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1,800 | Ajax_the_Lesser | Ajax the Lesser raping Cassandra. Poseidon killing Ajax the Lesser. For other uses of this name, see Ajax. Ajax (Greek: ) was a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris. He was called the "lesser" or "Locrian" Ajax, Homer, Iliad ii. 527 to distinguish him from Ajax the Great, son of Telamon. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the Trojan War. He is a significant figure in Homer's Iliad and is also mentioned in the Odyssey. In Etruscan mythology, he is known as Aivas Vilates. Mythography His mother's name was Eriopis. According to Strabo he was born in Naryx in Locris, Strabo, ix. p. 425 where Ovid calls him Narycius Heros. Ovid, Metamorphoses xiv. 468 According to the Iliad, Homer, Iliad ii. 527, &c. he led his Locrians in forty ships against Troy. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 97 gives the number of ships as twenty In spite of his small stature, he is described as one of the great heroes among the Greeks, and acts frequently in conjunction with the Telamonian Ajax. In battle he wore a linen cuirass (), was brave and intrepid, especially skilled in throwing the spear, and, next to Achilles, the swiftest of all the Greeks. Homer, Iliad xiv. 520, &c., xxiii. 789, &c. In the funeral games at the pyre of Patroclus he contended with Odysseus and Antilochus for the prize in the footrace; but Athena, who was hostile towards him and favored Odysseus, made him stumble and fall, so that he won only the second prize, Homer, Iliad (xxiii. 754, &c. On his return from Troy, his vessel was wrecked on the Whirling Rocks (), but he himself escaped upon a rock through the assistance of Poseidon, and would have been saved in spite of Athena, but he said that he would escape the dangers of the sea in defiance of the immortals. In punishment for this presumption, Poseidon split the rock with his trident, and Ajax was swallowed up by the sea. Homer, Odyssey iv. 499, &c. In later traditions this Ajax is called a son of Oileus and the nymph Rhene, and is also mentioned among the suitors of Helen. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 81, 97 Apollodorus, iii. 10. § 8 According to a tradition in Philostratus, Ajax had a tame dragon, five cubits in length, which followed him everywhere like a dog. Philostratus, Her. viii. 1 After the taking of Troy, it is said he rushed into the temple of Athena, where Cassandra had taken refuge, and was embracing the statue of the goddess as a suppliant. Ajax violently dragged her away and led her to the other captives. Virgil, Aeneid ii. 403 Euripides, Troad. 70, &c. Dict. Cret. v. 12 Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 116 According to some writers he even raped Cassandra in the temple. Tryphiodorus, 635 Quintus Smyrnaeus, xiii. 422 Lycophron, 360, with the Scholion Odysseus, at least, accused him of this crime, and Ajax was to be stoned to death, but saved himself by establishing his innocence with an oath. Pausanias, Description of Greece x. 26. § 1, 31. § 1 The whole charge was sometimes said to have been an invention of Agamemnon, who wanted to have Cassandra for himself. Death Whether true or not, Athena still had cause to be indignant, as Ajax had dragged a supplicant from her temple. When on his voyage home he came to the Capharean Rocks on the coast of Euboea, his ship was wrecked in a storm, he himself was killed by Athena with a flash of lightning, and his body impaled upon the rocks, which afterwards were called the rocks of Ajax. Gaius Julius Hyginus, Fabulae 116 comp. Virgil, Aeneid i. 40, &c., xi. 260 After his death his spirit dwelled in the island of Leuce. Pausanias, Description of Greece iii. 19. § 11 The Opuntian Locrians worshiped Ajax as their national hero, and so great was their faith in him that when they drew up their army in battle, they always left one place open for him, believing that, although invisible to them, he was fighting for and among them. Conon Narrations 18 The story of Ajax was frequently made use of by ancient poets and artists, and the hero who appears on some Locrian coins with the helmet, shield, and sword is probably this Ajax. Théodore Edme Mionnet, No. 570, &c. Other accounts of his death are offered by Philostratus and the scholiast on Lycophron. Philostratus, Her. viii. 3 Scholiast on Lycophron l. c. Art The abduction of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest of Cypselus described by Pausanias and in extant works. Pausanias, Description