish Colourists. Two further programmes followed on European painters; Michael Palin and the Ladies Who Loved Matisse (2004) and Michael Palin and the Mystery of Hammershøi (2005), about the Danish artist Vilhelm Hammershøi. The DVD Michael Palin on Art contains all these documentaries except for the Matisse programme. In November 2008, Palin presented a First World War documentary about Armistice Day, 11 November 1918, when thousands of soldiers lost their lives in battle after the war had officially ended. Palin filmed on the battlefields of northern France and Belgium for the programme, called The Last Day of World War One, produced for the BBC's Timewatch series. Recognition Class 153, no. 153335 'Michael Palin' at Cambridge. Each member of Monty Python has an asteroid named after him. Palin's is Asteroid 9621 Michaelpalin. In honour of his achievements as a traveller, especially rail travel, Palin has two British trains named after him. In 2002, Virgin Trains' new £5m high speed Super Voyager train number 221130 was named "Michael Palin" - it carries his name externally and a plaque is located adjacent to the onboard shop with information on Palin and his many journeys. Virgin Trains, URL accessed 13 December, 2006 Also, National Express East Anglia have named a British Rail Class 153 (unit number 153335) after him. In 2008, he received the James Joyce Award of the Literary and Historical Society in Dublin. Palin was instrumental in setting up The Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children in 1993. Bibliography Travel books Around the World in 80 Days (1989) ISBN 0-563-20826-0 Pole to Pole (1992) ISBN 0-563-37065-3 Full Circle (1997) ISBN 0-563-37121-8 Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure (1999) ISBN 0-297-82528-3 Sahara (2002) ISBN 0-297-84303-6 Himalaya (2004) ISBN 0-297-84371-0 New Europe (2007) ISBN 0-297-84449-0 All his travel books can be read at no charge, complete and unabridged, on his website. Autobiography (contributor) The Pythons Autobiography by The Pythons (2003) ISBN 0-7528-5293-0 Diaries Diaries 1969–1979: The Python Years (2006) ISBN 0-297-84436-9 Diaries 1980–1987: The Film Years (forthcoming title, due for publication in September 2009) Fiction Hemingway's chair (1995) ISBN 0-7493-1930-5Bert Fegg's Nasty Book for Boys and Girls w/Terry Jones, illus Martin Honeysett, Frank Bellamy et al. (1974) ISBN 0-413-32740-XDr Fegg's Encyclopaedia of all world knowledge (1984) (expanded reprint of the above, with Terry Jones and Martin Honeysett) ISBN 0-8722-6005-4 Children's booksSmall Harry and the Toothache Pills (1982) ISBN 0-416-23690-1Limerics or The Limerick Book (1985) ISBN 0-09-161540-2Cyril and the House of Commons (1986) ISBN 1-85145-078-5Cyril and the Dinner Party (1986) ISBN 1-85145-069-6The Mirrorstone with Alan Lee and Richard Seymour (1986) ISBN 0-224-02408-6 PlaysThe Weekend (1994) ISBN 0-413-68940-9 Selected filmographyAnd Now For Something Completely Different (1971) Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975)Three Men in a Boat (1975)Jabberwocky (1977)Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979) Time Bandits (1981)Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982)The Missionary (1982) Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983) A Private Function (1984) Brazil (1985) A Fish Called Wanda (1988) American Friends (1991) The Wind in the Willows (1996) The Willows in Winter (1996) Fierce Creatures (1997) TelevisionNow! (October 1965 – middle 1966)The Ken Dodd ShowBilly Cotton BandshowThe Illustrated Weekly HuddThe Frost Report. (10 March 1966 – 29 June 1967)The Late Show (15 October 1966 - 1 April 1967)A Series of Bird's (1967) (3 October 1967 - 21 November 1967 screenwriter (guest stars)Twice a Fortnight (21 October 1967 - 23 December 1967)Do Not Adjust Your Set (26 December 1967 - 14 May 1969)Broaden Your Mind (1968)How to Irritate People (1968)Marty (TV series) (1968)Complete and Utter History of Britain (1969)Monty Python's Flying Circus (5 October 1969–5 December 1974)Ripping Yarns (1976-1979)Great Railway Journeys of the World, episode title "Confessions of a Trainspotter" (1980)East of Ipswich (1987) writerMichael Palin: Around the World in 80 Days (1989) GBH (1991)Pole to Pole (1992)Great Railway Journeys, episode title "Derry to Kerry" (1994)Full Circle with Michael Palin (1997)Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure (1999)Michael Palin On... The Colourists (2000)Sahara with Michael Palin (2002)Life on Air (2002)Himalaya with Michael Palin (2004)Michael Palin's New Europe (2007)Around the World in 20 Years (30 December 2008) Awards Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films - (1982) Nominated - Saturn Award for Best Writing for Time Bandits (shared with Terry Gilliam) Evening Standard British Film Awards - (1986) Won - "Peter Sellers Award for Comedy" Writers' Guild of Great Britain - (1991) Won - Writers' Guild of Great Britain Award for "Film - Screenplay" for American Friends (shared with Tristram Powell) DVD Exclusive Awards - (2001) Nominated - "Video Premiere Award for Best Audio Commentary" for Monty Python and the Holy Grail (shared with John Cleese and Eric Idle) British Comedy Awards - (2002) Won - British Comedy Award for "Lifetime Achievement" BAFTA Awards - (1984) Nominated - BAFTA Award for "Best Original Song" (the award was discontinued after the 1985 ceremonies) for Every Sperm is Sacred from The Meaning of Life (shared with André Jacquemin, Dave Howman and Terry Jones) (1989) Won - BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for A Fish Called Wanda (as Ken Pile) (1992) Nominated - BAFTA Television Award for Best Actor for G.B.H.(2005) Won - BAFTA Special Award RadioBiggles Flies North read by Michael Palin (2008-01-07 BBC Radio) Further reading Ross, Robert (1997). Monty Python Encyclopedia B.T. Batsford Ltd, London ISBN 1-57500-036-9 Wilmut, Roger (1980). From Fringe to Flying Circus: Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980'' Eyre Methuen Ltd ISBN 0-413-50770-X References External links Michael Palin - BBC Guide to Comedy Michael Palin - Comedy Zone Palin's Travels - official website for the travel series Michael Palin Centre for Stammering Children | Michael_Palin |@lemmatized michael:28 edward:2 palin:94 cbe:2 born:1 may:2 english:2 comedian:8 actor:7 writer:7 television:9 presenter:3 best:9 know:1 one:2 member:8 comedy:15 group:1 monty:20 python:29 travel:27 documentary:9 write:15 material:3 terry:15 jones:22 work:13 show:15 ken:5 dodd:3 frost:7 report:7 adjust:5 set:7 appear:9 famous:2 sketch:6 include:5 dead:2 parrot:2 lumberjack:5 song:5 spanish:4 inquisition:4 bicycle:1 repairman:1 spam:2 continue:2 co:4 rip:3 yarn:4 also:14 several:1 film:16 direct:2 fellow:4 gilliam:9 make:8 notable:1 appearance:1 fish:4 call:7 wanda:4 win:8 bafta:7 award:19 supporting:3 role:9 poll:1 find:3 vote:1 favourite:2 insider:1 http:1 www:1 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2,049 | Physical_geography | True-color image of the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of geography Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006 . Physical geography focuses on understanding the processes and patterns in the natural environment, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography. Within the body of physical geography, the Earth is often split either into several spheres or environments, the main spheres being the atmosphere, biosphere, cryosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and pedosphere. Research in physical geography is often interdisciplinary and uses the systems approach. Physical geography is that branch of science,which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment like atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere. Fields of physical geography A natural arch. Geomorphology is the science concerned with understanding the surface of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology, however, these sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them; mainly tectonic or climatic processes. Geomorphology seeks to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling (Geomorphometry). Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of soil science. Meander formation. Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological cycle. Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and to an extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these bodies of water. Hydrology originated engineering and has thus developed a largely quantitative method in its research, however, it does have an earth science side that embraces the systems approach. Similar to most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres e.g. limnology and ecohydrology. Alpine glacier. Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly the cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although, research in the areas are similar with research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers the latter tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. snow hydrology and glacial geology. Wallace line. Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of island biogeography. The field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: island biogeography, paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeography Climate trends. Climatology is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. As opposed to meteorology which studies atmospheric processes over a shorter duration, which are then examined by climatologist to find trends and frequencies in weather patterns/ phenomena. Climatology, examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology. Nitrogen cycle. Pedology is the study of soils in its natural environment. It is one of two main branches of soil science, the other being edaphology. Pedology mainly deals with pedogenesis, soil morphology, soil classification. In physical geography pedology is largely studied due to the numerous interactions between climate (water, air, temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals), the mineral materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles) and its position and effects on the landscape such as laterization. Palaeogeography is the study of the distribution of the continents through geologic time through examining the preserved material in the stratigraphic record. Palaeogeography is a cross-discipline, almost all the evidence for the positions of the continents comes from geology in the form of fossils or geophysics the use of this data has resulted in evidence for continental drift, plate tectonics and supercontinents this in turn has supported palaeogeographic theories such as the Wilson cycle. High-energy coastline. Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal geography although predominantly geomorphological in its research is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and influences of sea level change. Thermohaline circulation. Oceanography is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (geological oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (chemical oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it. Quaternary science is an inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years. The field studies the last ice age and the recent interstadial the Holocene and uses proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred. Habitat fragmentation. Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). The field was largely founded by the German geographer Carl Troll Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic context. The main difference between biogeography and landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical cycles. Digital elevation model. Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering of geographic information, or spatially referenced information. Geomatrics includes geodesy (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar motion) and G.I.S. (a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth) and remote sensing (the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s) that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object). Salinization. Environmental geography is a branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the branch was previously more visible in research than at present with theories such as environmental determinism linking society with the environment. It has largely become the domain of the study of environmental management or anthropogenic influences on the environment and vice a versa. Physical geography literature Physical geography and Earth Science journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most journals cover a specific field and publish the research within that field, however unlike human geographers, physical geographers tend to publish in inter-disciplinary journals rather than predominantly geography journal; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Additionally, textbooks books and magazines on geography communicate research to laypeople, although these tend to focus on environmental issues or cultural dilemmas. Examples of journals that publish articles from physical geographers are: Notable physical geographers Alexander Von Humboldt, considered to be the founding father of physical geography. Eratosthenes (276 194 BC), who made the first known reliable estimation of the Earth's size. Ptolemy (c.90 c.168), who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce the book Geographia. Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī (973 1048 AD), considered te father of geodesy. Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10. H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037), who formulated the law of superposition and concept of uniformitarianism in The Book of Healing. Toulmin, S. and Goodfield, J. (1965), The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time, Hutchinson & Co., London, p. 64 (cf. Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth Sciences) Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses, 1100 c.1165), who drew the Tabula Rogeriana, the most accurate world map in pre-modern times. S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire, pp. 461-2: Piri Reis (1465 c.1554), whose Piri Reis map is the oldest surviving world map to include the Americas and possibly Antarctica Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594), an innovative cartographer and originator of the Mercator projection. Alexander Von Humboldt (1769–1859), considered the father of modern geography. Published Kosmos and founded the study of biogeography. Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884), who noted the structure of glaciers and advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow. Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), the author of a glacial theory which disputed the notion of a steady-cooling Earth. Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), founder of modern biogeography and the Wallace line. Walther Penck (1888–1923), proponent of the cycle of erosion and the simultaneous occurrence of uplift and denudation. William Morris Davis (1850–1934), father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion theory. Sir Ernest Shackleton (1874–1922), Antarctic explorer during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Robert E. Horton (1875–1945), founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and overland flow. J Harlen Bretz (1882–1981), pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most notably the Bretz (Missoula) floods. Willi Dansgaard (born 1922), palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of Dansgaard-Oeschger events. Hans Oeschger (1927–1998), palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of Dansgaard-Orschger events. Richard Chorley (1927–2002), a key contributor to the quantitative revolution and the use of systems theory in geography. Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006), who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun. Stefan Rahmstorf (born 1960), professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline dynamics. See also Ecology Environmental science Environmental studies Geostatistics Weathering Physiographic regions of the world Further reading External links Physiography by T.X. Huxley, 1878, full text, physical geography of the Thames River Basin Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. 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2,050 | Bass_(sound) | Bass ( as in base), when used as an adjective, is used to describe tones of low frequency or range. Played in an ensemble/orchestra, such notes are frequently used to provide a counterpoint or counter-melody, in a harmonic context either to outline or juxtapose the progression of the chords, or with percussion to underline the rhythm. In popular music the bass part most often provides harmonic and rhythmic support, usually playing the root or fifth of the chord and stressing the strong beats. Instrument or singer As a noun, a bass is a musical instrument or singer with a low range: see: bass (vocal range) and bass (instrument). In a jazz or orchestral context, the term may refer to the double bass, the largest and lowest pitched bowed string instrument. In a popular music context, the term often refers to the bass guitar, a four-stringed instrument from the guitar family that is used to perform basslines in rock and pop. In electronic music, programmed bass is used to fill out the frequency range and add more bottom-end to the song in order for it to sound more full and drive the song. See also Figured bass Bass clef Bassline Basso continuo Bass note Ground bass Sub bass | Bass_(sound) |@lemmatized bass:13 base:1 use:5 adjective:1 describe:1 tone:1 low:3 frequency:2 range:4 play:2 ensemble:1 orchestra:1 note:2 frequently:1 provide:2 counterpoint:1 counter:1 melody:1 harmonic:2 context:3 either:1 outline:1 juxtapose:1 progression:1 chord:2 percussion:1 underline:1 rhythm:1 popular:2 music:3 part:1 often:2 rhythmic:1 support:1 usually:1 root:1 fifth:1 stress:1 strong:1 beat:1 instrument:5 singer:2 noun:1 musical:1 see:2 vocal:1 jazz:1 orchestral:1 term:2 may:1 refer:2 double:1 large:1 pitch:1 bow:1 string:2 guitar:2 four:1 family:1 perform:1 basslines:1 rock:1 pop:1 electronic:1 programmed:1 fill:1 add:1 bottom:1 end:1 song:2 order:1 sound:1 full:1 drive:1 also:1 figure:1 clef:1 bassline:1 basso:1 continuo:1 ground:1 sub:1 |@bigram harmonic_rhythmic:1 double_bass:1 bass_guitar:1 bass_clef:1 basso_continuo:1 |
2,051 | Joual | Joual is the common name for the linguistic features of basilectal Quebec French that are associated with the French-speaking working class in Montreal which has become a symbol of national identity for a large number of artists from that area. Speakers of Quebec French from outside Montreal usually have other names to identify their speech, such as Magoua in Trois-Rivières and Chaouin South of Trois-Rivières. Linguists reserve the term Joual for the basilectal variety of Quebec French spoken in Montreal. Gilles Lefebvre, «Faut-il miser sur le joual?» Le Devoir 1965, 30 octobre; «L'étude de la culture: la linguistique.» Recherche sociographiques 3:1-2.233-249, 1962; Henri Wittmann, 1973. «Le joual, c'est-tu un créole?» La Linguistique 1973, 9:2.83-93. Attitudes towards "joual" range from stigma to exaltation depending on forms and components of human communication such as social setting (formal/informal; public/private), channel (spoken vs. written; broadcast) and so on. "Joual" is often understood to have become a sociolect of the Québécois working class. However, it can no longer be strictly considered as such given two major events in the latter half of the 20th century: upward socio-economic mobility among the Québécois, and a cultural renaissance around Joual connected to the Quebec sovereignty movement in the Montreal East-End. At the beginning of the 20th century, "joual" was at best a kind of Creole that also fitted the description of a diatype more than any other categorization. Today, many Québécois who were raised in Quebec during the last century (command of English notwithstanding) can understand and speak at least some "joual". Origin of the name joual Although coinage of the name joual is often attributed to French Canadian journalist André Laurendeau, usage of this term throughout French-speaking Canada predates the 1930s. The actual word joual is the representation of how the word cheval (horse) is pronounced by those who speak "joual". Cheval is usually pronounced as one syllable, , by all francophones in the Francophonie. With this in mind, in the chain of speech some vowels and consonants undergo changes due to their environment. In the case of , the Voiceless postalveolar fricative was voiced to become a Voiced postalveolar fricative , thereby creating . Next, the at the beginning of a syllable in some regional dialects of French or even in very rapid speech in general weakens to become the semi-vowel written "ou". The end result is the word transcribed as joual. Most notable or stereotypical linguistic features {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" align="center" ! Joual || French || English |- | toé || toi (from classic French pronunciation of moi)|| you or "ya" |- | moé || moi (from classic French pronunciation of toi)|| me |- | m'a || je vais || I will |- | chus || je suis || I'm or "Ahm" |- | ché || je sais || I know |- | pantoute || pas du tout (de pas en tout) || not at all |- | y || il || he or "'e" |- | a || elle || she |- | ouais or ouin || oui || yeah or "yep" |- | icitte || ici || here |- | ben || bien || well / very / many (context) |- | s'a || sur la || on the 'xyz' (feminine) |- | su'l || sur le || on the 'xyz' (masculine) |- | enteka || en tous cas || in any case / anyways |- | enwaille (donc) || envoye (donc) || come on / let's go |- | t'sé || tu sais || y'know |- | nuitte || nuit || night |- | dé-hors || dehors || outside |- | boutte || bout || end, tip |- | litte || lit || bed |- | Han? || hein ? || eh? huh? or what? |- | eille || hé || hey you |- | frette || froid || cold |- | fa || fait || make or do |- | fak || donc (ça fait que) || so, therefore |- | mék || lorsque (from old French « mets que ») || as soon as |- | dins || dans les || in the |- | s'pas || ce n'est pas || it's not |- | end'ssour || en dessous|| under |- | s'assir || s'asseoir || to sit down |- | donne-moi z'en || donne m'en || gimme some |-} Diphthongs are normally present where long vowels would be present in standard French. Although moé and toé are today considered substandard slang pronunciations, these were the pronunciations of Old French and French used by the kings of France, the aristocracy and the common people in all provinces of Northern France. After the 1789 French Revolution, the standard pronunciation in France changed to that of a stigmatized form in the speech of Paris, but Quebec retained the historically "correct" one, having been isolated from the Revolution by the 1760 British Conquest of New France. Marc Picard, "La diphtongue /wa/ et ses équivalents en français du Canada." Cahiers de linguistique de l'Université du Québec 1974, 4.147-164. Joual shares many features with modern Oïl languages, such as Norman, Gallo, Picard, Poitevin and Saintongeais though its affinities are greatest with the 17th century koiné of Paris. Henri Wittmann, "Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques." Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists 16.0416 (Paris, 20-25 juillet 1997). Oxford: Pergamon (CD edition). Speakers of these languages of France predominated among settlers to New France. Another outstanding characteristic of Joual is the use of profanity called sacre in everyday speech. Gilles Charest, Le livre des sacres et blasphèmes québécois. Montréal: L"Aurore, 1974; Jean-Pierre Pichette, Le guide raisonné des jurons. Montréal: Les Quinze, 1980; Diane Vincent, Pressions et impressions sur les sacres au Québec. Québec: Office de la langue française, 1982. English loanwords There are a number of English loanwords in joual although they have been stigmatised since the 1960s:<ref>The standard reference to this subject is Gilles Colpron, Les anglicismes au Québec: Répertoire classifié. Montréal: Beauchemin.</ref> Bécosse: From backhouse, used generally in the sense of a bathroom. Unlike most borrowing, this one can sometimes be seen written, usually as shown here. Bicycle or bécik: Bicycle Bike or bécik: Motorbike Blood: Compliment, as in "Té Blood" (You're all right). Rarely used today. Braker: or . Verb meaning "to brake". Breaker: . Circuit breaker (disjoncteur). Still very often used nowadays. Caller: . Verb meaning to phone someone. Checker or chequé: Verb meaning to check something (out), as in "Check ben ça" ("Check this out.") Coat: Winter jacket (only for the clothing item), never in the sense of "layer". Chum: Most often in the sense of boyfriend, often simply as a male friend of a male. Dumper: . To throw in the trash, to deposit something, or to break up with someone. --Usually actually spelled and pronounced "domper". Enfirouaper: To cheat someone. This comes from "in fur wrap". Centuries ago, fur traders would sell a ballot of fur, actually filled with cardboard in the middle. Gaston Dulong, Dictionnaire des canadianismes. Québec: Larousse Canada, 1989, p. 180. However, this view of enfirouaper as an Anglicism is strongly disputed today. Frencher: . To French-kiss. Fucker (or fourrer) le chien: . Can be used to imply that something is difficult to do, or to cause a problem (similar to "to mess up") Fuse Fuser: To fart. Gas: . In the sense of fuel or in the sense of flatulence. Lift: Only used in the sense of giving a lift to someone in one's vehicle. Mossel: Muscle. Peppermint, usually pronounced like pepper men'' Pinotte: Peanuts. Unlike most other borrowings, this one is sometimes seen written, usually spelled like here. (also a street slang for amphetamines) les States: . Used when referring to the USA. Tinque : Usually . Used in the sense of "container": Tinque à gaz [fuel tank] Toaster: Grille-pain Tough Truck Suit: Coat. Ski-doo: Snowmobile (name of a Bombardier trademark that meant ski-dog). Some words were also previously thought to be of English origin, although modern research has shown them to be from regional French dialects: Pitoune (log, cute girl, loose girl): previously thought to come from "happy town" although the word "pitchoune" exists in dialects from southern France and means "cute girl". Poutine: was thought to come from "pudding", but some have drawn a parallel with the Languedocian word "poudingo", a stew made of scraps, which was (in Montreal) the previous use of the term. Notes See also Quebec French Magoua Chaouin Quebec French lexicon Quebec French profanity French language English language Chiac Quebec Canada External links Article on joual at Canadian theatre Article on joual in La Linguistique journal A few excerpts of texts in joual http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/1990h.html http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/1992.html http://www.yorku.ca/paull/articles/2004b.html | Joual |@lemmatized joual:21 common:2 name:5 linguistic:2 feature:3 basilectal:2 quebec:10 french:21 associate:1 speak:5 work:2 class:3 montreal:5 become:4 symbol:1 national:1 identity:1 large:1 number:2 artist:1 area:1 speaker:2 outside:2 usually:7 identify:1 speech:5 magoua:2 trois:2 rivières:2 chaouin:2 south:1 linguist:2 reserve:1 term:3 variety:1 gilles:3 lefebvre:1 faut:1 il:2 miser:1 sur:4 le:12 devoir:1 octobre:1 l:4 étude:1 de:10 la:7 culture:1 linguistique:4 recherche:1 sociographiques:1 henri:2 wittmann:2 c:1 est:2 tu:2 un:1 créole:1 attitude:1 towards:1 range:1 stigma:1 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2,052 | Anselm_of_Canterbury | Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033 – 21 April 1109) was a Benedictine monk, an Italian medieval philosopher, theologian, and church official who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109. Called the founder of scholasticism, he is famous as the originator of the ontological argument for the existence of God. In 1720, Anselm was recognized as a Doctor of the Church by Pope Clement XI. He has been viewed alternately as a contemplative monastic, or as a man politically savvy and focused on the pre-emininence of the episcopal see of Canterbury. Vaughn, Sally. "Anselm: Saint and Statesman." Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 20:2 (Summer, 1988), 205-220: 205. __TOC__ Biography Early life Anselm was born at Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 117 or near Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 9. Aosta in the Kingdom of Burgundy (currently the capital of the Aosta Valley region in Northern Italy) around 1033. Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 117 His family was noble (they were related by blood to the ascendent House of Savoy R. Southern. St. Anselm: Portrait in a Landscape. (Cambride University Press: 1992), pp. 8. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&dq=anselm+of+canterbury+r-southern&ots=e6-_fZ6v0B&sig=3rOwM0tvC4VVInlSWl099J0dyjE#PPA8,M1 ) and owned considerable property. His father, Gundulf, was by birth a Lombard and seems to have been harsh and violent. Ermenberga, his mother, was regarded as prudent and virtuous. At the age of 15, Anselm desired to enter a monastery but could not obtain his father's consent, and so the abbot refused him. Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 117 Disappointment brought on apparent psychosomatic illness. After recovery, he gave up his studies and lived a carefree life. During this period, his mother died and his father's harshness became unbearable. When he was 23 Anselm left home, crossed the Alps and wandered through Burgundy and France. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 9. Attracted by the fame of his countryman Lanfranc (then prior of the Benedictine Abbey of Bec), Anselm entered Normandy in 1059. The following year, after some time at Avranches, he entered the abbey as a novice at the age of 27; in doing this he submitted himself to the Rule of Saint Benedict, which was to reshape his thought over the next decade. R. Southern. St. Anselm: Portrait in a Landscape. (Cambride University Press: 1992), pp. 32. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR15&dq=anselm+of+canterbury+r-southern&ots=e6-_fZ6v0B&sig=3rOwM0tvC4VVInlSWl099J0dyjE#PPA8,M1 Years at Bec and accession to Canterbury In 1063, Lanfranc was made abbot of Caen and Anselm was elected prior of the abbey of Bec. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 10. Anselm held this office for fifteen years before he became abbot at the death of Herluin, the abbey's founder, in 1078. He was consecrated abbot 22 February 1079 by the bishop of Evreux. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 282. This consecration was rushed, because at the time the archdiocese of Rouen (wherein Bec laid) was sede vacante. And had Anselm been consecrated by the archbishop of Rouen, he would have been under pressure to profess obedience to him, which would compromise Bec's independence. Under Anselm's jurisdiction, Bec became the foremost seat of learning in Europe, attracting students from Italy and elsewhere, Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 15. even though study and scholarly research were of secondary importance in the monasticism of the time. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 13. It was during his time at Bec that he wrote his first works of philosophy, the Monologion (1076) and the Proslogion (1077-8). These were followed by The Dialogues on Truth, Free Will and Fall of the Devil. During his time at Bec, Anselm worked to maintain its freedom from lay and archepiscopal control. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 281. Later in his abbacy Anselm worked to ensure Bec's independenc from Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester and from the archbishop of Rouen. The Tower of Saint Nicholas at the site of Bec Abbey Anselm occasionally visited England to see the abbey's property there, as well as to visit Lanfranc, until his death in 1089. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 16. He made a good impression while there, and was the natural successor to Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury. Upon Lanfranc's death, however, William II of England seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment. In 1092, at the invitation of Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester, Anselm crossed to England. He was detained there by business for nearly four months and then refused permission to return to Bec by the king, who suddenly fell ill the following year, and who nominated Anselm to the vacant see, on 6 March 1093. Vaugh, Sally. "St. Anselm: Reluctant Archbishop?" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 6:3 (Autumn, 1974), 240-250: 245. That month Anselm wrote the monks of Bec, telling them to accept his nomination to the see. Over the course of the following months, Anselm tried to refuse, on the grounds of age and ill-health, Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 117 and being unfit as a monk for secular affairs. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 16. On 24 August, Anselm gave William the conditions under which he would accept the see, which amounted to an agenda of the Gregorian Reform: that William return the see's land which he had seized; that William accept the pre-eminence of Anselm's spiritual counsel; and that William acknowledge Pope Urban II as pope (in opposition to Antipope Clement III). Vaugh, Sally. "St. Anselm: Reluctant Archbishop?" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 6:3 (Autumn, 1974), 240-250: 246. Anselm's professions of refusal aided his bargaining position as he discussed terms with William. William was exceedingly reluctant to accept these conditions; he would only grant the first. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 286. A few days after this, William tried to rescind even this; he suspended the preparations for Anselm's investiture. On public pressure William was forced to carry out the appointment. In the end Anselm and William settled on the return of Canterbury's lands as the only concession from William. Vaugh, Sally. "St. Anselm: Reluctant Archbishop?" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 6:3 (Autumn, 1974), 240-250: 248. Finally, the English bishops thrust the crosier into his hands and took him to the church to be inducted. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 16-17. He did homage to William, and on 25 September 1093 he received the lands of the see, Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 286. and was enthroned, Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 17. after obtaining dispensation from his duties in Normandy. He was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury on 4 December. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 286. It has been argued whether or not Anselm's reluctance to take the see was sincere. Scholars such as Southern maintain that his preference would have been to stay at Bec. Vaugh, Sally. "St. Anselm: Reluctant Archbishop?" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 6:3 (Autumn, 1974), 240-250: 240. However, reluctance to accept important ecclesiastical positions was a Medieval trope. Vaughn states that Anselm could not have expressed a desire for the position, because he would be regarded as an ambitious careerist. She further states that Anselm recognized William's political situation and goals, and acted at the moment that would gain him the most leverage in the interests of his expected see, and of the reform movement. Archbishop of Canterbury under William One of Anselm's first conflicts with William came the very month he was consecrated. William was preparing to fight his elder brother, Robert II, Duke of Normandy, and needed funds for doing so. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 287. Anselm was among those expected to pay him, and he offered ₤500; rather less than he was expected to pay. William refused the offer, insisting on a greater sum. Later on, a group of bishops suggested that William might now settle for the original sum, but Anselm told them he had already given the money to the poor. In this episode Anselm was careful, and managed to both avoid charges of simony, and appear generous. Anselm continued to agitate William for reform and the interests of Canterbury. Vaugh, Sally. "Robert of Meulan and Raison d'État in the Anglo-Norman State, 1093-1118" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 10:4 (Winter, 1978), 352-373: 357. His vision of the Church was one of a universal Church with its own internal authority, which countered with William's vision of royal control over both Church and state. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 293. The Church's rule stated that metropolitans could not be consecrated without receiving the pallium from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to Rome to receive the pallium, but William would not permit it; he had not acknowledged Urban as pope and maintained his right to prevent a pope's acknowledgment by an English subject. On 25 February 1095, the bishops and nobles of England held a council at Rockingham to discuss the issue. The bishops sided with the king, with the bishop of Durham even advising William to depose Anselm. The nobles chose Anselm's position, and the conference ended in deadlock. Immediately following this William sent secret messengers to Rome. Vaughn, Sally. "Robert of Meulan and Raison d'État in the Anglo-Norman State, 1093-1118" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 10:4 (Winter, 1978), 352-373: 357. They prevailed on Urban to send a legate (Walter of Albano) to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pallium. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 289. Walter and William then negotiated in secret. William agreed to acknowledge Urban as pope, and secured the right to give permission before clerics could receive and obey papal letters; Walter, negotiating for Urban, conceded that Urban would send no legates without William's invitation. William's greatest desire was that Anselm be deposed and another given the pallium. Walter said that "there was good reason to expect a successful issue in accordance with the king’s wishes”. William then openly acknowledged Urban as pope, but Walter refused to depose Anselm. William then tried to extract money from Anselm for the pallium, and was refused. William also tried to personally hand over the pallium to Anselm, and was refused again. He compromised, and Anselm took the pallium from the altar at Canterbury on 10 June 1095. Over nearly the next two years, no overt dispute between Anselm and William is known. However, William blocked Anselm's efforts at church reform. The issues came to a head in 1097, after William put down a Welsh rebellion. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 291. He charged Anselm with having given him insufficient knights for the campaign and tried to fine him. Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of the pope because William had refused to fulfill his promise of Church reform, Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 293. but William denied him permission. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 292. The negotiations ended with William declaring that if Anselm left, he would take back the see, and never again receive Anselm as archbishop. If Anselm were to stay, William would fine him and force him to swear never again to appeal to Rome; "Anselm was given the choice of exile or total submission." Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 292. As an exile, in October 1097 Anselm set out for Rome. William immediately seized the revenues of the see and retained them until his death, though Anselm retained the archbishopric. Vaugh, Sally. "Robert of Meulan and Raison d'État in the Anglo-Norman State, 1093-1118" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 10:4 (Winter, 1978), 352-373: 360. Anselm went into exile to defend his vision of the universal Church, displaying William's sins against that vision. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 293. Though he had done homage to William, Anselm qualified that homage by his higher duty towards God and the papacy. Anselm was received with high honour by Urban at the Siege of Capua, where he garnered high praise from the Saracen troops of Roger I of Sicily. The pope, however, did not wish to become deeply involved in Anselm's dispute with the king. At a large provincial council held at Bari in 1098, which 183 bishops attended, Anselm was asked to defend, against representatives of the Greek Church, the Filioque and the practice of using unleavened bread for the Eucharist. In 1099 Urban renewed the ban on lay investiture and on clerics doing homage. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 293. That year Anselm moved to Lyon. He left Rome and spent some time at the little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the Incarnate god and his death, Cur Deus Homo (Why Did God Become Man?), before retiring to Lyon. When he attempted to return to England, William would not permit him entry. Conflicts with King Henry I William was killed 2 August 1100. His successor, Henry I of England, invited Anselm to return, writing that he committed himself to be counseled by Anselm. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 63. Henry was courting Anselm because he needed his support for the security of his claim to the throne; Anselm could have thrown his support behind Henry's elder brother instead. When Anselm returned, Henry requested that Anselm do him homage for the Canterbury estates Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England: 55 B.C. to 1399. (D. C. Heath and Company: Lexington, 1983): 120. and receive from him investiture in his office of archbishop. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 67. The papacy had recently banned clerics doing homage to laymen, Hollister, C. Warren. The Making of England: 55 B.C. to 1399. (D. C. Heath and Company: Lexington, 1983): 120. as well as banning lay investiture; thus started Anselm's conflicts with Henry. Henry refused to relinquish the privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the matter be laid before the pope. Two embassies were sent to Pope Paschal II regarding the legitimacy of Henry's investiture, but Paschal reaffirmed the papal rule on both occasions. In the meantime, Anselm did work with Henry. Henry was threatened with invasion by his brother, and Anselm publicly supported Henry, wooing the wavering barons and threatening Curthose with excommunication. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 295. For his part, Henry granted Anselm authority over all the Church in England, and agreed to obey the papacy. Because Paschal had reaffirmed the papal rules on lay investiture and homage, Henry turned against Anselm. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 295. In 1103, Anselm himself and an envoy from the king (William Warelwast) set out for Rome, Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 71. Anselm in exile. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 295. In response, Paschal excommunicated the bishops whom Henry had invested. Exiled from England, Anselm withdrew to Lyon after this ruling and awaited further action from Paschal. On 26 March 1105 Paschal excommunicated Henry's chief advisor (Robert of Meulan) for urging Henry to continue lay investiture, Vaugh, Sally. "Robert of Meulan and Raison d'État in the Anglo-Norman State, 1093-1118" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 10:4 (Winter, 1978), 352-373: 367. as well as prelates invested by Henry and other counselors, Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 74. and threatened Henry with the same. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 19-20. In April Anselm threatened to excommunicate Henry himself, probably to force Henry's hand in their negotiations. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 75. In response Henry arranged a meeting with Anselm, and they managed a compromise at Laigle on 22 July 1105. Part of the agreement was that Robert's (and his associates') excommunication be lifted (given that they counsel the king to obey the papacy); Anselm lifted the excommunications on his own authority, an act which he later had to justify to Paschal. Vaughn, Sally. "Robert of Meulan and Raison d'État in the Anglo-Norman State, 1093-1118" Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 10:4 (Winter, 1978), 352-373: 367. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 76. Other conditions of the agreement were that Henry would forsake lay investiture if Anselm obtained Paschal's permission for clerics to do homage for their nobles; that the revenues of his see be given back to Anselm; and that priests not be allowed to marry. Anselm then insisted on having the Laigle agreement sanctioned by Paschal before he would consent to return to England. By letter Anselm also asked that the pope accept his compromise on doing homage to the king, because he had secured a greater victory in Henry's forsaking lay investiture. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 77. On 23 March 1106 Paschal wrote Anselm accepting the compromise, though both saw this as a temporary compromise, and intended to later continue pushing for the Gregorian reform, including the custom of homage. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 296-7. Even after this, Anselm still refused to return to England. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 80. Henry traveled to Bec and met with him on 15 August 1106. Henry made further concession, restoring to Anselm all the churches that had been seized by William; he promised that nothing more would be taken from the churches; prelates who had paid his controversial tax (which had started as a tax on married clergy) Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 297. would be exempt from taxes for three years; and he promised to restore all that had been taken from Canterbury during Anselm's exile, even giving Anselm security for this promise. These compromises on Henry's part strengthened the rights of the Church against the king. Anselm returned to England following this. By 1107, the long dispute regarding investiture was finally settled. The Concordat of London announced the compromises that Anselm and Henry had made at Bec. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 82. Vaughn reads Anselm's motivation in the lay investiture conflict as advancing the interests of the see of Canterbury, rather than those of the Church at large. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 61. Other historians had seen Anselm as aligned with the papacy against the English monarchs, but Vaughn asserts that he acted as his own, third pole in the controversy. His aim was to promote the primacy of the archdiocese of Canterbury. His view of Canterbury's primacy is demonstrated in his charter of c. 3 September 1101, in which he called himself "Archbishop of Canterbury and primate of Great Britain and Ireland and vicar of the High Pontiff Paschal". Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 295. By the end of his life he had secured the primatial status of Canterbury in relation to the papacy, and he had freed Canterbury from submission to the English king. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 82. In addition to securing the archbishop of Canterbury's role as primate of the English bishops, Anselm also initiated Canterbury's permanent control over the Welsh bishops, and gained strong authority over the Irish bishops during his lifetime. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 298. He continued to work for the primacy of Canterbury, managing to force Paschal into sending the pallium for the archbishop of York to himself, so that the archbishop-elect would have to profess obedience to Canterbury before receiving it. Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 83. From his deathbed he anathematized all who failed to recognize Canterbury's primacy over York, as Thomas II of York was doing. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 298. This anathema forced Henry to order Thomas to confess obedience to Canterbury. During Henry's reign Anselm tried to advance another part of the Gregorian reform (which Henry actually supported): clerical celibacy. At Michaelmas of 1102, Anselm held a council in London in which he prohibited marriage and concubinage to those in holy orders Partner, Nancy. "Henry of Huntingdon: Clerical Celibacy and the Writing of History." Church History. 42:4 (December, 1973) 467-475: 468. (as well as condemning simony and reforming regulations on clerical dress and sobriety). Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 295. In the previous two centuries, attempts at enforcing clerical celibacy had been made, but with little success. Anselm's council was disobeyed en masse as well. In 1106 Henry levied a tax on married clergy, ostensibly to enforce the council's canons, Vaughn, Sally. "St. Anselm and the English Investiture Controversy Reconsidered". Journal of Medieval History 6 (1980): 61-86, p. 78-9. )but really in an effort to raise money for his war in Normandy). Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 296. Another council was held in 1108, which focused on enforcing the canons of the 1102 council by creating incentives for archdeacons who were in practise in charge of enforcing such rules. The final two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. As archbishop, Anselm maintained his monastic ideals, which included stewardship, prudence, and fitting instruction to his flock, as well as prayer and contemplation. Vaughn, Sally. "Anselm: Saint and Statesman." Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies. 20:2 (Summer, 1988), 205-220: 218. During his service as archbishop, Anselm maintained a habit of pressing on his monarchs at expedient times (when they needed his help, and when he would have public support) to advance his Church reforms. Vaughn, Sally. "St Anselm of Canterbury: the philosopher-saint as politician." Journal of Medieval History. 1 (1975), 279-306: 293. Anselm died on Holy Wednesday, 21 April 1109. Writings Anselm is the first scholastic philosopher of Christian theology. His great predecessor, Johannes Scotus Eriugena, was more speculative and mystical in his writings. Anselm's writings represent a recognition of the relationship of reason to revealed truth, and an attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith. Foundation Anselm sought to understand Christian doctrine through reason and develop intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. He believed that the necessary preliminary for this was possession of the Christian faith. He wrote, "Neque enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam. " ("Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this, too, I believe, that, unless I first believe, I shall not understand.") He held that faith precedes reason, but that reason can expand upon faith. Hollister, C. Warren. Medieval Europe: A Short History. (John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1982): 302. The groundwork of Anselm's theory of knowledge is contained in the tract De Veritate, where he affirms the existence of an absolute truth in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth, he argues, is God, who is the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God becomes the foreground of Anselm's theory, so it is necessary first to make God clear to reason and be demonstrated to have real existence. Anselm's world-view was broadly that of Neoplatonism, which he inherited from his primary influence, Augustine of Hippo, as well as from Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and possibly Scotus. Charlesworth, M. J., trans. and ed. St. Anselm's Proslogion. (University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, 2003), pp. 23-4. He also inherited a rationalist way of thinking from Aristotle and Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius. Proofs Anselm wrote many proofs within Monologion and Proslogion. In the first proof, Anselm relies on the ordinary grounds of realism, which coincide to some extent with the theory of Augustine. He argues that "things" are called "good" in a variety of ways and degrees, which would be impossible were there not some absolute standard and some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate. The same applies to adjectives like "great" and "just", whereby things involve a certain greatness and justice. Anselm uses this thought process to state that the very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by whom they come to exist. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice and greatness, is God. Anselm is not thoroughly satisfied with this reasoning, however, because it begins from a posteriori grounds, meaning that the reasoning is inductive. The philosophy also contains several converging lines of proof. Anselm desired to have one short demonstration, presented in Proslogion, his famous proof of the existence of God. It is referred to as the ontological argument—a term first applied by Kant to the arguments of Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century rationalists. Anselm defined his belief in the existence of God using the phrase "that than which nothing greater can be conceived". He reasoned that, if "that than which nothing greater can be conceived" existed only in the intellect, it would not be "that than which nothing greater can be conceived", since it can be thought to exist in reality, which is greater. It follows, according to Anselm, that "that than which nothing greater can be conceived" must exist in reality. The bulk of the Proslogion is taken up with Anselm's attempt to establish the identity of "that than which nothing greater can be conceived" as God and thus to establish that God exists in reality. Anselm's ontological proof has been the subject of controversy since it was first published in the 1070s. It was opposed at the time by the monk Gaunilo, in his Liber pro Insipiente, on the grounds that humans cannot pass from intellect to reality. Anselm replied to the objections in his Responsio. Gaunilo's criticism is repeated by several later philosophers, among whom are Thomas Aquinas and Kant. Anselm wrote a number of other arguments for the existence of God, based on cosmological and teleological grounds. Further works In Anselm's other works, he strove to state the rational grounds of the Christian doctrines of creation and the Trinity. He discussed the Trinity first by stating that human beings could not know God from Himself but only from analogy. The analogy that he used was the self-consciousness of man. The peculiar double-nature of consciousness, memory and intelligence represent the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two (memory and intelligence), proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of man, such as original sin and free will, are developed in the Monologion and other treatises. In Cur Deus Homo, Anselm undertook to explain the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the atonement. His philosophy rests on three positions—first, that satisfaction is necessary on account of God's honour and justice; second, that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality of the God-man Jesus; and, third, that such satisfaction is really given by this God-man's voluntary death. Anselm expounds on these three positions by beginning with the statement that all of man's actions are for the glory of God. If sin exists, wounding God's honour, man himself can give no satisfaction, but God's justice demands satisfaction. Because God is infinite, however, any wound to his honour must also be infinite. It follows that satisfaction must also be infinite: it must outweigh all that is not God. Because humans are not infinite, such acts of satisfaction can only be paid by God himself and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of man. By this, Anselm reasons that satisfaction is only possible through the sinless God-man Jesus. Because he is exempt from the punishment of sin, the God-man's passion is voluntary. The merit of the act is therefore infinite, God's justice is thus appeased and his mercy may extend to man. This theory has exercised immense influence on church doctrine, providing the basis for the Roman Catholic concept of the treasury of merit and the evangelical doctrine of penal substitution, as developed by John Calvin. Anselm's philosophy is very different from older patristic philosophies, insofar as it focuses on a contest between the goodness and justice of God rather than a contest between God and Satan. Critics of Anselm assert that he puts the whole conflict on merely a legal footing, giving it no ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this respect, it contrasts with the later theory of Peter Abélard. Anselm denied the belief which is now referred to as the Immaculate Conception, Janaro, John. "Saint Anselm and the Development of the Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception: Historical and Theological Perspectives." The Saint Anselm Journal. 3.2 (Spring 2006) 48-56: 51. https://www.anselm.edu/library/SAJ/pdf/32Janaro.pdf though his thinking laid the groundwork for the doctrine's development in the West. In De virginali conceptu et de peccato originali, he gave two principles which became fundamental for thinking about the Immaculate Conception. The first is that it was proper that Mary should be so pure that no purer being could be imagined, aside from God. The second innovation in Anselm's thinking which opened the way for the Immaculate Conception was his understanding of original sin. Janaro, John. "Saint Anselm and the Development of the Doctrine of the Immaculate Conception: Historical and Theological Perspectives." The Saint Anselm Journal. 3.2 (Spring 2006) 48-56: 52. https://www.anselm.edu/library/SAJ/pdf/32Janaro.pdf Anselm affirmed that original sin is simply human nature without original justice, and that it is transmitted because parents cannot give original justice if they do not have it themselves; original sin is the transmission of fallen human nature. In contrast, Anselm's contemporaries held that the transmission of original sin had to with the lustful nature of the act of sexual intercourse. Anselm was the first thinker to separate original sin from the lust of intercourse. This enabled later thinkers to see that God might keep Mary free from original sin, even though she was conceived through normal sexual intercourse. "Dilecto dilectori" It may not be philosophically relevant, but it was reported that Anselm wrote many letters to monks, male relatives and others that contained passionate expressions of attachment and affection. These letters were typically addressed "dilecto dilectori", sometimes translated as "to the beloved lover." While there is wide agreement that Anselm was personally committed to the monastic ideal of celibacy, some academics, including Brian P. McGuire , opinion re. Anselm noted at: and John Boswell have characterized these writings as expressions of a homosexual inclination. Anglican Bishop Michael Doe has speculated that Anselm's refusal in 1102 to publish the edict of the Council of London (1102), which proclaimed that sodomy must be confessed as a Sin, is further evidence{fact} in favour of Anselm's alleged homosexuality (Seeking the Truth in Love: The Church and Homosexuality;by Michael Doe; Pub. Darton, Longman and Todd (2000), p. 18. ISBN 978-0232523997). Others, such as Glenn Olsen and Richard Southern describe them as representing a "wholly spiritual" affection, "nourished by an incorporeal ideal". Recognition The anniversary of Anselm's death on 21 April is celebrated in the Roman Catholic Church, much of the Anglican Communion, and in the Lutheran Church, as Anselm's memorial. He was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1720 by Pope Clement XI, though he was never formally canonized. Walsh, Michael, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints. (HarperCollins Publishers: New York, 1991), pp. 119. On 21 April 1909, 800 years after his death, Pope Pius X issued an encyclical "Communion Rerum", praising Anselm, his ecclesiastical career, and his writings. His symbol in hagiography is the ship, representing the spiritual independence of the church. References External links Professor Jasper Hopkins: Anselm of Canterbury containing English translations of nearly every major work by St. Anselm | Anselm_of_Canterbury |@lemmatized anselm:195 canterbury:52 c:9 april:5 benedictine:2 monk:5 italian:1 medieval:41 philosopher:28 theologian:1 church:24 official:1 hold:9 office:3 archbishop:18 call:3 founder:2 scholasticism:1 famous:2 originator:1 ontological:3 argument:4 existence:7 god:30 recognize:3 doctor:2 pope:15 clement:3 xi:2 view:3 alternately:1 contemplative:1 monastic:3 man:13 politically:1 savvy:1 focus:3 pre:2 emininence:1 episcopal:1 see:16 vaughn:45 sally:49 saint:38 statesman:2 albion:11 quarterly:11 journal:51 concern:11 british:11 study:13 summer:2 biography:1 early:1 life:9 bear:2 walsh:5 michael:7 ed:16 butler:5 harpercollins:5 publisher:5 new:7 york:9 pp:18 near:1 charlesworth:11 j:11 trans:11 st:56 proslogion:15 university:13 notre:22 dame:22 press:14 aosta:2 kingdom:1 burgundy:2 currently:1 capital:1 valley:1 region:1 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2,053 | Alexander_Emanuel_Agassiz | Alexander Emanuel Agassiz (December 17, 1835 – March 27, 1910), son of Louis Agassiz and stepson of Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, was an American scientist and engineer. Biography Agassiz was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland and emigrated to the United States with his father in 1849. He graduated at Harvard University in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scientific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of mines. E. J. Hulbert, a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, Quincy Adams Shaw, had discovered a rich copper lode known as the Calumet conglomerate on the Keweenaw Peninsula Lake Superior in Michigan. He persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company based in Calumet, Michigan. Up until the summer of 1866, Agassiz worked as an assistant in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise. Over the winter of 1866 and early 1867, mining operations began to falter due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines, and he returned to the mines in March 1867 with his wife and young son. At that time, Calumet was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations. Agassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progress in stabilising the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in 1868 before winter closed navigation. The mines continued to prosper and in May 1871, several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August, 1871, Shaw "retired" to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death. Agassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of 1,200 metres (4,000 ft). He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time year-round attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard. Out of his copper fortune, he gave some US$500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative zoology and other purposes. In 1875 he surveyed Lake Titicaca, Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for the Museum of Comparative Zoology, of which he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Charles Wyville Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections of the 1872 Challenger Expedition, and wrote the Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the reports. Between 1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of the steamer Blake of the Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888). In 1896 Agassiz visited Fiji and Queensland and inspected the Great Barrier Reef, publishing a paper on the subject in 1898. Of Agassiz's other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in 1865, with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, his stepmother, Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact and stimulating, and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay. Agassiz served as a president of the National Academy of Sciences, which since 1913 has awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal in his memory. He died in 1910 onboard the SS Adriatic en route to New York from Southampton. Publications See also Agassiz family References External links National Mining Hall of Fame: Alexander Agassiz | Alexander_Emanuel_Agassiz |@lemmatized alexander:3 emanuel:1 agassiz:18 december:1 march:2 son:2 louis:1 stepson:1 elizabeth:2 cabot:1 american:1 scientist:1 engineer:1 biography:1 bear:1 neuchâtel:1 switzerland:1 emigrate:1 united:2 state:2 father:2 graduate:1 harvard:4 university:1 subsequently:1 study:2 engineering:1 chemistry:1 take:3 degree:1 bachelor:1 science:2 lawrence:1 scientific:1 school:1 institution:1 become:5 assistant:2 coast:2 survey:3 thenceforward:1 specialist:1 marine:3 ichthyology:1 devote:1 much:1 time:4 investigation:1 superintendence:1 exploitation:1 mine:16 e:1 j:1 hulbert:2 friend:2 brother:1 law:1 quincy:1 adam:1 shaw:5 discover:1 rich:1 copper:4 lode:1 know:3 calumet:6 conglomerate:2 keweenaw:1 peninsula:1 lake:2 superior:2 michigan:2 persuade:1 along:1 group:1 purchase:1 controlling:1 interest:4 later:1 hecla:2 mining:3 company:2 base:1 summer:3 work:2 museum:4 natural:3 history:3 found:1 trip:1 see:2 afterwards:1 treasurer:1 enterprise:2 winter:3 early:1 operation:3 begin:1 falter:1 due:1 difficulty:1 extract:1 sell:1 move:1 venture:1 refuse:1 give:2 hope:1 return:3 wife:1 young:1 remote:1 settlement:1 virtually:1 inaccessible:1 far:1 remove:1 civilization:1 even:1 insufficient:1 supply:1 struggle:1 maintain:1 order:1 back:1 boston:2 saddle:1 debt:1 collapse:1 obtain:1 financial:1 assistance:1 john:1 simpkins:1 selling:1 agent:1 continue:4 live:1 make:2 gradual:1 progress:1 stabilise:1 able:2 leave:1 control:1 general:1 manager:1 close:1 navigation:1 prosper:1 may:1 several:1 consolidate:1 form:1 first:1 president:3 august:1 retire:1 board:1 director:1 position:1 hold:1 death:1 major:1 factor:1 success:1 visit:2 twice:1 year:2 innovate:1 instal:1 giant:1 engine:1 lift:1 ton:1 rock:1 depth:1 metre:1 ft:1 also:2 build:1 railroad:1 dredge:2 channel:1 navigable:1 water:1 however:1 require:1 full:2 round:1 attention:1 fortune:1 u:1 comparative:3 zoology:4 purpose:1 titicaca:1 peru:2 examine:1 chile:1 collection:2 peruvian:1 antiquity:1 curator:1 assist:1 charles:1 wyville:1 thomson:1 examination:1 classification:1 challenger:1 expedition:2 write:1 review:1 echinus:1 vols:1 report:1 part:1 three:1 steamer:1 blake:1 present:1 account:1 two:1 volume:1 fiji:1 queensland:1 inspect:1 great:1 barrier:1 reef:1 publish:2 paper:1 subject:1 writing:1 contain:1 bulletin:1 memoir:1 cary:1 stepmother:1 seaside:1 exact:1 stimulating:1 animal:1 massachusetts:1 bay:1 serve:1 national:2 academy:1 since:1 award:1 medal:1 memory:1 die:1 onboard:1 ss:1 adriatic:1 en:1 route:1 new:1 york:1 southampton:1 publication:1 family:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 hall:1 fame:1 |@bigram louis_agassiz:1 quincy_adam:1 controlling_interest:1 metre_ft:1 comparative_zoology:3 lake_titicaca:1 challenger_expedition:1 en_route:1 external_link:1 hall_fame:1 |
2,054 | Laocoön | Laocoön and His Sons in the Vatican Laocoön (Λαοκόων , usual English pronunciation ), the son of Acoetes<ref>"Laocoon, son of Acoetes, brother of Anchises, and priest of Apollo..." (Hyginus, Fabula 135.</ref> is a figure in Greek mythology, a Trojan priest of Poseidon, According to Virgil: Laocoon, ductus Neptuno sorte sacerdos (2.101) (or Neptune), whose rules he had defied, either by marrying and having sons, According to Hyginus or by having committed an impiety by making love with his wife in the presence of a cult image in a sanctuary. According to Servius. His minor role in the Epic Cycle narrating the Trojan War was of warning the Trojans in vain against accepting the Trojan Horse from the Greeks — "A deadly fraud is this," he said, "devised by the Achaean chiefs!" Quintus Smyrnaeus X.420f (Text on-line). — and for his subsequent divine execution by two serpents sent to Troy across the sea from the island of Tenedos, where the Greeks had temporarily camped. Aeneid 2. 199-227. Laocoön warned his fellow Trojans against the wooden horse presented to the city by the Greeks. In the Aeneid, Virgil gives Laocoön the famous line Equo ne credite, Teucri / Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, or "Do not trust the Horse, Trojans / Whatever it is, I fear the Greeks even bearing gifts." This line is the source of the saying: "Beware of Greeks bearing gifts." Death The most detailed description of Laocoön's grisly fate was provided by Quintus Smyrnaeus in Posthomerica, a later, literary version of events following the Iliad. Virgil employed the motif in the Aeneid; the Trojans, according to Virgil, disregarded his advice, however, and were taken in by the deceitful testimony of Sinon; in his resulting anger Laocoön threw his spear at the Horse. Minerva, who was supporting the Greeks, at this moment sent sea-serpents to strangle Laocoön and his two sons, Antiphantes and Thymbraeus. "Laocoön, ostensibly sacrificing a bull to Neptune on behalf of the city (lines 201ff.), becomes himself the tragic victim, as the simile (lines 223-24) makes clear. In some sense, his death must be symbolic of the city as a whole," S. V. Tracy notes. S.V. Tracy, "Laocoon's Guilt" The American Journal of Philology 108.3 (Autumn 1987), pp. 451-454) p. 453. According to the Hellenistic poet Euphorion of Chalcis, Euphorion's poem is lost, but Servius alludes to the lines in his scholia on the Aeneid. Laocoon is in fact punished for procreating upon holy ground sacred to Poseidon; only unlucky timing caused the Trojans to misinterpret his death as punishment for striking the Horse, which they bring into the city with disastrous consequences. The episode furnished the subject of Sophocles' lost tragedy, Laocoön. In Aeneid Virgil describes the circumstances of Laocoön's death: From the AeneidIlle simul manibus tendit divellere nodosperfusus sanie vittas atroque veneno,clamores simul horrendos ad sidera tollit:qualis mugitus, fugit cum saucius aramtaurus et incertam excussit cervice securim.Literal English translation:At the same time he stretched forth to tear the knots with his hands his fillets soaked with saliva and black venomat the same time he lifted to heaven horrendous cries: like the bellowing when a wounded bull has fled from the altarand has shaken the ill-aimed axe from its neck.John Dryden's translation: see , line 290 With both his hands he labors at the knots; His holy fillets the blue venom blots;His roaring fills the flitting air around. Thus, when an ox receives a glancing wound,He breaks his bands, the fatal altar flies, And with loud bellowings breaks the yielding skies. The death of Laocoön was famously depicted in a much-admired marble Lacoön and His Sons, attributed by Pliny the Elder to the Rhodian sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus, which stands in the Vatican Museums, Rome. Copies have been executed by various artists, notably Baccio Bandinelli. These show the complete sculpture (with conjectural reconstructions of the missing pieces) and can be seen in Rome, the Uffizi Gallery in Florence and in front of the Archaeological Museum, Odessa, Ukraine, amongst others. The marble Laocoön provided the central image for Lessing's Laocoön, 1766, an aesthetic polemic directed again Winckelmann and the comte de Caylus. Daniel Albright reengages the role of the figure of Laocoön in aesthetic thought in his book Untwisting the Serpent: Modernism in Literature, Music, and Other Arts. In addition to other literary references, John Barth employs a bust of Laocoön in his novella, The End of the Road. The R.E.M. song, "Laughing," on "Murmur" references Laocoön ("Laocoön had two sons"). The marble's pose is parodied in Asterix and the Laurel Wreath. Classical sources Arctinus, OCT Homer 5.107.23; pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 5.18; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.48.2; Petronius 89; Servius on Aeneid 2.201; Hyginus, Fabula 135; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 12.445ff; John Tzetzes, Ad Lycophron 347. Sources compiled by Tracy 1987:452 note 3, which also mentions a fragmentary line possibly by Nicander. Notes External links Laocoon photos | Laocoön |@lemmatized laocoön:17 son:7 vatican:2 λαοκόων:1 usual:1 english:2 pronunciation:1 acoetes:2 ref:2 laocoon:5 brother:1 anchises:1 priest:2 apollo:1 hyginus:3 fabula:2 figure:2 greek:7 mythology:1 trojan:8 poseidon:2 accord:5 virgil:5 ductus:1 neptuno:1 sorte:1 sacerdos:1 neptune:2 whose:1 rule:1 defy:1 either:1 marry:1 commit:1 impiety:1 make:2 love:1 wife:1 presence:1 cult:1 image:2 sanctuary:1 servius:3 minor:1 role:2 epic:1 cycle:1 narrate:1 war:1 warn:2 vain:1 accept:1 horse:5 deadly:1 fraud:1 say:1 devise:1 achaean:1 chief:1 quintus:3 smyrnaeus:3 x:1 text:1 line:8 subsequent:1 divine:1 execution:1 two:3 serpent:3 send:2 troy:1 across:1 sea:2 island:1 tenedos:1 temporarily:1 camp:1 aeneid:6 fellow:1 wooden:1 present:1 city:4 give:1 famous:1 equo:1 ne:1 credite:1 teucri:1 quidquid:1 id:1 est:1 timeo:1 danaos:1 et:2 dona:1 ferentes:1 trust:1 whatever:1 fear:1 even:1 bear:2 gift:2 source:3 saying:1 beware:1 death:5 detailed:1 description:1 grisly:1 fate:1 provide:2 posthomerica:2 later:1 literary:2 version:1 event:1 follow:1 iliad:1 employ:2 motif:1 disregard:1 advice:1 however:1 take:1 deceitful:1 testimony:1 sinon:1 result:1 anger:1 throw:1 spear:1 minerva:1 support:1 moment:1 strangle:1 antiphantes:1 thymbraeus:1 ostensibly:1 sacrifice:1 bull:2 behalf:1 becomes:1 tragic:1 victim:1 simile:1 clear:1 sense:1 must:1 symbolic:1 whole:1 v:2 tracy:3 note:3 guilt:1 american:1 journal:1 philology:1 autumn:1 pp:1 p:1 hellenistic:1 poet:1 euphorion:2 chalcis:1 poem:1 lose:2 alludes:1 scholia:1 fact:1 punish:1 procreate:1 upon:1 holy:2 ground:1 sacred:1 unlucky:1 timing:1 cause:1 misinterpret:1 punishment:1 strike:1 bring:1 disastrous:1 consequence:1 episode:1 furnish:1 subject:1 sophocles:1 tragedy:1 describe:1 circumstance:1 aeneidille:1 simul:2 manibus:1 tendit:1 divellere:1 nodosperfusus:1 sanie:1 vittas:1 atroque:1 veneno:1 clamor:1 horrendos:1 ad:2 sidera:1 tollit:1 qualis:1 mugitus:1 fugit:1 cum:1 saucius:1 aramtaurus:1 incertam:1 excussit:1 cervice:1 securim:1 literal:1 translation:2 time:2 stretch:1 forth:1 tear:1 knot:2 hand:2 fillet:2 soak:1 saliva:1 black:1 venomat:1 lift:1 heaven:1 horrendous:1 cry:1 like:1 bellowing:2 wounded:1 flee:1 altarand:1 shake:1 ill:1 aim:1 axe:1 neck:1 john:3 dryden:1 see:2 labor:1 blue:1 venom:1 blot:1 roaring:1 fill:1 flit:1 air:1 around:1 thus:1 ox:1 receive:1 glancing:1 wound:1 break:2 band:1 fatal:1 altar:1 fly:1 loud:1 yielding:1 sky:1 famously:1 depict:1 much:1 admire:1 marble:3 lacoön:1 attribute:1 pliny:1 elder:1 rhodian:1 sculptor:1 agesander:1 athenodoros:1 polydorus:1 stand:1 museum:2 rome:2 copy:1 execute:1 various:1 artist:1 notably:1 baccio:1 bandinelli:1 show:1 complete:1 sculpture:1 conjectural:1 reconstruction:1 miss:1 piece:1 uffizi:1 gallery:1 florence:1 front:1 archaeological:1 odessa:1 ukraine:1 amongst:1 others:1 central:1 lessing:1 aesthetic:2 polemic:1 direct:1 winckelmann:1 comte:1 de:1 caylus:1 daniel:1 albright:1 reengages:1 thought:1 book:1 untwist:1 modernism:1 literature:1 music:1 art:1 addition:1 reference:2 barth:1 bust:1 novella:1 end:1 road:1 r:1 e:1 song:1 laugh:1 murmur:1 pose:1 parody:1 asterix:1 laurel:1 wreath:1 classical:1 arctinus:1 oct:1 homer:1 pseudo:1 apollodorus:1 epitome:1 dionysius:1 halicarnassus:1 roman:1 antiquity:1 petronius:1 tzetzes:1 lycophron:1 compile:1 also:1 mention:1 fragmentary:1 possibly:1 nicander:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 |@bigram hyginus_fabula:2 trojan_horse:1 quintus_smyrnaeus:3 aeneid_virgil:2 smyrnaeus_posthomerica:2 pliny_elder:1 uffizi_gallery:1 laurel_wreath:1 pseudo_apollodorus:1 apollodorus_epitome:1 dionysius_halicarnassus:1 external_link:1 |
2,055 | Accounting | Accountancy or accounting is the art of communicating financial information about a business entity to users such as shareholders and managers. The communication is generally in the form of financial statements that show in money terms that show the economic resources under the control of management. "Financial accounting and reporting" (Elliot, Barry & Elliot, Jamie, FT Prentice Hall, London 2004) p.3 Such financial information is primarily used by lenders, managers, investors, tax authorities, and other decision makers to make resource allocation decisions between and within companies, organizations, and public agencies. It involves the process of recording, verifying, and reporting of the value of assets, liabilities, income, and expenses in the books of account (ledger) to which debit and credit entries (recognizing transactions) are chronologically posted to record changes in value (see bookkeeping). Accounting has also been defined by the AICPA as "The art of recording, classifying, and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of financial character, and interpreting the results thereof." Etymology The English term accountant is derived from accomptant, which was pronounced by dropping the 'p' and over time further changed in pronunciation and spelling. Accomptant was derived from the French compter, itself originating from the Latin computare. From the word accountant the term accountancy is derived. Pixley, Francis William: Accountancy - constructive and recording accountancy (Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd, London, 1900), p4 History Early history Accountancy's infancy dates back to the earliest days of human agriculture and civilization (the Sumerians in Mesopotamia, and the Egyptian Old Kingdom). Ancient economic thought of the Near East facilitated the creation of accurate records of the quantities and relative values of agricultural products, methods that were formalized in trading and monetary systems by 2000 B.C. Simple accounting is mentioned in the Christian Bible (New Testament) in the Book of Matthew, in the Parable of the Talents. Matt. 25:19 The Islamic Quran also mentions simple accounting for trade and credit arrangements. Quran 2:282 In the twelfth-century A.D., the Arab writer, Ibn Taymiyyah, mentioned in his book Hisba (literally, "verification" or "calculation") detailed accounting systems used by Muslims as early as in the mid-seventh century A.D. These accounting practices were influenced by the Roman and the Persian civilizations that Muslims interacted with. The most detailed example Ibn Taymiyyah provides of a complex governmental accounting system is the Divan of Umar, the second Caliph of Islam, in which all revenues and disbursements were recorded. The Divan of Umar has been described in detail by various Islamic historians and was used by Muslim rulers in the Middle East with modifications and enhancements until the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The development of mathematics and accounting were intertwined during the Renaissance. Mathematics was in the midst of a period of significant development in the late-15th century. Hindu-Arabic numerals and algebra were introduced to Europe from Arab mathematics at the end of the 10th century by the Benedictine monk Gerbert of Aurillac, but it was only after Leonardo Pisano (also known as Fibonacci) put commercial arithmetic, Hindu-Arabic numerals, and the rules of algebra together in his Liber Abaci in 1202 that Hindu-Arabic numerals became widely used in Italy. Alan Sangster, Greg Stoner & Patricia McCarthy: "The market for Luca Pacioli’s Summa Arithmetica" (Accounting, Business & Financial History Conference, Cardiff, September 2007) p.1-2 Luca Pacioli and the birth of modern accountancy Pacioli's portrait, a painting by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte). Lauwers, Luc & Willekens, Marleen: "Five Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli" (Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1994, vol:XXXIX issue:3 pages:289-304) Luca Pacioli’s mathematics compendium, "Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità" (trans. Review of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio and Proportion) was first printed and published in Venice in 1494. It included a 27-page treatise on bookkeeping, "Particularis de Computis et Scripturis" (trans. Details of Accounting and Recording). It was written primarily for, and sold mainly to, merchants who used the book as a reference text, as a source of pleasure from the mathematical puzzles it contained, and to aid the education of their sons. It represents the first known printed treatise on bookkeeping; and it is widely believed to be the forerunner of modern bookkeeping practice. In Summa Arithmetica, Pacioli introduced symbols for plus and minus for the first time in a printed book, symbols that became standard notation in Italian Renaissance mathematics. Summa Arithmetica was also the first known book printed in Italy to contain algebra. Alan Sangster, Greg Stoner & Patricia McCarthy: "The market for Luca Pacioli’s Summa Arithmetica" (Accounting, Business & Financial History Conference, Cardiff, September 2007) p.1-2 Double-entry is defined as any bookkeeping system in which there was a debit and credit entry for each transaction, or for which the majority of transactions were intended to be of this form. Mills, Geofrey T. "Early accounting in Northern Italy: The role of commercial development and the printing press in the expansion of double-entry from Genoa, Florence and Venice" (The Accounting Historians Journal, June 1994) Pacioli's 27-page treatise on bookkeeping contained the first known published work on that topic, and is said to have laid the foundation for double-entry bookkeeping as it is practiced today. vSangster, Alan: "The printing of Pacioli's Summa in 1494: how many copies were printed?" (Accounting Historians Journal, John Carroll University, Cleveland, Ohio, June 2007) Post-Pacioli The first known book in the English language on accounting was published in London, England by John Gouge (or Gough) in 1543. It is described as A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke to learn to know the good order of the kepyng of the famous reconynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in English, debtor and Creditor. A short book of instructions was also published in 1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, England, in which he says, "I am but the renuer and reviver of an ancient old copies printed here in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Schoolmaster, who, as reappeared by his treatise, then taught Arithmetics, and this booke in Saint Ollaves parish in Marko Lane." Mellis refers to the fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple system of double entry) is "after the former of Venice". A book described as The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts formed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so termed) Italian manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, contains many references to early books on the science of accountancy. In a chapter in this book, headed "Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds: "That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor, is manifest in a certain place, Naturalis Historiae Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: Huic Omnia Expensa. Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola. Utramque Paginam facit." An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote times. There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book - the second edition in 1636, the third in 1656, and another in 1684. The book is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, beautifully prepared and containing elaborate explanations. The numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly appreciated in the 17th century. From this time on, there has been a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art, and thus proving that the professional accountant was then known and employed. Types of accounting Financial accounting is "a major branch of accounting involving the collection, recording and extraction of financial information, and the summary of it in the form of a periodic profit and loss account, a balance sheet and a cash flow statement in accordance with legal, professional, and capital market requirements". [wps.pearsoned.co.uk/wps/media/objects/1065/1090612/glossary.html] Management accounting is another branch of accounting performed within an organization to provide information only accessible to its decision-makers. Open-book accounting is an accounting principle that aims to improve accounting transparency of organizations. Tax accounting is the accounting needed to comply with jurisdictional tax regulations. Accounting scholarship is the academic discipline which studies the theory of accountancy. The related, but separate financial audit comprises internal audit and external audit. External audit—carried out by independent auditors—examines the financial statements and accounting records in order to express an opinion as to the truth and fairness and adherence to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). Commonly used GAAP include the US Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), which issues FASB Pronouncements including Statements of Accounting Standards, and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which issues International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Many other countries have instituted local standards resulting in a local country GAAP. Internal audit aims at providing information for management usage, and is typically carried out by employees. Accounting scandals The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron Corporation, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk. Astrid Ayala and Giancarlo Ibárgüen Snr.: "A Market Proposal for Auditing the Financial Statements of Public Companies" (Journal of Management of Value, Universidad Francisco Marroquín, March 2006) p.41 The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms. Astrid Ayala and Giancarlo Ibárgüen Snr.: "A Market Proposal for Auditing the Financial Statements of Public Companies" (Journal of Management of Value, Universidad Francisco Marroquín, March 2006) p.41 In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure. Bratton, William W. "Enron and the Dark Side of Shareholder Value" (Tulane Law Review, New Orleans, May 2002) p.61 The scandal caused the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world.It involved a financial scandal of Enron Corporation and their auditors Arthur Andersen, which was revealed in late 2001. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001 . One consequence of these events was the passage of Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders. Aiyesha Dey, and Thomas Z. Lys: "Trends in Earnings Management and Informativeness of Earnings Announcements in the Pre- and Post-Sarbanes Oxley Periods (Kellogg School of Management, Evanston, Illinois, February, 2005) p.5 Notes and references | Accounting |@lemmatized accountancy:10 accounting:33 art:3 communicate:1 financial:20 information:6 business:3 entity:1 user:1 shareholder:3 manager:2 communication:1 generally:2 form:5 statement:6 show:4 money:2 term:6 economic:3 resource:2 control:1 management:9 reporting:4 elliot:2 barry:1 jamie:1 ft:1 prentice:1 hall:1 london:4 p:8 primarily:2 use:10 lender:1 investor:1 tax:4 authority:2 decision:4 maker:2 make:3 allocation:1 within:2 company:6 organization:3 public:4 agency:1 involve:5 process:1 recording:3 verifying:1 value:6 asset:1 liability:1 income:1 expense:1 book:18 account:8 ledger:1 debit:2 credit:3 entry:7 recognize:1 transaction:4 chronologically:1 post:3 record:7 change:2 see:1 bookkeeping:8 also:5 define:2 aicpa:1 classifying:1 summarize:1 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2,056 | Nights_into_Dreamsâ%80Š | Nights into Dreams... (trademarked NiGHTS into Dreams...), is a video game released by Sega in 1996 for the Sega Saturn video game system. The game's story follows two children entering a dream world, where they are aided by the main character, Nights. Nights was developed by Sonic Team, with Yuji Naka as producer and lead programmer, and Naoto Oshima as director and designer of the character. The developers' intention was to make the sensation of flight the central gameplay element, Get the Facts Edge Interview achieved through 3D graphics and a combination of both 2D and 3D gameplay. The game was re-released in Japan for the PlayStation 2 on February 21, 2008. It is unknown at this time if it will be released in other territories. Although it was released before Puyo Pop Fever, it is Sonic Team's third game with sequels, behind Sonic the Hedgehog and Puyo Pop Fever. Story Every night, all human dreams are played out in Nightopia and Nightmare, the two parts of the dream world. In Nightopia, distinct aspects of dreamers' personalities are represented by luminous colored spheres known as "Ideya". However, the evil ruler of Nightmare, Wizeman the Wicked, is stealing this dream energy from sleeping visitors, in order to gather power to take control of Nightopia and eventually the real world. To achieve this, he creates numerous beings called "Nightmaren", including two acrobatic jester-like, flight-capable beings called Nights and Reala. However, Nights rebels against Wizeman's plans, and is punished by being imprisoned inside an Ideya palace, a gazebo-like container for dreamers' Ideya. One day, Elliot Edwards and Claris Sinclair, two children from the city of Twin Seeds, go through failures. Elliot likes to play basketball, but is challenged by kids from another grade and loses. Claris wants to sing in a play but is overcome by stage-fright in front of the judges. That night, they both suffer nightmares that replay the events. They escape into Nightopia and find that they both possess the rare Red Ideya of Courage, the only type Wizeman cannot steal. They release Nights, who tells them about dreams, and Wizeman and his plans, and the three begin a journey to stop Wizeman and restore peace to Nightopia. Characters Claris Sinclair Age: 15 (Japan) / 14 (Other Regions) A talented singer, Claris' ambition is to perform on stage. She auditions for a part in the events commemorating the centenary of the city of Twin Seeds. However, upon standing in front of the judges, she is overcome by stage fright and does not perform well. Claris loses all hope of getting the role, and when she falls asleep that night, the evil spirits of Nightmare seize upon that fear, placing Claris in a nightmare version of the audition. Fleeing from the stage, she suddenly finds herself in a lush spring valley, with Nights calling to her. Elliot Edwards Age: 15 (Japan) / 14 (Other Regions) Elliot is a budding basketball player, enjoying a game with his friends one day. A group of older high school students arrive and challenge them to a game, causing Elliot to suffer a humiliating defeat on the court. That night, a nightmare replays the events, and Elliot runs blindly into the world of Nightopia, where he discovers the imprisoned Nights. Nights Nights is a Nightmaren created by Wizeman to steal Red Ideya. Nights wears a purple jester style hat and outfit, with a diamond on the chest. Nights' gender is purposely left ambiguous, although generally referred to as a male. Nights is not known to speak in the game, although he does make noise when he is injured. In the story, Nights betrays Wizeman and is sealed in the Ideya Palace until Elliot or Claris dualize with him. Reala Reala is Wizeman's most trusted servant. Unlike Nights, Reala is cruel, brutal, clever, and completely loyal to Wizeman. Reala was responsible for Nights' imprisonment in the Ideya Palace. At the start of the boss fight against him, the character delivers one of the only two spoken lines in the entire game: "There is no, NiGHTS!". Reala has appeared in Nights into Dreams... and Nights Journey of Dreams. Reala is a playable character in Sega Superstars Tennis, but in the game, Reala's voice has changed. Wizeman the Wicked Wizeman is the main antagonist of the game. He is the evil ruler of Nightmare, the dark half of the dreamworld. Wizeman is the creator of the Nightmaren: Nights, Reala, Jackle, Clawz, Gulpo, Gillwing and Puffy, as well as many minor maren seen in the levels. When Nights rebelled against Wizeman, Reala became Wizeman's henchman. Wizeman is the final boss of the game; appears as hollow clothing and 6 hands, each with an eye in the palm. He has an array of mystical powers and abilities. During the boss battle, he brings Nights, Elliot and Claris into different locations. Gameplay Nights into Dreams... is split into seven levels or "Dreams", each divided further into four "Mares" and a boss battle. The levels are distributed equally between the two child characters; three are unique to Claris, three to Elliot, and each play through an identical final seventh level, "Twin Seeds". Initially, only Claris' Spring Valley and Elliot's Splash Garden are available, and successful completion of one of these unlocks the next level in that child's path. Previously completed stages may be revisited to improve the player's high scores; a "C" grade in all the selected child's levels must be achieved to unlock the relevant Twin Seeds dream for that character. At the start of each level, Wizeman's minions steal all the character's Ideya except the rare red type representing courage. The other Ideya colors in the game are yellow for hope, green for wisdom, blue for intelligence and white for purity. The goal of each of the four "Mares" in each level is to recover the stolen Ideya by collecting 20 blue chips and delivering them to the Ideya capture, which will overload and release the orb it holds. It is possible to complete some of the levels' goals by wandering around the landscape of Nightopia as Claris or Elliot (pursued by an egg-shaped alarm clock which will wake the children up and end the level if it catches them), but the majority of the gameplay centers on Nights' flying sequences, triggered by walking into the Ideya palace near the start of each level and merging with the imprisoned acrobat. In the Nights sections, the player flies around a particular linear route through the Mare. The gameplay as Nights is not completely 3D: players can only fly in the 2D plane of the screen, with their actual motion through the level determined by the automatic camera angle at that point in the Mare. The player has only a limited period available before Nights falls to the ground and turns back into Claris or Elliot, and each collision with an enemy subtracts five seconds from the time remaining. Various acrobatic maneuvers can be performed, including the "Paraloop", whereby flying around in a complete circle causes any items within the loop to be attracted towards Nights. The game features a combo system known as "Linking" whereby actions such as collecting items and flying through rings are worth more points when performed in quick succession than they are individually. After completing the four Mares, the player is transported to Nightmare to confront one of Wizeman's Nightmarens. The player has two minutes to defeat the boss, with the time taken contributing to the player's total score for that Dream. After each boss is defeated, a player can play a level again, and choose via the menu which boss to fight. A-Life Aside from the immediate game mission, the game also contains an artificial life ("A-Life") system, a precursor to the Chao featured in Sonic Team's later Sonic Adventure titles. The system involves entities called Nightopians (dream-dwellers, sometimes referred to as "pians"). The game keeps track of the moods of the Nightopians (harming them will displease them, for example), and the game features an evolving music engine, allowing tempo, pitch, and melody to alter depending on the state of Nightopians within the level. It is also possible to merge Nightopians with the small Nightmaren enemies, creating a hybrid being called a Mepian. It is even possible through extensive controlled breeding that a 'King' Pian, or Superpian can be made. An expanded version of the A-life system was included in Nights: Journey of Dreams. Controller The optional analog controller that came packaged with Nights into Dreams.... (US/EU version shown; the Japanese pad was white.) Nights was introduced alongside an optional game controller, included with most copies of the game. This gamepad featured an analog stick, among the first on any game console (launching just after the release of the Nintendo 64, which featured an analog stick on its standard control peripheral, although the Atari 5200 preceded it by a decade). The stick, D-pad and shoulder triggers were located in an arrangement similar to that of Sega's later Dreamcast controller. Christmas Nights Japanese release of Christmas Nights. Christmas Nights is a Christmas-themed two-level game of Nights into Dreams that was released in December 1996. In Japan, it was part of a Christmas Saturn bundle. Elsewhere it was given away with the purchase of select Saturn games such as Daytona USA Championship Circuit Edition, and was bundled in with issues of Sega Saturn Magazine, Game Players and Next Generation Magazine. The CD-ROMs given away on the front cover of Sega Saturn Magazine were missing the card slip case in which to keep the disc, and were instead supplied with a transparent plastic one. The game was also available for rent at Blockbuster Video locations in America. In the UK, Christmas Nights was not included with the official Sega Saturn Magazine until December 1997. The Christmas Nights disc contains the full version of Claris' Spring Valley dream level from Nights into Dreams, which allows both Claris and Elliot to play through the area, something Elliot could not do previously as it was not his dream. Elliot's version of the level contains a different item layout than Claris'. The story of Christmas Nights follows Elliot and Claris during the holiday season following their adventures with Nights. Though they both enjoy the Christmas season, they feel as if something is missing. Finding that the Christmas Star that usually sits at the top of the Twin Seeds Christmas tree is missing, the pair head off to Nightopia to find it. There, they meet up with Nights again and re-explore Spring Valley, which has now been Christmas-ified due to the kids' dreams of the holiday season. The trio of heroes must now take down a revived Gillwing and retrieve the Christmas Star from his lair. The game uses the Saturn's internal clock to change elements of the game according to the date and time. In November and January, the title screen label "Nights: Limited Edition" is changed to "Winter Nights", with the lush greenery of the environment being replaced by white snow. During December, "Christmas Nights" mode is activated, resulting in further Christmas-themed alterations, such as item boxes becoming Christmas presents, Nightopians dressing in elf costumes, and Christmas trees replacing Ideya captures. The background music is replaced by an instrumental version of "Jingle Bells", as well as there being a "Christmas-like" rendition of the boss theme. During the "Winter Nights" period, the weather in Spring Valley will change according to what hour it is. Other cosmetic changes are visible on New Year's Day, and loading the game on April Fool's Day results in Reala replacing Nights as the playable character. The disc features a number of unlockable bonuses such as character artwork. Further extra modes allow players to observe the status of the A-life system, experiment with the game's music mixer, time attack one Mare, or play the demo stage as Sega's mascot Sonic the Hedgehog. In the "Sonic the Hedgehog: Into Dreams" minigame, Sonic is only able to traverse the Spring Valley stage on foot, and the original game's Puffy boss is re-skinned as a "bouncy ball" version of Doctor Eggman. The music is a slightly remixed version of "Final Fever", the final boss battle music from the Japanese version of Sonic CD. Music The game's music has proven to be quite popular and has been remixed several times, both professionally and by fans. It also makes an appearance in Sega's Phantasy Star Online games, as bonus music for completing a quest themed after the original Nights game. The music from the levels was generated in-game using the Saturn version of Invision's Cybersound, which was also used in other games such as Panzer Dragoon II Zwei and Panzer Dragoon Saga. The theme song, "Dreams Dreams" has become a recognizable component of the Nights franchise. There are many versions of the song found throughout the game, and subsequent games in the series. The song is a duet between a man and a woman, which features a call and answer chorus. The vocal versions of the song featured in this game are the adults' version, sung by Curtis King, Jr., & Dana Calitri, and the children's version, sung by Cameron Earl Strother and Jasmine Ann Allen, which segues into the adults' version after the bridge. "Christmas Nights" features a capella version sung by Marlon Saunders, Gabriel Morris and Issa Clemon. Reception At the time of its release, Nights into Dreams was the top-selling game for the Saturn, and was the 21st highest selling game in Japan for the year 1996 but failed to find the mass commercial appeal of Super Mario 64 or Crash Bandicoot, both of which were launched around the same time. Most reviews in dedicated Saturn magazines praised the game, but those of some multi-platform websites and magazines were more critical. Nights has appeared in several "greatest games" lists. In a January 2000 poll of readers of Computer and Video Games magazine, it appeared in 15th place in a list of the "100 greatest games" (directly behind Super Mario 64). Edge gave it a score of 8/10 in its original 1996 review of the game, and in its October 2003 issue the magazine's staff placed Nights in its list of the ten greatest platform games. EGM, in its "The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time" list, ranked the game 160th. Next Generation Magazine ranked the game 25th in its list of the "100 Greatest Games of All-Time" in the September 1996 issue. 1UP.com ranked the Game 3rd in its "Top Ten Cult Classics." IGN's 2007 top 100 games of all time ranked the game at 94/100. IGN Top 100 Games 2007 | 94 Nights into Dreams Sequel Demand for a sequel to Nights Into Dreams has been strong for many years. A game with the working title "Air Nights" was intended to use a tilt sensor in the Saturn analog pad, and development later moved to the Sega Dreamcast for a time, but eventually the project was discontinued. Lomas, Ed. "Sonic Team Player", Official Dreamcast Magazine [UK] issue 14 (December 2000), pp. 35. Aside from a handheld electronic game released by Tiger Electronics Electronic Handheld Museum: Nights Into Dreams handheld (which was also ported to Tiger's R-Zone console) and small minigames featured in several Sega titles, no full Nights sequel was released for a Sega console. Yuji Naka expressed his reluctance to develop a sequel, but also noted that he was interested in using Nights as a license "to reinforce Sega's identity". Edge, November 2003 Finally, on April 1, 2007, a sequel called Nights: Journey of Dreams was officially announced for the Wii. <ref name="famitsu-name">{{cite web| url = http://www.famitsu.com/game/news/2007/04/02/103,1175488436,69395,0,0.html | title = Famitsu website statement of the title Nights： Journey of Dreams] | author = | date = 2007-04-02 | publisher = Famitsu|accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref> The official announcement followed items on the game published in several magazines and websites. The sequel is a Wii exclusive, making use of the system's motion-sensing controller,, as was initially planned for Air Nights. The gameplay involves the use of various masks, SEGA and features a multiplayer mode for two players in addition to WiiConnect24 online functions. The game was developed by Sega Studio USA, with Takashi Iizuka, one of the designers of the original game, as producer. It was released in Japan and the United States in December 2007, and in Europe and Australia on January 18, 2008. Remake Cover Art for Nights into Dreams... re-released for the PS2 Sega released a remake of the game for the PlayStation 2 in Japan on February 21, 2008. It includes 16:9 wide screen support, both a classic Sega Saturn graphics mode and a PS2 remake mode, an illustration gallery and a movie viewer mode. The game is available for a budget price, or the Nightopia Dream Pack, which includes a reprint of a picture book that was released in Japan alongside the original Saturn game. IGN: Nights Dreaming on PS2 â€å¤¢â€ã¨â€å‹‡æ°—â€ã®å†’険をå†ã³å§‹ã‚よã†ï¼ 『ナイツ into dreams...〠/ ファミ通.com The Christmas Nights levels are included as an unlockable bonus, playable after the main game is completed. source: game manual, description on case In keeping with the time-oriented surprises of the Saturn original, the remake features Nights, Elliot and Claris wearing special seasonal clothing during certain holidays, such as party costumes during Halloween in Mystic Forest or swim-wear during two special days in summer in Splash Garden. The PS2 version of the game was released only in Japan, much to the dismay of many fans of the original in other countries. The Japanese-released game cannot be played on North American or PAL PlayStation 2 consoles as it uses the NTSC-J format. Further appearances A Nights handheld electronic game was released by Tiger Electronics, and a faithful port of it was later released for Tiger's short lived R-Zone console. Several Sega titles such as Sega SuperStars, Sonic Adventure and Sonic Pinball Party feature minigames themed around the character. Nights is an unlockable character in Sonic Riders, Sonic Riders: Zero Gravity and Sonic Shuffle. A minigame version of Nights into Dreams... is playable utilizing the GameCube-to-Game Boy Advance connectivity with Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II and Billy Hatcher and the Giant Egg. Further small references to the game have been made in numerous other games by the company, including Shenmue, Burning Rangers, ChuChu Rocket!, Sonic Adventure 2, and Feel the Magic: XY/XX. Nights and Reala are also playable characters in Sega Superstars Tennis. Comics Highly noted for publishing a comic book series based on another SEGA character being Sonic the Hedgehog, Archie Comics adapted Nights into Dreams... into a three-issue comic book miniseries to test whether or not a Nights comic would sell well in North America. The series gained some popularity, but not quite enough to commit to a running series. The company later released a second 3-issue miniseries, continuing the story of the first, but this one also failed to gain enough sales to warrant an ongoing series. See also Nights: Journey of Dreams'' Nights (character) Yuji Naka Sonic Team Naoto Oshima References External links Official Nights into Dreams website Official Winter Nights website Official website for the PlayStation 2 remake | Nights_into_Dreamsâ%80Š |@lemmatized night:79 dream:36 trademarked:1 dreams:2 video:4 game:70 release:20 sega:21 saturn:14 system:7 story:5 follow:4 two:10 child:7 enter:1 world:4 aid:1 main:3 character:15 develop:3 sonic:18 team:5 yuji:3 naka:3 producer:2 lead:1 programmer:1 naoto:2 oshima:2 director:1 designer:2 developer:1 intention:1 make:6 sensation:1 flight:2 central:1 gameplay:6 element:2 get:2 fact:1 edge:3 interview:1 achieve:3 graphic:2 combination:1 japan:9 playstation:4 february:2 unknown:1 time:13 territory:1 although:4 puyo:2 pop:2 fever:3 third:1 sequel:7 behind:2 hedgehog:4 every:1 human:1 play:8 nightopia:9 nightmare:8 part:3 distinct:1 aspect:1 dreamer:2 personality:1 represent:2 luminous:1 colored:1 sphere:1 know:3 ideya:13 however:3 evil:3 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2,057 | Khmer_architecture | The 12th century temple of Angkor Wat is the masterpiece of Angkorian architecture. Constructed under the direction of the Khmer king Suryavarman II, it was to serve as the monarch's personal mausoleum and as a temple to the Hindu god Vishnu. It was designed as a pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the oceans that surround the world. The period of Angkor is the period from approximately the latter half of the 8th century A.D. to the first half of the 15th century. If precise dates are required, the beginning may be set in 802 A.D., when the Khmer King Jayavarman II pronounced himself universal monarch (chakravartin) and declared independence from Java, and the end may be set in 1431 A.D., when Thai invaders from the kingdom of Ayutthaya sacked Angkor and caused the Khmer elite to migrate to Phnom Penh. In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since the only remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and as such have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have recurred to the presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains. Periodization Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorian architectural styles. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style. The periodization of Angkorian architecture presented here is based on that of Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, pp.30-31. Preah Ko Style (877-886 A.D.): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. Bakheng Style (889-923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to witness a glorious sundown at Angkor. Koh Ker Style (921-944) Pre Rup Style (944-968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. Banteay Srei Style (967-1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. Khleang Style (968-1010) Baphuon Style (1050-1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently be appreciated in its full magnificence. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080-1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. Baroque or Bayon Style (1181-1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. Post Bayon Style (1243-1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings, dancers, and nāgas. Materials Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as their materials. The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost to decay and other destructive processes. Brick The earliest Angkorian temples were made entirely of brick. Good examples are the temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.27. Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at My Son in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the contest. Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa: Ancient Towers, p.232. Sandstone The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains. Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.26. Laterite Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.29. Structures Central sanctuary The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.91. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods. See Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, pp.26 ff. Enclosure Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.27. Gallery A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat. A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple. Gopura A gopura leads into the 12th century temple compound at Ta Prohm. Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara. A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; if the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways. Hall of Dancers A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th century temples constructed under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars have suggested that the hall itself may have been used for dancing. House of Fire House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples constructed during the reign of late 12th century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.172. Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited Angkor in 1296 A.D. Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.197f. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies. Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West. Library Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.30. Srah and baray Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two. The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray, located on either side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th century temple standing at the center of the West Baray; the East Mebon a 10th century temple standing at the center of the East Baray. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.161, 188. The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.178. Temple mountain The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor. The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods in Hindu mythology. Glaize, The Monuments of Angkor, p.24. The style was influenced by Indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple. The first great Temple Mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 A.D. by King Indravarman I. Jessup, Art & Architecture of Cambodia, pp.73 ff. Other Khmer Temple Mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo and most notably Angkor Wat. Elements Bas-relief Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th century A.D., the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.36. A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created by Agni. The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat. This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market. The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian narrative bas-reliefs: bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century) the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the human hero Rama on behalf of the latter the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and his shakti Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the flames bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century) the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell the Churning of the Ocean of Milk a battle between devas and asuras a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th century) battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops scenes from the everyday life of Angkor civil strife among the Khmer the legend of the Leper King the worship of Shiva groups of dancing apsaras This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a lintel, above which is a tympanum with a scene from the Mahabharata. Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the East. The other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise blank walls. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.40. Colonette Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that that served as supports for the beams and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular, or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.38. Corbelling Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom. Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm. Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker than the true arch, of which the Angkorian engineers appear to have been ignorant. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.32. Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment. Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja. The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. See, for example, Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, pp.32-35. The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, pp.32-33. Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well as various forms of vegetation. Glaize, The Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.40. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North. Freeman and Jacques, Ancient Angkor, p.20. Stairs The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting. Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear - the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust." Motifs Apsara and devata Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei. Three apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th century Buddhist temple the Bayon. Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in the great epic Mahabharata. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing about rather than dancing are more commonly called "devatas." See Rovedo. Images of the Gods, p.200ff. Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear individually and in groups. See Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.37. Dvarapala This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei. Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.37. Gajasimha and Reachisey The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group. The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, pp.211-212. Garuda In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his shoulders. Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythologial enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.177. They may be classified as follows: As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of Vishnu or Krishna, bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat. Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor. Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this context, Garuda symblizes the military power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders from Champa. In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda. Indra In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor. Kala A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th century Hindu temple Banteay Srei. The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.39. In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures. Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.209. Krishna Scenes from the life of Krishna, a mythological hero and avatar of the god Vishnu, are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana. See Rovedo, Images of the Gods, pp.76 ff. The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna: A series of bas reliefs at the 11th century temple pyramid called Baphuon depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.76. Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing the nāga Kaliya. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.79 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts Mount Govardhana with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with shelter from the deluge caused by Indra. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.80. Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons, including his evil uncle Kamsa. Rovedo, Images of the Gods, p.91. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with the asura Bana. In battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional mount of Vishnu. In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and protector of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief from the 10th century temple of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest. Linga This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor has a square base, an octogonal middle, and a round tip. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.16. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva. Coedès, Pour mieux comprendre Angkor, p.60. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone. The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types. Some lingas are implanted in flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of the womb. On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas are called mukhalingas. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. Makara The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of a makara that in turn disgorges another monster. A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings. Nāga Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 A.D. Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra. This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century. Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders. To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent princess from Cambodia. Glaize, The Monuments of Angkor, p.1. Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements. Glaize, The Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.43. Nāga Bridge Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom. Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nāgas. In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source in Indian mythology. Quincunx A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean. A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer temples was arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean. Shiva Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort, while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon, Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi. Vishnu Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb. Ordinary housing The nuclear family, in rural Cambodia, typically lives in a rectangular house that may vary in size from four by six meters to six by ten meters. It is constructed of a wooden frame with gabled thatch roof and walls of woven bamboo. Khmer houses typically are raised on stilts as much as three meters for protection from annual floods. Two ladders or wooden staircases provide access to the house. The steep thatch roof overhanging the house walls protects the interior from rain. Typically a house contains three rooms separated by partitions of woven bamboo. The front room serves as a living room used to receive visitors, the next room is the parents' bedroom, and the third is for unmarried daughters. Sons sleep anywhere they can find space. Family members and neighbors work together to build the house, and a house-raising ceremony is held upon its completion. The houses of poorer persons may contain only a single large room. Food is prepared in a separate kitchen located near the house but usually behind it. Toilet facilities consist of simple pits in the ground, located away from the house, that are covered up when filled. Any livestock is kept below the house. Federal Research Division. Russell R. Ross, ed. "Housing". Cambodia: A Country Study. Research completed December 1987. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Chinese and Vietnamese houses in Cambodian town and villages typically are built directly on the ground and have earthen, cement, or tile floors, depending upon the economic status of the owner. Urban housing and commercial buildings may be of brick, masonry, or wood. See also Angkor Khmer sculpture References Coedès, George. Pour mieux comprendre Angkor. Hanoi: Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient, 1943. Freeman, Michael and Jacques, Claude. Ancient Angkor. Bangkok: River Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8348-0426-3. Glaize, Maurice. The Monuments of the Angkor Group. 1944. A translation from the original French into English is available online at theangkorguide.com. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. Art & Architecture of Cambodia. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. Ngô Vǎn Doanh, Champa:Ancient Towers. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2006. Rovedo, Vittorio. Images of the Gods: Khmer Mythology in Cambodia, Laos & Thailand. Bangkok: River Books, 2005. Footnotes | Khmer_architecture |@lemmatized century:36 temple:80 angkor:88 wat:21 masterpiece:1 angkorian:39 architecture:16 construct:18 direction:5 khmer:36 king:26 suryavarman:3 ii:5 serve:8 monarch:4 personal:1 mausoleum:2 hindu:9 god:32 vishnu:14 design:4 pyramid:4 represent:14 structure:8 universe:1 high:2 level:4 center:6 mount:16 meru:6 home:8 five:6 tower:13 peak:2 mountain:13 broad:1 moat:2 around:3 complex:1 ocean:9 surround:6 world:1 period:16 approximately:1 latter:4 half:4 first:8 precise:1 date:3 require:1 beginning:1 may:17 set:3 jayavarman:8 pronounce:1 universal:1 chakravartin:1 declare:1 independence:1 java:1 end:7 thai:1 invader:2 kingdom:1 ayutthaya:1 sack:1 cause:2 elite:1 migrate:1 phnom:2 penh:1 study:3 emphasis:1 necessarily:1 religious:13 since:5 remain:5 building:19 nature:1 stone:13 non:1 dwelling:1 perishable:2 material:4 wood:5 survive:4 characteristic:1 element:13 motif:11 identify:1 glossary:1 number:4 different:2 architectural:3 style:25 succeed:1 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mythology:7 khleang:1 baphuon:5 massive:2 udayadityavarman:1 apparently:1 impressed:1 chinese:4 traveller:3 zhou:2 daguan:2 visit:2 toward:2 unique:1 naive:1 dynamic:2 quality:1 contrast:2 rigidity:1 figure:7 typical:1 restoration:1 cannot:1 appreciate:1 full:1 magnificence:1 classical:2 perhaps:1 defines:1 come:2 samre:1 thommanon:1 phimai:1 thailand:2 baroque:1 bayon:11 final:1 quarter:1 vii:7 free:3 country:3 occupation:1 invasionary:1 force:2 champa:5 thereafter:1 begin:1 program:1 monumental:3 construction:4 foundation:3 participate:1 ta:7 prohm:5 khan:9 thom:6 chmar:1 though:4 grandiose:1 plan:2 elaborately:1 decorate:6 exhibit:3 hurriedness:1 perfection:1 post:3 follow:2 frantic:1 enter:1 decline:1 terrace:1 leper:3 sculpture:9 demon:4 dancer:5 nāgas:9 builder:4 use:19 sandstone:6 laterite:6 lose:2 decay:1 destructive:2 process:1 make:4 entirely:2 good:1 example:6 decoration:5 usually:3 carve:3 stucco:2 apply:1 rather:5 p:32 neighbor:3 also:9 numerous:4 similar:2 extensive:3 son:2 vietnam:1 cham:6 story:8 tell:2 time:3 two:6 settle:1 arm:3 conflict:2 mean:2 contest:2 propose:1 po:2 klaung:2 garai:2 standard:1 direct:1 people:2 impressive:3 replica:2 paper:1 real:1 win:1 ngô:2 vǎn:2 doanh:2 obtain:1 kulen:1 mountains:1 obtainment:1 considerably:1 expensive:1 gradually:1 door:6 frame:2 keo:2 less:1 clay:1 soft:1 take:4 ground:3 harden:1 expose:1 sun:1 hidden:1 part:7 surface:4 uneven:2 suitable:1 unless:1 dress:1 commonly:3 province:1 central:5 sanctuary:7 primary:1 deity:6 site:2 dedicate:4 typically:9 shiva:13 case:4 buddha:3 bodhisattva:1 buddhist:3 statue:5 linga:7 consider:1 place:5 worship:4 population:2 large:8 need:1 enough:1 hold:5 never:1 metre:1 across:1 coedès:4 pour:4 mieux:4 comprendre:4 importance:1 instead:1 convey:2 height:1 prasat:1 rise:2 location:1 centre:4 wall:29 symbolically:1 legendary:1 see:7 glaize:16 group:18 ff:3 enclosure:10 enclose:1 concentric:1 series:2 middle:6 arrangement:3 range:1 mythical:5 space:4 innermost:1 convention:1 outwards:1 define:1 frequently:8 line:5 gallery:19 passage:2 way:1 gopuras:4 cardinal:3 point:3 cruciform:1 separate:3 courtyard:2 passageway:6 run:2 along:5 axis:3 often:10 open:5 side:9 historically:1 form:4 evolve:2 increasingly:1 long:2 hallway:2 earlier:1 additional:1 introduce:1 buttress:1 gopura:6 lead:3 compound:2 many:3 adorn:1 gigantic:4 face:4 avalokiteshvara:1 entrance:4 accomplish:1 aperture:1 doorway:4 enclosures:1 four:5 cross:2 shape:7 elongate:2 accompany:1 sometimes:3 connect:2 pediment:8 guardian:3 dvarapalas:3 either:6 hall:4 type:3 find:8 certain:2 late:4 kdei:4 chhmar:2 rectangular:3 divide:1 formerly:1 roof:5 pillar:4 carved:2 dance:5 apsaras:9 hence:1 suggest:1 house:21 fire:8 dharmasala:1 give:2 reign:3 thick:1 west:7 south:3 facing:1 window:4 theorize:1 function:5 rest:3 inscription:1 highway:1 express:2 admiration:1 theory:1 repository:2 sacred:3 flame:2 ceremony:2 unusually:1 library:3 conventionally:1 true:5 purpose:1 unknown:2 likely:1 broadly:1 shrine:2 strictly:1 manuscript:1 freestanding:1 normally:1 pair:1 srah:1 baray:7 srahs:1 barays:1 reservoir:3 generally:5 create:2 excavation:1 embankment:1 respectively:1 clear:2 whether:1 significance:1 agricultural:1 combination:1 dry:2 stand:6 associate:5 jayataka:2 neak:1 pean:1 speculate:2 himalayan:1 lake:1 anavatapta:1 miraculous:1 healing:1 power:3 dominant:2 scheme:1 representation:5 influence:1 chain:1 elevated:1 indravarman:1 jessup:2 art:3 cambodia:6 notably:1 individual:2 entire:3 cut:1 drawing:1 sculpted:1 image:14 project:3 background:2 bas:9 haut:2 far:2 almost:1 detach:1 prefer:1 partial:1 depict:25 history:1 confine:1 tympanum:10 well:7 literature:1 ramayana:1 mahabharata:7 however:3 artist:2 cover:3 external:1 square:6 meter:4 historical:2 mythological:4 similarly:1 outer:6 contain:3 document:2 everyday:2 life:4 medieval:2 event:1 show:8 indra:8 release:1 rain:2 attempt:2 extinguish:2 agni:3 battle:12 kurukshetra:3 subject:1 expat:1 negotiate:1 merchant:1 market:1 listing:1 illustrate:1 duel:2 monkey:3 prince:2 vali:2 sugriva:2 intervention:1 human:4 hero:4 rama:2 behalf:1 bhima:1 duryodhana:1 rakshasa:1 ravana:2 shake:2 kailasa:3 upon:3 sit:3 shakti:1 kama:1 arrow:1 sits:1 burning:1 khandava:2 forest:2 mid:1 lanka:1 rakshasas:1 vanaras:1 court:1 procession:1 pandavas:1 kauravas:1 judgment:2 yama:2 torture:1 hell:3 churning:5 milk:6 devas:2 asuras:1 asura:6 krishna:15 bana:2 inner:2 land:1 sea:2 troop:1 civil:1 strife:1 among:1 legend:3 blind:4 flank:1 colonettes:3 three:6 fake:1 maintain:2 symmetry:1 otherwise:1 blank:1 colonette:1 narrow:1 column:2 support:4 beam:2 depend:3 round:4 octagonal:2 circle:1 molded:1 ring:1 leaf:1 corbelling:3 corbelled:3 arch:6 gate:1 engineer:3 tend:2 corbel:3 order:5 room:6 opening:3 add:1 layer:2 successive:1 towards:1 meet:1 structurally:1 weak:1 appear:5 ignorant:1 prevent:2 particularly:1 prone:1 collapse:2 longer:1 difficulty:1 course:1 exist:1 surmount:1 light:1 wooden:3 problem:1 serious:1 conservation:1 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head:11 elephant:3 portray:1 warrior:2 belong:1 short:1 elephantine:1 trunk:2 scaly:1 dragon:2 occur:1 garuda:15 display:1 musée:1 guimet:1 bear:2 shoulder:4 man:3 bird:3 lord:1 mythologial:1 enemy:3 steed:2 thousand:1 inspiration:1 uniquely:1 classify:1 simultaneously:1 fight:1 observe:2 serf:1 atlas:2 superstructure:1 stylized:1 pose:1 victor:1 dominate:1 context:1 symblizes:1 military:1 victory:2 coincidentally:1 bridge:6 balustrade:3 fan:2 relationship:1 ambiguous:1 cooperation:1 domination:1 religion:1 veda:1 supreme:1 hinduism:1 status:2 encounter:1 airavata:1 trusty:1 weapon:1 thunderbolt:1 vajra:1 adventure:1 ferocious:1 monster:4 symbolic:7 devouring:1 aspect:1 siva:3 monstrous:1 upper:1 jaw:3 carnivorous:1 teeth:1 low:2 kalas:2 disgorge:2 vine:1 like:1 plant:1 skull:2 victim:1 incorporate:2 kind:1 protective:1 magic:1 ligament:1 together:2 thus:1 civilization:1 adoption:1 iconography:1 derive:1 forget:1 primitive:1 antecedent:1 avatar:2 literary:1 harivamsa:1 bhagavata:1 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heaven_hell:1 decorative_motif:1 bhagavata_purana:1 thatch_roof:2 thames_hudson:1 cambodia_lao:1 lao_thailand:1 |