of Greece v. 17 References Sources | Ajax_the_Lesser |@lemmatized ajax:18 less:2 raping:1 cassandra:5 poseidon:3 kill:2 us:1 name:2 see:1 greek:5 mythological:1 hero:5 son:3 oileus:2 king:1 locris:2 call:4 lesser:1 locrian:3 homer:6 iliad:6 ii:3 distinguish:1 great:3 telamon:1 leader:1 contingent:1 trojan:1 war:1 significant:1 figure:1 also:2 mention:2 odyssey:2 etruscan:1 mythology:1 know:1 aivas:1 vilates:1 mythography:1 mother:1 eriopis:1 accord:4 strabo:2 bear:1 naryx:1 ix:1 p:1 ovid:2 narycius:1 metamorphose:1 xiv:2 c:9 lead:2 locrians:2 forty:1 ship:3 troy:3 gaius:4 julius:4 hyginus:4 fabulae:4 give:1 number:1 twenty:1 spite:2 small:1 stature:1 de:1 scribe:1 one:2 among:3 act:1 frequently:3 conjunction:1 telamonian:1 battle:2 wear:1 linen:1 cuirass:1 brave:1 intrepid:1 especially:1 skilled:1 throw:1 spear:1 next:1 achilles:1 swift:1 xxiii:2 funeral:1 game:1 pyre:1 patroclus:1 contend:1 odysseus:2 antilochus:1 prize:2 footrace:1 athena:5 hostile:1 towards:1 favor:1 odys:1 seus:1 make:2 stumble:1 fall:1 win:1 second:1 return:1 vessel:1 wreck:2 whirling:1 rock:6 self:1 escape:2 upon:2 assistance:1 would:2 save:2 say:3 danger:1 sea:2 defiance:1 immortal:1 punishment:1 presumption:1 split:1 trident:1 swallow:1 iv:1 late:1 tradition:2 nymph:1 rhene:1 suitor:1 helen:1 apollodorus:1 iii:2 philostratus:4 tame:1 dragon:1 five:1 cubit:1 length:1 follow:1 everywhere:1 like:1 dog:1 viii:2 taking:1 rush:1 temple:3 take:1 refuge:1 embrace:1 statue:1 goddess:1 suppliant:1 violently:1 drag:2 away:1 captive:1 virgil:2 aeneid:2 euripides:1 troad:1 dict:1 cret:1 v:2 writer:1 even:1 rap:1 tryphiodorus:1 quintus:1 smyrnaeus:1 xiii:1 lycophron:3 scholion:1 least:1 accuse:1 crime:1 stone:1 death:4 establish:1 innocence:1 oath:1 pausanias:4 description:3 greece:3 x:1 whole:1 charge:1 sometimes:1 invention:1 agamemnon:1 want:1 whether:1 true:1 still:1 cause:1 indignant:1 supplicant:1 voyage:1 home:1 come:1 capharean:1 coast:1 euboea:1 storm:1 flash:1 lightning:1 body:1 impale:1 afterwards:1 comp:1 xi:1 spirit:1 dwell:1 island:1 leuce:1 opuntian:1 worship:1 national:1 faith:1 draw:1 army:1 always:1 leave:1 place:1 open:1 believe:1 although:1 invisible:1 fight:1 conon:1 narration:1 story:1 use:1 ancient:1 poet:1 artist:1 appear:1 coin:1 helmet:1 shield:1 sword:1 probably:1 théodore:1 edme:1 mionnet:1 account:1 offer:1 scholiast:2 l:1 art:2 abduction:1 represent:1 work:2 instance:1 chest:1 cypselus:1 describe:1 extant:1 reference:1 source:1 |@bigram ajax_ajax:1 homer_iliad:5 ovid_metamorphose:1 iliad_homer:1 gaius_julius:4 julius_hyginus:4 hyginus_fabulae:4 telamonian_ajax:1 homer_odyssey:1 virgil_aeneid:2 quintus_smyrnaeus:1 pausanias_description:3 |
1,801 | Fenrir | "Odin and Fenris" (1909) by Dorothy Hardy. In Norse mythology, Fenrir (Old Norse "fen-dweller" Orchard (1997:42). ), Fenrisúlfr (Old Norse "Fenris wolf" Simek (2007:81). ), or Hróðvitnir (Old Norse "fame-wolf" Simek (2007:160). ) is a monstrous wolf. Fenrir is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, Fenrir is the father of the wolves Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson, and is foretold to kill the god Odin during the events of Ragnarök, but will in turn be killed by Odin's son Víðarr. In the Prose Edda, additional information is given about Fenrir, including that, due to the gods' knowledge of prophecies foretelling great trouble from Fenrir and his rapid growth, the gods bound him, and as a result Fenrir bit off the right hand of the god Týr. Depictions of Fenrir have been identified on various objects, and scholarly theories have been proposed regarding Fenrir's relation to other canine beings in Norse mythology. Fenrir has been the subject of artistic depictions, and appears in literature. Attestations Poetic Edda "Fenrir and Odin" (1895) by Lorenz Frølich. An illustration of Víðarr stabbing Fenrir while holding his jaws apart (1908) by W. G. Collingwood, inspired by the Gosforth Cross. Fenrir is mentioned in three stanzas of the poem Völuspá, and in two stanzas of the poem Vafþrúðnismál. In stanza 40 of the poem Völuspá, a völva divulges to Odin that, in the east, an old woman sat in the forest Járnviðr, "and bred there the broods of Fenrir. There will come from them all one of that number to be a moon-snatcher in troll's skin". Dronke (1997:17). Further into the poem, the völva foretells that Odin will be consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök: Then is fulfilled Hlín's second sorrow, when Óðinn goes to fight with the wolf, and Beli's slayer, bright, against Surtr. Then shall Frigg's sweet friend fall. In the stanza that follows, the völva describes that Odin's "tall child of Triumph's Sire" (Odin's son Víðarr) will then come to "strike at the beast of slaughter", and with his hands, he will drive a sword into the heart of "Hveðrungr's son", avenging the death of his father. Dronke (1997:21–22). In the first of two stanzas mentioning Fenrir in Vafþrúðnismál, Odin poses a question to the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir: "Much I have travelled, much have I tried out, much have I tested the Powers; from where will a sun come into the smooth heaven when Fenrir has assailed this one?" In the stanza that follows, Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól (here referred to as Álfröðull), will bear a daughter before Fenrir attacks her, and that this daughter shall continue the paths of her deceased mother through the heavens. Larrington (1999:47). Prose Edda "Loki's Brood" (1905) by Emil Doepler. "Loki's Children" (1906) by Lorenz Frølich. "Týr and Fenrir" (1911) by John Bauer. Gylfaginning chapters 13 and 25 In chapter 13 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning, Fenrir is first mentioned in a stanza quoted from Völuspá. Faulkes (1995:15). Fenrir is first mentioned in prose in chapter 25, where the enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (described as King Gylfi in disguise) about the god Týr. High says that one example of Týr's bravery is that when the Æsir were luring Fenrir (referred to here as Fenrisúlfr) to place the fetter Gleipnir on the wolf. Fenrir did not trust that they would let him go until the Æsir placed Týr's hand into Fenrir's mouth as a pledge. As a result, when the Æsir refused to release him, he bit off Týr's hand at a location "now called the wolf-joint" (the wrist), causing Týr to be one-handed and "not considered to be a promoter of settlements between people". Faulkes (1995:25). Gylfaginning chapter 34 In chapter 34, High describes Loki, and says that Loki had three children with a female jötunn named Angrboða located in the land of Jötunheimr; Fenrisúlfr, the serpent Jörmungandr, and the female being Hel. High continues that, once the gods found that these three children were being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr, and when the gods "traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them" the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children, partially due to the nature of the mother of the children, yet worse so due to the nature of their father. Faulkes (1995:26–27). High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him. Upon their arrival, Odin threw Jörmungandr into "that deep sea that lies round all lands", and then threw Hel into Niflheim, and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds. However, the Æsir brought up the wolf "at home", and only Týr had the courage to approach Fenrir, and give Fenrir food. The gods noticed that Fenrir was growing rapidly every day, and since all prophecies foretold that Fenrir was destined to cause them harm, the gods formed a plan. The gods prepared three fetters: The first, greatly strong, was called Leyding. They brought Leyding to Fenrir and suggested that the wolf try his strength with it. Fenrir judged that it was not beyond his strength, and so let the gods do what they wanted with it. At Fenrir's first kick the bind snapped, and Fenrir loosened himself from Leyding. The gods made a second fetter, twice as strong, and named it Dromi. The gods asked Fenrir to try the new fetter, and that should he break this feat of engineering, Fenrir would achieve great fame for his strength. Fenrir considered that the fetter was very strong, yet also that his strength had grown since he broke Leyding, yet that he would have to take some risks if he were to become famous. Fenrir allowed them to place the fetter. Faulkes (1995:27). When the Æsir exclaimed that they were ready, Fenrir shook himself, knocked the fetter to ground, strained hard, and kicking with his feet, snapped the fetter – breaking it into pieces that flew far into the distance. High says that, as a result, to "loose from Leyding" or to "strike out of Dromi" have become sayings for when something is achieved with great effort. The Æsir started to fear that they would not be able to bind Fenrir, and so Odin sent Freyr's messenger Skírnir down into the land of Svartálfaheimr to "some dwarves" and had them make a fetter called Gleipnir. The dwarves constructed Gleipnir from six