2,058 | Meta-ethics | In philosophy, meta-ethics (sometimes called "analytic ethics") Cline, Austin "Analytic Ethics (Metaethics)," URL = http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/phil/blfaq_phileth_anal.htm." is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, and ethical statements, attitudes, and judgments. Meta-ethics is one of the three branches of ethics generally recognized by philosophers, the others being ethical theory and applied ethics. Ethical theory and applied ethics make up normative ethics. Meta-ethics has received considerable attention from academic philosophers in the last few decades. While normative ethics addresses such questions as "What should one do?", thus endorsing some ethical evaluations and rejecting others, meta-ethics addresses questions such as "What is goodness?" and "How can we tell what is good from what is bad?", seeking to understand the nature of ethical properties and evaluations. Some theorists argue that a metaphysical account of morality is necessary for the proper evaluation of actual moral theories and for making practical moral decisions, however others make the (reverse) claim that only by importing ideas of moral intuition on how to act can we arrive at an accurate account of the metaphysics of morals. Meta-ethical questions According to Richard Garner and Bernard Rosen , there are three kinds of meta-ethical problems, or three general questions: What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments? What is the nature of moral judgments? How may moral judgments be supported or defended? A question of the first type might be, "What do the words 'good', 'bad', 'right' and 'wrong' mean?" (see value theory). The second category includes questions of whether moral judgments are universal or relative, of one kind or many kinds, etc. Questions of the third kind ask, for example, how we can know if something is right or wrong, if at all. Garner and Rosen say that answers to the three basic questions "are not unrelated, and sometimes an answer to one will strongly suggest, or perhaps even entail, an answer to another." A meta-ethical theory, unlike a normative ethical theory, does not attempt to evaluate specific choices as being better, worse, good, bad, or evil; although it may have profound implications as to the validity and meaning of normative ethical claims. An answer to any of the three example questions above would not itself be a normative ethical statement. Semantic theories These theories primarily put forward a position on the first of the three questions above, "What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?" They may however imply or even entail answers to the other two questions as well. Cognitivist theories hold that evaluative moral sentences express propositions (that is, they are "truth apt" or "truth bearers", capable of being true or false), as opposed to non-cognitivism. Most forms of cognitivism hold that there are some such propositions which are true, as opposed to error theory. Moral realism (in the robust sense; see moral universalism for the minimalist sense) holds that such propositions are about robust or mind-independent facts, that is, not facts about any person or group's subjective opinion, but about objective features of the world. Meta-ethical theories are commonly categorized as either a form of realism or as one of three forms of "anti-realism" regarding moral facts: ethical subjectivism, error theory, or non-cognitivism. Realism comes in two main varieties: Ethical naturalism holds that there are objective moral properties and that these properties are reducible or stand in some metaphysical relation (such as supervenience) to entirely non-ethical properties. Most ethical naturalists hold that we have empirical knowledge of moral truths. Ethical naturalism was implicitly assumed by many modern ethical theorists, particularly utilitarians, until the advent of contemporary meta-ethical research. Ethical non-naturalism, as put forward by G.E. Moore, holds that there are objective and irreducible moral properties (such as the property of 'goodness'), and that we sometimes have intuitive or otherwise a priori awareness of moral properties or of moral truths. Moore's open question argument against what he considered the fallacy of ethical naturalism was largely responsible for the birth of meta-ethical research in contemporary analytic philosophy. Subjectivist theories hold that moral statements are made true or false by the attitudes and/or conventions of people. Subjectivism is one form of moral anti-realism. Individualist ethical subjectivism holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world. This view was put forward by Protagoras. Moral relativism (c.f. cultural relativism) holds that for a thing to be morally right is for it to be approved of by society; this leads to the conclusion that different things are right for people in different societies and different periods in history. Though long out of favor among academic philosophers, especially of the analytic tradition, this view has been popular among anthropologists, such as Ruth Benedict, and to some extent in continental philosophy as well. Ideal observer theory holds that what is right is determined by the attitudes that a hypothetical ideal observer would have. An ideal observer is usually characterized as a being who is perfectly rational, imaginative, and informed, among other things. Though a subjectivist theory due to its reference to a particular (albeit hypothetical) subject, Ideal Observer Theory still purports to provide universal answers to moral questions. Divine command theory holds that for a thing to be right is for a unique being, God, to approve of it, and that what is right for non-God beings is obedience to the divine will. This view was criticized by Plato in the Euthyphro (see the Euthyphro problem) but retains some modern defenders (Robert Adams, Philip Quinn, and others). Like Ideal Observer Theory, Divine Command Theory purports to be universalist despite its subjectivism. Error theory, another form of moral anti-realism, holds that although ethical claims do express propositions, all such propositions are false. Thus both the statement "Murder is bad" and the statement "Murder is good" are false, according to an error theory. J. L. Mackie is probably the best-known proponent of this view. Since error theory denies that there are moral truths, error theory entails moral nihilism and thus moral skepticism; however, neither moral nihilism nor moral skepticism conversely entail error theory. Non-cognitivist theories hold that ethical sentences are neither true nor false because they do not express genuine propositions. Non-cognitivism is another form of moral anti-realism. Most forms of non-cognitivism are also forms of expressivism, however some such as Mark Timmons and Terrence Horgan distinguish the two and allow the possibility of cognitivist forms of expressivism. Emotivism, defended by A.J. Ayer and C.L. Stevenson, holds that ethical sentences serve merely to express emotions. So "Killing is wrong" means something like "Boo on killing!" Quasi-realism, defended by Simon Blackburn, holds that ethical statements behave linguistically like factual claims and can be appropriately called "true" or "false", even though there are no ethical facts for them to correspond to. Projectivism and moral fictionalism are related theories. Universal prescriptivism, defended by R.M. Hare, holds that moral statements function like universalized imperative sentences. So "Killing is wrong" means something like "Don't kill!" Hare's version of prescriptivism requires that moral prescriptions be universalizable, and hence actually have objective values, in spite of failing to be indicative statements with truth-values per se. Centralism and non-centralism Yet another way of categorizing meta-ethical theories is to distinguish between centralist and non-centralist theories. The debate between centralism and non-centralism revolves around the relationship between the so-called "thin" and "thick" concepts of morality. Thin moral concepts are those such as good, bad, right, and wrong; thick moral concepts are those such as courageous, inequitable, just, or dishonest. Jackson, Frank "Critical Notice" Australasian Journal of Philosophy Vol. 70, No. 4; December 1992 (pp. 475-488). While both sides agree that the thin concepts are more general and the thick more specific, centralists hold that the thin concepts are antecedent to the thick ones and that the latter are therefore dependent on the former. That is, centralists argue that one must understand words like "right" and "ought" before understanding words like "just" and "unkind." Non-centralism rejects this view, holding that thin and thick concepts are on par with one another and even that the thick concepts are a sufficient starting point for understanding the thin ones. Hurley, S.L. (1989). Natural Reasons: Personality and Polity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hurley, S.L. (1985). "Objectivity and Disagreement." in Morality and Objectivity, Ted Honderich (ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 54-97. Non-centralism has been of particular importance to ethical naturalists in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as part of their argument that normativity is a non-excisable aspect of language and that there is no way of analyzing thick moral concepts into a purely descriptive element attached to a thin moral evaluation, thus undermining any fundamental division between facts and norms. Allan Gibbard, R.M. Hare, and Simon Blackburn have argued in favor of the fact/norm distinction, meanwhile, with Gibbard going so far as to argue that even if conventional English has only mixed normative terms (that is, terms that are neither purely descriptive nor purely normative), we could develop a nominally English metalanguage that still allowed us to maintain the division between factual descriptions and normative evaluations. Couture, Jocelyne and Kai Nielsen (1995). "Introduction: The Ages of Metaethics," in On the Relevance of Metaethics: New Essays in Metaethics, Jocelyne Couture and Kai Nielsen (eds.). Calgary: University of Calgary Press, pp. 1-30. Gibbard, Allan (1993). "Reply to Railton," in Naturalism and Normativity, Enrique Villanueva (ed.). Atascadero, CA: Ridgeview, pp. 52-59. Substantial theories These theories attempt to answer the second of the above questions: "What is the nature of moral judgments?" Amongst those who believe there to be some standard(s) of morality (as opposed to moral nihilists), there are two divisions: universalists, who hold that the same moral facts or principles apply to everyone everywhere; and relativists, who hold that different moral facts or principles apply to different people or societies. Moral universalism (or universal morality) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is to all people regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexuality, or other distinguishing feature. The source or justification of this system may be thought to be, for instance, human nature, shared vulnerability to suffering, the demands of universal reason, what is common among existing moral codes, or the common mandates of religion (although it can be argued that the latter is not in fact moral universalism because it may distinguish between Gods and mortals). It is the opposing position to various forms of moral relativism. Universalist theories are generally forms of moral realism, though exceptions exists, such as the subjectivist ideal observer and divine command theories, and the non-cognitivist universal prescriptivism of R.M. Hare. Value monism is the common form of universalism which holds that all goods are commensurable on a single value scale. Value pluralism contends that there are two or more genuine scales of value, knowable as such, yet incommensurable, so that any prioritization of these values is either non-cognitive or subjective. A value pluralist might, for example, contend that both a life as a nun and a life as a mother realize genuine values (in a universalist sense), yet they are incompatible (nuns may not have children) and there is no purely rational measure of which is preferable. A notable proponent of this view is Isaiah Berlin. Meta-ethical relativists maintain that all moral judgments have their origins either in societal or in individual standards, and that no single objective standard exists by which one can assess the truth of a moral proposition. Meta-ethical relativists, in general, believe that the descriptive properties of terms such as "good", "bad", "right", and "wrong" do not stand subject to universal truth conditions, but only to societal convention and personal preference. Given the same set of verifiable facts, some societies or individuals will have a fundamental disagreement about what one ought to do based on societal or individual norms, and one cannot adjudicate these using some independent standard of evaluation. The latter standard will always be societal or personal and not universal, unlike, for example, the scientific standards for assessing temperature or for determining mathematical truths. Some philosophers maintain that moral relativism entails non-cognitivism. Most relativist theories are forms of moral subjectivism, though not all subjectivist theories are relativistic. Moral nihilism, also known as ethical nihilism, is the meta-ethical view that nothing is morally preferable to anything else. For example, a moral nihilist would say that killing someone, for whatever reason, is neither morally right nor morally wrong. Moral nihilism must be distinguished from moral relativism which does allow for moral statements to be true or false in a non-objective sense, but does not assign any static truth-values to moral statements. Insofar as only true statements can be known, moral nihilists are moral skeptics. Most forms of moral nihilism are non-cognitivist and vice versa, though there are notable exceptions such as universal prescriptivism (which is semantically non-cognitive but substantially universal). Justification theories There are theories which attempt to answer questions like "How may moral judgments be supported or defended?" or "Why should I be moral?" If one presupposes a cognitivist interpretation of moral sentences, morality is justified by the moralist's knowledge of moral facts, and the theories to justify moral judgements are epistemological theories. Most moral epistemologies, of course, posit that moral knowledge is somehow possible, as opposed to moral skepticism. Amongst them, there are those which hold that moral knowledge is gained inferentially on the basis of some sort of non-moral epistemic process, as opposed to ethical intuitionism. Empiricism is the doctrine that knowledge is gained primarily through observation and experience. Meta-ethical theories which imply an empirical epistemology include ethical naturalism, which holds moral facts to be reducible to non-moral facts and thus knowable in the same ways; and most common forms of ethical subjectivism, which hold that moral facts reduce to facts about cultural conventions and thus are knowable by observation of those conventions. There are exceptions within subjectivism however, such as ideal observer theory which implies that moral facts may be known through a rational process, and individualist ethical subjectivism which holds that moral facts are merely personal opinions and so may be known only through introspection. Moral rationalism, also called ethical rationalism, is the view according to which moral truths (or at least general moral principles) are knowable a priori, by reason alone. Some prominent figures in the history of philosophy who have defended moral rationalism are Plato and Immanuel Kant. Perhaps the most prominent figure in the history of philosophy who has rejected moral rationalism is David Hume. Recent philosophers who defended moral rationalism include Richard Hare, Christine Korsgaard, Alan Gewirth, and Michael Smith (1994). A moral rationalist may adhere to any number of different semantic theories as well; moral realism is compatible with rationalism, and the subjectivist ideal observer theory and noncognitivist universal prescriptivism both entail it. Discourse ethics holds, moral judgements are justified by discussing about how to justify moral judgements, because once you have started engaging in the discourse, you have already accepted a simple set of moral rules which are necessary to make the discourse go ahead. Ethical intuitionism, on the other hand, is the view according to which some moral truths can be known without inference. That is, the view is at its core a foundationalism about moral beliefs. Of course, such an epistemological view implies that there are moral beliefs with propositional contents; so it implies cognitivism. Ethical intuitionism commonly suggests moral realism, the view that there are objective facts of morality, and more specifically ethical non-naturalism, the view that these evaluative facts cannot be reduced to natural fact. However, neither moral realism nor ethical non-naturalism are essential to the view; most ethical intuitionists simply happen to hold those views as well. Ethical intuitionism comes in both a "rationalist" variety, and a more "empiricist" variety known as moral sense theory. Moral skepticism is the class of meta-ethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal, claim that moral knowledge is impossible. Forms of moral skepticism include, but are not limited to, error theory and most but not all forms of non-cognitivism. Prudentialism doesn't rely upon knowledge about morality, but upon insight about efficiency. Prudentialists claim, that moralists have a better life than amoralists, and that homo economicus is also a moral man because it's better for him in the long run. This position is held by David Gauthier. Preferentialism just claims that many humans want to be moral, make the world better etc., and that's all. Amoralism claims, moral judgements cannot be defended at all. They neither have truth value, nor will they always lead to better results for the individual unless they are artificially reduced so much, they become synonymous to rational egoism and obsolete. References External links by Geoff Sayre-McCord. The Language of Morals (1952) by R.M. Hare. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals by Immanuel Kant. Metaethics - §1 of the "Ethics" entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy by James Fieser. Essays by philosopher Michael Huemer on meta-ethics, especially intuitionism. Relativity theory of ethics by J.J. 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2,059 | Economy_of_Hong_Kong | Hong Kong's highly favorable geographical position and entrepot trading opportunities are wealth-generating assets. It has a superb sheltered natural harbor. For centuries, this had made Hong Kong a major haven for pirates before it became a British colony in 1841. Under British administration, it soon developed into a thriving legitimate international port. By the late 20th century, Hong Kong was the seventh largest port in the world and second only to New York and Rotterdam in terms of container throughput. The Kwai Chung container complex was the largest in Asia; while Hong Kong shipping owners were second only to those of Greece in terms of total tonnage holdings. In addition to geographical position, another major natural industrial-commercial asset of Hong Kong has been human resources. The population of the territory was less than six million in the late 20th century. However, there was an abundance of labour close by in the region that could be readily tapped through direct external investment and outsourcing. In Hong Kong itself, a skilled, adaptable, and hard-working labour force coupled with the adoption of modern British/ Western business methods and technology ensured that opportunities for external trade, investment, and recruitment were maximised. Since the 1970s, the economy of Hong Kong has been governed both under British and Chinese rule under an economic policy dubbed Positive non-interventionism espoused by former financial secretary John James Cowperthwaite. Traditionally, the Hong Kong government has raised revenue from the sale and taxation of land but not engaged in industry and commerce for profit. From its revenues, the government has built roads, schools, hospitals, and other public infrastructure facilities and services. It has also operated a welfare insurance scheme. However, the authorities have generally avoided owning and running business enterprises, engaging in trade protectionism, or imposing regulatory controls. There has been relatively little popular pressure for higher government spending. Over the decades, successive political administrations have managed to avoid running up large budget deficits; and by restraining public borrowing, credit expansion and inflation have been held in check. Measuring discrepancies between the rich and poor with the Gini Coefficient indicates that the wealth gap continues to widen in Hong Kong since the new millennium. As of 2006 Hong Kong's measurement is at 53.3, which means the difference between the rich and poor is far greater than that of the People's Republic of China. Msnbc. "Hong Kong's wealth gap widens since handover." HK wealth gap widens. Retrieved on 2007-07-06. Many of the financial tycoons also oppose universal suffrage, since the large number of poor would vote for populists who promise costly social programs. Msnbc. "Reinventing Hong Kong." Ten years after the change-over, Hong Kong is positioning itself to become Asia's New York City. Retrieved on 2007-07-06. Hong Kong seems likely to remain a highly free market-enterprise society. Such things as political production planning and price and import controls are fundamentally incompatible with the kind of globally open, competitive economic environment in which Hong Kong firms and industries operate. The ever rising landscape is a reflection of the growing economy Resources Hong Kong has little arable land and few natural resources within its borders, and must therefore import most of its food and raw materials. Hong Kong is the world's 11th largest trading entity, "About Hong Kong", Government Information Centre with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product. , there are 114 countries that maintain consulates in Hong Kong, more than any other city in the world. Much of Hong Kong's exports consists of re-exports, which are products made outside of the territory, especially in mainland China, and distributed through Hong Kong. Even before the transfer of sovereignty to the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong has established extensive trade and investment ties with mainland China. The territory's autonomous status enables it to serve as a point of entry for investments and resources flowing into the mainland. History During Hong Kong's time as a British Colony, Positive non-interventionism was the economic policy of Hong Kong. It was first officially implemented in 1971 by John James Cowperthwaite, who observed that the economy was doing well in the absence of government intervention. The policy was continued by subsequent Financial Secretaries, including Sir Philip Haddon-Cave. Hong Kong's model allowed for the flexibility and renovation of any given industry in a very short time. Because of this, a 1994 World Bank report stated that Hong Kong's GDP per capita grew in real terms at an annual rate of 6.5% from 1965 to 1989. This consistent growth percentage over a span of almost 25 years is remarkable for any economic analysis Rowley, Chris. Fitzgerald, Robert. [2000] (2000) Managed in Hong Kong: Adaptive Systems, Entrepreneurship and Human Resources. United Kingdom: Routledge Publishing. ISBN 0714650269 . By 1990 Hong Kong's per capita income officially surpassed that of the ruling United Kingdom Yu Tony Fu-Lai. [1997] (1997) Entrepreneurship and Economic Development of Hong Kong. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 0415162408 . Most Hong Kong residents were also first- or second-generation immigrants (and often refugees). Like the United States of a century or so earlier, the society was essentially a new one. In such societies, political cultural etc. orientations tend to be towards libertarianism/individualism – thus reinforcing the generally favorable environment for enterprise and economic growth. Google Books online PDF By the late 20th century, many other countries in Asia and elsewhere had effectively made the transition from statist-collectivism to modern market capitalism. However, Hong Kong still stood out in terms of its high levels of business-economic freedom, growth, and prosperity. Not just foreign direct investors but indigenous firms have been greatly aided by Hong Kong's international openness and dependence on trade. After a slump caused by the regionwide Asian financial crisis that began in 1997, Hong Kong's economy had been on the rebound. Real GDP growth was 4% in 1999 and reached double digits in the first half of 2000. However, the dot-com bubble in the second half of 2000, the 9/11 terrorist attacks upon the United States in 2001 and the SARS outbreak in 2003 had severely damaged the economy of Hong Kong. In 2004 and 2005, real GDP grew by 8.5% and 7.1% respectively. The unemployment rate increased from 2.2% to 6.3% due to the Asian financial crisis. After peaking at 7.9% in 2003, the unemployment rate eased back to 4.0% in 2007. In August 1998, the government intervened in the stock, futures, and currency markets to fend off "manipulators." The banking sector remains solid, and the government is committed to the US-Hong Kong linked exchange rate. Transformation Hong Kong's economy has transformed and re-adapted itself to different periods of time. Period Dominating Sector Description Pre-War Trade In 1895 Hong Kong's trading port was 4th largest in the world Barber, Nicola. [2004] (2004) Hong Kong. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 0836851986 . The economy revolved around international trading. 1950s to 1970s Manufacturing Manufacturing was the largest share of the economy, led by textiles. Business services such as wholesaling, retailing, foreign trade and hotels and restaurants was the second largest sector, followed by finance. Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries, Vol XXBuckley, Roger. [1997] (1997). Hong Kong: The Road to 1997 By Roger Buckley. Cambridge July 1991, Economics and Development Resource Centre, Asian Development Bank, p. 140. 1980s to 1990s Finance In 1981, financial services including real estate, insurance, brokering and banking, moved into the lead for the first time. Business services again took the lead in 1984 and retained that position until the end of the colonial era Post-Handover Services Since 1997, the economy has been led by two engines, the business and financial services sectors which together account for half of all economic activity. Macro-economic trend Hong Kong deliberately began collecting and regularly publishing economy-wide data much later than its East Asian peers. The earliest gross domestic product estimates (for 1961 and subsequent years) were only released in 1973 and other basic data such as for the balance of payments were not compiled until 1999. Goodstadt, Leo F., Profits, Politics and Panics: Hong Kong’s Banks and the Making of a Miracle Economy, 1935-1985, p. 11, Hong Kong University Press, 2007 ISBN 978-962-209-896-1. Mr Goodstadt confirms that the statistical void was deliberate on p. 24. Any GDP formed prior to this period was based on international trade statistics that came after 1971 Schenk, Catherine Ruth. [2001] (2001). Hong Kong as an International Financial Centre: Emergence and Development, 1945-1965. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 0415205832 . The chart below shows the change in real and nominal GDP by decades from when data first began to be published. Year Real GDP Nominal Growth Change in deflator 1960s* 8.7% 12.7% 3.7% 1970s 8.9% 19.2% 9.5% 1980s 7.4% 16.9% 8.9% 1990s 3.5% 9.0% 5.3% 2000s ** 4.7% 2.8% -1.8% 1962-69 **2000-07 At the end of 2007, GDP was HK$1,627.5 billion (US$208.7 billion) and GDP per capita was HK$235,134 (US$30,157). Inflation & Deflation Hong Kong's inflation rate is markedly varying, up and down in a roller coaster ride between the 1960s and 1990's. In the early 21st C., Hong Kong became one of the few developed economies to have experienced deflation in the post-WW2 period; the other main example is Japan. Just how much prices are affected, however, depends on what’s being measured. Here are several examples of recent price changes: Census and Statistics Department - Statistical Tables Measure (Average Annual Percent Change Per Annum)2000-04200520062007 Consumer Price Index (2.3%) 0.9% 2.1% 2.0% *CPI: Food(0.6) 2.2 1.7 4.3 *CPI: Durables (0.1) 0.4 (6.4) (4.7)GDP Deflator(3.7)(0.1) 0.0 3.0Private Consumption Deflator(2.2) 1.8 1.3 3.7Retail Price Deflator(0.8) 0.7 1.4 2.5Imported Goods(1.0) 1.9 2.1 1.8Imported Services 1.5 1.0 0.8 3.0 Inflation, GDP: 1962-2007 The following table demonstrates historic economic growth and inflation, as per the Census and Statistics Department. Censtatd.gov.hk. "Censtatd.gov.hk." Inflation. Retrieved on 2008-03-06. Censtatd.gov.hk. "Censtatd.gov.hk." GDP. Retrieved on 2008-03-06. 1960s: Real GDP Increases by Percentage, Inflation by Percentage Year 19621963196419651966196719681969Real GDP14.1615.718.5714.491.751.693.3911.29Inflation1.993.775.052.520.606.563.355.59 1970s: Real GDP Increases by Percentage, Inflation by Percentage Year 1970197119721973197419751976197719781979Real GDP9.227.1610.5312.312.280.4116.2311.808.3811.62Inflation8.897.659.2214.2811.704.669.603.737.9917.64 1980s: Real GDP Increases by Percentage, Inflation by Percentage Year 1980198119821983198419851986198719881989Real GDP10.349.392.985.929.910.7211.0413.418.442.22Inflation15.4910.2611.1110.008.593.493.605.647.8010.29 {| class="wikitable" 1990s: Real GDP Increases by Percentage, Inflation by Percentage Year 1990199119921993199419951996199719981999Real GDP3.905.696.096.046.012.294.195.06-6.032.56Inflation10.1911.299.588.748.879.016.275.902.83-3.96 2000+: Real GDP Increases by Percentage, Inflation by Percentage Year 20002001200220032004200520062007Real GDP7.950.501.843.018.467.126.756.83Inflation-3.76-1.58-3.12-2.54-0.400.932.022.03 Currency Hong Kong Currency The currency used in Hong Kong is the Hong Kong dollar. Since 1983, it has been pegged at a fixed exchange rate to the United States dollar due to the event of Black Saturday. The currency is allowed to trade within a range between 7.75 and 7.85 Hong Kong dollars to one United States dollar. The government's fiscal year is from April 1 to March 31 of the next year. Real Estate Lai King Estate, one of many public housing structures Culturally speaking, the city view is a draw and marketing point. Hong Kong has always had an imbalance of supply and demand where the population far outstrips the available land. Almost 7 million people live on about 1,104 square kilometres (426 mi²) of space. In the high-end market, the Peak is ranked the 3rd most expensive city in the world in 2007 with a square foot per unit pricing of US $2,008 behind London and Monaco. The classification of Hong Kong as a "free economy" also means anyone with money can buy real estate property. Many foreigners have invested heavily in the territory, making real estate one of the biggest contributors to economic statistics. The land is essentially rented from the government under a lease, even if one owns the property. Prior to 1997, lease terms were 75, 99 or 999 years. As of Hong Kong's return to China, new grants last for 50 years. ABC News. "ABC News Go." "Hong Kong's Real Estate is World's Peak." Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Stock exchange The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the 6th largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of about US$2.97 trillion. In 2006, the value of initial public offerings conducted in Hong Kong was second highest in the world after London Hong Kong surpasses New York in IPOs, International Herald Tribune, 2006-12-25. Retrieved 2007-1-20. . The rival stock exchange of the future is expected to be the Shanghai Stock Exchange. As of 2006, Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing (HKEX) has an average daily turnover of 33.4 billion dollars, which is 12 times that of Shanghai. Economic Predictions Since the 1997 handover Hong Kong's economic future became far more exposed to the challenges of economic globalisation competition directly from mainland China. Shanghai claimed in particular to have a geographical advantage, and a municipal government that dreams of turning the city into China's main economic center by as early as 2010. The target is to allow Shanghai to catch up to New York by 2040-2050 Richardson, Harry W. Bae, Chang-Hee C. [2005] (2005) Globalisation and Urban Development: Advances in Spatial Science. ISBN 3540223622 , with the eventual projection that China will be Asia's most prosperous economy by 2040 Burgess, Rod. Jenks, Michael. [2001] (2001) Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries. United Kingdom: Spon Press. ISBN 0419251308 . Hong Kong, on the other hand, continue to have a more positive and realistic approach. It will sustainably be the international financial center in China. Until then, Hong Kong is expected to have higher overall economic figures yearly. Hong Kong's principal trading partners remain to be China, United States, Japan, Taiwan, Germany, Singapore, and South Korea. Positive Non-interventionism This policy has often been cited by economists such as Milton Friedman and the Cato Institute as an example of the benefits of laissez-faire capitalism. However others have argued that the economic strategy was inadequately characterised by the term lassez-faire Journal of Contemporary China (2000), 9(24) 291-308 http://psweb.sbs.ohio-state.edu/faculty/mcooper/ps536readings/cheung_interventionism.pdf They point out that there are still many ways in which the government is involved in the economy. The government has intervened to create economic institutions such as the Hong Kong Stock Market and has been involved in public works projects and social welfare spending. All land in Hong Kong is owned by the government and leased to private users. By restricting the sale of land leases, the Hong Kong government keeps the price of land at what some would say are artificially high prices and this allows the government to support public spending with a low tax rate. Geocities. "Geocities." Doesn't Hong Kong show the potentials of "free market" capitalism?. Retrieved on 2008-03-06. Economic Freedom Hong Kong has ranked as the world's freest economy in the Wall Street Journal and Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom for 15 consecutive years, since the inception of the index in 1995 . The Index measures restrictions on business, trade, investment, finance, property rights and labour and considers the impact of corruption, government size and monetary controls in 183 economies. Hong Kong is the only one to have ever scored 90 points or above on the 100 point scale. Economic Indicators The economy functions well into the night Population Inflation rate (consumer prices): +4.3% (2008) Unemployment rate: 3.4% (2008) Labour Force Participation Rate by sex (Sep-Nov 2007) Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department. "Labour Force and Labour Force Participation Rates (LFPRs) by Sex." LFPR. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. Male: 71.2% Female: 53.0% Labour Force Participation Rate by age group (Sep-Nov 2007) Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department. "Labour Force and Labour Force Participation Rates (LFPRs) by Age Group." LFPR. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. Age 15-24: 42.4% Age 25-44: 85.5% Age 45-64: 64.6% Age 65 and over: 5.3% GDP GDP (nominal) - US$208.7 billion (2007) GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (2007) GDP - per capita: US$30,157 (2007)) GDP - composition by sector: (2006) Agriculture: 0.1% Industry: 11.9% (of which: manufacturing 3.1%) Services: 88.0% (of which: trade and retailing: 25.7%) Labour The average work week is 47 hrs Average Work Week: 47 hours per week Steers, Richard. [1999] (1999). Made in Korea: Chung Ju Yung and the Rise of Hyundai. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 0415920507 Labour force - by sector: (2006 est) Hong Kong census. "Census labour data pdf." Labour. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. Agriculture and fishing: 0.3% Mining and quarrying: 0.05% Manufacturing: 5.1% Electricity, gas and water: 0.4% Construction: 8.0% Wholesale and retail trades: 10.5% Import and export trade: 16.4% Restaurants and hotels: 7.1% Transport and storage: 9.4% Communications: 1.1% Financial services: 5.3% Real estate and business services: 10.1% Public administration: 3.7% Education and health services: 7.6% Personal services: 9.0% Recreational, other community and social services: 5.9% FY 2007-08 Budget Operating Revenues: HK$248.3 billion (US$$31.8 billion) of which, direct taxes: HK$130.9 billion of which, other recurrent revenue: HK$117.4 billion Capital Revenue: HK$76.7 billion = Government Revenue HK$346.9 billion Operating Expenditures: HK$206.4 billion (US$$26.5 billion) Capital Expenditures: HK$30.1 billion = Government Expenditures: HK$237.2 billion Subventions and other public sector spending: HK$19.4 billion = Public Expenditure: HK$255.8 billion Fiscal reserves less government debt: HK$460.3 billion (end-March 2008) Trade and investment (2007) Exports: $344.9 billion f.o.b., including re-exports TdcTrade. "TdcTrade.com." Economic and Trade info on Hong Kong. Retrieved on 2007-03-14. Exports - partners: Mainland China 48.7%, USA 13.7%, Japan 4.5%, Germany 3.0% Exports - commodities: clothing, textiles, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clocks, toys, plastics, precious stones Imports: $368.4 billion (2007) Imports - partners: Mainland China 46.3%, Japan 10.0%, Taiwan 7.1%, Singapore 6.8% Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, transport equipment, raw materials, semimanufactures, petroleum; a large share is re-exported See also Mainland and HK Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA) Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA) Economy of the People's Republic of China Economy of East Asia Individual Visit Scheme Positive non-interventionism The Hongs Taiwan Miracle Poverty Campaign: Speak Up External links Hong Kong Government Hong Kong Economic Structure, The Economist, 10-01-2007. Retrieved 24-02-2007. The Hong Kong Experiment by Milton Friedman Global Investment in Hong Kong Markets - Nicholas Vardy October 27, 2006 Economic History of Hong Kong Catherine R. Schenk, University of Glasgow Key Economic and Social Indicators - Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department References | Economy_of_Hong_Kong |@lemmatized hong:77 kong:77 highly:2 favorable:2 geographical:3 position:4 entrepot:1 trading:5 opportunity:2 wealth:4 generate:1 asset:2 superb:1 shelter:1 natural:3 harbor:1 century:5 make:5 major:2 pirate:1 become:4 british:5 colony:2 administration:3 soon:1 develop:3 thriving:1 legitimate:1 international:7 port:3 late:3 seventh:1 large:10 world:10 second:6 new:7 york:4 rotterdam:1 term:6 container:2 throughput:1 kwai:1 chung:2 complex:1 asia:5 ship:1 owner:1 greece:1 total:2 tonnage:1 holding:1 addition:1 another:1 industrial:1 commercial:1 human:2 resource:6 population:3 territory:4 less:2 six:1 million:2 however:6 abundance:1 labour:13 close:3 region:1 could:1 readily:1 tap:1 direct:3 external:3 investment:7 outsource:1 skilled:1 adaptable:1 hard:1 work:4 force:8 couple:1 adoption:1 modern:2 western:1 business:8 method:1 technology:1 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2,060 | Utamaro | (his name was archaically romanized as Outamaro) was a Japanese printmaker and painter, and is considered one of the greatest artists of woodblock prints (ukiyo-e). He is known especially for his masterfully composed studies of women, known as bijinga. He also produced nature studies, particularly illustrated books of insects. His work reached Europe in the mid 19th century, where it was very popular, enjoying particular acclaim in France. He influenced the European Impressionists, particularly with his use of partial views, with an emphasis on light and shade. Biography Biographical details for Utamaro are extremely limited, and each reference gives a substantially different account. Various accounts claim that he was born in either Edo (present-day Tokyo), Kyoto, or Osaka (the three main cities of Japan), or a provincial town (no one is sure exactly which one) in around 1753; the exact date is also uncertain. Another long-standing tradition has is that he was born in Yoshiwara, the courtesan district of Edo, the son of a tea-house owner, but there is no evidence of this. His original name was Kitagawa Ichitarō. It is generally agreed that he became a pupil of the painter Toriyama Sekien while he was still a child, and there are many authorities who believe that Utamaro was his son as well. He lived in Sekien's house while he was growing up, and the relationship continued until Sekien's death in 1788. Sekien was originally trained in the aristocratic Kanō school of painting, but in middle age he started to lean toward the popular (or ukiyo-e) school. Sekien is known to have had a number of other pupils, none of any distinction. Utamaro, in common with other Japanese of the time, changed his name as he became mature, and also took the name Ichitarō Yusuke as he became older. He apparently also married, although little is known about his wife, and he apparently had no children. His first major professional artistic work, at about the age of 22, in 1775, seems to have been the cover for a Kabuki playbook, under the gō of Toyoaki. He then produced a number of actor and warrior prints, along with theatre programmes, and other such material. From the spring of 1781, he switched his gō to Utamaro, and started painting and designing fairly forgettable woodblock prints of women. At some point in the middle 1780s, probably 1783, he went to live with the young rising publisher Tsutaya Jūzaburō, with whom he apparently lived for about 5 years. He seems to have become a principal artist for the Tsutaya firm. His output of prints for the next few years was sporadic, as he produced mostly illustrations for books of kyoka, literally 'crazy verse', a parody of the classical waka form. He seems to have produced nothing at all that has survived in the period 1790-1792. In about 1791 Utamaro gave up designing prints for books and concentrated on making half-length single portraits of women, rather than the prints of women in groups favoured by other ukiyo-e artists. In 1793 he achieved recognition as an artist, and his semi-exclusive arrangement with the publisher Tsutaya Jūzaburō was terminated. He then went on to produce a number of very famous series, all featuring women of the Yoshiwara district. Over the years, he also occupied himself with a number of volumes of nature studies and shunga, or erotica. In 1797, Tsutaya Jūzaburō died, and Utamaro apparently was very upset by the loss of his long-time friend and supporter. Some commentators feel that his work after this never reached the heights it did before. In 1804, at the height of his success, he ran into legal trouble by publishing prints related to a banned historical novel. The prints, entitled Hideyoshi and his 5 Concubines, depicted the military ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi's wife and concubines; Consequently, he was accused of insulting Hideyoshi's dignity. He was sentenced to be handcuffed for 50 days (some accounts say he was briefly imprisoned). According to some sources, the experience crushed him emotionally and ended his career as an artist. He died two years later, on the 20th day of the 9th month, 1806 (lunar calendar), aged about fifty-three, in Edo. Pupils After Utamaro's death, his pupil Koikawa Shunchō continued to produce prints in his mentor's style, and took over the gō Utamaro until 1820; these are now referred to as the work of "Utamaro II". After 1820 he changed his gō to Kitagawa Tetsugorō, and produced his subsequent work under that name. Retrospective observations Utamaro produced over two thousand prints during his working career, along with a number of paintings, surimono, many illustrated books, including over thirty shunga books and albums, etc. Among his best known works are the series Ten Studies in Female Physiognomy; A Collection of Reigning Beauties; Great Love Themes of Classical Poetry (sometimes called Women in Love containing individual prints such as Revealed Love and Pensive Love); and Twelve Hours in the Pleasure Quarters. He alone, of his contemporary ukiyo-e artists, achieved a national reputation during his lifetime. His sensuous female beauties are generally considered the finest and most evocative bijinga in all of ukiyo-e. He succeeded in capturing subtle aspects of personality, and transient moods, of women of all classes, ages, and circumstances. His reputation has remained undiminished since; his work is known worldwide, and he is generally regarded as one of the half-dozen greatest ukiyo-e artists of all time. Print series Here is a partial list of his print series, with dates: Chosen Poems (1791-1792) Ten Types of Women's Physiognomies (1792-1793) Famous Beauties of Edo (1792-1793) Ten Learned Studies of Women (1792-1793) Anthology of Poems: The Love Section (1793-1794) Snow, Moon and Flowers of the Green Houses (1793-1795) Array of Supreme Beauties of the Present Day (1794) Twelve Hours of the Green Houses (1794-1795) Flourishing Beauties of the Present Day (1795-1797) An Array of Passionate Lovers (1797-1798) Ten Forms of Feminine Physiognomy (1802) References Shugo Asano, Timothy Clark, The Passionate Art of Kitagawa Utamaro (British Museum Press, London, 1995) is now the definitive work on him in English Jack Hillier, Utamaro: Color Prints and Paintings (Phaidon, London, 1961) Tadashi Kobayashi, (translated Mark A. Harbison), Great Japanese Art: Utamaro (Kodansha, Tokyo, 1982) Muneshige Narazaki, Sadao Kikuchi, (translated John Bester), Masterworks of Ukiyo-E: Utamaro (Kodansha, Tokyo, 1968) Julie Nelson Davis, "Utamaro and the Spectacle of Beauty" (Reaktion Books, London, and University of Hawai'i Press, 2007). Gina Collia-Suzuki, "Utamaro Revealed" (Nezu Press, 2008) External links Kitagawa Utamaro Online Utamaro (from "Collection of Insects in Pictures") Kitagawa Utamaro at Hill-Stead Museum, Farmington, Connecticut A selection of prints by Kitagawa Utamaro Image of Yoshiwara courtesans by Utamaro | Utamaro |@lemmatized name:5 archaically:1 romanize:1 outamaro:1 japanese:3 printmaker:1 painter:2 consider:2 one:4 great:4 artist:7 woodblock:2 print:15 ukiyo:7 e:7 know:6 especially:1 masterfully:1 composed:1 study:5 woman:9 bijinga:2 also:5 produce:8 nature:2 particularly:2 illustrated:1 book:6 insect:2 work:9 reach:2 europe:1 mid:1 century:1 popular:2 enjoy:1 particular:1 acclaim:1 france:1 influence:1 european:1 impressionist:1 use:1 partial:2 view:1 emphasis:1 light:1 shade:1 biography:1 biographical:1 detail:1 utamaro:21 extremely:1 limited:1 reference:2 give:2 substantially:1 different:1 account:3 various:1 claim:1 bear:2 either:1 edo:4 present:3 day:5 tokyo:3 kyoto:1 osaka:1 three:2 main:1 city:1 japan:1 provincial:1 town:1 sure:1 exactly:1 around:1 exact:1 date:2 uncertain:1 another:1 long:2 standing:1 tradition:1 yoshiwara:3 courtesan:2 district:2 son:2 tea:1 house:4 owner:1 evidence:1 original:1 kitagawa:6 ichitarō:2 generally:3 agree:1 become:4 pupil:4 toriyama:1 sekien:5 still:1 child:2 many:2 authority:1 believe:1 well:1 live:3 grow:1 relationship:1 continue:2 death:2 originally:1 train:1 aristocratic:1 kanō:1 school:2 painting:4 middle:2 age:4 start:2 lean:1 toward:1 number:5 none:1 distinction:1 common:1 time:3 change:2 mature:1 take:2 yusuke:1 old:1 apparently:4 marry:1 although:1 little:1 wife:2 first:1 major:1 professional:1 artistic:1 seem:3 cover:1 kabuki:1 playbook:1 gō:4 toyoaki:1 actor:1 warrior:1 along:2 theatre:1 programme:1 material:1 spring:1 switch:1 design:1 fairly:1 forgettable:1 point:1 probably:1 go:2 young:1 rise:1 publisher:2 tsutaya:4 jūzaburō:3 year:4 principal:1 firm:1 output:1 next:1 sporadic:1 mostly:1 illustration:1 kyoka:1 literally:1 crazy:1 verse:1 parody:1 classical:2 waka:1 form:2 nothing:1 survive:1 period:1 designing:1 concentrate:1 make:1 half:2 length:1 single:1 portrait:1 rather:1 group:1 favour:1 achieve:2 recognition:1 semi:1 exclusive:1 arrangement:1 terminate:1 famous:2 series:4 feature:1 occupy:1 volume:1 shunga:2 erotica:1 die:2 upset:1 loss:1 friend:1 supporter:1 commentator:1 feel:1 never:1 height:2 success:1 run:1 legal:1 trouble:1 publish:1 relate:1 ban:1 historical:1 novel:1 entitle:1 hideyoshi:3 concubine:2 depict:1 military:1 ruler:1 toyotomi:1 consequently:1 accuse:1 insult:1 dignity:1 sentence:1 handcuff:1 say:1 briefly:1 imprison:1 accord:1 source:1 experience:1 crush:1 emotionally:1 end:1 career:2 two:2 later:1 month:1 lunar:1 calendar:1 fifty:1 koikawa:1 shunchō:1 mentor:1 style:1 refer:1 ii:1 tetsugorō:1 subsequent:1 retrospective:1 observation:1 thousand:1 surimono:1 illustrate:1 include:1 thirty:1 album:1 etc:1 among:1 best:1 ten:4 female:2 physiognomy:3 collection:2 reign:1 beauty:6 love:5 theme:1 poetry:1 sometimes:1 call:1 contain:1 individual:1 reveal:2 pensive:1 twelve:2 hour:2 pleasure:1 quarter:1 alone:1 contemporary:1 national:1 reputation:2 lifetime:1 sensuous:1 fine:1 evocative:1 succeed:1 capture:1 subtle:1 aspect:1 personality:1 transient:1 mood:1 class:1 circumstance:1 remain:1 undiminished:1 since:1 worldwide:1 regard:1 dozen:1 list:1 choose:1 poem:2 type:1 learn:1 anthology:1 section:1 snow:1 moon:1 flower:1 green:2 array:2 supreme:1 flourish:1 passionate:2 lover:1 feminine:1 shugo:1 asano:1 timothy:1 clark:1 art:2 british:1 museum:2 press:3 london:3 definitive:1 english:1 jack:1 hillier:1 color:1 phaidon:1 tadashi:1 kobayashi:1 translate:2 mark:1 harbison:1 kodansha:2 muneshige:1 narazaki:1 sadao:1 kikuchi:1 john:1 bester:1 masterworks:1 julie:1 nelson:1 davis:1 spectacle:1 reaktion:1 university:1 hawai:1 gina:1 collia:1 suzuki:1 nezu:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 picture:1 hill:1 stead:1 farmington:1 connecticut:1 selection:1 image:1 |@bigram woodblock_print:2 ukiyo_e:7 kyoto_osaka:1 toyotomi_hideyoshi:1 reaktion_book:1 external_link:1 |
2,061 | Heimskringla | A page of the Eggertson copy of Heimskringla Heimskringla is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1179–1242) ca. 1230. The name Heimskringla was first used in the 17th century, derived from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (kringla heimsins - the circle of the world). Heimskringla is a collection of tales about the Norwegian kings, beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglingas, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to the death of the pretender Eystein Meyla in 1177. The exact sources of his work are disputed, but included earlier kings' sagas, such as Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and the twelfth century Norwegian synoptic histories and oral traditions, notably many skaldic poems. Snorri had himself visited Norway and Sweden. For events of mid-12th century, Snorri explicitly names the now lost work Hryggjarstykki as his source. The composition of the sagas is Snorri's. Manuscript history The earliest parchment copy of the work is referred to as Kringla. It voyaged from Iceland to Bergen, Norway and was moved to Copenhagen, the University Library. At that time it had lost the first page, but the second (the current beginning of the Ynglinga Saga) starts Kringla heimsins, "the Earth's circle" of the Laing translation. For etymology, kringla, "disk, circle, orb", is listed in Zoëga's A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic at northvegr.org. Julius Pokorny, Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch, often online at indoeuropean.nl, derives the word from the Proto-Indo-European root, *ger- (3), "to turn, wind" (search under kringla), but the major English etymological dictionaries do not agree. Similarly heimr, "a place of abode, a region or world", is given in Zoëga's along with kringla heimsins (genitive case), "the globe." Heimskringla is simply another construction of the expression. The etymology of heimr is given under *tkei- in the American Heritage Dictionary online. In the 17th century copies were made by Icelanders Jon Eggertson and Asgeir Jonsson. Eggertson's copy went to the Royal Library at Stockholm. The Copenhagen manuscript was among the many valuables destroyed in the Copenhagen Fire of 1728. Translations By the mid-16th century, the Old Norse language was unintelligible to Norwegian or Danish readers. At that time, several translations of extracts were made in Norway, into the Danish language, which was the literary language of Norway at the time. The first complete translation was made around 1600 by Peder Claussøn Friis, and printed in 1633. This was based on a manuscript known as Jofraskinna. Subsequently the Stockholm manuscript was translated into Swedish and Latin by Johan Peringskiöld (by order of Charles XI) and published in 1697 at Stockholm under the title Heimskringla, which is the first known use of the name. This edition also included the first printing of the text in Old Norse. A new Danish translation with the text in Old Norse and a Latin translation came out in 1777-1783 (by order of Frederick VI as crown prince). An English translation by Samuel Laing was finally published in 1844, with a second edition in 1889. Other English translations followed. In the 19th century, as Norway was achieving independence after centuries of union with Denmark and Sweden, the stories of the independent Norwegian medieval kingdom won great popularity in Norway. Heimskringla, although written by an Icelander, became an important national symbol for Norway during the period of romantic nationalism. In 1900, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, subsidized the publication of new translations of Heimskringla into both Norwegian written forms, landsmål and riksmål, "in order that the work may achieve wide distribution at a low price". "forat verket ved en lav pris kan faa almindelig udbredelse". Snorre Sturlason, Kongesagaer (Kristiania, 1900) Scope Gerhard Munthe, Kringla Heimsins, illustration for Ynglinga Saga. Heimskringla consists of several chapters, each one individually called a saga, which can be literally translated as 'tale'. The first of these tells the mythological prehistory of the Norwegian royal dynasty, tracing Odin, described here as a mortal man, and his followers from the East, from Asaland and Asgard, its chief city, to their settlement in Scandinavia. The subsequent sagas are (with few exceptions) devoted to individual rulers, starting with Halfdan the Black, and ending with Magnus Erlingsson. The saga narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdom of Norway, Viking expeditions to various European countries, straying as far afield as Palestine in the saga of King Sigurd the Crusader. The stories are told with a life and freshness, giving a picture of human life in all its reality. The Saga of Olaf Haraldsson is the main part. His 15 year long reign takes up about one third of the entire work. The saga of Harold Hardrada narrates his expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson, the son of Earl Godwin, where he fell at Stamford Bridge in 1066 only a few days before Harold himself fell at the battle of Hastings. This saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is also of particular relevance to the history of England. The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in Norse mythology; as it advances, fable and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in factual history. The value of Heimskringla as a historical source has been estimated in different ways during recent times. The historians of mid-19th century put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas. In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of saga criticism, pioneered by Curt and Lauritz Weibull. These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of the events it describes. In Norway, the historian Edvard Bull famously proclaimed that "we have to give up all illusions that Snorri's mighty epic bears any deeper resemblance to what actually happened" in the time it describes Edvard Bull, Det norske folks liv og historie gjennom tidene bd. 2 (Oslo, 1931) . A school of historians has come to believe that the motives Snorri and the other saga writers give to their characters owe more to conditions in the 13th century than in earlier times. Heimskringla has, however, continued to be used as a historical source, though with more caution. It is not common to believe in the detailed accuracy of the historical narrative and historians tend to see little to no historical truth behind the first few sagas, however, they are still seen by many as a valuable source of knowledge about the society and politics of medieval Norway. e.g. Sverre Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturlusons Heimskringla (Berkeley, 1991). The factual content of the work tends to be deemed more credible as it discusses more recent times, as the distance in time between the events described and the composition of the saga was shorter, allowing traditions to be retained in a largely accurate form, and because in the twelfth century the first contemporary written sources begin to emerge in Norway. Contents Heimskringla contains the following sagas (see also List of Norwegian monarchs): Ynglinga saga Saga of Halfdan Svarte (the Black) Saga of Harald Hårfagre (Hårfagre: "finehair") (died ca. 931) Saga of Håkon the Good (died 961) Saga of King Harald Grafeld (died 969) Saga of King Olaf Tryggvason (died 1000) Saga of Olaf Haraldson (died 1030), excerpt from conversion of Dale-Gudbrand Saga of Magnus the Good (died 1047) Saga of Harald Hardråde (died 1066) Saga of Olaf Kyrre (died 1093) Saga of Magnus Barefoot (died 1103) Saga of Sigurd the Crusader (died 1130) and his brothers Saga of Magnus the Blind (dethroned 1135) and of Harald Gille (died 1136) Saga of Sigurd (died 1155), Eystein (died 1157) and Inge (died 1161), the sons of Harald Saga of Håkon Herdebreid (died 1162) Saga of Magnus Erlingson (died 1184) Notes References . A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W. Heffer. External links Heimskringla in Old Norse from "Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad" Norway. Heimskringla: The full text in Icelandic, Norwegian and English as parallel texts English translation of Snorri Sturluson's text | Heimskringla |@lemmatized page:2 eggertson:3 copy:4 heimskringla:16 best:1 known:1 old:8 norse:8 king:7 saga:34 write:5 iceland:2 poet:1 historian:6 snorri:10 sturluson:2 ca:2 name:3 first:10 use:3 century:13 derive:2 two:1 word:2 one:3 manuscript:5 kringla:7 heimsins:4 circle:3 world:2 collection:1 tale:2 norwegian:10 begin:2 legendary:1 swedish:2 dynasty:2 ynglingas:1 follow:2 account:1 historical:5 ruler:2 harald:6 fairhair:1 death:1 pretender:1 eystein:2 meyla:1 exact:1 source:6 work:7 dispute:1 include:2 early:4 morkinskinna:1 fagrskinna:1 twelfth:2 synoptic:1 history:4 oral:1 tradition:2 notably:1 many:3 skaldic:2 poem:1 visit:1 norway:12 sweden:2 event:3 mid:3 explicitly:1 lose:2 hryggjarstykki:1 composition:2 parchment:1 refer:1 voyage:1 bergen:1 move:1 copenhagen:3 university:1 library:2 time:8 second:2 current:1 beginning:1 ynglinga:3 start:2 earth:1 laing:2 translation:10 etymology:2 disk:1 orb:1 list:2 zoëga:2 concise:1 dictionary:3 icelandic:2 northvegr:1 org:1 julius:1 pokorny:1 indogermanisches:1 etymologisches:1 woerterbuch:1 often:1 online:2 indoeuropean:1 nl:1 proto:1 indo:1 european:2 root:2 ger:1 turn:1 wind:1 search:1 major:1 english:5 etymological:1 agree:1 similarly:1 heimr:2 place:1 abode:1 region:1 give:5 along:1 genitive:1 case:1 globe:1 simply:1 another:1 construction:1 expression:1 tkei:1 american:1 heritage:1 make:3 icelander:2 jon:1 asgeir:1 jonsson:1 go:1 royal:2 stockholm:3 among:1 valuable:2 destroy:1 fire:1 language:3 unintelligible:1 danish:3 reader:1 several:3 extract:1 literary:1 complete:1 around:1 peder:1 claussøn:1 friis:1 print:1 base:1 know:2 jofraskinna:1 subsequently:1 translate:2 latin:2 johan:1 peringskiöld:1 order:3 charles:1 xi:1 publish:2 title:1 edition:3 also:3 printing:1 text:4 new:2 come:2 frederick:1 vi:1 crown:1 prince:1 samuel:1 finally:1 achieve:2 independence:1 union:1 denmark:1 story:2 independent:1 medieval:2 kingdom:2 win:1 great:2 popularity:1 although:1 become:1 important:1 national:1 symbol:1 period:1 romantic:1 nationalism:1 parliament:1 storting:1 subsidize:1 publication:1 form:2 landsmål:1 riksmål:1 may:1 wide:1 distribution:1 low:1 price:1 forat:1 verket:1 ved:1 en:1 lav:1 pris:1 kan:1 faa:1 almindelig:1 udbredelse:1 snorre:1 sturlason:1 kongesagaer:1 kristiania:1 scope:1 gerhard:1 munthe:1 illustration:1 consist:1 chapter:1 individually:1 call:1 literally:1 tell:2 mythological:1 prehistory:1 trace:1 odin:1 describe:4 mortal:1 man:1 follower:1 east:2 asaland:1 asgard:1 chief:1 city:1 settlement:1 scandinavia:1 subsequent:1 exception:1 devote:1 individual:1 halfdan:2 black:2 end:1 magnus:5 erlingsson:1 narrate:2 contest:1 establishment:1 viking:1 expedition:2 various:1 country:1 stray:1 far:1 afield:1 palestine:1 sigurd:3 crusader:2 life:2 freshness:1 picture:1 human:1 reality:1 olaf:4 haraldsson:1 main:1 part:2 year:1 long:1 reign:1 take:1 third:1 entire:1 harold:3 hardrada:1 brilliant:1 exploit:1 constantinople:1 syria:1 sicily:1 accomplishment:1 battle:2 england:2 godwinson:1 son:2 earl:1 godwin:1 fell:2 stamford:1 bridge:1 day:1 hastings:1 splendid:1 epic:2 prose:1 particular:1 relevance:1 mythology:1 advance:1 fable:1 fact:1 curiously:1 intermingle:1 terminate:1 factual:3 value:1 estimate:1 different:1 way:1 recent:2 put:1 trust:2 truth:2 narrative:2 well:1 largely:2 abandon:1 advent:1 criticism:1 pioneer:1 curt:1 lauritz:1 weibull:1 point:1 edvard:2 bull:2 famously:1 proclaim:1 illusion:1 mighty:1 bear:1 deep:1 resemblance:1 actually:1 happen:1 det:1 norske:1 folk:1 liv:1 og:2 historie:1 gjennom:1 tidene:1 bd:1 oslo:1 school:1 believe:2 motif:1 writer:1 character:1 owe:1 condition:1 however:2 continue:1 though:1 caution:1 common:1 detailed:1 accuracy:1 tend:2 see:3 little:1 behind:1 still:1 knowledge:1 society:2 politics:2 e:1 g:1 sverre:1 bagge:1 sturlusons:1 berkeley:1 content:2 deem:1 credible:1 discuss:1 distance:1 short:1 allow:1 retain:1 accurate:1 contemporary:1 emerge:1 contain:1 following:1 monarch:1 svarte:1 hårfagre:2 finehair:1 die:2 håkon:2 good:2 died:14 grafeld:1 tryggvason:1 haraldson:1 excerpt:1 conversion:1 dale:1 gudbrand:1 hardråde:1 kyrre:1 barefoot:1 brother:1 blind:1 dethroned:1 gille:1 inge:1 herdebreid:1 erlingson:1 note:1 reference:1 reprint:1 cambridge:1 w:1 heffer:1 external:1 link:1 kulturformidlingen:1 norrøne:1 tekster:1 kvad:1 full:1 parallel:1 texts:1 |@bigram snorri_sturluson:2 harald_fairhair:1 skaldic_poem:1 bergen_norway:1 ynglinga_saga:3 indogermanisches_etymologisches:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 etymological_dictionary:1 samuel_laing:1 romantic_nationalism:1 far_afield:1 saga_olaf:3 harold_godwinson:1 stamford_bridge:1 norse_mythology:1 saga_harald:2 harald_hårfagre:1 håkon_good:1 died_saga:8 olaf_tryggvason:1 saga_magnus:4 external_link:1 |
2,062 | Manuscript | Christ Pantocrator seated in a capital "U" in an illuminated manuscript from the Badische Landesbibliothek, Germany. A manuscript is any document that is written by hand, as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way. The term may also be used for information that is hand-recorded in other ways than writing, for example inscriptions that are chiselled upon a hard material or scratched (the original meaning of graffiti) as with a knife point in plaster or with a stylus on a waxed tablet, (the way Romans made notes), or are in cuneiform writing, impressed with a pointed stylus in a flat tablet of unbaked clay. The word manuscript is derived from the Latin manu scriptum, literally "written by hand." In publishing and academic contexts, a "manuscript" is the text submitted to the publisher or printer in preparation for publication, usually as a typescript prepared on a typewriter, or today, a printout from a PC, prepared in manuscript format. Originally, all books were in manuscript form. In China, and later other parts of East Asia, Woodblock printing was used for books from about the seventh century. The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868. In the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive. Private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late nineteenth century. Because of the likelihood of errors being introduced each time a manuscript was copied, the filiation of different version of the same text is a fundamental part of the study and criticism of all texts that have been transmitted in manuscript. In Southeast Asia, in the first millennium, documents of sufficiently great importance were inscribed on soft metallic sheets such as copperplate, softened by refiner's fire and inscribed with a metal stylus. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus, but were punched much like the style of today's dot-matrix printers. This type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the metal document in the hot, humid climate. In Burma, the kammavaca, buddhist manuscripts, were inscribed on brass, copper or ivory sheets, and even on discarded monk robes folded and lacquered. In Italy some important Etruscan texts were similarly inscribed on thin gold plates: similar sheets have been discovered in Bulgaria. Technically, these are all inscriptions rather than manuscripts. Manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, maps, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in the form of scrolls or in book form, or codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately engrossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. Tenth-century minuscule Manuscript of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War Manuscripts in history Armenian manuscript The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts. Harper, Douglas. "Manuscript." Online Etymology Dictionary. Nov. 2001. Accessed 10-11-2007. "Medieval English Literary Manuscripts." www.Library.Rochester.Edu. 22 June 2004. University of Rochester Libraries. Accessed 10-11-2007. The second s is not simply the plural; by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means "pages". Before the invention of woodblock printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe, all written documents had to be both produced and reproduced by hand. Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls (volumen in Latin) or books (codex, plural codices). Manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchments, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived. In India the Palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, and by the late 15th century had largely replaced parchment for many purposes. When Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. The oldest written manuscripts have been preserved by the perfect dryness of their Middle Eastern resting places, whether placed within sarcophagi in Egyptian tombs, or reused as mummy-wrappings, discarded in the middens of Oxyrhynchus or secreted for safe-keeping in jars and buried (Nag Hammadi library) or stored in dry caves (Dead Sea scrolls). Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on palm leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Greek library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum. Ironically, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of Antiquity are virtually all lost. Papyrus has a life of at most a century or two in relatively moist Italian or Greek conditions; only those works copied onto parchment, usually after the general conversion to Christianity, have survived, and by no means all of those. The study of the writing, or "hand" in surviving manuscripts is termed palaeography. In the Western world, from the classical period through the early centuries of the Christian era, manuscripts were written without spaces between the words (scriptio continua), which makes them especially hard for the untrained to read. Extant copies of these early manuscripts written in Greek or Latin and usually dating from the 4th century to the 8th century, are classified according to their use of either all upper case or all lower case letters. Hebrew manuscripts, such as the Dead Sea scrolls make no such differentiation. Manuscripts using all upper case letters are called majuscule, those using all lower case are called minuscule. Usually, the majuscule scripts such as uncial are written with much more care. The scribe lifted his pen between each stroke, producing an unmistakable effect of regularity and formality. On the other hand, while minuscule scripts can be written with pen-lift, they may also be cursive, that is, use little pen-lift. Manuscripts today In the context of library science, a manuscript is defined as any hand-written item in the collections of a library or an archive; for example, a library's collection of the letters or a diary that some historical personage wrote. Such manuscript collections are described in finding aids, similar to an index or table of contents to the collection, in accordance with national and international content standards such as DACS and ISAD(G). In other contexts, however, the use of the term "manuscript" no longer necessarily means something that is hand-written. By analogy a "typescript" has been produced on a typewriter. In book, magazine, and music publishing, a manuscript is an original copy of a work written by an author or composer, which generally follows standardized typographic and formatting rules. (The staff paper commonly used for handwritten music is, for this reason, often called "manuscript paper.") In film and theatre, a manuscript, or script for short, is an author's or dramatist's text, used by a theater company or film crew during the production of the work's performance or filming. More specifically, a motion picture manuscript is called a screenplay; a television manuscript, a teleplay; a manuscript for the theater, a stage play; and a manuscript for audio-only performance is often called a radio play, even when the recorded performance is disseminated via non-radio means. In insurance, a manuscript policy is one that is negotiated between the insurer and the policyholder, as opposed to an off-the-shelf form supplied by the insurer. Major US Repositories of Medieval Manuscripts Pierpont Morgan = 1,300 (including papyri) Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale = 1,100 Houghton Library, Harvard = 850 Princeton University library = 500 Huntington Library = 400 Newberry Library = 260 Cornell University Library = 150 Manuscripts by authors An average manuscript page in 12 point Times Roman will contain about 23 lines of type per page and about 13 words per line, or 300 words per manuscript page. Thus if a contract between an author and publisher specifies the manuscript to be of, 500 pages, for example; it generally means 150,000 words. Footnotes See also Asemic writing Codex - technical term for a book with pages Historical document List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts List of manuscripts Manuscript culture Manuscript format - how modern publishers expect a manuscript to be submitted Manuscript processing Media preservation Palimpsest Papyrus Preservation: Library and Archival Science Scriptorium Scroll Textual criticism External links British Library Glossary of manuscript terms, mostly relating to Western medieval manuscripts Centre for the History of the Book, University of Edinburgh Chinese Codicology Manuscripts Department, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill The Sarasvati Mahal Library, has the richest collection of manuscripts in Sanskrit, Tamil, Marathi and Telugu The Schøyen Collection - the world's largest private collection of manuscripts of all types, with many descriptions and images | Manuscript |@lemmatized christ:1 pantocrator:1 seat:1 capital:1 u:2 illuminated:1 manuscript:62 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2,063 | Interplanetary_spaceflight | Interplanetary spaceflight or interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, spaceflights of this type are confined to travel between the planets of the Solar System. Current achievements in interplanetary travel Remotely guided space probes have flown by all of the planets of the Solar system from Mercury to Neptune. The four most distant spacecraft (Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) are on course to leave the Solar System. Space probes have also been inserted into orbit around the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and have returned data about these bodies and their natural satellites. Further probes are currently en route to orbit Mercury, the dwarf planets Ceres and Pluto as well as the large asteroid Vesta. Remotely controlled landers such as Viking, Pathfinder and the two Mars Exploration Rovers have landed on the surface of Mars and several Venera and Vega spacecraft have landed on the surface of Venus. The NEAR Shoemaker orbiter successfully landed on the asteroid 433 Eros, even though it was not designed with this maneuver in mind. The Huygens probe successfully landed on Saturn's moon, Titan. No manned missions have been sent to any other planet of the Solar System. NASA's Apollo program, however, landed twelve people on the Moon and returned them to Earth. Reasons for interplanetary travel The costs and risks of interplanetary travel receive a lot of publicity — spectacular examples include the malfunctions or complete failures of unmanned probes such as Mars 96, Deep Space 2 and Beagle 2 (the article List of Solar System probes gives a full list). Many astronomers, geologists and biologists believe that exploration of the solar system provides knowledge that could not be gained by observations from Earth's surface or from orbit around Earth. But they disagree about whether manned missions make a useful scientific contribution — some think robotic probes are cheaper and safer, while others argue that either astronauts advised by Earth-based scientists, or spacefaring scientists advised by Earth-based astronauts, can respond more flexibly and intelligently to new or unexpected features of the region they are exploring. Those who pay for such missions (primarily in the public sector) are more likely to be interested in benefits for themselves or for the human race as a whole. So far the only benefits of this type have been "spin-off" technologies which were developed for space missions and then were found to be at least as useful in other activities (NASA publicizes spin-offs from its activities). Other practical motivations for interplanetary travel are more speculative, because our current technologies are not yet advanced enough to support test projects. But science fiction writers have a fairly good track record in predicting future technologies — for example geosynchronous communications satellites (Arthur C. Clarke) and many aspects of computer technology (Mack Reynolds). Many science fiction stories (notably Ben Bova's Grand Tour stories) feature detailed descriptions of how people could extract minerals from asteroids and energy from sources including orbital solar panels (unhampered by clouds) and the very strong magnetic field of Jupiter. Some point out that such techniques may be the only way to provide rising standards of living without being stopped by pollution or by depletion of Earth's resources (for example peak oil). Finally, colonizing other parts of the solar system would prevent the whole human species from being exterminated by an asteroid impact like the one which may have resulted in the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. Although various Spaceguard projects monitor the solar system for objects that might come dangerously close to Earth, current asteroid deflection strategies are crude and untested. To make the task more difficult, carbonaceous chondrites are rather sooty and therefore very hard to detect. Although carbonaceous chondrites are thought to be rare, some are very large and the suspected "dinosaur-killer" may have been a carbonaceous chondrite. Some scientists, including members of the Space Studies Institute, argue that the vast majority of mankind eventually will live in space and will benefit from doing this. Economical travel techniques Interplanetary travel has to solve two problems, other than escaping from the planet of origin: The planet from which the spaceship starts is moving round the sun at a different speed than the planet to which the spaceship is traveling, because the two planets are at different distances from the sun. So as it approaches its destination, the spaceship must decrease its speed if the destination is closer to the sun, or increase its speed if the destination is further away (assuming a Hohmann transfer orbit). If the destination is farther away, the spaceship must lift itself "up" against the force of the sun's gravity. Doing this by brute force - accelerating in the shortest route to the destination and then, if it is farther from the sun, decelerating to match the planet's speed - would require an extremely large amount of fuel. And the fuel required for deceleration and velocity-matching has to be launched along with the payload, and therefore even more fuel is needed in the acceleration phase. The change in speed (delta-v) required to match velocity with another planet is surprisingly large. For example Venus orbits about 5.2 km/s faster than Earth and Mars orbits about 5.7 km/s slower. To put these figures in perspective, Earth's escape velocity is about 11.2 km/second (it varies slightly depending on the launch direction). So matching a space shuttle's velocity with that of Venus or Mars would require a significant percentage of the energy which is used to launch a shuttle from Earth's surface. Hohmann transfers Hohmann Transfer Orbit: a spaceship leaves from point 2 in Earth's orbit and arrives at point 3 in Mars' For many years economical interplanetary travel meant using the Hohmann transfer orbit. Hohmann demonstrated that the lowest energy route between any two orbits is an elliptical "orbit" which forms a tangent to the starting and destination orbits. Once the spacecraft arrives, a second application of thrust will re-circularize the orbit at the new location. In the case of planetary transfers this means directing the spacecraft, originally in an orbit almost identical to Earth's, so that the apogee of the transfer orbit is on the far side of the Sun near the orbit of the other planet. A spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars via this method will arrive near Mars orbit in approximately 18 months, but because the orbital velocity is greater when closer to the center of mass (i.e. the Sun) and slower when farther from the center, the spacecraft will be traveling quite slowly and a small application of thrust is all that is needed to put it into a circular obit around Mars. If the manoeuver is timed properly, Mars will be "arriving" under the spacecraft when this happens. The Hohmann transfer applies to any two orbits, not just those with planets involved. For instance it is the most common way to transfer satellites into geostationary orbit, after first being "parked" in low earth orbit. However the Hohmann transfer takes an amount of time similar to ½ of the orbital period of the outer orbit, so in the case of the outer planets this is many years – too long to wait. It is also based on the assumption that the points at both ends are massless, as in the case when transferring between two orbits around Earth for instance. With a planet at the destination end of the transfer, calculations become considerably more difficult. Gravitational slingshot Over-simplified example of gravitational slingshot: the spacecraft's velocity changes by up to twice the planet's velocity The gravitational slingshot technique uses the gravity of planets and moons to change the speed and direction of a spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However, if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two craft of the Voyager program, which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer solar system. It is difficult to use this method for journeys in the inner part of the solar system, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as Venus or even the Moon as slingshots in journeys to the outer planets. This manoeuvre can only change an object's velocity relative to a third, uninvolved object, - possibly the “centre of mass” or the sun . There is no change in the velocities of the two objects involved in the manoeuvre relative to each other. Fuzzy orbits Computers did not exist when Hohmann transfer orbits were first proposed (1925) and were slow, expensive and unreliable when gravitational slingshots were developed (1959). Recent advances in computing have made it possible to exploit many more features of the gravity fields of astronomical bodies and thus calculate even lower-cost trajectories. Belbruno, E. 2004. Capture Dynamics and Chaotic Motions in Celestial Mechanics: With the Construction of Low Energy Transfers, Princeton University Press Paths have been calculated which link the Lagrange points of the various planets into the so-called Interplanetary Transport Network. Such "fuzzy orbits" use significantly less energy than Hohmann transfers but are often much slower. They may not offer much advantage for manned missions or for research missions, but may be useful for high-volume transport of low-value commodities if humanity develops a space-based economy. Aerobraking |Apollo Command Module flying at a high angle of attack to aerobrake by skimmimg the atmosphere, (artistic rendition) Aerobraking uses the atmosphere of the target planet to slow down. It was first used on the Apollo program where the returning spacecraft did not enter Earth orbit but instead used a series of passes through Earth's atmosphere to reduce its speed until it was safe to land. Aerobraking does not require a thick atmosphere - for example most Mars landers use the technique, and Mars' atmosphere is only about 1% as thick as Earth's. Aerobraking converts the spacecraft's kinetic energy into heat, so it requires a heatshield to prevent the craft from burning up. As a result, aerobraking is only helpful in cases where the fuel needed to transport the heatshield to the planet is less than the fuel that would be required to brake an unshielded craft by firing its engines. Improved travel technologies Several technologies have been proposed which both save fuel and provide significantly faster travel than Hohmann transfers. Most are still just theoretical, but the Deep Space One mission was a very successful test of an ion drive. These improved technologies focus on one or more of: Space propulsion systems with much better fuel economy. Such systems would make it possible to travel much faster while keeping the fuel cost within acceptable limits. Using solar energy and In-Situ Resource Utilization to avoid or minimize the expensive task of shipping components and fuel up from the Earth's surface, against the Earth's gravity (see "Using non-terrestrial resources", below). Besides making travel faster, such improvements would allow greater design "safety margins" by reducing the imperative to make spacecraft lighter. Electric propulsion Electric propulsion systems use an external source such as a nuclear reactor or solar cells to generate electricity, which is then used to accelerate a chemically inert propellant to speeds far higher than achieved in a chemical rocket. Such drives produce feeble thrust, and are therefore unsuitable for quick maneuvers or for launching from the surface of a planet. But they are so economical in their use of reaction mass that they can keep firing continuously for days or weeks, while chemical rockets use up reaction mass so quickly that they can only fire for seconds or minutes. Even a trip to the Moon is long enough for an electric propulsion system to outrun a chemical rocket - the Apollo missions took 3 days in each direction. NASA's Deep Space One was a very successful test of a prototype ion drive, which fired for a total of 678 days and enabled the probe to run down Comet Borrelly, a feat which would have been impossible for a chemical rocket. A more ambitious, nuclear-powered version was intended for an unmanned Jupiter mission, the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, originally planned for launch sometime in the next decade. Due to a shift in priorities at NASA that favored manned space missions, the project lost funding in 2005, effectively canceling the JIMO mission. Solar Sails Solar sails rely on the fact that light reflected from a surface exerts pressure on the surface. The radiation pressure is small and decreases by the square of the distance from the sun, but unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small, it continues as long as the sun shines and the sail is deployed. The original concept relied only on radiation from the sun - for example in Arthur C. Clarke's 1965 story "Sunjammer". More recent light sail designs propose to boost the thrust by aiming ground-based lasers or masers at the sail. Ground-based lasers or masers can also help a light-sail spacecraft to decelerate: the sail splits into an outer and inner section, the outer section is pushed forward and its shape is changed mechanically to focus reflected radiation on the inner portion, and the radiation focused on the inner section acts as a brake. Although most articles about light sails focus on interstellar travel, there have been several proposals for their use within the solar system. No spacecraft powered only or mainly by light sails have been built. But ordinary spacecraft and satellites sometimes use solar collectors, temperature-control panels and sun shades as light sails, to make minor corrections to their attitude and orbit without using fuel. A few have even had small purpose-built solar sails for this use (for example Eurostar E3000 geostationary communications satellites built by EADS Astrium). Nuclear thermal and solar thermal rockets Sketch of nuclear thermal rocket In a nuclear thermal rocket or solar thermal rocket a working fluid, usually hydrogen, is heated in a high temperature, and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. The energy replaces the chemical energy of the reactive chemicals in a traditional rocket engine. Due to the low molecular mass and hence high thermal velocity of hydrogen these engines are at least twice as fuel efficient as chemical engines, even after including the weight of the reactor. The US Atomic Energy Commission and NASA tested a few designs from 1959 to 1968 . The NASA designs were conceived as replacements for the upper stages of the Saturn V launch vehicle, but the tests revealed reliability problems, mainly caused by the vibration and heating involved in running the engines at such high thrust levels. Political and environmental considerations make it unlikely such an engine will be used in the foreseeable future, since nuclear thermal rockets would be most useful at or near the Earth's surface and the consequences of a malfunction could be distasterous. Cyclers It is possible to put stations or spacecraft on orbits that cycle between different planets, for example a Mars cycler would synchronously cycle between Mars and Earth, with very little propellant usage to maintain the trajectory. Cyclers are conceptually a good idea, because massive radiation shields, life support and other equipment only need to be put onto the cycler trajectory once. A cycler could combine several roles: habitat (for example it could spin to produce an "artificial gravity" effect); mothership (providing life support for the crews of smaller spacecraft which hitch a ride on it). Cyclers' main limitation would be that they would be slow, because they would rely on gravitational techniques such as Hohmann transfer orbits and gravitational slingshots. Space elevator A space elevator is a structure designed to transport material from a planet's surface into orbit. The fundamental idea is that, once the expensive job of building the elevator is complete, an indefinite number of loads can be transported into orbit at minimal cost. Even the simplest designs avoid the vicious circle of rocket launches from the surface, the difficulty that: the fuel needed to travel the last 10% of the distance to orbit must be lifted all the way from the surface; that requires extra fuel; most of the extra fuel must be lifted most of the way before it is burned; that requires more extra fuel; and so on. More sophisticated space elevator designs reduce the energy cost per trip by using counterweights, and the most ambitious schemes aim to balance loads going up and down and thus make the energy cost close to zero. Space elevators have also sometimes been referred to as "beanstalks", "space bridges", "space lifts", "space ladders" or "orbital towers". A terrestrial space elevator is beyond our current technology, although a lunar space elevator could theoretically be built using existing materials. Using non-terrestrial resources See main article In-situ resource utilization Current space vehicles attempt to launch with all their fuel (propellants and energy supplies) on-board that they will need for their entire journey, and current space structures are lifted from the Earth's surface. Non-terrestrial sources of energy and materials are mostly a lot further away, but most would not require lifting out of a strong gravity field and therefore should be much cheaper to use in space in the long term. The most important non-terrestrial resource is energy, because it can be used to transform non-terrestrial materials into useful forms (some of which may also produce energy). At least two fundamental non-terrestrial energy sources have been proposed: solar-powered energy generation (unhampered by clouds), either directly by solar cells or indirectly by focusing solar radiation on boilers which produce steam to drive generators; and electrodynamic tethers which generate electricity from the powerful magnetic fields of some planets (Jupiter has a very powerful magnetic field). Water ice would be very useful if it can be found on the moons of Jupiter or Saturn: The low gravity of these moons would make them a cheaper source of water for space stations and planetary bases than lifting it up from Earth's surface. Non-terrestrial power supplies could be used to electrolyse water ice into oxygen and hydrogen for use in bipropellant rocket engines. Nuclear thermal rockets or Solar thermal rockets could use it as reaction mass. Hydrogen has also been proposed for use in these engines and would provide much greater specific impulse (thrust per kilogram of reaction mass), but it has been claimed that water will beat hydrogen in cost/performance terms despite its much lower specific impulse by orders of magnitude. Origin of How Steam Rockets can Reduce Space Transport Cost by Orders of Magnitude "Neofuel" -interplanetary travel using off-earth resources Oxygen is a common constituent of the moon's crust, and is probably abundant in most other bodies in the solar system. Non-terrestrial oxygen would be about as valuable as water ice, for example: In the life support systems of space ships, space stations and planetary bases. In rocket engines. Even if the other propellant has to be lifted from Earth, using non-terrestrial oxygen could reduce propellant launch costs by up to 2/3 for hydrocarbon fuel, or 85% for hydrogen. The savings are so high because oxygen accounts for the majority of the mass in most rocket propellant combinations. Scientists expect to find a vast range of organic compounds in some of the planets, moons and comets of the outer solar system, and the range of possible uses is even wider. For example methane can be used as a fuel (burned with non-terrestrial oxygen), or as a feedstock for petrochemical processes such as making plastics. And ammonia could be a valuable feedstock for producing fertilizers to be used in the vegetable gardens of orbital and planetary bases, reducing the need to lift food to them from Earth. Even unprocessed rock may be useful as rocket propellant if mass drivers are employed. Exotic propulsion See the spacecraft propulsion article for a discussion of a number of other technologies that could, in the medium to longer term, be the basis of interplanetary missions. Unlike the situation with interstellar travel, the barriers to fast interplanetary travel involve engineering and economics rather than any basic physics. New physics for space propulsion will need to be invented and old physics concepts of the forties will need to be put on the shelf. Difficulties of manned interplanetary travel Life support Life support systems must be capable of supporting human life for weeks, months or even years. A breathable atmosphere of at least 35 kPa (5psi) must be maintained, with adequate amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and controlled levels of carbon dioxide, trace gases and water vapor. In practice on the International Space Station the Elektron oxygen generator unit has been temperamental. Radiation Once a vehicle leaves low earth orbit and the protection of Earth's magnetosphere, it enters the Van Allen radiation belt, a region of high radiation. Once through there the radiation drops to lower levels, with a constant background of high energy cosmic rays. These are dangerous over periods of years to decades. Scientists of Russian Academy of Sciences are searching for methods of reducing the risk of radiation-induced cancer in preparation for the mission to Mars. They consider as one of the options a life support system generating drinking water with low content of Deuterium (stabile isotope of hydrogen) to be consumed by the crew members. Preliminary investigations have shown that Deuterium-depleted water features certain anti-cancer effects. Hence, Deuterium-free drinking water is considered to have the potential of lowering the risk of cancer caused by extreme radiation exposure of the Martian crew. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=14959623 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12575722?dopt=Abstract In addition, Coronal mass ejections from the Sun are highly dangerous, and are fatal within a very short timescale to humans unless they are protected by massive shielding ( ). Reliability Any major failure to a spacecraft en route is likely to be fatal, and even a minor one could have dangerous results if not repaired quickly, something difficult to accomplish in open space. The crew of the Apollo 13 mission survived despite an explosion caused by a faulty oxygen tank (1970); the crews of the Space Shuttles Challenger (1986) and Columbia (2003) were killed by malfunctions of their vessels' components. Launch windows For astrodynamics reasons, cheap spacecraft travel to other planets is only practical within certain time windows. Outside these windows the planets are essentially inaccessible from Earth with current technology. This constrains flights and prevents rescue in an emergency. Feasibility of manned interplanetary travel While manned interplanetary travel (with the arguable exception of the Apollo program) has not yet been achieved, a manned mission to Mars is probably feasible, even with chemical rocket propulsion, and could probably be achieved within a decade (at most two) if the funds were made available. NASA's "Design Reference Mission" proposes a Mars exploration program costing $50 billion, but others have made detailed proposals with projected costs much less (see Mars Direct). See also Spacecraft propulsion delta-v List of interplanetary voyages Interstellar travel References | Interplanetary_spaceflight |@lemmatized interplanetary:16 spaceflight:2 travel:28 planet:33 within:6 single:1 planetary:5 system:21 practice:2 type:2 confine:1 solar:27 current:7 achievement:1 remotely:2 guide:1 space:32 probe:8 fly:2 mercury:2 neptune:1 four:1 distant:2 spacecraft:22 pioneer:2 voyager:3 course:1 leave:3 also:7 insert:1 orbit:34 around:4 venus:5 mar:18 jupiter:6 saturn:4 return:3 data:1 body:3 natural:1 satellite:5 currently:1 en:2 route:4 dwarf:1 cere:1 pluto:1 well:1 large:4 asteroid:5 vesta:1 controlled:1 lander:2 viking:1 pathfinder:1 two:10 exploration:3 rover:1 land:6 surface:14 several:5 venera:1 vega:1 near:4 shoemaker:1 orbiter:2 successfully:2 eros:1 even:14 though:1 design:9 maneuver:2 mind:1 huygens:1 moon:10 titan:1 manned:6 mission:16 send:2 nasa:7 apollo:6 program:5 however:3 twelve:1 people:2 earth:30 reason:2 cost:11 risk:3 receive:1 lot:2 publicity:1 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2,064 | Operation_Sea_Lion | Operation Sea Lion () was Germany's plan to invade the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1940. However, to have any chance of success, the operation required air supremacy over the English Channel. With the German defeat in the Battle of Britain, Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September, 1940. ”MHQ volume 6 Number 4, Summer 1994, Hitler’s D-Day”, David Shears Background Following swift victory in the Battle of France, Germany believed the war in the west was won. However, the United Kingdom refused peace talks. As a result, more direct measures to break British resistance were considered. Grand Admiral (Großadmiral) Erich Raeder of the German Navy (Kriegsmarine) oversaw numerous studies for a German naval assault across the English Channel. The earliest of these, made around November 1939, identified the conditions for invasion: The British Royal Navy must be eliminated. The British Royal Air Force air strength must be eliminated. British Coastal defences must be destroyed. British submarine action against landing forces must be prevented. The German Army High Command (, or OKH) originally planned an invasion on a vast scale, extending from Dorset to Kent. This was far in excess of what their navy could supply, and final plans were more modest, calling for nine divisions to make an amphibious landing with around 67,000 men in the first echelon and an airborne division to support them. Schenck, Peter C., Invasion of England 1940: The Planning of Operation Sea Lion, p. 231. Conway, London, 1990. ISBN 0-85177-548-9 The chosen invasion sites ran from Rottingdean in the west to Hythe in the east. The battle plan called for German forces to be launched from Cherbourg to Lyme Regis, Le Havre to Ventnor and Brighton, Boulogne to Eastbourne, Calais to Folkestone, and Dunkirk and Ostend to Ramsgate. German paratroopers would land near Brighton and Dover. Once the coast was secured, they would push north, taking Gloucester and encircling London. The Illustrated History of World War II by Owen Booth and John Walton. 1998. Page 70. There is reason to believe that the Germans would not attempt to assault the city but besiege and bombard it. German Invasion Plans for the British Isles 1940, Ed Rob Wheeler, Bodleian Library 2007, page 9 German forces would secure England up to the 52nd parallel (approximately as far north as Northampton), anticipating that the rest of the United Kingdom would then surrender. Adolf Hitler's initial warning order on 16 July, 1940, reflected the most current thinking and set out the revised minimum pre-conditions. He prefaced his order by stating: "I have decided to prepare a landing operation against England and, if necessary, to carry it out". Hall, Mark M: "Irish Secrets.", page 102. Irish Academic Press, 2003 Hitler's conditions for invasion were: The RAF was to be "beaten down in its morale and in fact, that it can no longer display any appreciable aggressive force in opposition to the German crossing". The English Channel was to be swept of British mines at the crossing points, and the Straits of Dover must be blocked at both ends by German mines. The coastal zone between occupied France and England must be dominated by heavy artillery. The Royal Navy must be sufficiently engaged in the North Sea and the Mediterranean so that it could not intervene in the crossing. British home squadrons must be damaged or destroyed by air and torpedo attacks. This placed responsibility for Sealion'''s success on the shoulders of Naval High Command (Oberkommando der Marine or OKM) Grand Admiral (Großadmiral) Erich Raeder and Air Force High Command (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe or OKL) Imperial Marshal (Reichsmarschall) Hermann Göring. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini offered troops, but Hitler declined his offer. Macksey, Kenneth, Beda Fomm: The Classic Victory, p. 35. Ballantine, New York, 1971. However, the Italian Air Corps (Corpo Aereo Italiano or CAI) did participate towards the end of the Battle of Britain. Operation Eagle and air superiority The aerial battles which resulted from (Operation Eagle Attack) later became known as the Battle of Britain. Adler's objective was for the to achieve air superiority over the Royal Air Force and allow the German invasion fleet to cross the English Channel. However, the change in emphasis of the bombing from RAF bases to bombing London turned Adler into a strategic bombing operation. This switch afforded the RAF, reeling from attacks on its bases, time to pull back and regroup. Navy The main difficulty for Germany was the small size of its navy. The had lost a sizable portion of its large modern surface units in the Norwegian Campaign, either as complete losses or due to battle damage. In particular, the loss of a large portion of their destroyers was crippling. The U-boats, the most powerful arm of the , were not suitable for operations in the relatively shallow and restricted English Channel. Although the Royal Navy could not bring to bear the whole of its naval superiority against the (most of the fleet was engaged in the Atlantic and Mediterranean), the British Home Fleet still had a very large advantage in numbers. British ships were still vulnerable to enemy air attack, as demonstrated during the Dunkirk evacuation and by the later Japanese sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse. However, the width of the English Channel and the overall disparity between the British and German naval forces made the amphibious invasion plan risky, regardless of the outcome in the air. In addition, the Kriegsmarine had allocated its few remaining larger and modern ships to diversionary operations in the North Sea. Barges assembled for the invasion at the German port of Wilhelmshaven The French fleet, one of the most powerful and modern in the world, might have tipped the balance against Britain. However, the preemptive destruction of the French fleet by the British by an attack on Mers-el-Kébir and the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon two years later ensured that this could not happen. Even if the Royal Navy had been neutralised, the chances of a successful amphibious invasion across the channel were remote. The Germans had no specialised landing craft, and had to rely primarily on river barges. This would have limited the quantity of artillery and tanks transported and restricted operations to times of good weather. The barges were not designed for use in open sea and even in almost perfect conditions, their progress would have been slow and the craft vulnerable to attack. There were not enough barges to transport the first invasion wave nor the following waves with their equipment. Without specialized landing craft, the Germans would have needed to immediately capture a port, an unlikely circumstance considering the strength of the British coastal defences around the south-eastern harbours at that time. The British also had several contingency plans, including the use of poison gas. Cancellation On 17 September, 1940, Hitler held a meeting with Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt. Hitler became convinced that the operation wasn't viable. Control of the skies was unavailable, and coordination among three branches of the armed forces was out of question. Later that day, Hitler ordered the postponement of the operation. It was only a postponement at that stage. Prototypes of two designs of a prefabricated jetty, similar in function to Mulberry Harbours, were built and successfully overwintered in the North Sea in 1941/42. Alderney at War. Brian Bonnard. 1993.ISBN 0-7509-0343-0. pp106-108. Alan Sutton Publishing Ltd. After cancellation, they were installed on the Island of Alderney, where they remained until being demolished in 1978. Not until 13 February, 1942, after the invasion of Russia, were forces earmarked for the operation released to other duties. Fleming, Peter.,Invasion 1940 (Readers Union, London, 1958), p. 273. The postponement coincided with a rumour that there had been an attempt to land on British shores at Shingle Street, but it had been repulsed with large German casualties. This was reported in the American press, but was officially denied. British papers, declassified in 1993, have suggested this was a successful example of British black propaganda to improve morale in Britain, America and occupied Europe. Chances of success Drill involving an amphibious tank meant for Sealion Military historians are divided on whether Operation Sealion could have succeeded; some such as Michael Burleigh, Andrew Mollo, and Kenneth Macksey believe it was possible, while others such as Peter Fleming, Derek Robinson and Stephen Bungay believe the operation would have most likely resulted in a disaster for the Germans. Adolf Galland, commander of fighters at the time, claimed invasion plans were not serious and that there was a palpable sense of relief in the when it was finally called off. There were a number of errors in German intelligence, and whilst some of these might not have caused problems, there were others (such as the inclusion of bridges that no longer existed German Invasion Plans for the British Isles, Ed Rob Wheeler, Bodleian Library 2007, Page 10 or mis-understanding the usefulness of minor British roads) Ibid that would have been detrimental to German operations, and would have only added to the confusion caused by the layout of Britain's cities and the removal of road signs. Ibid, Text of plate 7 After the London Blitz, Hitler turned his attention to the Soviet Union, and lapsed, never to be resumed. Post-war test of the plan In wargames conducted at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1974, which assumed the had not yet won air supremacy, the Germans were able to establish a beachhead in England by using a minefield screen in the English Channel to protect the initial assault. However, the German ground forces were delayed at the "Stop Lines" (e.g., the GHQ Line), a layered series of defensive positions that had been built, each a combination of Home Guard troops and physical barriers. At the same time, the regular troops of the British Army were forming up. After only a few days, the Royal Navy was able to reach the Channel from Scapa Flow, cutting off supplies and blocking further reinforcement. Isolated and facing regular troops with armour and artillery, the invasion force was forced to surrender. The Sandhurst wargame was fictionalised in Richard Cox (ed.), Operation Sea Lion (London: Thornton Cox, 1974. ISBN 0-902726-17-X). An analysis by F-K von Plehwe, "Operation Sea Lion 1940", was published in the Journal of the Royal United Services Institution, March, 1973. German occupation of Britain Franz Six Had Operation Sea Lion been launched, six under Dr. Franz Six were to follow the invasion force to Great Britain. They were provided with a list (known as The Black Book) of 2,820 people to be arrested immediately. In fiction There is a large corpus of works set in an alternative history where the German invasion of Britain has been attempted or successfully carried out. These include: NovelsAgainst the Day, Through the Night and In the Morning by Michael CroninCollaborator by Murray DaviesSS-GB by Len DeightonInvasion: Alternative History of the German Invasion of England, July 1940, by Kenneth MackseyFatherland by Robert Harris Weaver:Time's Tapestry, by Stephen Baxter PlaysPeace In Our Time (1946 - first performance 1947) by Noel Coward Film and televisionBedknobs and Broomsticks (1971)It Happened HereWhen Hitler Invaded Britain (2004) When Hitler Invaded Britain (2004) (TV) Hitler's Britain (2002) Hitler's Britain (2002) (TV) Video gamesTurning Point: Fall of LibertyEmpire Earth: in the German campaign, the last mission is to carry out Operation SealionAxis & Allies: while playing as the Axis powers in campaign mode (which has the Axis powers winning the war), Operation Sealion is the mission following the failed invasion of Normandy.War Front: Turning PointPanzer General (1994 SSI video game): Hexfield strategic simulation game: Sea Lion and Sea Lion Plus (the latter with Italian naval support) scenarios are available given major victories in previous operations. Alberto Cavalcanti's 1942 film Went the Day Well? is centred on a German reconnaissance mission for Sea Lion being eventually repulsed by the efforts of the civilian population of a remote village. A less contemporary dealing with the fear of German invasion concerned the German paratroopers central to the plot of the 1971 film Dad's Army who have crashed with photographs vital to the invasion. See also British anti-invasion preparations of World War II RAF Fighter Command Order of Battle 1940 Operation Sealion Order of Battle Operation Herkules - The planned German invasion of Malta Operation Tannenbaum - The planned German invasion of Switzerland Operation Felix - The planned German invasion of Gibraltar Fall Grün - The planned German invasion of Ireland. References Further reading Macksey, Ken. Invasion - The Alternate History of the German Invasion of England, July 1940'' (1980) Greenhill Books ISBN 1-85367-361-7 Parkinson, Roger (1977). Summer, 1940: The Battle of Britain. David McKay Co.. ISBN 0679507566 External links British Invasion Defences Operation directive No.16 Why Sealion was not a (realistic) option (essay) Second essay on the unlikelihood of Sealion Sealion: an orthodox view (includes quotes from participants) Comparison of Operation Overlord with Operation Sealion http://www.probusmossvale.org.au/Military%20History_files/Battle%20of%20Britain%202.pdf http://www.operationsealion.com/ http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/operation_sealion.htm http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWsealoin.htm http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/invasion_ww2_02.shtml | Operation_Sea_Lion |@lemmatized operation:29 sea:13 lion:9 germany:3 plan:10 invade:3 united:3 kingdom:3 world:4 war:8 ii:3 begin:1 however:7 chance:3 success:3 require:1 air:12 supremacy:2 english:7 channel:9 german:35 defeat:1 battle:11 britain:14 postpone:1 indefinitely:1 september:2 mhq:1 volume:1 number:3 summer:2 hitler:12 day:5 david:2 shear:1 background:1 follow:3 swift:1 victory:3 france:2 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2,065 | Celestines | Celestines are a Roman Catholic monastic order, a branch of the Benedictines, founded in 1244. At the foundation of the new rule, they were called Hermits of St Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites), and did not assume the appellation of Celestines until after the election of their founder to the Papacy as Celestine V. The fame of the holy life and the austerities practised by the hermit in his solitude on the Mountain of Majella, near Sulmona, attracted many visitors, several of whom were moved to remain and share his mode of life. They built a small convent on the spot inhabited by the holy hermit, which became too small for the accommodation of those who came to share their life of privations. Peter of Morone, their founder built a number of other small oratories in that neighborhood. Founding This happened about the year 1254. A new religious community was formed, and Peter of Morone gave them a rule formulated in accordance with his own practices. In 1264 the new institution was approved by Urban IV. The founder, having heard that it was probable that Pope Gregory X, then holding a council at Lyon, would suppress all such new orders as had been founded since the Lateran Council, having commanded that such institutions should not be further multiplied, went to Lyon. There he succeeded in persuading Gregory to approve his new order, making it a branch of the Benedictines and following the rule of Saint Benedict, but adding to it additional severities and privations. Gregory took it under the Papal protection, assured to it the possession of all property it might acquire, and endowed it with exemption from the authority of the ordinary. Nothing more was needed to ensure the rapid spread of the new association and Peter the hermit of Morone lived to see himself "Superior-General" to thirty-six monasteries and more than six hundred monks. Peter, however, cannot be accused of ambition or the lust of power when a monastic superior, any more than when he insisted on divesting himself of the Papacy, to which he was subsequently raised. As soon as he had seen his new order thus consolidated he gave up the government of it to a certain Robert, and retired once again to a still more remote solitude to give himself up more entirely to solitary penance and prayer. Shortly afterwards, in a chapter of the order held in 1293, the original monastery of Majella being judged to be too desolate and exposed to too rigorous a climate, it was decided that the monastery which had been founded in Sulmtona should be the headquarters of the order and the residence of the General-Superior, as it has continued to be to the present day. The next year Peter of Morrone, having been, despite his reluctance, elected Pope by the name of Celestine V, the order he had founded took the name of Celestines. The hermit Pope found time in the few short months of his Papacy to confirm the rule of the order, which be had himself composed, and to confer on the society a variety of special graces and privileges. In the only creation of cardinals promoted by him, among the twelve raised to the purple, there were two monks of his order. He found time also to visit personally the great Benedictine monastery on Monte Cassino, where he succeeded in persuading the monks to accept his more rigorous rule. He sent fifty monks of his order to introduce it, who remained, however, for only a few months. After the death of the founder the order was favoured and privileged by Benedict XI, and rapidly spread through Italy, Germany, Flanders, and France, where they were received by Philip the Fair in 1300. Subsequently the French Celestines, with the consent of the Italian superiors of the order, and of Pope Martin V in 1427, obtained the privilege of making new constitutions for themselves, which they did in the 17th century in a series of regulations accepted by the provincial chapter in 1667. At that time the French congregation of the order was composed of twenty-one monasteries, the head of which was that of Paris, and was governed by a Provincial with the authority of General. Paul V was a notable benefactor of the order. But in consequence of later political changes and events the order has been dissolved. Description of order According to their special constitutions the Celestines were bound to say matins in the choir at two o'clock in the morning, and always to abstain from eating meat, save in illness. The distinct rules of their order with regard to fasting are numerous, but not more severe than those of similar congregations, though much more so than is required by the old Benedictine rule. In reading their minute directions for divers degrees of abstinence on various days, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the conviction that the great object of the framers of these rules was the general purpose of ensuring an ascetic mode of life. The Celestines wore a white woollen cassock bound with a linen band, and a leathern girdle of the same colour, with a scapular unattached to the body of the dress, and a black hood. It was not permitted to them to wear any shirt save of serge. Their dress in short was very like that of the Cistercians. But it is a tradition in the order that in the time of the founder they wore a coarse brown cloth. The church and monastery of San Pietro in Montorio originally belonged to the Celestines in Rome; but they were turned out of it by Sixtus IV to make way for Franciscans, receiving from the Pope in exchange the Church of St Eusebius of Vercelli with the adjacent mansion for a monastery. 