mythical ingredients. After an exchange between Gangleri and High, High continues that the fetter was smooth and soft as a silken ribbon, yet strong and firm. The messenger brought the ribbon to the Æsir, and they thanked him heartily for completing the task. Faulkes (1995:28). The Æsir went out on to the lake Amsvartnir (Old Norse "pitch black" Orchard (1997:6). ), sent for Fenrir to accompany them, and continued to the island Lyngvi (Old Norse "a place overgrown with heather" Simek (2007:198). ). The gods showed Fenrir the silken fetter Gleipnir, told him to tear it, stated that it was much stronger than it appeared, passed it among themselves, used their hands to pull it, and yet it did not tear. However, they said that Fenrir would be able to tear it, to which Fenrir replied: "The Binding of Fenrir" (1908) by George Wright. "It looks to me that with this ribbon as though I will gain no fame from it if I do tear apart such a slender band, but if it is made with art and trickery, then even if it does look thin, this band is not going on my legs." The Æsir said Fenrir would quickly tear apart a thin silken strip, noting that Fenrir earlier broke great iron binds, and added that if Fenrir wasn't able to break slender Gleipnir then Fenrir is nothing for the gods to fear, and as a result would be freed. Fenrir responded: "If you bind me so that I am unable to release myself, then you will be standing by in such a way that I should have to wait a long time before I got any help from you. I am reluctant to have this band put on me. But rather than that you question my courage, let someone put his hand in my mouth as a pledge that this is done in good faith." Faulkes (1995:28–29). With this statement, all of the Æsir look to one another, finding themselves in a dilemma. Everyone refused to place their hand in Fenrir's mouth until Týr put out his right hand and placed it into the wolf's jaws. When Fenrir kicked, Gleipnir caught tightly, and the more Fernrir struggled, the stronger the band grew. At this, everyone laughed, except Týr, who there lost his right hand. When the gods knew that Fenrir was fully bound, they took a cord called Gelgja (Old Norse "fetter" Orchard (1997:54). ) hanging from Gleipnir, inserted the cord through a large stone slab called Gjöll (Old Norse "scream" Orchard (1997:57). ), and the gods fastened the stone slab deep into the ground. After, the gods took a great rock called Thviti (Old Norse "hitter, batterer" Simek (2007:334). ), and thrust it even further into the ground as an anchoring peg. Fenrir reacted violently; he opened his jaws very widely, and tried to bite the gods. The gods thrust "a certain sword" into Fenrir's mouth, the hilt of the sword on Fenrir's lower gums and the point his upper gums. Fenrir "howled horribly", saliva ran from his mouth, and this saliva formed the river Ván (Old Norse "hope" Simek (2007:350) ). There Fenrir will lie until Ragnarök. Gangleri comments that Loki created a "pretty terrible family" though important, and asks why the Æsir did not just kill Fenrir there since they expected great malice from him. High replies that "so greatly did the gods respect their holy places and places of sanctuary that they did not want to defile them with the wolf's blood even though the prophecies say that he will be the death of Odin." Faulkes (1995:29). "Odin and Fenriswolf, Freyr and Surt" (1905) by Emil Doepler. Gylfaginning chapters 38 and 51 In chapter 38, High says that there are many men in Valhalla, and many more who will arrive, yet they will "seem too few when the wolf comes". Faulkes (1995:32). In chapter 51, High foretells that as part of the events of Ragnarök, after Fenrir's son Sköll has swallowed the sun and his other son Hati Hróðvitnisson has swallowed the moon, the stars will disappear from the sky. The earth will shake violently, trees will be uprooted, mountains will fall, and all binds will snap – Fenrisúlfr will be free. Fenrisúlfr will go forth with his mouth opened wide, his upper jaw touching the sky and his lower jaw the earth, and flames will burn from his eyes and nostrils. Faulkes (1995:53). Later, Fenrisúlfr will arrive at the field Vígríðr with his brother Jörmungandr. With the forces assembled there, an immense battle will take place. During this, Odin will ride to fight Fenrisúlfr. During the battle, Fenrisúlfr will eventually swallow Odin, killing him, and Odin's son Víðarr will move forward and kick one foot into the lower jaw of the wolf. This foot will bear a legendary shoe "for which the