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2,066 | Book_of_Judges | The Book of Judges (Hebrew: Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים) is a book of the Bible originally written in Hebrew. It appears in the Tanakh and in the Christian Old Testament. Its title refers to its contents; it contains the history of Biblical judges (not to be confused with modern judges), who helped rule and guide the ancient Israelites, and of their times. As Judges stands today, the last judge it mentions is Samson, and although there are two further stories, the traditional view is that Samson's exploits probably synchronise with the period immediately preceding Eli, who was both high priest and judge. Both academic views and traditional thought hence view the narrative of the judges as ending at Samson, picking up again at 1 Samuel 1:1 to consider Eli, and continuing through to 1 Samuel 7:2. As for the stories at the end of the Book, which are set in the same time period as the judges but discuss people other than the judges, there is much affinity between these and the Book of Ruth, and many people believe Ruth originally belonged amongst them. There were thirteen Biblical Judges. Structure Summary and Introduction: Israel's Disobedience (1:1-3:6) Summary: Incomplete Conquest of the Canaanites (1:1-36) Introduction: Judgment of Israel (2:1-3:6) Selected History of the Judges: Israel's Deliverance (3:7-16:31) Othniel (3:7-11) Ehud (3:12-30) Shamgar (3:31) Deborah and Barak (4:1-5:31) Gideon (6:1-8:32) Tola and Jair (10:1-5) Jephthah (10:6-12:7) Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon (12:8-15) Samson (13:1-16:31) Epilogue: Israel's Decay (17:1-21:25) Micah's Idolatry and the Danites (17:1-18:31) Crime at Gibeah and War Against Benjamin (19:1-21:25) Content Introduction The Introduction (1:1-3:10 and 3:12) gives a summary of the book of Joshua, in some cases giving additional details. The choosing of Judah to lead the attack (Judges 1:1-3) The capture of Adonibezek, and destruction of Jerusalem, (Judges 1:4-8) The story of Othniel Ben Kenaz (Judges 1:11-15) almost identical to its mention in Joshua (Joshua 15:15-19) A list of the successes and failures of Judah and Simeon's campaigns (1:17-20) Caleb driving away the sons of Anak from Hebron (Judges 1:10 and 1:20) as mentioned in Joshua (Joshua 15:14) The destruction of Luz and sparing of an individual who aided the Israelite spies (1:22-26) A list of the failures of the campaigns by the northern tribes (1:21-36) A threat by an angel at Bochim (2:1-5) The death of Joshua (Judges 2:6-9) similar to the account in Joshua (Joshua 24:28-31) An introduction to the role of Biblical judges (2:10-3:6) The falling of the Israelites into heathen practices (2:10-14) A very brief overview of the main part of the Book of Judges (2:15-19) An explanation of why God allowed some Canaanites to remain (2:20-3:4) A recap of the Israelites falling into heathen practices, as the start of the main part of the book (3:5-6) The story of Othniel Ben Kenaz (Judges 3:7-10) again, presented differently to the prior mention (Judges 1:11-15) Main text The Main text (3:11-16:31) discusses the five Great Judges and Abimelech. It consists of six stories each concerning a major judge and their struggles against an oppressive foreign overlord. There are also brief glosses of the rule of lesser judges, often only giving their name and the number of their sons. Othniel (3:9-11) warred against and defeated Cushan-Rishathaim, King of Aram. Israel had 40 years peace until the death of Othniel Ehud (3:11-29) vs. Eglon of Moab Deborah the prophetess and Barak the army leader (4-5) vs. Jabin of Hazor (in Canaan) and Sisera, his captain Gideon (6-8) vs. Midian, Amalek, and the children of the East Abimelech (9) (who is traditionally counted as a king not a judge, and is considered evil) vs. all the Israelites who opposed him Jephthah (11-12:7) vs. the Ammonites Samson (13-16) vs. the Philistines Appendices The Appendices (17:1-21:25) give two stories set in the time of the judges but do discuss the judges. The stories have no apparent narrative connection to each other, or the remainder of the text. Dan and the Idols of Micah (17-18) Gibeah and the Levite Concubine (19-21) Authorship While the authorship of Judges has traditionally been ascribed to Samuel, the great majority of modern scholars have come to a much more complex conclusion, regarding the work as having hardly any literary unity at all. Many suspect the brief Book of Ruth to have originally been part of the Appendices of Judges, owing to its style, linguistic features and the time period in which its contents are set. It is thought that the Book of Ruth became disconnected and misplaced at a later date. The majority modern scholars believe that Judges was originally part of a continuous work known as the Deuteronomic History stretching from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings, which was later broken up—according to the documentary hypothesis—when the Torah was constructed by its redactor from the early parts of the Deuteronomic History and other writings such as JE and the Priestly source. It is for this reason that many critics also treat 1 Samuel 1:1-7:2, which discusses Eli and Samuel, as having originally been part of the Judges section of the Deuteronomic History narrative. Introduction Some passages (1:12-15, 2:6-9 and 3:7-11) of the introduction are almost identical to ones in the Book of Joshua. On the other hand, part of the text which surrounds them (1:1-11, 1:16-2:5) instead presents a summarised overview of the events in Joshua, recording differing traditions, such as that concerning Adonibezek (cf. Joshua 10), or those concerning the continuing presence of Jebusites in Jerusalem to this day (1:21) or not (1:8). For those who support Hexateuch-like theories, where the sources that the documentary hypothesis ascribes to the Torah extend through the Book of Joshua, these passages are often seen as deriving from such sources parallel to the corresponding ones of Joshua. The majority of modern scholars believe that that first part of the introduction (1:1-2:5) was a late addition to the text, added after the Deuteronomist version of Judges was constructed. Hence 2:6-3:7 is viewed as the original introduction by the Deuteronomist to the Judges period, spinning the later stories to imply that the history of the period involved the Israelites repeatedly turning to worship of other gods, suffering for it, and being alleviated of their suffering by five great leaders, and Abimelech; whereas the original source texts were independent and without the Deuteronomist's alterations, some could be regarded as parallel local events rather than sequential national ones. Main text The text is believed under textual criticism to contain further compositional structure. The Deuteronomist here is believed to have combined together six earlier separate texts, one for each of the five Great Judges and one for Abimelech, adding passages to join them together (4:1a, 8:29-31, 10:17-18, and 13:1), sometimes interrupting the narrative to do so. The text is believed to have been further altered by the (possibly later) addition of passages concerning Minor Judges (10:1-5 and 12:8-15) in order to make the total number of Judges a more religiously significant number, harmonizing them chronologically so that the total number of years of their reign (71) is close to the number of years of oppression under the Great Judges (70). The presence of 3:31, placing Shamgar in the list of Judges, is believed to be a later recension, created in order to remove Abimelech from being counted amongst the judges without disturbing the total number, in order that someone so apparently wicked not taint the role. Three of these six earlier texts each contain partly duplicate accounts: Judges 4 is believed to be based on two separate stories, one based on the ancient Canticle of Deborah (Judges 5) concerning Sisera, the other a story concerning Jabin, which had merged together when Barak of Issachar (identified at 5:15 as the one who defeats Sisera) was confused with Barak of Naphtali (identified at 4:6 as the one who defeats Jabin), and consequently Sisera is reinterpreted in Judges 4 as Jabin's general rather than as the chief of a confederation (as in Judges 5) Although difficult to separate, there are considered to be two distinct interwoven narratives about Gideon; the first narrative (which includes at least 6:2-6, 6:11-24, 6:33-35, 7:1, and 7:9-25) describing a surprise assault on the Midianites on Mount Gilboa with the fugitive Kings Oreb and Zeeb being killed, and the second narrative (which includes at least 6:7-10, 6:25-32, and 6:36-40, and 8:4-27) discussing Gideon capturing the fugitive Kings Zebah and Zalmunna. The narrative of Judges 9, concerning Abimelech, is thought not to have originally contained the parable of Jotham (9:7b-20), it being inserted into the story at a later date. However, the parable is believed to be earlier than the rest of the narrative, which is thought to be at least partly based upon it. In addition, the Samson narrative (13-16) contains two distinct cycles; the first a series of tableaux concerning his romance of a Philistine woman and subsequent problems arising from it; the second is the tale of his relationship with Delilah, which begins with him standing between two gateposts at dawn and ends with him standing between two temple pillars in the evening. Though these two cycles may have been collected separately from each other, textual criticism favours the view that the whole Samson narrative originates from one author. That the narrative of Samson is easily broken into 12 episodes is considered to be a deliberate literary conceit, owing to the significance of the number 12 to the Israelites. In addition to such parallel narratives, the story of Jephthah (11:1-12:7) is often suspected to have been subject to later editing in three locations, though the reasons for the first two are not at all clear According to 11:1-2, it is Jephthah's own brothers which expelled him, whereas according to 11:7 it is the elders of Gilead The message to the Ammonites at 11:12-27 is written as if directed at Moabites. 11:35-40 has the appearance of abridging a more extensive original text, glossing over the existence in the text of human sacrifice to Yahweh, which is mentioned fairly obviously at 11:31 Appendices The Appendices cover two stories from the time of the Judges, rather than Judges themselves, and so only have contextual relationship in passing with the remainder of the work. Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the Appendices is that they cover events occurring at the start of the period of Judges and so chronologically belong before the remainder of the book, not after it. Even more noticeable is that the narrative preceding the Appendices continues in 1 Samuel, as if the narratives of the Appendices are not present. Hence scholars view the Appendices as texts that were not originally present but later added because of the shared time frame, though the reason they were inserted at the end rather than the beginning is unclear. The story of Micah and his Idols (17-18) is thought by some scholars (e.g. Ernst Bertheau, Karl Budde, Rudolf Kittel, and Carl Heinrich Cornill) to be composed from two distinct accounts, one recording Micah making an Ephod and Teraphim and hiring a Levite to be "father and priest"; the other recording Micah making a graven image and a molten image and hiring a Levite as a priest whom he treated as a son. Were this to be the case, it may indicate that at least part of the Appendices could be considered further continuations of the Jahwist, Elohist, or Priestly sources, hence explaining their origin. However, other critical scholars have proposed that such discrepancies may simply be later scribal interpolations. The story is notable because it describes a cult and priesthood at Dan which is mentioned nowhere else in the entire Hebrew Bible, and hence is considered to be based on a particularly early source, prior to later recensions glossing over cult centres of Yahweh outside Jerusalem and Shiloh. The other story of the appendices (19-21), concerning the Levite and his concubine, is thought to date from a similarly early era based on linguistic similarities to the first appendix. However, since everyone in the story is anonymous except Phinehas, many Biblical critics regard the story as fictional. Nevertheless, Hosea (10:9) says that "...since the days of Gibeah, you have sinned, O Israel...", evidencing at least the presence of traditions resembling parts of the story, though some scholars, beginning with Noldeke, believe the story is actually based on something from a slightly later time period—the ruining of the tribe of Benjamin by the war between David and the son of Saul. See also Tanakh Bible Biblical canon Documentary hypothesis Deuteronomic Cycle External links Original text שֹּׁפְטִים - Shoftim - Judges (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations Judges at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Shoftim - Judges (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures Online Bible at GospelHall.org Judges at BibleFu (King James Version) Judges at Bible Gateway (Various versions) Judges at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version) Articles Book of Judges article (Jewish Encyclopedia) The King's Calendar: The Secret of Qumran (Chronology for Israel's Period of the Judges 1412 BCE to 1039 BCE) References | Book_of_Judges |@lemmatized book:13 judge:54 hebrew:4 sefer:1 shoftim:3 ספר:1 שופטים:1 bible:5 originally:7 write:2 appear:1 tanakh:2 christian:2 old:1 testament:1 title:1 refers:1 content:3 contain:5 history:6 biblical:5 confuse:2 modern:4 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2,067 | Mike_Muuss | Mike Muuss (left) at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, using BRL-CAD to develop an M1 prototype, with Earl Weaver (right). Michael John Muuss (October 16, 1958 - November 20, 2000) was the author of the freeware network tool Ping. A graduate of Johns Hopkins University, Muuss was a senior scientist specializing in geometric solid modeling, ray-tracing, MIMD architectures and digital computer networks at the United States Army Research Laboratory in Maryland when he died. He wrote a number of software packages (including BRL-CAD) and network tools (including ttcp and the concept of the default route or "default gateway") and contributed to many others (including BIND). However, the thousand-line ping, which he wrote in December 1983 while working at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, is the program for which he is most remembered. Due to its usefulness, ping has been implemented on a large number of operating systems, initially BSD Unix, but later others including Windows and Mac OS X. In 1993, the USENIX Association gave a Lifetime Achievement Award (Flame) to the Computer Systems Research Group at University of California, Berkeley, honoring 180 individuals, including Muuss, who contributed to the CSRG's 4.4BSD-Lite release. Muuss is mentioned in two books, The Cuckoo's Egg (ISBN 0-7434-1146-3) and Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier (ISBN 0-684-81862-0), for his role in tracking down crackers. He also is mentioned in Peter Salus's A Quarter Century of UNIX. Muuss died in a car crash on Interstate 95 on November 20, 2000. The Michael J. Muuss Research Fellowship, set up by friends and family of Muuss, memorializes him at Johns Hopkins University. External links Mike Muuss's home page Mike Muuss's Internet-related page BRL-CAD The Ping Fallacy References | Mike_Muuss |@lemmatized mike:3 muuss:10 leave:1 ballistic:2 research:5 laboratory:3 use:1 brl:3 cad:3 develop:1 prototype:1 earl:1 weaver:1 right:1 michael:2 john:3 october:1 november:2 author:1 freeware:1 network:3 tool:2 ping:4 graduate:1 hopkins:2 university:3 senior:1 scientist:1 specialize:1 geometric:1 solid:1 modeling:1 ray:1 tracing:1 mimd:1 architecture:1 digital:1 computer:3 united:1 state:1 army:1 maryland:1 die:2 write:2 number:2 software:1 package:1 include:5 ttcp:1 concept:1 default:2 route:1 gateway:1 contribute:2 many:1 others:2 bind:1 however:1 thousand:1 line:1 december:1 work:1 program:1 remembered:1 due:1 usefulness:1 implement:1 large:1 operate:1 system:2 initially:1 bsd:1 unix:2 later:1 window:1 mac:1 x:1 usenix:1 association:1 give:1 lifetime:1 achievement:1 award:1 flame:1 group:1 california:1 berkeley:1 honor:1 individual:1 csrg:1 lite:1 release:1 mention:2 two:1 book:1 cuckoo:1 egg:1 isbn:2 cyberpunk:1 outlaw:1 hacker:1 frontier:1 role:1 track:1 cracker:1 also:1 peter:1 salus:1 quarter:1 century:1 car:1 crash:1 interstate:1 j:1 fellowship:1 set:1 friend:1 family:1 memorialize:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:2 internet:1 related:1 fallacy:1 reference:1 |@bigram ray_tracing:1 bsd_unix:1 lifetime_achievement:1 cuckoo_egg:1 external_link:1 |
2,068 | International_standard | International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use, worldwide. International standards may be used either by direct application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. The adoption of international standards results in the creation of equivalent, national standards that are substantially the same as international standards in technical content, but may have (i) editorial differences as to appearance, use of symbols and measurement units, substitution of a point for a comma as the decimal marker, and (ii) differences resulting from conflicts in governmental regulations or industry-specific requirements caused by fundamental climatic, geographical, technological, or infrastructural factors, or the stringency of safety requirements that a given standard authority considers appropriate. International standards is one way of overcoming technical barriers in international commerce caused by differences among technical regulations and standards developed independently and separately by each nation, national standards organisation, or company. Technical barriers arise when different groups come together, each with a large user base, doing some well established thing that between them is mutually incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem. Merged links These links are all into Standards organization, and is primarily about organizations, not about standards. See also International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and List of ISO standards International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and List of IEC standards Standards Organisations Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS) Ecma International (ECMA) and List of Ecma standards International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and :Category:ITU-T recommendations British Standards Institution ASTM International Open standard Standardisation American Petroleum Institute International System of Units (SI Units) Universal Postal Union (UPU) and Catalogue of UPU Standards External links The ISO Web Site (International Organisation for Standardisation) The IEC Web Site (International Electrotechnical Commission) The ITU Web Site (International Telecommunication Union) The ASTM Web Site (formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials, founded 1898) The CENELEC Web Site (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardisation) The ANSI Web Site (American National Standards Institute) The BSI Web Site (British Standards Institute) The DIN Web Site The BIS Web Site The ECMA website (Ecma International) The IPC Web Site The OASIS website The SAE Web Site (Society for Automotive Engineers) The AIAG Web Site The IEEE Web Site (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) The MediaGrid Web Site (International Media Grid Standards Organisation) The API Web Site (American Petroleum Institute) The UPU Web Site (Universal Postal Union) The IETF Web Site (Internet Engineering Task Force) | International_standard |@lemmatized international:21 standard:27 develop:2 organization:4 available:1 consideration:1 use:3 worldwide:1 may:2 either:1 direct:1 application:1 process:1 modify:1 suit:1 local:1 condition:1 adoption:1 result:2 creation:1 equivalent:1 national:3 substantially:1 technical:4 content:1 editorial:1 difference:3 appearance:1 symbol:1 measurement:1 unit:3 substitution:1 point:1 comma:1 decimal:1 marker:1 ii:1 conflict:1 governmental:1 regulation:2 industry:1 specific:1 requirement:2 cause:2 fundamental:1 climatic:1 geographical:1 technological:1 infrastructural:1 factor:1 stringency:1 safety:1 give:1 authority:1 considers:1 appropriate:1 one:2 way:2 overcome:2 barrier:2 commerce:1 among:1 independently:1 separately:1 nation:1 organisation:5 company:1 arise:1 different:1 group:1 come:1 together:1 large:1 user:1 base:1 well:1 establish:2 thing:1 mutually:1 incompatible:1 prevent:1 problem:1 merge:1 link:3 primarily:1 see:1 also:1 standardisation:4 iso:3 list:3 electrotechnical:3 commission:2 iec:3 advancement:1 structured:1 information:1 oasis:2 ecma:5 telecommunication:2 union:4 itu:3 category:1 recommendation:1 british:2 institution:1 astm:2 open:1 american:4 petroleum:2 institute:5 system:1 si:1 universal:2 postal:2 upu:3 catalogue:1 external:1 web:17 site:17 formerly:1 society:2 test:1 material:1 founded:1 cenelec:1 european:1 committee:1 ansi:1 bsi:1 din:1 bi:1 website:2 ipc:1 sae:1 automotive:1 engineer:2 aiag:1 ieee:1 electrical:1 electronic:1 mediagrid:1 medium:1 grid:1 api:1 ietf:1 internet:1 engineering:1 task:1 force:1 |@bigram organisation_standardisation:2 international_electrotechnical:2 electrotechnical_commission:2 itu_recommendation:1 universal_postal:2 external_link:1 |
2,069 | ITU-T | The Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The standardization work of ITU dates back to 1865, with the birth of the International Telegraph Union. It became a United Nations specialized agency in 1947, and the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT), (from the French name "Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique") was created in 1956. It was renamed ITU-T in 1993. About ITU ITU has been an intergovernmental public-private partnership organization since its inception and now has a membership of 191 countries (Member States) and over 700 public and private sector companies as well as international and regional telecommunication entities, known as Sector Members and Associates, which undertake most of the work of the Sector. About ITU ITU-T has a permanent secretariat, the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB), based at the ITU HQ in Geneva, Switzerland. The elected Director of the Bureau is Mr. Malcolm Johnson of the . Mr. Johnson was elected by the ITU Membership to the Directorship for a 4-year term in November 2006. Primary function The ITU-T mission is to ensure the efficient and timely production of standards covering all fields of telecommunications on a worldwide basis, as well as defining tariff and accounting principles for international telecommunication services. ITU-T and TSB General Information The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as "Recommendations" (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word "recommendation"), as they become mandatory only when adopted as part of a national law. Since the ITU-T is part of the ITU, which is a United Nations specialized agency, its standards carry more formal international weight than those of most other standards development organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form. http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer-igov.pdf (p13) History Although the ITU itself dates back to 1865 About ITU , the formal standardization processes are more recent. Two consultative committees were created by the ITU’s 1925 Paris conference to deal with the complexities of the international telephone services (known as CCIF, as the French acronym) and long-distance telegraphy (CCIT). http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/50/docs/ITU-T_50.pdf (p8) In view of the basic similarity of many of the technical problems faced by the CCIF and CCIT, a decision was taken in 1956 to merge them to become the single International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, in the French acronym). In 1992, the Plenipotentiary Conference (the top policy-making conference of ITU) saw a reform of ITU, giving the Union greater flexibility to adapt to an increasingly complex, interactive and competitive environment. It was at this time that CCITT was renamed the Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T), as one of three Sectors of the Union alongside the Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) and the Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D). http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/50/docs/ITU-T_50.pdf (p14) Historically, the Recommendations of the CCITT were presented to four-yearly plenary assemblies for endorsement, and the full set of Recommendations were published after each plenary assembly. However, the delays in producing texts, and translating them into other working languages, did not suit the fast pace of change in the telecommunications industry. CCITT - 50 YEARS OF EXCELLENCE - 1956-2006 "Real time" standardization The rise of the personal computer industry in the early 1980s created a new common practice among both consumers and businesses of adopting "bleeding edge" communications technology even if it was not yet standardized. Thus, standards organizations had to put forth standards much faster, or find themselves ratifying de facto standards after the fact. The ITU-T now operates under much more streamlined processes. The time between an initial proposal of a draft document by a member company and the final approval of a full-status ITU-T Recommendation can now be as short as a few months (or less in some cases). This makes the standardization approval process in the ITU-T much more responsive to the needs of rapid technology development than in the ITU's historical past. http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/50/docs/ITU-T_50.pdf (p16) New and updated Recommendations are published on an almost daily basis, and the entire library of over 3,270 Recommendations is now free of charge online. ITU-T has moreover tried to facilitate cooperation between the various forums and standard-developing organizations (SDOs). This collaboration is necessary to avoid duplication of work and the consequent risk of conflicting standards in the market place. http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/50/docs/ITU-T_50.pdf (p17) In the work of standardization, ITU-T cooperates with other SDOs, e.g., the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s10) Development of Recommendations Most of the work of ITU-T is carried out by its Sector Members and Associates, while the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau (TSB) is the executive arm of ITU-T and coordinator for a number of workshops and seminars to progress existing work areas and explore new ones. The events cover a wide array of topics in the field of information and communication technologies (ICT) and attract high-ranking experts as speakers, and attendees from engineers to high-level management from all industry sectors. http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s13-16), http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/info/tsb/info.html The technical work, the development of Recommendations, of ITU-T is managed by Study Groups (SGs). The people involved in these SGs are experts in telecommunications from all over the world. There are currently 13 SGs. Study groups meet face to face according to a calendar issued by the TSB. http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s16), http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/studygroups/index.html SGs are augmented by Focus Groups (FGs), an instrument created by ITU-T, providing a way to quickly react to ICT standardization needs and allowing great flexibility in terms of participation and working methods. The key difference between SGs and FGs is that the latter have greater freedom to organize and finance themselves, and to involve non-members in their work. Focus Groups can be created very quickly, are usually short-lived and can choose their own working methods, leadership, financing, and types of deliverables. http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s23-24), http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/focusgroups/index.html Recent examples include work on Next Generation Networking, Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) and digital identity management. ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - Focus Groups Approval of Recommendations The “Alternative Approval Process” (AAP) is a fast-track approval procedure that was developed to allow standards to be brought to market in the timeframe that industry now demands. This dramatic overhaul of standards-making by streamlining approval procedures was implemented in 2001 and is estimated to have cut the time involved in this critical aspect of the standardization process by 80 to 90 per cent. This means that an average standard which took around four years to approve and publish until the mid nineties, and two years until 1997, can now be approved in an average of two months, or as little as five weeks. Besides streamlining the underlying procedures involved in the approval process, an important contributory factor to the use of AAP is electronic document handling. Once the approval process has begun the rest of the process can be completed electronically, in the vast majority of cases, with no further physical meetings. The introduction of AAP also formalizes public/private partnership in the approval process by providing equal opportunities for both Sector Members and Member States in the approval of technical standards. Once the text of a draft Recommendation prepared by SG experts is considered mature, it is submitted for review to an SG meeting. If agreed by the meeting it is given Consent. This means that the SG has given its consent that the text is sufficiently mature to initiate a final review process leading to approval of the draft Recommendation. After this Consent has been achieved, TSB announces the start of the AAP procedure by posting the draft text to the ITU-T web site and calling for comments. This gives the opportunity for all members to review the text. This phase, called Last Call, is a four-week period in which comments can be submitted by Member States and Sector Members. If no comments other than editorial corrections are received, the Recommendation is considered approved since no issues were identified that might need any further work. However, if there are any comments, the SG chairman, in consultation with TSB, sets up a comment resolution process by the concerned experts. The revised text is then posted on the web for an Additional Review period of three weeks. Similar to the Last Call phase, in Additional Review the Recommendation is considered as approved if no comments are received. If comments are received, it is apparent that there are some issues that still need more work, and the draft text and all comments are sent to the next Study Group meeting for further discussion and possible approval. http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s28-29), http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/e-flash/022-jan06.html Those Recommendations considered as having policy or regulatory implications are approved through what is known as the “Traditional Approval Process” (TAP), which allows a longer period for reflection and commenting by Member States. TAP Recommendations are also translated into the six working languages of ITU (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish). http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/0A/0F/T0A0F0000090001PDFE.pdf (s27), http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/e-flash/022-jan06.html Series and Recommendations ITU-T Recommendations are the names given to telecommunications and computer protocol specification documents published by ITU-T. Many of the Recommendations that define OSI are also ISO standards. Standards for Internet protocols are typically developed in the IETF, and standards for mobile telephone systems are developed in ETSI and other forums. Series of ITU Recommendations ITU-T issues Recommendations that have names like X.500, where X is the series and 500 is an identifying number. When a Recommendation is updated, it will (mostly) keep the same number, so the year of issue may be necessary to identify a specific version of a Recommendation. The term "X.500" is used both to refer to the specific X.500 Recommendation, and to the entire family of Recommendations named X.5xx, where the specific X.500 Recommendation forms the introduction and overview to the set. Series Description A Organization of the work of ITU-T B Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification C General telecommunication statistics D General tariff principles E Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors F Non-telephone telecommunication services G Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks H Audiovisual and multimedia systems I Integrated services digital network J Cable networks and transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals K Protection against interference L Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant M Telecommunication management, including TMN and network maintenance N Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits O Specifications of measuring equipment P Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks Q Switching and signalling R Telegraph transmission S Telegraph services terminal equipment T Terminals for telematic services U Telegraph switching V Data communication over the telephone network X Data networks, open system communications and security Y Global information infrastructure, Internet protocol aspects and next-generation networks Z Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems G Series Recommendations Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks Specification Range Specification Type G.100 - G.199 INTERNATIONAL TELEPHONE CONNECTIONS AND CIRCUITS G.200 - G.299 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO ALL ANALOGUE CARRIERTRANSMISSION SYSTEMS G.300 - G.399 INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL CARRIER TELEPHONE SYSTEMS ON METALLIC LINES G.400 - G.449 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL CARRIER TELEPHONE SYSTEMS ON RADIO-RELAY OR SATELLITE LINKS AND INTERCONNECTION WITH METALLIC LINES G.450 - G.499 COORDINATION OF RADIOTELEPHONY AND LINE TELEPHONY G.600 - G.699 TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND OPTICAL SYSTEMS CHARACTERISTICS G.700 - G.799 DIGITAL TERMINAL EQUIPMENTS G.800 - G.899 DIGITAL NETWORKS G.900 - G.999 DIGITAL SECTIONS AND DIGITAL LINE SYSTEM G.1000 - G.1999 QUALITY OF SERVICE AND PERFORMANCE – GENERIC AND USER-RELATED ASPECTS G.6000 - G.6999 TRANSMISSION MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS G.7000 - G.7999 DATA OVER TRANSPORT – GENERIC ASPECTS G.8000 - G.8999 PACKET OVER TRANSPORT ASPECTS G.8000 - G.8099 Ethernet over Transport aspects G.8100 - G.8199 MPLS over Transport aspects G.8200 - G.8299 Quality and availability targets G.8600 - G.8699 Service Management G.9000 - G.9999 ACCESS NETWORKS Y Series Recommendations Global Information Infrastructure, Internet Protocol Aspects And Nextgeneration Networks Specification Range Specification Type GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE Y.100–Y.199 General Y.200–Y.299 Services, applications and middleware Y.300–Y.399 Network aspects Y.400–Y.499 Interfaces and protocols Y.500–Y.599 Numbering, addressing and naming Y.600–Y.699 Operation, administration and maintenance Y.700–Y.799 Security Y.800–Y.899 Performances INTERNET PROTOCOL ASPECTS Y.1000–Y.1099 General Y.1100–Y.1199 Services and applications Y.1200–Y.1299 Architecture, access, network capabilities and resource management Y.1300–Y.1399 Transport Y.1400–Y.1499 Interworking Y.1500–Y.1599 Quality of service and network performance Y.1600–Y.1699 Signalling Y.1700–Y.1799 Operation, administration and maintenance Y.1800–Y.1899 Charging NEXT GENERATION NETWORKS Y.2000–Y.2099 Frameworks and functional architecture models Y.2100–Y.2199 Quality of Service and performance Y.2200–Y.2249 Service aspects: Service capabilities and service architecture Y.2250–Y.2299 Service aspects: Interoperability of services and networks in NGN Y.2300–Y.2399 Numbering, naming and addressing Y.2400–Y.2499 Network management Y.2500–Y.2599 Network control architectures and protocols Y.2700–Y.2799 Security Y.2800–Y.2899 Generalized mobility International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs) In addition to the ITU-T Recommendations, which have non-mandatory status until they are adopted in national laws, ITU-T is also the custodian of a binding international treaty, the International Telecommunication Regulations. The ITRs go back to the earliest days of the ITU when there were two separate treaties, dealing with telegraph and telephone. The ITRs were adopted, as a single treaty, at the World Administrative Telegraphy and Telephone Conference held in Melbourne, 1988 (WATTC-88). http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/itr/files/ITR-e.doc In line with the current Constitution and Convention of ITU, the ITRs can be amended through a World Conference on International Telecommunications (WCIT), and the next is scheduled for 2012. Before then a process of review of the ITRs, which began in 1998, will continue. ITU-T - Review of the International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs) The ITRs comprise ten articles which deal, inter alia, with the definition of international telecommunication services, cooperation between countries and national administrations, safety of life and priority of telecommunications and charging and accounting principles. The adoption of the ITRs in 1988 is often taken as the start of the wider liberalization process in international telecommunications, though a few countries, including United States and United Kingdom, had made steps to liberalize their markets before 1988. http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/stratpol/ITRs/auth/itr-03.doc Key standards published by ITU ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation One) Coding of audio G.711 and G.72x series Coding of still images JPEG T.80 and JPEG 2000 T.800 series Coding of video coding H.262/MPEG2-Video and H.264/MPEG-4 AVC Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant, L-series Data communication over the telephone network, V-series Fax standards T.2 – T.4, T.30, T.37, T.38 G.hn (Next generation wired home networking over powerlines, phonelines and coaxial cable) H.323 family of standards for multimedia and VoIP Interconnection rate harmonization, D-series International Emergency Preference Scheme E.106 IMSI codes used in SIM cards E.212 ISDN and PSTN/3G videoconferencing systems, H.320 and H.324 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Q.931 Open Systems Interconnection Passive optical networks (PON) G.983, G.984 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) X.509 Public telecommunication numbering plan, E.164 Security framework X.805 Signalling System 7 Q.7xx series Standards relating to Quality of Service (QoS) Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) G.707 – G.803 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) X.25 (x)DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) series of standards for broadband telecoms Hot topics ITU-T is committed to “bridging the standardization gap” – disparities in the ability of developing countries, relative to developed ones, to access, implement, contribute to and influence international ICT standards. Find out more about the work here. The ICT Security Standards Roadmap has been developed to assist in the development of security standards by bringing together information about existing standards and current standards work in key standards development organizations. The Next Generation Networks (NGN) concept takes into consideration new realities in the telecommunication industry characterized by factors such as; the need to converge and optimize the operating networks and the extraordinary expansion of digital traffic (i.e., increasing demand for new multimedia services, mobility, etc.). See also International Telecommunication Union :Category:ITU-T recommendations :Category:ITU-R recommendations World Summit on the Information Society Global Standards Collaboration References External links International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (official site) ITU Standardization Sector (ITU-T) ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) ITU Development Sector (ITU-D) ITU-T Study Groups ITU-T Focus Groups ITU-T Recommendations ITU-T Newslog (RSS available) ITU-T Guide for beginners (PDF) 50 years of CCITT/ITU-T (PDF) | ITU-T |@lemmatized telecommunication:29 standardization:15 sector:16 itu:101 coordinate:1 standard:29 behalf:1 international:26 union:6 base:2 geneva:2 switzerland:2 work:17 date:2 back:3 birth:1 telegraph:7 become:3 united:4 nation:2 specialize:2 agency:2 telephone:15 consultative:3 committee:3 ccitt:6 french:4 name:6 comité:1 consultatif:1 téléphonique:1 et:1 télégraphique:1 create:5 rename:2 intergovernmental:1 public:5 private:3 partnership:2 organization:7 since:3 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2,070 | Mandrake_(plant) | Mandrake is the common name for members of the plant genus Mandragora belonging to the nightshades family (Solanaceae). Because mandrake contains deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids such as hyoscyamine and the roots sometimes contain bifurcations causing them to resemble human figures, their roots have long been used in magic rituals, today also in neopagan religions such as Wicca and Germanic revivalism religions such as Odinism. (It is alleged that magicians would form this root into a crude resemblance to the human figure, by pinching a constriction a little below the top, so as to make a kind of head and neck, and twisting off the upper branches except two, which they leave as arms, and the lower, except two, which they leave as legs.) The mandrake, Mandragora officinarum, is a plant called by the Arabs luffâh, or beid el-jinn ("djinn's eggs"). The parsley-shaped root is often branched. This root gives off at the surface of the ground a rosette of ovate-oblong to ovate, wrinkled, crisp, sinuate-dentate to entire leaves, long, somewhat resembling those of the tobacco-plant. A number of one-flowered nodding peduncles spring from the neck bearing whitish-green flowers, nearly broad, which produce globular, succulent, orange to red berries, resembling small tomatoes, which ripen in late spring. All parts of the mandrake plant are poisonous. The plant grows natively in southern and central Europe and in lands around the Mediterranean Sea, as well as on Corsica. The Old Testament In Genesis 30, Reuben, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah finds mandrakes in a field. Rachel, Jacob's infertile second wife and Leah's sister, is desirous of the mandrakes and barters with Leah for them. The trade offered by Rachel is for Leah to spend the next night in Jacob's bed in exchange of Leah's mandrakes. Leah gives away the plant to her barren sister, but soon after this (Genesis 30:14-22), Leah, who had previously had four sons but had been infertile for a long while, became pregnant once more and in time gave birth to two more sons, Issachar and Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah. Only years after this episode of her asking for the mandrakes did Rachel manage to get pregnant. There are classical Jewish commentaries which suggest that mandrakes help barren women to conceive a child though. Mandrake in Hebrew is (dûdã'im), meaning “love plant”. Among certain Asian cultures, it is believed to ensure conception. Most interpreters hold Mandragora officinarum to be the plant intended in Genesis 30:14 ("love plant") and Song of Songs 7:13 ("the mandrakes send out their fragrance"). A number of other plants have been suggested such as blackberries, Zizyphus Lotus, the sidr of the Arabs, the banana, lily, citron, and fig. Magic, spells, and witchcraft Mandragora, from Tacuinum Sanitatis (1474). According to the legend, when the root is dug up it screams and kills all who hear it. Literature includes complex directions for harvesting a mandrake root in relative safety. For example Josephus (c. 37 AD Jerusalem – c. 100) gives the following directions for pulling it up: A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this the root can be handled without fear. Extract from Chapter XVI, Witchcraft and Spells: Transcendental Magic its Doctrine and Ritual by Eliphas Levi. A Complete Translation of Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie by Arthur Edward Waite. 1896 ... we will add a few words about mandragores (mandrakes) and androids, which several writers on magic confound with the waxen image; serving the purposes of bewitchment. The natural mandragore is a filamentous root which, more or less, presents as a whole either the figure of a man, or that of the virile members. It is slightly narcotic, and an aphrodisiacal virtue was ascribed to it by the ancients, who represented it as being sought by Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres. Is this root the umbilical vestige of our terrestrial origin ? We dare not seriously affirm it, but all the same it is certain that man came out of the slime of the earth, and his first appearance must have been in the form of a rough sketch. The analogies of nature make this notion necessarily admissible, at least as a possibility. The first men were, in this case, a family of gigantic, sensitive mandragores, animated by the sun, who rooted themselves up from the earth ; this assumption not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, positively supposes, creative will and the providential co-operation of a first cause, which we have reason to call God. Some alchemists, impressed by this idea, speculated on the culture of the mandragore, and experimented in the artificial reproduction of a soil sufficiently fruitful and a sun sufficiently active to humanise the said root, and thus create men without the concurrence of the female. (See: Homunculus) Others, who regarded humanity as the synthesis of animals, despaired about vitalising the mandragore, but they crossed monstrous pairs and projected human seed into animal earth, only for the production of shameful crimes and barren deformities. The third method of making the android was by galvanic machinery. One of these almost intelligent automata was attributed to Albertus Magnus, and it is said that St Thomas (Thomas Aquinas) destroyed it with one blow from a stick because he was perplexed by its answers. This story is an allegory; the android was primitive scholasticism, which was broken by the Summa of St Thomas, the daring innovator who first substituted the absolute law of reason for arbitrary divinity, by formulating that axiom which we cannot repeat too often, since it comes from such a master: " A thing is not just because God wills it, but God wills it because it is just. The real and serious android of the ancients was a secret which they kept hidden from all eyes, and Mesmer was the first who dared to divulge it; it was the extension of the will of the magus into another body, organised and served by an elementary spirit; in more modern and intelligible terms, it was a magnetic subject. It was a common belief in some countries that a mandrake would grow where the semen of a hanged man dripped on to the earth; this would appear to be the reason for the methods employed by the alchemists who "projected human seed into animal earth". In Germany, the plant is known as the Alraune: the novel (later adapted as a film) Alraune by Hanns Heinz Ewers is based around a soulless woman conceived from a hanged man's semen, the title referring to this myth of the Mandrake's origins. The following is taken from "Paul Christian". pp. 402-403, The History and Practice of Magic by Paul Christian. 1963 pp. 402–403, The History and Practice of Magic by Paul Christian. 1963: Would you like to make a Mandragora, as powerful as the homunculus (little man in a bottle) so praised by Paracelsus? Then find a root of the plant called bryony. Take it out of the ground on a Monday (the day of the moon), a little time after the vernal equinox. Cut off the ends of the root and bury it at night in some country churchyard in a dead man's grave. For thirty days water it with cow's milk in which three bats have been drowned. When the thirty-first day arrives, take out the root in the middle of the night and dry it in an oven heated with branches of verbena; then wrap it up in a piece of a dead man's winding-sheet and carry it with you everywhere. In literature In the Bible In Genesis 30:14, Leah gives Rachel mandrakes in exchange for a night of sleeping with their husband. During wheat harvest, Reuben went out into the fields and found some mandrake plants, which he brought to his mother Leah. Rachel said to Leah, "Please give me some of your son's mandrakes." Song of Songs 7:13 KJV "The mandrakes send out their fragrance, and at our door is every delicacy, both new and old, that I have stored up for you, my lover." Machiavelli wrote a play Mandragola (The Mandrake) in which the plot revolves around the use of a mandrake potion as a ploy to bed a woman. Shakespeare refers four times to mandrake and twice under the name of mandragora. "...Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world, Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep Which thou owedst yesterday." Shakespeare: Othello III.iii "Give me to drink mandragora... That I might sleep out this great gap of time My Antony is away." Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra I.v "Shrieks like mandrakes' torn out of the earth." Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet IV.iii "Would curses kill, as doth the mandrake's groan" King Henry VI part II III.ii Thomas Lovell Beddoes uses the name of mandrake for a character in his play, Death's Jest Book. John Webster in The Duchess of Malfi: Ferdinand "I have this night digged up a mandrake..." John Donne's song: "Go and catch a falling star Get with child a mandrake root Tell me where all past years are, Or who cleft the devil's foot..." (This poem can be heard set to music by John Renbourn [of Pentangle fame] on his eponymous CD [Transatlantic TRA 135, 1965]) D. H. Lawrence referred to Mandrake as that "weed of ill-omen". Ezra Pound used it as metaphor in his poem "Portrait d'une femme": "You are a person of some interest, one comes to you And takes strange gain away: [...] Pregnant with mandrakes, or with something else That might prove useful and yet never proves, [...]" Samuel Beckett, in Act I of Waiting for Godot the two attendants discuss hanging themselves and reference is made to the belief that mandrake is seeded by the ejaculation of hanged men. John Steinbeck in The Winter of Our Discontent writes that Ethan Hawley has a mandrake root in his family heirlooms which he describes as "a perfect little man, sprouted from the death-ejected sperm of a hanged man". In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the mandrake root is cultivated by Professor Sprout to cure the petrification of several characters who had looked indirectly into the eyes of the Basilisk; the author makes use of the legend of the mandrake's scream (see above), and anyone tending mandrakes wears earmuffs to dull the sound of the scream, if the plant must be transplanted. Mandrake the Magician is an American comic strip created in 1934 by Lee Falk (also creator of The Phantom) and mainly appearing in syndication in newspapers. In Yasuhiro Kanō's manga Mx0, Lucy is a magical mandrake that covertly aids the main character. William S. Burroughs' novel Naked Lunch reads "Johnny scream like a mandrake" Salman Rushdie's novel The Enchantress of Florence reads "[...] mythical plant the locals called ayïq otï, otherwise known as the mandrake root. The mandrake – or “man-drag-on” [...] screamed when you pulled them up into the air just as human beings would scream if you buried them alive." Then the novel tells a story of boys trying to grow mandrake using hanged archbishop's semen. The mandrake has very powerful healing powers and is exclusively used to help cure illnesses. Cormac McCarthy's novel Outer Dark — in reference to a corpse hung from a tree branch — reads "Black mandrake sprang beneath the tree as it will where the seed of the hanged falls and in spring a new branch pierced his breast and flowered in green boutonnière perennial beneath his yellow grin." In David McRobbie's novel Mandragora four cursed mandrake dolls are accidentally taken aboard a boat being used for person transport from Scotland to Australia. These dolls and their curses reap havoc aboard the vessel by possessing passengers and this ends in eventual disaster. A mandrake doll is also taken as good luck by the ships captain to ward off all evil, and this doll alone tries to destroy the four other curses. In a description from Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow a hanged man's "drop of sperm [...] changes into a mandrake root" under the cover of the night. Sadeq Hedayat, perhaps Iran's most famous writer of fiction, in his novel The Blind Owl writes "Her air of mingled gaiety and sadness set her apart from ordinary mankind. Her beauty was extraordinary. She reminded me of a vision seen in an opium sleep. She aroused in me a heat of passion like that which is kindled by the mandrake root." (Trans. D.P. Costello, pg 10) In film In Pan's Labyrinth, the main character Ofelia places a baby-shaped mandrake root in a bowl of fresh milk under her pregnant mother's bed to cure her mysterious illness. In The Serpent's Kiss, Richard E. Grant's character adds powdered mandrake root to Meneer Chrome's (played by Ewan McGregor) snuff box in an attempt to poison him. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets the students have to repot Mandrake seedlings while wearing earmuffs to protect against the deadly screams. A potion concocted using mandrake root is used to cure several victims petrified by a basilisk. In Flesh & Blood, the characters Agnes (played by Jennifer Jason Leigh) and Steven (Tom Burlinson) eat the mandrake root in order to fall in love with each other. In To Kill a Mockingbird, Scout refers to "half-remembered tales of changelings and mandrake roots." In New Tricks, Mandrake root is used to anesthetize dogs that are the victims of a serial killer. It is also in connection with the Egyptian gods Anubis and Wepwawet. In Excalibur, Merlin tests Morgana's knowledge of the properties of mandrake. In and episode of The X-Files, "Terms of Endearment", agent Fox Mulder works on a case where a woman is said to have been given mandrake and hallucinates the abduction of her child. In video games In Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow for Game Boy Advance Mandragora is a root which is pulled from the ground by a skeleton and that attacks with a shriek. In the Nintendo DS sequel, Castlevania: Dawn of Sorrow, Mandragora roots return; here they attack by lifting themselves out of the ground and screaming so loudly that they can explode (it is also present in Castlevania: Order of Ecclesia). In the Final Fantasy series, Mandragora was often classified as a plant monster. Its shrieking cries often induced Silence effects. Similarly, in the Tales series, this is also a plant monster, but with different effects. In the Ultima series, Mandrake roots serve as a rare reagent needed to cast the most powerful spells. In The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, Mandrake plants are scattered throughout the game world, and the roots can be harvested for use in alchemy. Mandrake roots provides cure disease, resist poison, damage agility, and fortify willpower effects. In Quest for Glory I: So You Want To Be A Hero, the player needs to harvest Mandrake root for Baba Yaga, who makes a mousse out of it to eat. In Haunting Ground, the maid Daniella cares for Mandragora in her greenhouse, and taking them will result in them screaming and alerting Daniella. Mandragora are a central plot element of the game Sword of the Berserk: Guts' Rage. The plants, which scream when removed from the ground, are able to infect living people, then known as "Mandragorans", with a disease which causes them to become docile when let be, but results in extreme rage and thoughtless acts of murder when provoked enough. In Myth: Fallen Lords & Myth II: Soulblighter, the Journeymen (healing units) and later, the Heron Guards, use mandrake roots that can be found on the field of play, to recoup their healing spell ability. In Nostale online game, the low level monster called Mandragora is a plant type monster that will make a loud screams that result in status effect HP reduced at the certain percentage for any player that kill it. The Pokémon Oddish is based on the mandrake. In .hack//Infection, mandrakes are scattered across worlds and are used to feed Grunties. In Lost Kingdoms and its sequal, mandrakes appear as trap cards that jump out of the earth and scream, damaging enemies around them. In addition to normal mandrakes, there are also mandrake dancers that do the same but without being buried in the ground, and larger mandrake kings that hit for additional damage. The Digimon Aruraumon( Alraumon in the Original ) is based on the mandrake, with its name coming from alraune, the German name of the mandrake. In Crash: Mind over Mutant's DS version, there's a titan called Psycho-Mandrake. It's a yellow bloom at start, but then it evolves into a palm tree, and later on, it evolves into a big purple flower. It can float with the petals on its head. In the RPG, Brave Story: New Traveler, a Mandragora is a monster that can be located in some areas of the world map. In Final Fantasy XI, Mandragora is a species of monsters found in several regions of Vanadiel. In Mega Man Zero 4, one of the bosses, Noble Mandrago, is a reploid based on a mandrake. In Odin Sphere, when you step on somewhere and made a squeak, you have to jump on it, and a Mandragora pops out, attack it once and you can have it. In Ragnarok Online, Mandragoras are low-level plant monsters primarily used to train magicians on the Fire Bolt spell. If you get close enough, Mandragoras will attack. References External links Erowid Mandrake Vault Mandrake in wildflowers of Israel Mandragora - Lithuanian metal band | Mandrake_(plant) |@lemmatized mandrake:72 common:2 name:5 member:2 plant:21 genus:1 mandragora:21 belong:1 nightshade:1 family:3 solanaceae:1 contains:1 deliriant:1 hallucinogenic:1 tropane:1 alkaloid:1 hyoscyamine:1 root:36 sometimes:1 contain:1 bifurcation:1 cause:3 resemble:3 human:5 figure:3 long:3 use:15 magic:6 ritual:2 today:1 also:7 neopagan:1 religion:2 wicca:1 germanic:1 revivalism:1 odinism:1 allege:1 magician:3 would:6 form:2 crude:1 resemblance:1 pinch:1 constriction:1 little:4 top:1 make:9 kind:1 head:2 neck:2 twist:1 upper:1 branch:5 except:2 two:4 leave:2 arm:1 low:4 leg:1 officinarum:2 call:6 arab:2 luffâh:1 beid:1 el:1 jinni:1 djinn:1 egg:1 parsley:1 shaped:2 often:4 give:8 surface:1 ground:7 rosette:1 ovate:2 oblong:1 wrinkle:1 crisp:1 sinuate:1 dentate:1 entire:1 leaf:1 somewhat:1 tobacco:1 number:2 one:5 flower:4 nodding:1 peduncle:1 spring:3 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organise:1 elementary:1 spirit:1 modern:1 intelligible:1 term:2 magnetic:1 subject:1 belief:2 country:2 semen:3 hanged:4 drip:1 appear:3 employ:1 germany:1 know:3 alraune:3 novel:7 later:3 adapt:1 film:2 hanns:1 heinz:1 ewer:1 base:4 soulless:1 title:1 refer:3 myth:3 take:7 paul:3 christian:3 pp:2 history:2 practice:2 like:4 powerful:3 bottle:1 praise:1 paracelsus:1 bryony:1 monday:1 day:3 moon:1 vernal:1 equinox:1 cut:1 end:2 bury:3 churchyard:1 dead:2 grave:1 thirty:2 water:1 cow:1 milk:2 three:1 bat:1 drown:1 arrive:1 middle:1 dry:1 oven:1 heat:2 verbena:1 wrap:1 piece:1 wind:1 sheet:1 carry:1 everywhere:1 bible:1 sleep:4 husband:1 wheat:1 go:2 bring:1 mother:2 please:1 kjv:1 door:1 every:1 delicacy:1 new:4 store:1 lover:1 machiavelli:1 write:3 play:5 mandragola:1 plot:2 revolve:1 potion:2 ploy:1 shakespeare:4 twice:1 poppy:1 drowsy:1 syrup:1 world:4 shall:1 ever:1 medicine:1 thee:1 sweet:1 thou:1 owedst:1 yesterday:1 othello:1 iii:4 drink:1 might:2 great:1 gap:1 antony:2 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2,071 | HAL_9000 | HAL's iconic camera eye. HAL 9000 is a fictional computer in Arthur C. Clarke's Space Odyssey saga. The novels, along with two films, begin with 2001: A Space Odyssey, released in 1968. It was ranked #13 on a list of greatest film villains of all time on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains. HAL (Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic Computer) is an artificial intelligence, the sentient on-board computer of the spaceship Discovery. HAL is usually represented only as his television camera "eyes" that can be seen throughout the Discovery spaceship. The voice of HAL 9000 was performed by Canadian actor Douglas Rain. In the book, HAL became operational on January 12, 1997 (1992 in the movie) at the HAL Plant in Urbana, Illinois. His first instructor was Dr. Chandra (Mr. Langley in the movie). HAL is depicted as being capable not only of speech recognition, facial recognition, and natural language processing, but also lip reading, art appreciation, interpreting emotions, expressing emotions, reasoning, and chess, in addition to maintaining all systems on an interplanetary voyage. HAL is never visualized as a single entity. He is, however, portrayed with a soft voice and a conversational manner. This is in contrast to the human astronauts, who speak in terse monotone, as do all other actors in the film. In the French language version of 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL's name is given as "CARL", for Cerveau Analytique de Recherche et de Liaison ("Analytic Research and Communication Brain"). The camera plates, however, still read "HAL 9000". Although it is often conjectured that the name HAL was based on a one letter shift from the name IBM, this has been denied by both Clarke and 2001 director Stanley Kubrick. In 2010: Odyssey Two, Clarke speaks through the character of Dr. Chandra, who characterized this idea as: "[u]tter nonsense! [...] I thought that by now every intelligent person knew that H-A-L is derived from Heuristic ALgorithmic". Clarke more directly addressed this issue in his book The Lost Worlds of 2001: Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, pp. 78, Signet, 1972 As is clearly stated in the novel (Chapter 16), HAL stands for Heuristically programmed ALgorithmic computer. However, about once a week some character spots the fact that HAL is one letter ahead of IBM, and promptly assumes that Stanley and I were taking a crack at the estimable institution ... As it happened, IBM had given us a good deal of help, so we were quite embarrassed by this, and would have changed the name had we spotted the coincidence. Also, IBM is indeed in the movie 2001, as are many other real companies. IBM is given fictional credit as being the manufacturer of the Pan Am Clipper's computer. The IBM logo can be seen in the center of the cockpit's instrument panel. HAL's history HAL in 2001: A Space Odyssey In 2001: A Space Odyssey, astronauts David Bowman and Frank Poole consider disconnecting HAL's cognitive circuits when he appears to be mistaken in reporting the presence of a fault in the spacecraft's communications antenna. They believe that HAL cannot hear them, but are unaware that HAL is capable of lip reading. Faced with the prospect of disconnection, HAL decides to kill the astronauts in order to protect and continue "his" programmed directives. HAL proceeds to kill Poole while he is repairing the ship, and disable the life support systems of the crew being held in suspended animation. A view of HAL 9000's central core in the Discovery. David Bowman is viewed from above Realizing what has occurred, Bowman shuts down the machine. HAL's central core is depicted as a crawlspace full of brightly lit computer modules mounted in arrays from which they can be inserted or removed. Bowman shuts down HAL by removing modules from service one by one; as he does so, HAL's consciousness degrades. HAL regurgitates material that was programmed into him early in his memory, including announcing the date he became operational as 12 January 1992. When HAL's logic is completely gone, he begins singing the song "Daisy Bell". HAL's final act of any significance is to prematurely play a prerecorded message from Mission Control which reveals the true reasons for the mission to Jupiter, which had been kept secret from the crew and not been intended to be played until the ship entered Jovian orbit. However, in the novel version, David Bowman has to call mission control and wait 2 or 3 hours for a reply. HAL in 2010: Odyssey Two In the sequel 2010: Odyssey Two (Also known as "2010: The Year We Make Contact"), HAL is restarted by his creator, Dr. Chandra, who arrives on the Soviet spaceship Leonov. Prior to leaving Earth, Dr. Chandra has also had a discussion with HAL's twin, the SAL 9000 2010 (1984) - Full cast and crew (see also the section below). Dr. Chandra discovers that HAL's crisis was caused by a programming contradiction: he was constructed for "the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment", yet his orders, directly from White House officials, required him to keep the discovery of the Monolith TMA-1 a secret for reasons of national security. This contradiction created a "Hofstadter-Moebius loop," reducing HAL to paranoia. Therefore, HAL made the decision to kill the crew, thereby allowing him to obey both his hardwired instructions to report data truthfully and in full and his orders to keep the monolith a secret, as nobody remained from whom to keep it. The alien intelligences controlling the monoliths have grandiose plans for Jupiter, plans which place the Leonov, and everybody in it, in danger. Its human crew devises an escape plan, which unfortunately requires leaving the Discovery and HAL behind, to be destroyed. Dr. Chandra explains the danger, and HAL willingly sacrifices himself so that the astronauts may escape safely. In the moment of his destruction, the monolith-makers transform HAL into a non-corporeal being, so that David Bowman's avatar may have a companion. The details in the book and film are nominally the same, with a few exceptions. In the film, HAL functions normally after being reactivated, while in the book it is revealed that his mind was damaged during the shutdown, forcing him to begin communication through screen text. Also, in the film the Leonov crew lies to HAL about the dangers that he faced (suspecting that if he knew he would be destroyed he would not initiate the engine-burn necessary to get the Leonov back home), whereas in the novel he is told at the outset. However, in both cases the suspense comes from the question of what HAL will do when he knows that he may be destroyed by his actions. Prior to Leonovs return to Earth, Curnow tells Floyd that Dr. Chandra has begun designing HAL 10000. 2061: Odyssey Three indicated that Chandra died on the journey back to Earth, making the point moot. The session of keyboard/screen interaction between HAL and Dr. Chandra has a taste of a natural language understanding computer program like SHRDLU, which both increases the realism of the scene and gives an interesting insight of the perception of artificial intelligence at the time the book was written. HAL in 2061: Odyssey Three and 3001: The Final Odyssey In 2061: Odyssey Three, Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith. 3001: The Final Odyssey introduced the merged forms of Dave Bowman and HAL, the two merging into one entity called "Halman" after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying Discovery One spaceship towards the end of 2010: Odyssey Two. Development Clarke noted that the film was criticized for not having any characters, except for HAL and that a great deal of the establishing story on Earth was cut from the film (and even from Clarke's novel). Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, pp. 77-79, Signet, 1972 Early drafts of Clarke's story called the computer Socrates (a preferred name to Autonomous Mobile Explorer–5), with another draft giving the computer a female personality called Athena. Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, pp. 78, Signet, 1972 The earliest draft depicted Socrates as a roughly humanoid robot, and is introduced as overseeing Project Morpheus, which studied prolonged hibernation in preparation for long term space flight. As a demonstration to Senator Floyd, Socrates's designer, Dr. Bruno Forster, asks Socrates to turn off the oxygen to hibernating subjects Kaminski and Whitehead, which Socrates refuses, citing Asimov's First Law of Robotics. Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, chapter 12, Signet, 1972 In a later version, Poole is killed outside the spacecraft, triggering the need for Bowman to revive Whitehead. The revival does not go according to plan, and after briefly awakening, Whitehead dies. Athena announces "All systems of Poole now No–Go. It will be necessary to replace him with a spare unit." Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, pp. 149-150, Signet, 1972 After this, Bowman decides to go out in a pod and retrieve the antenna, which is moving away from the ship. Athena will not originally let him go, citing a "Directive 15", but eventually relents. Clarke, Arthur C, The Lost Worlds of 2001, pp. 159-160, Signet, 1972 Influences The scene in which HAL's consciousness degrades was inspired by Clarke's memory of a speech synthesis demonstration by physicist John Larry Kelly, Jr, who used an IBM 704 computer to synthesize speech. Kelly's voice recorder synthesizer vocoder recreated the song "Daisy Bell", with musical accompaniment from Max Mathews. Bell Labs: Where "HAL" First Spoke (Bell Labs Speech Synthesis website) Characterization The film differs from the novel in a number of details, including: The book explains far more explicitly the causes of HAL's behavior; it is implied that HAL's programmed objective to ensure the mission's success — at any cost — vaguely resembled the human drive for a purposeful existence, while the prospect of being shut down resembled the fear of death. When these factors began to conflict with his primary objective of preserving the ship's crew, his malfunction was the result. In the film, HAL shuts Bowman out of the craft after Bowman attempts to retrieve Poole's body. In the book, Bowman stays within the ship and is forced to shut down HAL after it attempts to kill him by opening the ship's airlocks. SAL 9000 HAL 9000 has at least one Earthbound twin, SAL 9000. SAL makes its first (and only) appearance in the novel (and subsequent film version) 2010. Before the Soviet-USA mission to retrieve Discovery, Chandra uses SAL for a simulation of the possible effects that a prolonged "sleep" (disconnection) might have induced in HAL, and the project is code-named "Phoenix". When Chandra asks SAL to guess the reason for the name Phoenix she understands that the there are many possible meanings, and her first guess that it refers to the tutor of Achilles is not what he had in mind; her display of culture makes it clear that SAL has access to some form of encyclopedic knowledge database or has it built in with the rest of her programs. SAL is clearly "female" and features camera plates similar to HAL, though the "eye" is blue instead of red. Dr. Chandra has a private terminal to SAL's mainframe in his office, and his influence causes her to develop a slightly Indian accent (2010: Odyssey Two). In the film version, SAL is voiced by Candice Bergen, who was credited only under a pseudonym (as "Olga Mallsnerd", a combination of the surname of Bergen's husband, director Louis Malle and that of Mortimer Snerd, one of her father Edgar Bergen's famous puppet characters). 2010 reveals that another ground-based HAL machine undergoes the same psychopathy that HAL does when forced to experience the same contradiction. During the Discovery mission, (in the 2001 novel and film), when Bowman and Poole have problems with HAL, an Earthbound Mission Control technician reports to them on the use of two unnamed sibling HAL computers on earth as reference simulators. When the sibling computers fails to predict any communications failure, Bowman and Poole begin to suspect HAL's reliability. It may be speculated that one of these sibling computers is SAL. Given the acronym behind HAL's name (Heuristic ALgorithmic), it is not clear if “SAL” is just a nickname, or if the name is a different acronym. The future of computing HAL's capabilities, like all the technology in 2001, were based on the speculation of respected scientists. Marvin Minsky, director of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and one of the most influential researchers in the field, was an adviser on the film set. See Scientist on the Set: An Interview with Marvin Minsky When the film 2001 was first screened in 1968, the year 2001 was considered a distant year and a computer like HAL seemed quite plausible at the time. In the mid-1960s computer scientists were generally optimistic that within a generation or two, machines would be able to pass the Turing test. For example, AI pioneer Herbert Simon had predicted in 1965 that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do". Quoted in , p. 109 As 2001 approached, it became clear that the film's predictions for computer technology were optimistic. Capabilities such as natural language processing, lip reading, planning, and commonsense reasoning on the part of computers were still science fiction concepts. The film's creators guessed that as computers got more powerful, they would increase in size—partly true: Blue Gene, a modern IBM supercomputer, is very large. HAL occupies much of the living area on Discovery (most likely just for the "brain" of the AI). Thin laptops or notepad computers are alluded to in a few scenes where they are used to view news broadcasts from Earth. The HAL 9000 prop eye lens and HAL point of view lens HAL's POV shots were created with a Cinerama 160 degree Fairchild-Curtis wide angle camera lens. This lens is about 8" in diameter, while HAL's prop eye lens is about 3" in diameter. Stanley Kubrick chose to use the large Fairchild-Curtis lens to shoot the Hal 9000 POV shots because he needed a wide angle fisheye lens that would fit onto his shooting camera, and this was the only lens at the time that would work. Apollo 13 air-to-ground transcript Before disaster struck, the specter of HAL 9000 was raised in an amusing exchange between mission control and Apollo 13's moon-bound crew. From NASA's Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription NASA History, Apollo Lunar Surface Journal, Mission Reports, "Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript (raw)" : CC Capsule communicator (CAP COMM) CDR Commander James A. (Jim) Lovell Jr. CMP Command module pilot John L. Swigert Jr. LEB Lower equipment bay DSKY Display and keyboard 00 11 20 14 CC Apollo 13, Houston. 00 11 20 18 CDR Go ahead, Houston. 00 11 20 19 CC Okay. Looking at our computations back here, we show you about 55 450 and going out rapidly now. 00 11 20 33 CDR Well, Hal might be a little bit off. 00 11 20 36 CC Okay. 00 11 20 37 CMP We have a sign underneath our LEB DSKY that "my name is Hal." 00 11 20 45 CC I can't imagine how that got there. Just remember, you have to be nice to Hal. 00 11 20 55 CMP We will. See also Computers in fiction Frank Poole Arthur C. Clarke References External links Text excerpts from HAL 9000 in 2001: A Space Odyssey Audio soundbites from 2001: A Space Odyssey HAL's Legacy, on-line ebook (mostly full-text) of the printed version edited by David G. Stork, MIT Press, 1997, ISBN 0-262-69211-2, a collection of essays on HAL HAL's Legacy, An Interview with Arthur C. Clarke. 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2,072 | Don't_ask,_don't_tell | Don't ask, don't tell is the common term for the policy about homosexuality in the U.S. military mandated by federal law (). Unless one of the exceptions from applies, the policy prohibits anyone who "demonstrate(s) a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts" from serving in the armed forces of the United States, because it "would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability." The act prohibits any homosexual or bisexual person from disclosing his or her sexual orientation or from speaking about any homosexual relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the United States armed forces. The "don't ask" part of the policy indicates that superiors should not initiate investigation of a service member's orientation in the absence of disallowed behaviors, though mere suspicion of homosexual behavior can cause an investigation. Beginning of the policy The policy was introduced as a compromise measure in 1993 and approved by then President Bill Clinton who, while campaigning for the Presidency, had promised to allow all citizens regardless of sexual orientation to serve openly in the military, a departure from the then complete ban on those who are not heterosexual. The actual policy was crafted by Colin Powell and was maintained by Clinton's successor, George W. Bush. More generally, "Don't ask, don't tell" has come to describe any instance in which one person must keep sexual orientation and any related attributes, including family, a secret, but where deliberate lying would be undesirable. History During the American Revolutionary War, the armed forces treated sodomy (then broadly defined as oral or anal sexual conduct) as grounds for being dishonorably discharged. The first such recorded discharge was in 1778, when Lieutenant Frederick Gotthold Enslin was (with the approval of General George Washington Shilts, p. 11 ) dishonorably discharged following a conviction of homosexual sodomy and perjury. The Articles of War maintained the crime of sodomy, but it was not until 1942 that the armed forces considered homosexual status (as assessed by the military through a process of recruitment screening or internal investigations) as grounds for being separated from the military. Thus, anyone in the armed forces labeled as gay or bisexual were subject to criminal sanctions under the sodomy prohibition, or could be given a blue discharge and returned to civilian life, where they were denied G.I. Bill benefits by the Veterans Administration Bérubé, p. 230 and often had difficulty finding employment because most civilian employers knew what a blue discharge meant. Blue discharges were discontinued in May 1947, with discharges that would formerly have been blue now falling under one of two new headings, "general" and "undesirable". Bérubé, p. 242 A general discharge was considered to be under honorable conditions – which is distinct from an "honorable discharge" – and an undesirable discharge was under conditions other than honorable – which, again, is distinct from a "dishonorable discharge". Jones, p. 2 At the same time, however, the Army changed its regulations to ensure that homosexuals would not qualify for general discharges. Bérubé, p. 243 Under this system, a servicemember found to be homosexual but not to have committed any homosexual acts while in-service would receive an undesirable discharge. Those who were found guilty of engaging in homosexual conduct were dishonorably discharged. By the 1970s, a gay servicemember who had not committed any homosexual acts while in-service would tend to receive a general discharge, while those found to have engaged in homosexual conduct would tend to receive undesirable discharges. Jones, p. 3 However, the reality remained that gay servicemembers received a disproportionate percentage of undesirable discharges issued. Shilts, p. 163 The success of the armed forces in pre-screening self-identified gay and bisexual people from the 1940s through 1981 remains in dispute; during the Vietnam War, some men pretended to be gay in order to avoid the draft. However, a significant number of gay and bisexual men and women did manage to avoid the pre-screening process and serve in the military, some with special distinction. For example, in the 1950s and 1960s, the Navy medical doctor Tom Dooley received national fame for his anti-Communist and humanitarian efforts in Vietnam. His homosexuality was something of an open secret in the Navy, but eventually he was forced to resign; the Navy subsequently conducted the first official study on sexual orientation and the Navy regulations and rules. The 1957 report, titled Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures and Directives Dealing With Homosexuals (better known as the Crittenden Report) found that gay-identified people were no more likely to be a security risk than heterosexual-identified people, and found there was no rational basis for excluding gay people from the Navy, although it stopped short of recommending a change in the regulations because of social mores. Beyond the official regulations, gay people were often the target of various types of harassment by their fellow servicemen, designed to persuade them to resign from the military or turn themselves in to investigators. The most infamous type of such harassment was called a blanket party; during the night in the barracks, several service members first covered the face of the victim with a blanket and then committed assault, often quite severely and sometimes even fatally, as in the case of Allen R. Schindler, Jr.. When passing the "Don't ask, don't tell" bill, President Clinton cited U.S. Navy Radioman Third Class Schindler, who was brutally murdered by shipmate Terry M. Helvey (with the aid of an accomplice), leaving a "nearly-unrecognizable corpse". Belkin, Dr. Aaron. "Abandoning 'Don't Ask, Don't Tell' Will Decrease Anti-Gay Violence" Naval Institute: Proceedings Monthly. 1 May, 2005 The introduction of "Don't ask, don't tell" with the later amendment of "don't pursue, don't harass" has officially prohibited such behavior, but reports suggest that such harassment continues. Moradi, Dr. Bonnie "Perceived Sexual-Orientation-Based Harassment in Military and Civilian Contexts" Military Psychology 2006, 18(1), 39-60 The degree of official and unofficial attempts to separate gay people from the armed forces seems to be directly related to the personnel needs of the armed forces. Hence, during wartime, it has not been uncommon for the rules regarding homosexuality to be relaxed. Until 1981, it was the policy of all branches of the armed forces to retain, at their discretion, anyone suspected of homosexual activity, thus promoting the "queen for a day" rule, which allowed a person accused of homosexuality to remain in the armed forces if one could successfully claim that their behavior was only a singular occurrence. This especially became the case during the Vietnam War. During the 1970s, several high-profile court challenges to the military's regulations on homosexuality occurred, with little success, and when such successes did occur it was when the plaintiff had been open about his homosexuality from the beginning or due to the existence of the "queen for a day" rule. In 1981, the Department of Defense issued a new regulation on homosexuality that was designed to ensure withstanding a court challenge by developing uniform and clearly defined regulations and justifications that made homosexual status, whether self-applied or by the military, and conduct grounds for discharge (DOD Directive 1332.14 (Enlisted Administrative Separations), January, 1981): The directive justified the policy and removed the "queen for a day" rule that had prompted some courts to rule against the armed forces. However, the intent of the policy had also been to treat homosexuality as being akin to a disability discharge and thus ensure that anyone found engaging in homosexual activity and/or identifying as gay, would be separated with an honorable discharge. The DOD policy has since withstood most court challenges, although the United States Supreme Court has refused to weigh in on the constitutionality of the policy, preferring to allow lower courts and the United States Congress to settle the matter. In the 1980s, many of the Democratic Party presidential candidates expressed an interest in changing the regulations concerning homosexuality in the armed forces, and, as American social mores changed, public opinion began to express more sympathy with gay people in armed forces, at least to the extent that investigations into a serviceman or -woman's sexual behaviour and/or orientation were seen as a witch-hunt. "Gays in the military" became a political issue during the 1992 Presidential campaign, when Clinton, the Democratic candidate, promised to lift the military's ban on homosexual and bisexual people. In 1992, the United States General Accounting Office published a report entitled Defense Force Management: DOD's Policy on Homosexuality. GAO/NSAID-92-98, that outlined the DOD policy on homosexuality and the reasons for it. The report also included excerpts from a previously unpublished 1988 Defense Personnel Security Research and Education Center study on homosexuality that made similar conclusions as the 1957 Crittenden Report. In 1993, the two reports were published alongside an argument by an armed forces general who argued against lifting the ban on homosexual- and bisexual-identified people based on a belief that they pose a security risk, will erode unit cohesion and morale alongside the argument that most homosexual and bisexual oriented people are pedophiles who engage in a self-destructive and immoral life-style. Congressional opposition to lifting the ban on gay and bisexual people in the armed forces was led by Democratic Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia who organized Congressional hearings that largely buffed the armed forces position that has remained unchanged since the 1981 directive. While Congressional support for reform was led by Democratic Congressman Barney Frank of Massachusetts, who fought for a compromise, and retired Republican Senator Barry Goldwater, who argued for a complete repeal of the ban. After a large number of people flooded the Congressional phone lines with oppositions to lifting the ban, President Clinton soon backed off on his campaign promise to lift the ban on homosexual and bisexual people in the armed forces. The final result was a Congressional compromise of "Don't ask, don't tell" that was later amended to include "don't harass". Officially, the compromise dictates that the armed forces will no longer ask recruits about their sexual activity and/or orientation, will not investigate any serviceman or servicewoman's sexual activity and/or orientation without solid evidence (thus preventing witch-hunts), and self-identified homosexual servicemen and women agree that they will not engage in homosexual sex acts, or do anything that announces that they are a homosexual, i.e. public statements or participate in a same-sex marriage openly. In 2000, Northwestern University Professor Charles Moskos, the principal author of DADT (which, as originally coined by Moskos, was "Don't Ask Don't Tell; Don't Seek Don't Flaunt"), told "Lingua Franca" that he felt that policy will be gone within five to ten years. Moskos also dismissed the unit cohesion argument, instead arguing that gay people should be banned due to "modesty rights", saying "Fuck unit cohesion. I don't care about that...I should not be forced to shower with a woman. I should not be forced to shower with a gay [man]." Moskos did not offer any alternative to his DADT policy. In 2005, member of Congress Marty Meehan (third from left) unsuccessfully attempted to repeal the policy On September 13, 2005, the Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military (on October 23, 2006 renamed the Michael D. Palm Center), a think tank affiliated with the University of California, Santa Barbara, issued a news release revealing the existence of a 1999 FORSCOM regulation (Regulation 500-3-3) that allowed the active duty deployment of Army Reservists and National Guard troops who say that they are gay or who are accused of being gay. U.S. Army Forces Command spokesperson Kim Waldron later confirmed the regulation and indicated that it was intended to prevent Reservists and National Guard members from pretending to be gay to escape combat. "Don't ask, don't tell" has been upheld five times in federal court, and in a Supreme Court case, Rumsfeld v. Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights, Inc. (2006), the Supreme Court unanimously held that the federal government could withhold funding in order to force universities to accept military recruiters in spite of their nondiscrimination policies. In 1993, the National Defense Research Institute of the Rand Corporation published Sexual Orientation and U.S. Military Personnel Policy: Options and Assessment, prepared for the Office of the Secretary of Defense. Identified as MR-323-OSD and with ISBN 0-8330-1441-2, 13 Chapters, 518 pages, paperback. On page 409, "Appendix A" exhibits an "Illustrative Standard of Professional Conduct". On page 411, "Appendix B" gives a detailed study of "Living and Privacy Conditions in the Military Service". "Appendix C" analyzes "Legal Provisions Concerning Sodomy". "Appendices D and E" study foreign armed forces (especially Canada's), and "Appendix F" gives "Relevant Data from Surveys". Public opinion Polls have shown that a large majority of the American public favors allowing gay and lesbian people to serve openly in the U.S. military. A national poll conducted in May 2005 by the Boston Globe showed 79% of participants having nothing against openly gay people from serving in the military. In a 2008 Washington Post–ABC News poll, 75% of Americans – including 80% of Democrats, 75% of independents, and 66% of conservatives – said that openly gay people should be allowed to serve in the military. Acceptance of Gay People in Military Grows Dramatically - washingtonpost.com Military personnel opinion A 2006 Zogby International poll of military members found that 26% were in favor of gays and lesbians serving in the military, 37% opposed gays and lesbians serving, and 37% expressed no preference or were unsure. 72% of respondents who had experience with gays or lesbians in their unit said that the presence of gay or lesbian unit members had either no impact or a positive impact on their personal morale, while 67% said as much for overall unit morale. Of those respondents uncertain whether they had served with gay or lesbian personnel, only 51% thought that such unit members would have a neutral or positive effect on personal morale, while 58% thought that they would have a negative effect on unit morale. 73% of respondents said that they felt comfortable in the presence of gay and lesbian personnel. Opinions of Military Personnel on Sexual Minorities in the Military Statistics In the fiscal years since the policy was first introduced (1993), the military has discharged nearly 12,500 troops from the military due to homosexuality. Statistics on the number of persons discharged per year: Year Coast Guard Marines Navy Army Air Force Total 1994 0 36 258 136 187 617 1995 15 69 269 184 235 772 1996 12 60 315 199 284 870 1997 10 78 413 197 309 1,007 1998 14 77 345 312 415 1,163 1999 12 97 314 271 352 1,046 2000 19 104 358 573 177 1,231 2001* — — — — — 1,273 2002* — — — — — 906 2003* — — — — — 787 2004 15 59 177 325 92 668 2005 16 75 177 386 88 742 2006* — — — — — 612 Total 113 655 2,626 2,583 2,139 11,694 *Breakdown of discharges by service branch not available 1994–2003, 2006 from Servicemembers Legal Defense Network - Annual Gay Discharges Under "Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue, Don't Harass" 2004–2005 from 365Gay.com - Military Discharging Two Soldiers Per Day For Being Gay Despite War Group Says Not accurate numbers of discharges under Don't Ask, Don't Tell, due to some soldiers not disclosing their discharge. These statistics are only from those who came forward to the Servicemembers Legal Defense Network. Financial impact of policy In February 2005, the Government Accountability Office released estimates on the cost of the policy. Cautioning that the amount may be too low, the GAO reported $95.4 million in recruiting costs and $95.1 million for training replacements for the 9,488 troops discharged from 1994 through 2003. In February 2006, a University of California Blue Ribbon Commission including Lawrence Korb, a former assistant defense secretary during the Reagan administration, former Defense Secretary William Perry, a member of the Clinton administration, and professors from West Point U.S. Military Academy concluded that figure should be closer to $363 million, including $14.3 million for "separation travel" once a service member is discharged, $17.8 million for training officers, $252.4 million for training enlistees and $79.3 million in recruiting costs. The commission report stated that the GAO didn't take into account the value the military lost from the departures. Criticism from military personnel Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. John Shalikashvili (Ret.) and former Senator and Secretary of Defense William Cohen spoke against the policy publicly in early January 2007: "I now believe that if gay men and lesbians served openly in the United States military, they would not undermine the efficacy of the armed forces," General Shalikashvili wrote. "Our military has been stretched thin by our deployments in the Middle East, and we must welcome the service of any American who is willing and able to do the job." In December 2007, 28 retired generals and admirals urged Congress to repeal the policy. They cited evidence that 65,000 gay men and women are currently serving in the armed forces, and that there are over 1,000,000 gay veterans. On May 4, 2008, current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm. Mike Mullen, when speaking to graduating cadets at West Point, expressed the view "that Congress, and not the military, is responsible for the 'Don't ask, don't tell' law banning openly lesbian, gay and bisexual Americans from military service." Mullen's answer came in response to a cadet's question asking what would happen if the next administration were supportive of legislation allowing gays to serve openly. During his Senate confirmation hearing in 2007, Mullen told lawmakers, "I really think it is for the American people to come forward, really through this body, to both debate that policy and make changes, if that's appropriate." He went on to say, "I'd love to have Congress make its own decisions," with respect to considering repeal. SLDN Press Release - Admiral Mullen speaks at West Point Several gay service members have written novels and nonfiction works about life in the military under the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy. In 2005, Rich Merritt released his memoir "Secrets of a Gay Marine Porn Star", and in 2008 Brett Edward Stout released his first fiction novel, "Sugar-baby Bridge". Military Readiness Enhancement Act The Military Readiness Enhancement Act is a bill introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives with the stated purpose "to amend title 10, United States Code, to enhance the readiness of the Armed Forces by replacing the current policy concerning homosexuality in the Armed Forces, referred to as "Don't ask, don't tell", with a policy of nondiscrimination on the basis of sexual orientation." Supporters of the repeal want Congress to eliminate the policy with the 2010 defense authorization bill in April 2009. Barack Obama's position President Barack Obama has stated that he plans to repeal the policy and allow gay and lesbian people to serve openly in the armed forces, agreeing with Gen. Shalikashvili and stating that the U.S. government has spent millions of dollars replacing troops expelled from the military, including language experts fluent in Arabic. Barack Obama Barack Obama on LGBT RIGHTS: Barack Obama supports the LGBT community. Retrieved from http://www.barackobama.com May 30, 2008. http://www.change.gov/agenda/civil_rights_agenda/ In November, 2008, Obama advisers announced that his plans to repeal the policy may be delayed until as late as 2010, because Obama "first wants to confer with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and his new political appointees at the Pentagon to reach a consensus, and then present legislation to Congress." Rowan Scarborough."Obama to delay repeal of 'don't ask, don't tell': advisers see consensus building before lifting ban on gays Washington Times, November 21, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-22. Situation outside the United States Most Western military forces have now removed policies excluding individuals of sexual orientations other than heterosexual (with strict policies on sexual harassment). Of the 26 countries that participate militarily in NATO, more than 22 permit gay people to serve; of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, two (Britain, France) permit gay people to serve openly, and three (United States, Russia, China) do not. Besides Greece, which bans homosexuals from serving, all other members of permit gay people to serve openly. The Greek discrimination policy has become the object of criticism by the European Union, as EU law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Queer:Argentinien und die Philippinen beenden Homo-Verbot im Militär (german) In 2009, Argentina, Uruguay and Philippines allowed gay men to serve openly in the military. Queer:Argentinien und die Philippinen beenden Homo-Verbot im Militär (german) Authority to repeal DADT The Obama administration has stated that it is Congress, not the president, which has the authority to lift the ban. However, in May 2009, a committee of military law experts at the University of California at Santa Barbara http://www.palmcenter.org/files/active/0/Executive%20Order%20on%20Gay%20Troops%20-%20final.pdf concluded that it is within the authority of the executive branch to discontinue the policy. “How to End Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell: A Roadmap of Political, Legal, Regulatory, and Organizational Steps to Equal Treatment,” was sponsored by the Palm Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara See also Allen Schindler – sailor who was murdered in a hate crime committed by other sailors Barry Winchell – American soldier who was killed by other soldiers while serving because he was thought to be a homosexual Holmes v. California National Guard Margarethe Cammermeyer – retired colonel in the Washington National Guard and a gay rights activist Sexual orientation and military service Right to Serve Campaign, an organized effort to bring attention to the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy Notes References Bérubé, Allan (1990). Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two. New York, The Penguin Group. Jones, Major Bradley K. (January 1973). "The Gravity of Administrative Discharges: A Legal and Empirical Evaluation" [http://www.docstoc.com/docs/856136/The-Military-Law-Review-Vol-59-(Jan-73) The Military Law Review] 59:1–26. Shilts, Randy (1993). Conduct Unbecoming: Gays & Lesbians in the U.S. Military Vietnam to the Persian Gulf. New York, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 031209261X Further reading Donnelly, Elaine (2007). "Constructing the Co-Ed Military," Duke University Journal of Gender Law and Policy, May 2007. Johansson, Warren and William A Percy. (1994). Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence. Harrington Park Press. Carter, Chad C. and Kolenc, Antony B. (2005). University of Dayton Law Review, Fall 2005. Zylbergold,Bonnie (2007). "The Key to Enlightenment: Semper-fi, a documentary about ex-marine Jeff Key, showcased at Frameline31", American Sexuality Magazine External links Center for Military Readiness Policy concerning homosexuality in the armed forces Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Gays and U.S. Military Policy Human Rights Campaign Servicemembers Legal Defense Network Chronology of "Don't ask, don't tell" Michael D. Palm Center Blue Alliance - LGBT Alumni of the US Air Force Academy Knights Out - LGBT Alumni of the US Military Academy USNA Out - LGBT Alumni of the US Naval Academy Thomasson v. 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2,073 | Flag_of_Denmark | The national flag of Denmark, Dannebrog, is red with a white Scandinavian cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. The cross design of the Danish flag was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries: Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. During the Danish-Norwegian personal union, Dannebrog ("Danish cloth") was also the flag of Norway and continued to be, with slight modifications, until Norway adopted its current flag in 1821. Dannebrog is the oldest state flag in the world still in use, with the earliest undisputed source dating back to the 14th century. Prior to the use of Dannebrog, Danish forces are known to have used the raven banner. The legendary origin of the flag The legend of the flag is very popular among Danes, although most consider it to be a myth. The legend says that during the Battle of Lyndanisse, also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: "Volmerslaget"), near Lyndanisse (Tallinn) in Estonia, on June 15 1219, the flag fell from the sky during a critical stage, resulting in Danish victory. Another legend says that Valdemar and his army saw the sky being blood red except for a white cross just before the battle. No historical record supports this legend. The first record of the legend dates from more than 300 years after the campaign, and the first record connects the legend to a much smaller battle, though still in Estonia; the battle of Fellin (Viljandi) in 1208. Though no historical support exists for the flag story in the Fellin battle either, it is not difficult to understand how a small and unknown place is replaced with the much grander battle of Reval from the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. This story originates from two written sources from the early 16th century. The first is found in Christiern Pedersen's "Danske Krønike", which is a sequel to Saxo’s Gesta Danorum, written 1520 – 23. It is not mentioned in connection to the campaign of King Valdemar II in Estonia, but in connection with a campaign in Russia. He also mentions that this flag, falling from the sky during the Russian campaign of King Valdemar II, is the very same flag that King Eric of Pomerania took with him when he left the country in 1440 after being deposed as King. The second source is the writing of the Franciscan monk Petrus Olai (Peder Olsen) of Roskilde, from 1527. This record describes a battle in 1208 near a place called "Felin" during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross falls from the sky and miraculously leads to a Danish victory. In another record by Petrus Olai called "Danmarks Tolv Herligheder" (Twelve Splendours of Denmark), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost to the word, however a paragraph has been inserted correcting the year to 1219. Whether or not these records describe a truly old oral story in existence at that time, or a 16th century invented story, is not currently determined. Some historians believe that the story by Petrus Olai refers to a source from the first half of the 15th century, making this the oldest reference to the falling flag. The continuation of the romantic legend The story of the original flag has a continuation. According to tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lyndanisse was used in the small campaign of 1500 when King Hans tried to conquer Dithmarschen (in western Holstein in north Germany). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Hemmingstedt on 17 February 1500. In 1559, King Frederik II recaptured it during his own Dithmarschen campaign. In the capitulation terms it is stated that all Danish banners lost in 1500 were to be returned. This legend is found in two sources, Hans Svaning's History of King Hans from 1558-1559 and Johan Rantzau's History about the Last Dithmarschen War, from 1569. Both claim that this was the original flag, and consequently both writers knew the legend of the falling flag. In 1576, the son of Johan Rantzau, Henrik Rantzau, also writes about the war and the fate of the flag. He notes that the flag was in a poor condition when returned. Sources from Dithmarschen, written shortly after the battle of 1500, do mention banners, including the Royal banner, being captured from the Danes, but there is no mention of Dannebrog or the "original" flag. It is quite plausible that the king’s personal banner as well as the leading banner of the army were both lost, as the battle was led by the King himself. However, it is more questionable if he indeed was carrying the "original" flag. In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to Oluf Stigsøn, King John describes the battle, but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was nothing more than an "unfortunate affair". An indication that we are dealing with multiple flags, are the 1570 writings of Niels Hemmingsøn regarding a bloody battle between Danes and Swedes near the Swedish town of Uppsala in 1520. He writes that the "Danish head banner" ("Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner") was nearly captured by the Swedes. It was saved only by the combined efforts of the banner-carrier Mogens Gyldenstierne, taking multiple wounds, and a young man coming to his rescue. This young man was Peder Skram. This "Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner" was probably nothing short of the "Banner of the Realm'" (Rigsbanner), the Dannebrog. This is however not the end of the story. A priest and historian from Dithmarschen, Neocorus, wrote in 1598 that the banner captured in 1500, was brought to the church in Wohrden and hung there for the next 59 years, until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in 1559. Henrik Rantzau states in his writing of 1576 that the flag was brought to Slesvig city and placed in the cathedral, following its return. A historian from Slesvig, Ulrik Petersen (1656-1735), wrote in the late 17th century that the flag hung in Slesvig cathedral till about 1660 until it simply crumbled away, thus ending its more than 400-year-old story. Historically, it is of course impossible to prove or disprove that these records speak of the same flag. If the flag of 1208 or 1219 ever existed. Many of these legends are apparently built on earlier ones. Other theories of the origin of the flag Other origin theories have been put forth in the late 19th and early 20th century. Theories of the origin of the flag, #2 The Danish historian Caspar Paludan-Müller in 1873 in his book "Sagnet om den himmelfaldne Danebrogsfane" put forth the theory that it is a banner sent by the Pope to the Danish King to use in his crusades in the Baltic countries. Other kings and lords certainly received such banners. One would imagine, though, that if this story was true, some kind of record ought to exist of the event, and presumably Danish historians would not have failed to mention it in some way. Being granted a banner by the Pope would have been a great honour, but despite the many letters of the popes relating to the crusades, none of them mentions granting a banner to a King of Denmark. On the other hand, the letter in question might simply have been lost. Theories of the origin of the flag, #3 A similar theory was suggested by Danish explorer, adventurer and Captain Johan Støckel in the early 20th century. He suggested that it was not a papal banner to the King but a papal banner to the Churchly legate in the North, more specifically to archbishop Andreas Sunesøn, which he – without the knowledge of the King – brought with him on the King's crusade in the Baltic countries, in an effort to make the army take on a Christian symbol (over the king's symbol) and thereby strengthen the power of the church. It is unlikely that the very fair and loyal archbishop would do such a thing behind the king's back. Moreover, it is unlikely that the pope would send such a banner, given the fact that they already had one, namely the banner of the Knights Hospitaller (Danish: "Johanitterne"). Theories of the origin of the flag, #4 A theory brought forth by the Danish historian Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen in 1875 in his book "Danebroges Oprindelse" is that the Danish flag is the banner of the Knights Hospitaller. He notes that the order came to Denmark in the latter half of the 12th century and during the next centuries spread to major cities, like Odense, Viborg, Horsens, Ribe and their headquarters in Slagelse, so by the time of the Baltic crusade, the symbol was already a known symbol in Denmark. Furthermore he claims that Bishop Theoderich, already co-initiator of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in Livonia, had the idea of starting a similar order in Estonia; and that he was the original instigator of the inquiry from Bishop Albert of Buxhoeveden to King Valdemar II in 1218, that set the whole Danish participation in the Baltic crusades in motion. In the contemporary writing of the priest Henry of Livonia from Riga it is said that Bishop Theoderich was killed during the 1219 battle, when the enemy stormed his tent, thinking it was the King's tent. Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen explains that it was Bishop Theoderich who carried the flag, planted outside his tent; thus as an already well-known symbol of the Knights Hospitaller in Livonia, the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theoderich tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle. Theories of the origin of the flag, #5 The Danish church-historian L. P. Fabricius put up yet another theory, explained in his study of 1934, titled "Sagnet om Dannebrog og de ældste Forbindelser med Estland". He ascribes the origin to the 1208 Battle of Fellin, not the Battle of Lyndanisse in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story. He says in this theory that it might have been Archbishop Andreas Sunesøn's personal ecclestical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop Absalon, based on his tireless efforts to expand Christianity to the Baltic countries. Under his initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. He repeats the story about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent, which the enemy mistakenly attacks believing it to be the tent of the King. All these theories centre on two battles in Estonia, Fellin (1208) or Lyndanisse (1219), and thus try to explain the origin in relation to the tale brought forth over 300 years after the event. Theories of the origin of the flag, #6 A much different theory is briefly discussed by Fabricius and elaborated more by Helga Bruhn in her book "Dannebrog" from 1949. She claims that it is neither the battle nor the banner that is central to the tale, but rather the cross in the sky. Similar tales of appearances in the sky at critical moments, particularly of crosses, can be found all over Europe. Bruhn mentions a battle (also mentioned by Fabricius) taking place on September 10, 1217 between Christian knights and Moor warriors on the Iberian Peninsula near the castle Alcazar, where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians. Likewise an almost identical Swedish tale from the 18th century about a yellow cross on blue appearing in 1157 during a Swedish battle in Finland. Probably a later invention to counter the legendary origins of the Danish flags, but nevertheless of the same nature. The English flag, the Saint George's Cross is also claimed to have appeared in the sky during a critical battle, in this case in Jerusalem during the crusades. The similarities to the legends is obvious. In Spain, the colours of the Pope appears in the sky, in Finland the Swedish colours. In Estonia it is the Danish colours, and in Jerusalem the English colours. Basically, these are all variations of the same legend. Since King Valdemar II was married to the Portuguese princess, Berengaria, it is not unthinkable that the origin of the story, if not the flag, was the Spanish tale or a similar tale, which again might have been inspired by an even older legend. Earliest recorded use of the flag Danish literature of the 13th and 14th centuries remains quiet about the national flag. Whether the flag has its origins in a divine sign, a banner of a military order, an ecclesiastical banner, or perhaps something entirely different, Danish literature is no help before the early 15th century. However, several coins, seals and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing flags similar to Dannebrog. In the 19th and early 20th century, these images were used by many Danish historians, with a good flair of nationalism, trying to date the origins of the flag to 1219. However, if one examines the few existing foreign sources about Denmark from the 13th to 15th centuries, it is apparent that, at least from foreign point of view; the national symbol of Denmark was not a red-and-white banner but the royal coat of arms (three blue lions on a golden shield.) This coat of arms remains in use to this day. An obvious place to look for documentation is in the Estonian city of Tallinn, the site of the legendary battle. In Tallinn, a coat-of-arms resembling the flag is found on several buildings and can be traced back to the middle of the 15th century where it appears in the coat-of-arms of the "Die Grosse Gilde", a sort of merchant consortium which greatly influenced the city's development. The symbol later became the coat-of-arms of the city. Efforts to trace it from Estonia back to Denmark have, however, been in vain. The national Coat of Arms of Estonia, three blue lions on a golden shield, is almost identical to the Coat of Arms of Denmark, and its origin can be traced directly back to King Valdemar II and Danish rule in Estonia 1219-1346. Earliest undisputed link The earliest source that indisputably links the red flag with a white cross to a Danish King, and to the realm itself, is found in a Dutch armorial, the "Gelre Armorial" (Dutch: Wapenboek Gelre), written between 1340 and 1370 (some sources say 1378 or 1386). Most historians claim that the book was written by Geldre Claes Heinen. The book displays some 1,700 coats-of-arms from all over Europe, in colour. It is now located at the Royal Library of Brussels (the "Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier"). On page 55 verso we find the Danish coat-of-arms surmounted by a helmet with horns. Behind the sinister horn is a lance tip with a banner, displaying a white cross on red. The text left of the coat of arms says "die coninc van denmarke" (The King of Denmark). This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of Dannebrog. This image has been used to acknowledge a previously disputed theory that the cross found in Valdemar Atterdag's coats of arms located in his Danælog seal ("Rettertingsseglet") from 1356 is indeed the cross from the Danish flag. This image from the Armorial Gelre is near identical to an image found in an old coats of arms book from the 15th century now located in the National Archives of Sweden, ("Riksarkivet") From the time of King Eric of Pomerania we also have a case that undisputedly links Dannebrog to Denmark. His seal from 1398 as king of the Kalmar union displays the arms of Denmark chief dexter, three lions. In this version, the lions are holding a Danebrog banner. The cross quartering the shields has also been identified as a Daneborg cross, but this claim is disputed. Since the seal represents all of the three realms of the union, it is more likely that the cross refers to the union banner that King Eric tried to introduce, a red cross on yellow. Laws and flag variations Denmark does not have a specified flag law, but various regulations and rules spread out over many documents, from King Christian IV's time till today, can be found. National flag The size and shape of the coufhordie flag ("Koffardiflaget") for merchant ships is given in the regulation of June 11, 1748, which says: A red flag with a white cross with no split end. The white cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields must be 6/4 lengths of those. The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 vertically and 3:1:4.5 horizontally. This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag ("Stutflaget"), as well as the merchant flag ("Handelsflaget"). Both flags are identical. A somewhat curious regulation came in 1758 concerning Danish ships sailing in the Mediterranean. These had to carry the King's cypher logo in the center of the flag, to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the flag of the Order of St. John (also known as the Knights Hospitaller). To the best of knowledge, this regulation has never been revoked, however it is probably no longer done. According to the regulation of June 11, 1748 the colour was simply red, which is common known today as "Dannebrog rød" ("Dannebrog red"). The only available red fabric dye in 1748 was made of madder root, which can be processed to produce a brilliant red dye (used historically for British soldiers' jackets). The private company, Dansk Standard, regulation number 359 of 2005, defines the red colour of the flag as Pantone 186c. No official nuance definition of "Dannebrog rød" exists. During the next about 150 years nobody paid much attention to actually abide fully to the proportions of the flag given in the 1748 regulation, not even the government. As late as 1892 it was stated in a series of regulations that the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag were 6/4. Some interested in the matter made inquires into the issue and concluded that the 6/4 length would make the flag look blunt. Any new flag would also quickly become unlawful, due to wear and tear. They also noted that the flag currently used had lengths, of the last two fields, anywhere between 7/4 to 13/6. So in May 1893 a new regulation to all chiefs of police, stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than 6/4 as long as these did not exceed 7/4, and provided that this was the only rule violated. This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag is today anywhere between 3:1:3 width / 3:1:4.5 length and 3:1:3 width / 3:1:5.25 length. That some confusion still exists in this matter can be seen from the regulation of May 4, 1927, which once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of 1748. Splitflag The Splitflag or Orlogsflag have similar specifications, but legally, they are two different flags. The Splitflag is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is Dannebrog red, and is used on land. The Orlogsflag is a Splitflag with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea. The Orlogsflag with no markings, may only be used by the Royal Danish Navy. There are though a few exceptions to this. A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean Orlogsflag. Same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years. Furthermore, the Orlogsflag is only described as such if it has no additional markings. Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the color, is called a Splitflag provided it bears additional markings. The first regulation regarding the Splitflag dates from March 27, 1630, in which King Christian IV orders that Norwegian Defensionskibe (armed merchants ships) may only use the Splitflag if they are in Danish war service. In 1685 an order, distributed to a number of cities in Slesvig, states that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in 1690 all merchant ships are forbidden to use the Splitflag, with the exception of ships sailing in the East Indies, West Indies and at the coast of Africa. In 1741 it is confirmed that the regulation of 1690 is still very much in effect; that merchant ships may not use the Splitflag. At the same time the Danish East India Company is allowed to fly the Splitflag when past the equator. It is obvious that some confusion must have existed regarding the Splitflag. In 1696 the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the Splitflag. In the same year a royal resolution defines the proportions of the Splitflag, which in this resolution is called Kongeflaget (the King's flag), as follows: The cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width. The two outer fields are rectangular and 1½ the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the flag. These numbers are the basic for the Splitflag, or Orlogsflag, today, though the numbers have been slightly altered. The term Orlogsflag dates from 1806 and denotes use in the Danish Navy. From about 1750 to early 1800s a number of ships and companies which the government has interests in, received approval to use the Splitflag. From the mid 1800s to 1899, and especially after 1870, additional institutions and private companies received approval to use the Splitflag. In the royal resolution of October 25, 1939 for the Danish Navy, it is stated that the Orlogsflag is a Splitflag with a deep red ("Kraprød" or "dybrød") colour. Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U. Furthermore the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: "The cross must be 1/7 of the flag's height. The two first fields must be square in form with the height of 3/7 of the flags height. The two outer fields are rectangular and 5/4 the length of the square fields. The tails are 6/4 the length of the rectangular fields". Thus, if compared to the standard of 1696, both the rectangular fields and the tails have decreased in size. Royal standard The current version of the royal standard was introduced on 16 November 1972 when the Queen adopted a new version of her personal coat of arms. The royal standard is the flag of Denmark with a swallow-tail and charged with the monarch’s coat of arms set in a white square. The centre square is 32 parts in a flag with the ratio 56:107. References Danmarks-Samfundet - several rules and customs about the use of Dannebrog Dannebrog, Helga Bruhn, Forlaget Jespersen og Pios, Copenhagen 1949 Danebrog - Danmarks Palladium, E. D. Lund, Forlaget H. Hagerups, Copenhagen 1919 Dannebrog - Vort Flag, Lieutenant Colonel Thaulow, Forlaget Codan, Copenhagen 1943 DS 359:2005 ’Flagdug’'', Dansk Standard, 2005 External links be-x-old:Сьцяг Даніі | Flag_of_Denmark |@lemmatized national:9 flag:85 denmark:14 dannebrog:18 red:15 white:10 scandinavian:1 cross:23 extend:1 edge:1 vertical:1 part:3 shift:1 hoist:1 side:2 design:1 danish:37 subsequently:1 adopt:3 nordic:1 country:5 sweden:2 norway:3 finland:3 iceland:1 norwegian:2 personal:4 union:4 cloth:1 also:11 continue:1 slight:1 modification:1 current:2 old:7 state:8 world:1 still:5 use:21 early:14 undisputed:3 source:10 date:6 back:5 century:17 prior:1 force:1 know:8 raven:1 banner:29 legendary:3 origin:16 legend:14 popular:1 among:1 dane:5 although:1 consider:1 myth:1 say:8 battle:25 lyndanisse:5 valdemar:10 volmerslaget:1 near:5 tallinn:3 estonia:13 june:3 fell:1 sky:9 critical:3 stage:1 result:1 victory:3 another:3 army:3 saw:1 blood:1 except:1 historical:2 record:9 support:2 first:8 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2,074 | Alternative_medicine | The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern Western world, encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional medicine". Commonly cited examples include naturopathy, chiropractic, herbalism, traditional Chinese medicine, Unani, Ayurveda, meditation, yoga, biofeedback, hypnosis, homeopathy, acupuncture, and diet-based therapies, in addition to a range of other practices. Definition of Complementary medicine, MedicineNet.com It is frequently grouped with complementary medicine, which generally refers to the same interventions when used in conjunction with mainstream techniques, White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy, Chapter 2, March 2002. Ernst E. Complementary medicine: Common misconceptions. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 1995;88(5):244-247. Joyce CR . Placebo and complementary medicine. Lancet 1994;344(8932):1279-1281. under the umbrella term complementary and alternative medicine, or CAM. Some significant researchers in alternative medicine oppose this grouping, preferring to emphasize differences of approach, but nevertheless use the term CAM, which has become standard. Cassileth BR, Deng G. (2004) Complementary and Alternative Therapies for Cancer The Oncologist PMID 14755017 Elsevier Science - Interview with Edzard Ernst, editor of The Desktop Guide to Complementary and Alternative Medicine Alternative medicine practices are as diverse in their foundations as in their methodologies. Practices may incorporate or base themselves on traditional medicine, folk knowledge, spiritual beliefs, or newly conceived approaches to healing. Acharya, Deepak and Shrivastava Anshu (2008): Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices, Aavishkar Publishers Distributor, Jaipur- India. ISBN 9788179102527. pp 440 Jurisdictions where alternative medical practices are sufficiently widespread may license and regulate them. The claims made by alternative medicine practitioners are generally not accepted by the medical community because evidence-based assessment of safety and efficacy is either not available or has not been performed for many of these practices. If scientific investigation establishes the safety and effectiveness of an alternative medical practice, it may be adopted by conventional practitioners. "It is time for the scientific community to stop giving alternative medicine a free ride. There cannot be two kinds of medicine -- conventional and alternative. There is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work. Once a treatment has been tested rigorously, it no longer matters whether it was considered alternative at the outset. If it is found to be reasonably safe and effective, it will be accepted. But assertions, speculation, and testimonials do not substitute for evidence. Alternative treatments should be subjected to scientific testing no less rigorous than that required for conventional treatments." Because alternative techniques tend to lack evidence, some have advocated defining it as non-evidence based medicine, or not medicine at all. Some researchers state that the evidence-based approach to defining CAM is problematic because some CAM is tested, and research suggests that many mainstream medical techniques lack solid evidence. A 1998 systematic review of studies assessing its prevalence in 13 countries concluded that about 31% of cancer patients use some form of complementary and alternative medicine. Ernst & Cassileth (1998). The prevalence of complementary/Alternative medicine in cancer Alternative medicine varies from country to country. Dr. Edzard Ernst believes that in Austria and Germany CAM is mainly in the hands of physicians, while some estimates suggest that at least half of American alternative practitioners are physicians. Cassileth, Barrie R. Alternative and Complementary Cancer Treatments The Oncologist, Vol. 1, No. 3, 173–179, June 1996 In Germany, herbs are tightly regulated, with half prescribed by doctors and covered by health insurance based on their Commission E legislation. JAMA - Sign In Page Definitions and categorizations General terms There is no clear and consistent definition as to the exact nature of alternative or complementary medicines. Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public. (2005). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States. National Academies Press. In a 2005 report entitled Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States the Institute of Medicine (IOM) adopted this definition: "Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of resources that encompasses health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes such resources perceived by their users as associated with positive health outcomes. Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed." Other groups and individuals have offered various definitions and distinguishing characteristics. The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) defines CAM as "a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products, that are not currently part of conventional medicine." NCCAM has developed what the IOM calls "[o]ne of the most widely used classification structures" for the branches of complementary and alternative medicine. The Cochrane Complementary Medicine Field says: "What are considered complementary or alternative practices in one country may be considered conventional medical practices in another. Therefore, our definition is broad and general: complementary medicine includes all such practices and ideas which are outside the domain of conventional medicine in several countries and defined by its users as preventing or treating illness, or promoting health and well-being. These practices complement mainstream medicine by 1) contributing to a common whole, 2) satisfying a demand not met by conventional practices, and 3) diversifying the conceptual framework of medicine." E Manheimer, B Berman, Cochrane Complementary Medicine Field: Scope and topics, 2007 David M. Eisenberg defines it as "medical interventions not taught widely at US medical schools or generally available at US. hospitals," Unconventional Medicine in the United States -- Prevalence, Costs, and Patterns of Use. Eisenberg D, et al. N Engl J Med 1993; 328:246-252. while Richard Dawkins sardonically defines it as a "set of practices which cannot be tested, refuse to be tested, or consistently fail tests." Richard Dawkins The term "alternative medicine" is generally used to describe practices used independently or in place of conventional medicine. The term "complementary medicine" is primarily used to describe practices used in conjunction with or to complement conventional medical treatments. NCCAM suggests "using aromatherapy therapy in which the scent of essential oils from flowers, herbs, and trees is inhaled in an attempt to promote health and well-being and to help lessen a patient's discomfort following surgery" as an example of complementary medicine. The terms "integrative" or "integrated medicine" indicate combinations of conventional and alternative medical treatments which have some scientific proof of efficacy; such practices are viewed by advocates as the best examples of complementary medicine. Ralph Snyderman and Andrew Weil state that "integrative medicine is not synonymous with complementary and alternative medicine. It has a far larger meaning and mission in that it calls for restoration of the focus of medicine on health and healing and emphasizes the centrality of the patient-physician relationship." PMID 11863470 The combination of orthodox and complementary medicine with an emphasis on prevention and lifestyle changes is known as integrated medicine. Relation to evidence-based medicine Some scientists reject the use of the classification of any therapy as 'alternative medicine' on the grounds that "[t]here is only medicine that has been adequately tested and medicine that has not, medicine that works and medicine that may or may not work." These scientists advocate a classification based on scientific evidence, and state that "[w]hat most sets alternative medicine apart, in our view, is that it has not been scientifically tested and its advocates largely deny the need for such testing." The US Institute of Medicine analyzed this approach to defining alternative medicine, which it called normative, and found it problematic because some CAM is tested, and much of mainstream medicine lacks strong evidence. The IOM found that in a study of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews of mainstream techniques, 20% were ineffective and 21% had insufficient evidence. The IOM therefore defined alternative medicine broadly as the nondominant approach in a given culture and historical period. A similar definition has been adopted by the Cochrane Collaboration, which is the leading body of evidence-based medicine, and official government bodies such as the UK Department of Health. UK DOH. Complementary and alternative medicine. Well-known proponents of evidence-based medicine, such as the Cochrane Collaboration and Edzard Ernst, Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, use the term alternative medicine but agree that all treatments, whether "mainstream" or "alternative", ought to be held to standards of the scientific method. The Cochrane Collaboration Complementary Medicine Field. Retrieved 5 August 2006. Their view is that evidence-based medicine is an ideal state which has not yet been achieved by either current mainstream or alternative medicine. Ernst characterizes the evidence for many alternative techniques as weak, nonexistent, or negative, but states that compelling evidence exists for others, particularly certain herbs and acupuncture – although this evidence does not mean these treatments are mainstream, especially not worldwide. What is alternative varies by discipline as well and country. For example, biofeedback is commonly used within the Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation community, but is considered alternative within the medical community as a whole, and some herbal therapies are mainstream in Europe, but are alternative in the United States. Spiegel D, Lake J. (2006). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Health Care. Criticisms of CAM by mainstream physicians have been numerous. Barrie R. Cassileth has succinctly summed up the situation: "Not all mainstream physicians are pleased with CAM, with current efforts to integrate CAM into mainstream medicine, or with a separate NIH research entity for "alternative" medicine. Park RL, Goodenough U: Buying snake oil with tax dollars. New York Times, January 3, 1996, A11. Quackwatch.org Vigorous opposition to CAM as "pseudo science" based on "absurd beliefs" continues to be voiced. CAM's deviation from basic scientific principles, implicit, for example, in homeopathy and therapeutic touch, are decried. A 1997 letter to the US Senate Subcommittee on Public Health and Safety signed by four Nobel Laureates and other prominent scientists deplored the lack of critical thinking and scientific rigor in OAM-supported research." Barrie R. Cassileth. "Evaluating Complementary and Alternative Therapies for Cancer Patients." CA Cancer J Clin 1999;49:353-361 According to the NCCAM, formerly unproven remedies may be incorporated into conventional medicine if they are shown to be safe and effective. Several scientists share this point of view and state that "[o]nce a treatment has been tested rigorously, it no longer matters whether it was considered alternative at the outset. If it is found to be reasonably safe and effective, it will be accepted." According to them it is possible for a method to change categories (proven vs. unproven) in either direction, based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof. Prominent proponents of this position are George D. Lundberg, former editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), and Phil B. Fontanarosa, Senior Editor of JAMA," Alternative medicine meets science. Fontanarosa P.B., and Lundberg G.D. JAMA. 1998; 280: 1618-1619. Richard Dawkins, Professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford, Richard Dawkins defines alternative medicine as a "...set of practices which cannot be tested, refuse to be tested, or consistently fail tests. If a healing technique is demonstrated to have curative properties in properly controlled double-blind trials, it ceases to be alternative. It simply...becomes medicine.Simonyi Professorship web site A callous world. Richard Holloway. Book review Richard Dawkins A Devil's Chaplain. The Guardian, February 15, 2003. There is no alternative medicine. There is only medicine that works and medicine that doesn't work. Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh, Heidi Dawley. Note to Prince Charles: 'You're wrong'. Book raises new doubts about alternative medicine. Media Life Magazine April 21, 2008. From interview with Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh: "For us, there is no such thing as alternative medicine. There is either medicine that is effective or not, medicine that is safe or not. So-called alternative therapies need to be assessed and then classified as good medicines or bogus medicines. Hopefully, in the future, the good medicines will be embraced within conventional medicine and the bogus medicines will be abandoned." and Stephen Barrett, founder and operator of Quackwatch, who argues that techniques currently labeled "alternative" should be reclassified as "genuine, experimental, or questionable. Genuine alternatives are comparable methods that have met science-based criteria for safety and effectiveness. Experimental alternatives are unproven but have a plausible rationale and are undergoing responsible investigation. ... Questionable alternatives are groundless and lack a scientifically plausible rationale. ... Blurring these distinctions enables promoters of quackery to argue that because some practices labeled "alternative" have merit, the rest deserve equal consideration and respect. Enough is known, however, to conclude that most questionable "alternatives" are worthless. The HealthWatch Award 2005: Prof. Edzard Ernst, Complementary medicine: the good the bad and the ugly. Retrieved 5 August 2006 "Complementary medicine is diagnosis, treatment and/or prevention which complements mainstream medicine by contributing to a common whole, by satisfying a demand not met by orthodoxy or by diversifying the conceptual frameworks of medicine." Ernst et al. British General Practitioner 1995; 45:506. Many CAM methods are criticized by the activist non-profit organization Quackwatch. M.R. Tonelli argues that CAM cannot be evidence-based unless the definition of evidence is changed. He states that "the methods of developing knowledge within CAM currently have limitations and are subject to bias and varied interpretation. CAM must develop and defend a rational and coherent method for assessing causality and efficacy, though not necessarily one based on the results of controlled clinical trials." Further, A review of Michael L. Millenson's book Demanding Medical Excellence: Doctors and Accountability in the Information Age described it as "a wake up call to both medicine and nursing" due to what Millenson calls a "lack of scientific-based medical practice". According to the review, the book states that "85% of current practice has not been scientifically validated" and that it suggests that users of the research presented by Medline should question research articles rather than assuming they are accurate simply because of where they are published. The review states that Millenson's thesis and conclusion call for all health researchers and policy makers to do a better job in assuring valid methodology and avoidance of bias in published research. Gunn IP. "A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding medical excellence: doctors and accountability in the information age, and its relevance to CRNAs and nursing." AANA J, 1998 66(6):575-82. Review. PMID 10488264 Michael Dixon, the Director of the NHS Alliance stated that “People argue against complementary therapies on the basis of a lack of evidence. But I’d say only 10 per cent of what doctors do in primary care is evidence-based." Simon Crompton, "Back to the future: Complementary therapies get real," Times Online, Times Newspapers Ltd., January 17, 2004. Angell and Kassirer acknowledge that "many treatments used in conventional medicine have not been rigorously tested, either" but say that the scientific community is generally aware that this is a failing that needs to be remedied." Oxford University Press publishes a peer-reviewed journal entitled Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine (eCAM). Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine NCCAM classifications NCCAM classifies complementary and alternative therapies into five major groups. The classification are rather loose, and there can be some overlap. Whole medical systems cut across more than one of the other groups; examples include Traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda. Whole Medical Systems: An Overview. NCCAM Mind-body medicine takes a holistic approach to health that explores the interconnection between the mind, body, and spirit. It works under the premise that the mind can affect "bodily functions and symptoms". Mind-Body Medicine: An Overview. NCCAM Biologically based practices use substances found in nature such as herbs, foods, vitamins, and other natural substances. Biologically Based Practices: An Overview. NCCAM Manipulative and body-based practices feature manipulation or movement of body parts, such as is done in chiropractic and osteopathic manipulation. Manipulative and Body-Based Practices: An Overview. NCCAM Energy medicine is a domain that deals with putative and verifiable energy fields: Energy Medicine: An Overview - NCCAM Biofield therapies are intended to influence energy fields that purportedly surround and penetrate the body. No empirical evidence has been found to support the existence of the "putative" energy fields on which these therapies are predicated. Bioelectromagnetic-based therapies use verifiable electromagnetic fields, such as pulsed fields, alternating-current or direct-current fields in an unconventional manner. Energy Medicine Contemporary use of alternative medicine Many people utilize mainstream medicine for diagnosis and basic information, while turning to alternatives for what they believe to be health-enhancing measures. Studies indicate that alternative approaches are often used in conjunction with conventional medicine. This is referred to by NCCAM as integrative (or integrated) medicine because it "combines treatments from conventional medicine and CAM for which there is some high-quality evidence of safety and effectiveness." According to Andrew T. Weil M.D., a leading proponent of integrative medicine, the principles of integrative medicine include: appropriate use of conventional and CAM methods; patient participation; promotion of health as well as treatment of disease; and a preference for natural, minimally-invasive methods. A 1997 survey found that 13.7% of respondents in the United States had sought the services of both a medical doctor and an alternative medicine practitioner. The same survey found that 96% of respondents who sought the services of an alternative medicine practitioner also sought the services of a medical doctor in the past 12 months. Medical doctors are often unaware of their patient's use of alternative medical treatments as only 38.5% of the patients alternative therapies were discussed with their medical doctor. Eisenberg, DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL "Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States 1990-1997." JAMA, 1998; 280:1569-1575. PMID 9820257 Age-adjusted percent of adults who have used complementary and alternative medicine: United States, 2002 Edzard Ernst, Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, wrote in the Medical Journal of Australia that "about half the general population in developed countries use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)." Ernst E. "Obstacles to research in complementary and alternative medicine." Medical Journal of Australia, 2003; 179 (6): 279-80. PMID 12964907 MJA online Survey results released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, part of the United States National Institutes of Health, found that in 2002 62.1% of adults in the country had used some form of CAM in the past 12 months and 75% across lifespan (though these figure drop to 36.0% and 50% if prayer specifically for health reasons is excluded); this study included yoga, meditation, herbal treatments and the Atkins diet as CAM. Reasons people use CAM. NCCAM Another study suggests a similar figure of 40%. A British telephone survey by the BBC of 1209 adults in 1998 shows that around 20% of adults in Britain had used alternative medicine in the past 12 months. Thomas KJ, Nicholl JP, Coleman P. Use and expenditure on complementary medicine in England: a population based survey. Complement Ther Med. 2001 March;9(1):2-11. PMID: 11264963 Ernst has been active politically on this issue as well, publicly requesting that Prince Charles recall two guides to alternative medicine published by the Foundation for Integrated Health, on the grounds that “[t]hey both contain numerous misleading and inaccurate claims concerning the supposed benefits of alternative medicine" and that "[t]he nation cannot be served by promoting ineffective and sometimes dangerous alternative treatments.” Mark Henderson, Science Editor, "Prince of Wales's guide to alternative medicine ‘inaccurate’" Times Online, April 17, 2008 In general, he believes that CAM can and should be subjected to scientific testing. The Cochrane Collaboration Complementary Medicine Field, www.compmed.umm.edu/Cochrane/index.html. Retrieved 5 August 2006. The use of alternative medicine in developed countries appears to be increasing. A 1998 study showed that the use of alternative medicine had risen from 33.8% in 1990 to 42.1% in 1997. Eisenberg, DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL "Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States 1990-1997." JAMA, 1998; 280:1569-1575. PMID 9820257 In the United Kingdom, a 2000 report ordered by the House of Lords suggested that "...limited data seem to support the idea that CAM use in the United Kingdom is high and is increasing." House of Lords report on CAM In developing nations, access to essential medicines is severely restricted by lack of resources and poverty. Traditional remedies, often closely resembling or forming the basis for alternative remedies, may comprise primary health care or be integrated into the health care system. In Africa, traditional medicine is used for 80% of primary health care, and in developing nations as a whole over one third of the population lack access to essential medicines. Advocates of alternative medicine hold that the various alternative treatment methods are effective in treating a wide range of major and minor medical conditions, and that recently published research (such as Michalsen, 2003, Michalsen A, Ludtke R, Buhring M. "Thermal hydrotherapy improves quality of life and hemodynamic function in patients with chronic heart failure." Am Heart J, 2003; 146 (4):E11. PMID 14564334 Gonsalkorale 2003, Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ. "Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome." Gut, 2003; 52 (11):1623-9. PMID 14570733 and Berga 2003 Berga SL, Marcus MD, Loucks TL. "Recovery of ovarian activity in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea who were treated with cognitive behavior therapy." Fertility and Sterility 2003; 80 (4): 976-981 Abstract ) proves the effectiveness of specific alternative treatments. They assert that a PubMed search revealed over 370,000 research papers classified as alternative medicine published in Medline-recognized journals since 1966 in the National Library of Medicine database. See also Kleijnen 1991, Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. "Clinical trials of homoeopathy." BMJ, 1991; 302:316-23. Erratum in: BMJ, 1991; 302:818. PMID 1825800 and Linde 1997. Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G. "Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials." Lancet, 1997; 350:834-43. Erratum in: Lancet 1998 17 January;351(9097):220. PMID 9310601 Complementary therapies are often used in palliative care or by practitioners attempting to manage chronic pain in patients. Complementary medicine is considered more acceptable in the interdisciplinary approach used in palliative care than in other areas of medicine. "From its early experiences of care for the dying, palliative care took for granted the necessity of placing patient values and lifestyle habits at the core of any design and delivery of quality care at the end of life. If the patient desired complementary therapies, and as long as such treatments provided additional support and did not endanger the patient, they were considered acceptable." Allan Kellehear, Complementary medicine: is it more acceptable in palliative care practice? MJA 2003; 179 (6 Suppl): S46-S48 online The non-pharmacologic interventions of complementary medicine can employ mind-body interventions designed to "reduce pain and concomitant mood disturbance and increase quality of life." Lynette A. Menefee, Daniel A. Monti, Complementary Medicine-Mind-Body Techniques: Nonpharmacologic and Complementary Approaches to Cancer Pain Management, JAOA, Vol 105, No suppl_5, November 2005, 15-20. Physicians who practice complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available complementary therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions. Sobel DS. The cost-effectiveness of mind-body medicine interventions. Prog Brain Res. 2000;122:393-412. Abstract Some mind-body techniques, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, were once considered complementary medicine, but are now a part of conventional medicine in the United States. Complementary Medicine - Mind-Body Interventions, WebMD, Inc., 2007 "Complementary medicine treatments used for pain include: acupuncture, low-level laser therapy, meditation, aroma therapy, Chinese medicine, dance therapy, music therapy, massage, herbalism, therapeutic touch, yoga, osteopathy, chiropractic, naturopathy, and homeopathy." Glossary, Continuum Health Partners, 2005. In defining complementary medicine in the UK, the House of Lords Select Committee determined that the following therapies were the most often used to complement conventional medicine: House of Lords Select Committee on Science and Technology. 2000. Complementary and Alternative Medicine. London: The Stationery Office. Alexander technique, Aromatherapy, Bach and other flower remedies, Body work therapies including massage, Counselling stress therapies, hypnotherapy, Meditation, Reflexology, Shiatsu, Maharishi Ayurvedic medicine, Nutritional medicine, and Yoga. Public use in the US A botánicas, such as this one in Massachusetts, caters to the Latino community and sells folk medicine alongside statues of saints, candles decorated with prayers, and other items. A 2002 survey of US adults 18 years and older conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (CDC) and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine indicated: 74.6% had used some form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). 62.1% had done so within the preceding twelve months. When prayer specifically for health reasons is excluded, these figures fall to 49.8% and 36.0%, respectively. 45.2% had in the last twelve months used prayer for health reasons, either through praying for their own health or through others praying for them. 54.9% used CAM in conjunction with conventional medicine. 14.8% "sought care from a licensed or certified" practitioner, suggesting that "most individuals who use CAM prefer to treat themselves." Most people used CAM to treat and/or prevent musculoskeletal conditions or other conditions associated with chronic or recurring pain. "Women were more likely than men to use CAM. The largest sex differential is seen in the use of mind-body therapies including prayer specifically for health reasons". "Except for the groups of therapies that included prayer specifically for health reasons, use of CAM increased as education levels increased". The most common CAM therapies used in the US in 2002 were prayer (45.2%), herbalism (18.9%), breathing meditation (11.6%), meditation (7.6%), chiropractic medicine (7.5%), yoga (5.1%), body work (5.0%), diet-based therapy (3.5%), progressive relaxation (3.0%), mega-vitamin therapy (2.8%) and Visualization (2.1%) The National Science Foundation has also conducted surveys of the popularity of alternative medicine. After describing the negative impact science fiction in the media has on public attitudes and understandings of pseudoscience, and listing alternative medicine as one of many pseudoscientific subjects, as well as mentioning the concerns of individual scientists, organizations, and members of the science policymaking community, it commented that "nevertheless, the popularity of alternative medicine appears to be increasing." National Science Foundation survey: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Public Understanding. Science Fiction and Pseudoscience. In the state of Texas, physicians may be partially protected from charges of unprofessional conduct or failure to practice medicine in an acceptable manner, and thus from disciplinary action, when they prescribe alternative medicine in a complementary manner, if board specific practice requirements are satisfied and the therapies utilized do not present "a safety risk for the patient that is unreasonably greater that the conventional treatment for the patient's medical condition." Tex. Admin. Code § 200.3. Complementary and Integrative Medicine: An Update for Texas Physicians Medical education In the United States, increasing numbers of medical colleges have started offering courses in alternative medicine. For example, in three separate research surveys that surveyed 729 schools (125 medical schools offering an MD degree, 25 medical schools offering a Doctor of Osteopathic medicine degree, and 585 schools offering a nursing degree), 60% of the standard medical schools, 95% of osteopathic medical schools and 84.8% of the nursing schools teach some form of CAM. Wetzel MS, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ. "Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools." JAMA 1998; 280 (9):784 -787. PMID 9729989 Saxon DW, Tunnicliff G, Brokaw JJ, Raess BU. "Status of complementary and alternative medicine in the osteopathic medical school curriculum." J Am Osteopath Assoc 2004; 104 (3):121-6. PMID 15083987 Fenton MV, Morris DL. "The integration of holistic nursing practices and complementary and alternative modalities into curricula of schools of nursing." Altern Ther Health Med, 2003; 9 (4):62-7. PMID 12868254 The University of Arizona College of Medicine offers a program in Integrative Medicine under the leadership of Dr. Andrew Weil which trains physicians in various branches of alternative medicine which "...neither rejects conventional medicine, nor embraces alternative practices uncritically." University of Arizona position on Alternative Medicine Accredited Naturopathic colleges and universities are also increasing in number and popularity in Canada and the USA. (See Naturopathic medical school in North America) Similarly "unconventional medicine courses are widely represented at European universities. They cover a wide range of therapies. Many of them are used clinically. Research work is underway at several faculties," Barberis L, de Toni E, Schiavone M, Zicca A, Ghio R. Unconventional medicine teaching at the Universities of the European Union. J Altern Complement Med. 2001 August;7(4):337-43. PMID: 11558776 Abstract but "only 40% of the responding [European] universities were offering some form of CAM training." Varga O, Márton S, Molnár P. Status of complementary and alternative medicine in European medical schools. Forsch Komplement Med (2006). 2006 February;13(1):41-5. Epub 2006 January 3. PMID: 16582550 Abstract In contrast to unconventional schools in Britain, no conventional medical schools offer courses that teach the clinical practice of alternative medicine. http://www.healthy.net/scr/healingschools.asp The British Medical Acupuncture Society offers medical acupuncture certificates to doctors, as does the College of Naturopathic Medicine UK and Ireland. Regulation Due to the uncertain nature of various alternative therapies and the wide variety of claims different practitioners make, alternative medicine has been a source of vigorous debate, even over the definition of alternative medicine. Can Mainstream Medicine and Alternative Therapies Coexist? Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. - The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine - 12(7):601 Dietary supplements, their ingredients, safety, and claims, are a continual source of controversy. CNN - Nutritionist calls for tighter regulation of supplements - September 17, 1999 In some cases, political issues, mainstream medicine and alternative medicine all collide, such as the case where synthetic drugs are legal but the herbal sources of the same active chemical are banned. Former Surgeon General: Mainstream Medicine Has Endorsed Medical Marijuana | DrugReporter | AlterNet In other cases, controversy over mainstream medicine causes questions about the nature of a treatment, such as water fluoridation. Informed Public Debate Needed On Water Fluoridation Alternative medicine and mainstream medicine debates can also spill over into freedom of religion discussions, such as the right to decline lifesaving treatment for one's children because of religious beliefs. CBofMH_v20_no1 Government regulators continue to attempt to find a regulatory balance. Dietary Supplement Regulation: U.S. Food and Drug Administration Public Hearing Jurisdiction differs concerning which branches of alternative medicine are legal, which are regulated, and which (if any) are provided by a government-controlled health service or reimbursed by a private health medical insurance company. The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - article 34 (Specific legal obligations) of the General Comment No. 14 (2000) on The right to the highest attainable standard of health - states that "Furthermore, obligations to respect include a State's obligation to refrain from prohibiting or impeding traditional preventive care, healing practices and medicines, from marketing unsafe drugs and from applying coercive medical treatments, unless on an exceptional basis for the treatment of mental illness or the prevention and control of communicable diseases." Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. General Comment No. 14 (2000) The right to the highest attainable standard of health : . 11/08/2000. E/C.12/2000/4. http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/E.C.12.2000.4.en Specific implementations of this article are left to member states. A number of alternative medicine advocates disagree with the restrictions of government agencies that approve medical treatments. In the United States, for example, critics say that the Food and Drug Administration's criteria for experimental evaluation methods impedes those seeking to bring useful and effective treatments and approaches to the public, and that their contributions and discoveries are unfairly dismissed, overlooked or suppressed. Alternative medicine providers recognize that health fraud occurs, and argue that it should be dealt with appropriately when it does, but that these restrictions should not extend to what they view as legitimate health care products. In New Zealand alternative medicine products are classified as food products, so there are no regulations or safety standards in place. David Schnauer: Therapeutics bill must pass - 06 July 2007 - Legislation news - NZ Herald In Australia, the topic is termed as complementary medicine and the Therapeutic Goods Administration has issued various guidances and standards . Australian regulatory guidelines for complementary medicines (ARGCM) demands that the pesticides, fumigants, toxic metals, microbial toxins, radionuclides and microbial contaminations etc, present in herbal substances should be monitored, although the guidance does not request for the evidences of these traits . However, for the herbal substances in pharmacopoeial monographes, the detailed information should be supplied to relevant authorities The production of modern pharmaceuticals is strictly regulated to ensure that medicines contain a standardized quantity of active ingredients and are free from contamination. Alternative medicine products are not subject to the same governmental quality control standards, and consistency between doses can vary. This leads to uncertainty in the chemical content and biological activity of individual doses. This lack of oversight means that alternative health products are vulnerable to adulteration and contamination. This problem is magnified by international commerce, since different countries have different types and degrees of regulation. This can make it difficult for consumers to properly evaluate the risks and qualities of given products. Alternative and evidence-based medicine Testing of efficacy Many alternative therapies have been tested with varying results. In 2003, a project funded by the CDC identified 208 condition-treatment pairs, of which 58% had been studied by at least one randomized controlled trial (RCT), and 23% had been assessed with a meta-analysis. According a 2005 book by a US Institute of Medicine panel, the number of RCTs focused on CAM has risen dramatically. The book cites Vickers (1998), who found that many of the CAM-related RCTs are in the Cochrane register, but 19% of these trials were not in MEDLINE, and 84% were in conventional medical journals. As of 2005 the Cochrane Library had 145 CAM-related Cochrane systematic reviews and 340 non-Cochrane systematic reviews. An analysis of the conclusions of only the 145 Cochrane reviews was done by two readers. In 83% of the cases, the readers agreed. In the 17% in which they disagreed, a third reader agreed with one of the initial readers to set a rating. These studies found that for CAM, 38.4% concluded positive effect or possibly positive (12.4%) effect, 4.8% concluded no effect, 0.69% concluded harmful effect, and 56.6% concluded insufficient evidence. An assessment of conventional treatments found that 41.3% concluded positive or possibly positive effect, 20% concluded no effect, 8.1% concluded net harmful effects, and 21.3% concluded insufficient evidence. However, the CAM review used the 2004 Cochrane database while the conventional review used the 1998 Cochrane database. Most alternative medical treatments are not patentable, which may lead to less research funded by the private sector. Additionally, in most countries alternative treatments (in contrast to pharmaceuticals) can be marketed without any proof of efficacy—also a disincentive for manufacturers to fund scientific research. Some have proposed adopting a prize system to reward medical research. Horrobin DF. (1986). Glittering prizes for research support. Nature Vol. 324, p. 221. However, public funding for research exists. Increasing the funding for research of alternative medicine techniques was the purpose of the US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. NCCAM and its predecessor, the Office of Alternative Medicine, have spent more than $1 billion on such research since 1992. The German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices Commission E has studied many herbal remedies for efficacy. CSICOP.org article on alternative medicine Some skeptics of alternative practices say that a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise ineffective therapy due to the placebo effect, the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness (the regression fallacy), or the possibility that the person never originally had a true illness. James Alcock PhD, Alternative Medicine and the Psychology of Belief, The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, Fall/Winter 1999 Volume 3 ~ Number 2. available online In the same way as for conventional therapies, drugs, and interventions, it can be difficult to test the efficacy of alternative medicine in clinical trials. In instances where an established, effective, treatment for a condition is already available, the Helsinki Declaration states that withholding such treatment is unethical in most circumstances. Use of standard-of-care treatment in addition to an alternative technique being tested may produce confounded or difficult-to-interpret results. Bodeker, G, Kronenberg, F. (2002). A public health agenda for traditional, complementary, and alternative medicine. American Journal of Public Health, 92(10), 1582-1591. Testing of safety Interactions with conventional pharmaceuticals Forms of alternative medicine that are biologically active can be dangerous even when used in conjunction with conventional medicine. Examples include immuno-augmentation therapy, shark cartilage, bioresonance therapy, oxygen and ozone therapies, insulin potentiation therapy. Some herbal remedies can cause dangerous interactions with chemotherapy drugs, radiation therapy or anesthetics during surgery, among other problems. An anecdotal example of these dangers was reported by Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of Adelaide University, Australia regarding a patient who almost bled to death on the operating table after neglecting to mention that she had been taking "natural" potions to "build up her strength" before the operation, including a powerful anticoagulant that nearly caused her death. To ABC Online, MacLennan also gives another possible mechanism: "And lastly there’s the cynicism and disappointment and depression that some patients get from going on from one alternative medicine to the next, and they find after three months the placebo effect wears off, and they’re disappointed and they move on to the next one, and they’re disappointed and disillusioned, and that can create depression and make the eventual treatment of the patient with anything effective difficult, because you may not get compliance, because they’ve seen the failure so often in the past". Potential side-effects Conventional treatments are subjected to testing for undesired side-effects, whereas alternative treatments generally are not subjected to such testing at all. Any treatment — whether conventional or alternative — that has a biological or psychological effect on a patient may also have potentially dangerous biological or psychological side-effects. Attempts to refute this fact with regard to alternative treatments sometimes use the appeal to nature fallacy, i.e. "that which is natural cannot be harmful". An exception to the normal thinking regarding side-effects is Homeopathy. Since 1938 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has regulated homeopathic products in "several significantly different ways from other drugs." Isadora Stehlin. "Homeopathy: Real Medicine or Empty Promises?" - FDA Consumer magazine (December 1996) Homeopathic preparations, termed "remedies," are extremely dilute, often far beyond the point where a single molecule of the original active (and possibly toxic) ingredient is likely to remain. They are thus considered safe on that count, but "their products are exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating and from finished product testing for identity and strength," and their alcohol concentration may be much higher than allowed in conventional drugs. Treatment delay Those who have experienced or perceived success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness. For this reason, critics argue that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous. According to mental health journalist Scott Lilienfeld in 2002, "unvalidated or scientifically unsupported mental health practices can lead individuals to forgo effective treatments" and refers to this as “opportunity cost.” Individuals who spend large amounts of time and money on ineffective treatments may be left with precious little of either, and may forfeit the opportunity to obtain treatments that could be more helpful. In short, even innocuous treatments can indirectly produce negative outcomes. Appeal of alternative medicine An alternative medicine center in Durham, North Carolina. A study published in 1998 indicates that a majority of alternative medicine use was in conjunction with standard medical treatments. Approximately 4.4 percent of those studied used alternative medicine as a replacement for conventional medicine. The research found that those who used alternative medicine tended to have higher education or report poorer health status. Dissatisfaction with conventional medicine was not a meaningful factor in the choice, but rather the majority of alternative medicine users appear to be doing so largely because "they find these health care alternatives to be more congruent with their own values, beliefs, and philosophical orientations toward health and life." In particular, subjects reported a holistic orientation to health, a transformational experience that changed their worldview, identification with a number of groups committed to environmentalism, feminism, psychology, and/or spirituality and personal growth, or that they were suffering from a variety of common and minor ailments - notably anxiety, back problems, and chronic pain. Authors have speculated on the socio-cultural and psychological reasons for the appeal of alternative medicines among that minority whose use them in lieu of conventional medicine. There are several socio-cultural reasons for the interest in these treatments centered around the low level of scientific literacy among the public at large and a concomitant increase in antiscientific attitudes and new age mysticism. Related to this are vigorous marketing of extravagant claims by the alternative medical community combined with inadequate media scrutiny and attacks on critics. There is also an increase in conspiracy theories towards conventional medicine and pharmaceutical companies, mistrust of traditional authority figures, such as the physician, and a dislike of the current delivery methods of scientific biomedicine, all of which have lead patients to seek out alternative medicine to treat a variety of ailments. Many patients lack access to contemporary medicine, due to a lack of private or public health insurance, which lead them to seek out lower-cost alternative medicine. Medical doctors are also aggressively marketing alternative medicine to profit from this market. In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth. One of the most critical is the placebo effect, which is a well-established observation in medicine. Related to it are similar psychological effects such as the will to believe, cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning, and the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy. Patients can also be averse to the painful, unpleasant, and sometimes dangerous side effects of biomedical treatments. Treatments for severe diseases such as cancer and HIV infection have well-known, significant side effects. Even low-risk medications such as antibiotics can potentially cause life-threatening anaphylactic reactions in a very few individuals. More commonly, many medications may cause minor but bothersome symptoms such as cough or upset stomach. In all of these cases, patients may be seeking out alternative treatments to avoid the adverse effects of conventional treatments. Academic resources Journal of alternative and complementary medicine References See also Index of alternative medicine articles History of alternative medicine Program for Evaluating Complementary Medicine Alternative cancer treatments New Thought List of branches of alternative medicine Criticism of medicine Traditional medicine Faith healing Health freedom movement Megavitamin therapy Naturopathy Orthomolecular medicine Further reading Dictionary definitions Complementary medicine World Health Organization publication WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine Journals dedicated to alternative medicine research Alternative therapies in health and medicine. Aliso Viejo, CA : InnoVision Communications, c1995- NLM ID: 9502013 Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic. Sandpoint, Idaho : Thorne Research, Inc., c1996- NLM ID: 9705340 BMC complementary and alternative medicine. London : BioMed Central, 2001- NLM ID: 101088661 Complementary therapies in medicine. Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone, c1993- NLM ID: 9308777 Evidence based complementary and alternative medicine Evidence Based journal of Integrative medicine Forschende Komplementärmedizin / Research in Complementary Medicine Journal of Integrative medicine. Journal for Alternative and Complementary Medicine: research on paradigm, practice, and policy. New York, NY : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., c1995-] Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM) Further reading Benedetti F, Maggi G, Lopiano L. "Open Versus Hidden Medical Treatments: The Patient's Knowledge About a Therapy Affects the Therapy Outcome." Prevention & Treatment, 2003; 6(1), APA online Diamond, J. Snake Oil and Other Preoccupations, 2001, ISBN 0-09-942833-4 , foreword by Richard Dawkins reprinted in Dawkins, R., A Devil's Chaplain, 2003, ISBN 0-7538-1750-0 . Downing AM, Hunter DG. "Validating clinical reasoning: a question of perspective, but whose perspective?" Man Ther, 2003; 8(2): 117-9. PMID 12890440 Manual Therapy Online Eisenberg DM. "Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies." Ann Intern Med 1997; 127:61-69. PMID 9214254 Gunn IP. "A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding medical excellence: doctors and accountability in the information age, and its relevance to CRNAs and nursing." AANA J, 1998 66(6):575-82. Review. PMID 10488264 Hand, Wayland D. 1980 "Folk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West", in Magical Medicine, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 305–319. Illich, Ivan. Limits to Medicine. Medical Nemesis: The expropriation of Health. Penguin Books, 1976. Feinstein, D., & Eden D. Six Pillars of Energy Medicine: Clinical Strengths of a Complementary Paradigm, Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 2008, 14(1), 44-54. Lazarou, J. Pomeranz, BH. Corey, PN. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies, J of the American Medical Association 1998, 279, 1200-1205. Mayo Clinic. Mayo Clinic Book of Alternative Medicine: The New Approach to Using the Best of Natural Therapies and Conventional Medicine, Parsippany, NJ: Time Inc Home Entertainment, 2007, ISBN 978-1933405926. Murray, Michael, & Joseph Pizzorno. Encyclopedia of Natural Medicine, New York: Three Rivers Press, 1997 (second edition), ISBN 978-0761511571. Ninivaggi, F. J., An Elementary Textbook of Ayurveda: Medicine with a Six Thousand Year Old Tradition, International Universities/Psychosocial Press, Madison, CT, 2001. Ninivaggi, F. J., "Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medidine for the West", Praeger Press/Greenwood, Westport, CT, 2008. Pert, Candace B., Molecules of Emotion: Why You Feel the Way You Feel, Scribners, 1997, ISBN 0-684-84634-9 Phillips Stevens Jr. November/December 2001 "Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine", Skeptical Inquirer Magazine, November December 2001 Planer, Felix E. 1988 Superstition, Revised ed. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books Rosenfeld, Anna, Where Do Americans Go for Healthcare?, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, US. Tonelli MR. "The limits of evidence-based medicine." Respir Care, 2001; 46(12): 1435-40; discussion 1440-1. Review. PMID 11728302 PMID: 11863470 Trivieri, Larry, Jr., and Anderson, John W. (editors). Alternative Medicine: The Definitive Guide, Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2002 ISBN 978-1587611414. Trudeau, Kevin, Natural Cures "They" Don't Want You to Know About, Alliance Publishing Group, ISBN 0-9755995-9-3; Mass Market Edition, 2007. Trudeau, Kevin, More Natural "Cures" Revealed, Alliance Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-9755995-4-2. Wisneski, Leonard A. and Lucy Anderson, The Scientific Basis of Integrative Medicine, CRC Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8493-2081-X. Zalewski Z. "Importance of Philosophy of Science to the History of Medical Thinking." CMJ 1999; 40: 8-13. CMJ online External links The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine - US National Institutes of Health The Office of Cancer Complementary and Alternative Medicine - US National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health Complementary and Alternative Medicine Index (from the University of Maryland Medical Center) - Comprehensive guide covering conditions and treatments Alternative Cancer Information - Hub of Peer-Reviewed literature on Prevention of Metastasis for Patients Diagnosed with Cancer Integrative Medicine Podcasts and Handouts - Teaching modules with podcasts and handouts for patients, clinicians, residents and medical students from the University of Wisconsin Integrative Medicine Program. Web pages for new BBC/Open University television series "Alternative Medicine" that examines the evidence scientifically. Finding information on the complementary medicines industry - The British Library "Complementary and alternative medicine: What is it?" - Mayo Clinic Criticism A Different Way to Heal? and Videos - PBS, Scientific American Frontiers Web Feature What is Complementary and Alternative Medicine? - Steven Novella, MD "Alternative" health practice - Skeptic's Dictionary Who Gets to Validate Alternative Medicine - PBS article The case against alternative medicine - Moses Milstein, DVM (Can Vet J Volume 41, October 2000) Quackwatch.org - Stephen Barrett (See also: Quackwatch) Healing, Hype, or Harm? A Critical Analysis of Complementary or Alternative Medicine, by Edzard Ernst (Editor) (2008), reviewed in Metapsychology. What's the harm? 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2,075 | Gilbert_and_Sullivan | W. S. Gilbert Arthur Sullivan Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian era partnership of librettist W. S. Gilbert (1836–1911) and composer Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900). The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896, of which H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known. Gilbert, who wrote the words, created fanciful "topsy-turvy" worlds for these operas, where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion—fairies rub elbows with British lords, flirting is a capital offence, gondoliers ascend to the monarchy, and pirates turn out to be noblemen who have gone wrong. Sullivan, six years Gilbert's junior, composed the music, contributing memorable melodies Sir George Grove: "Form and symmetry he seems to possess by instinct; rhythm and melody clothe everything he touches; the music shows not only sympathetic genius, but sense, judgement, proportion, and a complete absence of pedantry and pretension; while the orchestration is distinguished by a happy and original beauty hardly surpassed by the greatest masters." that could convey both humour and pathos. Gian Andrea Mazzucato in The Musical Standard of 30 December 1899: "[Sullivan]... will... be classed among the epoch-making composers, the select few whose genius and strength of will empowered them to find and found a national school of music, that is, to endow their countrymen with the undefinable, yet positive means of evoking in a man's soul, by the magic of sound, those delicate nuances of feeling which are characteristic of the emotional power of each different race." Quoted in the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Journal, No. 34, Spring 1992, pp. 11-12 Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world. Bradley (2005), Chapter 1 Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century. The operas have also influenced political discourse, literature, film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humorists. Producer Richard D'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration. He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works—which came to be known as the Savoy Operas—and he founded the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which performed and promoted their works for over a century. Beginnings Gilbert before Sullivan Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836. His father William was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories, some of which included illustrations by his son. Crowther, Andrew. The Life of W. S. Gilbert. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. In 1861, the younger Gilbert began to write illustrated stories, poems and articles of his own to supplement his income. Many of these would later be mined as a source of ideas for his plays and operas, particularly his series of illustrated poems called the Bab Ballads. Stedman, pp. 26–29, 123–24, and the introduction to Gilbert's Foggerty's Fairy and Other Tales One of Gilbert's illustrations for his Bab Ballad "Gentle Alice Brown" In the Bab Ballads and his early plays, Gilbert developed a unique "topsy-turvy" style, where the humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences, however absurd. Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the "Gilbertian" style as follows: Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction, following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson. At the time Gilbert began writing, theatre in Britain was in disrepute. Bond, Jessie.The Reminiscences of Jessie Bond: Introduction The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Bond created the mezzo-soprano roles in most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas and is here leading in to a description of Gilbert's role in reforming the Victorian theatre. Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre, especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas, or "entertainments," for Thomas German Reed. Stedman, pp. 62–68; Bond, Jessie, The Reminiscences of Jessie Bond: Introduction. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Ages Ago, during the rehearsals for which Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to Sullivan At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments, Ages Ago (1869), the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend, the young composer Arthur Sullivan. Crowther, Andrew. Ages Ago—Early Days. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Two years later, Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together. Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert's theatrical style. He continued to write humorous verse, stories and plays, including the comic operas Our Island Home (1870) and A Sensation Novel (1871), and the blank verse comedies The Princess (1870), The Palace of Truth (1870), and Pygmalion and Galatea. Sullivan before Gilbert Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842. His father was a military bandmaster, and by the time Arthur had reached the age of 8, he was proficient with all the instruments in the band. In school he began to compose anthems and songs. In 1856, he received the first Mendelssohn Prize and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and at Leipzig, where he also took up conducting. His graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare's The Tempest. Revised and expanded, it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation. He began building a reputation as England's most promising young composer, composing a symphony, a concerto, and several overtures, among them the Overture di Ballo, in 1870. Interview by Arthur H. Lawrence, Part 1, The Strand Magazine, Volume xiv, No.84 (December 1897) See also Sullivan's Letter to The Times, 27 October 1881, Issue 30336, pg. 8 col C The Crystal Palace, where several early Sullivan works premiered. His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth (1864); an oratorio, The Prodigal Son (1869); and a dramatic cantata, On Shore and Sea (1871). He composed a ballet, L'Île Enchantée (1864) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays. Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E, Concerto for Cello and Orchestra, and Overture in C (In Memoriam) (all three of which premiered in 1866). Shepherd, Marc, Discography of Sir Arthur Sullivan: Orchestral and Band Music at The Gilbert and Sullivan Discography. Includes descriptions of the works. Retrieved 2007-06-10. These commissions, however, were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat. He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns, popular songs, and parlour ballads. Stephen Turnbull's Biography of W. S. Gilbert at the Gilbert and Sullivan Archive. Retrieved 2006-11-22. Sullivan's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box (1866), written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends. Public performance followed, with W. S. Gilbert (then writing dramatic criticism for Fun) saying that Sullivan's score "is, in many places, of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded." Harris, Roger, ed. (1999). Cox and Box. Chorleywood, Herts., UK: R. Clyde. pp. X–XI Nonetheless, it proved highly successful, and is still regularly performed today. Sullivan and Burnand's second opera, The Contrabandista (1867) was not as successful. Operas First collaborations Thespis A contemporary illustration of Thespis from The Illustrated London News of 6 January 1872In 1871, producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment, Thespis, at his Gaiety Theatre, a large West End house. The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods, grown elderly, are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses, one of whom is the eponymous Thespis, the Greek father of the drama. Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène, which (in translation) then dominated the English musical stage. Tillett, Selwyn and Spencer, Roderic (2002). . Chimes Musical Theatre, Retrieved on 2007-05-21 Jean-Bernard Piat: Guide du mélomane averti, Le Livre de Poche 8026, Paris 1992 Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances. It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season, but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration. Unlike the later G&S works, it was hastily prepared, and its nature was more risqué, like Gilbert's earlier travesties, with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors. Two of the male characters were played by women, whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned. The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost, except for one song that was published separately, a chorus that was re-used in The Pirates of Penzance, and the Act II ballet. Over the next four years, Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again, but each man became more eminent in his field. Gilbert worked with Clay on Happy Arcadia (1872) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom (1874), as well as writing several other libretti, farces, extravaganzas, fairy comedies, dramas, adaptations from novels, and translations from the French. Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum (1872); another oratorio, The Light of the World (1873); his only song cycle, The Window; or, The Song of the Wrens (1871); incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor (1874); and more songs, parlour ballads, and hymns, including "Onward, Christian Soldiers" (1872). Trial by Jury In 1874, Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer–composer Carl Rosa, whose wife would have played the leading role, but her death in childbirth cancelled the project and left the libretto an orphan. Not long afterwards, Richard D'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre, and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach's La Périchole. Gilbert already had available the libretto he had written for Rosa, and Carte suggested that Sullivan write the score. The composer was delighted with it, and Trial by Jury was composed in a matter of weeks. Barker, John W. "Gilbert and Sullivan", Madison Savoyards, Ltd., Retrieved on 2007-05-21, quotes Sullivan's recollection of Gilbert reading the libretto of Trial by Jury to him: "As soon as he had come to the last word he closed up the manuscript violently, apparently unconscious of the fact that he had achieved his purpose so far as I was concerned, in as much as I was screaming with laughter the whole time." D. H. Friston's engraving of the original production of Trial by Jury The piece is one of Gilbert's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession, based on his short experience as a barrister. It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit. The defendant argues that damages should be slight, since "he is such a very bad lot," while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks "substantial damages." After much argument, the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself. With Sullivan's brother, Fred, as the Learned Judge, the opera was a runaway hit, outlasting the run of La Périchole. Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed. Walbrook, H. M. (1922), Gilbert and Sullivan Opera, a History and Comment (Chapter 3). The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the "patter" (comic) baritone roles in the later operas. F. C. Burnand wrote that he "was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across. He, too, was a first-rate practical musician... As he was the most absurd person, so was he the very kindliest..." Ayer p. 408 Fred's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators' works, and each of them has a crucial comic little man role, as Burnand had put it. The "patter" baritone (or "principal comedian", as these roles later were called) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan's comic operas, and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs. After the success of Trial by Jury, Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together. Over the next two years, Richard D'Oyly Carte was one of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms. Carte also proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season, which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised, but he was unable to obtain financing for the project. Early successes The Sorcerer Carte's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage. He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company, with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening's entertainment. An early poster showing scenes from The Sorcerer, Pinafore, and Trial by Jury Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories, "The Elixir of Love," which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village. The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer, a purveyor of blessings (not much called for) and curses (very popular). Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters, seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production, in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed Thespis. The Sorcerer at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim, it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury. Nevertheless, Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team. H.M.S. Pinafore Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status (building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer, love between members of different social classes). As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story. Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes, and he directed the performers on stage. Gilbert was strongly influenced by the innovations in 'stagecraft', now called stage direction, by the playwrights James Planche and especially Tom Robertson. See Gilbert, W. S., A Stage Play; and Bond, Jessie, Introduction, etc. He sought realism in acting, shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience, and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity. Cox-Ife, William. W. S. Gilbert: Stage Director. Dobson, 1978 ISBN 0-234-77206-9. Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions, which was something new to many actors of the day. Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation. The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre. "That Gilbert was a good director is not in doubt. He was able to extract from his actors natural, clear performances, which served the Gilbertian requirements of outrageousness delivered straight."Mike Leigh interview Baily, p. 335 As Jessie Bond wrote later: H.M.S. Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances, Bradley (1996), p. 115 the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time (after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville). Hundreds of unauthorized, or "pirated", productions of Pinafore appeared in America. Rosen, Zvi S. The Twilight of the Opera Pirates: A Prehistory of the Right of Public Performance for Musical Compositions. Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal, Vol. 24, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-05-21. See also Prestige, Colin. "D'Oyly Carte and the Pirates", a paper presented at the International Conference of G&S held at the University of Kansas, May 1970 During the run of Pinafore, Richard D'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors. The disgruntled former partners, who had each invested in the production with no return, staged a public fracas, sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance. Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers. This event cleared the way for Carte, Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, which then produced all of their succeeding operas. The Pirate King The libretto of H.M.S. Pinafore relied on stock character types, many of which were familiar from European opera (and some of which grew out of Gilbert's earlier association with the German Reeds): the heroic protagonist (tenor) and his love-interest (soprano); the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue (contralto); the baffled lyric baritone—the girl's father; and a classic villain (bass-baritone). Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character. With the success of H.M.S. Pinafore, the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented, and each opera would make use of these stock character types. Before The Sorcerer, Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for, as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury. Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer, Gilbert no longer hired stars; he created them. He and Sullivan selected the performers, writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars. The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer, John Wellington Wells, would become the ruler of the Queen's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S. Pinafore, then join the army as Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance, and so on. Similarly, Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore, then into Ruth, the piratical maid-of-all-work in Pirates. Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years, becoming stars of the Victorian stage. These included George Grossmith, the principal comic; Rutland Barrington, the lyric baritone; Richard Temple, the bass-baritone; and Jessie Bond, the mezzo-soprano soubrette. The Pirates of Penzance The Pirates of Penzance (New Year's Eve, 1879), conceived in a fit of pique at the American copyright pirates, also poked fun at grand opera conventions, sense of duty, family obligation, the "respectability" of civilisation and the peerage, and the relevance of a liberal education. The story also revisits Pinafores theme of unqualified people in positions of authority, in the person of the "modern Major-General" who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military. The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance, who are all orphans, on the false plea that he is an orphan himself. The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General, but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers, the Major-General bids them: "resume your ranks and legislative duties, and take my daughters, all of whom are beauties!" The piece premiered first in New York rather than London, in an (unsuccessful) attempt to secure the American copyright, and was another big success with both critics and audiences. Gilbert, Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas, without success. Nevertheless, Pirates was a hit both in New York, again spawning numerous imitators, and then in London, and it became one of the most frequently performed, translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works, also enjoying a successful 1981 Broadway revival by Joseph Papp. In 1880, Sullivan wrote the cantata The Martyr of Antioch, presented at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival, with a libretto modified by Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch in the 3rd century. Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance. It could be said that Martyr was the 15th opera of the partnership, since the Carl Rosa Opera Company presented the work as an opera in 1898. Savoy Theatre opens Grossmith as Bunthorne in Patience Patience Patience (1881) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets, in particular, combining aspects of Algernon Charles Swinburne, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Oscar Wilde, James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor. Grossmith, who created the role of Bunthorne, based his makeup, wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler, as seen in the adjacent photo. Ellmann, Richard Oscar Wilde, (Knopf, 1988) pp. 135 and 151-152 ISBN 0-394-55484-1 The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military. The story concerns two rival "aesthetic" poets, who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village, who had been engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment. But the two poets are each in love with Patience, the village milkmaid, who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him. Richard D'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde, a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism, and dispatched Wilde on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera's U.S. run, so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about. During the run of Patience, Carte built the large, modern Savoy Theatre, which became the partnership's permanent home. It was the first theatre (indeed the world's first public building) to be lit entirely by electric lighting. See this article on the Savoy Theatre from arthurlloyd.co.uk, Retrieved on 2007-07-20. See also this article from the Ambassador Theatre Group Limited Patience moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances, surpassing the run of H.M.S. Pinafore and becoming the second longest-running work of musical theatre up to that time in history. The longest was the operetta Les Cloches de Corneville, which held the title until Dorothy in 1886. See this article on longest runs in the theatre up to 1920 Iolanthe Iolanthe (1882) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy. The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects, such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies. The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes. The critics felt that Sullivan's work in Iolanthe had taken a step forward. The Daily Telegraph wrote, "The composer has risen to his opportunity, and we are disposed to account Iolanthe his best effort in all the Gilbertian series." Quoted in Allen 1975b, p. 176 Similarly, the Theatre asserted that "the music of Iolanthe is Dr Sullivan's chef d'oeuvre. The quality throughout is more even, and maintained at a higher standard, than in any of his earlier works..." William Beatty-Kingston, Theatre, 1 January 1883, quoted in Baily 1966, p. 246 Barnett as The Fairy Queen Iolanthe is one of a number of Gilbert's works, including The Wicked World (1873), Broken Hearts (1875), Princess Ida (1884) and Fallen Fairies (1909), where the introduction of men and "mortal love" into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo. Gilbert had created several "fairy comedies" at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s. These plays, influenced by the fairy work of James Planché, are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference. In 1882, Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study. Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878, only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service. Sullivan had one installed as well, and on 13 May 1883, at a party to celebrate the composer's 41st birthday, the guests, including the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), heard a direct relay of parts of Iolanthe from the Savoy. This was probably the first live "broadcast" of an opera. Bradley (1996), p. 176 During the run of Iolanthe, in 1883, Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria. Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame, the honour was conferred for his services to serious music. The musical establishment, and many critics, believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera—that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera. Baily, p. 250 Sullivan, despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy, increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant, beneath his skills, and repetitious. Furthermore, he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert's words could be heard. But paradoxically, in February 1883, just after Iolanthe opened, Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months' notice. Princess Ida Princess Ida forswears the world of men Princess Ida (1884) spoofed women's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from Iolanthe of the war between the sexes. The opera is based on Tennyson's poem The Princess: A Medley. Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870, called The Princess, and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida. Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts. Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role, but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough, and when she missed a rehearsal, she was dismissed. Stedman, pp. 200-01 Princess Ida was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that, by the partnership's previous standards, was not a success. A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales. The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919. Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto, but two months after Ida opened, Sullivan told Carte that "it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself." As Princess Ida showed signs of flagging, Carte realized that, for the first time in the partnership's history, no new opera would be ready when the old one closed. On 22 March 1884, he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months' time. Jacobs, p. 187 In the meantime, when Ida closed, Carte produced a revival of The Sorcerer. Dodging the magic lozenge The Mikado The most successful of the Savoy Operas was The Mikado (1885), which made fun of English bureaucracy, thinly disguised by a Japanese setting. Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters, Gilbert eventually found another opportunity to present his "lozenge plot" in The Mountebanks, written with Alfred Cellier in 1892 which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in "human interest and probability", as well as being too similar to their earlier opera, The Sorcerer. As dramatised in the film Topsy-Turvy, albeit with the repetition of the apocryphal sword-falling story, see Jones, Brian (Spring 1985), "The sword that never fell", W. S. Gilbert Society Journal 1 (1): 22–25 the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884, when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements. Lithograph of the "Three Little Maids" from The MikadoThe story focuses on a "cheap tailor," Ko-Ko, who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu. Ko-Ko loves his ward, Yum-Yum, but she loves a musician, who is really the son of the emperor of Japan (the Mikado), and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha. The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume without delay in Titipu. When news arrives that the Mikado will be visiting the town, Ko-Ko assumes that he is coming to ascertain whether Ko-Ko has carried out the executions. Too timid to execute anyone, Ko-Ko cooks up a conspiracy to misdirect the Mikado, which goes awry. Eventually, Ko-Ko must persuade Katisha to marry him, in order to save his own life and the lives of the other conspirators. With the opening of trade between England and Japan, Japanese imports, art and styles became fashionable in London, making the time ripe for an opera set in Japan. Gilbert said, Setting the opera in Japan, an exotic locale far away from Britain, allowed Gilbert and Sullivan to satirise British politics and institutions more freely by clothing them in superficial Japanese trappings. Gilbert wrote, "The Mikado of the opera was an imaginary monarch of a remote period and cannot by any exercise of ingenuity be taken to be a slap on an existing institution." G. K. Chesterton compared it to Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels: "Gilbert pursued and persecuted the evils of modern England till they had literally not a leg to stand on, exactly as Swift did... I doubt if there is a single joke in the whole play that fits the Japanese. But all the jokes in the play fit the English... About England Pooh-bah is something more than a satire; he is the truth." Lyric Opera San Diego site Several of the later operas are similarly set in foreign or fictional locales, including The Gondoliers, Utopia Limited, and The Grand Duke. The Mikado became the partnership's longest-running hit, enjoying 672 performances at the Savoy Theatre, which was the second longest run for any work of musical theatre (surpassing the 571 performances of Pinafore and 576 of Patience) and one of the longest runs of any theatre piece up to that time. The longest-running piece of musical theatre was the operetta Les Cloches de Corneville, which held the title until Dorothy in 1886. See this article on longest runs in the theatre up to 1920 The Mikado remains the most frequently performed Savoy Opera. It has been translated into numerous languages and is one of the most frequently played musical theatre pieces in history. See hereand here Ruddigore Ruddigore (1887), a topsy-turvy take on Victorian melodrama, was less successful than most of the earlier collaborations with a run of 288 performances. The original title, Ruddygore, together with some of the plot devices, including the revivification of ghosts, drew negative comments from critics. See the Pall Mall Gazette's satire of Ruddygore. Gilbert's response to being told the two spellings meant the same thing was: "Not at all, for that would mean that if I said that I admired your ruddy countenance, which I do, I would be saying that I liked your bloody cheek, which I don't." See this article at Harvard's website and this information from the Australian G&S site. Gilbert and Sullivan respelled the title and made a number of changes and cuts. A copy of the Ruddigore libretto, including material cut before the first night and during the initial run, is Nevertheless, the piece was profitable, Information from the book Tit-Willow or Notes and Jottings on Gilbert and Sullivan Operas by Guy H. and Claude A. Walmisley (Privately Printed, Undated, early 20th century) and the reviews were not all bad. For instance, the Illustrated London News praised the work and both Gilbert and, especially, Sullivan: "Sir Arthur Sullivan has eminently succeeded alike in the expression of refined sentiment and comic humour. In the former respect, the charm of graceful melody prevails; while, in the latter, the music of the most grotesque situations is redolent of fun." Further changes were made, including a new overture, when Rupert D'Oyly Carte revived Ruddigore after the First World War, and the piece was regularly performed by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company thereafter. Critical apparatus in Hulme, David Russell, ed., Ruddigore. Oxford: Oxford University Press (2000) Some of the plot elements of Ruddigore were introduced by Gilbert in his earlier one-act opera, Ages Ago (1869), including the tale of the wicked ancestor and the device of the ghostly ancestors stepping out of their portraits. When Ruddigore closed, no new opera was ready. Gilbert again proposed a version of the "lozenge" plot for their next opera, and Sullivan reiterated his desire to leave the partnership. While the two men worked out their artistic differences, Carte produced revivals of such old favourites as H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, and The Mikado. The Yeomen of the Guard W.H. Denny as Wilfred and Jessie Bond as Phoebe in YeomenThe Yeomen of the Guard (1888), their only joint work with a serious ending, concerns a pair of strolling players—a jester and a singing girl—who are caught up in a risky intrigue at the Tower of London during the 16th century. The dialogue, though in prose, is quasi-Shakespearian, or early modern English, in style, and there is no satire of British institutions. For some of the plot elements, Gilbert had reached back to his 1875 tragedy, Broken Hearts. The Times praised the libretto: "It should... be acknowledged that Mr. Gilbert has earnestly endeavoured to leave familiar grooves and rise to higher things." Although not a grand opera, the new libretto provided Sullivan with the opportunity to write his most ambitious score to date. The critics, who had recently lauded the composer for his successful oratorio, The Golden Legend, considered the score to Yeomen to be Sullivan's finest, including its overture, which was written in sonata form, rather than as a sequential pot-pourri of tunes from the opera, as in most of his other overtures. The Daily Telegraph wrote: Yeomen was a hit, running for over a year, with strong New York and touring productions. During the run, on 12 March 1889, Sullivan wrote to Gilbert, Sullivan insisted that the next opera must be a grand opera. Gilbert did not feel that he could write a grand opera libretto, but he offered a compromise that Sullivan ultimately accepted. The two would write a light opera for the Savoy, and at the same time, Sullivan a grand opera (Ivanhoe) for a new theatre that Carte was constructing to present British grand opera. After a brief impasse over the choice of subject, Sullivan accepted an idea connected with Venice and Venetian life, as "this seemed to me to hold out great chances of bright colour and taking music." Jacobs, p. 288 The Gondoliers Rutland Barrington and Courtice Pounds as Giuseppe and Marco in The Gondoliers The Gondoliers (1889) takes place partly in Venice and partly in a kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who attempt to remodel the monarchy in a spirit of "republican equality." The Gondoliers at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, Retrieved on 2007-07-21. Gilbert recapitulates a number of his earlier themes, including the satire of class distinctions figuring in many of his earlier librettos. The libretto also reflects Gilbert's fascination with the "Stock Company Act", highlighting the absurd convergence of natural persons and legal entities, which plays an even larger part in the next opera, Utopia Limited. Press accounts were almost entirely favourable. The Illustrated London News reported: Sullivan's old collaborator on Cox and Box (later the editor of Punch magazine), F. C. Burnand, wrote to the composer: "Magnificento!...I envy you and W.S.G. being able to place a piece like this on the stage in so complete a fashion." The opera enjoyed a run longer than any of their other joint works except for H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado. There was a command performance of The Gondoliers for Queen Victoria and the royal family at Windsor Castle in 1891, the first Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be so honoured. The Gondoliers was Gilbert and Sullivan's last great success. Carpet quarrel Savoy Theatre c.1881 Gilbert and Sullivan sometimes had a strained working relationship, partly caused by the fact that each man saw himself allowing his work to be subjugated to the other's, and partly caused by the opposing personalities of the two—Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin-skinned (though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness), while Sullivan eschewed conflict. See, e.g., Stedman, pp. 254-56 and 323-24 and Ainger, pp. 193-94. In addition, Gilbert imbued his libretti with "topsy-turvy" situations in which the social order was turned upside down. After a time, these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan's desire for realism and emotional content. See, e.g. Ainger, p. 288, or Wolfson, p. 3 Also, Gilbert's political satire often poked fun at the wealthy and powerful whom Sullivan sought out for friendship and patronage. See, e.g. Jacobs, p. 73; Crowther, Andrew, The Life of W.S. Gilbert. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21; and Bond, Jessie, The Reminiscences of Jessie Bond: Chapter 16. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21 Gilbert and Sullivan quarrelled several times over the choice of a subject. After both Princess Ida and Ruddigore, which were less successful than the seven other operas from H.M.S. Pinafore to The Gondoliers, Sullivan asked to leave the partnership, saying that he found Gilbert's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him. While the two artists worked out their differences, Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works. On each occasion, after a few months' pause, Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan's objections, and the partnership was able to continue successfully. During the run of The Gondoliers, however, Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production. Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership. Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone. As scholar Andrew Crowther has explained: Sullivan sided with Carte, who was building a theatre in London for the production of new English grand operas, with Sullivan's Ivanhoe as the inaugural work. While the protracted quarrel worked itself out in the courts and in public, Gilbert wrote The Mountebanks with Alfred Cellier and the flop Haste to the Wedding with George Grossmith, Gilbert's Plays. The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. and Sullivan also wrote Haddon Hall with Sidney Grundy. In 1891, after many failed attempts at reconciliation by the pair and their producer, Richard D'Oyly Carte, Gilbert and Sullivan's music publisher, Tom Chappell, stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists, and within two weeks he had succeeded. Wolfson, p. 7 Last works and legacy The drawing room scene from Act II of Utopia Utopia, Limited (1893), their penultimate opera, was a very modest success, and The Grand Duke (1896) was an outright failure. Wolfson, passim Neither work entered the "canon" of regularly-performed Gilbert and Sullivan works until the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company made the first complete professional recordings of the two operas in the 1970s. Gilbert also offered Sullivan His Excellency (1894), but Gilbert's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh, his protégée from Utopia, led to Sullivan's refusal, and it was instead composed by F. Osmond Carr. Wolfson, pp. 61-65 The Entr'acte expresses its pleasure that Gilbert and Sullivan are reunited After The Grand Duke, the partners saw no reason to work together again. Sullivan, by this time in exceedingly poor health, died four years later, although to the end he continued to write new comic operas for the Savoy with other librettists, most successfully with Basil Hood in The Rose of Persia (1899), and The Emerald Isle (1901) (finished by Edward German after Sullivan's death). By the time of Sullivan's death, Gilbert wrote that any memory of their rift had been "completely bridged over," and "the most cordial relations existed between us." He stated that Sullivan was "A composer of the rarest genius — who, because he was a composer of the rarest genius, was as modest and as unassuming as a neophyte should be, but seldom is... I remember all that he has done for me in allowing his genius to shed some of its lustre upon my humble name." Gilbert went into semi-retirement, although he continued to direct revivals of the Savoy Operas and wrote new plays occasionally. He wrote only one more comic opera, Fallen Fairies (1909; music by Edward German), which was not a success. Bailey, p. 425 Richard D'Oyly Carte died in 1901, and his widow, Helen, and then his son, Rupert, followed by his granddaughter, Bridget, continued to direct the activities of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. That company toured year-round, except for its many London seasons and foreign tours, performing only the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, until it closed in 1982. During the 20th century, the company gave well over 35,000 performances. Rollins and Witts, passim In 1922, Sir Henry Wood explained the enduring success of the collaboration as follows: "Good times will come again" – Grossmith tries to cheer up D'Oyly Carte after the failure of The Grand Duke. In 1957, a review in The Times gave this rationale for "the continued vitality of the Savoy operas": Because of the unusual success of the operas, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company were able, from the start, to license the works to other professional companies, such as the J. C. Williamson Gilbert and Sullivan Opera Company, and to amateur societies. For almost a century, until the British copyrights expired at the end of 1961, and even afterwards, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company influenced productions of the operas worldwide, creating a "performing tradition" for most of the operas that is still referred to today by many directors. Recordings of excerpts from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas began to be released in 1906. In 1917, the Gramophone Company (also known as HMV) produced the first album of a complete musical score of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera, The Mikado, followed by recordings of eight more of the operas. Shepherd, Marc. "The First D'Oyly Carte Recordings", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 18 November 2001 Electrical recordings of the complete musical scores of most of the operas were then issued by the Gramophone Company and Victor Talking Machine Company beginning in the late 1920s. These recordings were supervised by Rupert D'Oyly Carte. Shepherd, Marc. "G&S Discography: The Electrical Era", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 18 November 2001 The original D'Oyly Carte Opera Company continued to produce well-regarded recordings until 1979, helping to keep the operas popular through the decades. Many of these recordings have been reissued on CD. Shepherd, Marc. "The D'Oyly Carte Stereo Recordings", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 24 December 2003 After the copyrights on the operas expired, other professional companies were free to perform and record the operas. Many performing companies arose to produce the works, such as Gilbert and Sullivan for All in Britain and the Light Opera of Manhattan and Light Opera Works in the U.S., and existing companies, such as English National Opera and Australian Opera added Gilbert and Sullivan to their repertories. The Australian Opera list of productions 1970 - 1996, AusStage, accessed 25 May 2009 These companies also released popular audio and video recordings of the operas. Shepherd, Marc. "G&S on Film, TV and Video", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 18 November 2001 In 1980, a Broadway and West End production of Pirates produced by Joseph Papp brought new audiences to Gilbert and Sullivan, and between 1988 and 2003, the revived D'Oyly Carte Opera Company revived the operas on tour and on the West End, also recording seven of the operas. Shepherd, Marc. Description of New Sadler's Wells, New D'Oyly Carte and Telarc recordings, A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 27 August 2002 Today, numerous professional repertory companies, For example, NYGASP, Carl Rosa Opera Company, Opera della Luna, Opera a la Carte, Skylight opera theatre, Ohio Light Opera and Washington Savoyards small opera companies, amateur societies, churches, schools and universities continue to produce the works. Websites of Performing Groups The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive at Boise State University, retrieved on 21 May 2007 The most popular G&S works also continue to be performed from time to time by major opera companies, Performances, by city—Composer: Arthur Sullivan. operabase.com, Retrieved on 2007-05-21 and professional recordings of the operas, and albums of songs from the operas, continue to be released. "The Gala Ensemble: The Best Of Gilbert & Sullivan", Selby Times, 7 December 2008 (Compilation recording) Shepherd, Marc. "The Ohio Light Opera Recordings", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 16 July 2005 Since 1993, a three-week long International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival has been held every August in Buxton, England, with some twenty performances of the operas given in the opera house, and several dozen related "fringe" events given in smaller venues. Lee, Bernard. "Gilbert and Sullivan are still going strong after a century", Sheffield Telegraph, 1 August 2008 Cultural influence Detail from a Punch cartoon, showing Sullivan and Gilbert. In the past 125 years, Gilbert and Sullivan have pervasively influenced popular culture in the English-speaking world, Bradley (2005), Chapter 1. and lines and quotations from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas have become part of the English language (even if not originated by Gilbert), such as "short, sharp shock", "What never? Well, hardly ever!", "let the punishment fit the crime", and "A policeman's lot is not a happy one". Green, Edward. "Ballads,songs, and speeches" (sic). BBC, 20 September 2004. Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Lawrence, Arthur H. "An illustrated interview with Sir Arthur Sullivan" Part 3, from The Strand Magazine, Vol. xiv, No.84 (December 1897). Retrieved on 2007-05-21. The operas have influenced political style and discourse, literature, film and television, have been widely parodied by humorists, and have been quoted in legal rulings. References to Gilbert and Sullivan have appeared in the following U.S. Supreme Court rulings, for example, Allied Chemical Corp. v. Daiflon, Inc., 449 U.S. 33, 36 (1980) ("What never? Well, hardly ever!"); and Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555, 604 (1980) (dissent of Justice Rehnquist, quoting the Lord Chancellor). The American and British musical owes a tremendous debt to G&S, Bargainnier, Earl F. "W. S. Gilbert and American Musical Theatre", pp. 120–33, American Popular Music: Readings from the Popular Press by Timothy E. Scheurer, Popular Press, 1989 ISBN 0879724668 who were admired by and copied by early authors and composers such as Ivan Caryll, Adrian Ross, Lionel Monckton, P. G. Wodehouse, PG Wodehouse (1881–1975), guardian.co.uk, Retrieved on 2007-05-21 Guy Bolton, Victor Herbert, and Ivor Novello, and later Irving Berlin, Jerome Kern, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Andrew Lloyd Webber. Bradley (2005), p. 9 Gilbert's lyrics served as a model for such 20th-century Broadway lyricists as Cole Porter, Lesson 35—Cole Porter: You're the Top. PBS.org, American Masters for Teachers, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. Ira Gershwin, Furia, Phillip. Ira Gershwin: The Art of a Lyricist. Oxford University Press, Retrieved on 2007-05-21. and Lorenz Hart. Noël Coward wrote: "I was born into a generation that still took light music seriously. The lyrics and melodies of Gilbert and Sullivan were hummed and strummed into my consciousness at an early age. My father sang them, my mother played them, my nurse, Emma, breathed them through her teeth.... My aunts and uncles... sang them singly and in unison at the slightest provocation...." Introduction to The Noel Coward Song Book, (London: Methuen, 1953), p. 9 Gilbert and Sullivan expert and enthusiast Ian Bradley notes, however: The works of Gilbert and Sullivan are themselves frequently pastiched and parodied. Bradley (2005) devotes an entire chapter (chapter 8) to parodies and pastiches of G&S used in advertising, comedy and journalism. Well known examples of this include Tom Lehrer's The Elements and Clementine, Allan Sherman's I'm Called Little Butterball and You Need an Analyst, The Two Ronnies' 1973 Christmas Special, Anna Russell's famous routines, and the animated TV series Animaniacs''' HMS Yakko episode. Songs from Gilbert and Sullivan are often pastiched in advertising, and elaborate advertising parodies have been published. For example, in 1961 Guinness published an entire book of parodies of Gilbert and Sullivan lyrics, illustarted with cartoons, to advertise Guinness Stout. The book, by Anthony Groves-Raines with illustrations by Stanley Penn is called My Goodness, My Gilbert and Sullivan. Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas are commonly referenced in literature, film and television in various ways that include extensive use of Sullivan's music or where action occurs during a performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera. There are also a number of Gilbert and Sullivan biopics, such as Mike Leigh's Topsy-Turvy (2000) and The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan (1953). It is not surprising, given the focus of Gilbert on politics, that politicians and political observers have often found inspiration in these works. Chief Justice of the United States William Rehnquist added gold stripes to his judicial robes after seeing them used by the Lord Chancellor in a production of Iolanthe. Alternatively, Lord Chancellor Charles Falconer is recorded as objecting so strongly to Iolanthes comic portrayal of Lord Chancellors that he supported moves to disband the office. British politicians, beyond quoting some of the more famous lines, have delivered speeches in the form of Gilbert and Sullivan pastiches. These include Conservative Peter Lilley's speech mimicking the form of "I've got a little list" from The Mikado, listing those he was against, including "sponging socialists" and "young ladies who get pregnant just to jump the housing queue". Political humour based on Gilbert and Sullivan's style and characters continues to be written. See this Daily Mail editorial piece, dated June 29, 2007 On the U.S. news show, Countdown with Keith Olbermann, a clip was shown from the Family Guy episode "Stewie Kills Lois" in which Stewie, after taking over the world, sings the "little list" song about those he hates, including Bill O'Reilly's dermatologist. Collaborations 1880 Pirates poster Major works and original London runsThespis, or, The Gods Grown Old (1871) 63 performancesTrial by Jury (1875) 131 performancesThe Sorcerer (1877) 178 performancesH.M.S. Pinafore, or, The Lass That Loved a Sailor (1878) 571 performancesThe Pirates of Penzance, or, The Slave of Duty (1879) 363 performancesThe Martyr of Antioch (cantata) (1880) (Gilbert modified the poem by Henry Hart Milman) N/APatience, or Bunthorne's Bride (1881) 578 performancesIolanthe, or, The Peer and the Peri (1882) 398 performancesPrincess Ida, or, Castle Adamant (1884) 246 performancesThe Mikado, or, The Town of Titipu (1885) 672 performancesRuddigore, or, The Witch's Curse (1887) 288 performancesThe Yeomen of the Guard, or, The Merryman and his Maid (1888) 423 performancesThe Gondoliers, or, The King of Barataria (1889) 554 performancesUtopia, Limited, or, The Flowers of Progress (1893) 245 performancesThe Grand Duke, or, The Statutory Duel (1896) 123 performances Parlour ballads The Distant Shore (1874) The Love that Loves Me Not (1875) Sweethearts (1875), based on Gilbert's 1874 play, SweetheartsOvertures The overtures from the Gilbert and Sullivan operas remain popular, and there are many recordings of them.<ref>Shepherd, Marc. Overtures, A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography (2005)</ref> Most of them are structured as a potpourri of tunes from the operas. They are generally well-orchestrated, but not all of them were composed by Sullivan. However, even those delegated to his assistants were based on an outline he provided, "Sir Arthur Sullivan", Interviewed by The Pall Mall Gazette, 5 December 1889 and in many cases incorporated his suggestions or corrections. Hughes, p. 130 Sullivan invariably conducted them (as well as the entire operas) on opening night, and they were included in the published scores approved by Sullivan. Those Sullivan wrote himself include the overtures to Thespis, Iolanthe, Princess Ida, The Yeomen of the Guard, The Gondoliers and The Grand Duke. Sullivan's authorship of the overture to Utopia Limited cannot be verified with certainty, as his autograph score is now lost, but it is likely attributable to him, as it consists of only a few bars of introduction, followed by a straight copy of music heard elsewhere in the opera (the Drawing Room scene). Thespis is now lost, but there is no doubt that Sullivan wrote its overture. Rees, Terence. Thespis - A Gilbert & Sullivan Enigma. London (1964): Dillon's University Bookshop, p. 79. Very early performances of The Sorcerer used a section of Sullivan's incidental music to Shakespeare's Henry the VIII, as he did not have time to write a new overture, but this was later replaced. Of those remaining, the overture to Patience is by Eugene d'Albert, Ainger, at p. 195 writes, "That evening (April 21, 1881) Sullivan gave his sketch of the overture to Eugene D'Albert to score. D'Albert was a seventeen-year-old student at the National Training School (where Sullivan was the principal and supervisor of the composition dept.) and winner of the Mendelssohn Scholarship that year." Several months before that, Sullivan had given d'Albert the task of preparing a piano reduction of The Martyr of Antioch for use in choral rehearsals of that 1880 work. David Russell Hulme studied the handwriting in the score's manuscript and confirmed that it is that of Eugen, not of his father Charles (as had erroneously been reported by Jacobs), both of whose script he sampled and compared to the Patience manuscript. Hulme, Doctoral Thesis The Operettas of Sir Arthur Sullivan: a study of available autograph full scores, 1985, University of Wales, pp. 242-43. The Thesis is available from a number of libraries (and many copies have been circulated) including The British Library Document Supply Centre, Boston Spa, Wetherby W. Yorks, Ref # DX171353, and Northern Illinois University, Call# :ML410.S95 H841986B. and the overtures to H.M.S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance are by Alfred Cellier. Ainger, pp. 157 and 177 Those to The Mikado and Ruddigore are by Hamilton Clarke (although the Ruddigore overture was later replaced by one written by Geoffrey Toye), Stone, David (2001), "Hamilton Clarke", Who Was Who in the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company, The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive. Retrieved 14 July 2008. and Clarke also wrote the new overture to The Sorcerer for its 1884 revival, which is the overture still in use. Ainger, p. 140 Most of the overtures are in three sections: a lively introduction, a slow middle section, and a concluding allegro in sonata form, with two subjects, a brief development, a recapitulation and a coda. However, Sullivan himself did not always follow this pattern. The overtures to Princess Ida and The Gondoliers, for instance, have only an opening fast section and a concluding slow section. The overture to Utopia Limited is dominated by a slow section, with only a very brief original passage introducing it. Hughes, p. 130 In the 1920s, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company commissioned its musical director at the time, Geoffrey Toye, to write new overtures for Ruddigore and The Pirates of Penzance. Toye's Ruddigore overture entered the general repertory, and today is more often heard than the original overture by Clarke. Shepherd, Marc, The 1924 D'Oyly Carte Ruddigore, The Gilbert and Sullivan Discography. Retrieved 14 July 2008 Toye's Pirates overture, however, did not last long and is now presumed lost. Sir Malcolm Sargent devised a new ending for the overture to The Gondoliers, adding the "cachucha" from the second act of the opera. This gave the Gondoliers overture the familiar fast-slow-fast pattern of most of the rest of the Savoy Opera overtures, and this version has competed for popularity with Sullivan's original version. Alternative versions Translations Gilbert and Sullivan operas have been translated into many languages, including Portuguese, Yiddish, Hebrew, Swedish, Danish, Estonian, Spanish (reportedly including a version of Pinafore transformed into zarzuela style), and many others. There are many German versions of Gilbert and Sullivan operas, including the popular Der Mikado. There is even a German version of The Grand Duke. Some German translations were made by Friedrich Zell and Richard Genée, librettists of Die Fledermaus, Eine Nacht in Venedig and other Viennese operettas, who even translated one of Sullivan's lesser-known operas, The Chieftain, as ("Der Häuptling"). Ballets Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet! (formerly called Pirates! The Ballet) Pineapple Poll - from a story by Gilbert - and music by Sullivan Adaptations Gilbert adapted the stories of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado into children's books called The Pinafore Picture Book and The Story of The Mikado giving, in some cases, backstory that is not found in the librettos. Stedman, p. 331 Gilbert, W. S. The Pinafore Picture Book, London: George Bell and Sons (1908) Gilbert, W. S. The Story of The Mikado, London: Daniel O'Connor (1921) Many other children's books have since been written retelling the stories of the opers or adapting characters or events from them. Dillard, pp. 103–05 lists many. Many musical theatre and film adaptations of the operas have been produced, including the following: The Swing Mikado (1938; Chicago - all-black cast) The Hot Mikado (1939) and Hot Mikado (1986) The Jazz Mikado The Black Mikado Hollywood Pinafore (1945) The Cool Mikado (1962 film) The Pirate Movie (1982 film) The Ratepayers' Iolanthe (1984; Olivier Award-winning musical) Di Yam Gazlonim by Al Grand (1985; a Yiddish adaptation of Pirates; a New York production was nominated for a 2007 Drama Desk Award) Metropolitan Mikado (political satire adapted by Ned Sherrin and Alistair Beaton, first performed at Queen Elizabeth Hall (1985) starring Louise Gold, Simon Butteriss, Rosemary Ashe, Robert Meadmore and Martin Smith) Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet! (1991) Pinafore! (A Saucy, Sexy, Ship-Shape New Musical) (adapted by Mark Savage, first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles, California in 2001; only one character is female, and all but one of the male characters are gay. Shepherd, Marc. "The Celebration Theater Pinafore! (2002)", A Gilbert and Sullivan Discography, 3 June 2002, accessed 10 March 2009 Parson's Pirates by Opera della Luna (2002) The Ghosts of Ruddigore by Opera della Luna (2003) Pinafore Swing, Watermill Theatre (2004, in which the actors serve as the orchestra, playing the musical instruments) "Watermill - Pinafore Swing", Collected newspaper reviews of Pinafore Swing, reprinted at the Newbury theatre guide archive, accessed 10 March 2009 See also D'Oyly Carte Opera Company Gilbert and Sullivan performers People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan The International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival, held annually in Buxton, England The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan, the 1953 film List of songwriter tandems Notes References Introduction by Martyn Green. This book is available online at Google books. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. This book is available online at Google books. Retrieved on 2007-06-10. Available online here. ISBN 0-903443-12-0 Further reading External links General links The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive Historical survey of G&S University of Rochester's online Gilbert & Sullivan exhibit Savoynet G&S discussion list - an email-based G&S listserv Music and discographies MP3 files of music from The Pirates of Penzance 2002 performance by The Manchester University Gilbert & Sullivan Society MP3 files of music from The Mikado 1998 performance by The Manchester University Gilbert & Sullivan Society G&S Archive MIDI homepage The Gilbert and Sullivan Discography Links to reviews and analysis of numerous recordings of "G&S Derived Works" Appreciation society and performing group links The Gilbert and Sullivan Society, London The New England Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes links to other North American societies) The Gilbert and Sullivan Society of New York G&S Archive "Performing Groups" page Comprehensive listing of performing companies. | Gilbert_and_Sullivan |@lemmatized w:16 gilbert:190 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2,076 | Portugal | Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic (), Portal do Governo is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Located in southwestern Europe, Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are also part of Portugal. The land within the borders of today's Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times. Portugal has witnessed a constant flow of different civilizations during the past millenia. From prehistoric cultures, to its Pre-Roman civilizations (such as the Lusitanians, the Gallaeci, the Celtici, and the Cynetes, amongst others), passing through its contacts with the Phoenician-Carthaginian world; the Roman period that began in the 2nd century BC (see Hispania, Lusitania and Gallaecia); the Germanic invasions and consequent settlement of the Suevi and Buri (see Suebic Kingdom of Galicia) and the Visigoth (see Visigothic Kingdom), from the 5th to the 8th century, the passage of the Vandals and Alans; the Muslim Moorish Umayyad invasion of Hispania in the early 8th century that conquered the Christian Germanic kingdoms, eventually occupying most of the Iberian Peninsula. In the early 1100s, during the Christian Reconquista, Portugal appeared as a kingdom independent of its neighbour, the Kingdom of León and Galicia. In a little over a century, in 1249, Portugal would establish almost its entire modern-day borders by conquering territory from the Moors. During the 15th and 16th centuries, with a global empire that included possessions in Africa, Asia, and South America, Portugal was one of the world's major economic, political, and cultural powers. In the 17th century, the Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and Spain ended the sixty year period of the Iberian Union (1580–1640). The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and, in the 19th century, armed conflicts with French and Spanish invading forces and the loss of its largest territorial possession abroad, Brazil, disrupted political stability and potential economic growth. After the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution coup d'état in 1974, the ruling regime was deposed in Lisbon and the country handed over its last overseas provinces in Africa. Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was handed over to China in 1999. Portugal is a developed country, Appendix B - International Organizations and Groups: developed countries (DCs), CIA — The World Factbook — Appendix B, The World Factbook and has a high Human Development Index. It is the 7th most peaceful and the 13th most globalized country in the world, and has the world's 19th highest quality of life, Quality-of-life Survey, The Economist despite having the lowest GDP per capita of Western European countries. It is a member of the European Union (joined the then EEC in 1986, leaving the EFTA where it was a founding member in 1960) and the United Nations (since 1955); as well as a founding member of the Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese Language Countries, CPLP), and the European Union's Eurozone. Portugal is also a Schengen state. History The early history of Portugal, whose name derives from the Roman name Portus Cale which means the Port of the Celts, is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. The region was settled by Pre-Celts and Celts, giving origin to peoples like the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes, visited by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, incorporated in the Roman Republic dominions (as Lusitania after 45 BC), settled again by Suevi, Buri, and Visigoths, and conquered by Moors. Other minor influences include some 5th century vestiges of Alan settlement, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra and even Lisbon. Milhazes, José. Os antepassados caucasianos dos portugueses - Rádio e Televisão de Portugal in Portuguese. In 868, during the Reconquista (by which Christians reconquered the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim and Moorish domination), the First County of Portugal was formed. A victory over the Muslims at Ourique in 1139 is traditionally taken as the occasion when Portugal was transformed from a county (County of Portugal as a fief of the Kingdom of León) into an independent kingdom: the Kingdom of Portugal. On 24 June 1128, the Battle of São Mamede occurred near Guimarães. At the Battle of São Mamede, Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his mother, Countess Teresa, and her lover, Fernão Peres de Trava, in battle — thereby establishing himself as sole leader. Afonso Henriques officially declared Portugal's independence when he proclaimed himself king of Portugal on 25 July 1139, after the Battle of Ourique, he was recognized as such in 1143 by Alfonso VII, king of León and Castile, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III. Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, pushed southward to drive out the Moors, as the size of Portugal covered about half of its present area. In 1249, this Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve on the southern coast, giving Portugal its present day borders, with minor exceptions. In 1348 and 1349, like the rest of Europe, Portugal was devastated by the Black Death. Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England, which is the longest-standing alliance in the world. Progress of the Christian Reconquista. In 1383, the king of Castile, husband of the daughter of the Portuguese king who had died without a male heir, claimed his throne. An ensuing popular revolt led to the 1383-1385 Crisis. A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz (later John I), seconded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota. This celebrated battle is still a symbol of glory and the struggle for independence from neighboring Spain. In the following decades, Portugal spearheaded the exploration of the world and undertook the Age of Discovery. Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King João I, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavor. In 1415, Portugal gained the first of its overseas colonies when a fleet conquered Ceuta, a prosperous Islamic trade center in North Africa. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the first colonization movements. Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices, which were coveted in Europe. In 1498, Vasco da Gama finally reached India and brought economic prosperity to Portugal and its then population of one million residents. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral, en route to India, discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. The standard view of historians is that Cabral was blown off course as he was navigating the currents of the South Atlantic, sighted the coast of South America, thereby accidentally discovering Brazil. For an account of an alternative view of the discovery of Brazil, however, see Alternative theory of the European discovery of Brazil Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa, in India, Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. The Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe landing in such places like Taiwan, Japan, the island of Timor, and it may also have been Portuguese sailors that were the first Europeans to discover Australia and even New Zealand. Map proves Portuguese discovered Australia: new book, in Reuters (Wed Mar 21, 2007) - (see Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia) Portugal's independence was interrupted between 1580 and 1640. Because the heirless King Sebastian died in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in Morocco, Philip II of Spain claimed his throne and so became Philip I of Portugal. Although Portugal did not lose its formal independence, it was governed by the same monarch who governed Spain, briefly forming a union of kingdoms, as a personal union; in 1640, John IV spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and Spain on the aftermath of the 1640 revolt, ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg. This was the beginning of the House of Braganza, which was to reign in Portugal until 1910. On 1 November 1755, Lisbon, the largest city and capital of the Portuguese Empire, was strongly shaken by an earthquake which killed thousands and destroyed a large portion of the city. An anachronistic map of the Portuguese Empire (1415–1999). Red - actual possessions; Olive - explorations; Orange - areas of influence and trade; Pink - claims of sovereignty; Green - trading posts; Blue - main sea explorations, routes and areas of inluence. In the autumn of 1807 Napoleon moved French troops through its allied Spain to invade Portugal. From 1807 to 1811, British-Portuguese forces would successfully fight against the French invasion of Portugal. Portugal began a slow but inexorable decline until the 20th century. This decline was hastened by the independence in 1822 of the country's largest colonial possession, Brazil. At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had a already lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portuguese territories eventually included the modern nations of Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique. Map of the Portuguese Overseas provinces in Africa by the time of the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). In 1910, a revolution deposed the Portuguese monarchy, but chaos continued and considerable economic problems were aggravated by the military intervention in World War I, which led to a military coup d'état in 1926. This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar. Ceremony of the handover of Macau to the People's Republic of China, in December 1999. Macau Handover Ceremony - 1999, youtube.com In December 1961, the Portuguese army was involved in armed action in its colony of Portuguese India against an Indian invasion. The operations resulted in the defeat of the isolated and relatively small Portuguese garrison which was forced to surrender. The outcome was the loss of the Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent. Also in the early 1960s, independence movements in the Portuguese overseas provinces of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). In April 1974, a bloodless left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led the way for a modern democracy as well as the independence of the last colonies in Africa shortly after. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique), Flight from Angola, The Economist (August 16, 1975). Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, July 07, 1975). creating over a million destitute Portuguese refugees — the retornados. Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was not handed over to the People's Republic of China until 1999, under the 1987 joint declaration that set the terms for Macau's handover from Portugal to the P. R. of China. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognized by Portugal, after an incomplete decolonization process that was started in 1975 due to the Carnation Revolution. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD and EFTA. In 1986, Portugal joined the European Union (then the European Economic Community). In 1999, Portugal was one of the founding countries of the euro and the Eurozone. It is also a co-founder of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), established in 1996 and headquartered in Lisbon. Government and politics Aníbal Cavaco Silva, current President of Portugal. Portugal is a democratic republic ruled by the constitution of 1976 with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The four main governing components are the president of the republic, the parliament, the government, and the courts. The constitution grants the division or separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Portugal like most European countries has no state religion, making it a secular state. The president, who is elected to a five-year term, has a supervising non-executive role. The current President is Aníbal Cavaco Silva. The Parliament is a chamber composed of 230 deputies elected in four-year terms. The government is headed by the prime minister (currently José Sócrates) who chooses the Council of Ministers, comprising all the ministers and state secretaries. The national and regional governments (those of Azores and Madeira autonomous regions), and the Portuguese parliament, are dominated by two political parties, the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party. Minority parties Unitarian Democratic Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party plus Ecologist Party "The Greens"), Bloco de Esquerda (The Left Bloc) and CDS-PP (Popular Party) are also represented in the parliament and local governments. The courts are organized in several categories comprising the judicial, administrative, and fiscal branches. The supreme courts are courts of last appeal. A thirteen-member constitutional court oversees the constitutionality of the laws. Executive branch José Sócrates, current Prime Minister of Portugal. The President, elected to a 5-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Presidential powers include appointing the prime minister and Council of Ministers, in which the president must be guided by the assembly election results; dismissing the prime minister; dissolving the assembly to call early elections; vetoing legislation, which may be overridden by the assembly; and declaring a state of war or siege. The Council of State, a presidential advisory body, is composed of six senior civilian officers, any former presidents elected under the 1976 constitution, five members chosen by the assembly, and five selected by the president. The government is headed by the presidentially appointed prime minister, who names the Council of Ministers. A new government is required to define the broad outline of its policy in a program and present it to the assembly for a mandatory period of debate. Failure of the assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office. |President |Aníbal Cavaco Silva |PSD |9 March 2006 |- |Prime Minister |José Sócrates |PS |12 March 2005 |} Legislative branch The four main organs of the national government are the presidency, the prime minister and Council of Ministers (the government), the Assembly of the Republic (the parliament), and the judiciary. The Assembly of the Republic is a unicameral body composed of up to 230 deputies. Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation, deputies serve terms of office of 4 years, unless the president dissolves the assembly and calls for new elections. Foreign relations and armed forces A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, that would become the European Union in 1993. In 1996 it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which seeks to foster closer economic and cultural ties between the world's Lusophone nations. In addition, Portugal is a full member of the Latin Union (1983) and the Organization of Ibero-American States (1949). It has a friendship alliance and dual citizenship treaty with its former colony, Brazil. Portugal and England (subsequently, the UK) share the world's oldest active military accord through their Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, which was signed in 1373. The only international dispute concerns the municipality of Olivença. Under Portuguese sovereignty since 1297, the municipality of Olivença was ceded to Spain under the Treaty of Badajoz in 1801, after the War of the Oranges. Portugal claimed it back in 1815 under the Treaty of Vienna. Nevertheless, bilateral diplomatic relations between the two neighbouring countries are cordial, as well as within the European Union. Military Portuguese Army soldiers in Bosnia. The armed forces have three branches: Army, Navy, and Air Force. The military of Portugal serves primarily as a self-defense force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and providing humanitarian assistance and security at home and abroad. As of 2002, the total armed forces of Portugal numbered 43,600 active personnel including 2,875 women. Reservists numbered 210,930 for all services. Portuguese Air Force F-16. The army had 25,400 personnel with equipment including 187 main battle tanks. The navy of 10,800, including 1,580 marines, had two submarines, six frigates, and 28 patrol and coastal combatants. The air force of 7,400 was equipped with 50 combat aircraft. Paramilitary police and republican guards, the Guarda Nacional Republicana (GNR), number 40,900. GNR is a police force under the authority of the military, its soldiers are subject to military law and organization. It has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq and East Timor. The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops. Portugal participates in peacekeeping operations in several regions. Defense spending in 1999–00 was $1.3 billion, representing 2.2% of GDP. Since the early 2000s, compulsory military service is no longer practiced. The changes also turned the forces' focus towards professional military engagements. The age for voluntary recruitment is set at 18. In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions: the First Great War and the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). Portugal has participated in peacekeeping missions in East Timor, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq (Nasiriyah), and Lebanon. The Portuguese Military's Rapid Reaction Brigade, a combined force of the nation's elite Paratroopers, Special Operations Troops Centre, and Commandos, is a special elite fighting force. Law and criminal justice The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system, also called the continental family legal system. Until the end of the 19th century, French law was the main influence. Since then the major influence has been German law. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the Commercial Code (1888, as amended) and the Civil Procedure Code (1961, as amended). Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence for those countries. Portugal's main police organizations are the Guarda Nacional Republicana - GNR (National Republican Guard), a gendarmerie; the Polícia de Segurança Pública - PSP (Public Security Police), a civilian police force who work in urban areas; and the Polícia Judiciária - PJ (Judicial Police), a highly specialized criminal investigation police which is overseen by the Public Ministry. Geography Cork oak on wheat field, a typical image of the Alentejo region.Praia da Marinha, Lagoa, Algarve.Mount Pico in Pico Island, Azores: the highest mountain of Portugal (Mainland Portugal's highest point is in the Serra da Estrela).Montesinho Natural Park in northeastern Portugal. The climate can be classified as Mediterranean type csa in the southern areas, and csb in the north, according to the Köppen climate classification. Portugal is one of the warmest European countries, the annual temperature averages in mainland Portugal are 13 °C (55 °F) in the north and 18 °C (64 °F) in the south and it is over 20 °C (68°F) on the warmest spots, like south coast of Madeira island. The Madeira and Azores Atlantic archipelagos have a narrower temperature range. Extreme temperatures occur in the mountains of northeastern parts of the country in winter (where they may fall to -15 °C) and Southeastern parts in summer. Sea coastal areas are milder. Official absolute extremes registered so far have been -16.0 °C Official temperature records, Instituto de Meteorologia in Penhas da Saúde and +47.4 °C in Amareleja, Moura municipality, Alentejo region. Mainland Portugal is split by its main river, the Tagus. The northern landscape is mountainous in the interior areas, with plateaus indented by river valleys. The south, between the Tagus and the Algarve (the Alentejo), features mostly rolling plains and a climate somewhat warmer and drier than in the cooler and rainier north. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo by mountains, has a climate much like southern coastal Spain. The islands of the Azores are located in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge whilst the Madeira islands were formed by the activity of an in-plate hotspot, much like the Hawaiian Islands. Some islands have had volcanic activity as recently as 1957. Azores have a subtropical humid climate, as well as Madeira which is warmer and more diversified. In the mountains it is possible to have a Mountain Temperate climate, in the lowlands a sub-tropical Humid climate with the exception of Porto Santo (Warm Infra-mediterranean climate) and Salvages Islands (Ilhas Selvagens) with a Desert climate. Portugal is the only European country that has a Tropical climate in the oceanic area of South Azores, due to the strong influence of the Gulf Stream in this area. Sea water temperatures there remain over 20°C even in the middle of winter ( January). Portugal's highest point is Mount Pico on Pico Island in the Azores. This is an ancient volcano measuring 2,350 meters (7,713 ft). Mainland Portugal's highest point is Serra da Estrela, measuring 1993 meters (6,558 ft). Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zone, a seazone over which the Portuguese have special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources, has 1,727,408 km². This is the 3rd largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union and the 11th largest in the world. Conservation areas of Portugal include one national park (Parque Nacional), 12 natural parks (Parque Natural), 9 natural reserves (Reserva Natural), 5 natural monuments (Monumento Natural), and 7 protected landscapes (Paisagem Protegida), ranging from the Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gerês to the Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela to the Paul de Arzila. Climate and geographical diversity shaped the Portuguese Flora. Protected areas within Mainland Portugal. As far as Portuguese forests are concerned, due to economic reasons the pine tree (especially the Pinus pinaster and Pinus pinea species), the chestnut tree (Castanea sativa), the cork oak (Quercus suber), the holm oak (Quercus ilex), the Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), and the eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) are very widespread. Mammalian fauna is diverse and includes the fox, badger, Iberian lynx, Iberian Wolf, wild goat (Capra pyrenaica), wild cat (Felis silvestris), hare, weasel, polecat, mongoose, civet, brown bear (spotted near Rio Minho, close to Peneda-Gerês) and many others. Portugal is an important stopover place for migratory birds, in places such as Saint Vicent Cape or Monchique mountain, where thousands of birds that fly from Europe to Africa in the Autumn or on the opposite direction can be seen in the Spring. They congregate there because the Iberian Peninsula is the closest place in Europe to Africa. Portugal has around 600 bird species and almost every year there are new records. The islands have some species of American, European, and African origin, while the mainland shares European and African bird species. Portugal has over 100 freshwater fish species and vary from the giant European catfish (Tejo International Natural Park) to some small and endemic species that live only in small and located lakes (West Zone, for example). Some of these rare and specific species are highly endangered due to habitat loss, pollution and drought. Marine fish species number are on the thousands mark and include the sardine (Sardina pilchardus), tuna and Atlantic mackerel. The marine bioluminescence is very well-represented (in different colors spectra and forms), with interesting phenomena like the glowing plankton, that is possible to observe in some beaches. In Portugal it is also possible to observe the upwelling phenomena, especially on the west coast, which makes the sea extremely rich in nutrients and biodiversity. Portuguese marine waters are one of the richest in biodiversity in the world. There are many endemic species of Insect fauna, that are only found in some places in Portugal, others are more widespread like the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) and the cicada. Macaronesian islands (Azores and Madeira) have many endemic species (like birds, reptiles, bats, insects, snails and slugs) that developed differently from other places in the world due to their isolated locations and so very unique species have evolved there. Madeira is the only place where it is possible to observe 200 species of land gastropods. Laurissilva is a unique type of subtropical rainforest in Europe and in the world. It is found in Madeira and The Azores and also on the Canary islands, Spain. Administrative divisions Map of Mainland Portugal (showing the borders of the districts) and the two autonomous regions of Portugal (not in their actual locations). Portugal has an administrative structure of 308 municipalities (Portuguese singular/plural: concelho/concelhos), which are subdivided into more than 4,000 parishes (freguesia/freguesias). Municipalities are grouped for administrative purposes into superior units. For continental Portugal the municipalities are gathered in 18 Districts, while the Islands have a Regional Government directly above them. Thus, the largest unit of classification is the one established since 1976 into either mainland Portugal (Portugal Continental) or the autonomous regions of Portugal (Azores and Madeira). The 18 district capitals of mainland Portugal are: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real, and Viseu - each district takes the name of the district capital. The European Union's system of Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is also used. According to this system, Portugal is divided into 7 regions (Açores, Alentejo, Algarve, Centro, Lisboa, Madeira, and Norte), which are subdivided into 30 subregions. Demographics Population Douro river in Porto, Grande Porto, Portugal's second most populated subregion. Funchal, Madeira, is the largest Portuguese city outside mainland Portugal. The population of Portugal has been relatively homogeneous for most of its history. A single religion and a single language have contributed to this ethnic and national unity, namely after the expulsion of the Moors, Moriscos and of the Sephardi Jews. The great majority of Portuguese are nominaly Roman Catholic, though a large percentage consider themselves non-practicing, especially in urban areas. Portugal was one of the last western European nations to give up its colonies and overseas territories, turning over the administration of Macau to the People's Republic of China in 1999. Its colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity, as has its geographic position at the southwestern corner of Europe looking out to the Atlantic ocean. Native Portuguese are an Iberian ethnic group and their ancestry is very similar to other western and southern European peoples, particularly from Spain, with whom it shares ancestry and has cultural proximity. It is largely consistent with the geographic position of the western part of the Iberian peninsula, located on the extreme southwest of continental Europe. There are clear connections with Mediterranean people as well as with those of Atlantic and Western Europe. The most important demic influence in modern Portuguese seems to be the oldest one - current interpretation of Y-chromosome and mtDNA data suggests that modern-day Portuguese traces largely a significant amount of their origin to the paleolithic peoples which began arriving to the European continent around 45,000 years ago. All subsequent migrations did leave an impact, not only genetical, but also cultural, but the main populational source of the Portuguese is still paleolithic. The Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE, Portugal's official bureau of statistics), estimated that, according to the 2001 census, the population was 10,355,824 of which 52% was female, 48% was male. By 2007, Portugal had 10,617,575 inhabitants of whom about 332,137 were legal immigrants. INE, Statistics Portugal Portugal, long a country of emigration (the vast majority of Brazilians have some Portuguese ancestry), Portugal - Emigration has now become a country of net immigration, Portugal sees integration progress, BBC News, November 14, 2005 and not just from the last Indian (Portuguese until 1961), African (Portuguese until 1975), and Far East Asian (Portuguese until 1999) overseas territories. Since the 1990s, along with a boom in construction, several new waves of Ukrainian, Brazilian, people from the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and other Africans have settled in the country. Those communities currently make up the largest groups of immigrants in Portugal. Romanians, Moldovans and Chinese also have chosen Portugal as destination. A number of EU citizens from the United Kingdom, Spain and other EU member states, are permanent residents of the country, with the British community being mostly composed of retired pensioners and the Spaniards composed of professionals (medical doctors, business managers, businesspersons, nurses, etc.). Portugal's Gypsy population, estimated at about 40,000, Etnia cigana. A mais discriminada, (Expresso-05.04.2008) offers another element of ethnic diversity. Most gypsies live apart, and primarily in the south. They can often be found at rural markets selling clothing and handicrafts. Portugal also has small Protestant, Muslim, Hindu and Jewish communities. The most populous cities are Lisbon, Porto, Vila Nova de Gaia, Amadora, Braga, Almada, Coimbra, Funchal and Setúbal. There are seven Greater Metropolitan Areas (GAMs): Algarve, Aveiro, Coimbra, Lisbon, Minho, Porto and Viseu. Rank City name Population Metropolitan area Population Subregion1 Lisbon 564,657 Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon 2,641,006 Grande Lisboa2 Porto 263,131 Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto 1,647,469 Grande Porto3 Vila Nova de Gaia 178,255 Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto - Grande Porto4 Amadora 175,872 Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon - Grande Lisboa5 Braga 109,460 Greater Metropolitan Area of Minho 797,909 Cávado6 Almada 101,500 Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon - Península de Setúbal7 Coimbra 101,069 Greater Metropolitan Area of Coimbra 435,900 Baixo Mondego8 Funchal 100,526 N/A (Autonomous Region of Madeira)* N/A (245,806)** Madeira9 Setúbal 89,303 Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon - Península de Setúbal10 Agualva-Cacém 81,845 Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon - Grande Lisboa Source of the city populations: INE census, 2001.* - The Autonomous Region of Madeira is not a Metropolitan Area.** - Population of the Autonomous Region of Madeira. Religion The sanctuary of Fátima. Church and state were formally separated during the Portuguese First Republic (1910–26), a separation reiterated in the Portuguese Constitution of 1976. Portugal is a secular state. Other than the Constitution, the two most important documents relating to religious freedom are the 2001 Religious Freedom Act and the 1940 Concordata (as amended in 1971) between Portugal and the Holy See. Portuguese society is Roman Catholic. 84.5% of the population are Roman Catholic and 2.2% being other Christian faiths. Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or connotation. Although relations between the Portuguese state and the Roman Catholic Church were generally amiable and stable since the earliest years of the Portuguese nation, their relative power fluctuated. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest and its close identification with early Portuguese nationalism and the foundation of the Portuguese educational system, including the first university. The growth of the Portuguese overseas empire made its missionaries important agents of colonization with important roles of evangelization and teaching in all inhabited continents. The country has small Protestant, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Christian Orthodox, Baha'i and Jewish communities, largely composed of foreigners. It also has a growing population of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) numbering almost 40,000. see http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/contact-us/portugal Languages The Lusosphere. Portuguese is the official language of Portugal. Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain) and Northern Portugal, from the Galician-Portuguese language. It is derived from the Latin spoken by the romanized Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it spread worldwide as Portugal established a colonial and commercial empire (1415–1999). As a result, nowadays the Portuguese language is also official and spoken in Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, and East Timor. These countries, plus Macau Special Administrative Region (People's Republic of China), make up the Lusosphere, term derived from the ancient Roman province of Lusitania, which currently matches the Portuguese territory south of the Douro river. Mirandese is also recognized as a co-official regional language in some municipalities of northeastern Portugal. It retains fewer than 5,000 speakers in Portugal (a number that can be up to 12,000 if counting second language speakers). Economy Maia, in Porto Metropolitan Area, is among the most industrialized municipalities in Portugal. Portugal's economy is based on services and industry such as software and automotive. Business services have overtaken more traditional industries Investing in Portugal Report, Financial Times such as textiles, clothing, footwear, cork and wood products and beverages (wine, beer, juice, soft drinks). The country has increased its role in the automotive, mold-making and software sectors. Services, particularly tourism, are playing an increasingly important role. Portugal's European Union (EU) funding will be cut by 10%, to 22.5 billion euros, during the 2007–2013 period. EU expansion into eastern Europe has erased Portugal's past competitive advantage and relative low labor costs. Portugal's economic development model has been changing from one based on public consumption and public investment to one focused on exports, private investment, and development of the high-tech sector. At present, Portugal is exporting more technology than it imports. Portugal changed its political regime in 1974 due to the Carnation Revolution, culminating with the end of one of its most notable periods of economic growth, which had started in the 1960s. Fundação da SEDES - As primeiras motivações, "Nos anos 60 e até 1973 teve lugar, provavelmente, o mais rápido período de crescimento económico da nossa História, traduzido na industrialização, na expansão do turismo, no comércio com a EFTA, no desenvolvimento dos sectores financeiros, investimento estrangeiro e grandes projectos de infra-estruturas. Em consequência, os indicadores de rendimentos e consumo acompanham essa evolução, reforçados ainda pelas remessas de emigrantes.", SEDES It left the EFTA and joined the European Union (then the European Economic Community) in 1986. These changes resumed a process of fast modernization and economic growth within the framework of a stable environment. Successive governments implemented reforms and privatized many state-controlled firms and liberalized key areas of the economy. Portugal was one of the founding countries of the euro in 1999, and therefore is integrated into the Eurozone. Major industries include oil refineries, automotive, cement production, pulp and paper industry, textile, footwear, furniture, and cork (of which Portugal is the world's leading producer). Grande Enciclopédia Universal, p. 10543, "Portugal", para. 4 Manufacturing accounts for 33% of exports. Portugal is the world's fifth-largest producer of tungsten, and the world's eleventh-largest producer of wine. Agriculture and fishing no longer represents the bulk of the economy. However, Portugal has a strong tradition in the fisheries sector and is one of the countries with the highest fish consumption per capita. PESSOA, M.F.; MENDES, B.; OLIVEIRA, J.S. CULTURAS MARINHAS EM PORTUGAL, "O consumo médio anual em produtos do mar pela população portuguesa, estima-se em cerca de 58,5 kg/ por habitante sendo, por isso, o maior consumidor em produtos marinhos da Europa e um dos quatro países a nível mundial com uma dieta à base de produtos do mar." Portuguese wines, namely Port Wine (named after the country's second largest city, Porto) and Madeira Wine (named after Madeira Island), are exported worldwide. Tourism is also important, especially in mainland Portugal's southernmost region of the Algarve and in the Atlantic Madeira archipelago. Tourism has developed significantly and generates approximately 5% of the wealth produced in Portugal. Fisheries and agriculture now account for about 4% of the GDP. The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic Forum, placed Portugal's competitiveness in the 22nd position, but the 2008-2009 edition placed Portugal in the 43rd position out of 134 countries and territories. Portugal became a founding member of the Eurozone in 1999. Shown is the standard Portuguese national side of a 1 euro coin — the centrepiece is the 1144 royal seal of King Afonso Henriques. Research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf placed Portugal as the country with the 19th-best quality of life in the world for the year 2005, ahead of other economically and technologically advanced countries like France, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Korea, but 9 places behind its only neighbour, Spain. This is despite the fact that Portugal remains the country with the lowest per capita GDP in Western Europe and is among the less wealthy in the European Union (the 6th poorest country among the 27 European Union member-states by purchasing power for the period 2005-2007, according to the Eurostat). Portugueses perderam poder de compra entre 2005 e 2007 e estão na cauda da Zona Euro, Público (December 11, 2008) GDP growth in 2006, at 1.3%, was the lowest not just in the European Union but in all of Europe. In the 2000s, the Czech Republic, Greece, Malta, Slovakia and Slovenia have all overtaken Portugal in terms of GDP per head. And Portuguese GDP per head has fallen from just over 80% of the EU 25 average in 1999 to just over 70% in 2007. This poor performance of the Portuguese economy was explored in April 2007 by The Economist which described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe". "A new sick man of Europe", The Economist, 2007-04-14. http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9009032 From 2002 to 2007, the unemployment rate increased 65% (270,500 unemployed citizens in 2002, 448,600 unemployed citizens in 2007). Luis Miguel Mota, População desempregada aumentou 65% em cinco anos, Destak.pt (6th June 2008) Major State-owned companies include Águas de Portugal (water), Caixa Geral de Depósitos (banking), Comboios de Portugal (railways), CTT (postal services) and Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (media). Publicly owned companies like EDP, Galp, Jerónimo Martins, Millennium bcp, Portugal Telecom and Sonae are among the largest corporations of Portugal by both number of employees and net income. Most of these large companies are listed on the stock exchange. The major stock exchange of Portugal is the Euronext Lisbon which is part of the NYSE Euronext, the first global stock exchange. The PSI-20 is Portugal's most selective and widely known stock index. Portugal's central bank is the Banco de Portugal, which is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks. Communications Portugal has one of the highest mobile phone penetration rates in the world (the number of operative mobile phones already exceeds the population). This network also provides wireless mobile Internet connections as well, and covers the entire territory. As of October 2006, 36.8% of households had high-speed Internet services and 78% of companies had Internet access. Most Portuguese watch television through cable (June 2004: 73.6% of households). Paid Internet connections are available at many cafés, as well as many post offices. One can also surf on the Internet at hotels, conference centres and shopping centres, where special areas are reserved for this purpose. Free internet access is also available to Portuguese residents at "Espaços de Internet" across the country. Portugal Telecom (PT) is the incumbent telephone operator in Portugal. It has more than 4 million fixed lines in service, over 7 million in wireless, and nearly a million in high-speed Internet access, the largest share in each category. A global company, PT also has stakes elsewhere, mostly in Africa and South America. Energy Alqueva Dam, Alentejo - irrigation and hydroelectric power generation facility which created the largest artificial lake in Western Europe. In 2006 the world's largest solar power plant began operating in the nation's sunny south while the world's first commercial wave power farm opened in October 2006 in the Norte region. As of 2006, 66% of electricity production was from coal and fuel power plants. A total of 29% was produced by hydroelectrics and 6% by wind energy . The government is channeling $38,000,000,000 into developing renewable energy sources over the next five years. Portugal wants renewable energy sources like solar, wind and wave power to account for nearly half of the electricity consumed in the country by 2010 (the target is 20% by 2020). "This new goal will place Portugal in the frontline of renewable energy and make it, along with Austria and Sweden, one of the three nations that most invest in this sector", Prime Minister José Sócrates said. And indeed, in 2008, up to 43% of the electricity consumed in the country had been produced through the renewable energies, even though the hydroelectric production had decreased due to the dryness that affected the country. Portugal's main electricity and gas providers are Energias de Portugal and Galp Energia. Portugal has also modernized its water supply and sanitation system, in particular by increasing the rate of wastewater treated with support from EU subsidies to 80%. The country has also established a modern institutional and legal framework for the water and sanitation sector, including an autonomous regulatory agency, a national asset holding company called Águas de Portugal and a number of multi-municipal utilities. This replaced an institutionally fragemented sector structure, under which the country's 308 municipalities — many of them very small — had exclusive responsibility for water and sanitation. Tourism A 9 km beach in Porto Santo Island, Madeira. A beach near Lagos, in the Algarve.Porto's Ribeira, a typical neighbourhood by the river.Lisbon's downtown old quarter, seen from the Castle of Saint George.Portugal attracts many tourists each year. In 2006, the country was visited by 12.8 million tourists. Tourism is playing an increasingly important role in Portugal's economy contributing with about 5% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The tourist areas are, by order of tourist receipts and earnings, Greater Lisbon (Lisboa), the Algarve, Portuguese Islands (Ilhas Portuguesas: Madeira and Azores), Greater Porto and Northern Portugal (Porto e Norte), Alentejo, and Centro. 2007 was a record year for inbound visitors to Portugal. During the peak of the tourist season, occupancy rates registered levels of almost 100% in the Algarve and in Porto. Porto benefited from staging important world events in the summer, such as the Red Bull Air Race. Domestic tourism continued its significant increase, since the Portuguese still prefer to travel within their borders. Among the inbound countries that contributed the most to the summer’s success were Spain, the , Germany, The Netherlands and Ireland. Low cost carriers continue to increase their share towards the end of the review period. After a boom in continental airports, EasyJet expanded to Madeira airport with new routes including London Stansted and Bristol. Low cost airlines continued to invest in their fleets and in direct flights, creating new inbound tourism destinations. The main low cost companies operating in Portugal are EasyJet, Monarch Airlines and Ryanair. Demand for dynamic holiday packages is constantly increasing, as consumers show a preference for creating personalised holidays or travel packages. This also prompted tour operators to improve their standard packages, in order to offer a wider range of options to their customers. At the same time, online sales are increasing steadily. This trend is pushing traditional tour operators such as Viagens Abreu to improve their web platforms or to create their own online travel agency, with Star Viagens creating OTA Exit. Portugal is one of the world’s leading destinations for health and wellness tourism. The country benefits from its climate, mineral and medicinal water properties, natural thermal baths and recent investments in hotel/resort spas. Health and wellness is the main emerging tourism area, as shown in the strategic tourism plan from the government. Health and wellness is also expected to play an important role in diminishing the seasonality of tourism in the country. Travel and tourism will continue to be extremely important for Portugal, with visitor numbers forecast to increase significantly over the next five years. However, there is increasing competition from Eastern European destinations such as Croatia who offer similar attractions to Portugal, and are often cheaper. Portugal must keep its focus on its niche attractions such as health, nature and rural tourism to stay ahead of its competitors. , Euromonitor International Science and technology The headquarters (rectorate) of the University of Porto (UP) - UP is the largest Portuguese university by both number of students and research output. Scientific and technological research activities in Portugal are mainly conducted within a network of R&D units belonging to public universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the INETI - Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovação and the INRB - Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos. The funding and management of this research system is mainly conducted under the authority of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES) itself and the MCTES's Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT). The largest R&D units of the public universities by volume of research grants and peer-reviewed publications, include biosciences research institutions like the Instituto de Medicina Molecular, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, the IPATIMUP, and the Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular. Among the private universities, notable research centers include the Facial Emotion Expression Lab. Internationally notable state-supported research centres in other fields include the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, a joint research effort between Portugal and Spain. Among the largest non-state-run research institutions in Portugal are the Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência and the Champalimaud Foundation which yearly awards one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world. A number of both national and multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are also responsible for research and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is the Sciences Academy of Lisbon. The Lisbon Oceanarium, the largest aquarium in Europe. Portugal made agreements with several European scientific organizations aiming at full membership. These include the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), ITER, and the European Southern Observatory (ESO). Portugal has entered into cooperation agreements with MIT (USA) and other North American institutions in order to further develop and increase the effectiveness of Portuguese higher education and research. Portugal is home to the largest aquarium in Europe, the Lisbon Oceanarium, and have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation, like the state agency Ciência Viva, a programme of the Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the Portuguese population, Ciência Viva the Science Museum of the University of Coimbra, the National Museum of Natural History at the University of Lisbon, and the Visionarium. With the emergence and growth of several science parks throughout the world which helped create many thousands of scientific, technological and knowledge-based businesses, Portugal started to develop several Tecparques - Associação Portuguesa de Parques de Ciência e Tecnologia science parks across the country. These include the Taguspark (in Oeiras), the Coimbra iParque (in Coimbra), the Madeira Tecnopolo Madeira Tecnopolo (in Funchal), Sines Tecnopolo Sines Tecnopolo (in Sines) and Parkurbis Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia da Covilhã (Parkurbis) (in Covilhã). Companies locate in the Portuguese science parks to take advantage of a variety of services ranging from financial and legal advice through to marketing and technological support. Education The tower of the University of Coimbra, Coimbra - the university is one of the oldest in continuous operation in the world.The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age 6), basic education (9 years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (3 years, till the 12th grade), and higher education (university and polytechnic). Total adult literacy rate is 95%. Portuguese primary school enrollments are close to 100%. About 20% of college-age students attend one of the country's higher education institutions (compared with 50% in the United States). In addition to being a key destination for international students, Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher education students, both domestic and international, totaled 380,937 in 2005. Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. The oldest Portuguese university was first established in Lisbon before moving to Coimbra. Universities are usually organized into faculties. Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions of Portuguese higher education institutions, and are always used in the polytechnical system. The Bologna process has been adopted since 2006 by Portuguese universities and polytechnical institutes. Higher education in state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, a system of numerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions. Healthcare Hospital of São Teotónio, Viseu. According to the latest Human Development Report, the average Life Expectancy in 2006 was 77.9 years. The Portuguese health system is characterized by three coexisting systems: the National Health Service (NHS), special social health insurance schemes for certain professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The NHS provides universal coverage. In addition, about 25% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual funds. The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the NHS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralization efforts have aimed at shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice, however, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and spending has been limited to primary care. The NHS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance premiums account for a large proportion of funding. Similar to the other Eur-A countries, most Portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases. Mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is higher than in the Eurozone, but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in Portugal (17%). Portuguese people die 12% less often from cancer than in the Eur-A, but mortality is not declining as rapidly as in the Eur-A. Cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger than 44 years. Although lung cancer (slowly increasing among women) and breast cancer (decreasing rapidly) are scarcer, cancer of the cervix and the prostate are more frequent. Portugal has the highest mortality rate for diabetes in the Eur-A, with a sharp increase since the late 1980s. Portugal’s infant mortality rate has dropped sharply since the 1980s, when 24 of 1000 newborns died in the first year of life. It is now around 3 deaths per a 1000 newborns. This improvement was mainly due to the decrease in neonatal mortality, from 15.5 to 3.4 per 1000 live births. People are usually well informed about their health status, the positive and negative effects of their behaviour on their health and their use of health care services. Yet their perceptions of their health can differ from what administrative and examination-based data show about levels of illness within populations. Thus, survey results based on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and the use of services. Only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in Portugal (Kasmel et al., 2004). This is the lowest of the Eur-A countries reporting and reflects the relatively adverse situation of the country in terms of mortality and selected morbidity. see http://www.euro.who.int/document/chh/por_highlights.pdf Transport Porto Metro light rail. Transportation was seen as a priority in the early 1970s due to the fast growing economy, and again in the 1990s, after the 1974 Carnation Revolution, pushed by the growing use of automobiles and mass consumption. The country has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) network of roads, of which almost 3,000 km (1,864 mi) are part of a 44 motorways system. Vasco da Gama Bridge, over the Tagus River, is the longest bridge in Europe. ListAfterList.com Curious? Read Founded in 1972, Brisa is the largest highway management concessionaire. With 89,015 km², Continental Portugal has 3 international airports located near Lisbon, Porto and Faro. The national railway system service is provided by Comboios de Portugal. The major seaports are located in Leixões, Aveiro, Figueira da Foz, Lisbon, Setúbal, Sines and Faro. The two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Metro Sul do Tejo in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and Porto Metro in the Porto Metropolitan Area, each with more than 35 km (22 mi) of lines. In Portugal, Lisbon tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century. In Porto a tram network, of which only a tourist line on the shores of the Douro remain, began construction in 12 September 1895, the first in the Iberian Peninsula. All major cities and towns have their own local urban transport network, as well as taxi services. Lisbon's geographical position makes it a stopover point for many foreign airlines at airports all over the country. The government decided to build a new airport outside Lisbon, in Alcochete, to replace Lisbon's Portela airport. Currently, the most important airports are in Lisbon, Faro, Porto, Funchal (Madeira), and Ponta Delgada (Azores). Culture Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet of the 16th century. Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various civilizations that have crossed the Mediterranean and the European continent, or were introduced when it played an active role during the Age of Discovery. Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text and song. Until 1350, the Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula. Poesia e Prosa Medievais, p. 9, para. 4 Gil Vicente (ca. 1465 - ca. 1536), was one of the founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions. Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (ca. 1524–1580) wrote the epic poem "Os Lusíadas" (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, as exemplified by Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queiroz, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen and António Lobo Antunes. Particularly popular and distinguished is José Saramago, winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize for literature. António Chainho playing a Portuguese guitar. Portuguese music encompasses a wide variety of genres. The most renowned is fado, a melancholy urban music, usually associated with the Portuguese guitar and saudade, or longing. Coimbra fado, a unique type of fado, is also noteworthy. Internationally notable performers include Amália Rodrigues, Carlos Paredes, José Afonso, Mariza, Carlos do Carmo, Mísia, and Madredeus. One of the most notable Portuguese musical groups outside the country, and specially in Germany, is the goth-metal band Moonspell. In addition to fado and folk, the Portuguese listen to pop and other types of modern music, particularly from North America and the United Kingdom, as well as a wide range of Portuguese and Brazilian artists and bands. Bands with international recognition include Blasted Mechanism and The Gift, both of which were nominated for an MTV Europe Music Award. Portugal has several summer music festivals, such as Festival Sudoeste in Zambujeira do Mar, Festival de Paredes de Coura in Paredes de Coura, Festival Vilar de Mouros near Caminha, and Rock in Rio Lisboa and Super Bock Super Rock in Lisbon. Out of the summer season, Portugal has a large number of festivals, designed more to an urban audience, like Flowfest or Hip Hop Porto. Furthermore, one of the largest international Goa trance festivals takes place in central Portugal every two years, and the student festivals of Queima das Fitas are major events in a number of cities across Portugal. In 2005, Portugal held the MTV Europe Music Awards, in Pavilhão Atlântico, Lisbon. In the Classical music domain, Portugal is represented by names as the pianist Maria João Pires, and in the past by the great cellist Guilhermina Suggia. Notable composers include Luís de Freitas Branco and his student Joly Braga Santos, and Fernando Lopes-Graça. Casa da Música (Music House), Porto. Portuguese cinema has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century. Portuguese film directors such as Arthur Duarte, António Lopes Ribeiro, Manoel de Oliveira, António-Pedro Vasconcelos, João Botelho and Leonel Vieira, are among those that gained notability. Noted Portuguese film actors include Joaquim de Almeida, Maria de Medeiros, Diogo Infante, Soraia Chaves, Vasco Santana, Ribeirinho, and António Silva, among many others. It has also a rich history as far as painting is concerned. The first well-known painters date back to the XV century – like Nuno Gonçalves - were part of the Gothic painting period. José Malhoa, known for his work Fado, and Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (who painted the portraits of Teófilo Braga and Antero de Quental) were both references in naturalist painting. The 20th century saw the arrival of Modernism, and along with it came the most prominent Portuguese painters: Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily influenced by French painters, particularly by the Delaunays. Among his best known works is Canção Popular a Russa e o Fígaro. Another great modernist painter/writer was Almada Negreiros, friend to the poet Fernando Pessoa, who painted his (Pessoa’s) portrait. He was deeply influenced by both Cubist and Futurist trends. Prominent international figures in visual arts nowadays include painters Vieira da Silva, Júlio Pomar, and Paula Rego. Traditional architecture is distinctive. Modern Portugal has given the world renowned architects like Eduardo Souto de Moura, Álvaro Siza Vieira and Gonçalo Byrne. Internally, Tomás Taveira is also noteworthy. Since the 1990s, Portugal has increased the number of public cultural facilities, in addition to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation established in 1956 in Lisbon. These include the Belém Cultural Center in Lisbon, Serralves Foundation and the Casa da Música, both in Porto, as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert halls which were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country. Gastronomy Pastéis de Nata (cream custards). Portuguese cuisine is diverse. The Portuguese consume a lot of dry cod (bacalhau in Portuguese), for which there are hundreds of recipes. There are more than enough bacalhau dishes for each day of the year. Two other popular fish recipes are grilled sardines and caldeirada, a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of different, scrambled fish or meats or even vegetables. Typical Portuguese meat recipes, that may be made out of beef, pork, lamb, or chicken, include cozido à portuguesa, , feijoada, frango de churrasco, leitão (piglet) and carne de porco à alentejana.|A glass of port wine. Typical fast food dishes include the francesinha from Porto, and bifanas (grilled pork) or prego (grilled beef) sandwiches which are well known around the country. The Portuguese art of pastry has its origins in Middle-Ages Catholic monasteries widely spread across the country. These monasteries, based on very few ingredients (mostly almonds, flour, eggs and some liquor), managed to create a spectacular wide range of different pastries, of which pastéis de Belém (or pastéis de nata) originally from Lisbon, and ovos-moles from Aveiro are good examples. Portuguese cuisine is very diverse, with different regions having their own traditional dishes. The Portuguese have a cult for good food and throughout the country there are myriad good restaurants and small typical tascas. Portuguese wines have deserved international recognition since the times of the Roman Empire, which associated Portugal with their god Bacchus. Today the country is known by wine lovers and its wines have won several international prizes. Some of the best Portuguese wines are: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada and the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira Wine and the Moscatel from Setúbal and Favaios. Port Wine is well known around the world and the most widely known wine type in the world. The Douro wine region is the oldest in the world. Sport Opening ceremony of the UEFA Euro 2004, held in Portugal. Football (soccer) is the most popular and played sport. There are several football competitions ranging from local amateur to world-class professional level. The legendary Eusébio is still a major symbol of Portuguese football history. FIFA World Player of the Year winners Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo, are among the numerous examples of other world-class football (soccer) players born in Portugal and noted worldwide. The Portuguese national teams, have titles in the FIFA World Youth Championship and in the UEFA youth championships. The main national team - Selecção Nacional - finished second in Euro 2004 (held in Portugal), reached the third place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and reached the fourth place in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, their best results in major competitions to date. Sporting C.P., F.C. Porto and S.L. Benfica are the largest sports clubs by popularity and in terms of trophies won, often known as "os três grandes" ("the big three"). They have 12 titles won in the European UEFA club competitions, were present in many finals and have been regular contenders in the last stages almost every season. Other than football, many Portuguese sports clubs, including the "big three", compete in several other sports events with a varying level of success and popularity, these may include basketball, futsal, handball, and volleyball. Pavilhão Atlântico (Atlantic Pavilion), an indoor sports venue and concert hall in Lisbon. Portugal has a successful rink hockey team, with 15 world titles and 20 European titles, making it the country with the most wins in both competitions. The most successful Portuguese rink hockey clubs in the history of European championships are F.C. Porto, S.L. Benfica and Óquei de Barcelos. The national rugby union team made a dramatic qualification into the 2007 Rugby World Cup and became the first all amateur team to qualify for the World Cup since the dawn of the professional era. The Portuguese national rugby sevens team has performed well, becoming one of the strongest teams in Europe, and proved their status as European champions in several occasions. In athletics, the Portuguese have won a number of gold, silver and bronze medals in the European, World and Olympic Games competitions. Cycling, with Volta a Portugal being the most important race, is also a popular sports event and include professional cycling teams such as S.L. Benfica, Boavista, Clube de Ciclismo de Tavira, and União Ciclista da Maia. The country has also achieved notable performances in sports like fencing, judo, kitesurf, rowing, sailing, surfing, shooting, triathlon and windsurf, owning several European and world titles. The paralympic athletes have also conquered many medals in sports like swimming, boccia and wrestling. In motor sport, Portugal is internationally noted for the Rally of Portugal, and both the Estoril and Algarve Circuits. Northern Portugal has its own original martial art, Jogo do Pau, in which the fighters use staffs to confront one or several opponents. In equestrian sports, Portugal won the only Horseball-Pato World Championship (in 2006), achivied the third position in First Horseball World Cup (organized in Ponte de Lima, Portugal, in 2008), achivied several victories in the Working Equitation European Cup. See also List of Portugal-related articles Outline of Portugal Notes References Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal I — A Formação do Território QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-106-6) Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal II — A Afirmação do País QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-107-4) de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal III — A Epopeia dos Descobrimentos QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-108-2) de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal IV — Glória e Declínio do Império QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-109-0) Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal V — A Restauração da Indepêndencia QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-110-4) Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal X — A Terceira República QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-115-5) Loução, Paulo Alexandre: Portugal, Terra de Mistérios Ésquilo, 2000 (third edition; ISBN 972-8605-04-8) Muñoz, Mauricio Pasto: Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade Ésquilo, 2003 (third edition; ISBN 972-8605-23-4) Grande Enciclopédia Universal Durclub, 2004 Constituição da República Portuguesa, VI Revisão Constitucional, 2004 Programa do Movimento das Forças Armadas, 1974 External links Government Official Portuguese Government website / Official Parliament website Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Portugal at UCB Libraries GovPubs Portugal in Photography 2007 National English language newspaper National Wine Website Travel Official Travel and Tourism office website Official Portuguese Government Travel/media website Wikitravel guide to Portugal Luso.tv - View Portugal in Video/media website SeePortugal.Org - Travel related information for visitors be-x-old:Партуґалія | Portugal |@lemmatized portugal:205 officially:2 portuguese:129 republic:13 portal:1 governo:1 country:59 iberian:15 peninsula:9 locate:7 southwestern:2 europe:24 westernmost:1 mainland:12 border:6 atlantic:13 ocean:3 west:3 south:15 spain:16 north:8 east:6 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2,077 | Geography_of_Liberia | Map of Liberia. Location Liberia is a large Sub-Saharan nation in West Africa located at 6 °N, 9 °W. Topography The country is shaped like a rectangle, with a shape similar to El Salvador. Land boundaries and size It borders the north Atlantic Ocean to the southwest (579 km of coastline) and three other African nations on the other three sides. The total length of Liberia’s land borders is 1,587 km: 306 km with Sierra Leone on the northwest, 563 km with Guinea to the north, and 716 km with Côte d'Ivoire. In total, Liberia comprises 111,370 km² of which 96,320 km² is land and 15,050 km² is water, making the country slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Washington. Maritime Claims Liberia currently claims a territorial sea of 200 nautical miles (370 km). Terrain Liberia has a mostly hilly terrain, from rolling plains along the coast to a rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast. Elevation extremes The lowest point on Liberia is at sea level on the Atlantic Ocean. The highest point on Liberia is 1 380 meters above sea level at Mount Wuteve. Climate Liberia has a tropical climate. This means it is hot and humid throughout much of the year. The seasons are split into dry winters with hot days and cool to cold nights and wet, cloudy summers with frequent and heavy showers. Natural resources Natural resources that are found in Liberia include iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold and hydropower. Land use and agriculture Topographic map of Liberia arable land: 3.43% permanent crops: 3% permanent pastures: 1.98% other: 94.59% (2005) Irrigated land 30 square kilometres of Liberia's land was irrigated in 2003. Natural hazards The natural hazard that occurs in Liberia is a dust-laden harmattan wind that blows from the Sahara (December to March). Environmental issues Current environmental issues Current environmental issues include the fact that the tropical rainforest is subject to deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity and the pollution of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage. Environment - international agreements party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation References See also Liberia | Geography_of_Liberia |@lemmatized map:2 liberia:14 location:1 large:1 sub:1 saharan:1 nation:2 west:1 africa:1 locate:1 n:1 w:1 topography:1 country:2 shape:2 like:1 rectangle:1 similar:1 el:1 salvador:1 land:7 boundary:1 size:1 border:2 north:2 atlantic:2 ocean:2 southwest:1 km:6 coastline:1 three:2 african:1 side:1 total:2 length:1 sierra:1 leone:1 northwest:1 guinea:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 comprise:1 water:2 make:1 slightly:1 small:1 u:1 state:1 washington:1 maritime:1 claim:2 currently:1 territorial:1 sea:4 nautical:1 mile:1 terrain:2 mostly:1 hilly:1 roll:2 plain:1 along:1 coast:1 plateau:1 low:2 mountain:1 northeast:1 elevation:1 extremes:1 point:2 level:2 high:1 meter:1 mount:1 wuteve:1 climate:3 tropical:4 mean:1 hot:2 humid:1 throughout:1 much:1 year:1 season:1 split:1 dry:1 winter:1 day:1 cool:1 cold:1 night:1 wet:1 cloudy:1 summer:1 frequent:1 heavy:1 shower:1 natural:4 resource:2 find:1 include:2 iron:1 ore:1 timber:3 diamond:1 gold:1 hydropower:1 use:1 agriculture:1 topographic:1 arable:1 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 irrigate:2 square:1 kilometre:1 hazard:2 occur:1 dust:1 laden:1 harmattan:1 wind:1 blow:1 sahara:1 december:1 march:1 environmental:4 issue:3 current:2 fact:1 rainforest:1 subject:1 deforestation:1 soil:1 erosion:1 loss:1 biodiversity:2 pollution:2 coastal:1 oil:1 residue:1 raw:1 sewage:1 environment:1 international:1 agreement:1 party:1 desertification:1 endanger:1 specie:1 marine:3 dumping:2 nuclear:1 test:1 ban:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 ship:1 sign:1 ratify:1 change:1 modification:1 law:1 life:1 conservation:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram sub_saharan:1 el_salvador:1 atlantic_ocean:2 sierra_leone:1 côte_ivoire:1 nautical_mile:1 mile_km:1 hilly_terrain:1 elevation_extremes:1 extremes_low:1 hot_humid:1 iron_ore:1 topographic_map:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 square_kilometre:1 harmattan_wind:1 tropical_rainforest:1 deforestation_soil:1 soil_erosion:1 raw_sewage:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 marine_dumping:2 dumping_nuclear:1 ozone_layer:1 tropical_timber:2 timber_tropical:1 biodiversity_climate:1 dumping_marine:1 |
2,078 | Alger_of_Liège | Alger of Liège (1055-1131), known also as Alger of Cluny and Algerus Magister, a learned French priest who lived in the first half of the 12th century. He was first a deacon of the church of St Bartholomew at Liège, his native town, and was then appointed (c. 1100) to the cathedral church of Saint Lambert of Maastricht. He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired to the monastery of Cluny, where he died at great age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence. His History of the Church of Liège, and many of his other works, are lost. The most important of those still extant are: 1. De Misericordia et Justitia (On Mercy and Justice), a collection of biblical extracts and sayings of Church Fathers with commentary (an important work for the history of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis Domini; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by Peter of Cluny and Erasmus. 3. De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio; given in B. Pez's Anecdota, vol. iv. 4. De Sacrificio Missae; given in the Collectio Scriptor. Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371. See Migne, Patrol Ser. Lat. vol. clxxx. coll. 739-.972; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. für prot. Theol., art. by S. M. Deutsch. References Catholic Encyclopedia article | Alger_of_Liège |@lemmatized alger:2 liège:3 know:1 also:1 cluny:3 algerus:1 magister:1 learned:1 french:1 priest:1 live:1 first:2 half:1 century:1 deacon:1 church:5 st:1 bartholomew:1 native:1 town:1 appoint:1 c:1 cathedral:1 saint:1 lambert:1 maastricht:1 decline:1 many:2 offer:1 german:1 bishop:1 finally:1 retire:1 monastery:1 die:1 great:1 age:1 leave:1 good:1 reputation:1 piety:1 intelligence:1 history:2 work:2 lose:1 important:2 still:1 extant:1 de:4 misericordia:1 et:3 justitia:1 mercy:1 justice:1 collection:1 biblical:1 extract:1 saying:1 father:1 commentary:1 law:1 discipline:1 find:1 anecdota:2 martene:1 vol:4 v:1 sacramentis:1 corporis:1 sanguinis:1 domini:1 treatise:1 three:1 book:1 berengarian:1 heresy:1 highly:1 commend:1 peter:1 erasmus:1 gratia:1 libero:1 arbitrio:1 give:2 b:1 pez:1 iv:1 sacrificio:1 missae:1 collectio:1 scriptor:1 vet:1 angelo:1 mai:1 ix:1 p:1 see:1 migne:1 patrol:1 ser:1 lat:1 clxxx:1 coll:1 herzog:1 hauck:1 realencyk:1 für:1 prot:1 theol:1 art:1 deutsch:1 reference:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 |@bigram libero_arbitrio:1 herzog_hauck:1 |
2,079 | Lotus_1-2-3 | Lotus 1-2-3 is a spreadsheet program from Lotus Software (now part of IBM). It was the IBM PC's first "killer application"; its huge popularity in the mid-1980s contributed significantly to the success of the IBM PC in the corporate environment. http://www.crn.com/it-channel/18818026 Acquired 2007-10-31 Beginnings Lotus 1-2-3 3.0 for DOS. The Lotus Development Corporation was founded by Mitchell Kapor, a friend of the developers of VisiCalc. 1-2-3 was originally written by Jonathan Sachs, who had written two spreadsheet programs previously while working at Concentric Data Systems, Inc. http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/lotus/library/ls-NDHistory/ 2007-10-31 To aid its growth, in the UK, and possibly elsewhere, Lotus 1-2-3 was the very first computer software to use television consumer advertising. 1-2-3 was released on January 26, 1983, started outselling then-most-popular VisiCalc the very same year, and for a number of years was the leading spreadsheet for the DOS operating system. Unlike Microsoft Multiplan, it stayed very close to the model of VisiCalc, including the "A1" letter and number cell notation, and slash-menu structure. It was free of notable bugs, and was very fast because it was programmed entirely in x86 assembly language and bypassed the slower DOS screen input/output functions in favor of writing directly to memory-mapped video display hardware. This reliance on the specific hardware of the IBM PC led to 1-2-3 being utilized as one of the two litmus test applications for true 100% compatibility when PC clones started to appear in the early- to mid- 80s. 1-2-3 was used to test general application compatibility, with Microsoft Flight Simulator being used to test graphics compatibility. Because all of a spreadsheet needs to be resident in memory, it also drove the race to utilize more memory, and extended memory and expanded memory techniques were needed to overcome the DOS limit of 640KB to allow larger spreadsheets - this was so important that a memory used/remaining indicator was displayed on-screen. User features The name "1-2-3" stemmed from the product's integration of three main capabilities. Along with being a spreadsheet, it also offered integral charting/graphing and rudimentary database operations. Data features included sorting data in any defined rectangle, by order of information in one or two columns in the rectangular area. Justifying text in a range into paragraphs allowed it to be used as a primitive word processor. It had keyboard-driven pop-up menus as well as one-key commands, making it fast to operate. It was also user-friendly, introducing an early instance of context-sensitive help accessed by the F1 key. Macros in version one and add-ins (introduced in version 2.0) contributed much to 1-2-3's popularity, allowing dozens of outside vendors to sell macro packages and add-ins ranging from dedicated financial worksheets to full-fledged word processors. (In the single-tasking MS-DOS, 1-2-3 was sometimes used as a complete environment.) Lotus 1-2-3 supported EGA graphics on the PC/AT and VGA graphics on the PS/2. Early versions used the filename extension "WKS". WKS File Extension - Open .WKS files In version 2.0, the extension changed first to "WK1", WK1 File Extension - Open .WK1 files then "WK2". WK2 File Extension - Open .WK2 files This later became "WK3" for version 3.0 WK3 File Extension - Open .WK3 files and "WK4" for version 4.0. WK4 File Extension - Open .WK4 files Version 2 introduced macros with syntax and commands similar in complexity to an advanced BASIC interpreter, as well as string variable expressions. Later versions supported multiple worksheets, and were written in C. The charting/graphing routines were written in Forth by Jeremy Sagan (son of Carl Sagan) and the printing routines by Paul Funk (founder of Funk Software). There is also a version of 1-2-3 for the HP 200LX, a palmtop released by Hewlett-Packard, and a port for Tandy's Deskmate. Rivals Lotus 1-2-3 inspired imitators, the first of which was Mosaic Software's "The Twin," written in the fall of 1985 largely in the C language, followed by VP-Planner, which was backed by Adam Osborne. These were able to not only read 1-2-3 files, but also execute many or most macro programs by incorporating the same command structure. Copyright law had first been understood to only cover the source code of a program. After the success of lawsuits which claimed that the very "look and feel" of a program were covered, Lotus sought to ban any program which had a compatible command and menu structure. Program commands had not been considered to be covered before, but the commands of 1-2-3 were embedded in the words of the menu displayed on the screen. 1-2-3 won its case against Mosaic Software. However when they sued Borland over its Quattro Pro spreadsheet, the courts ruled that it was not a copyright violation to merely have a compatible command menu or language. In 1995, the First Circuit found that command menus are an uncopyrightable "method of operation" under section 102(b) of the Copyright Act. The 1-2-3 menu structure (example, slash File Erase) was itself an advanced version of single letter menus introduced in VisiCalc. Decline The rise of Microsoft Windows in the personal computer market was accompanied by the rise in Microsoft's competing spreadsheet, Excel, which gradually surpassed the position of 1-2-3. Being loyal to OS/2, Lotus was slow to embrace Windows. At first, a complete rewrite was planned to overtake Excel, but this project failed to turn out a finished product. 1-2-3 for Windows is still simply a graphical wrapper around the original interface. Additionally, several versions of 1-2-3 were available concurrently, each with different functionality and a slightly different interface. 1-2-3's intended successor, Lotus Symphony, was Lotus's entry into the anticipated "integrated software" market. It intended to expand the rudimentary all-in-one 1-2-3 into a fully-fledged spreadsheet, graph, database and word processor for DOS, but none of the integrated packages ever really succeeded. 1-2-3 migrated to the Windows platform, where it remains available as part of Lotus SmartSuite. By release 9 of Lotus SmartSuite, 1-2-3 had matched the capabilities of Excel. Current releases of 1-2-3 still have advantages over Excel such as database connectivity; however, lack of interest and support by IBM has led to its decline. Freely available wk4, wk3 File viewer, converter and editors GNU's spreadsheet program, gnumeric can open and edit wk* files, as well as save it to xls format. A command line program, ssconvert also comes with gnumeric, by which you can perform batch conversion of wk* files into xls format. See also Lotus v. Borland As Easy As Comparison of office suites References External links Lotus website 1983 The PC Era--Lotus 1-2-3 Review of Lotus 123 version 1.0 from December 1982 Byte magazine Free viewer for Lotus SmartSuite products (EXE) File Format Documentation for Lotus 1-2-3 Oral history interview with Jonathan Sachs discusses the development of Lotus 1-2-3, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota | Lotus_1-2-3 |@lemmatized lotus:21 spreadsheet:10 program:10 software:6 part:2 ibm:6 pc:6 first:7 killer:1 application:3 huge:1 popularity:2 mid:2 contribute:2 significantly:1 success:2 corporate:1 environment:2 http:2 www:2 crn:1 com:2 channel:1 acquired:1 beginning:1 development:2 corporation:1 found:1 mitchell:1 kapor:1 friend:1 developer:1 visicalc:4 originally:1 write:6 jonathan:2 sachs:2 two:3 previously:1 work:1 concentric:1 data:3 system:2 inc:1 developerworks:1 library:1 l:1 ndhistory:1 aid:1 growth:1 uk:1 possibly:1 elsewhere:1 computer:2 use:7 television:1 consumer:1 advertising:1 release:4 january:1 start:2 outsell:1 popular:1 year:2 number:2 leading:1 operating:1 unlike:1 microsoft:4 multiplan:1 stay:1 close:1 model:1 include:2 letter:2 cell:1 notation:1 slash:2 menu:8 structure:4 free:2 notable:1 bug:1 fast:2 entirely:1 assembly:1 language:3 bypass:1 slow:2 screen:3 input:1 output:1 function:1 favor:1 directly:1 memory:6 map:1 video:1 display:3 hardware:2 reliance:1 specific:1 lead:2 utilize:2 one:5 litmus:1 test:3 true:1 compatibility:3 clone:1 appear:1 early:3 general:1 flight:1 simulator:1 graphic:3 need:2 resident:1 also:7 drive:2 race:1 extend:1 expand:2 technique:1 overcome:1 dos:1 limit:1 allow:3 large:1 important:1 remain:2 indicator:1 user:2 feature:2 name:1 stem:1 product:3 integration:1 three:1 main:1 capability:2 along:1 offer:1 integral:1 chart:2 graphing:1 rudimentary:2 database:3 operation:2 sort:1 defined:1 rectangle:1 order:1 information:1 column:1 rectangular:1 area:1 justify:1 text:1 range:2 paragraph:1 primitive:1 word:4 processor:3 keyboard:1 pop:1 well:3 key:2 command:9 make:1 operate:1 friendly:1 introduce:4 instance:1 context:1 sensitive:1 help:1 access:1 macro:4 version:12 add:2 much:1 dozen:1 outside:1 vendor:1 sell:1 package:2 dedicate:1 financial:1 worksheet:2 full:1 fledge:2 single:2 task:1 sometimes:1 complete:2 support:3 ega:1 vga:1 p:1 filename:1 extension:7 wks:3 file:16 open:6 change:1 late:2 become:1 syntax:1 similar:1 complexity:1 advanced:2 basic:1 interpreter:1 string:1 variable:1 expression:1 multiple:1 c:2 graph:2 routine:2 forth:1 jeremy:1 sagan:2 son:1 carl:1 printing:1 paul:1 funk:2 founder:1 hp:1 palmtop:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 port:1 tandy:1 deskmate:1 rival:1 inspired:1 imitator:1 mosaic:2 twin:1 fall:1 largely:1 follow:1 vp:1 planner:1 back:1 adam:1 osborne:1 able:1 read:1 execute:1 many:1 incorporate:1 copyright:3 law:1 understand:1 cover:3 source:1 code:1 lawsuit:1 claim:1 look:1 feel:1 seek:1 ban:1 compatible:2 consider:1 embed:1 win:1 case:1 however:2 sue:1 borland:2 quattro:1 pro:1 court:1 rule:1 violation:1 merely:1 circuit:1 find:1 uncopyrightable:1 method:1 section:1 b:1 act:1 example:1 erase:1 decline:2 rise:2 window:4 personal:1 market:2 accompany:1 compete:1 excel:4 gradually:1 surpass:1 position:1 loyal:1 os:1 embrace:1 rewrite:1 plan:1 overtake:1 project:1 fail:1 turn:1 finished:1 still:2 simply:1 graphical:1 wrapper:1 around:1 original:1 interface:2 additionally:1 several:1 available:3 concurrently:1 different:2 functionality:1 slightly:1 intend:2 successor:1 symphony:1 entry:1 anticipated:1 integrate:2 fully:1 none:1 ever:1 really:1 succeed:1 migrate:1 platform:1 smartsuite:3 match:1 current:1 advantage:1 connectivity:1 lack:1 interest:1 freely:1 viewer:2 converter:1 editor:1 gnu:1 gnumeric:2 edit:1 wk:2 save:1 xls:2 format:3 line:1 ssconvert:1 come:1 perform:1 batch:1 conversion:1 see:1 v:1 easy:1 comparison:1 office:1 suite:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 era:1 review:1 december:1 byte:1 magazine:1 exe:1 documentation:1 oral:1 history:1 interview:1 discuss:1 charles:1 babbage:1 institute:1 university:1 minnesota:1 |@bigram ibm_pc:3 http_www:2 input_output:1 flight_simulator:1 context_sensitive:1 full_fledge:1 filename_extension:1 carl_sagan:1 hewlett_packard:1 quattro_pro:1 microsoft_window:1 fully_fledge:1 external_link:1 charles_babbage:1 |
2,080 | Falstaff | Adolf Schrödter: Falstaff and his page Sir John Falstaff is a fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare as a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V. A fat, vainglorious, and cowardly knight, Falstaff leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, but he is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king. Shakespearean scholar Edmond Malone claimed, on uncertain authority, that John Heminges was the actor Shakespeare had in mind to portray Falstaff; an alternative is that Falstaff was written for Will Kempe, the clown of Shakespeare's company. The original actor was later succeeded by John Lowin, another comic actor. It is also asserted that Thomas Pope played the role of Falstaff after Kempe left the troupe. Though primarily a comic figure, Falstaff still embodies a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's tricky comedy. In Act II, Scene III of Henry V, his death is described by the character "Hostess", possibly the Mistress Quickly of Henry IV, who describes his body in terms that echo the death of Socrates. Appearances Eduard von Grützner: Falstaff mit großer Weinkanne und Becher (1896) He appears in the following plays: Henry IV, part 1 Henry IV, part 2 The Merry Wives of Windsor His death is mentioned in Henry V but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into King Henry V's character. The most notable examples in cinema are Laurence Olivier's 1946 version and Kenneth Branagh's 1989 film, both of which draw additional material from the Henry IV plays. There are several works about Falstaff, inspired by Shakespeare's plays: Orson Welles's Chimes at Midnight (1966) compiles the two Henry IV plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from Richard II and Henry V. The movie, also known as Falstaff, features Welles himself in the title role. Falstaff (1893), Giuseppe Verdi's last opera, with a libretto by Arrigo Boito. It is mostly based upon The Merry Wives of Windsor. Falstaff (1799), Antonio Salieri's opera, with a libretto by Carlo Prospers Defranchesi, which is also based upon The Merry Wives of Windsor. Falstaff (1913), a "symphonic study" by Elgar, which is a sympathetic and programmatic musical portrait. Falstaff, A Hungarian TV movie based on Henry IV, part 1 and Henry IV, part 2, prepared by László Vámos and Péter Müller Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor (1849) by Carl Otto Nicolai, based upon The Merry Wives of Windsor. Sir John in Love, 1924 – 1928, an opera by composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, based upon The Merry Wives of Windsor, and notable for including an arrangement of the tune "Greensleeves". The opera "Plump Jack" (1984) by Gordon Getty. The Tragically Hip song "Fiddler's Green" mentions Falstaff. The Gus Van Sant film My Own Private Idaho offers a version of the two parts of Henry IV in which Falstaff is Bob, a derelict and petty thief. The novel Falstaff by Robert Nye. Jasper Fforde's Thursday Next series, where Falstaff is an operative of Jurisfiction, the policing agency that operates within fiction to safeguard the stability of the written word. He is presented as a ladies' man. The poem Geckos in Obscure Light by William Logan (poet) contains a line "beneath bellies distended as Falstaff’s". The poem appeared in the New Yorker in April 2007 and can be read on The New Yorker's web site. Character Falstaff by Eduard von Grützner Falstaff is a central element in the two parts of Henry IV, a natural portion of their structure. Yet he does at times seem to be mainly a fun-maker, a character whom we both laugh with and laugh at, and almost in the same breath. Nothing has helped more to give this impression than the fat knight’s account of the double robbery at Gadshill. Even his name invites humor, as it is a sort of pun on impotence, brought on by the character's excessive consumption of alcohol. Falstaff's character is necessary to Hal's character development just as Hotspur's temperament is necessary to his. Falstaff's wit, humor and amusing antics are needed to develop Hal. He helps us relate to Hal and his decision. We know people of all types of character and personality in our lives. They influence our thinking and decisions. So it is also necessary for Hal. The character of Falstaff seems to have been inspired by the theatrical forerunners Vice and miles gloriosus, but Falstaff has a unique, and undeniable depth of character. Beneath Falstaff’s contagious panache, he is a Homeric burlesque, an iconoclast, a philosopher, and a paradox. Falstaff is hailed by Harold Bloom and other literary scholars as one of Shakespeare’s greatest creations. Falstaff is closely scrutinized because his character is a revolution on the stage; he represents the transition from flamboyant, 'carnivalesque' comedy to the modern, aesthetic character. He’s a point of ‘transcendent subjectivity’3 from which we see roots of the modern, western human. Combining the lines that Falstaff speaks in Henry IV Parts 1 and 2, Falstaff's role consists of more than 1,200 lines, making it the second largest role in all of Shakespeare, behind that of Hamlet. Falstaff's lines in The Merry Wives of Windsor are usually not included because the Falstaff of that play is generally viewed by scholars as a different depiction of the character. Origins It is now commonly accepted that Shakespeare originally named Falstaff "John Oldcastle", and that Lord Cobham, a descendant of the historical John Oldcastle, complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name. There is both textual and external evidence for this belief. In Henry IV, Part One, Falstaff's name is always unmetrical, suggesting a name change after the original composition; Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as "my old lad of the castle" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to Henry IV, Part II, moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle. External evidence is provided by Richard James, librarian to Robert Cotton, who mentions (in the preface to a manuscript of Thomas Hoccleve's work on Oldcastle) the conflict between the Lord Chamberlain's Men and Oldcastle's descendants. Extant evidence does not conclusively settle other important questions, such as Shakespeare's motivation for using Oldcastle's name or the precise nature of Cobham's intervention. The historical Oldcastle was unlike Falstaff in many ways; in particular, he was a Lollard who was executed for his beliefs, and he was respected by many Protestants as a martyr. Shakespeare knew an anonymous play of the 1580s, The Famous Victories of Henry V, in which Oldcastle is Henry V's companion, and Oldcastle's history is described in Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles, Shakespeare's usual source for his histories. It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterized Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirize Oldcastle or the Cobhams. Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in Ben Jonson's Every Man in His Humour and may have been part of the reason The Isle of Dogs was suppressed. Shakespeare's desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate Catholic sympathies, but Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the Main Plot to place Arbella Stuart on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds. The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either The Merry Wives of Windsor or the second part of Henry IV. The first part of Henry IV was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by Master of the Revels Edmund Tilney. William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time Lord Chamberlain). As father-in-law to the newly-widowed Robert Cecil, Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly. Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play The Merry Wifes of Windsor (published after the Henry IV series). In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias "Brook" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke. At any rate, The name is Falstaff in the Henry IV, part 1 quarto, of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification: One more word, I beseech you. If you be not too much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make you merry with fair Katharine of France where, for any thing I know, Falstaff shall die of a sweat, unless already a' be killed with your hard opinions; for Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man. The new name "Falstaff" could have been dervied from the medieval knight Sir John Fastolf (who was also a Lollard). Changing a few letters gave Shakespeare the name by which his invention is known today. There was a historical Sir John Fastolf who fought at the Battle of Patay against Joan of Arc, which the English lost. Fastolf's previous actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect, but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle. He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood. Fastolf's role in Henry VI, Part I loosely follows these events. Stephen Greenblatt has suggested that writer Robert Greene may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff. Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare's characterization. For over 300 years there has been a pub on Gad's Hill opposite Charles Dickens former home called the Sir John Falstaff, where it is known that Dickens himself used regularly. A tunnel leading from the grounds of Gad's Hill to the cellar of the pub can still be seen today. Notable Falstaffs Victor Buono at the Mark Taper Forum Pat Carroll at the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C. Delaney Williams at the Folger Shakespeare Library Maurice Evans on Broadway Kevin Kline at the New York Shakespeare Festival Samuel Phelps at Sadler's Wells Theatre Anthony Quayle at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre George Robey in Laurence Olivier's Henry V Robbie Coltrane, in Kenneth Branagh's Henry V Ralph Richardson at the Old Vic Theatre Joss Ackland at the Old Vic and at the Barbican Theatre for the Royal Shakespeare Company Orson Welles in the film Chimes at Midnight Robert Stephens at the Royal Shakespeare Company Desmond Barrit at the Royal Shakespeare Company William Hutt at the Stratford Festival of Canada David Warner at the Royal Shakespeare Company See also Sir John Fastolf Sir John Oldcastle Battle of Patay Falstaff (opera) Toby Belch PlumpJack Winery References Caldwell, Ellen M. ""Banish All the Wor(l)d": Falstaff's Iconoclastic Threat to Kingship in I Henry IV." Renasence 59 (2007). Doloff, Steven. "FALSTAFF'S 'HONOUR': HOMERIC BURLESQUE IN 1 HENRY IV (1597-8)." Notes & Queries 55 (2008). 3Grady, Hygh. "Falstaff: Subjectivity between the Carnival and the Aesthetic." The Modern Language Review 96 (2001). Bloom, Harold, editor. Falstaff. New York: Chelsea House, 1992. Taylor, Gary. "William Shakespeare, Richard James, and the House of Cobham." Review of English Studies 58 (1987). Wilson, John Dover. The Fortunes of Falstaff. 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2,081 | List_of_Atlas_Shrugged_characters | This is a list of characters in Ayn Rand's novel, Atlas Shrugged. Balph Eubank Called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people want to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the Looters. Balph Eubank appears in section 161. Ben Nealy A railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in section 171. Bertram Scudder Editorial writer for the magazine The Future. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called The Octopus. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Later on he has a radio interview program, in which Dagny Taggart is forced to appear by the threat of revelation of her relationship with Rearden - but she turns the tables by herself revealing the relationship, taking pride in it and denouncing the regime. In the aftermath, Scudder is made the scapegoat and loses his job. Bertram Scudder appears in section 161. Betty Pope A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in sections 142 and 161. Brakeman An unnamed employee working on the Taggart Comet train. Dagny Taggart hears the brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny points out that Richard Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman claims he made a mistake and that he does not recall where he heard the piece. Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew to proceed at an unplanned stop, he asks a co-worker who she is and learns she is the one who runs Taggart Transcontinental. It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny finds him working in Galt's Gulch as an employee of Ellis Wyatt and an apprentice to Richard Halley. Brakeman appears in sections 112 and 113. Cherryl Brooks A dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having mistakenly trusted Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misled, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. Upon realizing the nature of the moral code surrounding her, the apparent lack of escape for herself and the heroes she worships, and her unnamed desire to remove support from the machinations she abhors, Cherryl throws herself from a bridge to her death in a final, conflicted act of her own surrender and salvation. (An alternative explanation is that Cherryl is having a psychotic break and is not completely aware of her situation: she is running in irrational fear, and continues to run even when it takes her over a high edge and to her death.) Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a "good" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel. Claude Slagenhop The president of political organization Friends of Global Progress (which is supported by Philip Rearden), and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Claude Slagenhop appears in section 161. Cuffy Meigs A thuggish personage who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of Taggart Transcontinental, and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform. The "spiritual heir" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of Project X. His role is to act as the frankly brutal face of the regime, which frightens and disgusts more hypocritical people. Though of a different profession, he is similar to the architect Gus Webb in The Fountainhead, who similarly behaves in a crude and brutal manner and frightens more hypocritical architects. Both characters become prominent in the later part of their respective books, with Webb becoming Ellsworth Toohey's favorite in place of Keating when Toohey feels less need to keep a mask, while Meigs comes to prominence when the regime finds it impossible to continue with more subtle and seemingly civilized methods. Dagny Taggart Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel, and, in general, it is Dagny's perception of the battle between John Galt and the Looters that is the readers'. She holds the title of 'Operating Vice-President in Charge of Operations' of Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. However, due to James' incompetence, it is Dagny that is actually responsible for all the workings of the railroad. Taggart has romantic relationships with three men of ability: Francisco d'Anconia, Hank Rearden, and John Galt. Ultimately, she ends up with Galt, on account of the superiority of his talents and qualities. Nonetheless, she remains on good terms with the other two, despite ending her sexual relationships with them. Dagny personifies the typical struggle within many entrepreneurs: when to stop trying to change the social policies that impinge on entrepreneurship. Hers is the most unusual perspective in the book, as she has one foot in each camp. She tries to fix the social policies of the government while still maintaining her belief in free enterprise. The ultimate lesson taught through Dagny is that reason cannot triumph over unreason until the unreasonable give up. She is a typical Randian heroine, similar to Dominique Francon (The Fountainhead) or Kira Argounova (We the Living). Dagny appears in sections 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161. Dan Conway The middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he does not really believe this is right, but he cannot understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Still, it is never clearly explained why he was never made part of Galt's "strike" (his private act of dropping out and living in retirement is quite in tune with it) and why he was never invited to the hidden valley where he would have fit right in. Dan Conway appears in sections 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148. The dialogue between Dan Conway and Dagny Taggart, with her urging Conway to fight the unjust decision taken against him and Conway refusing, is reminiscent of Plato's famous dialogue "Crito", where Crito of Alopece in vain urges the philosopher Socrates to flee the death punishment unjustly imposed on him. Socrates' basic argument - that he has obliged himself to abide by the laws of Athens, and must go on doing so even when the laws are unjust - is essentially the same as that offered by Conway who feels honour bound to abide by the rulings of the National Alliance of Railroads. Conway - who "seldom read books and never went to college" - would not be familiar with the philosophy of Socrates, but Rand certainly was. The comparison shows Rand taking the opposite view to that of Socrates - which is unsurprising, given that Socrates' position in the dialogue was in fact that of Plato, and Rand deeply loathed Plato and regarded him as the spiritual ancestor of Ellsworth Toohey. Dick McNamara A contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line and who is hired to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in sections 133 and 141. Eddie Willers Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with Dagny Taggart. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. He sticks it out with the railway to the bitter end, even when the old world is obviously collapsing and Dagny has shifted her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt. In the end, he stays with the broken-down Comet in the middle of the desert, like a captain going down with his ship. It is unclear whether or not the strikers or anyone else will return to save him. Eddie Willers appears in sections 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152. Ellis Wyatt The head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for reviving what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. He is quick-tempered, more bound to violent outbursts than other characters. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are in fact her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's is surely the most dramatic: when the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he does not just go quietly away but sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." Without his expertise, the State Science Institute is unable to bring those wells back into production. One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch"; it serves as an emblem for the cause of the Strikers, as well as a major symbol of the book. It is sometimes used for posters of the book, as well as book covers for some editions. Later, when Dagny meets him in the hidden valley where his energies are not encountering futile daily obstructions, there is little of that violence to be seen. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in sections 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152. Francisco d'Anconia One of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged. Owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the San Sebastián Mines, and a childhood friend and first love of Dagny Taggart. Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at Patrick Henry University, a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for d'Anconia Copper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. In this way he proved that, though unlike other characters he was born to wealth and power, he could have made a successful career all by himself. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father. When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the Strikers and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the Looters could not get it. His actions were also specifically designed both to "trap" Looters into relying upon, or seizing, his worthless ventures to disrupt their schemes and to try to show them and the rest of the world the inevitable consequences of looting. In the latter he failed, becoming a rather tragic, Cassandra-esque figure. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. He was the childhood friend of Dagny Taggart and Eddie Willers and later became Dagny's lover. Giving her up—since, knowing her intimately, he knew she would not be ready to join the strikers—was the hardest part for him. He remains deeply in love with her to the end of the book, while also being a good and loyal friend of her other two lovers, John Galt and Hank Rearden. His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia, and he was born in Argentina. Francisco d'Anconia appears or is mentioned in sections 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152—this last section includes a detailed history of his life. Fred Kinnan Fred Kinnan is a labour leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. At the meeting to decide on whether to enact Directive 10-289 (giving government sweeping powers over industry) Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's 3 hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. Hank Rearden One of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged. Like many of Rand's capitalist characters, he is a self-made man who started as an ordinary worker, showed talent, founded Rearden Steel and made it the most important steel company of the US (and one of the most important business companies of any kind). Later, he conceived of and invented the Rearden Metal, a form of metal stronger than steel (it stands to steel as steel stands to ordinary iron). He is a demanding employer, intolerant of sloppy work, but pays his workers salaries "above any union scale". He arouses a strong feeling of loyalty among the workers, and was never faced with a strike. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother (whose name never appears in the book), all of whom he supports. Gwen Ives is his secretary. The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is unsure of what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with Francisco d'Anconia, who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in Galt's Speech. Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's theory of sex. Lillian Rearden cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. Dagny Taggart clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in sections 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131. "Rearden" is a variety of "Riordan", a surname of Irish origin. There are, however, no specific Irish characteristics in the depiction of Hank Rearden, and it is clearly implied that his family had been in America for several generations. The book implies that his family is from Pennsylvania, specifically the Philadelphia area, which has a large population of Irish origin. Hugh Akston Identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at that (Like many of Rand's characters, who feel no reluctance to work at "menial" jobs and do them well). When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. Hugh Akston is mentioned in section 161. James Taggart The President of Taggart Transcontinental, a leader of the Looters, and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is, however, incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister Dagny Taggart to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of stagnation. The goal of this code is to not exist, to not move forward, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretense that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect. In the introduction to the 35th anniversary edition, (1991), Leonard Peikoff introduced excerpts from Rand's journals concerning the book. Among other things, it is disclosed that as originally conceived James Taggart was religious, regularly going to a priest to confess his sins and ask for absolution. There is no hint of this in the final version as published. Presumably, however, this "asking for absolution" was connected with the above-mentioned hiding of Taggart's real goal from himself. This also implies that the Taggart Family was originally conceived as being of Roman Catholic background, of which also there is little trace left in the published version. It fits well with the Taggarts' long-standing friendship with the Latin American D'Anconia Family. James Taggart appears in sections 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in sections 146 and 148. John Galt The enigmatic John Galt is the male hero of Atlas Shrugged, and typifies the Randian hero. By trade, he is an engineer, and has developed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity that has the potential to change the world. However, in disgust at the Collectivism forced upon him at his workplace at the Twentieth Century Motor Company, he goes on strike, depriving the world of his invaluable invention. To increase the impact, he persuades each individual of talent whom he considers to share his own ethical creed, to join him on strike, in a secret and secluded hiding place called Galt's Gulch. Amongst them are Francisco d'Anconia and Ragnar Danneskjöld, with whom he had studied at Patrick Henry University. At first, Dagny Taggart considered Galt to be a destructive force, and grants him the epithet 'the Destroyer'. However, when she is convinced of the futility of her own struggle, and the nobility of Galt's, she falls in love with him. John Galt's name is enshrined in the question "Who is John Galt?" The phrase is used popularly as an expression of helplessness and despair at the sorry state of the world. The answer is expressed in a range of legends: none of which is entirely true, but all of which reflect an aspect of his achievements and labours. Lillian Rearden The wildly unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a frigid Moocher who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be grievously wasted. As her motives become more clear, Lillian is found to share the sentiments of many other moochers and their worship of destruction. Her actions are explained as the desire to destroy achievement in the false belief that such an act bestows a greatness to the destroyer equal to the accomplishment destroyed. She seeks, then, to ruin Rearden in an effort to prove her own value, but fails. Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's Theory of sex. Lillian believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex, Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In section 161 she indicates that she abhors Francisco d'Anconia, because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in sections 121 and 161. The Looters A group of antagonistic characters sometimes referred to as "James Taggart and his friends". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, Eugene Lawson, Cuffy Meigs and the Mexican government of the time. Midas Mulligan A wealthy banker, whose financial backing had a major share in launching the career of Hank Rearden and other prominent industrialists. He mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, made sure that all the account holders received every penny due them, and joined Galt's strike. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "Midas" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located hence its official name: Mulligan's Valley. The Moochers A group of characters, similar to the Looters, who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include Lillian Rearden, Philip Rearden, and Hank Rearden's mother. Mort Liddy A hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in section 161. Mr. Mowen The president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in section 171. Mystery Worker (John Galt) A menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental; Ayn Rand chooses to record only Eddie's side of each conversation. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Later in the novel the reader discovers the true identity of the Mystery Worker to be John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in section 133. The unnamed newsstand owner He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with Dagny Taggart when she comes by. On one occasion, in section 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by Hugh Akston, but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. Orren Boyle The head of Associated Steel and a friend of James Taggart. He is one of the Looters. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152. Owen Kellogg Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that is not enough to keep him. He will not say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman Mr. Mowen. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in, Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in sections 112 and 114. Paul Larkin An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the Looters. In section 121 Larkin visits Philadelphia to warn Hank Rearden of possible trouble from Washington. In section 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in sections 121, 132, and 2A1. Philip Rearden The younger brother of Hank Rearden, and a Moocher. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time working for various social groups. He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that he should be entitled to the job solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in sections 121 and 161. Quentin Daniels An enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny makes him promise to not disappear as she sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to "Galt's Gulch." When Dagny arrives in Galt's Gulch, Quentin apologizes profusely. In his excitement over Galt's explanation of the motor and invitation to join the Strikers, he had forgotten his promise to remain. Ragnar Danneskjöld One of the original Strikers. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from Norway, the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended Patrick Henry University and became friends with John Galt and Francisco d'Anconia, while studying under Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in Norway, Portugal, and Turkey. Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the United States to The People's States of Europe. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in Delaware Bay. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. People assume that as a pirate he simply takes the seized goods to himself. However, while many other protagonists take pride in making a personal profit from the proceeds of their creativity, Danneskjöld's motivation is to restore to other creative people the money which was unjustly taken away from them - specifically, their income tax payments. For that purpose, Danneskjöld maintains a network of informants in the US Internal Revenue Service (and possibly also those of other countries) who provide him with detailed copies of the tax receipts; among other talents, Danneskjöld is mentioned as being a skilled accountant. The proceeds from the goods he seizes (presumably minus his operating expenses) are deposited in accounts opened in Midas Mulligans bank in the names of various industrialists, to the amounts of the income tax taken from them - which are handed to them (in gold) upon their joining the Strikers. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance when he risks his life to meet Hank Rearden in the night and hand him a bar of gold as an "advance payment", to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation. As a robber with ideological principles, Danneskjöld might superficially be compared with Robin Hood - but as he makes abundantly clear, that would be a grave mistake, and he considers himself as the opposite or complete negative of that Medieval robber, and indeed he considers Robin Hood as an arch-enemy which he had sworn to pursue and destroy. Rather, not Robin Hood the person, who is long dead, but the principle that it is permissible to rob the rich and give to the poor, a principle which in Danneskjöld's (and Rand's) view is highly pernicious. In the conversation with Rearden, Danneskjöld claims to limit himself to attacks on government property and never touch private property. This contradicts previous chapters where there is mention of Danneskjöld sinking ships belonging to D'anconia Copper and destroying Orren Boyle'''s plant on the coast of Maine, where Boyle attempted to produce Rearden Metal. However, the first does not truly constitute robbery, since it was done with the consent of and in collusion with the owner, Danneskjöld's old friend Francisco D'anconia, and was aimed at helping Francisco's efforts to destroy his own company. And the second was in reaction to Boyle having violated, with government sanction, Rearden's intellectual property (the term did not yet exist at the time of writing). Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow - a relationship kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a former famous film star who retired and dropped out of sight. It is mentioned that some of the Strikers have strong reservations about his way of "conducting the common struggle". Members of Danneskjöld's crew, other than himself, are never named nor appear in the book. Evidently, they are not given access of the hidden valley where their captain sometimes goes, nor - on the basis of need to know - are they given its location, which they might give away if captured. Such a prolonged and successful piratical career would require a secret haven, probably on the Atlantic Coast of the US. In the end of the book, Danneskjöld's crew are mentioned as preparing to form a new community, while his ship would be converted into "a modest ocean liner". Danneskjöld himself refreshes his knowledge of Aristotle and prepares to become a full-time philosopher, and it is hinted that posterity might remember him mainly as Hugh Akstons disciple rather than as a pirate. According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, Hans of Iceland, the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although "skjold" means shield, not gold. The first name "Ragnar" recalls Ragnar Lodbrok, one of the most famous of the viking leaders (to whose many piratical exploits no motive other than seeking loot was ever attributed). Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in section 161. However, there are some inaccuracies. 'Ö' is not a Norwegian letter, but a Swedish one; its Norwegian equivalent is 'ø'. "Skjöld" and "skjøld" still exists in Scandinavian surnames and is an old fashioned spelling of the word for "shield", that is now "skjold" (Norwegian) and "sköld" (Swedish). Also, there is actually no noble class in Norway, as the Black Death of the Middle Ages forced any survivors to revert to subsistence farming, and nobility itself was officially abolished by the Storting in 1821. A possible inspiration might be Norwegian Trygve Hoff that Ayn Rand knew. Hoff was the editor of the Farmand business magazine and outspoken free market capitalist. Trygve Hoff was of an old fine Norwegian family "Hoff" owning grand estates outside the city of Tønsberg in Norway. Tryge Hoff was married to the Norwegian actress Aase Bye. Hoff was an admirer of Aristotle and a collector of ancient busts. Hoff also had the kind of hero-like looks Ayn Rand liked, similar looks to her husband Frank O'Conor. According to Barbara Branden, who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing directly Danneskjöld's adventures at sea which were cut out from the final published text. Reedstrom, Karen. 