material has been collected throughout all time". With one hand, Víðarr will take hold of the wolf's upper jaw and tear apart his mouth, killing Fenrisúlfr. Faulkes (1995:54). High follows this prose description by citing various quotes from Völuspá in support, some of which mention Fenrir. Faulkes (1995:55–57). "Fenrir" (1874) by A. Fleming. Skáldskaparmál and Háttatal In the Epilogue section of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, a euhemerized monologue equates Fenrisúlfr to Pyrrhus, attempting to rationalize that "it killed Odin, and Pyrrhus could be said to be a wolf according to their religion, for he paid no respect to places of sanctuary when he killed the king in the temple in front of Thor's altar". Faulkes (1995:65–66). In chapter 2, "wolf's enemy" is cited as a kenning for Odin as used by the 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson. Faulkes (1995:68). In chapter 9, "feeder of the wolf" is given as a kenning for Týr and, in chapter 11, "slayer of Fenrisúlfr" is presented as a kenning for Víðarr. Faulkes (1995:76). In chapter 50, a section of Ragnarsdrápa by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is quoted that refers to Hel, the being, as "the monstrous wolf's sister". Faulkes (1995:123). In chapter 75, names for wargs and wolves are list, including both "Hróðvitnir" and "Fenrir". Faulkes (1995:164). "Fenrir" appears twice in verse as a common noun for a "wolf" or "warg" in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál, and in chapter 56 of the book Háttatal. Faulkes (1995:136 and 199). Additionally, the name "Fenrir" can be found among a list of jötnar in chapter 75 of Skáldskaparmál. Faulkes (1995:157). Heimskringla At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða, the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is presented. The poem is about the fall of King Haakon I of Norway; although he is Christian, he is taken by two valkyries to Valhalla, and is there received as one of the Einherjar. Towards the end of the poem, a stanza relates sooner will the bonds of Fenrir snap than as good a king as Haakon shall stand in his place: Unfettered will fare the Fenris Wolf and ravaged the realm of men, ere that cometh a kingly prince as good, to stand in his stead. Hollander (2007:127). Archaeological record Thorwald's Cross The Ledberg stone. Thorwald's Cross, a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man, depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder. Pluskowski (2004:158). Rundata dates it to 940, Entry Br Olsen;185A in Rundata 2.0 while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century. This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök. Jansson (1987:152) Next to the image is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to it that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan. Hunter, Ralston (1999:200). These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as "syncretic art"; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs. Gosforth Cross The mid-11th century Gosforth Cross, located in Cumbria, England, has been described as depicting a combination of scenes from the Christian Judgement Day and the pagan Ragnarök. Pluskowski (2004:158). The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, one of whose feet is thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, while a hand is placed against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. This depiction has been theorized as a metaphor for Christ's defeat of Satan. Schapiro (1980:264, note 66). Ledberg stone The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök. Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position. The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious", MacLeod, Mees (2006:145). and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world". Hell Mouth Meyer Schapiro theorizes a connection between the "Hell Mouth" that appears in medieval Christian iconography and Fenrir. According to Schapiro, "the Anglo-Saxon taste for the Hell Mouth was perhaps influenced by the northern pagan myth of the Crack of Doom and the battle with the wolf, who devoured Odin." Schapiro (1942:211). Theories Fenrir bites off the hand of a sword-wielding Týr in an illustration on an 18th century Icelandic manuscript. In reference to Fenrir's presentation in the Prose Edda, Andy Orchard theorizes that "the hound (or wolf)" Garmr, Sköll, and Hati Hróðvitnisson were originally simply all Fenrir, stating that "Snorri, characteristically, is