1992 Interview with Full Context. Barbara Branden interview in Full Context, October 1992. Republished on barbarabranden.com. Retrieved 1 June 2007. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden) except for a brief paragraph at the very last chapter. Rearden's mother Rearden's mother, whose name is not mentioned, is a Moocher who lives with her son Hank Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. Rearden's mother appears in section 121. Richard Halley Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In section 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in sections 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in section 152. Contrary to popular belief, he is not based on Aaron Copland. Dr. Robert Stadler A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: Project X. The character was, in part, modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer, whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of nuclear weapons.<ref>David Harriman, Journals of Ayn Rand, pp. 311-344, esp. 330-331.</ref> Dr. Simon Pritchett The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a Looter. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe, and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in section 161. The Strikers People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is John Galt. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg. Mr. Thompson The "Head of the State," which essentially means that he's the President of the United States, though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of Atlas Shrugged all Presidents and Prime Ministers are referred to simply as "Head of the State" and "Mr. ____." This is because countries have been standardized as "People's States" which seem to share a common form of government. Thompson's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these "People's States." One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President Harry S. Truman. Wesley Mouch A member of the Looters and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the country's economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. His name, appropriately, is evocative of the word "mooch," his modus operandi. Wesley Mouch appears in section 131 and is mentioned in section 161. Wet Nurse (Tony) A young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden’s mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters’ code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies. Minor characters An Airport Attendant at the airport near the Wyatt oil fields tells Dagny Taggart (in section 171) that Hank Rearden had left for New York, revealing his lies. Rearden had told Dagny he was flying to Minnesota. The Bartender works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by James Taggart and the Looters (in section 131). The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to James Taggart. Over the years of Taggart's presidency, many Board members have resigned in protest, leaving only those who think like Taggart. The Board represents the other people whose approval is necessary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably Taggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth. In section 132 we learn the Board approved the development of the San Sebastian Line and that numerous Board members quit in protest (mentioned in sections 114, 132, 143 and 145). The Bum opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?". He chats for a moment with Eddie Willers helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease (in section 111) An unnamed Businessman interrupts a conversation between Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden at the party in section 161. He is taken aback by the contrast between Dagny's appearance that night and the way she normally appears in her business suits. When Dagny notes his reaction she realizes she had hoped Rearden would react that way, that this was her unadmitted purpose in coming to the party. The Chief Engineer phones Eddie Willers to tell him that his boss, Dick McNamara has closed his business and quit without explanation (in section 141). Chief Engineer 2 maintains Taggart Transcontinental at a time when all the competent men have disappeared. Since he can only imitate, and not innovate, he is unenthusiastic about having to work with Rearden Metal. Dagny Taggart tells him to design a new bridge to be built with Rearden Metal, but rejects his design because it is a copy of a steel bridge that does not take into account the properties of the new alloy. He is offended by this because his bridge was a good copy of the bridges he was taught to imitate (appears in section 171). Clarence Eddington is an economic consultant whom James Taggart blames for the decision to build the San Sebastian Line (mentioned in section 143). The Conductor works on the Taggart Comet. In section 112 he explains to Dagny Taggart that he is waiting for a broken light to change. He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame him for anything. Dave Mitchum is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for Kip Chalmers' death. Dagny's father (who is unnamed) was the president of Taggart Transcontinental prior to James Taggart. In section 132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her. Dagny's mother is mentioned in section 152. She worried about her daughter's apparent lack of interest in boys, and never understood Dagny's desire to work for the railroad. Because of her lack of understanding, she was never able to give Dagny guidance or support, though she was kind and caring within her limits. Dr. Floyd Ferris One of the Looter crowd who takes credit, along with Wesley Mouch, for Project X though he is considered too stupid to have contributed anything to the project. Dr. Hendricks is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. The Engineer appears briefly in section 112. When Dagny Taggart wakes up to find the Taggart Comet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped. He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame him for anything. The Fireman appears briefly in section 112. While Dagny Taggart is trying to find out why the Taggart Comet has stalled, Fireman shows his amusement at how things like this happen. Francisco's father was the head of d'Anconia Copper before his son. He raised Francisco to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be. One establishing moment for Francisco's father is when Francisco purchases a dilapidated copper mine at the age of 20. Although d'Anconia's publicist detests the family name being prominently displayed on the plant, Francisco's father has a photo of the plant placed in his office. He died when Francisco was 23 (appears in section 152). Gerald Starnes and Ivy Starnes are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes; together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program at Twentieth Century Motors which killed worker morale, convinced John Galt to quit the factory, and drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a pseudo-Buddhist ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Gertrude is the new cook of the Rearden household (mentioned in section 241). Gilbert Vail was allegedly cuckolded by Francisco d'Anconia. His wife asserts, and Francisco does not deny, that she and Francisco had an affair over New Years at his villa in the Andes. Gilbert is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life. Just as the scandal is reaching a crescendo in the tabloids, Francisco arrives in town to "witness the farce." (mentioned in section 141). James Taggart's Secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why Francisco d'Anconia will not see him: "Senor d'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart." Jed Starnes founded Twentieth Century Motors, and made it the most profitable company of its kind in America before his death. Jeff Allen is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company, as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. Jock Benson is a friend of Betty Pope, who told her that James Taggart did not really run the railroad; his sister did. Judge Narragansett is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. He is a staunch supporter of the inalienable rights theory, and in the final pages he is seen rewriting the United States Constitution to state those rights more explicitly. Jules Mott is Taggart Transcontinental's man in Mexico City. He is the fall guy after the Mexican government nationalizes the San Sebastian Line (appears in section 142 and is mentioned in section 143). Kip Chalmers is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to his campaign, the Taggart Transcontinental train that was carrying him encountered a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine-at that point, one of the last of its kind left anywhere in the world. After a chilling show of bureaucracy, a coal-burning steam engine was attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. This action, for whom no one could later be blamed, resulted in suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. Emma Chalmers is Kip's mother (see above) and gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railcars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. Liz Blaine is a friend of Betty Pope. Mr. Ayers is the head of the Ayers Music Publishing Company. In section 114 Dagny Taggart calls him to inquire if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. Mr. Coleman is an employee of Taggart Transcontinental mentioned in section 171. Mrs. Beacham is a friend of Rearden's Mother who does charity work for the parish school (mentioned briefly in section 121). Mrs. Gilbert Vail claims she had a love affair with Francisco d'Anconia in his villa in the Andes. Afterwards, she shot her husband so she could leave him and be with Francisco. Gilbert Vail survived and sued for divorce, at which point his wife promised to reveal the sordid details of his private life to the press. In section 152 we learn that Francisco was in El Paso, Texas, not in the Andes, at the time when Mrs. Vail claims to have been with him. Mrs. Vail is mentioned in sections 141 and 152. Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart is mentioned briefly in section 132 and in section 152. According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, with her consent. She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time. Her name was Dagny, and is Dagny Taggart's namesake. Mrs. Weston is a friend of Lillian Rearden who attends the Rearden's anniversary party. She is mentioned in section 162. Mrs. Whitcomb is a woman who moves in the same circles as Lillian Rearden (mentioned in section 161). Mrs. William Hastings widow of William Hastings. Graying hair, has a poised distinguished look of grooming. Gives Dagny a lead where she discovers Hugh Akston working as a cook in a roadside diner. Nathaniel Taggart is meant to symbolize the so-called Robber Barons of America's industrial age. Nat Taggart was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. Many stories are told about him: that he once killed a state legislator who tried to use his office to destroy the railroad; that he once put his wife up as collateral for a loan. He never earned money by force or fraud, and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time (mentioned in sections 132 and 152). Nat Taggart's son built a bridge that, while lasting many years, to the early part of the novel, is now falling to pieces, which will be replaced by the Rearden Metal bridge (mentioned in section 171). An unnamed Newspaperman, seedy and deliberately rude, speaks to Hank Rearden in section 161. Passenger Number 1 on the Taggart Comet in section 112 he tells Dagny Taggart how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up. Passenger Number 2 talks with the Conductor, the Fireman, and the Engineer when Dagny Taggart approaches to find out why the train has stopped. When she acts as if this sort of problem is unusual and should not happen, he tells her she does not understand railroads. Passenger Number 3 is an economics professor. As the train passes Rearden Steel in section 121, he focuses on the fact that Hank Rearden has proudly put his name on the company. He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant. Passenger Number 4 is a journalist who gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that Hank Rearden has proudly put his name on the company. He decides he will ridicule Rearden in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything. Pop Harper is chief clerk at the offices of Taggart Transcontinental. He complains that it is impossible to get new typewriters, and that the world will soon be without this simple device. His attitude is that there is nothing to be done and things will just happen as they happen. This attitude explains why, after a lifetime of labor, he is still merely a clerk (appears in section 111). President of ULW is an unnamed president of United Locomotive Works—an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding. When Dagny Taggart tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours (mentioned in section 141). Sebastian d'Anconia is an ancestor of Francisco d'Anconia who fled Spain during the time of the Inquisition, settled in Argentina, and founded d'Anconia Copper. His story is told in section 152. Simons is a member of the Rearden household staff, mentioned in section 162. The Spinster tells Dagny a John Galt Legend in section 161. Tom Colby is the head of the steelworkers union chapter of Rearden Steel. The workforce of Rearden Steel is the highest paid, and therefore the best, in the country, so Colby rarely challenges his boss. Like Eddie Willers, he is not a Striker, but he is smart enough to not side with the Moochers or Looters. When he retires from Rearden Steel, he assures Hank Rearden that he is on his side. The Waiter serves drinks to the Looters in section 131. An unnamed worker at Rearden Steel in section 121. He is on hand the night the first order of Rearden Metal is poured, and smiles at Hank Rearden in acknowledgement of his accomplishment. This is the only acknowledgement Rearden receives. William Hastings Deceased five years as of Dagny's meeting with his widow. The head of the laboratory of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Galt worked for him until the Starnes heirs took over the factory; Hastings quit just after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Planned characters excluded from the final version In the introduction to the 35th anniversary edition, (1991), Leonard Peikoff introduced excerpts from Rand's journals concerning the book, which she originally intended to call "The Strike". Among many other things, the journals reveal some characters which were originally planned to appear in the book and were deleted from the final version. Father Amadeus Peikoff tells that "Father Amadeus was Taggart's priest, to whom he confessed his sins. The priest was supposed to be a positive character honestly devoted to the good but practicing consistently the morality of mercy. Miss Rand dropped him, she told me, when she found that it was impossible to make such a character convincing." The quotation from Rand's journals included a passage describing what John Galt represented to each main characters. That included the following: "For Father Amadeus [Galt represents] the source of the conflict. The uneasy realisation that Galt is the end of his endeavors, the man of virtue, the perfect man - and that his means do not fit this end (and that he is destroying this, his ideal, for the sake of those who are evil)."(See ) Interestingly, Rand successfully did something similar in her very first book, "We the Living". There, one of the main characters is a Communist, Andrei Taganov, who definitely can be described, in a paraphrase of the above, as "a positive character honestly devoted to the good but practicing consistently the ideology of Marxism". In other words, a very idealistic and dedicated Communist, who is totally devoted to the Party and is willing to lay down his life for Communism, yet is a sympathetic (and convincing) major character in a book which is as anti-Communist as can be. (Andrei is, moreover, the lover of the book's heroine Kira, which Rand explicitly described as representing herself in character though not in specific biographical details). Stacy Rearden Peikoff also mentions that as originally conceived the book was going to have a character named Stacy Rearden, a sister of Hank Rearden. Not much is told of what her role was supposed to be and why she was eventually dropped. Apparently, she was going to be another parasite like Rearden's brother, mother and wife; presumably, Rand came to the conclusion that three such characters around Rearden sufficiently fulfilled her literary and philosophical purposes. References | List_of_Atlas_Shrugged_characters |@lemmatized list:1 character:25 ayn:6 rand:26 novel:12 atlas:5 shrug:6 balph:3 eubank:3 call:8 literary:2 leader:5 age:10 despite:6 fact:11 incapable:4 write:9 anything:8 people:13 actually:4 want:3 read:3 say:9 irrelevant:2 complain:3 disgraceful:1 artist:1 treat:2 peddler:2 law:4 limit:3 sale:1 book:27 ten:1 thousand:2 copy:4 member:10 looter:25 appear:39 section:80 ben:2 nealy:4 railroad:13 contractor:3 dagny:74 taggart:95 hire:4 replace:2 track:3 rio:2 norte:2 line:7 rearden:88 metal:10 incompetent:8 find:12 one:37 good:11 country:8 believe:10 get:5 enough:6 muscle:1 power:6 see:13 role:4 intelligence:1 human:1 achievement:3 manifest:1 inability:2 organize:1 project:7 make:23 decision:5 rely:4 ellis:3 wyatt:9 run:11 thing:6 resent:1 like:12 boss:1 around:2 bertram:2 scudder:3 editorial:1 writer:1 magazine:2 future:2 typically:1 bash:1 business:12 businessmen:1 never:20 specific:3 article:2 innuendo:1 sneer:1 denunciation:1 hatchet:1 job:8 hank:27 octopus:1 also:14 vocal:1 support:5 equalization:2 opportunity:2 bill:2 later:11 radio:1 interview:4 program:2 force:7 threat:1 revelation:1 relationship:5 turn:3 table:1 reveal:6 take:15 pride:2 denounce:1 regime:3 aftermath:1 scapegoat:1 lose:3 betty:4 pope:4 wealthy:4 socialite:1 meaningless:1 sexual:7 affair:3 james:15 coincides:1 overall:1 meaninglessness:1 life:10 regret:1 wake:3 every:4 morning:1 face:3 another:2 empty:1 day:2 deliberately:2 crude:3 way:6 cast:1 ridicule:2 high:4 social:5 position:3 brakeman:6 unnamed:8 employee:5 work:27 comet:6 train:8 hear:4 whistle:1 theme:1 concerto:4 ask:5 piece:3 halley:11 fifth:2 point:3 richard:7 four:1 claim:5 mistake:2 recall:2 instruct:1 crew:3 proceed:1 unplanned:1 stop:6 co:1 worker:14 learn:8 transcontinental:19 discover:5 unknown:1 striker:15 galt:44 gulch:6 elli:2 apprentice:1 cherryl:6 brook:1 dime:1 store:2 shopgirl:1 marry:7 chance:2 encounter:3 night:5 john:23 falsely:1 deem:1 great:6 success:1 think:6 heroic:2 person:3 behind:3 first:14 harsh:1 towards:2 mistakenly:1 trust:1 jim:2 description:1 sister:4 question:3 upon:9 scorn:1 mislead:1 put:6 apologize:2 shame:1 commit:1 suicide:1 confess:3 quality:2 look:6 someone:2 realize:3 nature:1 moral:7 code:6 surround:1 apparent:2 lack:5 escape:1 hero:6 worship:2 desire:7 remove:1 machination:1 abhors:1 throw:2 bridge:7 death:8 final:7 conflicted:1 act:5 surrender:1 salvation:1 alternative:3 explanation:3 psychotic:1 break:1 completely:3 aware:2 situation:2 irrational:1 fear:1 continue:4 even:6 edge:1 eddie:13 willers:9 representation:1 extraordinary:1 capacity:2 primary:1 claude:2 slagenhop:2 president:12 political:1 organization:1 friend:16 global:2 progress:4 philip:7 lillian:15 idea:2 air:1 time:15 talk:4 action:5 bother:1 unguided:1 random:1 pointless:1 sponsor:1 cuffy:2 meigs:4 thuggish:1 personage:1 assign:1 wesley:6 mouch:6 keep:5 watch:2 working:2 assumes:1 control:2 company:15 leave:9 carry:3 pistol:1 lucky:1 rabbit:1 foot:2 dress:1 military:2 uniform:1 spiritual:2 heir:3 dr:6 robert:7 stadler:6 come:7 fitting:1 end:11 hand:5 x:3 frankly:1 brutal:2 frighten:3 disgust:3 hypocritical:2 though:9 different:1 profession:1 similar:7 architect:2 gu:1 webb:2 fountainhead:2 similarly:1 behave:1 manner:1 become:16 prominent:2 late:1 part:6 respective:1 ellsworth:2 toohey:3 favorite:2 place:4 keating:1 feel:5 less:1 need:3 mask:1 prominence:1 impossible:4 subtle:1 seemingly:1 civilized:1 method:2 protagonist:2 general:1 perception:1 battle:1 reader:4 hold:1 title:2 operate:1 vice:2 charge:2 operation:2 brother:10 however:13 due:4 incompetence:1 responsible:3 romantic:1 three:3 men:8 ability:2 francisco:31 anconia:26 ultimately:1 account:4 superiority:2 talent:4 nonetheless:2 remain:4 term:2 two:4 personify:1 typical:2 struggle:5 within:2 many:10 entrepreneur:1 try:6 change:5 policy:3 impinge:1 entrepreneurship:1 unusual:2 perspective:1 camp:1 fix:1 government:13 still:6 maintain:3 belief:4 free:3 enterprise:1 ultimate:1 lesson:1 teach:3 reason:6 cannot:4 triumph:3 unreason:1 unreasonable:1 give:14 randian:2 heroine:2 dominique:1 francon:1 kira:2 argounova:1 live:7 dan:3 conway:7 middle:4 phoenix:1 durango:1 know:14 anti:2 dog:2 eat:1 rule:4 use:11 drive:3 colorado:3 fight:2 resign:2 quiet:1 fishing:1 somebody:1 sacrifice:1 right:6 bow:1 majority:1 press:2 really:2 understand:4 wrong:3 might:5 trap:2 willing:3 victim:1 rather:4 challenge:3 morality:2 simply:3 clearly:3 explain:7 strike:10 private:5 drop:4 retirement:1 quite:1 tune:1 invite:1 hidden:4 valley:4 would:11 fit:3 mention:33 dialogue:3 urge:2 unjust:2 refusing:1 reminiscent:1 plato:3 famous:5 crito:2 alopece:1 vain:1 philosopher:5 socrates:5 flee:2 punishment:1 unjustly:2 impose:1 basic:1 argument:2 oblige:1 abide:2 athens:1 must:3 go:13 essentially:2 offer:2 honour:1 bound:2 ruling:2 national:1 alliance:1 seldom:1 college:1 familiar:1 philosophy:5 certainly:2 comparison:1 show:6 opposite:2 view:3 unsurprising:1 deeply:2 loathe:1 regard:1 ancestor:2 dick:4 mcnamara:4 finish:1 san:6 sebastian:5 lay:2 new:18 mysteriously:4 disappear:7 special:1 assistant:3 grow:2 father:12 grandfather:1 taggarts:2 follow:3 footstep:1 loyal:3 secretly:2 love:7 generally:1 assume:2 represent:8 common:3 man:10 possess:1 promethian:1 creative:2 match:1 courage:1 capable:1 appreciate:4 creation:3 stick:2 railway:1 bitter:1 old:5 world:15 obviously:1 collapse:2 shift:1 attention:1 loyalty:3 save:2 captive:1 stay:1 broken:2 desert:1 captain:2 ship:5 unclear:1 whether:2 anyone:1 else:1 return:2 head:12 oil:4 almost:2 single:1 handedly:1 revive:2 economy:2 process:3 exhaust:1 well:11 quick:1 temper:1 violent:1 outburst:1 introduce:3 aggressive:1 yet:3 blame:5 directly:2 threaten:2 disappearance:1 industrialist:4 surely:1 dramatic:1 pass:2 decree:1 quietly:1 away:4 set:2 fire:1 jeering:1 note:3 without:4 expertise:1 state:16 science:2 institute:3 unable:3 bring:3 back:2 production:2 particular:1 burn:1 resist:1 effort:4 extinguish:1 becomes:1 torch:1 serve:3 emblem:1 cause:1 major:3 symbol:1 sometimes:3 poster:1 cover:2 edition:3 meet:4 energy:1 futile:2 daily:1 obstruction:1 little:2 violence:1 central:2 owner:4 inheritance:1 large:2 copper:8 mining:2 empire:3 sebastián:3 mine:4 childhood:2 begin:7 sly:1 teenager:1 order:5 could:5 student:2 patrick:6 henry:6 university:6 classmate:1 ragnar:12 danneskjöld:23 hugh:8 akston:8 foundry:2 invest:1 stock:1 market:2 twenty:2 purchase:2 superintendent:3 montana:1 quickly:1 promote:1 york:5 office:4 prove:3 unlike:2 bear:2 wealth:1 successful:3 career:4 join:10 slowly:1 destroy:14 specifically:4 design:3 seize:2 worthless:2 venture:1 disrupt:1 scheme:1 rest:2 inevitable:1 consequence:1 loot:2 latter:1 fail:3 tragic:1 cassandra:1 esque:1 figure:2 adopt:1 persona:1 playboy:1 effective:1 lover:3 since:7 intimately:1 ready:1 hard:1 full:6 name:20 domingo:1 carlos:1 andres:1 argentina:2 last:6 include:8 detailed:2 history:1 fred:2 kinnan:5 labour:2 cabal:1 others:3 straightforward:1 honest:1 purpose:4 meeting:2 decide:4 enact:1 directive:1 sweep:1 industry:1 openly:1 true:5 motivation:2 fellow:1 conspirator:1 hour:2 speech:2 express:2 admiration:1 mean:6 admits:1 capitalist:2 self:1 start:4 ordinary:2 found:3 steel:13 important:5 u:4 kind:6 conceive:4 invent:1 form:3 strong:3 stand:3 iron:1 demand:1 employer:1 intolerant:1 sloppy:1 pay:2 salary:1 union:2 scale:1 arouse:1 feeling:2 among:4 philadelphia:5 wife:9 elderly:1 mother:9 whose:5 gwen:1 ives:1 secretary:2 play:1 something:2 unsure:1 guide:1 toward:1 understanding:2 solution:1 friendship:2 secret:4 mechanism:1 prepared:1 explicitly:3 second:2 illustrate:3 theory:5 sex:7 virtue:3 portray:1 appreciation:1 evolve:2 tear:1 contradiction:3 accept:2 premise:1 traditional:1 low:1 instinct:3 respond:2 sexually:2 value:6 resolve:1 internal:2 conflict:2 illustrates:1 variety:1 riordan:1 surname:2 irish:3 origin:2 characteristic:1 depiction:1 imply:3 family:9 america:3 several:1 generation:1 pennsylvania:1 area:1 population:1 identify:1 advocate:1 renowned:1 department:2 along:3 hallowed:1 young:3 lady:2 study:3 shock:1 early:4 century:6 cook:3 roadside:2 diner:2 extremely:1 skillful:1 reluctance:1 menial:2 identity:2 reject:2 enthusiastic:1 manage:1 dining:1 car:1 service:2 antagonist:1 expert:1 influence:3 operational:1 oppose:1 endeavor:2 sense:2 antithesis:1 stagnation:1 goal:3 exist:3 move:3 forward:1 zero:1 unaware:1 pretense:1 horrify:1 whenever:2 mind:2 grasp:1 truth:2 lead:5 recur:1 absurdity:1 depend:2 horror:1 succeed:3 chapter:4 suffer:1 complete:2 mental:1 breakdown:1 longer:1 deceive:1 respect:2 introduction:2 anniversary:3 leonard:2 peikoff:4 excerpt:2 journal:5 concern:4 disclose:1 originally:5 religious:1 regularly:1 priest:3 sin:2 absolution:2 hint:3 version:4 publish:4 presumably:3 connect:1 hiding:1 real:1 roman:1 catholic:1 background:3 trace:1 long:4 latin:1 american:4 enigmatic:1 male:1 typify:1 trade:1 engineer:6 develop:2 revolutionary:1 motor:8 ambient:1 static:1 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2,082 | Kool_Keith | Keith Matthew Thornton, better known by his stage name Kool Keith, is an American rapper. A founding member of Ultramagnetic MCs, Kool Keith has also recorded extensively both as a solo artist and under multiple aliases. History After the release of Ultramagnetic MCs' debut album, Critical Beatdown, Thornton was reportedly institutionalized in Bellevue Hospital Center. However, he admitted later that the idea that he was institutionalized came from a flippant remark made during a stressful interview and he never expected the story to become so well-known. Following the unsuccessful release of Ultramagnetic MCs' second and third albums, Thornton released his first notable solo single, "Earth People," in 1995, under the name Dr. Octagon, followed by the release of Dr. Octagonecologyst the following year. The album's production by Dan the Automator and scratching by DJ Qbert was acclaimed by critics, and the album was released nationally by DreamWorks Records, who also issued an instrumental version of the album, titled Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats). Thornton followed the album with Sex Style in 1997 under his own name. In 1998, Thornton collaborated with Tim Dog for the single "The Industry is Wack," performing under the name Ultra. The following year, he released the album First Come, First Served under the name "Dr. Dooom", in which the album's main character killed off Dr. Octagon on the album's opening track. On August 10, 1999, Thornton released Black Elvis/Lost in Space. It peaked at #10 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, #74 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and #180 on the Billboard 200. On July 25, 2000, Thornton released the album Matthew. It peaked at #47 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart. The same year, Thornton collaborated with Ice-T, Marc Live, Black Silver and Pimp Rex for the album Pimp to Eat, under the group name Analog Brothers, with Keith performing as Keith Korg and Ice-T as Ice Oscillator. On June 5, 2001, Thornton released the album Spankmaster on Esham's Overcore Records through TVT Records. It peaked at #16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart, #11 on the Top Independent Albums chart and #48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. In 2002, Thornton began recording The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon with producer Fanatik J, signing a contract with CMH Records to release the album, which was eventually completed without much input from Thornton, due to a falling out over contractual terms. Thornton, Marc Live and H-Bomb formed the group KHM, releasing the album Game on November 19, 2002, changing their name to "The Clayborne Family" by the release of their second album. On October 12, 2004, Thornton released the mixtape Official Space Tape. The same day, Real Talk Records issued the unauthorized release Dr. Octagon Part 2. The album was discontinued by court order. On April 25, 2006, Thornton released the album Nogatco Rd. under the name Mr. Nogatco. On June 27, The Return of Dr. Octagon was released by OCD International, an imprint of CMH, advertised as the official follow-up to Dr. Octagonecologyst. Some critics felt that it was not as good as its predecessor. Thornton stated that he liked the album, but felt that it hurt his reputation as a musician. In August, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not acknowledge the release of the OCD album. Lyrical and performance style Thornton's lyrics are often abstract, surreal, and filled with non-sequiturs and juvenile humor. Thornton is also known for an explicit style focusing on sexual themes, which Thornton has referred to as "pornocore". In a 2007 interview, Thornton claims to have "invented horrorcore". Discography 1996: Dr. Octagonecologyst 1997: Sex Style 1999: First Come, First Served 1999: Black Elvis/Lost in Space 2000: Matthew 2001: Spankmaster 2004: Diesel Truckers (with KutMasta Kurt) 2006: Nogatco Rd. 2006: Project Polaroid (with TomC3) 2006: The Return of Dr. Octagon 2008: Dr. Dooom 2 2009: Tashan Dorrsett References External links Official Website Ultrakeith.net | Kool_Keith |@lemmatized keith:5 matthew:3 thornton:20 good:2 know:3 stage:1 name:8 kool:2 american:1 rapper:1 founding:1 member:1 ultramagnetic:3 mc:3 also:3 record:7 extensively:1 solo:2 artist:1 multiple:1 alias:1 history:1 release:17 debut:1 album:22 critical:1 beatdown:1 reportedly:1 institutionalize:2 bellevue:1 hospital:1 center:1 however:1 admit:1 later:1 idea:1 come:3 flippant:1 remark:1 make:1 stressful:1 interview:2 never:1 expect:1 story:1 become:1 well:1 follow:4 unsuccessful:1 second:2 third:1 first:5 notable:1 single:2 earth:1 people:1 dr:12 octagon:8 octagonecologyst:3 following:2 year:3 production:1 dan:1 automator:1 scratching:1 dj:1 qbert:1 acclaim:1 critic:2 nationally:1 dreamworks:1 issue:2 instrumental:1 version:1 title:1 instrumentalyst:1 beat:1 sex:2 style:4 collaborate:2 tim:1 dog:1 industry:1 wack:1 perform:2 ultra:1 serve:2 dooom:2 main:1 character:1 kill:1 opening:1 track:1 august:2 black:3 elvis:2 lose:2 space:3 peak:3 billboard:4 heatseekers:3 chart:6 top:3 r:2 b:2 hip:2 hop:2 july:1 ice:3 marc:2 live:2 silver:1 pimp:2 rex:1 eat:1 group:2 analog:1 brother:1 performing:1 korg:1 oscillator:1 june:2 spankmaster:2 esham:1 overcore:1 tvt:1 independent:1 begin:1 resurrection:1 producer:1 fanatik:1 j:1 sign:1 contract:1 cmh:2 eventually:1 complete:1 without:1 much:1 input:1 due:1 fall:1 contractual:1 term:1 h:1 bomb:1 form:1 khm:1 game:1 november:1 change:1 clayborne:1 family:1 october:1 mixtape:1 official:3 tape:1 day:1 real:1 talk:1 unauthorized:1 part:1 discontinue:1 court:1 order:1 april:1 nogatco:3 rd:2 mr:1 return:2 ocd:2 international:1 imprint:1 advertise:1 felt:2 predecessor:1 state:1 like:1 hurt:1 reputation:1 musician:1 billing:1 acknowledge:1 lyrical:1 performance:1 lyric:1 often:1 abstract:1 surreal:1 fill:1 non:1 sequiturs:1 juvenile:1 humor:1 explicit:1 focus:1 sexual:1 theme:1 refer:1 pornocore:1 claim:1 invent:1 horrorcore:1 discography:1 diesel:1 trucker:1 kutmasta:1 kurt:1 project:1 polaroid:1 tashan:1 dorrsett:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 ultrakeith:1 net:1 |@bigram dr_octagon:7 hip_hop:2 non_sequiturs:1 external_link:1 |
2,083 | Politics_of_Kiribati | Politics of Kiribati takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Kiribati is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The constitution promulgated at independence on 12 July 1979, establishes the Republic of Kiribati as a sovereign democratic republic and guarantees the fundamental rights of its citizens. Executive branch After each general election, the new House of Assembly nominates three or four of its own members to stand as candidates for President (Te Beretitenti). The voting public then elects the Beretitenti from among these candidates. The Beretitenti appoints a Kauoman-ni-Beretitenti (Vice-President) and up to ten other Cabinet Ministers from among the members of the Maneaba. The Attorney-General is also a member of Cabinet. |President |Anote Tong |BTK |10 July 2003 |- |Vice-president |Miss Teima Onorio | | |} Legislative branch The Former Kiribati House of Assembly The unicameral House of Assembly (Maneaba ni Maungatabu) has 46 members: 4, 40 elected for a four year term in single-seat and multi-seat constituencies; one appointed member from the Banaban community on Rabi Island in Fiji, and the Attorney-General in an ex officio capacity. The elected members of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu serve four-year terms. The Speaker of the Maneaba ni Maungatabu is elected by the members of the Maneaba from outside of its membership. All citizens are eligible to vote at the age of 18. Judicial branch The judicial system consists of magistrates' courts, the High Court and the Court of Appeal. Beretitenti, acting in accordance with the advice of the Public Service Commission, makes all judicial appointments. Political conditions Political parties have existed since 1985 but are more similar to informal coalitions in behavior. They do not have official platforms or party structures. Most candidates formally present themselves as independents. A major source of conflict has been the protracted bid by the residents of Banaban Island to secede and have their island placed under the protection of Fiji. The government's attempts to placate the Banabans include several special provisions in the constitution, such as the designation of a Banaban seat in the legislature and the return of land previously acquired by the government for phosphate mining. Political parties and elections External links Politics of Kiribati as of 2007: a brief overview on the official website of the Commonwealth of Nations | Politics_of_Kiribati |@lemmatized politics:2 kiribati:5 take:1 place:2 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:3 whereby:1 president:5 head:1 government:5 multi:2 party:4 system:2 executive:3 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 house:4 assembly:4 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:2 constitution:2 promulgate:1 independence:1 july:2 establish:1 sovereign:1 guarantee:1 fundamental:1 right:1 citizen:2 branch:3 general:3 election:2 new:1 nominates:1 three:1 four:3 member:7 stand:1 candidate:3 te:1 beretitenti:5 vote:2 public:2 elect:3 among:2 appoint:2 kauoman:1 ni:4 vice:2 ten:1 cabinet:2 minister:1 maneaba:5 attorney:2 also:1 anote:1 tong:1 btk:1 miss:1 teima:1 onorio:1 former:1 unicameral:1 maungatabu:3 year:2 term:2 single:1 seat:3 constituency:1 one:1 banaban:3 community:1 rabi:1 island:3 fiji:2 ex:1 officio:1 capacity:1 elected:1 serve:1 speaker:1 outside:1 membership:1 eligible:1 age:1 judicial:3 consist:1 magistrate:1 court:3 high:1 appeal:1 act:1 accordance:1 advice:1 service:1 commission:1 make:1 appointment:1 political:3 condition:1 exist:1 since:1 similar:1 informal:1 coalition:1 behavior:1 official:2 platform:1 structure:1 formally:1 present:1 major:1 source:1 conflict:1 protract:1 bid:1 resident:1 secede:1 protection:1 attempt:1 placate:1 banabans:1 include:1 several:1 special:1 provision:1 designation:1 return:1 land:1 previously:1 acquire:1 phosphate:1 mining:1 external:1 link:1 brief:1 overview:1 website:1 commonwealth:1 nation:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 constitution_promulgate:1 vice_president:2 legislative_branch:1 maneaba_ni:3 ni_maungatabu:3 seat_constituency:1 ex_officio:1 judicial_branch:1 phosphate_mining:1 external_link:1 |
2,084 | Klaus_Barbie | Klaus Barbie (October 25, 1913 – September 25, 1991) was an SS-Hauptsturmführer (rank approximately equivalent to army captain), soldier and Gestapo member. He was known as the Butcher of Lyon. Early life Klaus Barbie was born in Bad Godesberg, near Bonn, Germany. Barbie was born to a Roman Catholic family. His parents were both teachers. Until 1923 he went to the school where his father taught. Afterward, he attended a boarding school in Trier. In 1925, his whole family moved to Trier. In 1933, Barbie's father and brother both died. The death of his abusive, alcoholic father derailed plans for young Barbie to study theology or otherwise become an academic, as his peers had expected. While unemployed, Barbie was drafted into the Nazi labor service - Reichsarbeitsdienst. In September 1935, he joined the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the special security branch service of the SS that acted as the intelligence-gathering arm of the Nazi Party. Soon he was sent to serve in Amsterdam in the German occupied Netherlands. In 1942, he was sent to Dijon and in November of the same year he was sent to Lyon, where he became the head of the local Gestapo. War crimes He first set up camp at Hôtel Terminus. It was his time as head of the Gestapo of Lyon that earned him the name Butcher of Lyon. Evidence suggests that he personally tortured prisoners and is responsible for the deaths of up to 4,000 people. The most infamous case is the arrest and torture of Jean Moulin, one of the highest-ranking members of the French Resistance. In April 1944, Barbie ordered the deportation to Auschwitz of a group of 44 Jewish children from an orphanage at Izieu. In 1947, Barbie became an agent for the 66th Detachment of the U.S. Army Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC). In 1951, he fled to Juan Peron's Argentina with the help of a ratline organized by U.S. intelligence services and the Ustashi Roman Catholic priest Krunoslav Draganović. Asked by Barbie why he was going out of his way to help him escape, Draganovic responded, "We have to maintain a sort of moral reserve on which we can draw in the future." He then emigrated to Bolivia, where he lived under the alias Klaus Altmann. Testimony of Italian insurgent Stefano Delle Chiaie before the Italian Parliamentary Commission on Terrorism suggests that Barbie took part in the "Cocaine Coup" of Luis García Meza Tejada, when the regime forced its way to power in Bolivia in 1980. While in Bolivia, Barbie managed a company that diverted Belgian and Swiss arms to Israel while Israel was still under a post-Six-Day War international arms embargo. A report in the Israeli press alleges that Barbie also had frequent dealings with Israel concerning supplies of Israeli arms to Latin American countries and "various underground organizations." , quoted in Chomsky, Noam 'Turning the Tide: US Intervention in Central America and the Struggle for Peace' South End Press 1985 page 36 Trial Barbie was identified in Bolivia as early as 1971 by the Klarsfelds (Nazi hunters), but it was only on January 19, 1983, that the newly elected government of Hernán Siles Zuazo arrested and extradited him to France. In 1984, Barbie was put on trial for crimes committed while he was in charge of the Gestapo in Lyon between 1942 and 1944. The trial started on May 11, 1987, in Lyon — a jury trial before the Rhône Cour d'assises. In a rare move, the court allowed the trial to be filmed because of its historical value. Also, a special court room with seating for an audience of about 700 was constructed. Documentary; English title: “Terror’s Advocate”. At the trial Barbie received support not only from Nazi apologists like François Genoud, but also from leftist lawyer Jacques Vergès. Vergès had a reputation for attacking the French political system, particularly in the French colonial empire. His strategy at the trial was to use it to expose war crimes committed by France since 1945. Indeed, many of the charges against Barbie were dropped, thanks to legislation that had protected people accused of crimes under the Vichy regime and in French Algeria. Vergès further argued that Barbie's actions were no worse than the ordinary actions of colonialists worldwide, and that his trial was selective prosecution. The head prosecutor was Pierre Truche. During his trial, Barbie famously stated that: "When I stand before the throne of God I shall be judged innocent". Quite likely under Vergès' direction, Barbie caused sensations on the first days of the trial: he gave his name as Klaus Altmann (the name he had used while in Bolivia) and, claiming that his extradition was technically illegal, made the request to be excused the trial and return to his cell at St. Joseph prison. This was granted though he was brought back on the 26th of May to face some of his accusers, during which he stated that he had "nothing to say". On July 4, 1987, Barbie was sentenced to life imprisonment for crimes against humanity, and died in jail in Lyon of leukemia four years later, at the age of 77. References Further reading Case No. 77, Fn 908 KsD Lyon IV-B (gez. Ostubaf. Barbie) an BdS, Paris IV-B, 6. April 1944, RF-1235. A chapter in this book also follows how top Nazis made their way to Argentina and Latin America. External links Marcel Ophuls’s Kevin Macdonald’s (English: “Terror's Advocate”) | Klaus_Barbie |@lemmatized klaus:4 barbie:21 october:1 september:2 ss:1 hauptsturmführer:1 rank:2 approximately:1 equivalent:1 army:2 captain:1 soldier:1 gestapo:4 member:2 know:1 butcher:2 lyon:8 early:2 life:2 bear:2 bad:2 godesberg:1 near:1 bonn:1 germany:1 roman:2 catholic:2 family:2 parent:1 teacher:1 go:2 school:2 father:3 taught:1 afterward:1 attend:1 boarding:1 trier:2 whole:1 move:2 brother:1 die:2 death:2 abusive:1 alcoholic:1 derail:1 plan:1 young:1 study:1 theology:1 otherwise:1 become:3 academic:1 peer:1 expect:1 unemployed:1 draft:1 nazi:5 labor:1 service:3 reichsarbeitsdienst:1 join:1 sicherheitsdienst:1 sd:1 special:2 security:1 branch:1 act:1 intelligence:3 gathering:1 arm:4 party:1 soon:1 send:3 serve:1 amsterdam:1 german:1 occupied:1 netherlands:1 dijon:1 november:1 year:2 head:3 local:1 war:3 crime:5 first:2 set:1 camp:1 hôtel:1 terminus:1 time:1 earn:1 name:3 evidence:1 suggest:2 personally:1 torture:2 prisoner:1 responsible:1 people:2 infamous:1 case:2 arrest:2 jean:1 moulin:1 one:1 high:1 french:4 resistance:1 april:2 order:1 deportation:1 auschwitz:1 group:1 jewish:1 child:1 orphanage:1 izieu:1 agent:1 detachment:1 u:3 counter:1 corp:1 cic:1 flee:1 juan:1 peron:1 argentina:2 help:2 ratline:1 organize:1 ustashi:1 priest:1 krunoslav:1 draganović:1 ask:1 way:3 escape:1 draganovic:1 respond:1 maintain:1 sort:1 moral:1 reserve:1 draw:1 future:1 emigrate:1 bolivia:5 live:1 alias:1 altmann:2 testimony:1 italian:2 insurgent:1 stefano:1 delle:1 chiaie:1 parliamentary:1 commission:1 terrorism:1 take:1 part:1 cocaine:1 coup:1 luis:1 garcía:1 meza:1 tejada:1 regime:2 force:1 power:1 manage:1 company:1 divert:1 belgian:1 swiss:1 israel:3 still:1 post:1 six:1 day:2 international:1 embargo:1 report:1 israeli:2 press:2 allege:1 also:4 frequent:1 dealing:1 concern:1 supply:1 latin:2 american:1 country:1 various:1 underground:1 organization:1 quote:1 chomsky:1 noam:1 turn:1 tide:1 intervention:1 central:1 america:2 struggle:1 peace:1 south:1 end:1 page:1 trial:11 identify:1 klarsfelds:1 hunter:1 january:1 newly:1 elect:1 government:1 hernán:1 siles:1 zuazo:1 extradite:1 france:2 put:1 commit:2 charge:2 start:1 may:2 jury:1 rhône:1 cour:1 assises:1 rare:1 court:2 allow:1 film:1 historical:1 value:1 room:1 seat:1 audience:1 construct:1 documentary:1 english:2 title:1 terror:2 advocate:2 receive:1 support:1 apologist:1 like:1 françois:1 genoud:1 leftist:1 lawyer:1 jacques:1 vergès:4 reputation:1 attack:1 political:1 system:1 particularly:1 colonial:1 empire:1 strategy:1 use:2 expose:1 since:1 indeed:1 many:1 drop:1 thanks:1 legislation:1 protect:1 accuse:1 vichy:1 algeria:1 argue:1 action:2 ordinary:1 colonialist:1 worldwide:1 selective:1 prosecution:1 prosecutor:1 pierre:1 truche:1 famously:1 state:2 stand:1 throne:1 god:1 shall:1 judge:1 innocent:1 quite:1 likely:1 direction:1 cause:1 sensation:1 give:1 claim:1 extradition:1 technically:1 illegal:1 make:2 request:1 excuse:1 return:1 cell:1 st:1 joseph:1 prison:1 grant:1 though:1 bring:1 back:1 face:1 accuser:1 nothing:1 say:1 july:1 sentence:1 imprisonment:1 humanity:1 jail:1 leukemia:1 four:1 later:1 age:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 fn:1 ksd:1 iv:2 b:2 gez:1 ostubaf:1 bd:1 paris:1 rf:1 chapter:1 book:1 follow:1 top:1 external:1 link:1 marcel:1 ophuls:1 kevin:1 macdonald:1 |@bigram bad_godesberg:1 sicherheitsdienst_sd:1 bolivia_bolivia:1 arm_embargo:1 chomsky_noam:1 jury_trial:1 cour_assises:1 vichy_regime:1 external_link:1 |
2,085 | Lossless_compression | Lossless data compression is a class of data compression algorithms that allows the exact original data to be reconstructed from the compressed data. The term lossless is in contrast to lossy data compression, which only allows an approximation of the original data to be reconstructed, in exchange for better compression rates. Lossless data compression is used in many applications. For example, it is used in the popular ZIP file format and in the Unix tool gzip. It is also often used as a component within lossy data compression technologies. Lossless compression is used when it is important that the original and the decompressed data be identical, or when no assumption can be made on whether certain deviation is uncritical. Typical examples are executable programs and source code. Some image file formats, like PNG or GIF, use only lossless compression, while others like TIFF and MNG may use either lossless or lossy methods. Lossless compression techniques Most lossless compression programs do two things in sequence: the first step generates a statistical model for the input data, and the second step uses this model to map input data to bit sequences in such a way that "probable" (e.g. frequently encountered) data will produce shorter output than "improbable" data. The primary encoding algorithms used to produce bit sequences are Huffman coding (also used by DEFLATE) and arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding achieves compression rates close to the best possible for a particular statistical model, which is given by the information entropy, whereas Huffman compression is simpler and faster but produces poor results for models that deal with symbol probabilities close to 1. There are two primary ways of constructing statistical models: in a static model, the data is analyzed and a model is constructed, then this model is stored with the compressed data. This approach is simple and modular, but has the disadvantage that the model itself can be expensive to store, and also that it forces a single model to be used for all data being compressed, and so performs poorly on files containing heterogeneous data. Adaptive models dynamically update the model as the data is compressed. Both the encoder and decoder begin with a trivial model, yielding poor compression of initial data, but as they learn more about the data performance improves. Most popular types of compression used in practice now use adaptive coders. Lossless compression methods may be categorized according to the type of data they are designed to compress. While, in principle, any general-purpose lossless compression algorithm (general-purpose meaning that they can compress any bitstring) can be used on any type of data, many are unable to achieve significant compression on data that is not of the form for which they were designed to compress. Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images. Text Statistical modeling algorithms for text (or text-like binary data such as executables) include: Context Tree Weighting method (CTW) Burrows-Wheeler transform (block sorting preprocessing that makes compression more efficient) LZ77 (used by DEFLATE) LZW Multimedia Techniques that take advantage of the specific characteristics of images such as the common phenomenon of contiguous 2-D areas of similar tones. Every pixel but the first is replaced by the difference to its left neighbor. This leads to small values having a much higher probability than large values. This is often also applied to sound files and can compress files which contain mostly low frequencies and low volumes. For images this step can be repeated by taking the difference to the top pixel, and then in videos the difference to the pixel in the next frame can be taken. A hierarchical version of this technique takes neighboring pairs of data points, stores their difference and sum, and on a higher level with lower resolution continues with the sums. This is called discrete wavelet transform. JPEG2000 additionally uses data points from other pairs and multiplication factors to mix then into the difference. These factors have to be integers so that the result is an integer under all circumstances. So the values are increased, increasing file size, but hopefully the distribution of values is more peaked. The adaptive encoding uses the probabilities from the previous sample in sound encoding, from the left and upper pixel in image encoding, and additionally from the previous frame in video encoding. In the wavelet transformation the probabilities are also passed through the hierarchy. Historical legal issues Many of these methods are implemented in open-source and proprietary tools, particularly LZW and its variants. Some algorithms are patented in the USA and other countries and their legal usage requires licensing by the patent holder. Because of patents on certain kinds of LZW compression, and in particular licensing practices by patent holder Unisys that many developers considered abusive, some open source proponents encouraged people to avoid using the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) for compressing image files in favor of Portable Network Graphics PNG, which combines the LZ77-based deflate algorithm with a selection of domain-specific prediction filters. However, the patents on LZW have now expired. Unisys | LZW Patent and Software Information Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images, but there are other techniques that do not work for typical text that are useful for some images (particularly simple bitmaps), and other techniques that take advantage of the specific characteristics of images (such as the common phenomenon of contiguous 2-D areas of similar tones, and the fact that color images usually have a preponderance to a limited range of colors out of those representable in the color space). As mentioned previously, lossless sound compression is a somewhat specialised area. Lossless sound compression algorithms can take advantage of the repeating patterns shown by the wave-like nature of the data – essentially using models to predict the "next" value and encoding the (hopefully small) difference between the expected value and the actual data. If the difference between the predicted and the actual data (called the "error") tends to be small, then certain difference values (like 0, +1, -1 etc. on sample values) become very frequent, which can be exploited by encoding them in few output bits. It is sometimes beneficial to compress only the differences between two versions of a file (or, in video compression, of an image). This is called delta compression (from the Greek letter Δ which is commonly used in mathematics to denote a difference), but the term is typically only used if both versions are meaningful outside compression and decompression. For example, while the process of compressing the error in the above-mentioned lossless audio compression scheme could be described as delta compression from the approximated sound wave to the original sound wave, the approximated version of the sound wave is not meaningful in any other context. Lossless compression methods By operation of the pigeonhole principle, no lossless compression algorithm can efficiently compress all possible data, and completely random data streams cannot be compressed. For this reason, many different algorithms exist that are designed either with a specific type of input data in mind or with specific assumptions about what kinds of redundancy the uncompressed data are likely to contain. Some of the most common lossless compression algorithms are listed below. General purpose Run-length encoding – a simple scheme that provides good compression of data containing lots of runs of the same value. LZW – used by gif and compress among others Deflate – used by gzip, modern versions of zip and as part of the compression process of PNG, PPP, HTTP, SSH Audio Apple Lossless – ALAC (Apple Lossless Audio Codec) ATRAC Advanced Lossless Audio Lossless Coding – also known as MPEG-4 ALS MPEG-4 SLS – also known as HD-AAC Direct Stream Transfer – DST Dolby TrueHD DTS-HD Master Audio Free Lossless Audio Codec – FLAC Meridian Lossless Packing – MLP Monkey's Audio – Monkey's Audio APE OptimFROG RealPlayer – RealAudio Lossless Shorten – SHN TTA – True Audio Lossless WavPack – WavPack lossless WMA Lossless – Windows Media Lossless Graphics ABO – Adaptive Binary Optimization GIF – (lossless, but contains a very limited number color range) JBIG2 – (lossless or lossy compression of B&W images) JPEG-LS – (lossless/near-lossless compression standard) JPEG 2000 – (includes lossless compression method, as proven by Sunil Kumar, Prof San Diego State University) JPEG XR - formerly WMPhoto and HD Photo, includes a lossless compression method PGF – Progressive Graphics File (lossless or lossy compression) PNG – Portable Network Graphics TIFF - Tagged Image File Format Video Animation codec CorePNG FFV1 JPEG 2000 Huffyuv Lagarith MSU Lossless Video Codec SheerVideo Cryptography Cryptosystems often compress data before encryption for added security; compression prior to encryption helps remove redundancies and patterns that might facilitate cryptanalysis. However, many ordinary lossless compression algorithms introduce predictable patterns (such as headers, wrappers, and tables) into the compressed data that may actually make cryptanalysis easier. Therefore, cryptosystems often incorporate specialized compression algorithms specific to the cryptosystem—or at least demonstrated or widely held to be cryptographically secure—rather than standard compression algorithms that are efficient but provide potential opportunities for cryptanalysis. Limitations Lossless data compression algorithms cannot guarantee compression for all input data sets. In other words, for any (lossless) data compression algorithm, there will be an input data set that does not get smaller when processed by the algorithm. This is easily proven with elementary mathematics using a counting argument, as follows: Assume that each file is represented as a string of bits of some arbitrary length. Suppose that there is a compression algorithm that transforms every file into a distinct file which is no longer than the original file, and that at least one file will be compressed into something that is shorter than itself. Let be the least number such that there is a file with length bits that compresses to something shorter. Let be the length (in bits) of the compressed version of . Because , every file of length keeps its size during compression. There are such files. Together with , this makes files which all compress into one of the files of length . But is smaller than , so by the pigeonhole principle there must be some file of length which is simultaneously the output of the compression function on two different inputs. That file cannot be decompressed reliably (which of the two originals should that yield?), which contradicts the assumption that the algorithm was lossless. We must therefore conclude that our original hypothesis (that the compression function makes no file longer) is necessarily untrue. Any lossless compression algorithm that makes some files shorter must necessarily make some files longer, but it is not necessary that those files become very much longer. Most practical compression algorithms provide an "escape" facility that can turn off the normal coding for files that would become longer by being encoded. Then the only increase in size is a few bits to tell the decoder that the normal coding has been turned off for the entire input. For example, DEFLATE compressed files never need to grow by more than 5 bytes per 65,535 bytes of input. In fact, if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable, then for any lossless compression that reduces the size of some file, the expected length of a compressed file (averaged over all possible files of length N) must necessarily be greater than N. So if we know nothing about the properties of the data we are compressing, we might as well not compress it at all. A lossless compression algorithm is only useful when we are more likely to compress certain types of files than others; then the algorithm could be designed to compress those types of data better. Thus, the main lesson from the argument is not that one risks big losses, but merely that one cannot always win. To choose an algorithm always means implicitly to select a subset of all files that will become usefully shorter. This is the theoretical reason why we need to have different compression algorithms for different kinds of files: there cannot be any algorithm that is good for all kinds of data. The "trick" that allows lossless compression algorithms, used on the type of data they were designed for, to consistently compress such files to a shorter form is that the files the algorithm are designed to act on all have some form of easily-modeled redundancy that the algorithm is designed to remove, and thus belong to the subset of files that that algorithm can make shorter, whereas other files would not get compressed or even get bigger. Algorithms are generally quite specifically tuned to a particular type of file: for example, lossless audio compression programs do not work well on text files, and vice versa. In particular, files of random data cannot be consistently compressed by any conceivable lossless data compression algorithm: indeed, this result is used to define the concept of randomness in algorithmic complexity theory. There have been many claims through the years of companies achieving 'perfect-compression' where an arbitrary number of random bits can always be compressed to N-1 bits. This is, of course, impossible: if such an algorithm existed, it could be applied repeatedly to losslessly reduce any file to length 0. These kinds of claims can be safely discarded without even looking at any further details regarding the purported compression scheme. An algorithm that is asserted to be able to losslessly compress any data stream is provably impossible. comp.compression FAQ list entry #9: Compression of random data (WEB, Gilbert and others) In a more general sense, any compression algorithm whose proposed properties contradict fundamental laws of mathematics may be called magic. On the other hand, it has also been proven that there is no algorithm to determine whether a file is incompressible in the sense of Kolmogorov complexity; hence, given any particular file, even if it appears random, it's possible that it may be significantly compressed, even including the size of the decompressor. An example is the digits of the mathematical constant , which appear random but can be generated by a very small program. However, even though it cannot be determined whether a particular file is incompressible, a simple theorem about incompressible strings shows that over 99% of files of any given length cannot be compressed by more than one byte (including the size of the decompressor). Mathematical background Any compression algorithm can be viewed as a function that maps sequences of units (normally octets) into other sequences of the same units. Compression is successful if the resulting sequence is shorter than the original sequence. In order for a compression algorithm to be considered lossless, there needs to exist a reverse mapping from compressed bit sequences to original bit sequences; that is to say, the compression method would need to encapsulate a bijection between "plain" and "compressed" bit sequences. The sequences of length N or less are clearly a strict superset of the sequences of length N-1 or less. It follows that there are more sequences of length N or less than there are sequences of length N-1 or less. It therefore follows from the pigeonhole principle that it is not possible to map every sequence of length N or less to a unique sequence of length N-1 or less. Therefore it is not possible to produce an algorithm that reduces the size of every possible input sequence. Psychological background Most everyday files are relatively 'sparse' in an information entropy sense, and thus, most lossless algorithms a layperson is likely to apply on regular files compress them relatively well. This may, through misapplication of intuition, lead some individuals to conclude that a well-designed compression algorithm can compress any input, thus, constituting a magic compression algorithm. Points of application in real compression theory Real compression algorithm designers accept that streams of high information entropy cannot be compressed, and accordingly, include facilities for detecting and handling this condition. An obvious way of detection is applying a raw compression algorithm and testing if its output is smaller than its input. Sometimes, detection is made by heuristics; for example, a compression application may consider files whose names end in ".zip", ".arj" or ".lha" uncompressible without any more sophisticated detection. A common way of handling this situation is quoting input, or uncompressible parts of the input in the output, minimising the compression overhead. For example, the zip data format specifies the 'compression method' of 'Stored' for input files that have been copied into the archive verbatim. ZIP file format specification by PKWARE, chapter V, section J The Million Random Number Challenge Mark Nelson, frustrated over many cranks trying to claim having invented a magic compression algorithm appearing in comp.compression, has constructed a 415,241 byte binary file () of highly entropic content, and issued a public challenge of $100 to anyone to write a program that, together with its input, would be smaller than his provided binary data yet be able to reconstitute ("decompress") it without error. The FAQ for the comp.compression newsgroup contains a challenge by Mike Goldman offering $5,000 for a program that can compress random data. Patrick Craig took up the challenge, but rather than compressing the data, he split it up into separate files all of which ended in the number '5' which was not stored as part of the file. Omitting this character allowed the resulting files (plus, in accordance with the rules, the size of the program that reassembled them) to be smaller than the original file. However, no actual compression took place, and the information stored in the names of the files was necessary in order to reassemble them in the correct order into the original file, and this information was not taken into account in the file size comparison. The files themselves are thus not sufficient to reconstitute the original file, the file names are also necessary. A full history of the event, including discussion on whether or not the challenge was technically met, is on Patrick Craig's web site. See also Audio data compression David A. Huffman Information entropy Kolmogorov complexity Data compression Precompressor Lossy data compression Lossless Transform Audio Compression (LTAC) List of codecs Information theory Confirmation bias universal code (data compression) Grammar induction References External links Lossless data compression Benchmarks and Tests Lossless data compression Benchmark (Squeeze Chart) Comparison of Lossless Audio Compressors at Hydrogenaudio Wiki Comparing lossless and lossy audio formats for music archiving Links to data compression topics and tutorials — data-compression.com's overview of data compression and its fundamentals limitations — comp.compression's FAQ item 73, What is the theoretical compression limit? — c10n.info's overview of US patent #7,096,360, "[a]n "Frequency-Time Based Data Compression Method" supporting the compression, encryption, decompression, and decryption and persistence of many binary digits through frequencies where each frequency represents many bits." | 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2,086 | Continuum_mechanics | Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuum, e.g., solids and fluids (i.e., liquids and gases). A continuum concept assumes that the substance of the body is distributed throughout — and completely fills — the space it occupies. The continuum concept ignores the fact that matter is made of atoms, is not continuous, and that it commonly has some sort of heterogeneous microstructure, allowing the approximation of physical quantities, such as energy and momentum, at the infinitesimal limit. Differential equations can thus be employed in solving problems in continuum mechanics. Some of these differential equations are specific to the materials being investigated and are called constitutive equations, while others capture fundamental physical laws, such as the conservation of mass (the continuity equation), the conservation of momentum (the equations of motion and equilibrium), and the conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics). Continuum mechanics deals with physical quantities of solids and fluids which are independent of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. These physical quantities are then represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects that are independent of coordinate system. These tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems for computational convenience. In fluids, the Knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the approximation of continuity can be made. The continuum concept Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed of molecules separated by empty space. In a macroscopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities. However, certain physical phenomena can be modeled assuming the materials exist as a continuum, meaning the matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the entire region of space it occupies. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material. The concept of continuum is a macroscopic physical model, and its validity depends on the type of problem and the scale of the physical phenomena under consideration. A material may be assumed to be a continuum when the distance between the physical particles is very small compared to the dimension of the problem. For example, such is the case when analyzing the deformation behavior of soil deposits in soil mechanics. A given volume of soil is composed of discrete solid particles (grains) of minerals that are packed in a certain manner with voids between them. In this sense, soils evade the definition of a continuum. To simplify the deformation analysis of the soil, the volume of soil can be assumed to be a continuum because the grain particles are very small compared to the scale of the problem. The validity of the continuum assumption needs to be verified with experimental testing and measurements on the real material under consideration and under similar loading conditions. Mathematical modeling of a continuum Figure 1. Configuration of a continuum body In continuum mechanics, a material body is a set of infinitesimal volumetric elements , called particles or material points. A material body is expressed as a continuum by assuming that at any configuration, or geometrical state of the body, there is a region in a three dimensional euclidean space such that every point of that region is occupied by a material point , i.e there is a one-to-one correspondence between material points and space points. The configuration , or geometrical state of the material body at a particular time is characterized by the position vector of all particles at that time with respect to an arbitrary frame of reference (Figure 1). Mathematically, this is expressed by the mapping function where is a continuous function, i.e. uniquely invertible and differentiable as many times as necessary. Kinematics: deformation and motion Figure 2. Motion of a continuum body. A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement. The displacement of a body has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a deformation. A rigid-body displacement consist of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration to a current or deformed configuration (Figure 2). The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements. Thus, the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle occupies a series of points in space which describe a pathline. There is continuity during deformation or motion of a continuum body in the sense that: The material points forming a closed curve at any instant will always form a closed curve at any subsequent time. The material points forming a closed surface at any instant will always form a closed surface at any subsequent time and the matter within the closed surface will always remain within. It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all subsequent configurations are referenced from. The reference configuration need not to be one the body actually will ever occupy. Often, the configuration at is considered the reference configuration , . The components of the position vector of a particle, taken with respect to the reference configuration, are called the material or reference coordinates. When analyzing the deformation or motion of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time. One description for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates, called material description or Lagrangian description. Lagrangian description In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time. In this case the reference configuration is the configuration at . An observer standing in the referential frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties as the material body moves in space as time progresses. The results obtained are independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration, . This description is normally used in solid mechanics. In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum body is expressed by the mapping function (Figure 2), which is a mapping of the initial configuration onto the current configuration , giving a geometrical correspondence between them, i.e. giving the position vector that a particle , with a position vector in the undeformed or reference configuration , will occupy in the current or deformed configuration at time . The components are called the spatial coordinates. Physical and kinematic properties , i.e. thermodynamic properties and velocity, which describe or characterize features of the material body, are expressed as continuous functions of position and time, i.e. . The material derivative of any property of a continuum, which may be a scalar, vector, or tensor, is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of particles of the moving continuum body. The material derivative is also known as the substantial derivative, or comoving derivative, or convective derivative. It can be thought as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with that group of particles. In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of is simply the partial derivative with respect to time, and the position vector is held constant as it does not change with time. Thus, we have The instantaneous position is a property of a particle, and its material derivative is the instantaneous velocity of the particle. Therefore, the velocity field of the continuum is given by Similarly, the acceleration field is given by Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of the material points. All physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described this way. In this sense, the function and are single-valued and continuous, with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required, usually to the second or third. Eulerian description Continuity allows for the inverse of to trace backwards where the particle currently located at was located in the initial or referenced configuration. In this case the description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates, in which case is called the spatial description or Eulerian description, i.e the current configuration is taken as the reference configuration. The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, focuses on the current configuration , giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses, instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time. This approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow, i.e. fluid mechanics, as fluids do not have a previous deformed configuration, and there is no need to follow particular fluid particles. Instead, it is best to identify fixed spatial points and observe the changes through time of the different physical properties, e.g. velocity, acceleration, and thermodynamic properties, that are taking place at that point in space as different material points of the continuum (fluid) pass through it. Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function which provides a tracing of the particle which now occupies the position in the current configuration to its original position in the initial configuration . A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the determinant of the Jacobian should be different from zero. Thus, In the Eulerian description, the physical properties are expressed as where the functional form of in the Lagrangian description is not the same as the form of in the Eulerian description. The material derivative of , using the chain rule, is then The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives the local rate of change of the property occurring at position . The second term of the right-hand side is the convective rate of change and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position in space (motion). Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differentiability of the velocity field. All physical quantities are defined this way at each instant of time, in the current configuration, as a function of the vector position . Displacement Field The vector joining the positions of a particle in the undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is called the displacement vector , in the Lagrangian description, or , in the Eulerian description. A displacement field is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the body, which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration. It is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in terms of the material coordinates as or in terms of the spatial coordinates as where are the direction cosines between the material and spatial coordinate systems with unit vectors and , respectively. Thus and the relationship between and is then given by Knowing that then It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed configurations, which results in , and the direction cosines become Kronecker deltas, i.e. Thus, we have or in terms of the spatial coordinates as Governing Equations Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as continuous for certain length and time scales. The equations that govern the mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy. Kinematic relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing equations. Physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions. In the continuum mechanics of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the Clausius-Duhem form of the entropy inequality is staisfied. The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume must arise from three causes: the physical quantity itself flows through the surface that bounds the volume, there is a source of the physical quantity on the surface of the volume, or/and, there is a source of the physical quantity inside the volume. Let be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let be its surface (the boundary of ). Let the motion of material points in the body be described by the map where is the position of a point in the initial configuration and is the location of the same point in the deformed configuration. Recall that the deformation gradient () is given by Balance Laws Let be a physical quantity that is flowing through the body. Let be sources on the surface of the body and let be sources inside the body. Let be the outward unit normal to the surface . Let be the velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowing. Also, let the speed at which the bounding surface is moving be (in the direction ). Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form Note that the functions , , and can be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued - depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with. If there are internal boundaries in the body, jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the balance laws. If we take the Lagrangian point of view, it can be shown that the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy for a solid can be written as In the above equations is the mass density (current), is the material time derivative of , is the particle velocity, is the material time derivative of , is the Cauchy stress tensor, is the body force density, is the internal energy per unit mass, is the material time derivative of , is the heat flux vector, and is an energy source per unit mass. With respect to the reference configuration, the balance laws can be written as In the above, is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and is the mass density in the reference configuration. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor by We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor which is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that Then the balance laws become The operators in the above equations are defined as such that where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of an orthonormal basis in the current configuration. Also, where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of an orthonormal basis in the reference configuration. The inner product is defined as The Clausius-Duhem Inequality The Clausius-Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic materials. This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy dissipation is involved. Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a flux of a quantity, a source of the quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass. The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy. Thus, we assume that there is an entropy flux, an entropy source, and an internal entropy density per unit mass () in the region of interest. Let be such a region and let be its boundary. Then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to (as a flux or from internal sources) and the change of the internal entropy density due to material flowing in and out of the region. Let move with a velocity and let particles inside have velocities . Let be the unit outward normal to the surface . Let be the density of matter in the region, be the entropy flux at the surface, and be the entropy source per unit mass. Then the entropy inequality may be written as The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux at the surface by the relation . Under the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions, we have where is the heat flux vector, is a energy source per unit mass, and is the absolute temperature of a material point at at time . We then have the Clausius-Duhem inequality in integral form: We can show that the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius-Duhem inequality may be written as Constitutive equations See Constitutive equation Applications Mechanics Solid mechanics Fluid mechanics Engineering Mechanical engineering Civil engineering Aerospace engineering Continuum mechanicsSolid mechanics is the study of the physics of continuous solids with a defined rest shape.Elasticity (physics) describes materials that return to their rest shape after removal of an applied force.Plasticity describes materials that permanently deform (change their rest shape) after a large enough applied force.Rheology: Given that some materials are viscoelastic (exhibiting a combination of elastic and viscous properties), the boundary between solid mechanics and fluid mechanics is blurry.Fluid mechanics (including Fluid statics and Fluid dynamics) deals with the physics of fluids. An important property of fluids is viscosity, which is the force generated by a fluid in response to a velocity gradient.Non-Newtonian fluidsNewtonian fluids See also Theory of elasticity Tensor calculus Equation of state Finite deformation tensors Bernoulli's principle Peridynamics (a non-local continuum theory leading to integral equations) References T. W. Wright. (2002) The Physics and Mathematics of Adiabatic Shear Bands. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. R. C. Batra. (2006) Elements of Continuum Mechanics. AIAA, Reston, VA. G. A. Maugin. (1999) The Thermomechanics of Nonlinear Irreversible Behaviors: An Introduction. World Scientific, Singapore. M. E. Gurtin. (1981) An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. 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2,087 | Korean_language | This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language. See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system. Korean (, see below) is the official language of North Korea and South Korea. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers. It was formerly written using Hanja, borrowed Chinese characters pronounced in the Korean way. In the 15th century a national writing system was developed by Sejong the Great, currently called Hangul. The genealogical classification of the Korean language is debated. Some linguists place it in the Altaic language family, while others consider it to be a language isolate. It is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. Names The map showing usage of Korean language in the world The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North and South Korea. In South Korea, the language is most often called Hangungmal (; ), or more formally, Hangugeo (; ) or Gugeo (; ; literally "national language"). In North Korea and Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China, the language is most often called Chosŏnmal (; with hanja: ), or more formally, Chosŏnŏ (; ). On the other hand, Korean people in the former USSR, who refer to themselves as Koryo-saram (also Goryeoin [; ; literally, "Goryeo person(s)"]) call the language Goryeomal (; ). In mainland China, following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ ( or short form: Cháoyǔ ()) has normally been used to refer to the language spoken in North Korea and Yanbian, while Hánguóyǔ ( or short form: Hányǔ ()) is used to refer to the language spoken in South Korea. Some older English sources also used the name "Korean" to refer to the language, country, and people. History Korean is descended from Old Korean and Middle Korean. Classification The classification of the modern Korean language is uncertain, and due to the lack of any one generally accepted theory, a cautious classification will describe it as a language isolate. On the other hand, since the publication of the article of Ramstedt in 1928, some linguists eg Miller 1971, 1996, Starostin et al. 2003 support the hypothesis that Korean can be classified as an Altaic language or as a relative of proto-Altaic. Korean is similar to the Altaic languages in that they both lack certain grammatical elements, including articles, fusional morphology and relative pronouns. However, linguists agree today on the fact that typological resemblances cannot be used to prove generic relatedness of languages eg Vovin 2008: 1 as these features are 1. typologically connected 2. easily borrowed. Trask 1996: 147-151 Anyway, factors such as typological divergence such as Middle Mongolian exhibiting gender agreement Rybatzki 2003: 57 can be used to argue that a generic relationship is unlikely. Vovin 2008: 5 The hypothesis that Korean might be related to Japanese has had some more supporters due to some considerable overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin eg Martin 1966, 1990 and Roy Andrew Miller eg Miller 1971, 1996 . Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese-Korean 100-word Swadesh list, which - if true - would place these two languages closer together than other possible members of the Altaic family. Other linguists, most notably Alexander Vovin, argue, however, that the similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing especially from Korean into Western Old Japanese. Vovin 2008 A good example might be Middle Korean sàm < Proto-Korean asam ‘hemp’ and Japanese asa ‘hemp’. Whitman 1985: 232, also found in Martin 1966: 233 This word seems to be cognate, but while it is well-attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryūkyū, in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three subdialects of the South-Ryūkyūan dialect group. Then, the doublet wo ‘hemp’ is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryūkyū. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. Vovin 2008: 211-212 See East Asian languages for morphological features shared among languages of the East Asian sprachbund, and Classification of Japanese for further details on the discussion of a possible relationship. Though not related to Chinese, Korean has borrowed heavily from it, using thousands of Chinese words; see #Vocabulary below. Dialects Dialects of Korean Korean has several dialects (called mal [literally "speech"], saturi, or bang-eon in Korean). The standard language (pyojuneo or pyojunmal) of South Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul, and the standard for North Korea is based on the dialect spoken around P'yŏngyang. All dialects of Korean are similar to each other, and are in fact all mutually intelligible, perhaps with the exception of the dialect of Jeju Island (see Jeju dialect). The dialect spoken in Jeju is in fact classified as a different language by some Korean linguists. One of the most notable differences between dialects is the use of stress: speakers of Seoul dialect use very little stress, and standard South Korean has a very flat intonation; on the other hand, speakers of the Gyeongsang dialect have a very pronounced intonation. It is also worth noting that there is substantial evidence for a history of extensive dialect levelling, or even convergent evolution or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, such as South Jeolla dialect /kur/ vs. Standard Korean 입 "mouth" or Gyeongsang dialect vs. Standard Korean "garlic chives." This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present. See also the Buyeo languages hypothesis. There is a very close connection between the dialects of Korean and the regions of Korea, since the boundaries of both are largely determined by mountains and seas. Here is a list of traditional dialect names and locations: Standard dialect Where used Seoul Seoul (서울), Incheon (인천/仁川), most of Gyeonggi (경기/京畿) P'yŏngan (평안/平壤) P'yŏngyang, P'yŏngan region, Chagang (North Korea) Regional dialect Where used Gyeonggi limited areas of the Gyeonggi region (South Korea) Chungcheong Daejeon, Chungcheong region (South Korea) Gangwon Gangwon-do (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea) Gyeongsang Busan, Daegu, Ulsan, Gyeongsang region (South Korea) Hamgyŏng Rasŏn, Hamgyŏng region, Ryanggang (North Korea) Hwanghae Hwanghae region (North Korea) Jeju Jeju Island/Province (South Korea) Jeolla Gwangju, Jeolla region (South Korea) Phonology Consonants The Korean consonants BilabialAlveolarPost-alveolarVelarGlottalNasal (syllable-final) Plosive andAffricateplain tense aspirated Fricative plain tense Liquid The IPA symbol <> (a subscript double straight quotation mark, shown here with a placeholder circle) is used to denote the tensed consonants . Its official use in the Extensions to the IPA is for 'strong' articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice. The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice, but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. Vowels The short vowel phonemes of Korean The long vowel phonemes of Korean The Korean basic vowels Monophthongs , , , , , , , , Vowels preceded by intermediaries,or Diphthongs , , , , , , , , , , , Allophones becomes an alveolo-palatal before or for most speakers (but see Differences in the language between North Korea and South Korea). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (Example: beoseot (버섯) 'mushroom'). may become a bilabial before or , a palatal before or , a velar before , a voiced between voiced sounds, and a elsewhere. become voiced between voiced sounds. becomes alveolar flap between vowels, and or at the end of a syllable or next to another . Note that a written syllable-final 'ㄹ', when followed by a vowel or a glide (i.e., when the next character starts with 'ㅇ'), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes . Traditionally, was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before , and otherwise became . However, the inflow of western loanword changed the trend, and now word-initial (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either or . The traditional prohibition of word-initial became a morphological rule called "initial law" (두음법칙) in South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial in North Korea. All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) are unreleased at the end of a word. Plosive stops become nasal stops before nasal stops. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical morphology. Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. One difference between the pronunciation standards of North and South Korea is the treatment of initial , and initial . For example, "labour" - north: rodong (로동), south: nodong (노동) "history" - north: ryŏksa (력사), south: yeoksa (역사) "female" - north: nyŏja (녀자), south: yeoja (여자) Morphophonemics Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun (-은/-는) and -i/-ga (-이/-가). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul (-을/-를), -euro/-ro (-으로/-로), -eseo/-seo (-에서/-서), -ideunji/-deunji (-이든지/-든지) and -iya/-ya (-이야/-야). However, -euro/-ro is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a rieul consonant. + Korean particles After a consonant After a rieul After a vowel -ui (-의) -eun (-은) -neun (-는)-i (-이) -ga (-가) -eul (-을) -reul (-를) -gwa (-과) -wa (-와) -euro (-으로) -ro (-로) Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Grammar Sentence structure Korean is an agglutinative language. Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The basic form of a Korean sentence is Subject Object Verb, but the verb is the only required and immovable element. A: 가게-에 갔어-요? (가았어요?) kage-e kasseo-yo store + [location marker (에)] [go (verb root) (가)]+[conjunctive (아)]+[past (ㅆ)]+[conjunctive (어)]+ [polite marker (요)] "Did [you] go to the store?" ("you" implied in conversation) B: 예. ye yes "Yes." Parts of speech Verb Korean verbs (, tongsa, ) are also known in English as "action verbs" or "dynamic verbs" to distinguish them from [, hyeong-yongsa, "adjectives"]), which are also known as "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs". Examples of action/dynamic verbs include (hada, "to do") and (kada, "to go") which constitute an action or movement as opposed to descriptive verbs such as (yehppeuda, "to be beautiful"). For a larger list of Korean verbs, see wikt:Category:Korean verbs. Unlike most of the European languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations depend upon the verb tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the speaker, the subjects, and the listeners. The system of speech levels and honorifics loosely resembles the T-V distinction of most Indo-European languages. For example, different endings are used based on the speaker's relation with the person they are talking to or the person about whom they are talking. Politeness is a critical part of Korean language and Korean culture, therefore, when talking to someone esteemed, the correct verb ending, which should indicate a lot of respect, must be chosen. Adjective Words categorized as Korean adjectives (, hyeong-yongsa, ) conjugate similarly to verbs, so some English texts call them "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs", but they are distinctly separate from (tongsa). English does not have an identical grammatical category, so the English translation of Korean adjectives may misleadingly suggest that they are verbs. For example, (pukda) translates literally as "to be red" and (aswipda) often best translates as "to lack" or "to want for", but both are (hyeong-yongsa, "adjectives"). For a larger list of Korean adjectives, see wikt:Category:Korean adjectives. Determiner Korean determiners (, gwanhyeongsa, ) are also known in English as "determinatives", "adnominals", "pre-nouns", "attributives", and "unconjugated adjectives". Examples include (kak, "each"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean determiners. Noun A large body of Korean nouns (, myeongsa, ) stem from Chinese characters, e.g. (山, san, mountain), (驛, yeok, station), (文化, munhwa, culture), etc. Others are native to the Korean language, e.g. (nara, country), (nal, day). Many Sino-Korean words have a native Korean equivalent and vice versa, but not always. Nouns do not have grammatical gender and can be made plural by adding 들 to the end of the word, however in most instances the singular form is used even when in English it would be translated as plural. For example, while in English the sentence "there are three apples" would use the plural "apples" instead of the singular "apple", the Korean sentence 사과 세개 있습니다 (sagwa segae isssumnida) maintains the word 사과 (sagwa, "apple") in its singular form, thus rendered in English as "apple three(things) exist." For a list of Korean nouns, see wikt:Category:Korean nouns. Pronoun Korean pronouns (, daemyeongsa, ) are highly influenced by the honorifics in the language. Pronouns change forms depending on the social status of the person or persons spoken to, e.g. the pronoun for "I" there is both the informal (na) and the honorific/humble (jeo). In general second person singular pronouns are avoided, especially when using honorific forms. For a larger list or Korean pronouns, see wikt:Category:Korean pronouns. Adverb Korean adverbs (, busa, ) include (tto, "also") and (gadeuk, "fully"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean adverbs. Particle Korean particles (, josa, ) are also known in English as "postpositions". Examples include (neun, topic marker) and (reul, object marker). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean particles. Interjection Korean interjections (, gamtansa, ) are also known in English as "exclamations". Examples include (ani, "no"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean interjections. Number Korean numbers or numerals (, susa, ) constitute two regularly used sets: a native Korean set and a Sino-Korean set. The Sino-Korean system is nearly entirely based on the Chinese numerals. The distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything that can be counted will use one of the two systems, but seldom both. Sino-Korean words are sometimes used to mark ordinal usage: yeol beon (열 번) means "ten times" while sip beon (십(十) 번(番)) means "number ten." The grouping of large numbers in Korean follow the Chinese tradition of myriads (10000) rather than thousands (1000) as is common in Europe and North America. Speech levels and honorifics The relationship between a speaker or writer and his or her subject and audience is paramount in Korean, and the grammar reflects this. The relationship between speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in honorifics, while that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in speech level. Honorifics When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if he/she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he/she is a younger stranger, student, employee or the like. Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences; and both honorific or normal sentences. They are made for easier and faster use of Korean. Speech levels There are seven verb paradigms or speech levels in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike honorifics — which are used to show respect towards the referent — speech levels are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience. The names of the 7 levels are derived from the non-honorific imperative form of the verb 하다 (hada, "do") in each level, plus the suffix 체 ('che', hanja: 體), which means "style." The highest 6 levels are generally grouped together as jondaenmal (존댓말), while the lowest level (haeche, 해체) is called banmal (반말) in Korean. Vocabulary The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. Like Japanese and Vietnamese, more than 50% of the vocabulary (up to 60% by some estimates), especially words that denote abstract ideas, are Sino-Korean words, Sohn, Ho-Min. The Korean Language (Section 1.5.3 "Korean vocabulary", p.12-13), Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521369436 either directly borrowed from Written Chinese, or coined in Japan or Korea using Chinese characters, in a similar way European languages borrow from Latin and Greek. Korean has two number systems: one native, and one borrowed from Chinese. To a much lesser extent, words have also occasionally been borrowed from Mongolian, Sanskrit, and other languages. Conversely, the Korean language itself has also contributed some loanwords to other languages, most notably the Tsushima dialect of Japanese. The vast majority of loanwords other than Sino-Korean come from modern times, 90% of which are from English. Sohn, Ho-Min. The Korean Language (Section 1.5.3 "Korean vocabulary", p.12-13), Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521369436 Many words have also been borrowed from Japanese and Western languages such as German (areubaiteu ‘part-time job’, allereugi ‘allergy’). Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example ‘dozen’ > dāsu > daseu. Most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current Hangulization rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. There are a few more complicated borrowings such as ‘German(y)’ (see Names for Germany), the first part of whose endonym the Japanese approximated using the kanji doitsu that were then accepted into the Korean language by their Sino-Korean pronunciation: dok + il = Dogil. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented Hangulizations of the countries' endonyms or English names. North Korean vocabulary shows a tendency to prefer native Korean over Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings, especially with recent political objectives aimed at eliminating foreign (mostly Chinese) influences on the Korean language in the North. By contrast, South Korean may have several Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings which tend to be absent in North Korean. Writing system In ancient times, the languages of the Korean peninsula were written using Chinese characters, using hyangchal or idu. Such systems were not popular because hanja is not well suited to the Korean language. Its use is now limited. Korean is now mainly written in Hangul, the Korean alphabet promulgated in 1446 by Sejong the Great; hanja may be mixed in to write Sino-Korean words. South Korea still teaches 1800 hanja characters in its schools, while the North abolished the use of hanja decades ago. Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's symbols and their canonical IPA values: + Consonants Hangul ㅂ ㄷ ㅈ ㄱ ㅃ ㄸ ㅉ ㄲ ㅍ ㅌ ㅊ ㅋ ㅅ ㅎ ㅆ ㅁ ㄴ ㅇ ㄹ RR b,p d,t j g,k pp tt jj kk p t ch k s h ss m n ng r,l IPA + Vowels Hangul ㅣ ㅔ ㅚ ㅐ ㅏ ㅗ ㅜ ㅓ ㅡ ㅢ ㅖ ㅒ ㅑ ㅛ ㅠ ㅕ ㅟ ㅞ ㅙ ㅘ ㅝ RR i e oe ae a o u eo eu ui ye yae ya yo yu yeo wi we wae wa wo IPA Modern Korean is written with spaces between words, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese. Korean punctuation marks are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns from top to bottom, right to left, but is now usually written in rows from left to right, top to bottom. Differences between North Korean and South Korean The Korean language used in the North and the South exhibits differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary. Kanno, Hiroomi (ed.) / Society for Korean Linguistics in Japan (1987). Chōsengo o manabō (『朝鮮語を学ぼう』), Sanshūsha, Tokyo. ISBN 4-384-01506-2 Pronunciation In North Korea, palatalization of is optional, and can be pronounced as in between vowels. Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently, such as the examples below. The pronunciations below are given in Revised Romanization, McCune-Reischauer and Hangul, the last of which represents what the Hangul would be if one writes the word as pronounced. Word Meaning PronunciationNorth (RR/MR)North (Hangul)South (RR/MR)South (Hangul)넓다wideneoptta (nŏpta)넙따neoltta (nŏlta)널따읽고to read(continuative form)ilkko (ilko)일코ilkko (ilko)일꼬압록강Amnok Riveramrokgang (amrokkang)암록깡amnokkang (amnokkang)암녹깡독립independencedongrip (tongrip)동립dongnip (tongnip)동닙관념idea / sense / conceptiongwallyeom (kwallyŏm)괄렴gwannyeom (kwannyŏm)관념혁신적*innovativehyeoksinjjeok (hyŏksintchŏk)혁씬쩍hyeoksinjeok (hyŏksinjŏk)혁씬적 * Similar pronunciation is used in the North whenever the hanja "的" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in ㄴ, ㅁ or ㅇ. (In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.) Spelling Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same. Word spelling Meaning Pronunciation (RR/MR) RemarksNorthSouthsunshinehaeppit (haepit)The "sai siot" ('ㅅ' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.cherry blossombeotkkot (pŏtkkot)cannot readmonnikda (monnikta)Spacing.Hallasanhallasan (hallasan)When a ㄴ-ㄴ combination is pronounced as ll, the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, while the Hangul is changed in the South.rulesgyuyul (kyuyul)In words where the original hanja is spelt "렬" or "률" and follows a vowel, the initial ㄹ is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the ㄹ is dropped in the spelling. Spelling and pronunciation Some words have different spellings and pronunciations in the North and the South, some of which were given in the "Phonology" section above: {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="4" |Word ! rowspan="2" |Meaning ! rowspan="2" |Remarks |- ! North spelling ! North pronun. ! South spelling ! South pronun. |- | | ryeongryang (ryŏngryang) | | yeongnyang (yŏngnyang) | strength | Initial r'''s are dropped if followed by i or y in the South Korean version of Korean. |- | | rodong (rodong) | | nodong (nodong) | work | Initial r's are demoted to an n if not followed by i or y in the South Korean version of Korean. |- | | wonssu (wŏnssu) | | wonsu (wŏnsu) | mortal enemy | "Mortal enemy" and "head of state" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to Kim Il-sung / Kim Jong-il as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced 쑤 in the North. |- | | rajio (rajio) | | radio (radio) | radio | |- | | u (u) | | wi (wi) | on; above | |- | | anhae (anhae) | | anae (anae) | wife | |- | | kkuba (kkuba) | | kuba (k'uba) | Cuba | When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases. |- | |pe (p'e) | |pye (p'ye), pe (p'e) |lungs |In the case where ye comes after a constant, such as in hye and pye, it is pronounced without the palatal approximate. North Korean orthography reflect this pronunciation nuance. |} In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example: Original name North Korea transliteration English name South Korea transliteration Spelling Pronunciation Spelling Pronunciaton Ulaanbaatar 울란바따르 ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ) Ulan Bator 울란바토르 ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ) København 쾨뻰하븐 koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn) Copenhagen 코펜하겐 kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen) al-Qāhirah 까히라 kkahira (kkahira) Cairo 카이로 kairo (k'airo) Grammar Some grammatical constructions are also different: WordMeaningRemarks North spelling North pronun. South spelling South pronun. doeyeotda (toeyŏtta) doeeotda (toeŏtta) past tense of 되다 (doeda/toeda), "to become" All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in ㅣ in the stem (i.e. ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅚ, ㅟ and ㅢ) in the North use 여 instead of the South's 어. gomawayo (komawayo) gomawoyo (komawŏyo) thanks ㅂ-irregular verbs in the North use 와 (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable. halgayo (halkayo) halkkayo (halkkayo) Shall we do? Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed ㄲ sound). Vocabulary Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South: WordMeaningRemarks North spelling North pronun. South spelling South pronun. munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek) apateu (ap'at'ŭ) Apartment (appateu/appat'ŭ) is also used in the North. joseonmal (chosŏnmal) han-gugeo(han'gugeo) Korean language gwakbap (kwakpap) dosirak (tosirak) lunch box Others In the North, guillemets and are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones, “ and ”, are standard, although and are sometimes used in popular novels. Study by non-native speakers The United States' Defense Language Institute classifies Korean alongside Arabic, Chinese, and Japanese as a Category IV language, meaning that 63 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 25 weeks for French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian) are required to bring an English-speaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which he or she has "sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements" and "can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense." As a result, the study of the Korean language in the United States is dominated by Korean American heritage language students; they are estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities. However, Korean is considerably easier for speakers of certain other languages, such as Japanese; in Japan, it is more widely studied by non-heritage learners. The Korean Language Proficiency Test, an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers' competence in Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination. See also Hangul Korean romanization Revised romanization of Korean McCune-Reischauer Yale Romanization#Korean SKATS Korean numerals Korean count word Korean language and computers Hanja Sino-Korean vocabulary Korean mixed script List of English words of Korean origin Altaic languages List of Korea-related topics Vowel harmony References Bibliography (Volume 4 of the London Oriental and African Language Library). Hulbert, Homer B. (1905): A Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Dialects in India. Seoul. Martin, Samuel E. (1966): Lexical Evidence Relating Japanese to Korean. Language 42/2: 185-251. Martin, Samuel E. (1990): Morphological clues to the relationship of Japanese and Korean. In: Philip Baldi (ed.): Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 45: 483-509. Miller, Roy Andrew (1971): Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226527190. Miller, Roy Andrew (1996): Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN 9748299694. Ramstedt, G. J. (1928): Remarks on the Korean language. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Oigrienne 58. Rybatzki, Volker (2003): Middle Mongol. In: Juha Janhunen (ed.) (2003): The Mongolic languages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1133-3: 47–82. Starostin, Sergei A.; Anna V. Dybo; Oleg A. Mudrak (2003): Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004131531. Sohn, H.-M. (1999): The Korean Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Song, J.-J. (2005): The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context. London: Routledge. Trask, R. L. (1996): Historical linguistics. Hodder Arnold. Vovin, Alexander: Koreo-Japonica. University of Hawai'i Press. Whitman, John B. (1985): The Phonological Basis for the Comparison of Japanese and Korean''. Unpublished Harvard University Ph.D. dissertation. External links Ethnologue report for Korean Linguistic and Philosophical Origins of the Korean Alphabet (Hangul) Free Korean language and culture course online, in English Linguistic map of Korea Korean - a Category III language Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers | Korean_language |@lemmatized article:3 mainly:2 spoken:1 korean:155 language:68 see:17 hangul:15 detail:2 native:10 writing:2 system:9 official:4 north:46 korea:36 south:49 also:20 one:13 two:7 yanbian:3 autonomous:2 prefecture:2 china:3 million:1 speaker:15 formerly:1 write:15 use:49 hanja:10 borrow:10 chinese:13 character:7 pronounce:8 way:3 century:1 national:2 develop:1 sejong:2 great:3 currently:1 call:8 genealogical:1 classification:5 debate:1 linguist:5 place:3 altaic:9 family:2 others:3 consider:1 isolate:2 agglutinative:2 morphology:3 sov:1 syntax:1 name:11 map:2 show:5 usage:2 world:1 base:5 often:4 hangungmal:1 formally:2 hangugeo:1 gugeo:3 literally:4 chosŏnmal:2 chosŏnŏ:1 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2,088 | Golden_ratio | The golden section is a line segment sectioned into two according to the golden ratio. The total length a + b is to the longer segment a as a is to the shorter segment b. In mathematics and the arts, two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio between the sum of those quantities and the larger one is the same as the ratio between the larger one and the smaller. The golden ratio is an irrational mathematical constant, approximately 1.6180339887. At least since the Renaissance, many artists and architects have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio—especially in the form of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter is the golden ratio—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing. Mathematicians have studied the golden ratio because of its unique and interesting properties. The golden ratio is often denoted by the Greek letter phi (Φ or φ). The figure of a golden section illustrates the geometric relationship that defines this constant. Expressed algebraically: This equation has as its unique positive solution the algebraic irrational number The golden ratio can be derived by the quadratic formula, by starting with the first number as 1, then solving for 2nd number x, where the ratios (x + 1)/x = x/1 or (multiplying by x) yields: x + 1 = x2, or thus a quadratic equation: x2 − x − 1 = 0. Then, by the quadratic formula, for positive x = (−b + √(b2 − 4ac))/(2a) with a = 1, b = −1, c = −1, the solution for x is: (−(−1) + √((−1)2 − 4·1·(−1)))/(2·1) or (1 + √(5))/2. Other names frequently used for or closely related to the golden ratio are golden section (Latin: sectio aurea), golden mean, golden number, and the Greek letter phi (Φ). Piotr Sadowski, The Knight on His Quest: Symbolic Patterns of Transition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Cranbury NJ: Associated University Presses, 1996 Richard A Dunlap, The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers, World Scientific Publishing, 1997 Other terms encountered include extreme and mean ratio, Euclid, Elements, Book 6, Definition 3. medial section, divine proportion, divine section (Latin: sectio divina), golden proportion, golden cut, Summerson John, Heavenly Mansions: And Other Essays on Architecture (New York: W.W. Norton, 1963) pp.37 . "And the same applies in architecture, to the rectangles representing these and other ratios (e.g. the 'golden cut'). The sole value of these ratios is that they are intellectually fruitful and suggest the rhythms of modular design." and mean of Phidias. Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry: The Greek Vase, New Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1920 William Lidwell, Kritina Holden, Jill Butler, Universal Principles of Design: A Cross-Disciplinary Reference, Gloucester MA: Rockport Publishers, 2003 Pacioli, Luca. De divina proportione, Luca Paganinem de Paganinus de Brescia (Antonio Capella) 1509, Venice. Construction of a golden rectangle: 1. Construct a unit square (red). 2. Draw a line from the midpoint of one side to an opposite corner. 3. Use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the long dimension of the rectangle. Calculation List of numbers γ - ζ(3) - √2 - √3 - √5 - φ - α - e - - δBinary 1.1001111000110111011… Decimal 1.6180339887498948482… Hexadecimal 1.9E3779B97F4A7C15F39… Continued fraction Algebraic form Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if: This equation unambiguously defines φ. The right equation shows that a = bφ, which can be substituted in the left part, giving Dividing out b yields Multiplying both sides by φ and rearranging terms leads to: The only positive solution to this quadratic equation is History Mathematician Mark Barr proposed using the first letter in the name of Greek sculptor Phidias, phi, to symbolize the golden ratio. Usually, the lowercase form (φ) is used. Sometimes, the uppercase form (Φ) is used for the reciprocal of the golden ratio, 1/φ. Michael Maestlin, first to publish a decimal approximation of the golden ratio, in 1597. The golden ratio has fascinated Western intellectuals of diverse interests for at least 2,400 years: Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry. The division of a line into "extreme and mean ratio" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. The Greeks usually attributed discovery of this concept to Pythagoras or his followers. The regular pentagram, which has a regular pentagon inscribed within it, was the Pythagoreans' symbol. Euclid's Elements (Greek: ) provides the first known written definition of what is now called the golden ratio: "A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the less." Euclid explains a construction for cutting (sectioning) a line "in extreme and mean ratio", i.e. the golden ratio. Euclid, Elements, Book 6, Proposition 30. Throughout the Elements, several propositions (theorems in modern terminology) and their proofs employ the golden ratio. Euclid, Elements, Book 2, Proposition 11; Book 4, Propositions 10–11; Book 13, Propositions 1–6, 8–11, 16–18. Some of these propositions show that the golden ratio is an irrational number. The name "extreme and mean ratio" was the principal term used from the 3rd century BC until about the 18th century. The modern history of the golden ratio starts with Luca Pacioli's Divina Proportione of 1509, which captured the imagination of artists, architects, scientists, and mystics with the properties, mathematical and otherwise, of the golden ratio. The first known approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio by a decimal fraction, stated as "about 0.6180340," was written in 1597 by Prof. Michael Maestlin of the University of Tübingen in a letter to his former student Johannes Kepler. Since the twentieth century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter Φ or φ (phi, after Phidias, a sculptor who is said to have employed it) or less commonly by τ (tau, the first letter of the ancient Greek root τομή—meaning cut). Timeline Timeline according to Priya Hemenway . Phidias (490–430 BC) made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio. Plato (427–347 BC), in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids (the Platonic solids, the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron), some of which are related to the golden ratio. Euclid (c. 325–c. 265 BC), in his Elements, gave the first recorded definition of the golden ratio, which he called, as translated into English, "extreme and mean ratio" (Greek: ἄκρος καὶ μέσος λόγος). Fibonacci (1170–1250) mentioned the numerical series now named after him in his Liber Abaci; the Fibonacci sequence is closely related to the golden ratio. Luca Pacioli (1445–1517) defines the golden ratio as the "divine proportion" in his Divina Proportione. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) describes the golden ratio as a "precious jewel": "Geometry has two great treasures: one is the Theorem of Pythagoras, and the other the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio; the first we may compare to a measure of gold, the second we may name a precious jewel." These two treasures are combined in the Kepler triangle. Charles Bonnet (1720–1793) points out that in the spiral phyllotaxis of plants going clockwise and counter-clockwise were frequently two successive Fibonacci series. Martin Ohm (1792–1872) is believed to be the first to use the term goldener Schnitt (golden section) to describe this ratio, in 1835. Edouard Lucas (1842–1891) gives the numerical sequence now known as the Fibonacci sequence its present name. Mark Barr (20th century) suggests the Greek letter phi (φ), the initial letter of Greek sculptor Phidias's name, as a symbol for the golden ratio. Roger Penrose (b.1931) discovered a symmetrical pattern that uses the golden ratio in the field of aperiodic tilings, which led to new discoveries about quasicrystals. Aesthetics Beginning in the Renaissance, a body of literature on the aesthetics of the golden ratio has developed. As a result, architects, artists, book designers, and others have been encouraged to use the golden ratio in the dimensional relationships of their works. The first and most influential of these was De Divina Proportione by Luca Pacioli, a three-volume work published in 1509. Pacioli, a Franciscan friar, was known mostly as a mathematician, but he was also trained and keenly interested in art. De Divina Proportione explored the mathematics of the golden ratio. Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that that interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of rational proportions. Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title. Containing illustrations of regular solids by Leonardo Da Vinci, Pacioli's longtime friend and collaborator, De Divina Proportione was a major influence on generations of artists and architects alike. Architecture Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate the golden ratio. The Parthenon's facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by golden rectangles. Van Mersbergen, Audrey M., "Rhetorical Prototypes in Architecture: Measuring the Acropolis", Philosophical Polemic Communication Quarterly, Vol. 46, 1998. To the extent that classical buildings or their elements are proportioned according to the golden ratio, this might indicate that their architects were aware of the golden ratio and consciously employed it in their designs. Alternatively, it is possible that the architects used their own sense of good proportion, and that this led to some proportions that closely approximate the golden ratio. On the other hand, such retrospective analyses can always be questioned on the ground that the investigator chooses the points from which measurements are made or where to superimpose golden rectangles, and that these choices affect the proportions observed. Some scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, Midhat J. Gazalé says, "It was not until Euclid, however, that the golden ratio's mathematical properties were studied. In the Elements (308 BC) the Greek mathematician merely regarded that number as an interesting irrational number, in connection with the middle and extreme ratios. Its occurrence in regular pentagons and decagons was duly observed, as well as in the dodecahedron (a regular polyhedron whose twelve faces are regular pentagons). It is indeed exemplary that the great Euclid, contrary to generations of mystics who followed, would soberly treat that number for what it is, without attaching to it other than its factual properties." Midhat J. Gazalé , Gnomon, Princeton University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-691-00514-1 And Keith Devlin says, "Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to be without foundation. The one thing we know for sure is that Euclid, in his famous textbook Elements, written around 300 BC, showed how to calculate its value." Keith J. Devlin The Math Instinct: Why You're A Mathematical Genius (Along With Lobsters, Birds, Cats, And Dogs) New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2005, ISBN 1-56025-672-9 Near-contemporary sources like Vitruvius exclusively discuss proportions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions. A geometrical analysis of the Great Mosque of Kairouan reveals a consistent application of the golden ratio throughout the design, according to Boussora and Mazouz. Boussora, Kenza and Mazouz, Said, The Use of the Golden Section in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Nexus Network Journal, vol. 6 no. 1 (Spring 2004), Available online It is found in the overall proportion of the plan and in the dimensioning of the prayer space, the court, and the minaret. Boussora and Mazouz also examined earlier archaeological theories about the mosque, and demonstrate the geometric constructions based on the golden ratio by applying these constructions to the plan of the mosque to test their hypothesis. The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned." Le Corbusier, The Modulor p. 25, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 316, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 0-419-22780-6 Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's "Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system. Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles. Le Corbusier, The Modulor, p. 35, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 320. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-419-22780-6: "Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section". Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house. Urwin, Simon. Analysing Architecture (2003) pp. 154-5, ISBN 0-415-30685-X In a recent book, author Jason Elliot speculated that the golden ratio was used by the designers of the Naqsh-e Jahan Square and the adjacent Lotfollah mosque. Painting Leonardo Da Vinci's illustration from De Divina Proportione applies geometric proportions to the human face. Leonardo da Vinci's illustrations in De Divina Proportione (On the Divine Proportion) and his views that some bodily proportions exhibit the golden ratio have led some scholars to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his own paintings. Some suggest that his Mona Lisa, for example, employs the golden ratio in its geometric equivalents. Whether Leonardo proportioned his paintings according to the golden ratio has been the subject of intense debate. The secretive Leonardo seldom disclosed the bases of his art, and retrospective analysis of the proportions in his paintings can never be conclusive. Salvador Dalí explicitly used the golden ratio in his masterpiece, The Sacrament of the Last Supper. The dimensions of the canvas are a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, with edges in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and dominates the composition. Hunt, Carla Herndon and Gilkey, Susan Nicodemus. Teaching Mathematics in the Block pp. 44, 47, ISBN 1-883001-51-X Mondrian used the golden section extensively in his geometrical paintings. Bouleau, Charles, The Painter's Secret Geometry: A Study of Composition in Art (1963) pp.247-8, Harcourt, Brace & World, ISBN 0-87817-259-9 A statistical study on 565 works of art of different great painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases. The study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of the paintings studied is 1.34, with averages for individual artists ranging from 1.04 (Goya) to 1.46 (Bellini). Olariu, Agata, Golden Section and the Art of Painting Available online On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by well-known artists, including more than 100 which have canvasses with golden rectangle and root-5 proportions, and others with proportions like root-2, 3, 4, and 6. Tosto, Pablo, La composición áurea en las artes plásticas - El número de oro, Librería Hachette, 1969, p. 134 -144 Book design Depiction of the proportions in a medieval manuscript. According to Jan Tschichold: "Page proportion 2:3. Margin proportions 1:1:2:3. Text area proportioned in the Golden Section." Ibid. Tschichold, pp.43 Fig 4. "Framework of ideal proportions in a medieval manuscript without multiple columns. Determined by Jan Tschichold 1953. Page proportion 2:3. margin proportions 1:1:2:3, Text area proportioned in the Golden Section. The lower outer corner of the text area is fixed by a diagonal as well." According to Jan Tschichold, Jan Tschichold, The Form of the Book, Hartley & Marks (1991), ISBN 0-88179-116-4. "There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page proportions 2:3, 1:√3, and the Golden Section were rare. Many books produced between 1550 and 1770 show these proportions exactly, to within half a millimetre." Perceptual studies Studies by psychologists, starting with Fechner, have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of beauty. While Fechner found a preference for rectangle ratios centered on the golden ratio, later attempts to carefully test such a hypothesis have been, at best, inconclusive. The golden ratio and aesthetics, by Mario Livio Music James Tenney reconceived his piece For Ann (rising), which consists of up to twelve computer-generated upwardly glissandoing tones (see Shepard tone), as having each tone start so it is the golden ratio (in between an equal tempered minor and major sixth) below the previous tone, so that the combination tones produced by all consecutive tones are a lower or higher pitch already, or soon to be, produced. Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, Lendvai, Ernő (1971). Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music. London: Kahn and Averill. though other music scholars reject that analysis. In Bartok's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta the xylophone progression occurs at the intervals 1:2:3:5:8:5:3:2:1. Smith, Peter F. The Dynamics of Delight: Architecture and Aesthetics (New York: Routledge, 2003) pp 83, ISBN 0-415-30010-X French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including Sonneries de la Rose+Croix. The golden ratio is also apparent in the organisation of the sections in the music of Debussy's Image, Reflections in Water, in which "the sequence of keys is marked out by the intervals 34, 21, 13 and 8, and the main climax sits at the phi position." The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of La Mer correspond exactly to the golden section. Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable," but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions. Also, many works of Chopin, mainly Etudes (studies) and Nocturnes, are formally based on the golden ratio. This results in the biggest climax of both musical expression and technical difficulty after about 2/3 of the piece. Pearl Drums positions the air vents on its Masters Premium models based on the golden ratio. The company claims that this arrangement improves bass response and has applied for a patent on this innovation. In the opinion of author Leon Harkleroad, "Some of the most misguided attempts to link music and mathematics have involved Fibonacci numbers and the related golden ratio." Nature Adolf Zeising, whose main interests were mathematics and philosophy, found the golden ratio expressed in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants and of veins in leaves. He extended his research to the skeletons of animals and the branchings of their veins and nerves, to the proportions of chemical compounds and the geometry of crystals, even to the use of proportion in artistic endeavors. In these phenomena he saw the golden ratio operating as a universal law. Ibid. Padovan, R. Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture , pp. 305-06 Zeising wrote in 1854: Mathematics Golden ratio conjugate The negative root of the quadratic equation for φ (the "conjugate root") is 1 − ϕ ≈ −0.618. The absolute value of this quantity (≈ 0.618) corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over longer segment length, b / a), and is sometimes referred to as the golden ratio conjugate. It is denoted here by the capital Phi (Φ): Alternatively, Φ can be expressed as This illustrates the unique property of the golden ratio among positive numbers, that or its inverse: Short proofs of irrationality Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms Recall that: the whole is the longer part plus the shorter part; the whole is to the longer part as the longer part is to the shorter part. If we call the whole n and the longer part m, then the second statement above becomes n is to m as m is to n − m, or, algebraically To say that φ is rational means that φ is a fraction n/m where n and m are integers. We may take n/m to be in lowest terms and n and m to be positive. But if n/m is in lowest terms, then the identity labeled (*) above says m/(n − m) is in still lower terms. That is a contradiction that follows from the assumption that φ is rational. Derivation from irrationality of √5 Another short proof—perhaps more commonly known—of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If is rational, then is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of a non-square natural number is irrational. Alternate forms The formula φ = 1 + 1/φ can be expanded recursively to obtain a continued fraction for the golden ratio: and its reciprocal: The convergents of these continued fractions (1, 2, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, 13/8, … , or 1, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5, 5/8, 8/13, …) are ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers. The equation φ2 = 1 + φ likewise produces the continued square root form: Also: These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is φ times the length of its side, and similar relations in a pentagram. This relationship depends upon the choice of the degree as the measure of angle, and will not hold when using other units of angular measure. Geometry The number φ turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in figures with pentagonal symmetry. The length of a regular pentagon's diagonal is φ times its side. The vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually orthogonal golden rectangles. There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several definitions of even distribution (see, for example, Thomson problem). However, a useful approximation results from dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360°/φ 222.5°. This method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the student-participatory satellite Starshine-3. Golden triangle, pentagon and pentagram Golden triangle Golden triangle The golden triangle can be characterised as an isosceles triangle ABC with the property that bisecting the angle C produces a new triangle CXB which is a similar triangle to the original. If angle BCX = α, then XCA = α because of the bisection, and CAB = α because of the similar triangles; ABC = 2α from the original isosceles symmetry, and BXC = 2α by similarity. The angles in a triangle add up to 180°, so 5α = 180, giving α = 36°. So the angles of the golden triangle are thus 36°-72°-72°. The angles of the remaining obtuse isosceles triangle AXC (sometimes called the golden gnomon) are 36°-36°-108°. Suppose XB has length 1, and we call BC length φ. Because of the isosceles triangles BC=XC and XC=XA, so these are also length φ. Length AC = AB, therefore equals φ+1. But triangle ABC is similar to triangle CXB, so AC/BC = BC/BX, and so AC also equals φ2. Thus φ2 = φ+1, confirming that φ is indeed the golden ratio. Pentagram A pentagram colored to distinguish its line segments of different lengths. The four lengths are in golden ratio to one another. The golden ratio plays an important role in regular pentagons and pentagrams. Each intersection of edges sections other edges in the golden ratio. Also, the ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the 2 intersecting edges (a side of the pentagon in the pentagram's center) is φ, as the four-color illustration shows. The pentagram includes ten isosceles triangles: five acute and five obtuse isosceles triangles. In all of them, the ratio of the longer side to the shorter side is φ. The acute triangles are golden triangles. The obtuse isosceles triangles are golden gnomon. Ptolemy's theorem The golden ratio in a regular pentagon can be computed using Ptolemy's theorem. The golden ratio can also be confirmed by applying Ptolemy's theorem to the quadrilateral formed by removing one vertex from a regular pentagon. If the quadrilateral's long edge and diagonals are b, and short edges are a, then Ptolemy's theorem gives b2 = a2 + ab which yields Scalenity of triangles Consider a triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c in decreasing order. Define the "scalenity" of the triangle to be the smaller of the two ratios a/b and b/c. The scalenity is always less than φ and can be made as close as desired to φ. American Mathematical Monthly, pp. 49-50, 1954. Relationship to Fibonacci sequence Approximate and true golden spirals. The green spiral is made from quarter-circles tangent to the interior of each square, while the red spiral is a Golden Spiral, a special type of logarithmic spiral. Overlapping portions appear yellow. The length of the side of a larger square to the next smaller square is in the golden ratio. A Fibonacci spiral that approximates the golden spiral, using Fibonacci sequence square sizes up to 34. The mathematics of the golden ratio and of the Fibonacci sequence are intimately interconnected. The Fibonacci sequence is: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, … The closed-form expression (known as Binet's formula, even though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre) for the Fibonacci sequence involves the golden ratio: The golden ratio is the limit of the ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like sequence): Therefore, if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates φ; e.g., 987/610 ≈ 1.6180327868852. These approximations are alternately lower and higher than φ, and converge on φ as the Fibonacci numbers increase, and: Furthermore, the successive powers of φ obey the Fibonacci recurrence: This identity allows any polynomial in φ to be reduced to a linear expression. For example: However, this is no special property of φ, because polynomials in any solution x to a quadratic equation can be reduced in an analogous manner, by applying: for given coefficients a, b such that x satisfies the equation. Other properties The golden ratio has the simplest expression (and slowest convergence) as a continued fraction expansion of any irrational number (see Alternate forms above). It is, for that reason, one of the worst cases of the Lagrange's approximation theorem. This may be the reason angles close to the golden ratio often show up in phyllotaxis (the growth of plants). The defining quadratic polynomial and the conjugate relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common with φ: The sequence of powers of φ contains these values 0.618…, 1.0, 1.618…, 2.618…; more generally, any power of φ is equal to the sum of the two immediately preceding powers: As a result, one can easily decompose any power of φ into a multiple of φ and a constant. The multiple and the constant are always adjacent Fibonacci numbers. This leads to another property of the positive powers of φ: If , then: When the golden ratio is used as the base of a numeral system (see Golden ratio base, sometimes dubbed phinary or φ-nary), every integer has a terminating representation, despite φ being irrational, but every fraction has a non-terminating representation. The golden ratio is the fundamental unit of the algebraic number field and is a Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number. Also, Decimal expansion The golden ratio's decimal expansion can be calculated directly from the expression with √5 ≈ 2.2360679774997896964. The square root of 5 can be calculated with the Babylonian method, starting with an initial estimate such as xφ = 2 and iterating for n = 1, 2, 3, …, until the difference between xn and xn−1 becomes zero, to the desired number of digits. The Babylonian algorithm for √5 is equivalent to Newton's method for solving the equation x2 − 5 = 0. In its more general form, Newton's method can be applied directly to any algebraic equation, including the equation x2 − x − 1 = 0 that defines the golden ratio. This gives an iteration that converges to the golden ratio itself, for an appropriate initial estimate xφ such as xφ = 1. A slightly faster method is to rewrite the equation as x − 1 − 1/x = 0, in which case the Newton iteration becomes These iterations all converge quadratically; that is, each step roughly doubles the number of correct digits. The golden ratio is therefore relatively easy to compute with arbitrary precision. The time needed to compute n digits of the golden ratio is proportional to the time needed to divide two n-digit numbers. This is considerably faster than known algorithms for the transcendental numbers and e. An easily programmed alternative using only integer arithmetic is to calculate two large consecutive Fibonacci numbers and divide them. The ratio of Fibonacci numbers F25001 and F25000, each over 5000 digits, yields over 10,000 significant digits of the golden ratio. Millions of digits of φ are available . See the web page of Alexis Irlande for the 17,000,000,000 first digits . Pyramids A regular square pyramid is determined by its medial right triangle, whose edges are the pyramid's apothem (a), semi-base (b), and height (h); the face inclination angle is also marked. Mathematical proportions b:h:a of and and are of particular interest in relation to Egyptian pyramids. Both Egyptian pyramids and those mathematical regular square pyramids that resemble them can be analyzed with respect to the golden ratio and other ratios. Mathematical pyramids and triangles A pyramid in which the apothem (slant height along the bisector of a face) is equal to φ times the semi-base (half the base width) is sometimes called a golden pyramid. The isosceles triangle that is the face of such a pyramid can be constructed from the two halves of a diagonally split golden rectangle (of size semi-base by apothem), joining the medium-length edges to make the apothem. The height of this pyramid is times the semi-base (that is, the slope of the face is ); the square of the height is equal to the area of a face, φ times the square of the semi-base. The medial right triangle of this "golden" pyramid (see diagram), with sides is interesting in its own right, demonstrating via the Pythagorean theorem the relationship or . This "Kepler triangle" is the only right triangle proportion with edge lengths in geometric progression, just as the 3–4–5 triangle is the only right triangle proportion with edge lengths in arithmetic progression. The angle with tangent corresponds to the angle that the side of the pyramid makes with respect to the ground, 51.827… degrees (51° 49' 38"). Midhat Gazale, Gnomon: From Pharaohs to Fractals, Princeton Univ. Press, 1999 A nearly similar pyramid shape, but with rational proportions, is described in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (the source of a large part of modern knowledge of ancient Egyptian mathematics), based on the 3:4:5 triangle; the face slope corresponding to the angle with tangent 4/3 is 53.13 degrees (53 degrees and 8 minutes). The slant height or apothem is 5/3 or 1.666… times the semi-base. The Rhind papyrus has another pyramid problem as well, again with rational slope (expressed as run over rise). Egyptian mathematics did not include the notion of irrational numbers, Lancelot Hogben, Mathematics for the Million, London: Allen & Unwin, 1942, p. 63., as cited by Dick Teresi, Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003, p.56 and the rational inverse slope (run/rise, multiplied by a factor of 7 to convert to their conventional units of palms per cubit) was used in the building of pyramids. Another mathematical pyramid with proportions almost identical to the "golden" one is the one with perimeter equal to 2π times the height, or h:b = 4:π. This triangle has a face angle of 51.854° (51°51'), very close to the 51.827° of the Kepler triangle. This pyramid relationship corresponds to the coincidental relationship . Egyptian pyramids very close in proportion to these mathematical pyramids are known. Egyptian pyramids In the mid nineteenth century, Röber studied various Egyptian pyramids including Khafre, Menkaure and some of the Gizeh, Sakkara and Abusir groups, and was interpreted as saying that half the base of the side of the pyramid is the middle mean of the side, forming what other authors identified as the Kepler triangle; many other mathematical theories of the shape of the pyramids have also been explored. One Egyptian pyramid is remarkably close to a "golden pyramid" – the Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu). Its slope of 51° 52' is extremely close to the "golden" pyramid inclination of 51° 50' and the π-based pyramid inclination of 51° 51'; other pyramids at Giza (Chephren, 52° 20', and Mycerinus, 50° 47') Eli Maor, Trigonometric Delights, Princeton Univ. Press, 2000 are also quite close. Whether the relationship to the golden ratio in these pyramids is by design or by accident remains controversial. Several other Egyptian pyramids are very close to the rational 3:4:5 shape. Adding fuel to controversy over the architectural authorship of the Great Pyramid, Eric Temple Bell, mathematician and historian, claimed in 1950 that Egyptian mathematics would not have supported the ability to calculate the slant height of the pyramids, or the ratio to the height, except in the case of the 3:4:5 pyramid, since the 3:4:5 triangle was the only right triangle known to the Egyptians and they did not know the Pythagorean theorem nor any way to reason about irrationals such as π or φ. Eric Temple Bell, The Development of Mathematics, New York: Dover, 1940, p.40 Michael Rice Rice, Michael, Egypt's Legacy: The Archetypes of Western Civilisation, 3000 to 30 B.C pp. 24 Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-26876-1 asserts that principal authorities on the history of Egyptian architecture have argued that the Egyptians were well acquainted with the golden ratio and that it is part of mathematics of the Pyramids, citing Giedon (1957). S. Giedon, 1957, The Beginnings of Architecture, The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts, 457, as cited in Rice, Michael, Egypt's Legacy: The Archetypes of Western Civilisation, 3000 to 30 B.C pp.24 Routledge, 2003 Historians of science have always debated whether the Egyptians had any such knowledge or not, contending rather that its appearance in an Egyptian building is the result of chance. In 1859, the pyramidologist John Taylor claimed that, in the Great Pyramid of Giza, the golden ratio is represented by the ratio of the length of the face (the slope height), inclined at an angle θ to the ground, to half the length of the side of the square base, equivalent to the secant of the angle θ. Taylor, The Great Pyramid: Why Was It Built and Who Built It?, 1859 The above two lengths were about 186.4 and 115.2 meters respectively. The ratio of these lengths is the golden ratio, accurate to more digits than either of the original measurements. Similarly, Howard Vyse, according to Matila Ghyka, Matila Ghyka The Geometry of Art and Life, New York: Dover, 1977 reported the great pyramid height 148.2 m, and half-base 116.4 m, yielding 1.6189 for the ratio of slant height to half-base, again more accurate than the data variability. Disputed sightings Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following: Historian John Man states that the pages of the Gutenberg Bible were "based on the golden section shape". However, according to Man's own measurements, the ratio of height to width was 1.45. Man, John, Gutenberg: How One Man Remade the World with Word (2002) pp. 166-67, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-21823-5. "The half-folio page (30.7 x 44.5 cm) was made up of two rectangles—the whole page and its text area—based on the so called 'golden section', which specifies a crucial relationship between short and long sides, and produces an irrational number, as pi is, but is a ratio of about 5:8." In 1991, Jean-Claude Perez proposed a connection between DNA base sequences and gene sequences and the golden ratio. J.C. Perez (1991), "Chaos DNA and Neuro-computers: A Golden Link", in Speculations in Science and Technology vol. 14 no. 4, Another such connection, between the Fibonacci numbers and golden ratio and Chargaff's second rule concerning the proportions of nucleobases in the human genome, was proposed in 2007. Yamagishi, Michel E.B., and Shimabukuro, Alex I. (2007), "Nucleotide Frequencies in Human Genome and Fibonacci Numbers", in Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, (print), (online). The sculpture Ratio by Andrew Rogers in Jerusalem is proportioned according to Fibonacci numbers; some call it Golden Ratio. Australian sculptor Andrew Rogers's 50-ton stone and gold sculpture entitled Ratio, installed outdoors in Jerusalem. Despite the sculpture's sometimes being referred to as "Golden Ratio," it is not proportioned according to the golden ratio, and the sculptor does not call it that: the height of each stack of stones, beginning from either end and moving toward the center, is the beginning of the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8. His sculpture Ascend in Sri Lanka, also in his Rhythms of Life series, is similarly constructed, with heights 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, but no descending side. It is sometimes claimed that the number of bees in a beehive divided by the number of drones yields the golden ratio. Ivan Moscovich, Ivan Moscovich Mastermind Collection: The Hinged Square & Other Puzzles, New York: Sterling, 2004 In reality, the proportion of drones in a beehive varies greatly by beehive, by bee race, by season, and by beehive health status; normal hive populations range from 5,000 to 20,000 bees, while drone numbers range "from none in the winter to as many as 1,500 in the spring and summer" (Graham, 1992, pp 350), Joe M. Graham, "The Hive and the Honey Bee," Hamilton Illinois: Dadant & Sons, 1992 thus the ratio is normally much greater than the golden ratio. * This misunderstanding may arise because in theory bees have approximately this ratio of male to female ancestors (See The Bee Ancestry Code) - the caveat being that ancestry can trace back to the same drone by more than one route, so the actual numbers of bees do not need to match the formula. Some specific proportions in the bodies of many animals (including humans Stephen Pheasant, Bodyspace, London: Taylor & Francis, 1998 Walter van Laack, A Better History Of Our World: Volume 1 The Universe, Aachen: van Laach GmbH, 2001. ) and parts of the shells of mollusks and cephalopods are often claimed to be in the golden ratio. There is actually a large variation in the real measures of these elements in specific individuals, and the proportion in question is often significantly different from the golden ratio. The ratio of successive phalangeal bones of the digits and the metacarpal bone has been said to approximate the golden ratio. The nautilus shell, the construction of which proceeds in a logarithmic spiral, is often cited, usually with the idea that any logarithmic spiral is related to the golden ratio, but sometimes with the claim that each new chamber is proportioned by the golden ratio relative to the previous one; however, measurements of nautilus shells do not support this claim. . The proportions of different plant components (numbers of leaves to branches, diameters of geometrical figures inside flowers) are often claimed to show the golden ratio proportion in several species. Derek Thomas, Architecture and the Urban Environment: A Vision for the New Age, Oxford: Elsevier, 2002 In practice, there are significant variations between individuals, seasonal variations, and age variations in these species. While the golden ratio may be found in some proportions in some individuals at particular times in their life cycles, there is no consistent ratio in their proportions. In investing, some practitioners of technical analysis use the golden ratio to indicate support of a price level, or resistance to price increases, of a stock or commodity; after significant price changes up or down, new support and resistance levels are supposedly found at or near prices related to the starting price via the golden ratio. For instance, Osler writes that "38.2 percent and 61.8 percent retracements of recent rises or declines are common," in The use of the golden ratio in investing is also related to more complicated patterns described by Fibonacci numbers; see, e.g. Elliott wave principle. However, other market analysts have published analyses suggesting that these percentages and patterns are not supported by the data. Roy Batchelor and Richard Ramyar, "Magic numbers in the Dow," 25th International Symposium on Forecasting, 2005, p. 13, 31. "Not since the 'big is beautiful' days have giants looked better", Tom Stevenson, The Daily Telegraph, Apr. 10, 2006, and "Technical failure", The Economist, Sep. 23, 2006, are both popular-press accounts of Batchelor and Ramyar's research. In 2003 Weiss and Weiss came on a background of psychometric data and theoretical considerations to the conclusion that the golden ratio underlies the clock cycle of brain waves. Volkmar Weiss and Harald Weiss: The golden mean as clock cycle of brain waves. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 18 (2003) 643-652 }} In 2008 this has been empirically confirmed by a group of neurobiologists. Anita K. Roopun et al.: Temporal interactions between cortical rhythms. Frontiers in Neuroscience 2 (2008)145-154| }} See also Aesthetics Golden angle Golden function Golden rectangle Golden triangle (mathematics) Golden section search Phi (letter) Kepler triangle Logarithmic spiral Fibonacci number Modulor Sacred geometry The Roses of Heliogabalus Plastic number Penrose tiles Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number Dynamic symmetry Golden ratio base Vitruvian man Square root of 5 Silver ratio List of works designed with golden ratio References and footnotes Further reading External links Geometry instruction with problems to solve. Information and activities by a mathematics professor. 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2,089 | General_relativity | A simulated black hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 kilometers with the Milky Way in the background. General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916. It is the current description of gravity in modern physics. It unifies special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, and describes gravity as geometrical property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the four-momentum (mass-energy and linear momentum) of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations. The predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical physics, especially concerning the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the propagation of light. Examples of such differences include gravitational time dilation, the gravitational redshift of light, and the gravitational time delay. General relativity's predictions have been confirmed in all observations and experiments to date. Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest theory that is consistent with experimental data. However, unanswered questions remain, the most fundamental being how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. Einstein's theory has important astrophysical implications. It points towards the existence of black holes—regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape—as an end-state for massive stars. There is evidence that such stellar black holes as well as more massive varieties of black hole are responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars. The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, where multiple images of the same distant astronomical object are visible in the sky. General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which have since been measured indirectly; a direct measurement is the aim of projects such as LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of a consistently expanding universe. History First page from Einstein's manuscript explaining general relativity Soon after publishing the special theory of relativity in 1905, Einstein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his new relativistic framework. In 1907, beginning with a simple thought experiment involving an observer in free fall, he embarked on what would be an eight-year search for a relativistic theory of gravity. After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in the November, 1915 presentation to the Prussian Academy of Science of what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter is present, and form the core of Einstein's general theory of relativity. This development is traced in chapters 9 through 15 of and in ; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is ; an accessible overview can be found in . An early key article is , cf. . The publication featuring the field equations is , cf. . The Einstein field equations are nonlinear and very difficult to solve. Einstein used approximation methods in working out initial predictions of the theory. But as early as 1916, the astrophysicist Karl Schwarzschild found the first non-trivial exact solution to the Einstein field equations, the so-called Schwarzschild metric. This solution laid the groundwork for the description of the final stages of gravitational collapse, and the objects known today as black holes. In the same year, the first steps towards generalizing Schwarzschild's solution to electrically charged objects were taken, which eventually resulted in the Reissner-Nordström solution, now associated with charged black holes. See , and (later complemented in ). In 1917, Einstein applied his theory to the universe as a whole, initiating the field of relativistic cosmology. In line with contemporary thinking, he assumed a static universe, adding a new parameter to his original field equations—the cosmological constant—to reproduce that "observation". , cf. . By 1929, however, the work of Hubble and others had shown that our universe is expanding. This is readily described by the expanding cosmological solutions found by Friedmann in 1922, which do not require a cosmological constant. Lemaître used these solutions to formulate the earliest version of the big bang models, in which our universe has evolved from an extremely hot and dense earlier state. Hubble's original article is ; an accessible overview is given in . Einstein later declared the cosmological constant the biggest blunder of his life. As reported in . Einstein's condemnation would prove to be premature, cf. the sectionCosmology, below. During that period, general relativity remained something of a curiosity among physical theories. It was clearly superior to Newtonian gravity, being consistent with special relativity and accounting for several effects unexplained by the Newtonian theory. Einstein himself had shown in 1915 how his theory explained the anomalous perihelion advance of the planet Mercury without any arbitrary parameters ("fudge factors"). Cf. . Similarly, a 1919 expedition led by Eddington confirmed general relativity's prediction for the deflection of starlight by the Sun, Cf. and . making Einstein instantly famous. Cf. . Yet the theory entered the mainstream of theoretical physics and astrophysics only with the developments between approximately 1960 and 1975, now known as the Golden age of general relativity. Physicists began to understand the concept of a black hole, and to identify these objects' astrophysical manifestation as quasars. Cf. and . Ever more precise solar system tests confirmed the theory's predictive power, Cf. the sections Orbital effects and the relativity of direction, Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift and Light deflection and gravitational time delay, and references therein. and relativistic cosmology, too, became amenable to direct observational tests. Cf. the section Cosmology and references therein; the historical development is traced in . From classical mechanics to general relativity General relativity is best understood by examining its similarities with and departures from classical physics. The first step is the realization that classical mechanics and Newton's law of gravity admit of a geometric description. The combination of this description with the laws of special relativity results in a heuristic derivation of general relativity. The following exposition re-traces that of . Geometry of Newtonian gravity At the base of classical mechanics is the notion that a body's motion can be described as a combination of free (or inertial) motion, and deviations from this free motion. Such deviations are caused by external forces acting on a body in accordance with Newton's second law of motion, which states that the net force acting on a body is equal to that body's (inertial) mass times its acceleration. See, for instance, . The preferred inertial motions are related to the geometry of space and time: in the standard reference frames of classical mechanics, objects in free motion move along straight lines at constant speed. In modern parlance, their paths are geodesics, straight world lines in spacetime. See . Ball falling to the floor in an accelerating rocket (left), and on Earth (right) Conversely, one might expect that inertial motions, once identified by observing the actual motions of bodies and making allowances for the external forces (such as electromagnetism or friction), can be used to define the geometry of space, as well as a time coordinate. However, there is an ambiguity once gravity comes into play. According to Newton's law of gravity, and independently verified by experiments such as that of Eötvös and its successors (see Eötvös experiment), there is a universality of free fall (also known as the weak equivalence principle, or the universal equality of inertial and passive-gravitational mass): the trajectory of a test body in free fall depends only on its position and initial speed, but not on any of its material properties. See or . A simplified version of this is embodied in Einstein's elevator experiment, illustrated in the figure on the right: for an observer in a small enclosed room, it is impossible to decide, by mapping the trajectory of bodies such as a dropped ball, whether the room is at rest in a gravitational field, or in free space aboard an accelerated rocket. Cf. ; similar accounts can be found in most other popular-science books on general relativity. Given the universality of free fall, there is no observable distinction between inertial motion and motion under the influence of the gravitational force. This suggests the definition of a new class of inertial motion, namely that of objects in free fall under the influence of gravity. This new class of preferred motions, too, defines a geometry of space and time—in mathematical terms, it is the geodesic motion associated with a specific connection which depends on the gradient of the gravitational potential. Space, in this construction, still has the ordinary Euclidean geometry. However, spacetime as a whole is more complicated. As can be shown using simple thought experiments following the free-fall trajectories of different test particles, the result of transporting spacetime vectors that can denote a particle's velocity (time-like vectors) will vary with the particle's trajectory; mathematically speaking, the Newtonian connection is not integrable. From this, one can deduce that spacetime is curved. The result is a geometric formulation of Newtonian gravity using only covariant concepts, i.e. a description which is valid in any desired coordinate system. See , , and . The simple thought experiment in question was first described in . In this geometric description, tidal effects—the relative acceleration of bodies in free fall—are related to the derivative of the connection, showing how the modified geometry is caused by the presence of mass. See . Relativistic generalization As intriguing as geometric Newtonian gravity may be, its basis, classical mechanics, is merely a limiting case of (special) relativistic mechanics. Good introductions are, in order of increasing presupposed knowledge of mathematics, , , and ; for accounts of precision experiments, cf. part IV of . In the language of symmetry: where gravity can be neglected, physics is Lorentz invariant as in special relativity rather than Galilei invariant as in classical mechanics. (The defining symmetry of special relativity is the Poincaré group which also includes translations and rotations.) The differences between the two become significant when we are dealing with speeds approaching the speed of light, and with high-energy phenomena. An in-depth comparison between the two symmetry groups can be found in . Light cone With Lorentz symmetry, additional structures comes into play. They are defined by the set of light cones (see the image on the left). The light-cones define a causal structure: for each event A, there is a set of events that can, in principle, either influence or be influenced by A via signals or interactions that do not need to travel faster than light (such as event B in the image), and a set of events for which such an influence is impossible (such as event C in the image). These sets are observer-independent. For instance ; a thorough treatment can be found in . In conjunction with the world-lines of freely falling particles, the light-cones can be used to reconstruct the space-time's semi-Riemannian metric, at least up to a positive scalar factor. In mathematical terms, this defines a conformal structure. E.g. Special relativity is defined in the absence of gravity, so for practical applications, it is a suitable model whenever gravity can be neglected. Bringing gravity into play, and assuming the universality of free fall, an analogous reasoning as in the previous section applies: there are no global inertial frames. Instead there are approximate inertial frames moving alongside freely falling particles. Translated into the language of spacetime: the straight time-like lines that define a gravity-free inertial frame are deformed to lines that are curved relative to each other, suggesting that the inclusion of gravity necessitates a change in spacetime geometry. Cf. and . A priori, it is not clear whether the new local frames in free fall coincide with the reference frames in which the laws of special relativity hold—that theory is based on the propagation of light, and thus on electromagnetism, which could have a different set of preferred frames. But using different assumptions about the special-relativistic frames (such as their being earth-fixed, or in free fall), one can derive different predictions for the gravitational redshift, that is, the way in which the frequency of light shifts as the light propagates through a gravitational field (cf. below). The actual measurements show that free-falling frames are the ones in which light propagates as it does in special relativity. See ; a derivation can be found e.g. in . For the experimental evidence, cf. the section Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift, below. The generalization of this statement, namely that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames, is known as the Einstein equivalence principle, a crucial guiding principle for generalizing special-relativistic physics to include gravity. Cf. ; for an elementary account, see chapter 2 of ; there are, however, some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept used in the historical derivation of general relativity, cf. . The same experimental data shows that time as measured by clocks in a gravitational field—proper time, to give the technical term—does not follow the rules of special relativity. In the language of spacetime geometry, it is not measured by the Minkowski metric. As in the Newtonian case, this is suggestive of a more general geometry. At small scales, all reference frames that are in free fall are equivalent, and approximately Minkowskian. Consequently, we are now dealing with a curved generalization of Minkowski space. The metric tensor that defines the geometry—in particular, how lengths and angles are measured—is not the Minkowski metric of special relativity, it is a generalization known as a semi- or pseudo-Riemannian metric. Furthermore, each Riemannian metric is naturally associated with one particular kind of connection, the Levi-Civita connection, and this is, in fact, the connection that satisfies the equivalence principle and makes space locally Minkowskian (that is, in suitable locally inertial coordinates, the metric is Minkowskian, and its first partial derivatives and the connection coefficients vanish). for the experimental evidence, see once more section Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift. Choosing a different connection with non-zero torsion leads to a modified theory known as Einstein-Cartan theory. Einstein's equations Having formulated the relativistic, geometric version of the effects of gravity, the question of gravity's source remains. In Newtonian gravity, the source is mass. In special relativity, mass turns out to be part of a more general quantity called the energy-momentum tensor, which includes both energy and momentum densities as well as stress (that is, pressure and shear). Cf. ; ; . Using the equivalence principle, this tensor is readily generalized to curved space-time. Drawing further upon the analogy with geometric Newtonian gravity, it is natural to assume that the field equation for gravity relates this tensor and the Ricci tensor, which describes a particular class of tidal effects: the change in volume for a small cloud of test particles that are initially at rest, and then fall freely. In special relativity, conservation of energy-momentum corresponds to the statement that the energy-momentum tensor is divergence-free. This formula, too, is readily generalized to curved spacetime by replacing partial derivatives with their curved-manifold counterparts, covariant derivatives studied in differential geometry. With this additional condition—the covariant divergence of the energy-momentum tensor, and hence of whatever is on the other side of the equation, is zero— the simplest set of equations are what are called Einstein's (field) equations: On the left-hand side is the Einstein tensor, a specific divergence-free combination of the Ricci tensor and the metric. In particular, is the curvature scalar. The Ricci tensor itself is related to the more general Riemann curvature tensor as On the right-hand side, Tab is the energy-momentum tensor. All tensors are written in abstract index notation. See ; for similar derivations, see sections 1 and 2 of ch. 7 in . The Einstein tensor is the only divergence-free tensor that is a function of the metric coefficients, their first and second derivatives at most, and allows the spacetime of special relativity as a solution in the absence of sources of gravity, cf. . The tensors on both side are of second rank, that is, they can each be thought of as 4×4 matrices, each of which contains ten independent terms; hence, the above represents ten coupled equations. The fact that, as a consequence of geometric relations known as Bianchi identities, the Einstein tensor satisfies a further four identities reduces these to six independent equations, e.g. . Matching the theory's prediction to observational results for planetary orbits (or, equivalently, assuring that the weak-gravity, low-speed limit is Newtonian mechanics), the proportionality constant can be fixed as κ = 8πG/c4, with G the gravitational constant and c the speed of light. E.g. . When there is no matter present, so that the energy-momentum tensor vanishes, the result are the vacuum Einstein equations, There are alternatives to general relativity built upon the same premises, which include additional rules and/or constraints, leading to different field equations. Examples are Brans-Dicke theory, teleparallelism, and Einstein-Cartan theory. Cf. and section 3 in ch. 7 of , , and , respectively. Definition and basic applications The derivation outlined in the previous section contains all the information needed to define general relativity, describe its key properties, and address a question of crucial importance in physics, namely how the theory can be used for model-building. Definition and basic properties General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation. At its core are Einstein's equations, which describe the relation between the geometry of a four-dimensional, semi-Riemannian manifold representing spacetime on the one hand, and the energy-momentum contained in that spacetime on the other. E.g. , or, in fact, any other text-book on general relativity. Phenomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the force of gravity (such as free-fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft trajectories), correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general relativity; there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity corresponds to changes in the properties of space and time, which in turn changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow. At least approximately, cf. . The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy-momentum of matter. Paraphrasing the relativist John Archibald Wheeler, spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve. E.g. p. xi in . While general relativity replaces the scalar gravitational potential of classical physics by a symmetric rank-two tensor, the latter reduces to the former in certain limiting cases. For weak gravitational fields and slow speed relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of gravity. E.g. . As it is constructed using tensors, general relativity exhibits general covariance: its laws—and further laws formulated within the general relativistic framework—take on the same form in all coordinate systems. E.g. in . Furthermore, the theory does not contain any invariant geometric background structures. It thus satisfies a more stringent general principle of relativity, namely that the laws of physics are the same for all observers. For the (conceptual and historical) difficulties in defining a general principle of relativity and separating it from the notion of general covariance, see . Locally, as expressed in the equivalence principle, spacetime is Minkowskian, and the laws of physics exhibit local Lorentz invariance. E.g. section 5 in ch. 12 of . Model-building The core concept of general-relativistic model-building is that of a solution of Einstein's equations. Given both Einstein's equations and suitable equations for the properties of matter, such a solution consists of a specific semi-Riemannian manifold (usually defined by giving the metric in specific coordinates), and specific matter fields defined on that manifold. Matter and geometry must satisfy Einstein's equations, so in particular, the matter's energy-momentum tensor must be divergence-free. The matter must, of course, also satisfy whatever additional equations were imposed on its properties. In short, such a solution is a model universe that satisfies the laws of general relativity, and possibly additional laws governing whatever matter might be present. Cf. the introductory chapters of . Einstein's equations are nonlinear partial differential equations and, as such, difficult to solve exactly. A review showing Einstein's equation in the broader context of other PDEs with physical significance is . Nevertheless, a number of exact solutions are known, although only a few have direct physical applications. For background information and a list of solutions, cf. ; a more recent review can be found in . The best-known exact solutions, and also those most interesting from a physics point of view, are the Schwarzschild solution, the Reissner-Nordström solution and the Kerr metric, each corresponding to a certain type of black hole in an otherwise empty universe, E.g. chapters 3, 5, and 6 of . and the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker and de Sitter universes, each describing an expanding cosmos. E.g. ch. 4 and sec. 3.3. in . Exact solutions of great theoretical interest include the Gödel universe (which opens up the intriguing possibility of time travel in curved spacetimes), the Taub-NUT solution (a model universe that is homogeneous, but anisotropic), and Anti-de Sitter space (which has recently come to prominence in the context of what is called the Maldacena conjecture). Brief descriptions of these and further interesting solutions can be found in . Given the difficulty of finding exact solutions, Einstein's field equations are also solved frequently by numerical integration on a computer, or by considering small perturbations of exact solutions. In the field of numerical relativity, powerful computers are employed to simulate the geometry of spacetime and to solve Einstein's equations for interesting situations such as two colliding black holes. See for an overview. In principle, such methods may be applied to any system, given sufficient computer resources, and may address fundamental questions such as naked singularities. Approximate solutions may also be found by perturbation theories such as linearized gravity For instance . and its generalization, the post-Newtonian expansion, both of which were developed by Einstein. The latter provides a systematic approach to solving for the geometry of a spacetime that contains a distribution of matter that moves slowly compared with the speed of light. The expansion involves a series of terms; the first terms represent Newtonian gravity, whereas the later terms represent ever smaller corrections to Newton's theory due to general relativity. E.g. . An extension of this expansion is the parametrized post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism, which allows quantitative comparisons between the predictions of general relativity and alternative theories. Cf. section 3.2 of as well as . Consequences of Einstein's theory General relativity has a number of physical consequences. Some follow directly from the theory's axioms, whereas others have become clear only in the course of the ninety years of research that followed Einstein's initial publication. Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift Schematic representation of the gravitational redshift of a light wave escaping from the surface of a massive body Assuming that the equivalence principle holds, Cf. and . In fact, Einstein derived these effects using the equivalence principle as early as 1907, cf. and the description in . gravity influences the passage of time. Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift. More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation. ; . Gravitational redshift has been measured in the laboratory Pound-Rebka experiment, see , ; ; a list of further experiments is given in . and using astronomical observations. E.g. ; the most recent and most accurate Sirius B measurements are published in . Gravitational time dilation in the Earth's gravitational field has been measured numerous times using atomic clocks, Starting with the Hafele-Keating experiment, and , and culminating in the Gravity Probe A experiment; an overview of experiments can be found in . while ongoing validation is provided as a side-effect of the operation of the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see and . Tests in stronger gravitational fields are provided by the observation of binary pulsars. Reviews are given in and . All results are in agreement with general relativity. General overviews can be found in section 2.1. of Will 2006; Will 2003, pp. 32–36; . However, at the current level of accuracy, these observations cannot distinguish between general relativity and other theories in which the equivalence principle is valid. Cf. . Light deflection and gravitational time delay General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun. Cf. for the classic early measurements by the Eddington expeditions; for an overview of more recent measurements, see . For the most precise direct modern observations using quasars, cf. . Deflection of light (sent out from the location shown in blue) near a compact body (shown in gray) This and related predictions follow from the fact that light follows what is called a light-like or null geodesic—a generalization of the straight lines along which light travels in classical physics. Such geodesics are the generalization of the invariance of lightspeed in special relativity. This is not an independent axiom; it can be derived from Einstein's equations and the Maxwell Lagrangian using a WKB approximation, cf. . As one examines suitable model spacetimes (either the exterior Schwarzschild solution or, for more than a single mass, the post-Newtonian expansion), A brief descriptions and pointers to the literature can be found in . several effects of gravity on light propagation emerge. Although the bending of light can also be derived by extending the universality of free fall to light, See ; for the historical examples, ; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as . Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. . the angle of deflection resulting from such calculations is only half the value given by general relativity. From the standpoint of Einstein's theory, these derivations take into account the effect of gravity on time, but not its consequences for the warping of space, cf. . Closely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay (or Shapiro effect), the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field. There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction. For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. , with a pedagogical introduction to be found in ; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. ; for an overview, see ; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. . In the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of both the deflection of light and the gravitational time delay determine a parameter called , which encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space. . Gravitational waves Ring of test particles floating in space Ring of test particles influenced by gravitational wave One of several analogies between weak-field gravity and electromagnetism is that, analogous to electromagnetic waves, there are gravitational waves: ripples in the metric of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light. These have been indirectly observed through the loss of energy in binary pulsar systems such as the Hulse-Taylor binary, the subject of the 1993 Nobel Prize in physics. A number of projects are underway to attempt to observe directly the effects of gravitational waves. For an overview, see . Unlike electromagnetic waves, the dominant contribution for gravitational waves is not the dipole, but the quadrupole; see . The simplest type of such a wave can be visualized by its action on a ring of freely floating particles (upper image to the right). A sine wave propagating through such a ring towards the reader distorts the ring in a characteristic, rhythmic fashion (lower, animated image to the right). Most advanced textbooks on general relativity contain a description of these properties, e.g. . Since Einstein's equations are non-linear, arbitrarily strong gravitational waves do not obey linear superposition, making their description difficult. However, for weak fields, a linear approximation can be made. Such linearized gravitational waves are sufficiently accurate to describe the exceedingly weak waves that are expected to arrive here on Earth from far-off cosmic events, which typically result in relative distances increasing and decreasing by or less. Data-analysis methods routinely make use of the fact that these linearized waves can be Fourier decomposed. For example . Some exact solutions describe gravitational waves without any approximation, e.g., a wave train traveling through empty space . or so-called Gowdy universes, varieties of an expanding cosmos filled with gravitational waves. See , . But for gravitational waves produced in astrophysically relevant situations, such as the merger of two black holes, numerical methods are presently the only way to construct appropriate models. See for a brief introduction to the methods of numerical relativity, and for the connection with gravitational wave astronomy. Orbital effects and the relativity of direction General relativity differs from classical mechanics in a number of predictions concerning orbiting bodies. It predicts an overall rotation (precession) of planetary orbits, as well as orbital decay caused by the emission of gravitational waves and effects related to the relativity of direction. Precession of apsides Newtonian (red) vs. Einsteinian orbit (blue) of a lone planet orbiting a star In general relativity, the apsides of any orbit (the point of the orbiting body's closest approach to the system's center of mass) will precess—the orbit is not an ellipse, but akin to an ellipse that rotates on its focus, resulting in a rose curve-like shape (see image). Einstein first derived this result by using an approximate metric representing the Newtonian limit and treating the orbiting body as a test particle. For him, the fact that his theory gave a straightforward explanation of the anomalous perihelion shift of the planet Mercury, discovered earlier by Urbain Le Verrier in 1859, was important evidence that he had at last identified the correct form of the gravitational field equations. See and . The effect can also be derived by using either the exact Schwarzschild metric (describing spacetime around a spherical mass) See . or the much more general post-Newtonian formalism. See . It is due to the influence of gravity on the geometry of space and to the contribution of self-energy to a body's gravity (encoded in the nonlinearity of Einstein's equations). In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms and , cf. and . Relativistic precession has been observed for all planets that allow for accurate precession measurements (Mercury, Venus and the Earth), The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see , , ; for an overview, . as well as in binary pulsar systems, where it is larger by five orders of magnitude. See . Orbital decay Orbital decay for PSR1913+16: time shift in seconds, tracked over three decades. A figure that includes error bars is figure 7, in section 5.1, of . According to general relativity, a binary system will emit gravitational waves, thereby losing energy. Due to this loss, the distance between the two orbiting bodies decreases, and so does their orbital period. Within the solar system or for ordinary double stars, the effect is too small to be observable. Not so for a close binary pulsar, a system of two orbiting neutron stars, one of which is a pulsar: from the pulsar, observers on Earth receive a regular series of radio pulses that can serve as a highly accurate clock, which allows precise measurements of the orbital period. Since the neutron stars are very compact, significant amounts of energy are emitted in the form of gravitational radiation. See and ; an accessible account can be found in . The first observation of a decrease in orbital period due to the emission of gravitational waves was made by Hulse and Taylor, using the binary pulsar PSR1913+16 they had discovered in 1974. This was the first detection of gravitational waves, albeit indirect, for which they were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in physics. An overview can be found in ; for the pulsar discovery, see ; for the initial evidence for gravitational radiation, see . Since then, several other binary pulsars have been found, in particular the double pulsar PSR J0737-3039, in which both stars are pulsars. Cf. . Geodetic precession and frame-dragging Several relativistic effects are directly related to the relativity of direction. See e.g. , . One is geodetic precession: the axis direction of a gyroscope in free fall in curved spacetime will change when compared, for instance, with the direction of light received from distant stars—even though such a gyroscope represents the way of keeping a direction as stable as possible ("parallel transport"). See , . For the Moon-Earth-system, this effect has been measured with the help of lunar laser ranging. See and, for a more recent review, . More recently, it has been measured for test masses aboard the satellite Gravity Probe B to a precision of better than 1 percent. See . Near a rotating mass, there are so-called gravitomagnetic or frame-dragging effects. A distant observer will determine that objects close to the mass get "dragged around". This is most extreme for rotating black holes where, for any object entering a zone known as the ergosphere, rotation is inevitable. E.g. , Such effects can again be tested through their influence on the orientation of gyroscopes in free fall. E.g. , ; for a more recent review, see . Somewhat controversial tests have been performed using the LAGEOS satellites, confirming the relativistic prediction. E.g. , , ; see the entry frame-dragging for an account of the debate. A precision measurement is the main aim of the Gravity Probe B mission, with the results expected in September 2008. A mission description can be found in ; a first post-flight evaluation is given in ; further updates will be available on the mission website . Astrophysical applications Gravitational lensing Einstein cross: four images of the same astronomical object, produced by a gravitational lens The deflection of light by gravity is responsible for a new class of astronomical phenomena. If a massive object is situated between the astronomer and a distant target object with appropriate mass and relative distances, the astronomer will see multiple distorted images of the target. Such effects are known as gravitational lensing. For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see and . Depending on the configuration, scale, and mass distribution, there can be two or more images, a bright ring known as an Einstein ring, or partial rings called arcs. For a simple derivation, see ; cf. . The earliest example was discovered in 1979; See . since then, more than a hundred gravitational lenses have been observed. Images of all the known lenses can be found on the pages of the CASTLES project, . Even if the multiple images are too close to each other to be resolved, the effect can still be measured, e.g., as an overall brightening of the target object; a number of such "microlensing events" has been observed. For an overview, see . Gravitational lensing has developed into a tool of observational astronomy. It is used to detect the presence and distribution of dark matter, provide a "natural telescope" for observing distant galaxies, and to obtain an independent estimate of the Hubble constant. Statistical evaluations of lensing data provide valuable insight into the structural evolution of galaxies. See . Gravitational wave astronomy Artist's impression of the space-borne gravitational wave detector LISA Observations of binary pulsars provide strong indirect evidence for the existence of gravitational waves (see Orbital decay, above). However, gravitational waves reaching us from the depths of the cosmos have not been detected directly, which is a major goal of current relativity-related research. For an overview, ; accessible accounts can be found in and . Several land-based gravitational wave detectors are currently in operation, most notably the interferometric detectors GEO 600, LIGO (three detectors), TAMA 300 and VIRGO. An overview is given in . A joint US-European space-based detector, LISA, is currently under development, See . with a precursor mission (LISA Pathfinder) due for launch in late 2009. See . Observations of gravitational waves promise to complement observations in the electromagnetic spectrum. Cf. . They are expected to yield information about black holes and other dense objects such as neutron stars and white dwarfs, about certain kinds of supernova implosions, and about processes in the very early universe, including the signature of certain types of hypothetical cosmic string. Cf. . Black holes and other compact objects Whenever an object becomes sufficiently compact, general relativity predicts the formation of a black hole, a region of space from which nothing, not even light, can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, neutron stars with around 1.4 solar mass and so-called stellar black holes with a few to a few dozen solar masses are thought to be the final state for the evolution of massive stars. See . Supermassive black holes with a few million to a few billion solar masses are considered the rule rather than the exception in the centers of galaxies, E.g. . and their presence is thought to have played an important role in the formation of galaxies and larger cosmic structures. Cf. and the accompanying summary . Simulation based on the equations of general relativity: a star collapsing to form a black hole while emitting gravitational waves Astronomically, the most important property of compact objects is that they provide a superbly efficient mechanism for converting gravitational energy into electromagnetic radiation. Cf. Accretion, the falling of dust or gaseous matter onto stellar or supermassive black holes, is thought to be responsible for some spectacularly luminous astronomical objects, notably diverse kinds of active galactic nuclei on galactic scales and stellar-size objects such as microquasars. For the basic mechanism, see ; for more about the different types of astronomical objects associated with this, cf. . In particular, accretion can lead to relativistic jets, focused beams of highly energetic particles that are being flung into space at almost light speed. For a review, see . Interestingly, to a distant observer, some of these jets even appear to move faster than light; this, however, can be explained as an optical illusion that does not violate the tenets of relativity, see . General relativity plays a central role in modelling all these phenomena, For stellar end states, cf. or, for more recent numerical work, ; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. ; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. . Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. . and observations provide strong evidence for the existence of black holes with the properties predicted by the theory. The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see , observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. , and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. for an overview, . Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. . Black holes are also sought-after targets in the search for gravitational waves (cf. Gravitational waves, above). Merging black hole binaries should lead to some of the strongest gravitational wave signals reaching detectors here on Earth, and the phase directly before the merger ("chirp") could be used as a "standard candle" to deduce the distance to the merger events–and hence serve as a probe of cosmic expansion at large distances. Cf. . The gravitational waves produced as a stellar black hole plunges into a supermassive one should provide direct information about supermassive black hole's geometry. E.g. . Cosmology The current models of cosmology are based on Einstein's equations including cosmological constant Λ, which has important influence on the large-scale dynamics of the cosmos, where gab is the spacetime metric. Originally ; cf. the description in . Isotropic and homogeneous solutions of these enhanced equations, the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker solutions, See . allow physicists to model a universe that has evolved over the past 14 billion years from a hot, early Big Bang phase. See ; use of these models is justified by the fact that, at large scales of around hundred million light-years and more, our own universe indeed appears to be isotropic and homogeneous, cf. . Once a small number of parameters (for example the universe's mean matter density) have been fixed by astronomical observation, E.g. with WMAP data, see . further observational data can be used to put the models to the test. These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in . Predictions, all successful, include the initial abundance of chemical elements formed in a period of primordial nucleosynthesis, See ; for a recent account of predictions, see ; an accessible account can be found in ; compare with the observations in , , , and . the large-scale structure of the universe, A review can be found in and ; for more recent results, see . and the existence and properties of a "thermal echo" from the early cosmos, the cosmic background radiation. Cf. and, for a pedagogical introduction, see ; for the initial detection, see and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, (COBE) and (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. and . Image of radiation emitted no more than a few hundred thousand years after the big bang, captured with the satellite telescope WMAP Astronomical observations of the cosmological expansion rate allow the total amount of matter in the universe to be estimated, although the nature of that matter remains mysterious in part. About 90 percent of all matter appears to be so-called dark matter, which has mass (or, equivalently, gravitational influence), but does not interact electromagnetically and, hence, cannot be observed directly. Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. chapter 18 of , evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. , and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see . There is no generally accepted description of this new kind of matter, within the framework of known particle physics See , and ; in particular, observations indicate that all but a negligible portion of that matter is not in the form of the usual elementary particles ("non-baryonic matter"), cf. . or otherwise. Namely, some physicists have questioned whether or not the evidence for dark matter is, in fact, evidence for deviations from the Einsteinian (and the Newtonian) description of gravity cf. the overview in . Observational evidence from redshift surveys of distant supernovae and measurements of the cosmic background radiation also show that the evolution of our universe is significantly influenced by a cosmological constant resulting in an acceleration of cosmic expansion or, equivalently, by a form of energy with an unusual equation of state, known as dark energy, the nature of which remains unclear. See ; an accessible overview is given in . Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. ; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. . A so-called inflationary phase, A good introduction is ; for a more recent review, see . an additional phase of strongly accelerated expansion at cosmic times of around seconds, was hypothesized in 1980 to account for several puzzling observations that were unexplained by classical cosmological models, such as the nearly perfect homogeneity of the cosmic background radiation. More precisely, these are the flatness problem, the horizon problem, and the monopole problem; a pedagogical introduction can be found in , see also . Recent measurements of the cosmic background radiation have resulted in the first evidence for this scenario. See . However, there is a bewildering variety of possible inflationary scenarios, which cannot be not restricted by current observations. More concretely, the potential function that is crucial to determining the dynamics of the inflaton is simply postulated, but not derived from an underlying physical theory. An even larger question is the physics of the earliest universe, prior to the inflationary phase and close to where the classical models predict the big bang singularity. An authoritative answer would require a complete theory of quantum gravity, which has not yet been developed See . (cf. the section on quantum gravity, below). Advanced concepts Causal structure and global geometry Penrose diagram of an infinite Minkowski universe In general relativity, no material body can catch up with or overtake a light pulse. No influence from an event A can reach any other location X before light sent out at A to X. In consequence, an exploration of all light worldlines (null geodesics) yields key information about the spacetime's causal structure. This structure can be displayed using Penrose-Carter diagrams in which infinitely large regions of space and infinite time intervals are shrunk ("compactified") so as to fit onto a finite map, while light still travels along diagonals as in standard spacetime diagrams. See , , and Aware of the importance of causal structure, Roger Penrose and others developed what is known as global geometry. In global geometry, the object of study is not one particular solution (or family of solutions) to Einstein's equations. Rather, relations that hold true for all geodesics, such as the Raychaudhuri equation, and additional non-specific assumptions about the nature of matter (usually in the form of so-called energy conditions) are used to derive general results. E.g. and Horizons Using global geometry, some spacetimes can be shown to contain boundaries called horizons, which demarcate one region from the rest of spacetime. The best-known examples are black holes: if mass is compressed into a sufficiently compact region of space (as specified in the hoop conjecture, the relevant length scale is the Schwarzschild radius See ; for an account of more recent numerical studies, see . ), no light from inside can escape to the outside. Since no object can overtake a light pulse, all interior matter is imprisoned as well. Passage from the exterior to the interior is still possible, showing that the boundary, the black hole's horizon, is not a physical barrier. For an account of the evolution of this concept, see . A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. or ; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. . The ergosphere of a rotating black hole, which plays a key role when it comes to extracting energy from such a black hole Early studies of black holes relied on explicit solutions of Einstein's equations, notably the spherically symmetric Schwarzschild solution (used to describe a static black hole) and the axisymmetric Kerr solution (used to describe a rotating, stationary black hole, and introducing interesting features such as the ergosphere). Using global geometry, later studies have revealed more general properties of black holes. In the long run, they are rather simple objects characterized by eleven parameters specifying energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, location at a specified time and electric charge. This is stated by the black hole uniqueness theorems: "black holes have no hair", that is, no distinguishing marks like the hairstyles of humans. Irrespective of the complexity of a gravitating object collapsing to form a black hole, the object that results (having emitted gravitational waves) is very simple. For first steps, cf. ; see or for a derivation, and as well as as overviews of more recent results. Even more remarkably, there is a general set of laws known as black hole mechanics, which is analogous to the laws of thermodynamics. For instance, by the second law of black hole mechanics, the area of the event horizon of a general black hole will never decrease with time, analogous to the entropy of a thermodynamic system. This limits the energy that can be extracted by classical means from a rotating black hole (e.g. by the Penrose process). The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in ; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in ; for a more recent review, see chapter 2 of . A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics . For the Penrose process, see . There is strong evidence that the laws of black hole mechanics are, in fact, a subset of the laws of thermodynamics, and that the black hole area is proportional to its entropy. See , . This leads to a modification of the original laws of black hole mechanics: for instance, as the second law of black hole mechanics becomes part of the second law of thermodynamics, it is possible for black hole area to decrease—as long as other processes ensure that, overall, entropy increases. As thermodynamical objects with non-zero temperature, black holes should emit thermal radiation. Semi-classical calculations indicate that indeed they do, with the surface gravity playing the role of temperature in Planck's law. This radiation is known as Hawking radiation (cf. the quantum theory section, below). The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in ; a more thorough derivation can be found in . A review is given in chapter 3 of . There are other types of horizons. In an expanding universe, an observer may find that some regions of the past cannot be observed ("particle horizon"), and some regions of the future cannot be influenced (event horizon). Cf. . Even in flat Minkowski space, when described by an accelerated observer (Rindler space), there will be horizons associated with a semi-classical radiation known as Unruh radiation. Horizons: cf. . Unruh effect: , cf. . Singularities Another general—and quite disturbing—feature of general relativity is the appearance of spacetime boundaries known as singularities. Spacetime can be explored by following up on timelike and lightlike geodesics—all possible ways that light and particles in free fall can travel. But some solutions of Einstein's equations have "ragged edges"—regions known as spacetime singularities, where the paths of light and falling particles come to an abrupt end, and geometry becomes ill-defined. In the more interesting cases, these are "curvature singularities", where geometrical quantities characterizing spacetime curvature, such the Ricci scalar, take on infinite values. See , . Well-known examples of spacetimes with future singularities—where worldlines end—are the Schwarzschild solution, which describes a singularity inside an eternal static black hole, See ; a more extensive treatment of this solution can be found in . or the Kerr solution with its ring-shaped singularity inside an eternal rotating black hole. See ; for a more extensive treatment, cf. . The Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker solutions, and other spacetimes describing universes, have past singularities on which worldlines begin, namely big bang singularities, and some have future singularities (big crunch) as well. See ; a closer look at the singularity itself is taken in Given that these examples are all highly symmetric—and thus simplified—it is tempting to conclude that the occurrence of singularities is an artefact of idealization. The famous singularity theorems, proved using the methods of global geometry, say otherwise: singularities are a generic feature of general relativity, and unavoidable once the collapse of an object with realistic matter properties has proceeded beyond a certain stage Namely when there are trapped null surfaces, cf. . and also at the beginning of a wide class of expanding universes. See . However, the theorems say little about the properties of singularities, and much of current research is devoted to characterizing these entities' generic structure (hypothesized e.g. by the so-called BKL conjecture). The conjecture was made in ; for a more recent review, see . An accessible exposition is given by . The cosmic censorship hypothesis states that all realistic future singularities (no perfect symmetries, matter with realistic properties) are safely hidden away behind a horizon, and thus invisible to all distant observers. While no formal proof yet exists, numerical simulations offer supporting evidence of its validity. The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in ; a text-book level account is given in . For numerical results, see the review . Evolution equations Each solution of Einstein's equation encompasses the whole history of a universe—it is not just some snapshot of how things are, but a whole, possibly matter-filled, spacetime. It describes the state of matter and geometry everywhere and at every moment in that particular universe. By this token, Einstein's theory appears to be different from most other physical theories, which specify evolution equations for physical systems: if the system is in a given state at some given moment, the laws of physics allow extrapolation into the past or future. Further differences between Einsteinian gravity and other fields are that the former is self-interacting (that is, non-linear even in the absence of other fields), and that it has no fixed background structure—the stage itself evolves as the cosmic drama is played out. Cf. . To understand Einstein's equations as partial differential equations, it is helpful to formulate them in a way that describes the evolution of the universe over time. This is done in so-called "3+1" formulations, where spacetime is split into three space dimensions and one time dimension. The best-known example is the ADM formalism. ; for a pedagogical introduction, see . These decompositions show that the spacetime evolution equations of general relativity are well-behaved: solutions always exist, and are uniquely defined, once suitable initial conditions have been specified. and ; for a pedagogical introduction, see ; an online review can be found in . Such formulations of Einstein's field equations are the basis of numerical relativity. See ; for a review of the basics of numerical relativity, including the problems arising from the peculiarities of Einstein's equations, see . Global and quasi-local quantities The notion of evolution equations is intimately tied in with another aspect of general relativistic physics. In Einstein's theory, it turns out to be impossible to find a general definition for a seemingly simple property such as a system's total mass (or energy). The main reason is that the gravitational field—like any physical field—must be ascribed a certain energy, but that it proves to be fundamentally impossible to localize that energy. Cf. . Nevertheless, there are possibilities to define a system's total mass, either using a hypothetical "infinitely distant observer" (ADM mass) . or suitable symmetries (Komar mass). Cf. ; for a pedagogical introduction, see ; although defined in a totally different way, it can be shown to be equivalent to the ADM mass for stationary spacetimes, cf. . If one excludes from the system's total mass the energy being carried away to infinity by gravitational waves, the result is the so-called Bondi mass at null infinity. For a pedagogical introduction, see . Just as in classical physics, it can be shown that these masses are positive. See the various references given on p. 295 of ; this is important for questions of stability—if there were negative mass states, then flat, empty Minkowski space, which has mass zero, could evolve into these states. Corresponding global definitions exist for momentum and angular momentum. E.g. . There have also been a number of attempts to define quasi-local quantities, such as the mass of an isolated system formulated using only quantities defined within a finite region of space containing that system. The hope is to obtain a quantity useful for general statements about isolated systems, such as a more precise formulation of the hoop conjecture. Such quasi-local mass-energy definitions are the Hawking energy, Geroch energy, or Penrose's quasi-local energy-momentum based on twistor methods; cf. the review article . Relationship with quantum theory If general relativity is considered one of the two pillars of modern physics, quantum theory, the basis of our understanding of matter from elementary particles to solid state physics, is the other. An overview of quantum theory can be found in standard textbooks such as ; a more elementary account is given in . However, it is still an open question as to how the concepts of quantum theory will be reconciled with those of general relativity. Quantum field theory in curved spacetime Ordinary quantum field theories, which form the basis of modern elementary particle physics, are defined in flat Minkowski space, which is an excellent approximation when it comes to describing the behavior of microscopic particles in weak gravitational fields like those found on Earth. Cf. textbooks such as , , or ; a more accessible overview can be found in . In order to describe situations in which gravity is strong enough to influence (quantum) matter, yet not strong enough to require quantization itself, physicists have formulated quantum field theories in curved spacetime. These theories rely on classical general relativity to describe a curved background spacetime, and define a generalized quantum field theory to describe the behavior of quantum matter within that spacetime. Cf. and . Using this formalism, it can be shown that black holes emit a blackbody spectrum of particles known as Hawking radiation, leading to the possibility that they evaporate over time. For Hawking radiation , ; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in . As briefly mentioned above, this radiation plays an important role for the thermodynamics of black holes. Cf. chapter 3 in . Quantum gravity The demand for consistency between a quantum description of matter and a geometric description of spacetime, Put simply, matter is the source of spacetime curvature, and once matter has quantum properties, we can expect spacetime to have them as well. Cf. section 2 in . as well as the appearance of singularities (where curvature length scales become microscopic), indicate the need for a full theory of quantum gravity: for an adequate description of the interior of black holes, and of the very early universe, a theory is required in which gravity and the associated geometry of spacetime are described in the language of quantum physics. E.g. p. 407ff. in . Despite major efforts, no complete and consistent theory of quantum gravity is currently known, even though a number of promising candidates exist. A timeline and overview can be found in . Projection of a Calabi-Yau manifold, one of the ways of compactifying the extra dimensions posited by string theory Attempts to generalize ordinary quantum field theories, used in elementary particle physics to describe fundamental interactions, so as to include gravity have led to serious problems. At low energies, this approach proves successful, in that it results in an acceptable effective (quantum) field theory of gravity. See . At very high energies, however, the result are models devoid of all predictive power ("non-renormalizability"). In particular, a technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. chapters 17 and 18 of , fails in this case; cf. . Simple spin network of the type used in loop quantum gravity One attempt to overcome these limitations is string theory, a quantum theory not of point particles, but of minute one-dimensional extended objects. An accessible introduction at the undergraduate level can be found in ; more complete overviews can be found in and . The theory promises to be a unified description of all particles and interactions, including gravity; At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges, e.g. . The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity, e.g. . the price to pay is unusual features such as six extra dimensions of space in addition to the usual three. E. g. . In what is called the second superstring revolution, it was conjectured that both string theory and a unification of general relativity and supersymmetry known as supergravity E.g. . form part of a hypothesized eleven-dimensional model known as M-theory, which would constitute a uniquely defined and consistent theory of quantum gravity. E.g. , . Another approach starts with the canonical quantization procedures of quantum theory. Using the initial-value-formulation of general relativity (cf. the section on evolution equations, above), the result is the Wheeler-deWitt equation (an analogue of the Schrödinger equation) which, regrettably, turns out to be ill-defined. Cf. section 3 in . However, with the introduction of what are now known as Ashtekar variables, These variables represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues of electric and magnetic fields; cf. , . this leads to a promising model known as loop quantum gravity. Space is represented by a web-like structure called a spin network, evolving over time in discrete steps. For a review, see ; more extensive accounts can be found in , as well as in the lecture notes . Depending on which features of general relativity and quantum theory are accepted unchanged, and on what level changes are introduced, See e.g. the systematic expositions in and . there are numerous other attempts to arrive at a viable theory of quantum gravity, some examples being dynamical triangulations, See . causal sets, See . twistor models See ch. 33 in and references therein. or the path-integral based models of quantum cosmology. Cf. . All candidate theories still have major formal and conceptual problems to overcome. They also face the common problem that, as yet, there is no way to put quantum gravity predictions to experimental tests (and thus to decide between the candidates where their predictions vary), although there is hope for this to change as future data from cosmological observations and particle physics experiments becomes available. E.g. , . Current status General relativity has emerged as a highly successful model of gravitation and cosmology, which has so far passed every unambiguous observational and experimental test. Even so, there are strong indications the theory is incomplete. Cf. ; . The problem of quantum gravity and the question of the reality of spacetime singularities remain open. Cf. the section Quantum gravity, above. Observational data that is taken as evidence for dark energy and dark matter could indicate the need for new physics, Cf. the section Cosmology, above. and while the so-called Pioneer anomaly might yet admit of a conventional explanation, it, too, could be a harbinger of new physics. See . Even taken as is, general relativity is rich with possibilities for further exploration. Mathematical relativists seek to understand the nature of singularities and the fundamental properties of Einstein's equations, See . and increasingly powerful computer simulations (such as those describing merging black holes) are run. A review of the various problems and the techniques being developed to overcome them, see . The race for the first direct detection of gravitational waves continues apace, See for an account up to that year; up-to-date news can be found on the websites of major detector collaborations such as GEO 600 and LIGO. in the hope of creating opportunities to test the theory's validity for much stronger gravitational fields than has been possible to date. For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see , and ; for a review of work on compact binaries, see and ; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see . More than ninety years after its publication, general relativity remains a highly active area of research. A good starting point for a snapshot of present-day research in relativity is the electronic review journal Living Reviews in Relativity. See also Eötvös effect Contributors to general relativity Einstein-Hilbert action General relativity resources, an annotated reading list giving bibliographic information on some of the most cited resources Introduction to mathematics of general relativity Tests of general relativity Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity Inertial frame Notes References ; original paper in Russian: External links Yale University Video Lecture on Special and General Relativity Relativity: The special and general theory PDF Video Lectures on General Relativity by MIT Physics Professor Edmund Bertschinger. Series of lectures on General Relativity given in 2006 at the Institut Henri Poincaré (introductory courses and advanced ones). 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2,090 | Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau | "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" (), usually translated as "Land of My Fathers", is, by tradition, the national anthem of Wales. The words were written by Evan James and the tune composed by his son, James James, both residents of Pontypridd, Glamorgan, in January 1856. The earliest written copy survives and is part of the collections of the National Library of Wales. Origins Glan Rhondda (Banks of the Rhondda), as it was known when it was composed, was first performed in the vestry of the original Capel Tabor, Maesteg, (which later became a Workingmen's Club), in either January or February 1856, by Elizabeth John from Pontypridd, and it soon became popular in the locality. James James, the composer, was a harpist who played his instrument in the public house he ran, for the purpose of dancing. The song was originally intended to be performed in 6/8 time, but had to be slowed down to its present rhythm when it began to be sung by large crowds. Popularity The popularity of the song increased after the Llangollen Eisteddfod of 1858. Thomas Llewelyn of Aberdare won a competition for an unpublished collection of Welsh airs with a collection that included Glan Rhondda. The adjudicator of the competition, "Owain Alaw" (John Owen, 1821-1883) asked for permission to include Glan Rhondda in his publication, Gems of Welsh melody (1860-64). This volume gave Glan Rhondda its more famous title, Hen wlad fy nhadau, and was sold in large quantities and ensured the popularity of the national anthem across the whole of Wales. At the Bangor Eisteddfod of 1874 Hen Wlad fy Nhadau gained further popularity when it was sung by Robert Rees ("Eos Morlais"), one of the leading Welsh soloists of his day. It was increasingly sung at patriotic gatherings and gradually it developed into a national anthem. First recorded Welsh-language song Hen wlad fy nhadau was also one of the first Welsh-language songs recorded when Madge Breese sang it on 11 March 1899, for the Gramophone Company, as part of the first recording in the Welsh language. National anthem Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau has been established as the Welsh National Anthem by tradition over a hundred years; and although in common with other British anthems, it has not been established as such by law, it has been used in the context of a national anthem at official governmental ceremonies including the opening of the Welsh Assembly and at receptions of the British monarchy. It is recognised and used as an anthem at both national and local events in Wales. Usually this will be the only anthem sung, such as at national sporting events, and it will be sung only in Welsh using the first stanza and refrain. On most official occasions, especially those with royal connections, it is used in conjunction with the national anthem of the United Kingdom, God Save the Queen. Before BBC Wales television started to broadcast 24 hours a day, the Chorus of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau was played at the closedown, followed by the first three lines of God Save the Queen. HTV Wales, on the other hand, played the full verse of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau and God Save the Queen before broadcasting 24 hours a day. The existence of a separate national anthem for Wales has not always been apparent to those from outside the country. In 1993 the newly-appointed Secretary of State for Wales John Redwood was embarrassingly videotaped opening and closing his mouth during a communal singing of the national anthem, clearly ignorant of the words but unable to mime convincingly; the pictures were frequently cited as evidence of his unsuitability for the post. According to John Major's autobiography, the first thing Redwood's successor William Hague said, on being appointed, was that he had better find someone to teach him the words. He found Ffion Jenkins, and later married her. Versions of Hen Wlad fy Nhadau are used as anthems in both Cornwall, as Bro Goth Agan Tasow, Brittany, as Bro Gozh ma Zadoù. Lyrics Mae hen wlad fy nhadau yn annwyl i mi, Gwlad beirdd a chantorion, enwogion o fri; Ei gwrol ryfelwyr, gwladgarwyr tra mâd, Dros ryddid collasant eu gwaed. (Cytgan) Gwlad, gwlad, pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad. Tra môr yn fur i'r bur hoff bau, O bydded i'r hen iaith barhau. Hen Gymru fynyddig, paradwys y bardd, Pob dyffryn, pob clogwyn, i'm golwg sydd hardd; Trwy deimlad gwladgarol, mor swynol yw si Ei nentydd, afonydd, i mi. (Cytgan) Os treisiodd y gelyn fy ngwlad tan ei droed, Mae hen iaith y Cymry mor fyw ag erioed, Ni luddiwyd yr awen gan erchyll law brad, Na thelyn berseiniol fy ngwlad. (Cytgan) Translations The following is a fairly free translation in verse. The land of my fathers is dear unto me, Old land where the minstrels are honoured and free: Its warring defenders, so gallant and brave, For freedom their life's blood they gave Land!,Land!,True I am to my land! While seas secure, this land so pure, o may our old language endure. O land of the mountains, the bard's paradise, Whose precipice, valleys lone as the skies, Green murmuring forest, far echoing flood Fire the fancy and quicken the blood For tho' the fierce foeman has ravaged your realm, The old speech of Wales he cannot o'erwhelm, Our passionate poets to silence command Or banish the harp from your strand. A more literal translation is: The old land of my fathers is dear to me, Land of poets and singers, famous men of renown; Her brave warriors, very splendid patriots, For freedom shed their blood. Nation [or country], Nation, I pledge to my Nation. While the sea [is] a wall to the pure, most loved land, O may the old language [sc. Cymraeg] endure. Old mountainous Wales, paradise of the bard, Every valley, every cliff, to me is beautiful. Through patriotic feeling, so charming is the murmur Of her brooks, rivers, to me. If the enemy oppresses my land under his foot, The old language of the Welsh is as alive as ever. The muse is not hindered by the hideous hand of treason, Nor [is] the melodious harp of my country. Other translations include: The land of my fathers is dear to me, Old land where the minstrels are honoured and free; Its warring defenders so gallant and brave, For freedom their life's blood they gave. Home, home, true am I to home, While seas secure the land so pure, O may the old language endure. Old land of the mountains, the Eden of bards, Each gorge and each valley a loveliness guards; Through love of my country, charmed voices will be Its streams, and its rivers, to me. Though foemen have trampled my land 'neath their feet, The language of Cambria still knows no retreat; The muse is not vanquished by traitor's fell hand, Nor silenced the harp of my land. and: The land of my fathers, the land of my choice, The land in which poets and minstrels rejoice; The land whose stern warriors were true to the core, While bleeding for freedom of yore. Wales! Wales! fav'rite land of Wales! While sea her wall, may naught befall To mar the old language of Wales. Old mountainous Cambria, the Eden of bards, Each hill and each valley, excite my regards; To the ears of her patriots how charming still seems The music that flows in her streams. My country tho' crushed by a hostile array, The language of Cambria lives out to this day; The muse has eluded the traitors' foul knives, The harp of my country survives. Cultural influence The Welsh poet Dylan Thomas is on record as saying "The land of my fathers. My fathers can have it!", probably in reference to Wales itself, rather than the song. Gwynfor Evans named his history of Wales Land of my fathers: 2,000 years of Welsh history. It was a translation of the Welsh original, Aros Mae. The Welsh reverse £1 coins minted in 1985, 1990, 1995 and 2000 bear the edge inscription PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD ("true am I to my country"), from the refrain of "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau". Parodies Swansea poet Nigel Jenkins wrote an English phonetic version of the first verse for the benefit of English speakers Paul Flynn MP , said to be largely inconspicuous in chorus as long as one doesn't smile: My hen laid a haddock, one hand oiled a flea, Glad farts and centurions threw dogs in the sea, I could stew a hare here and brandish Dan's flan, Don's ruddy bog's blocked up with sand. Dad! Dad! Why don't you oil Auntie Glad? Can whores appear in beer bottle pies, O butter the hens as they fly! References External links Free sheet music arranged for piano and voice, from Cantorion.org. The National Library of Wales has a page about the anthem that includes a historic 1899 recording of the anthem. www.malechoir.com - Hen wlad fy nhadau - Côr Meibion Pontypridd sing Hen wlad fy nhadau. Welsh Icons - This general information website about Wales has a page about the anthem, featuring a midi file and vocal video. be-x-old:Гімн Валіі | Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau |@lemmatized hen:17 wlad:12 fy:14 nhadau:12 usually:2 translate:1 land:25 father:8 tradition:2 national:13 anthem:16 wale:17 word:3 write:3 evan:1 james:4 tune:1 compose:2 son:1 jam:1 resident:1 pontypridd:3 glamorgan:1 january:2 early:1 copy:1 survives:1 part:2 collection:3 library:2 origin:1 glan:4 rhondda:5 bank:1 know:2 first:8 perform:2 vestry:1 original:2 capel:1 tabor:1 maesteg:1 later:2 become:2 workingman:1 club:1 either:1 february:1 elizabeth:1 john:4 soon:1 popular:1 locality:1 composer:1 harpist:1 play:3 instrument:1 public:1 house:1 run:1 purpose:1 dance:1 song:5 originally:1 intend:1 time:1 slow:1 present:1 rhythm:1 begin:1 sing:6 large:2 crowd:1 popularity:4 increase:1 llangollen:1 eisteddfod:2 thomas:2 llewelyn:1 aberdare:1 win:1 competition:2 unpublished:1 welsh:15 air:1 include:5 adjudicator:1 owain:1 alaw:1 owen:1 ask:1 permission:1 publication:1 gem:1 melody:1 volume:1 give:3 famous:2 title:1 sell:1 quantity:1 ensure:1 across:1 whole:1 bangor:1 gain:1 robert:1 rees:1 eos:1 morlais:1 one:4 lead:1 soloist:1 day:4 increasingly:1 patriotic:2 gathering:1 gradually:1 develop:1 record:3 language:10 also:1 madge:1 breese:1 march:1 gramophone:1 company:1 recording:2 establish:2 hundred:1 year:2 although:1 common:1 british:2 law:2 use:5 context:1 official:2 governmental:1 ceremony:1 opening:2 assembly:1 reception:1 monarchy:1 recognise:1 local:1 event:2 sung:1 sport:1 stanza:1 refrain:2 occasion:1 especially:1 royal:1 connection:1 conjunction:1 united:1 kingdom:1 god:3 save:3 queen:3 bbc:1 television:1 start:1 broadcast:2 hour:2 chorus:2 closedown:1 follow:1 three:1 line:1 htv:1 hand:4 full:1 verse:3 existence:1 separate:1 always:1 apparent:1 outside:1 country:7 newly:1 appoint:2 secretary:1 state:1 redwood:2 embarrassingly:1 videotaped:1 close:1 mouth:1 communal:1 singing:1 clearly:1 ignorant:1 unable:1 mime:1 convincingly:1 picture:1 frequently:1 cite:1 evidence:1 unsuitability:1 post:1 accord:1 major:1 autobiography:1 thing:1 successor:1 william:1 hague:1 say:3 well:1 find:2 someone:1 teach:1 ffion:1 jenkins:2 marry:1 version:2 cornwall:1 bro:2 goth:1 agan:1 tasow:1 brittany:1 gozh:1 zadoù:1 lyric:1 mae:3 yn:2 annwyl:1 mi:2 gwlad:5 beirdd:1 chantorion:1 enwogion:1 fri:1 ei:3 gwrol:1 ryfelwyr:1 gwladgarwyr:1 tra:2 mâd:1 dros:1 ryddid:1 collasant:1 eu:1 gwaed:1 cytgan:3 pleidiol:2 wyf:2 môr:1 fur:1 r:2 bur:1 hoff:1 bau:1 bydded:1 iaith:2 barhau:1 gymru:1 fynyddig:1 paradwys:1 bardd:1 pob:2 dyffryn:1 clogwyn:1 golwg:1 sydd:1 hardd:1 trwy:1 deimlad:1 gwladgarol:1 mor:2 swynol:1 yw:1 si:1 nentydd:1 afonydd:1 os:1 treisiodd:1 gelyn:1 ngwlad:2 tan:1 droed:1 cymry:1 fyw:1 ag:1 erioed:1 ni:1 luddiwyd:1 yr:1 awen:1 gan:1 erchyll:1 brad:1 na:1 thelyn:1 berseiniol:1 translations:1 following:1 fairly:1 free:4 translation:4 dear:3 unto:1 old:13 minstrel:3 honour:2 war:1 defender:2 gallant:2 brave:3 freedom:4 life:2 blood:4 true:4 seas:2 secure:2 pure:3 may:4 endure:3 mountain:2 bard:4 paradise:2 whose:2 precipice:1 valley:4 lone:1 sky:1 green:1 murmur:2 forest:1 far:1 echo:1 flood:1 fire:1 fancy:1 quicken:1 tho:2 fierce:1 foeman:2 ravage:1 realm:1 speech:1 cannot:1 erwhelm:1 passionate:1 poet:5 silence:2 command:1 banish:1 harp:4 strand:1 literal:1 singer:1 men:1 renown:1 warrior:2 splendid:1 patriot:2 shed:1 nation:3 pledge:1 sea:3 wall:2 loved:1 sc:1 cymraeg:1 mountainous:2 every:2 cliff:1 beautiful:1 feeling:1 charming:2 brook:1 river:2 enemy:1 oppress:1 foot:2 alive:1 ever:1 muse:3 hinder:1 hideous:1 treason:1 melodious:1 warring:1 home:3 eden:2 gorge:1 loveliness:1 guard:1 love:1 charm:1 voice:2 stream:2 though:1 trample:1 neath:1 cambria:3 still:2 retreat:1 vanquish:1 traitor:2 fell:1 choice:1 rejoice:1 stern:1 core:1 bleed:1 yore:1 fav:1 rite:1 naught:1 befall:1 mar:1 hill:1 excite:1 regard:1 ear:1 seem:1 music:2 flow:1 crush:1 hostile:1 array:1 live:1 elude:1 foul:1 knife:1 survive:1 cultural:1 influence:1 dylan:1 probably:1 reference:2 wales:1 rather:1 gwynfor:1 evans:1 name:1 history:2 aros:1 reverse:1 coin:1 mint:1 bear:1 edge:1 inscription:1 parody:1 swansea:1 nigel:1 english:2 phonetic:1 benefit:1 speaker:1 paul:1 flynn:1 mp:1 largely:1 inconspicuous:1 long:1 smile:1 lay:1 haddock:1 oil:2 flea:1 glad:2 fart:1 centurion:1 throw:1 dog:1 could:1 stew:1 hare:1 brandish:1 dan:1 flan:1 ruddy:1 bog:1 block:1 sand:1 dad:2 auntie:1 whore:1 appear:1 beer:1 bottle:1 pie:1 butter:1 fly:1 external:1 link:1 sheet:1 arrange:1 piano:1 cantorion:1 org:1 page:2 historic:1 www:1 malechoir:1 com:1 côr:1 meibion:1 icon:1 general:1 information:1 website:1 feature:1 midi:1 file:1 vocal:1 video:1 x:1 гімн:1 валіі:1 |@bigram hen_wlad:12 wlad_fy:12 fy_nhadau:12 literal_translation:1 coin_mint:1 external_link:1 |
2,091 | Luminance | Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2). A non-SI term for the same unit is the "nit". The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2. Luminance is often used to characterize emission or reflection from flat, diffuse surfaces. The luminance indicates how much luminous power will be perceived by an eye looking at the surface from a particular angle of view. Luminance is thus an indicator of how bright the surface will appear. In this case, the solid angle of interest is the solid angle subtended by the eye's pupil. Luminance is used in the video industry to characterize the brightness of displays. A typical computer display emits between 50 and 300 cd/m2. The sun has luminance of about 1.6×109 cd/m2 at noon. Luminance is invariant in geometric optics. This means that for an ideal optical system, the luminance at the output is the same as the input luminance. For real, passive, optical systems, the output luminance is at most equal to the input. As an example, if you form a demagnified image with a lens, the luminous power is concentrated into a smaller area, meaning that the illuminance is higher at the image. The light at the image plane, however, fills a larger solid angle so the luminance comes out to be the same assuming there is no loss at the lens. The image can never be "brighter" than the source. Definition Luminance is defined by where is the luminance (cd/m2), is the luminous flux or luminous power (lm), is the angle between the surface normal and the specified direction, is the area of the surface (m2), and is the solid angle (sr). See also Diffuse reflection Etendue Illuminance Lambert Lambertian reflectance Lightness, property of a color Luma, the representation of luminance in a video monitor Radiance Exposure value References External links A Kodak guide to Estimating Luminance and Illuminance using a camera's exposure meter. Also available in PDF form. be-x-old:Яркасьць | Luminance |@lemmatized luminance:17 photometric:1 measure:1 luminous:5 intensity:1 per:3 unit:4 area:4 light:3 travel:1 give:2 direction:2 describe:1 amount:1 pass:1 emit:2 particular:2 fall:1 within:1 solid:5 angle:7 candela:2 square:2 metre:1 cd:4 non:1 si:1 term:1 nit:1 cgs:1 stilb:1 equal:2 one:1 centimetre:1 kcd:1 often:1 use:3 characterize:2 emission:1 reflection:2 flat:1 diffuse:2 surface:5 indicate:1 much:1 power:3 perceive:1 eye:2 look:1 view:1 thus:1 indicator:1 bright:1 appear:1 case:1 interest:1 subtend:1 pupil:1 video:2 industry:1 brightness:1 display:2 typical:1 computer:1 sun:1 noon:1 invariant:1 geometric:1 optic:1 mean:1 ideal:1 optical:2 system:2 output:2 input:2 real:1 passive:1 example:1 form:2 demagnified:1 image:4 lens:2 concentrate:1 small:1 meaning:1 illuminance:3 high:1 plane:1 however:1 fill:1 large:1 come:1 assuming:1 loss:1 never:1 brighter:1 source:1 definition:1 define:1 flux:1 lm:1 normal:1 specified:1 sr:1 see:1 also:2 etendue:1 lambert:1 lambertian:1 reflectance:1 lightness:1 property:1 color:1 luma:1 representation:1 monitor:1 radiance:1 exposure:2 value:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 kodak:1 guide:1 estimate:1 camera:1 meter:1 available:1 pdf:1 x:1 old:1 яркасьць:1 |@bigram candela_per:2 cgs_unit:1 angle_subtend:1 external_link:1 |
2,092 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia | Key priorities Key priorities in the foreign relations are: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Macedonia: GOALS AND PRIORITIES Promotion of the Republic of Macedonia as a NATO candidate country, active participation within the established institutional framework – Partnership for Peace, EAPC, implementation of the NATO Membership Action Plan – aiming at creating conditions for receiving membership invitation at the 2008 NATO Summit. Participation in peace missions (UN, NATO, EU) in support of peace, security and stability. Fulfilling the required criteria and their presentation for the purpose of ensuring that the will bring a decision on a date for start of EU membership negotiations. As an EU candidate country, in the accession process the Republic of Macedonia builds internal legal mechanisms, instruments and capacities for harmonization with the EU Acquis in this area and for making active contribution to the development of CFSP and ESDP. Continuous strengthening of the strategic partnership with the United States, while devoting special attention to the relations and cooperation also with the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China. Good-neighborliness, friendship and readiness for comprehensive cooperation with neighbor-countries in numerous areas of mutual interest. Strengthening the mutual trust and, at the same time, a complementary factor on the way of the Republic of Macedonia to the EU and NATO. Active participation in the work of international organizations, UN and its specialized agencies, WTO – and at the regional level – OSCE, Council of Europe against global threats: terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, global warming, organized crime, damages to the environment, economic and social issues, disrespect for human rights etc. Promotion of the national, cultural and spiritual identity beyond the borders of the Republic of Macedonia. Regard for the communities and minorities living outside the state borders and improvement of their legal status and the treatment of the Macedonian National Minority abroad, in accordance with the international agreements as well as with the concluded bilateral agreements and treaties. International recognition The Republic of Macedonia became a member state of the United Nations on April 8, 1993, eighteen months after its independence from the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It is referred within the UN as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", pending a resolution, to the long-running dispute about the country's name. Other international bodies, such as the European Union , European Broadcasting Union , and the International Olympic Committee have adopted the same convention. NATO also uses the reference in official documents but adds an explanation on which member countries recognise the constitutional name. The UN's member states all recognise the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia but are divided over what to call it. A number of countries recognise the country by its constitutional name – the Republic of Macedonia – rather than the UN reference, notably four of the five permanent UN Security Council members (the , the United States , Russia, and the People's Republic of China) and over 100 other UN members "Naming the solution", Kathimerini English edition, 16 September 2005 . Foreign relation of Macedonia List of countries and entities recognising the country and established diplomatic relations (see the map above) European Union (EU) Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM) List of countries and entities with no formal diplomatic relations with the country Andorra, Cyprus, Monaco, Georgia, Malta, San Marino Lebanon, Syria Bhutan, Brunei, Philippines, South Korea Botswana, Liberia, Mali, Namibia, Tunisia, Zimbabwe Bahamas, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago Palau, Fiji, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu Palestinian Authority, Sahrawi Republic, Republic of China (1999-2001) Relations with neighbours Albania Macedonia and Albania have friendly and cooperative relations. Recently (Aug. 2008) they signed a treaty enabling visa-free movement between the countries. Both countries support each others ethnic minorities in cultural, political and educational aspects. During the ethnic conflict in 2001, the Albanian government did not interfere and supported peaceful resolution. Bulgaria Bulgaria was the first country to recognise the independence of the Republic of Macedonia. Bulgaria has however refused to recognise the existence of a separate Macedonian nation and a separate Macedonian language. It argues that the Macedonians are a subgroup of the Bulgarian nation and that the Macedonian language is a dialect of Bulgarian. This leads to some complications when signing treaties between these countries—they are signed with this long phrase in the end: "done in the official languages of the two states—Bulgarian language, according to the Constitution of Bulgaria and Macedonian language, according to the Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia". Macedonia has good relations with Bulgaria in the political, economic, and military spheres. The governments of the two countries work to improve business relations. Bulgaria supports the Macedonian bid to enter the EU and NATO. Bulgaria has also donated tanks, artillery, and other military technology to the Macedonian Army. The rules governing good neighbourly relations agreed between Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia were set in the Joint Declaration of February 22, 1999 reaffirmed by a joint memorandum signed on January 22, 2008 in Sofia. Bulgarian Policies on the Republic of Macedonia: Recommendations on the development of good neighbourly relations following Bulgaria’s accession to the EU and in the context of NATO and EU enlargement in the Western Balkans. Sofia: Manfred Wörner Foundation, 2008. 80 pp. (Trilingual publication in Bulgarian, Macedonian and English) ISBN 978-954-92032-2-6 Serbia Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia traditionally have friendly relations. Serbia is a main trading partner and recognizes its neighbour under the constitutional name - Republic of Macedonia. Macedonians in Serbia are a recognized national minority, same as Serbs in the Republic of Macedonia. However, the non-recognition of the Macedonian Orthodox Church by the Serbian Orthodox Church and Macedonia's recognition of Kosovo as an independent state are disturbing the relations of these two countries. Kosovo In October 2008, the Republic of Macedonia recognized Kosovo as an independent state. Bilateral relations will be established soon. Kosovo recognized the neighbouring country under the constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia. Macedonian Information Agency Also in October 2008, a bilateral agreement was signed between the two countries after the border between the two was physically marked by a joint committee. Southeast European Times, Oct. 26 2008: Macedonia, Kosovo agree on border demarcation Kosovo and Macedonia have signed a Free Trade Agreement in 2005 to facilitate trade opportunities, investment conditions and improve good-neighbourly relations. UNMIK, Focus Kosovo: Kosovo’s Free Trade Agreements Greece The two countries have excellent economic and business relations with Greece being the largest investor in the country. However, the indeterminate status of the Republic of Macedonia's name arises from a long-running dispute with Greece, which criticises the use of the name and symbols. The main points of the dispute are: Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; The name: The Republic of Macedonia is only part of the wider region of Macedonia, 51% of which is part of Greece. The flag: the use of a symbol found in Greece (resolved, see below). Constitutional issues: certain articles of the constitution that were seen as claims on Greek territory (resolved, see below). The naming issue was "parked" in a compromise agreed at the United Nations in 1993. However, Greece refused to grant diplomatic recognition to the Republic and imposed an economic blockade that lasted until the flag and constitutional issues were resolved in 1995. Naming issue Flag issue The Republic of Macedonia's first post-independence flag caused a major controversy when it was unveiled. The use of the Vergina Sun on the flag offended Greeks, as they regarded the symbol as being associated with King Philip II of Macedon and by extension with his son, Alexander the Great. The Greek viewpoint was summed up in an FAQ circulated on the Internet in the late 1990s: The Vergina Sun, the emblem of Philip's dynasty, symbolizes the birth of our nation. It was the first time (4th century BC) that the Greek mainland (city-states and kingdoms) with the same language, culture, and religion were united against the enemies of Asia in one league. At the same time the fractured Greek world grew conscious of its unity. And, in this sense, we have never been apart since then. The "Sun" was excavated in Greece in 1978, and it is sacred to us. The symbol was removed from the flag under an agreement reached between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece in September 1995. The Republic agreed to meet a number of Greek demands for changes to its national symbols and constitution, while Greece agreed to establish diplomatic relations with the Republic and end its economic blockade. Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; Constitutional issue The Republic of Macedonia's first post-independence constitution, adopted on November 17, 1991 included a number of clauses that Greece interpreted as promoting secessionist sentiment among the Slavophone population of northern Greece, and making irredentist claims on Greek territory. Article 49 of the constitution caused particular concern. It read: (1) The Republic cares for the status and rights of those persons belonging to the Macedonian people in neighboring countries, as well as Macedonian expatriates, assists their cultural development and promotes links with them. In the exercise of this concern the Republic will not interfere in the sovereign rights of other states or in their internal affairs. (2) The Republic cares for the cultural, economic and social rights of the citizens of the Republic abroad. Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia, adopted 17 November 1991, amended on 6 January 1992 The Greek government interpreted this as a licence for the Republic of Macedonia to interfere in Greek internal affairs. Given long-standing Greek sensitivities over the position of the country's minority groups, the government saw this as being the most serious of the three main issues affecting relations between the two countries; the issue of the republic's symbols, by contrast, was seen as being of much less substantive importance, even though it aroused the loudest political controversy. The Greek prime minister at the time, Constantine Mitsotakis, later commented that What concerned me from the very first moment was not the name of the state. The problem for me was that [we should not allow] the creation of a second minority problem in the area of western [Greek] Macedonia [the first minority being the turkish-speaking Greeks of western Thrace]. My main aim was to convince the Republic to declare that there is no Slavomacedonian minority in Greece. This was the real key of our difference with Skopje. Constantine Mitsotakis, quoted in Tom Gallagher, The Balkans In The New Millennium: in the shadow of war and peace, p. 6. Routledge, 2005. ISBN 0415349400 The offending articles were removed under the 1995 agreement between the two sides. References External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Macedonia | Foreign_relations_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia |@lemmatized key:3 priority:3 foreign:4 relation:18 ministry:2 affair:4 republic:40 macedonia:34 goal:1 promotion:2 nato:8 candidate:2 country:24 active:3 participation:3 within:2 establish:4 institutional:1 framework:1 partnership:2 peace:4 eapc:1 implementation:1 membership:3 action:1 plan:1 aim:2 create:1 condition:2 receive:1 invitation:1 summit:1 mission:1 un:7 eu:9 support:4 security:2 stability:1 fulfil:1 required:1 criterion:1 presentation:1 purpose:1 ensure:1 bring:1 decision:1 date:1 start:1 negotiation:1 accession:2 process:1 build:1 internal:3 legal:2 mechanism:1 instrument:1 capacity:1 harmonization:1 acquis:1 area:3 make:2 contribution:1 development:3 cfsp:1 esdp:1 continuous:1 strengthening:1 strategic:1 united:4 state:11 devote:1 special:1 attention:1 cooperation:2 also:4 russian:1 federation:1 people:3 china:3 good:5 neighborliness:1 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impose:1 blockade:2 last:1 post:2 cause:2 major:1 controversy:2 unveil:1 vergina:2 sun:3 offend:1 associate:1 king:1 philip:2 ii:1 macedon:1 extension:1 son:1 alexander:1 great:1 viewpoint:1 sum:1 faq:1 circulate:1 internet:1 late:1 emblem:1 dynasty:1 symbolize:1 birth:1 century:1 bc:1 mainland:1 city:1 kingdom:1 culture:1 religion:1 unite:1 enemy:1 asia:1 one:1 league:1 fracture:1 world:1 grow:1 conscious:1 unity:1 sense:1 never:1 apart:1 since:1 excavate:1 sacred:1 u:1 remove:2 reach:1 meet:1 demand:1 change:1 november:2 include:1 clause:1 interpret:2 promote:1 secessionist:1 sentiment:1 among:1 slavophone:1 population:1 northern:1 irredentist:1 particular:1 concern:3 read:1 care:2 person:1 belong:1 expatriate:1 assist:1 promotes:1 link:2 exercise:1 citizen:1 amend:1 licence:1 give:1 stand:1 sensitivity:1 position:1 group:1 saw:1 serious:1 three:1 affect:1 contrast:1 much:1 less:1 substantive:1 importance:1 even:1 though:1 arouse:1 loud:1 prime:1 minister:1 constantine:2 mitsotakis:2 later:1 comment:1 moment:1 problem:2 allow:1 creation:1 second:1 turkish:1 speaking:1 thrace:1 convince:1 declare:1 slavomacedonian:1 real:1 difference:1 skopje:1 quote:1 tom:1 gallagher:1 millennium:1 shadow:1 war:1 p:1 routledge:1 offending:1 side:1 external:1 |@bigram foreign_affair:2 republic_macedonia:26 global_warming:1 diplomatic_relation:3 san_marino:1 bahamas_barbados:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 trinidad_tobago:1 good_neighbourly:3 neighbourly_relation:3 eu_enlargement:1 trading_partner:1 floudas_demetrius:2 demetrius_andreas:2 vergina_sun:2 irredentist_claim:1 prime_minister:1 external_link:1 |
2,093 | James_Norris_Memorial_Trophy | The James Norris Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the National Hockey League's top "defense player who demonstrates throughout the season the greatest all-round ability in the position". The James Norris Memorial Trophy has been awarded 52 times to 21 different players since its beginnings in 1954. At the end of each season, members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote to determine the player who was the best defenseman during the regular season. History The trophy is named in honour of James E. Norris, owner of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings from 1932 to 1952. The trophy was first awarded at the conclusion of the 1953–54 NHL season. Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins won the award for a record eight consecutive seasons (1968–75). Doug Harvey won the award seven times, while Nicklas Lidstrom has won it six times in his career and Ray Bourque won it five times during his career; between them, those four players have won half the Norris Trophies awarded to date. The Boston Bruins have won the most Norris Trophies with 13. The Montreal Canadiens are second with 11. There are only two players that have won both the Norris and Hart Memorial Trophy for the same season: Bobby Orr, who won both trophies for the 1969–70, 1970–71 and 1971–72 seasons, and Chris Pronger, who won the Hart and Norris for the 1999–2000 NHL season. Seven different defensemen won the Hart Trophy before the Norris Trophy's establishment: Billy Burch, Eddie Shore (four times), Herb Gardiner, Albert "Babe" Siebert, Ebbie Goodfellow, Tommy Anderson and Babe Pratt. The voting is conducted at the end of the regular season by members of the Professional Hockey Writers Association, and each individual voter ranks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL awards ceremony after the conclusion of the playoffs. Winners Brian Leetch, two-time winner. Chris Pronger, one-time winner. Scott Niedermayer, one-time winner. Nicklas Lidstrom, six-time winner. SeasonWinnerTeamWin # 1953–54 Detroit Red Wings 1 1954–55 Montreal Canadiens 1 1955–56 Montreal Canadiens 2 1956–57 Montreal Canadiens 3 1957–58 Montreal Canadiens 4 1958–59 Montreal Canadiens 1 1959–60 Montreal Canadiens 5 1960–61 Montreal Canadiens 6 1961–62 New York Rangers 7 1962–63 Chicago Black Hawks 1 1963–64 Chicago Black Hawks 2 1964–65 Chicago Black Hawks 3 1965–66 Montreal Canadiens 1 1966–67 New York Rangers 1 1967–68 Boston Bruins 1 1968–69 Boston Bruins 2 1969–70 Boston Bruins 3 1970–71 Boston Bruins 4 1971–72 Boston Bruins 5 1972–73 Boston Bruins 6 1973–74 Boston Bruins 7 1974–75 Boston Bruins 8 1975–76 New York Islanders 1 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens 1 1977–78 New York Islanders 2 1978–79 New York Islanders 3 1979–80 Montreal Canadiens 2 1980–81 Pittsburgh Penguins 1 1981–82 Chicago Black Hawks 1 1982–83 Washington Capitals 1 1983–84 Washington Capitals 2 1984–85 Edmonton Oilers 1 1985–86 Edmonton Oilers 2 1986–87 Boston Bruins 1 1987–88 Boston Bruins 2 1988–89 Montreal Canadiens 1 1989–90 Boston Bruins 3 1990–91 Boston Bruins 4 1991–92 New York Rangers 1 1992–93 Chicago Blackhawks 2 1993–94 Boston Bruins 5 1994–95 Detroit Red Wings 3 1995–96 Chicago Blackhawks 3 1996–97 New York Rangers 2 1997–98 Los Angeles Kings 1 1998–99 St. Louis Blues 1 1999–2000 St. Louis Blues 1 2000–01 Detroit Red Wings 1 2001–02 Detroit Red Wings 2 2002–03 Detroit Red Wings 3 2003–04 New Jersey Devils 1 2004–05 zzz — — 2005–06 Detroit Red Wings 4 2006–07 Detroit Red Wings 5 2007–08 Detroit Red Wings 6 2008-09 finalists The finalists for the award for the 2008-09 season were announced on April 23, 2009. The trophy winner will be announced on June 18, 2009 at the NHL Awards ceremony. Zdeno Chara, Boston Bruins (third nomination) Mike Green, Washington Capitals (first nomination) Nicklas Lidstrom, Detroit Red Wings (six-time winner, tenth nomination) References General James Norris Memorial Trophy history at NHL.com James Norris Memorial Trophy history at Legends of Hockey.net Specific See also List of NHL players List of NHL statistical leaders | James_Norris_Memorial_Trophy |@lemmatized james:5 norris:10 memorial:5 trophy:14 award:10 annually:1 national:2 hockey:5 league:2 top:2 defense:1 player:6 demonstrate:1 throughout:1 season:10 great:1 round:1 ability:1 position:1 time:10 different:2 since:1 beginning:1 end:2 member:2 professional:2 writer:2 association:2 vote:1 determine:1 best:1 defenseman:1 regular:2 history:3 name:2 honour:1 e:1 owner:1 detroit:10 red:10 wing:10 first:2 conclusion:2 nhl:7 bobby:2 orr:2 boston:16 bruins:1 win:10 record:1 eight:1 consecutive:1 doug:1 harvey:1 seven:2 nicklas:3 lidstrom:3 six:3 career:2 ray:1 bourque:1 five:2 four:2 half:1 date:1 bruin:15 montreal:12 canadiens:12 second:1 two:2 hart:3 chris:2 pronger:2 defensemen:1 establishment:1 billy:1 burch:1 eddie:1 shore:1 herb:1 gardiner:1 albert:1 babe:2 siebert:1 ebbie:1 goodfellow:1 tommy:1 anderson:1 pratt:1 voting:1 conduct:1 individual:1 voter:1 rank:1 candidate:1 point:1 system:1 three:1 finalist:2 ceremony:2 playoff:1 winner:7 brian:1 leetch:1 one:2 scott:1 niedermayer:1 seasonwinnerteamwin:1 new:8 york:7 ranger:4 chicago:6 black:4 hawk:4 islander:3 pittsburgh:1 penguin:1 washington:3 capital:3 edmonton:2 oiler:2 blackhawks:2 los:1 angeles:1 king:1 st:2 louis:2 blue:2 jersey:1 devil:1 zzz:1 finalists:1 announce:2 april:1 june:1 zdeno:1 chara:1 third:1 nomination:3 mike:1 green:1 tenth:1 reference:1 general:1 com:1 legend:1 net:1 specific:1 see:1 also:1 list:2 statistical:1 leader:1 |@bigram norris_memorial:4 memorial_trophy:5 boston_bruins:1 nicklas_lidstrom:3 boston_bruin:15 montreal_canadiens:12 ebbie_goodfellow:1 canadiens_montreal:6 bruin_boston:9 edmonton_oiler:2 chicago_blackhawks:2 los_angeles:1 |
2,094 | Demographics_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Netherlands Antilles, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Population of the Netherlands Antilles in thousands, 1961—2003. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 189,000 (July 2006 est.) The capital and largest city is Willemstad. Of the five major islands of the Netherlands Antilles, Curaçao has the largest population (135,822 on 1 January 2005), followed by Sint Maarten (35,035), Bonaire (10,638), Sint Eustatius (2,584), and finally Saba (1,434). Age structure: 0-14 years: 23,9% (male 27 197; female 25 886) 15-64 years: 67.3% (male 71 622; female 77 710) 65 years and over: 8.7% (male 7 925; female 11 396) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: 0,79% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 14,78 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 6,45 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Human sex ratio: at birth: 1,05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1,05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0,92 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0,7 male(s)/female total population: 0,93 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 9,76 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76,03 years male: 73,76 years female: 78,41 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.98 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality: noun: Netherlands Antillean(s) adjective: Netherlands Antillean Ethnic groups: mixed black 85%, Carib Amerindian, white, East Asian Religions: Roman Catholic 72%, Pentecostal 4,9%, Protestant 3.5%, Seventh-day Adventist 3,1%, Methodist 2,9%, other Christian 4,2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1,7%, Jewish 1,3% Languages: Dutch (official), but Papiamento (a Portuguese-West African creole with Dutch and Spanish influence) predominates on Curaçao and Bonaire, while Spanish and English are widely spoken. English is the most commonly spoken language on Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius. Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 96,7% male: 96,7% female: 96,8% (2003 est.) | Demographics_of_the_Netherlands_Antilles |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:13 netherlands:5 antilles:3 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 thousand:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 capital:1 large:2 city:1 willemstad:1 five:1 major:1 island:1 curaçao:2 january:1 follow:1 sint:4 maarten:2 bonaire:2 eustatius:2 finally:1 saba:2 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 human:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 antillean:2 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 mixed:1 black:1 carib:1 amerindian:1 white:1 east:1 asian:1 religion:1 roman:1 catholic:1 pentecostal:1 protestant:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 methodist:1 christian:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 jewish:1 language:2 dutch:2 official:1 papiamento:1 portuguese:1 west:1 african:1 creole:1 spanish:2 influence:1 predominate:1 english:2 widely:1 speak:1 commonly:1 spoken:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram netherlands_antilles:3 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 sint_maarten:2 sint_eustatius:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 netherlands_antillean:2 day_adventist:1 jehovah_witness:1 curaçao_bonaire:1 saba_sint:1 literacy_definition:1 |
2,095 | Food_and_Agriculture_Organization | The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernise and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates into English as "let there be bread". , FAO has 191 members states along with the European Community and the Faroe Islands, which are associate members of FAO members . Structure |FAO headquarters in Rome. FAO was established on 16 October 1945 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. In 1951 its headquarters were moved from Washington, D.C., United States, to Rome, Italy. The agency is directed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to review the work carried out by the organization and to approve a Programme of Work and Budget for the next two year period. The Conference elects a council of 49 member states (serve three-year rotating terms) that acts as an interim governing body, and the Director-General, that heads the agency. FAO is subdivided into eight departments: Administration and Finance, Agriculture, Economic and Social, Fisheries, Forestry, General Affairs and Information, Sustainable Development and Technical Cooperation. Since 1994, FAO has undergone the most significant restructuring since its founding, to decentralize operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs. As result, savings of about US$50 million a year have been realized. Budget FAO's Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at the FAO Conference. This budget covers core technical work, cooperation and partnerships including the Technical Cooperation Programme, information and general policy, direction and administration. Member states froze FAO's budget from 1994 through 2001 at US$650 million per biennium. The budget was raised slightly to US$651.8 million for 2002-03 and jumped to US$749 million for 2004-05, but this nominal increase was seen as a decline in real terms UN food agency says real budget falls in 2004-2005, UN Mission to the UN agencies in Rome, 10 December 2003 . In November 2005, the FAO governing Conference voted for a two-year budget appropriation of US$765.7 million for 2006–2007; once again, the increase only partially offset rising costs due to inflation. FAO’S 2006-2007 budget, FAO Newsroom, 25 November 2005 Directors-general Jacques Diouf, FAO Director General since 1994. Sir John Boyd Orr (UK) : October 1945 - April 1948. Norris E. Dodd (U.S.) : April 1948 - December 1953. Philip V. Cardon (U.S.) : January 1954 - April 1956. Sir Herbert Broadley (UK) (acting) : April 1956 - November 1956. Binay Ranjan Sen (India) : November 1956 - December 1967. Addeke Hendrik Boerma (Neth.) : January 1968 - December 1975. Edouard Saouma (Lebanon) : January 1976 - December 1993. Jacques Diouf (Senegal) : January 1994 - current Deputy directors-general William Nobel Clark (US) : 1948. Sir Herbert Broadley (UK) : 1948 - 1958. Friedrich Traugott Wahlen (Switzerland) : 1958 - 1959. Norman C. Wright (UK) : 1959 - 1963. Oris V. Wells (US) : 1963 - 1971. Roy I. Jackson (US) : 1971 - 1978. Ralph W. Phillips (US) : 1978 - 1981. Edward M. West (UK) : 1981 - 1985. Declan J. Walton (Ireland) : 1986 - 1987. Howard Hjort (US) : 1992 - 1997. Vikram J. Shah (ad personam) (UK) : 1992 - 1995. David A. Harcharik (US) : 1998 - 2007. James G. Butler (US) : 2008 - current. Programmes and achievements Special Programme for Food Security The Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) is FAO's flagship initiative for reaching the goal of halving the number of hungry in the world by 2015 (presently 852 million people), as part of its commitment to the Millennium Development Goals. Through projects in over 100 countries worldwide, the SPFS promotes effective, tangible solutions to the elimination of hunger, undernourishment and poverty. Currently 102 countries are engaged in the SPFS and of these approximately 30 are operating or developing comprehensive National Food Security Programmes. To maximize the impact of its work, the SPFS strongly promotes national ownership and local empowerment in the countries in which it operates. Integrated pest management During the 1990s, FAO took a leading role in the promotion of integrated pest management for rice production in Asia. Hundreds of thousands of farmers were trained using an approach known as the Farmer Field School (FFS). Like many of the programmes managed by FAO, the funds for Farmer Field Schools came from bilateral Trust Funds, with Australia, Netherlands, Norway and Switzerland acting as the leading donors. FAO's efforts in this area have drawn praise from NGOs that have otherwise criticized much of the work of the organization. FAO statistics The FAO Statistical Division produces FAOSTAT, an on-line multilingual database currently containing over 3 million time-series records from over 210 countries and territories covering statistics on agriculture, nutrition, fisheries, forestry, food aid, land use and population. The Statistical Division also produces data on World Agricultural Trade Flows. Some of this data comes from projects like Africover. TeleFood Raising awareness about the problem of hunger mobilizes energy to find a solution. In 1997, FAO launched TeleFood, a campaign of concerts, sporting events and other activities to harness the power of media, celebrities and concerned citizens to help fight hunger. Since its start, the campaign has generated close to US$14 million in donations. Money raised through TeleFood pays for small, sustainable projects that help small-scale farmers produce more food for their families and communities. The Right to Adequate Food FAO's Strategic Framework 2000-2015 stipulates that the organization is expected to take into full account "progress made in further developing a rights-based approach to food security" in carrying out its mission "helping to build a food-secure world for present and future generations." When the Council adopted the Voluntary Guidelines in November 2004, it also called for adequate follow up to the Guidelines through "mainstreaming" and the preparation of information, communication and training material. International Alliance Against Hunger In June 2002, during the World Food Summit, world leaders reviewed progress made towards meeting the 1996 Summit goal of halving the number of the world's hungry by 2015; their final declaration called for the creation of an International Alliance against Hunger (IAAH) to join forces in efforts to eradicate hunger. Launched on World Food Day, 16 October 2003, the IAAH works to generate political will and concrete actions through partnerships between intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations and national alliances. The IAAH is a voluntary association of international organisations, national alliances against hunger, civil society organisations, social and religious organisations and the private sector. The global activities of the IAAH focus on four major themes: advocacy, accountability, resource mobilization and coordination. The International Alliance is made up of the Rome-based UN food organisations – FAO, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the World Food Programme (WFP) – and representatives of other intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations. Individuals cannot directly join the IAAH, though they can work with national alliances against hunger. In less than two years, 36 countries have established national alliances, some of them already very active like those in Brazil, Burkina Faso, France, India and the United States. Goodwill ambassadors The FAO Goodwill Ambassadors Programme was initiated in 1999. The main purpose of the programme is to attract public and media attention to the unacceptable situation that some 800 million people continue to suffer from chronic hunger and malnutrition in a time of unprecedented plenty. These people lead a life of misery and are denied the most basic of human rights: the right to food. Governments alone cannot end hunger and undernourishment. Mobilization of the public and private sectors, the involvement of civil society and the pooling of collective and individual resources are all needed if people are to break out of the vicious circle of chronic hunger and undernourishment. Each of FAO’s Goodwill Ambassadors – celebrities from the arts, entertainment, sport and academia such as Nobel Prize winner Rita Levi Montalcini, actress Gong Li, the late singer Miriam Makeba, and soccer player Roberto Baggio, to name a few – has made a personal and professional commitment to FAO’s vision: a food-secure world for present and future generations. Using their talents and influence, the Goodwill Ambassadors draw the old and the young, the rich and the poor into the campaign against world hunger. They aim to make Food for All a reality in the 21st century and beyond. Criticism 1970s and 80s There has been public criticism of FAO for at least 30 years. Dissatisfaction with the organisation's performance was among the reasons for the creation of two new organisations after the World Food Conference in 1974, namely the World Food Council and the International Fund for Agricultural Development; by the early eighties there was intense rivalry among these organisations. Critics Say Rivalries Hurt Work of Food Groups, New York Times, 9 November 1981 At the same time, the World Food Programme, which started as an experimental 3-year programme under FAO, was growing in size and independence, with the Directors of FAO and WFP struggling for power.<ref>Bread and Stones: Leadership and the Struggle to Reform the United Nations World Food Programme", James Ingram, Booksurge, 2006 </ref> Early in 1989, the organisation came under attack from the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C. The Foundation wrote that The sad fact is that the FAO has become essentially irrelevant in combating hunger. A bloated bureaucracy known for the mediocrity of its work and the inefficiency of its staff the FAO in recent years has become increasingly politicised. The U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization: Becoming Part of the Problem, Juliana Geran Pilon, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder #626, 4 January 1988 In September of the same year, the journal Society published a series of articles about FAO Society, Volume 25, Number 6, September 1988 that included a contribution from the Heritage Foundation and a response by FAO staff member, Richard Lydiker, who was later described by the Danish Minister for Agriculture (who had herself resigned from the organisation) as 'FAO's chief spokesman for non-transparency'. A Sixth 100 Questions on Democracy, Council for Parity Democracy, 22 November 2002 . Edouard Saouma, the Director General of FAO, was also criticised in Graham Hancock's book 'Lords of Poverty, published in 1989. Lords of Poverty: The Power, Prestige, and Corruption of the International Aid Business, MacMillan, London, 1989 . Mention is made of Saouma's 'fat pay packet', his 'autocratic' management style, and his 'control over the flow of public information'. Hancock concluded that "One gets the sense from all of this of an institution that has lost its way, departed from its purely humanitarian and developmental mandate, become confused about its place in the world - about exactly what it is doing, and why". Despite the criticism, Edouard Saouma served as DG for three consecutive terms from 1976 to 1993. The 1990s In 1990, the US State Department expressed the view that "The Food and Agriculture Organization has lagged behind other UN organizations in responding to US desires for improvements in program and budget processes to enhance value for money spent". Statement by John R. Bolton, Assistant Secretary for International Organizations,19 September 1990 A year later, in 1991, The Ecologist magazine produced a special issue under the heading "The UN Food and Agriculture Organization: Promoting World Hunger". The Ecologist 21(2), March/April, 1991 The magazine included articles that questioned FAO's policies and practices in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture, and pest control. The articles were written by experts such as Helena Norberg-Hodge, Vandana Shiva, Edward Goldsmith, Miguel A. Altieri and Barbara Dinham. Also included was an article by 'Khalil Sesmou', the pseudonym of a senior FAO official. Sesmou's article started with the following summary of the criticism FAO was facing at the time: "FAO, set up to develop world agriculture so as to enable the world to feed itself has disastrously failed in its task. It has ignored and even derided traditional agricultural methods and permits no international criticism of its policy of promoting Western-style intensive farming and the export of cash crops. FAO's performance is judged on the amount of money it spends, not on the effectiveness of its projects, it ignores the voices of the people it is supposed to be helping and it has close links with agribusiness internationals, whose products it actively promotes. The organisation's Director-General has been much criticised by FAO staff and others for his autocratic style, and the political manoeuvring he has engaged in to ensure his re-election. A massive overhaul of FAO's basic philosophy, structure and function is urgently needed". (page 47) In 1996, FAO organised the World Food Summit, attended by 112 Heads or Deputy Heads of State and Government. The Summit concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by the year 2015. World Food Summit archive, FAO At the same time, 1,200 Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from 80 countries participated in an NGO forum. The forum was critical of the growing industrialisation of agriculture and called upon governments — and FAO — to do more to protect the 'Right to Food' of the poor, rather that protecting the profits of companies involved in agribusiness which they still aren't doing even in the 2000s. Profit for few or food for all, Final Statement of the NGO Forum, 1996 The 2000s The next Food Summit organised by FAO in 2002 was considered to be a waste of time by many of the official participants. Food summit waste of time. BBC, 13 June 2002, . Social movements, farmers, fisherfolk, pastoralists, indigenous peoples, environmentalists, women's organisations, trade unions and NGOs expressed their collective disappointment in, and rejection of the official Declaration of the... Summit NGO/CSO Forum for Food Sovereignty, final statement, 12 June 2002 . In 2004, FAO produced a controversial report called 'Agricultural Biotechnology: meeting the needs of the poor?'. The report claimed that "agricultural biotechnology has real potential as a new tool in the war on hunger". Agricultural Biotechnology: meeting the needs of the poor?, FAO, 17 May 2004 In response to the report, more than 650 organisations from around the world signed an open letter in which they said "FAO has broken its commitment to civil society and peasants' organisations". The letter complained that organisations representing the interests of farmers had not been consulted, that FAO was siding with the biotechnology industry and, consequently, that the report "raises serious questions about the independence and intellectual integrity of an important United Nations agency". FAO declare war on farmers not hunger, Grain, 16 June 2004 The Director General of FAO responded immediately, stating that decisions on biotechnology must "be taken at the international level by competent bodies" (in other words, not by non-governmental organizations). He acknowledged, however, that "biotechnology research is essentially driven by the world's top ten transnational corporations" and "the private sector protects its results with patents in order to earn from its investment and it concentrates on products that have no relevance to food in developing countries". Statement by FAO Director General In May 2006, a British newspaper published the resignation letter of Louise Fresco, one of eight Assistant Directors-General of FAO. In her letter, the widely respected Dr Fresco stated that "the Organisation has been unable to adapt to a new era", that "our contribution and reputation have declined steadily" and "its leadership has not proposed bold options to overcome this crisis". Resignation letter of Louise Fresco, ADG, FAO, Guardian Unlimited, 14 May 2006, October 2006 saw delegates from 120 countries arrive in Rome for the 32nd Session of FAO's Committee on World Food Security. The event was widely criticised by Non-Government Organisations, but largely ignored by the mainstream media. Oxfam called for an end to the talk-fests Global hunger: act now or go home, press statement, 30 October 2006 while Via Campesina issued a statement that criticised FAO's policy of Food Security. 10 Years of Empty Promises, press statement 22 September 2006 2007 independent external evaluation At its 33rd Session in November 2005, the FAO Conference agreed to commission the first independent external evaluation (IEE) in the history of the organisation. The final report of the IEE, more than 400 page in length, was published on 18 October 2007. The report concluded that "The Organization is today in a financial and programme crisis" but "the problems affecting the Organization today can all be solved" Independent External Evaluation, page at FAO website with links to the IEE report Among the problems noted by the IEE: "The Organization has been conservative and slow to adapt", "FAO currently has a heavy and costly bureaucracy" and "The capacity of the Organization is declining and many of its core competencies are now imperiled". Among the solutions: "A new Strategic Framework", "institutional culture change and reform of administrative and management systems". The official response from FAO came on 29 October: "Management supports the principal conclusion in the report of the IEE on the need for 'reform with growth' so as to have an FAO 'it for this century'". Official FAO response to evaluation report Meanwhile, hundreds of FAO staff signed a petition in support of the IEE recommendations, calling for " a radical shift in management culture and spirit, depoliticization of appointments, restoration of trust between staff and management, [and] setting strategic priorities of the organization". For a Renewal of FAO, on-line petition, November 2007 In conclusion the IEE stated that, "If FAO did not exist it would need to be invented". In November 2008, a Special Conference of FAO member countries agreed a US$42.6 million, three-year Immediate Plan of Action for "reform with growth" as recommended by an Independent External Evaluation (IEE). Under the plan US$21.8 million will be spent next year on overhauling the financial procedures, hierarchies and human resources management. "UN food agency approves US$42.6 million reform plan" FAO and the world food crisis In May 2008, while talking about the ongoing world food crisis, President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal expressed the opinion that FAO was "a waste of money" and "we must scrap it". Mr Wade said that FAO was itself largely to blame for the price rises, and that the organisation's work was duplicated by other bodies that operated more efficiently, like the UN's International Fund for Agricultural Development. UN food body should be scrapped, BBC News, 5 May 2008 However, this criticism may have had more to do with personal animosity between the President and the Director-General, himself a Senegalese, particularly in light of the significant differences in the work carried out by the two organizations. In 2008, the FAO sponsored the High-Level Conference on World Food Security. The summit was notable for the lack of agreement over the issue of biofuels. Food summit fails to agree on biofuels, Guardian 06 June 2008, The response to the summit among Non-governmental organizations was mixed, with Oxfam stating that "the summit in Rome was an important first step in tackling the food crisis but greater action is now needed" Rome summit ‘important first step’ but much more needed says Oxfam, Oxfam Press Release, 5 June 2008 , while Maryam Rahmanian of Iran’s Centre for Sustainable Development said "We are dismayed and disgusted to see the food crisis used to further the policies that have led us to the food crisis in the first place”. Farmers 'disgusted' with food summit, Daily Despatch Online, 7 June 2008 As with previous food summits, civil society organizations held a parallel meeting and issued their own declaration to "reject the corporate industrial and energy-intensive model of production and consumption that is the basis of continuing crises"'' Civil Society Declaration of the Terra Preta Forum, La Via Campesina, 5 June 2008 FAO offices World headquarters The world headquarters are located in Rome, in the former seat of the Department of Italian East Africa. One of the most notable features of the building was the Axum Obelisk which stood in front of the agency seat, although just outside of the territory allocated to FAO by the Italian Government. It was taken from Ethiopia by Benito Mussolini's troops in 1937 as a war chest, and returned on 18 April 2005. Regional offices Regional Office for Africa in Accra, Ghana Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean in Santiago, Chile Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok, Thailand Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo, Egypt Regional Office for Europe in Budapest, Hungary Subregional offices Subregional Office for Southern and East Africa in Harare, Zimbabwe Subregional Office for the Pacific Islands in Apia, Samoa Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe in Budapest, Hungary Subregional Office for the Caribbean in Bridgetown, Barbados Subregional Office For North Africa in Tunis, Tunisia Subregional Office For Central Asia in Ankara, Turkey Sub-regional Office for Western Africa (SFW) located in Accra, Ghana Sub-regional Office for Eastern Africa (SFE) located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Sub-regional Office for Central Africa (SFC) located in Libreville, Gabon Sub-regional Office for Central America (SLM) located in Panama City, Panama Liaison offices Liaison Office with the United Nations in Geneva Liaison Office for North America in Washington D.C. Liaison Office with the United Nations in New York Liaison Office with Japan in Yokohama Liaison Office with the European Union and Belgium in Brussels Membership Two notable exclusions from this list are Russia and Singapore. CIA World Factbook, 14 May 2009 See also CountrySTAT :Category:Food and Agriculture Organization officials Farmer Field School Food safety Food security Food sovereignty Food Supply and Distribution Systems OIE/FAO Network of Expertise on Avian Influenza World Food Day :Forestry Information Centre Sources and notes External links FAO website Fact sheets/features/press releases, FAOSTAT website FAO Country Profiles and Mapping Information System FAO's David Lubin Memorial Library TeleFood Forestry Department Forestry Information Centre Agricultural Development Economics Division Agricultural Information Management Standards Video clips FAO YouTube channel | Food_and_Agriculture_Organization |@lemmatized food:53 agriculture:11 organization:19 united:8 nation:8 fao:80 specialised:1 agency:8 lead:4 international:13 effort:3 defeat:1 hunger:19 serve:3 develop:7 country:13 act:5 neutral:1 forum:6 meet:3 equal:1 negotiate:1 agreement:2 debate:1 policy:6 also:6 source:2 knowledge:1 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2,096 | Economy_of_Mexico | The economy of Mexico is 10th to 12th largest in the world. Since the 1994 crisis, administrations have improved the country's macroeconomic fundamentals. Mexico was not significantly influenced by the recent 2002 South American crisis, and has maintained positive, although low, rates of growth after a brief period of stagnation in 2001. Moody's (in March 2000) and Fitch IBCA (in January 2002) issued investment-grade ratings for Mexico's sovereign debt. In spite of its unprecedented macroeconomic stability, which has reduced inflation and interest rates to record lows and has increased per capita income, enormous gaps remain between the urban and the rural population, the northern and southern states, and the rich and the poor. Some of the government's challenges include the upgrade of infrastructure, the modernization of the tax system and labor laws, and the reduction of income inequality. The economy contains rapidly developing modern industrial and service sectors, with increasing private ownership. Recent administrations have expanded competition in ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports, with the aim of upgrading infrastructure. As an export-oriented economy, more than 90% of Mexican trade is under free trade agreements (FTAs) with more than 40 countries, including the European Union, Japan, Israel, and much of Central and South America. The most influential FTA is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which came into effect in 1994, and was signed in 1992 by the governments of the United States, Canada and Mexico. In 2006, trade with Mexico's two northern partners accounted for almost 90% of its exports and 55% of its imports. Mexico. The World Factbook. CIA. Recently, the Congress of the Union approved important tax, pension and judicial reforms, and reform to the oil industry is currently being debated. According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Mexico had 16 companies in the list. History Following five decades of political turbulence following the independence of Mexico, the four consecutive administrations of president Porfirio Díaz (during the last quarter of the nineteenth century) brought unprecedented economic growth. This growth was accompanied by foreign investment and European immigration, the development of an efficient railroad network and the exploitation of the country's natural resources. GDP per capita levels circa 1900 were on par with Argentina and Uruguay, almost three times that of Brazil and Venezuela. Annual economic growth between 1876 and 1910 averaged 3.3%. Political repression and fraud, as well as huge income inequalities exacerbated by the land distribution system based on latifundios, in which large haciendas were owned by a few but worked by millions of underpaid peasants living in precarious conditions, led to the Mexican Revolution (1910–1917), an armed conflict that drastically transformed Mexico's political, social, cultural, and economical structure during the twentieth century under a premise of social democracy. The war itself, however, left a harsh toll in the economy and population, which decreased over the 11-year period between 1910 and 1921. The reconstruction of the country was to take place in the following decades. The period from 1930 to 1970 was dubbed by economic historians as the "Mexican Miracle", a period of economic growth spurred by a model of import substitution industrialization (ISI) which protected and promoted the development of national industries. Through the ISI model, the country experienced an economic boom through which industries rapidly expanded their production. Important changes in the economic structure included free land distribution to peasants under the concept of ejido, the nationalization of the oil and railroad companies, the introduction of social rights into the constitution, the birth of large and influential labor unions, and the upgrading of infrastructure. While population doubled from 1940 to 1970, GDP increased sixfold. The ISI model had reached its peaked in the late 1960s. During the 1970s, the administrations of Echeverría and López Portillo, tried to include social development in their policies, an effort that entailed more public spending. With the discovery of vast oil fields in a time in which oil prices were surging and international interest rates were low -and even negative- the government decided to borrow from international capital markets to invest in the state-owned oil company, which in turn seemed to provide a long-run income source to promote social welfare. In fact, this method produced a remarkable growth in public expenditure, and president López Portillo announced that the time had come to learn to "manage prosperity" as Mexico multiplied its oil production to become the world's fourth largest exporter. Average annual GDP growth by period{{#if:Image:Lazaro Cardenas.jpg|<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"> 1900–1929 3.4%1929–1945 4.2%1945–1972 6.5%1972–19815.5%1981–1996 1.5%1995–2000 5.1%Sources: In the period of 1981–1982 the international panorama changed abruptly: oil prices plunged and interest rates rose. In 1982, president López Portillo, just before ending his administration, suspended payments of foreign debt, devalued the peso and nationalized the banking system, along with many other industries that were severely affected by the crisis, among them the steel industry. While import substitution had produced an era of industrialization in previous decades, by the 1980s it was evident that that protracted protection had produced an uncompetitive industrial sector with low productivity gains. President de la Madrid was the first of a series of presidents that began to implement neoliberal reforms. After the crisis of 1982, lenders were unwilling to return to Mexico and, in order to keep the current account in balance, the government resorted to currency devaluations, which in turn sparked unprecedented inflation, which reached a historic high in 1987 at 159.7%. The first step toward the liberalization of trade was Mexico's signature of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986. During the Salinas administration many state-owned companies were privatized. In 1992, the North American Free Trade Agreement was signed between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and after the signature of two additional supplements on environments and labor standards, it came into effect on January 1, 1994. Salinas also introduced strict price controls and negotiated smaller minimum wage increments with labor unions with the aim of curbing inflation. While his strategy was successful in reducing inflation, growth averaged only 2.8 percent a year. Moreover, by fixing the exchange rate, the peso became rapidly overvalued while consumer spending increased, causing the current account deficit to reach 7% of GDP in 1994. The deficit was financed through tesobonos a type of public debt instrument that reassured payment in dollars. The Chiapas uprising, and the assassinations of the ruling party's presidential candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio and the Secretary-General of the party and brother of the Assistant-Attorney General José Francisco Ruiz Massieu in 1994, sent a disquieting message to investors. Public debt holders rapidly sold their tesobonos, depleting the Central Bank's reserves, while portfolio investments, which had made up 90% of total investment flows, left the country as fast as they had come in. This unsustainable situation eventually forced the entrant Zedillo administration to abandon the fixed exchange rate. The peso sharply devalued and the country entered into an economic crisis in December 1994. The boom in exports, as well as an international rescue package crafted by American president Bill Clinton, helped cushion the crisis. In less than 18 months, the economy was growing again, and annual rate growth averaged 5.1 percent between 1995 and 2000. President Zedillo and president Fox continued with trade liberalization and during his administrations several FTAs were signed with Latin American and European countries, Japan and Israel, and both strove to maintain macroeconomic stability. Thus, Mexico became one of the most open countries in the world to trade, and the economy base shifted accordingly. Total trade with the United States and Canada tripled, and total exports and imports almost quadrupled between 1991 and 2003. The nature of foreign investment also changed from portfolio to foreign-direct investment (FDI). Macroeconomic, financial and welfare indicators Macroeconomic indicators{{#if:Monedamexico.jpg|<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;">GDP (PPP) US $1.134 trillion (2006)GDP growth 4.8% (2006)GDP per capita PPP US $12,500 (2007)GNI per capita PPP US $11,990 (2006)Inflation (CPI) 3% (2007)Gini index 44.5Unemployment 3.7% (2007)HDI 0.829Labor force 45.38 million (2007)Pop. in poverty 13.8% Main indicators Mexico's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) was estimated at US $1.353 trillion in 2006, and $886.4 billion in nominal exchange rates. As such, its standard of living, as measured in GDP in PPP per capita was US $12,500. The World Bank reported in 2007 that the country's Gross National Income in market exchange rates was the second highest in Latin America, after Brazil at US $820.319 billion, which lead to the highest income per capita in the region at $7,830. As such, Mexico is now firmly established as an upper middle-income country. After the slowdown of 2001 the country has recovered and has grown 4.2, 3.0 and 4.8 percent in 2004, 2005 and 2006, even though it is considered to be well below Mexico's potential growth. The Mexican currency is the peso (ISO 4217: MXN; symbol: $). One peso is divided into 100 centavos (cents). MXN replaced MXP in 1993 at a rate of 1000 MXP per 1 MXN. The exchanged rate has remained stable since 1998, oscillating between 9.20 and 11.50 MXN per USD. Interest rates in 2007 were situated at around 7 percent, having reached a historic low in 2002 below 5 percent. Inflation rates are also at historic lows; the inflation rate in Mexico in 2006 was 4.1 percent, and 3 percent by the end of 2007. Unemployment rates are the lowest of all OECD member countries at 3.2 percent. However, underemployment is estimated at 25 percent. Mexico's Human development index was reported at 0.829, page 229-232 (comprising a life expectancy index of 0.84, an education index of 0.86 and a GDP index of 0.77), ranking 52 in the world within the group of high-development. Poverty After the 1994–1995 economic crisis, probably the most severe in the country's history, 50% of the population fell into poverty. A rapid growth in exports propitiated by NAFTA and other trade agreements, and the restructuring of the macroeconomic finances initiated during Zedillo's and continued during Fox's administration had significant results in the reduction of the poverty rate: according to the World Bank, poverty was reduced from 24.2% in 2000 to 17.6% in 2004. Most of this reduction was achieved in rural communities whose rate of poverty declined from 42% to 27.9% in the 2000–2004 period, although urban poverty stagnated at 12%. According to the World Bank, in 2004, 17.6% of Mexico's population lived in extreme poverty, while 21% lived in moderated poverty. World Bank:Income Generation and Social Protection for the Poor:Executive Summary, 2005 The CIA Factbook, on the other hand, reported that 13.8% of the population was under the poverty line, as measured in food-based poverty. Poverty Line of all countries. The World Factbook. CIA. Remittances Remittances, or contributions sent by Mexicans living abroad, mostly in the United States, to their families at home in Mexico, are a substantial and growing part of the Mexican economy; they comprised $18 billion in 2005. In 2004, they became the second largest source of foreign income after crude oil exports, roughly equivalent to foreign direct investment (FDI) and larger than tourism expenditures; and represented 2.5 percent of the nation's Gross Domestic Product. The growth of remittances has been remarkable: they have more than doubled since 1997. Recorded remittance transactions exceeded 41 million in 2003, of which 86 percent were made by electronic transfer. It is estimated that lol half or more of Mexican immigrants to the United States are legal, and have access to formal transfer channels usually blocked to illegals simply due to the lack of accepted identification documents. The Mexican government, cognizant of the economic viability of immigrant workers, began issuing an upgraded version of the Matrícula Consular de Alta Seguridad (MACS, High Security Consular Identification), an identity document issued at Mexican consulates abroad. This document is now accepted as a valid identity card in 32 US states, as well as thousands of police agencies, hundreds of cities and counties, as well as banking institutions. The main receptors of remittances in 2004 were the states of Michoacán, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Mexico and Puebla, which jointly captured 45% of total remittances in that year. Several state governments, with the support of the federal government, have implemented programs to use part of the remittances to finance public works. This program, called Dos por Uno (Two for every one) is designed in a way that for each peso contributed by migrants from their remittances, the state and the federal governments will invest two pesos in building infrastructure at their home communities. Regional economies Map of Mexican states indicating HDI (2004) Regional disparities and income inequality continue to be a problem in Mexico. While all constituent states of the federation have a Human Development Index (HDI) superior to 0.70 (medium to high development), northern and central states have higher levels of HDI than the southern states. Nuevo León and the Federal District have HDI levels similar to European countries, whereas that of Oaxaca and Chiapas is similar to that of Syria or Egypt. At the municipal level, disparities are even greater: San Pedro Garza García in Nuevo León has an HDI similar to that of Spain, whereas, Metlatonoc in Guerrero, would have an HDI similar to that of Malawi. The majority of the federal entities with high development (superior to 0.80) are located in the northern region (with the exception of Colima, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, the Federal District, Querétaro, as well as the southeastern states of Quintana Roo and Campeche). The less developed states (with medium development in terms of HDI, superior to 0.70) are located at the southern Pacific coast (with the exception of Veracruz). In terms of share in GDP per sector (in 2004), the largest contributors in agriculture are Jalisco (9.7%), Sinaloa (7.7%) and Veracruz (7.6%); the greatest contributors in industrial production are the Federal District (15.8%), State of México (11.8%) and Nuevo León (7.9%); the greatest contributors in the service sector are also the Federal District (25.3%), State of México (8.9%) and Nuevo León (7.5%). Since the 1980s, the economy has slowly become less centralized; the annual rate of GDP growth of the Federal District from 2003–2004 was the smallest of all federal entities at a mere 0.23%, with drastic drops in the agriculture and industrial sectors. Nonetheless, it still accounts for 21.8% of the nation's GDP. The states with the highest GDP growth rates are Quintana Roo (9.04%), Baja California (8.89%), and San Luis Potosí (8.18%). In 2000, the federal entities with the highest GDP per capita in Mexico were the Federal District (US $17,696), Campeche (US $13,153) and Nuevo León (US $13,033); the states with the lowest GDP per capita were Chiapas (US $3,302), Oaxaca (US $3,489) and Guerrero (US $4,112). Components of the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2006 was estimated at US $1.134 trillion, and GDP per capita in PPP at US $10,600. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 70.5%, followed by the industrial sector at 25.7% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents only 3.9% of GDP (2006 est.). Mexican labor force is estimated at 38 million of which 18% is occupied in agriculture, 24% in the industry sector and 58% in the service sector (2003 est.). Agriculture and food production History Food and agriculture{{#if:Puebla farmers.jpg|<tr><td colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"> Product Quantity (Tm) World Rank1Avocados 1,040,390 1Onions and chayote1,130,6601Limes and lemons1,824,8901Sunflower seed212,7651 Dry fruits 95,150 2 Papaya955,6942 Chillies and peppers 1,853,6102 Whole beans 93 0003 Oranges3,969,8103 Anise, badian, fennel32 5003 Chicken meat2,245,0003 Asparagus67,2474 Mangoes1.503.0104 Corn20,000,00041Source:FAO </div> After the Mexican Revolution Mexico began an agrarian reform, based on the 27th article of the Mexican Constitution than included transfer of land and/or free land distribution to peasants and small farmers under the concept of the ejido. This program was further extended during president Cárdenas administration during the 1930s and continued into the 1960s at varying rates. The cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since commonly held land could not be used as collateral. In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, this constitutional article was amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of property rights of the communal lands to farmers cultivating it. With the ability to rent or sell it, a way was open for the creation of larger farms and the advantages of economies of scale. Large mechanized farms are now operating in some northeastern states (mainly in Sinaloa). However, privatization of ejidos continues to be very slow in the central and southern states where the great majority of peasants produce only for subsistence. Up until the 1990s, the government encouraged the production of basic crops (mainly corn and beans) by maintaining support prices and controlling imports through the National Company for Popular Subsistence (CONASUPO). With trade liberalization, however, CONASUPO was to be gradually dismantled and two new mechanisms were implemented: Alianza and Procampo. Alianza provides income payments and incentives for mechanization and advanced irrigation systems. Procampo is an income transfer subsidy to farmers. This support program provides 3.5 million farmers who produce basic commodities (mostly corn), and which represent 64% of all farmers, with a fixed income transfer payment per unit of area of cropland. This subsidy increased substantially during president Fox's administration, mainly to white corn producers in order to reduce the amount of imports from the United States. This program has been successful, and in 2004, roughly only 15% of corn imports are white corn –the one used for human consumption and the type that is mostly grown in Mexico– as opposed to 85% of yellow and crashed corn –the one use for feeding livestock, and which is barely produced in Mexico. Importance of agriculture to Mexico's economy Agriculture, as a percentage of GDP, has been steadily declining, and now resembles that of developed nations, in that it plays a smaller role in the economy. In 2006, agriculture accounted for only 3.9% of GDP, down from 7% in 1980, and 25% in 1970. Nonetheless, given the historic structure of ejidos, it still employs a considerably high percentage of the work force: 18% in 2003, mostly of which grows basic crops for subsistence, compared to 2–5% in developed nations in which production is highly mechanized. Crops In spite of being a staple in Mexican diet, Mexico's comparative advantage in agriculture is not in corn, but in horticulture, tropical fruits, and vegetables. Negotiators of NAFTA expected that through liberalization and mechanization of agriculture two-thirds of Mexican corn-producers would naturally shift from corn production to horticultural and other labor-intensive crops such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, coffee and sugar cane. While horticultural trade has drastically increased due to NAFTA, it has not absorbed displaced workers from corn production (estimated at around 600,000). Moreover, corn production has remained stable (at 20 million metric tons), arguably, as a result of income support to farmers, or a reticence to abandon a millenarian tradition in Mexico: not only have peasants grown corn for millennia, corn originated in Mexico. Even today, Mexico is still the fourth largest corn producer in the world. The area dedicated to potatoes has changed little since 1980 and average yields have almost tripled since 1961. Production has reached a record 1.7 million tonnes in 2003. Per capita consumption of potato in Mexico stands at 17 kg a year, very low compared to its maize intake of 400 kg. Potato World On average, potato farms in Mexico are larger than those devoted to more basic food crops. Potato production in Mexico is mostly for commercial purposes; the production for household consumption is very small. ISAAA Briefs Approximately 160,000 small- and medium-sized farmers grow sugar cane in 15 Mexican states, currently there are 57 sugar mills around the country. Mexico's sugar industry is characterized by high production costs and lack of investment. Mexico produces more sugar than it consumes. http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/mexico/20071211-1327-mexico-sugar-.html Sign on San Diego Industry Volkswagen's automated assembly plant at Puebla Industrial production Main industriesAircraft, automobile industry, petrochemicals, cement and construction, textiles, food and beverages, mining, consumer durables, tourismIndustrial growth rate 3.6% (2006)Labor force 24% of total labor forceGDP of sector 25.7% of total GDP The industrial sector as a whole has benefited from trade liberalization; in 2000 it accounted for almost 90% of all export earnings. Among the most important industrial manufacturers in Mexico is the automotive industry, whose standards of quality are internationally recognized. The automobile sector in Mexico differs from that in other Latin American countries and developing nations in that it does not function as a mere assembly manufacturer. The industry produces technologically complex components and engages in some research and development activities. The "Big Three" (General Motors, Ford and Chrysler) have been operating in Mexico since the 1930s, while Volkswagen and Nissan built their plants in the 1960s. Later, Toyota, Honda, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz joined in. Given the high requirements of North American components in the industry, many European and Asian parts suppliers have also moved to Mexico: in Puebla alone, 70 industrial part-makers cluster around Volkswagen. The relatively small domestic car industry still is represented by DINA Camiones S.A. de C.V., that has built buses and trucks for almost half a century and the new car company Mastrettadesign that builds the race car Mastretta MXT. Some large industries of Mexico include Cemex, the third largest cement conglomerate in the world; the alcohol beverage industries, including world-renowned players like Grupo Modelo; conglomerates like FEMSA, which apart from owning breweries and the OXXO convenience store chain, is also the second-largest Coca-Cola bottler in the world; Gruma, the largest producer of corn flour and tortillas in the world; and Grupo Bimbo, Telmex, Televisa, among many others. In 2005, according to the World Bank, high-tech industrial production represented 19.6% of total exports. Maquiladoras (Mexican factories which take in imported raw materials and produce goods for export) have become the landmark of trade in Mexico. This sector has benefited from NAFTA, in that real income in the maquiladora sector has increased 15.5% since 1994, though from the non-maquiladora sector has grown much faster. Contrary to popular belief, this should be no surprise since maquiladora's products could enter the US duty free since the 1960s industry agreement. Other sectors now benefit from the free trade agreement, and the share of exports from non-border states has increased in the last 5 years while the share of exports from maquiladora-border states has decreased. Currently Mexico is focusing in developing an aerospace industry and the assembly of helicopter and regional jet aircraft fuselages is taking place. Foreign firms such as MD Helicopters and Bombardier build helicopter and regional jets fuselages respectively in Mexico. Although the Mexican aircraft industry is mostly foreign, as is its car industry, Mexican firms have been founded such as Aeromarmi, which builds light propeller airplanes, and Hydra Technologies, which builds Unmanned Aerial Vehicles such as the S4 Ehécatl. As compared with the United States or countries in Western europe a larger sector of Mexico's industrial economy is food manufacturing which includes several world class companies but the regional industry is undeveloped. There are national brands that have become international and local Mom and Pop producers but little manufacturing in between. Energy and mineral resources Mineral resources are the "nation's property" (i.e. public property) by constitution. As such, the energy sector is administered by the government with varying degrees of private investment. Mexico is the sixth-largest oil producer in the world, with 3.7 million barrels per day. Pemex, the public company in charge of administering research, exploration and sales of oil, is the largest company (oil or otherwise) in Latin America, making US $86 billion in sales a year, a sum larger than the GDP of some of the region's countries. Nonetheless, the company is heavily taxed, a significant source of revenue for the government, of almost 62 per cent of the company's sales. Without enough money to continue investing in finding new sources or upgrading infrastructure, and being protected constitutionally from private and foreign investment, some have predicted the company may face institutional collapse. While the oil industry is still relevant for the government's budget, its importance in GDP and exports has steadily fallen since the 1980s. In 1980 oil exports accounted for 61.6% of total exports; by 2000 it was only 7.3%. Services Overview The service sector was estimated to account for 70.5% of the country's GDP, and employs 58% of the active population. This section includes transportation, commerce, warehousing, restaurant and hotels, arts and entertainment, health, education, financial and banking services, telecommunications as well as public administration and defense. Mexico's service sector is strong, and in 2001 replaced Brazil's as the largest service sector in Latin America in dollar terms. Tourism Tourism is one of the most important industries in Mexico. It is the fourth largest source of foreign exchange for the country. Mexico is the eighth most visited country in the world (with over 20 million tourists a year). Financial sector Banking system According to the IMF the Mexican banking system is strong, in which private banks are profitable and well-capitalized. The financial and banking sector is increasingly dominated by foreign companies or mergers of foreign and Mexican companies with the notable exception of Banorte. The acquisition of Banamex, one of the oldest surviving financial institutions in Mexico, by Citigroup was the largest US-Mexico corporate merger, at US $12.5 billion. In spite of that, the largest financial institution in Mexico is Bancomer associated to the Spanish BBVA. The process of institution building in the financial sector in Mexico has evolved hand in hand with the efforts of financial liberalization and of inserting the economy more fully into world markets. Over the recent years, there has been a wave of acquisitions by foreign institutions such as US-based Citigroup, Spain’s BBVA and the UK’s HSBC. Their presence, along with a better regulatory framework, has allowed Mexico’s banking system to recover from the 1994–95 peso devaluation. Lending to the public and private sector is increasing and so is activity in the areas of insurance, leasing and mortgages. However, bank credit accounts for only 22% of GDP, which is significantly low compared to 70% in Chile. Credit to the Agricultural sector has fallen 45.5% in six years (2001 to 2007), and now represents about 1% of total bank loans. Other important institutions include savings and loans, credit unions, government development banks, “non-bank banks”, bonded warehouses, bonding companies and foreign-exchange firms. A wave of acquisitions has left Mexico’s financial sector in foreign hands. Their foreign-run affiliates compete with independent financial firms operating as commercial banks, brokerage and securities houses, insurance companies, retirement-fund administrators, mutual funds, and leasing companies. Other important institutions include savings and loans, credit unions, government development banks, “non-bank banks”, bonded warehouses, bonding companies and foreign-exchange firms. Country Finance Main Report: April 26th 2006 (Mexico) Banks Overview Securities market Mexico has a single securities market, the Mexican Stock Exchange (Bolsa Mexicana de Valores, known as the Bolsa). The market has grown steadily, with its main indices increasing by more than 150% in 2003–05. It is Latin America's second largest exchange, after Brazil's. Still, the Bolsa remains relatively small when compared to other North American exchanges. The New York Stock Exchange is about 100 times larger; the Toronto Stock Exchange is six times larger. The Indice de Precios y Cotizaciones (IPC, the general equities index) is the benchmark stock index on the Bolsa. In 2005 the IPC surged 37.8%, to 17,802.71 from 12,917.88, backed by a stronger Mexican economy and lower interest rates. It continued its steep rise through the beginning of 2006, reaching 19,272.63 points at end-March 2006. The stockmarket also posted a record low vacancy rate, according to the central bank. Local stockmarket capitalisation totalled US$236bn at end-2005, up from US$170bn at end-2004. As of March 2006 there were 135 listed companies, down from 153 a year earlier. Only a handful of the listed companies are foreign. Most are from Mexico City or Monterrey; companies from these two cities compose 67% of the total listed companies. The IPC consists of a sample of 35 shares weighted according to their market capitalisation. Heavy hitters are America Telecom, the holding company that manages Latin America’s largest mobile company, América Móvil; Telefonos de Mexico, Mexico’s largest telephone company; Grupo Bimbo, Mexico and Latin America’s biggest baker; and Wal-Mart de México, a subsidiary of the US retail giant. The makeup of the IPC is adjusted every six months, with selection aimed at including the most liquid shares in terms of value, volume and number of trades. Mexico’s stockmarket is closely linked to developments in the US. Thus, volatility in the New York and Nasdaq stock exchanges, as well as interest-rate changes and economic expectations in the US, can steer the performance of Mexican equities. This is both because of Mexico’s economic dependence on the US and the high volume of trading in Mexican equities through American Depositary Receipts (ADRs). Currently, the decline in the value of the dollar is making non-US markets, including Mexico's, more attractive. Despite the recent gains, investors remain wary of making placements in second-tier initial public offerings (IPOs). Purchasers of new issues were disappointed after prices fell in numerous medium-sized companies that made offerings in 1996 and 1997. IPO activity in Mexico remains tepid and the market for second-tier IPOs is barely visible. There were three IPOs in 2005. Country Finance Main Report: April 26th 2006 (Mexico) Securities Market Overview Government policies and the Central Bank {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|Financial indicators |- {{#if:BankofMexicoBuilding.JPG| |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Currency exchange rate | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 13.35 MXN per 1 USD (05/27/2009) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Reserves |valign="top"| US $76.185 billion (2009) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Government budget | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| US $196.5 billion (revenues) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Public debt |valign="top"| 20.7% of GDP (2006) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|External debt | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| US $178.3 billion (2006) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Bank funding rate |valign="top"| 5.25% (5/15/2009) |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} Banco de México is Mexico's central bank, an internally autonomous public institution whose governor is appointed by the president and approved by the legislature to which it is fully responsible. Banco de México's functions are outlined in the 28th article of the constitution and further expanded in the Monetary Law of the United Mexican States. Banco de México's main objective is to achieve stability in the purchasing power of the national currency. It is also the lender of last resort. Currency policy Mexico has a floating exchange-rate regime. The floating exchange originated with reforms initiated after the December 1994 peso crash which had followed an unsustainable adherence to a short band. Under the new system, Banco de México now makes no commitment to the level of the peso exchange rate, although it does employ an automatic mechanism to accumulate foreign reserves. It also possesses tools aimed at smoothing out volatility. The Exchange Rate Commission sets policy; it is made up of six members—three each from the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Publico—SHCP) and the central bank, with the SHCP holding the deciding vote. In August 1996, Banco de México initiated a mechanism to acquire foreign reserves when the peso is strong, without giving the market signals about a target range for the exchange rate. The resulting high levels of reserves, mostly from petroleum revenues, have helped to improve the terms and conditions on debt Mexico places on foreign markets. However, there is concern that the government relies too heavily on oil income in order to build a healthy base of reserves. According to the central bank, international reserves stood at US $75.8 billion in 2007. In May 2003, Banco de México launched a program that sells U.S. dollars via a monthly auction, with the goal of maintaining a stable, but moderate, level of reserves. From April 1, 1998 through April 1, 2008 the Peso traded around a range varying from $8.46 MXN on per $1.00 USD on April 21, 1998 to $11.69 MXN per $1.00 USD on May 11, 2004, a 10 year peak depreciation of 38.18% between the two reference date extremes before recovering. After the onset of the US credit crisis that accelerated in October 2008, the Peso had an exchange rate during October 1, 2008 through April 1, 2009 fluctuating from lowest to highest between $10.96 MXN per $1.00 USD on October 1, 2008 to $15.42 MXN per $1.00 USD on March 9, 2009, a peak depreciation ytd of 28.92% during those six months between the two reference date extremes before recovering. From the $11.69 rate during 2004's low to the $15.42 rate during 2009's low, the peso depreciated 31.91% in that span covering the US recession coinciding Iraq War of 2003 and 2004 to the US & Global Credit Crisis of 2008. Some experts including analysts at Goldman Sachs who coined the term BRIC in reference to the growing economics of Brazil, Russia, India, and China for marketing purposes believe that Mexico is going to be the 5th or 6th biggest economy in the world by the year 2050, behind China, United States, India, Brazil, and possibly Russia. Monetary system Mexico’s monetary policy was revised following the 1994–95 financial crisis, when officials decided that maintaining general price stability was the best way to contribute to the sustained growth of employment and economic activity. As a result, Banco de México has as its primary objective maintaining stability in the purchasing power of the peso. It sets an inflation target, which requires it to establish corresponding quantitative targets for the growth of the monetary base and for the expansion of net domestic credit. The central bank also monitors the evolution of several economic indicators, such as the exchange rate, differences between observed and projected inflation, the results of surveys on the public and specialists’ inflation expectations, revisions on collective employment contracts, producer prices, and the balances of the current and capital accounts. A debate continues over whether Mexico should switch to a US-style interest rate-targeting system. Government officials in favor of a change say that the new system would give them more control over interest rates, which are becoming more important as consumer credit levels rise. Until 2008, Mexico used a unique system, amongst the OECD countries, to control inflation in a mechanism known as the corto (lit. "shortage") a mechanism that allowed the central bank to influence market interest rates by leaving the banking system short of its daily demand for money by a predetermined amount. If the central bank wanted to push interest rates higher, it increased the corto. If it wished to lower interest rates, it decreased the corto. Starting in 2008, the Central Bank will set a referential interest rate, like the Federal Reserve Bank; nonetheless the transition period will include the use of the corto in certain circumstances. Yuste, José (2008). "Corto con Tasas de Referencia. Mundo Ejecutivo. Access date: 20 February 2007 Trade {| style="width: 22em; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="3"|International trade |- {{#if:Torre wtc mexico.jpg| |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Exports | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| US $248.8 billion f.o.b. (2006) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Imports |valign="top"| US $253.1 billion f.o.b. (2006) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Current account | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| US $400.1 million (2006) |- !align="left" valign="top"|Export partners |valign="top"| US 90.9%, Canada 2.2%, Spain 1.4%, Germany 1.3%, Colombia 0.9% (2006) |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|Import partners | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| US 53.4%, China 8%, Japan 5.9% (2005) |- | align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"| |} Mexico is an export oriented economy. It is an important trade power as measured by the value of merchandise traded, and the country with the greatest number of free trade agreements. In 2005, Mexico was the world's fifteenth largest merchandise exporter and twelfth largest merchandise importer with a 12% annual percentage increase in overall trade. In fact, from 1991 to 2005 Mexican trade increased fivefold. With data as reported by INEGI at http://www.inegi.gob.mx Mexico is the biggest exporter and importer in Latin America; in 2005, Mexico alone exported US $213.7 billion, roughly equivalent to the sum of the exports of Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Uruguay, and Paraguay. However, Mexican trade is fully integrated with that of its North American partners: close to 90% of Mexican exports and 50% of its imports are traded with the United States and Canada. Nonetheless, NAFTA has not produced trade diversion. While trade with the United States increased 183% from 1993–2002, and that with Canada 165%, other trade agreements have shown even more impressive results: trade with Chile increased 285%, with Costa Rica 528% and Honduras 420%. Trade with the European Union increased 105% over the same time period. Free trade agreements Mexico joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1986, and today is an active and constructive participant of the World Trade Organization. Fox's administration promoted the establishment of a Free Trade Area of the Americas; Puebla served as temporary headquarters for the negotiations, and several other cities are now candidates for its permanent headquarters if the agreement is reached and implemented. Mexico has signed 12 free trade agreements with 44 countries: the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (1994) with the United States and Canada; Grupo de los tres, Group of the three [countries], or G-3 (1995) with Colombia and Venezuela; the latter decided to terminate the agreement in 2006; Mexico announced its intention to invite Ecuador, Peru or Panama as a replacement; Free Trade Agreement with Costa Rica (1995); Free Trade Agreement with Bolivia (1995); Free Trade Agreement with Nicaragua (1998); Countries with which Mexico has signed an FTA Free Trade Agreement with Chile (1999); Free Trade Agreement with the European Union (2000); Free Trade Agreement with Israel (2000); TN Free Trade Agreement (2001), with Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras; Free Trade Agreement with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), integrated by Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland (2001); Free Trade Agreement with Uruguay (2004); and Free Trade Agreement with Japan (2005) Mexico has shown interest in becoming an associate member of Mercosur. The Mexican government has also started negotiations with South Korea, Singapore and Peru, and also wishes to start negotiations with Australia for a trade agreement between the two countries. NAFTA NAFTA emblemThe North American Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is by far the most important Trade Agreement Mexico has signed both in the magnitude of reciprocal trade with its partners as well as in its scope. Unlike the rest of the Free Trade Agreements that Mexico has signed, NAFTA is more comprehensive in its scope and was complemented by the North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC). The NAAEC agreement was a response to environmentalists' concerns that companies would relocate to Mexico or the United States would lower its standards if the three countries did not achieve a unanimous regulation on the environment. The NAAEC, in an aim to be more than a set of environmental regulations, established the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation (NACEC), a mechanism for addressing trade and environmental issues, the North American Development Bank (NADBank) for assisting and financing investments in pollution reduction and the Border Environmental Cooperation Commission (BECC). The NADBank and the BECC have provided economic benefits to Mexico by financing 36 projects, mostly in the water sector. By complementing NAFTA with the NAAEC, it has been labeled the "greenest" trade agreement. The NAALC supplement to NAFTA aimed to create a foundation for cooperation among the three members for the resolution of labor problems, as well as to promote greater cooperation among trade unions and social organizations in all three countries, in order to fight for the improvement of labor conditions. Though most economists agree that it is difficult to assess the direct impact of the NAALC, it is agreed that there has been a convergence of labor standards in North America. Given its limitations, however, NAALC has not produced (and in fact was not intended to achieve) convergence in employment, productivity and salary trend in North America. The agreement fell short in liberalizing movement of people across the three countries. In a limited way, however, immigration of skilled Mexican and Canadian workers to the United States was permitted under the TN status. NAFTA allows for a wide list of professions, most of which require at least a Bachelor's degree, for which a Mexican or a Canadian citizen can request TN status and temporarily immigrate to the United States. Unlike the visas available to other countries, TN status requires no sponsorship, but simply a job offer letter. The overall benefits of NAFTA have been quantified by several economists, whose findings have been reported in several publications like the World Bank's Lessons from NAFTA for LA and the Caribbean, NAFTA's Impact on North America, and NAFTA revisited by the Institute for International Economics. They assess that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, whose poverty rates have fallen, and real income salaries have risen even after accounting for the 1994–1995 Economic Crisis. Nonetheless, they also state that it has not been enough, or fast enough, to produce an economic convergence nor to reduce the poverty rates substantially or to promote higher rates of growth. Some have suggested that in order to fully benefit from the agreement Mexico should invest in education and promote innovation as well as in infrastructure and agriculture. Contrary to popular belief, the maquiladora program was in place far before NAFTA, in some sense dating all the way back to 1965. A maquiladora manufacturer operates by importing raw materials into Mexico either tariff free (NAFTA) or at a reduced rate on a temporary basis (18 months) and then using Mexico's relatively less expensive labor costs to produce finished goods for export. Prior to NAFTA maquiladora companies importing raw materials from anywhere in the world were given preferencial tariff rates by the Mexican government so long as the finished good was for export. The US, prior to NAFTA, allowed Maquiladora manufactured goods to be imported into the US with the tariff rate only being applied to the value of non US raw materials used to produce the good, thus reducing the tariff relative to other countries. NAFTA has eliminated all tariffs on goods between the two countries, but for the maquiladora industry significantly increased the tariff rates for goods sourced outside of NAFTA. Given the overall size of trade between Mexico and the United States, there are remarkably few trade disputes, involving relatively small dollar amounts. These disputes are generally settled in WTO or NAFTA panels or through negotiations between the two countries. The most significant areas of friction involve trucking, sugar, high fructose corn syrup, and a number of other agricultural products. Mexican Trade Facilitation & Competitiveness A research brief published by the World Bank "Trade Facilitation Reform Promises Large Gains to Trade in Mexico", John S. Wilson & Benjamin Taylor; Trade Facilitation Reform Research Brief, The World Bank. 2008. as part of its Trade Costs and Facilitation Project suggests that Mexico has the potential to substantially increase trade flows and economic growth through trade facilitation reform. The study examines the potential impacts of trade facilitation reforms in four areas: port efficiency, customs administration, information technology, and regulatory environment (including standards). The study projects overall increments from domestic reforms to be on the order of $31.8 billion, equivalent to 22.4 percent of total Mexican manufacturing exports for 2000-03. On the imports side, the corresponding figures are $17.1 billion and 11.2 percent, respectively. Increases in exports, including textiles, would result primarily from improvements in port efficiency and the regulatory environment. Exports of transport equipment would be expected to increase by the greatest increment from improvements in port efficiency, whereas exports of food and machinery would largely be the result of improvements in the regulatory environment. On the imports side, Mexican improvements in port efficiency would appear to be the most important factor, although for imports of transport equipment, improvements in service sector infrastructure would also be of relative importance. See also Infrastructure Communications in Mexico Transportation in Mexico List of Mexican companies Next Eleven Demographics of Mexico References External links Mexican Council for Economic and Social Development Mexico Development Gateway OECD's Mexico country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Mexico shit REDIRECT ]] | Economy_of_Mexico |@lemmatized economy:18 mexico:103 large:33 world:30 since:12 crisis:11 administration:14 improve:2 country:39 macroeconomic:6 fundamental:1 significantly:3 influence:2 recent:4 south:3 american:16 maintain:5 positive:2 although:5 low:15 rate:47 growth:20 brief:4 period:9 stagnation:1 moody:1 march:4 fitch:1 ibca:1 january:2 issue:5 investment:12 grade:1 rating:1 sovereign:1 debt:7 spite:3 unprecedented:3 stability:5 reduce:6 inflation:11 interest:13 record:4 increase:20 per:21 capita:2 income:17 enormous:1 gap:1 remain:6 urban:2 rural:3 population:7 northern:4 southern:4 state:39 rich:1 poor:2 government:20 challenge:1 include:17 upgrade:1 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2,097 | NP_(complexity) | Diagram of complexity classes provided that P ≠ NP. The existence of problems outside both P and NP-complete in this case was established by Ladner. R. E. Ladner "On the structure of polynomial time reducibility," J.ACM, 22, pp. 151–171, 1975. Corollary 1.1. ACM site. In computational complexity theory, NP is one of the most fundamental complexity classes. The abbreviation NP refers to "Nondeterministic Polynomial time". Intuitively, NP is the set of all decision problems for which the 'yes'-answers have simple proofs of the fact that the answer is indeed 'yes'. More precisely, these proofs have to be verifiable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine. In an equivalent formal definition, NP is the set of decision problems solvable in polynomial time by a non-deterministic Turing machine. The complexity class P is contained in NP, but NP contains many important problems, the hardest of which are called NP-complete problems, for which no polynomial-time algorithms are known. The most important open question in complexity theory, the P = NP problem, asks whether such algorithms actually exist for NP-complete, and by corollary, all NP problems. It is widely believed that this is not the case. Formal definition The complexity class NP can be defined in terms of NTIME as follows: Introduction Many natural computer science problems are covered by the class NP. In particular, the decision versions of many interesting search problems and optimization problems are contained in NP. Verifier-based definition In order to explain the verifier-based definition of NP, let us consider the subset sum problem: Assume that we are given some integers, such as {−7, −3, −2, 5, 8}, and we wish to know whether some of these integers sum up to zero. In this example, the answer is 'yes', since the subset of integers {-3, -2, 5} corresponds to the sum (-3) + (-2) + 5 = 0. The task of deciding whether such a subset with sum zero exists is called the subset sum problem. As the number of integers that we feed into the algorithm becomes larger, the number of subsets grows exponentially, and in fact the subset sum problem is NP-complete. However, notice that, if we are given a particular subset (often called a certificate), we can easily check or verify whether the subset sum is zero, by just summing up the integers of the subset. So if the sum is indeed zero, that particular subset is the proof or witness for the fact that the answer is 'yes'. An algorithm that verifies whether a given subset has sum zero is called verifier. A problem is said to be in NP if and only if there exists a verifier for the problem that executes in polynomial time. In case of the subset sum problem, the verifier needs only polynomial time, for which reason the subset sum problem is in NP. Note that the verifier-based definition of NP does not require an easy-to-verify certificate for the 'no'-answers. The class of problems with such certificates for the 'no'-answers is called co-NP. In fact, it is an open question whether all problems in NP also have certificates for the 'no'-answers and thus are in co-NP. Machine-definition Equivalent to the verifier-based definition is the following characterization: NP is the set of decision problems solvable in polynomial time by a non-deterministic Turing machine. Examples This is an incomplete list of problems that are in NP. All problems in P (For, given a certificate for a problem in P, we can ignore the certificate and just solve the problem in polynomial time. Alternatively, note that a deterministic Turing machine is also trivially a non-deterministic Turing machine that just happens to not use any non-determinism.) The decision problem version of the integer factorization problem: given integer n and k, is there a factor f with 1 < f < k and f dividing n? The graph isomorphism problem of determining whether two graphs can be drawn identically All NP-complete problems, e.g.: A variant of the traveling salesman problem, where we want to know if there is a route of some length that goes through all the nodes in a certain network The boolean satisfiability problem, where we want to know if a certain formula in propositional logic with boolean variables can be true for some value of the variables or not Why some NP problems are hard to solve Because of the many important problems in this class, there have been extensive efforts to find polynomial-time algorithms for problems in NP. However, there remain a large number of problems in NP that defy such attempts, seeming to require superpolynomial time. Whether these problems really aren't decidable in polynomial time is one of the greatest open questions in computer science (see P=NP problem for an in-depth discussion). An important notion in this context is the set of NP-complete decision problems, which is a subset of NP and might be informally described as the "hardest" problems in NP. If there is a polynomial-time algorithm for even one of them, then there is a polynomial-time algorithm for all the problems in NP. Because of this, and because dedicated research has failed to find a polynomial algorithm for any NP-complete problem, once a problem has been proven to be NP-complete this is widely regarded as a sign that a polynomial algorithm for this problem is unlikely to exist. Equivalency of definitions The two definitions of NP as the class of problems solvable by a nondeterministic Turing machine (TM) in polynomial time and the class of problems verifiable by a deterministic Turing machine in polynomial time are equivalent. The proof is described by many textbooks, for example Sipser's Introduction to the Theory of Computation, section 7.3. To show this, first suppose we have a deterministic verifier. A nondeterministic machine can simply nondeterministically run the verifier on all possible proof strings (this requires only polynomially-many steps because it can nondeterministically choose the next character in the proof string in each step, and the length of the proof string must be polynomially bounded). If any proof is valid, some path will accept; if no proof is valid, the string is not in the language and it will reject. Conversely, suppose we have a nondeterministic TM called A accepting a given language L. At each of its polynomially-many steps, the machine's computation tree branches in at most a constant number of directions. There must be at least one accepting path, and the string describing this path is the proof supplied to the verifier. The verifier can then deterministically simulate A, following only the accepting path, and verifying that its accepts at the end. If A rejects the input, there is no accepting path, and the verifier will never accept. Relationship to other classes NP contains all problems in P, since one can verify any instance of the problem by simply ignoring the proof and solving it. NP is contained in PSPACE—to show this, it suffices to construct a PSPACE machine that loops over all proof strings and feeds each one to a polynomial-time verifier. Since a polynomial-time machine can only read polynomially-many bits, it cannot use more than polynomial space, nor can it read a proof string occupying more than polynomial space (so we don't have to consider proofs longer than this). NP is also contained in EXPTIME, since the same algorithm operates in exponential time. The complement of NP, co-NP, contains those problems which have a simple proof for no instances, sometimes called counterexamples. For example, primality testing trivially lies in co-NP, since one can refute the primality of an integer by merely supplying a nontrivial factor. NP and co-NP together form the first level in the polynomial hierarchy, higher only than P. NP is defined using only deterministic machines. If we permit the verifier to be probabilistic (specifically, a BPP machine), we get the class MA solvable using a Arthur-Merlin protocol with no communication from Merlin to Arthur. NP is a class of decision problems; the analogous class of function problems is FNP. Other characterizations There is also a simple logical characterization of NP: it contains precisely those languages expressible in second-order logic restricted to exclude universal quantification over relations, functions, and subsets. NP can be seen as a very simple type of interactive proof system, where the prover comes up with the proof certificate and the verifier is a deterministic polynomial-time machine that checks it. It is complete because the right proof string will make it accept if there is one, and it is sound because the verifier cannot accept if there is no acceptable proof string. A major result of complexity theory is that NP can be characterized as the problems solvable by probabilistically checkable proofs where the verifier uses O(log n) random bits and examines only a constant number of bits of the proof string (the class PCP(log n, 1)). More informally, this means that the NP verifier described above can be replaced with one that just "spot-checks" a few places in the proof string, and using a limited number of coin flips can determine the correct answer with high probability. This allows several results about the hardness of approximation algorithms to be proven. Example The decision version of the traveling salesman problem is in NP. Given an input matrix of distances between N cities, the problem is to determine if there is a route visiting all cities with total distance less than k. A nondeterministic Turing machine can find such a route as follows: At each city it visits it "guesses" the next city to visit, until it has visited every vertex. If it gets stuck, it stops immediately. At the end it verifies that the route it has taken has cost less than k in O(n) time. One can think of each guess as "forking" a new copy of the Turing machine to follow each of the possible paths forward, and if at least one machine finds a route of distance less than k, that machine accepts the input. (Equivalently, this can be thought of as a single Turing machine that always guesses correctly) Binary search on the range of possible distances can convert the decision version of Traveling Salesman to the optimization version, by calling the decision version repeatedly (a polynomial number of times). References Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 34.2: Polynomial-time verification, pp.979–983. Sections 7.3–7.5 (The Class NP, NP-completeness, Additional NP-complete Problems), pp.241–271. David Harel, Yishai Feldman. Algorithmics: The Spirit of Computing, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 3rd edition, 2004. External links Graph of NP-complete Problems American Scientist primer on traditional and recent complexity theory research: "Accidental Algorithms" | NP_(complexity) |@lemmatized diagram:1 complexity:8 class:15 provide:1 p:9 np:56 existence:1 problem:54 outside:1 complete:11 case:3 establish:1 ladner:2 r:1 e:3 structure:1 polynomial:25 time:23 reducibility:1 j:1 acm:2 pp:3 corollary:2 site:1 computational:1 theory:5 one:11 fundamental:1 abbreviation:1 refers:1 nondeterministic:5 intuitively:1 set:4 decision:10 yes:4 answer:8 simple:4 proof:21 fact:4 indeed:2 precisely:2 verifiable:2 deterministic:9 turing:10 machine:20 equivalent:3 formal:2 definition:9 solvable:5 non:4 contain:7 contains:1 many:8 important:4 hard:3 call:8 algorithm:12 know:4 open:3 question:3 ask:1 whether:8 actually:1 exist:4 widely:2 believe:1 define:2 term:1 ntime:1 follow:4 introduction:3 natural:1 computer:2 science:2 cover:1 particular:3 version:6 interesting:1 search:2 optimization:2 verifier:18 base:4 order:2 explain:1 let:1 u:1 consider:2 subset:15 sum:12 assume:1 give:7 integer:8 wish:1 zero:5 example:5 since:5 corresponds:1 task:1 decide:1 number:7 fee:1 become:1 large:2 grows:1 exponentially:1 however:2 notice:1 often:1 certificate:7 easily:1 check:3 verify:6 witness:1 say:1 execute:1 need:1 reason:1 note:2 require:3 easy:1 co:5 also:4 thus:1 following:1 characterization:3 incomplete:1 list:1 ignore:2 solve:3 alternatively:1 trivially:2 happen:1 use:6 determinism:1 factorization:1 n:6 k:5 factor:2 f:3 divide:1 graph:3 isomorphism:1 determine:3 two:2 draw:1 identically:1 g:1 variant:1 travel:3 salesman:3 want:2 route:5 length:2 go:1 node:1 certain:2 network:1 boolean:2 satisfiability:1 formula:1 propositional:1 logic:2 variable:2 true:1 value:1 extensive:1 effort:1 find:4 remain:1 defy:1 attempt:1 seem:1 superpolynomial:1 really:1 decidable:1 great:1 see:2 depth:1 discussion:1 notion:1 context:1 might:1 informally:2 describe:4 even:1 dedicate:1 research:2 fail:1 prove:2 regard:1 sign:1 unlikely:1 equivalency:1 tm:2 textbook:1 sipser:1 computation:2 section:3 show:2 first:2 suppose:2 simply:2 nondeterministically:2 run:1 possible:3 string:11 polynomially:4 step:3 choose:1 next:2 character:1 must:2 bound:1 valid:2 path:6 accept:9 language:3 reject:2 conversely:1 l:2 tree:1 branch:1 constant:2 direction:1 least:2 supply:2 deterministically:1 simulate:1 accepts:1 end:2 input:3 never:1 relationship:1 instance:2 pspace:2 suffice:1 construct:1 loop:1 feed:1 read:2 bit:3 cannot:2 space:2 occupy:1 proofs:1 long:1 exptime:1 operate:1 exponential:1 complement:1 sometimes:1 counterexample:1 primality:2 test:1 lie:1 refute:1 merely:1 nontrivial:1 together:1 form:1 level:1 hierarchy:1 high:2 permit:1 probabilistic:1 specifically:1 bpp:1 get:2 arthur:2 merlin:2 protocol:1 communication:1 analogous:1 function:2 fnp:1 logical:1 expressible:1 second:2 restrict:1 exclude:1 universal:1 quantification:1 relation:1 type:1 interactive:1 system:1 prover:1 come:1 right:1 make:1 sound:1 acceptable:1 major:1 result:2 characterize:1 probabilistically:1 checkable:1 log:2 random:1 examine:1 pcp:1 mean:1 replace:1 spot:1 place:1 limited:1 coin:1 flip:1 correct:1 probability:1 allow:1 several:1 hardness:1 approximation:1 matrix:1 distance:4 city:4 visit:4 total:1 less:3 guess:3 every:1 vertex:1 stick:1 stop:1 immediately:1 take:1 cost:1 think:2 fork:1 new:1 copy:1 forward:1 equivalently:1 single:1 always:1 correctly:1 binary:1 range:1 convert:1 repeatedly:1 reference:1 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 algorithms:1 edition:2 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 isbn:1 verification:1 completeness:1 additional:1 david:1 harel:1 yishai:1 feldman:1 algorithmics:1 spirit:1 compute:1 addison:1 wesley:1 reading:1 external:1 link:1 american:1 scientist:1 primer:1 traditional:1 recent:1 accidental:1 |@bigram np_complete:10 computational_complexity:1 deterministic_turing:6 turing_machine:10 solvable_polynomial:2 integer_factorization:1 travel_salesman:3 boolean_satisfiability:1 satisfiability_problem:1 propositional_logic:1 nondeterministic_turing:2 primality_test:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 np_completeness:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1 |
2,098 | And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time | The preface to Milton, as it appeared in Blake's own illuminated version"And did those feet in ancient time" is a short poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic Milton: a Poem. The date on the title page of 1804 for Milton is probably when the plates were begun but the poem was printed c. 1808. Cox, Michael, editor, The Concise Oxford Chronology of English Literature, "1808", p 289, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-19-860634-6 . Today it is best known as the hymn "Jerusalem," with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. The poem was inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by his uncle Joseph of Arimathea, travelled to the area that is now England and visited Glastonbury. Description of the legend - Accessed 2008-08-07 The legend is linked to an idea in the Book of Revelation ( 3:12 and 21:2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a new Jerusalem. The Christian church in general, and the English Church in particular, used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace. The poem implies that the visit of Jesus briefly created a heaven in England, in contrast to its post-industrial-revolution "dark Satanic Mills." The hymn 'Jerusalem the Golden with milk and honey blessed... I know not oh I know not what joys await me there....' uses Jerusalem for the same metaphor. Blake refers to the legend by asking questions rather than stating it to be true. He says that there may, or may not, have been a divine visit, when there was briefly heaven in England. But that was then; now, he says, we are faced with the challenge of creating such a country once again. Text Blake's poem And did those feet in ancient time, Walk upon Englands mountains green: And was the holy Lamb of God, On Englands pleasant pastures seen ! And did the Countenance Divine, Shine forth upon our clouded hills ? And was Jerusalem builded here, Among these dark Satanic Mills ? Bring me my Bow of burning gold; Bring me my Arrows of desire: Bring me my Spear: O clouds unfold: Bring me my Chariot of fire ! I will not cease from Mental Fight, Nor shall my Sword sleep in my hand: Till we have built Jerusalem, In Englands green & pleasant Land.The Hymn: "Jerusalem" And did those feet in ancient time Walk upon England's mountains green? And was the holy Lamb of God On England's pleasant pastures seen? And did the Countenance Divine Shine forth upon our clouded hills? And was Jerusalem builded here Among those dark Satanic mills? Bring me my bow of burning gold: Bring me my arrows of desire: Bring me my spear: O clouds, unfold! Bring me my chariot of fire! I will not cease from mental fight, Nor shall my sword sleep in my hand Till we have built Jerusalem In England's green and pleasant land. Satanic Mills The term "dark Satanic Mills", which entered the English language from this poem, is sometimes interpreted as referring to the early Industrial Revolution and its destruction of nature and human relationships. No. 1413: Poets in the Industrial Revolution This view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills, which was the first major factory in London, built in 1769 by Matthew Boulton and James Watt. It was powered by Watt's steam engines, and produced 6,000 bushels of flour a week. The factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed, perhaps deliberately, by fire in 1791. London's independent millers celebrated with placards reading, "Success to the mills of ALBION but no Albion Mills." And Did Those Feet? - Jerusalem - Icons of England Opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. An illustration of the fire published at the time shows a devil squatting on the building. Brian Maidment, Reading Popular Prints, 1790-1870, Manchester University Press, 2001, p.40 The mills were a short distance from Blake's home. Another common interpretation Typical interpretation of satanic mills as the established church is that the dark satanic mills refer to the gloomy churches of the established Church of England, full of mechanistic ceremony but devoid of spirituality, which in the late 18th century sought to maintain the established political order, unlike the emergent non-conformist free church movements of Methodism, Congregationalism, and the Baptists, who held that through Jesus all were equal under God . Blake's views, expressed through his metaphysical writings and paintings, were attacked by an Anglican church he held was a force crushing the spiritual growth of the nation. Some hold that his call to build a new Jerusalem reflected calls for a new egalitarianism in English society. The hymn specifically asks the question that could it be here, where Jesus walked, that a new society be built, a call adopted by the Methodist and Christian Socialist movements and subsequently by the Labour Party. A similar approach sees the Satanic Mills as the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, which as the traditional seats of learning and thought in England, were heavily controlled by the Anglican church at the time. Douglas Fell ... said that the “dark Satanic mills” were Oxford and Cambridge, Blake disapproving of their theology. The first reference to Satan's "Mills", next to images of megalithsAn alternative theory is that Blake refers to Stonehenge; an illustration of it and other megaliths is featured in his work, Milton. However, he did not see ancient Britain as satanic, but rather saw the Druids and their supposed temple, Stonehenge, as precursors of Christianity. Satan's "Mills" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract: "the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell...To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of Shaddai / A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible". Blake, William, Milton: A Poem, plate 4. Chariot of fire The line from the poem, "Bring me my Chariot of fire!" draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet Elijah is taken directly to heaven: "And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." Or it could refer to 2 Kings 6:17, where the prophet Elisha prays that the eyes of his servant might be opened to the "horses and chariots of fire" surrounding them to protect them from an enemy army. Green and pleasant Land Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of Milton when he was living in the village of Felpham in Sussex. It has been suggested that the difference between London and rural Sussex influenced the contrast between the imagery of "Mills" and the "green and pleasant Land" beyond the town. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake's "evident pleasure" in the Felpham countryside. Amanda Gilroy , Green and Pleasant Land: English Culture and the Romantic Countryside, Peeters Publishers, 2004, p.66 Revolution Several of Blake's poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory. Even though the poem was written during the Napoleonic Wars, Blake was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution, whose successor Napoleon claimed to be spartacus.schoolnet - Accessed 2008-08-07 . The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. (In 1803 Blake was charged at Chichester with high treason for having 'uttered seditious and treasonable expressions' but was acquitted Biography of Blake - Accessed 2008-08-07 .) The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from Numbers ch. 11, v. 29: "Would to God that all the Lord's people were prophets." Christopher Rowland, a Professor of Theology at Oxford University, has argued that this includes "everyone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an honest persuasion that with personal struggle, things could be improved." The words of the poem "stress the importance of people taking responsibility for change and building a better society in England's green and pleasant land". Popularisation of the hymn The poem, which was little known during the century which followed its writing, was included in a patriotic anthology of verse published in 1916, a time when morale had begun to decline due to the high number of casualties in the First World War and the perception that there was no end in sight. Under these circumstances, it seemed to many to define what England was fighting for. Therefore, Robert Bridges, the Poet Laureate asked Parry to put it to music at a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's Queen's Hall. The aims of this organisation were "to brace the spirit of the nation that the people of Great Britain, knowing that they are fighting for the best interests of humanity, may refuse any temptation, however insidious, to conclude a premature peace, and may accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary to bring the war to a satisfactory conclusion". Guardian newspaper 8 December 2000 Bridges asked Parry to supply the verse with "suitable, simple music that an audience could take up and join in". Originally Parry intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice, but this is rare nowadays. The most famous version was orchestrated by Sir Edward Elgar in 1922 for a large orchestra at the Leeds Festival. The Icons Parry, Jerusalem and Elgar's orchestration Upon hearing the orchestral version for the first time, King George V said that he preferred "Jerusalem" over "God Save the King", the National Anthem. Since Jerusalem is considered to be England's most popular patriotic song, it has been used as an alternative national anthem, and there have even been calls to give it official status Parliamentary Early Day Motion 2791, 18.10.2006 . This is because England has no official anthem and so uses the British National Anthem "God Save the Queen" for some national occasions, for example before English international football matches. However, some sports, including cricket, rugby league and ballroom dancing use "Jerusalem" as the English anthem. Questions in Parliament have not clarified the situation as answers from the relevant minister say that each sport must make its own decision. Critics of the song have said that its reference to a foreign city, its non-secular basis make it unsuitable. The poem's idealistic theme or subtext accounts for its popularity across the philosophical spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election; Clement Attlee said they would build "a new Jerusalem" Link to PBS script quoting Atlee in 1945 - Accessed 2008-08-07 . It has been sung at conferences of the British Conservative Party, at the Glee Club of the British Liberal Assembly, the British Labour Party and by the British Liberal Democrats. The song is one of the four anthems of the British National Party, whose members typically sing it at meetings held in England. It is frequently sung as an office or recessional hymn in English cathedrals, churches and chapels on St George's Day. The hymn is also sung in some churches on Jerusalem Sunday, a day set aside to celebrate the holy city, in Anglican Churches throughout the world and even in some Episcopal Churches in the U.S. However some vicars in the Church of England, according to the BBC TV programme "Jerusalem: An Anthem for England", have said that the song is not technically a hymn, as it is not a prayer to God (which hymns always are). Consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England. Parry's tune is so well liked that the song is not only sung in many schools, especially public schools in the UK (it was used as the title music for the BBC's 1979 series 'Public School' at Radley College) , but also at several private schools in New England and Canada. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words. The established Church of Scotland debated altering the words of the hymn to read "Albion" instead of England to make it more locally relevant. The tune has been set to several texts in the United States, where the traditional lyrics would have little relevance, including "O Love of God, how strong and true", which was performed in an arrangement by Michael McCarthy at Ronald Reagan's funeral at Washington National Cathedral in 2004. In some hymnals the tune is used with Carl P. Daw Jr.'s text "O Day of Peace That Dimly Shines" (based on Isaiah 11:1-9). Live performances The popularity of Parry's setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. Consequently only its most notable live performances are listed below. It is sung every year by an audience of thousands at the end of the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall and simultaneously in the Proms in the Park venues throughout the country. The song was used by the National Union of Suffrage Societies Link to SongFacts - Accessed 2008-08-07 . During the 1920s, many Women's Institutes started closing meetings by singing it, and this caught on nationally. Although it has never actually been adopted as the WI's official anthem, in practice it holds that position and, together with -making, is an enduring element of the public image of the WI. The "Jam and Jeruasalem" caricature of the WI is still current enough that they have a FAQ about it on their site at It is traditionally sung before rugby league's Challenge Cup Final, along with Abide with Me. Since 2004, it has been the anthem of the England cricket team and is regularly sung by rugby union crowds. Other musical settings Blake's lyrics have also been set to music by other composers without reference to Parry's melody. The words, with some variations, are used in the track Jerusalem on Bruce Dickinson's album The Chemical Wedding, which also includes lines from book two of Milton. Finn Coren also created a different musical setting for the poem on his album The Blake Project: Spring. Use in film "Bring me my chariot of fire" inspired the title of the film Chariots of Fire. IMDB trivia - Origin of title - Accessed 11 Aug 2008 A church congregation sings "Jerusalem" at the close of the film and a performance appears on the Chariots of Fire soundtrack performed by the Ambrosian Singers overlaid partly by a composition by Vangelis. The film's working title was "Running" until Colin Welland saw a TV programme, Songs of Praise, featuring the hymn and decided to change the title. The hymn features in the movie "Four Weddings and a Funeral", being sung by the congregation at the first wedding featured in the film. The poem is referenced by Bagley's final soliloquy in the Bruce Robinson film How to Get Ahead in Advertising. The hymn was also used extensively in The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner. In the film Calendar Girls, members of the Women's Institute sing "Jerusalem" at every meeting. See also Civil religion Merry England Romantic Movement and the industrial revolution for Emerson, Lake & Palmer's 1973 version, see Brain Salad Surgery for Billy Bragg's version, see The Internationale 1804 in poetry References External links | And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time |@lemmatized preface:3 milton:7 appear:3 blake:18 illuminate:1 version:5 foot:4 ancient:5 time:7 short:2 poem:20 william:2 epic:1 date:1 title:6 page:1 probably:1 plate:2 begin:2 print:2 c:1 cox:1 michael:2 editor:1 concise:1 oxford:5 chronology:1 english:8 literature:1 p:4 university:4 press:2 isbn:1 today:1 best:3 know:4 hymn:13 jerusalem:22 music:6 write:3 sir:2 hubert:1 parry:8 inspire:2 apocryphal:1 story:2 young:1 jesus:5 accompany:1 uncle:1 joseph:1 arimathea:1 travel:1 area:1 england:24 visited:1 glastonbury:1 description:1 legend:3 accessed:5 link:5 idea:1 book:2 revelation:1 describe:2 second:1 coming:1 wherein:1 establish:5 new:7 christian:2 church:16 general:2 particular:1 used:1 metaphor:2 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2,099 | Paul_Vixie | Paul Vixie is the author of several RFCs and standard UNIX system programs, among them SENDS, proxynet, rtty and Vixie cron. In 1988, while employed by DEC, he started working on the popular internet domain name server BIND, of which he was the primary author and architect, until release 8. After he left DEC in 1994, he founded Internet Software Consortium (ISC) together with Rick Adams and Carl Malamud to support BIND and other software for the Internet. The activities of ISC were assumed by a new company, Internet Systems Consortium in 2004. In 1995 he cofounded the Palo Alto Internet Exchange (PAIX), and after Metromedia Fiber Network (MFN) bought it in 1999 served as the chief technology officer to MFN / AboveNet and later as the president of PAIX. In 1998 he cofounded MAPS (Mail Abuse Prevention System), a California nonprofit company with the goal of stopping email abuse. He also ran his own consulting business, Vixie Enterprises. Along with Frederick Avolio, he co-wrote the book Sendmail: Theory and Practice (ISBN 1-55558-127-7 first edition, ISBN 155558229X second edition). He has also stated that he "now hold[s] the record for 'most CERT advisories due to a single author.'" Although working for ISC, the operator of the F root server, he at one point joined the Open Root Server Network project and operates their L root server. Flaming Mountainside Vixie served as a judge for the Mozilla Foundation's "Download Day", an attempt to set a Guiness World Record for most downloads in a single day for a new piece of software. Paul Vixie listed as a judge on the Firefox 3 2008 Download Day He attended George Washington High School in San Francisco, California. Vixie was elected to the ARIN Board of Trustees in 2005, and was selected as Chairman in 2009. References External links Vixie Enterprises Paul Vixie's CircleID Page Washington High Online | Paul_Vixie |@lemmatized paul:3 vixie:8 author:3 several:1 rfcs:1 standard:1 unix:1 system:3 program:1 among:1 send:1 proxynet:1 rtty:1 cron:1 employ:1 dec:2 start:1 work:2 popular:1 internet:5 domain:1 name:1 server:4 bind:2 primary:1 architect:1 release:1 leave:1 found:1 software:3 consortium:2 isc:3 together:1 rick:1 adam:1 carl:1 malamud:1 support:1 activity:1 assume:1 new:2 company:2 cofounded:2 palo:1 alto:1 exchange:1 paix:2 metromedia:1 fiber:1 network:2 mfn:2 buy:1 serve:2 chief:1 technology:1 officer:1 abovenet:1 later:1 president:1 map:1 mail:1 abuse:2 prevention:1 california:2 nonprofit:1 goal:1 stop:1 email:1 also:2 run:1 consulting:1 business:1 enterprise:2 along:1 frederick:1 avolio:1 co:1 write:1 book:1 sendmail:1 theory:1 practice:1 isbn:2 first:1 edition:2 second:1 state:1 hold:1 record:2 cert:1 advisory:1 due:1 single:2 although:1 operator:1 f:1 root:3 one:1 point:1 join:1 open:1 project:1 operate:1 l:1 flame:1 mountainside:1 judge:2 mozilla:1 foundation:1 download:2 day:3 attempt:1 set:1 guiness:1 world:1 downloads:1 piece:1 list:1 firefox:1 attend:1 george:1 washington:2 high:2 school:1 san:1 francisco:1 elect:1 arin:1 board:1 trustee:1 select:1 chairman:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 circleid:1 page:1 online:1 |@bigram paul_vixie:3 palo_alto:1 san_francisco:1 board_trustee:1 external_link:1 |
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