careful to make distinctions, naming the wolves who devour the sun and moon as Sköll and Hati Hróðvitnisson respectively, and describing an encounter between Garm and Týr (who, one would have thought, might like to get his hands on Fenrir) at Ragnarök." Orchard (1997:43). John Lindow says that it is unclear why the gods decide to raise Fenrir as opposed to his siblings Hel and Jörmungandr in Gylfaginning chapter 35, theorizing that it may be "because Odin had a connection with wolves? Because Loki was Odin's blood brother?" Referring to the same chapter, Lindow comments that neither of the phrases that Fenrir's binding result in have left any other traces. Lindow compares Fenrir's role to his father Loki and Fenrir's brother Jörmungandr, in that they all spend time with the gods, are bound or cast out by them, return "at the end of the current mythic order to destroy them, only to be destroyed himself as a younger generation of gods, one of them his slayer, survives into the new world order." Lindow (2001:111–114). Indo-European parallels have been proposed between myths of Fenrir and the Persian demon Ahriman. The Yashts refer to a story where Taxma Urupi rode Angra Mainyu as a horse for thirty years. An elaboration of this allusion is found only in a late Parsi commentary. The ruler Taxmoruw (Taxma Urupi) managed to lasso Ahriman (Angra Mainyu) and keep him tied up while taking him for a ride three times a day. After thirty years Ahriman outwitted and swallowed Taxmoruw. In a sexual encounter with Ahriman, Jamshid, Taxmoruw's brother, inserted his hand into Jamshid's anus and pulled out his brother's corpse. His hand withered from contact with the diabolic innards. The suggested parallels with Fenrir myths are the binding of an evil being by a ruler figure and the subsequent swallowing of the ruler figure by the evil being (Odin and Fenrir), trickery involving the thrusting of a hand into a monster's orifice and the affliction of the inserted limb (Týr and Fenrir). Puhvel (1988:118–119). Ethologist Dr. Valerius Geist of the University of Calgary, Alberta wrote that Fenrir's maiming and ultimate killing of Odin, who had previously nurtured him, was likely based on true experiences of wolf behaviour, seeing as wolves are genetically encoded to rise up the pack hierarchy and have on occasion been recorded to rebel against and kill their parents. Geist states that "apparently, even the ancients knew that wolves may turn on their parents and siblings and kill them." Modern influence Fenrir has been depicted in the artwork "Odin and Fenris" (1909) and "The Binding of Fenris" (around 1900) by Dorothy Hardy, "Odin und Fenriswolf" and "Fesselung des Fenriswolfe" (1901) by Emil Doepler, and is the subject of the metal sculpture "Fenrir" by A. V. Gunnerud located on the island of Askøy, Norway. Simek (2007:81). Fenrir appears in modern literature in the poem "Om Fenrisulven og Tyr" (1819) by Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger (collected in Nordens Guder), the novel Der Fenriswolf by K. H. Strobl, and Til kamp mod dødbideriet (1974) by E. K. Reich and E. Larsen. Wolf-like characters bearing names inspired by Fenrir sometimes appear in modern fiction, including Fenris Ulf in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950) by C. S. Lewis, and Fenrir Grayback in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince (2005) by J. K. Rowling. Notes References Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819 Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-4608-7616-3 Hunter, John. Ralston, Ian (1999). The Archaeology of Britain: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 0415135877 Hollander, Lee Milton (Trans.) (2007). Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway. University of Texas Press ISBN 978-0-292-73061-8 Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0192839462 Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0 Macleod, Mindy. Mees, Bernard (2006). Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press. ISBN 1843832054 Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell. ISBN 0 304 34520 2 Pluskowski, Aleks. "Apocalyptic Monsters: Animal Inspirations for the Iconography of Medieval Northern Devourers" as collected in: Bildhauer, Bettina. Mills, Robert (2004). The Monstrous Middle Ages. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802086675 Puhvel, Jaan (1998). Comparative Mythology. The John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3413-9 Rundata 2.0 for Windows. Schapiro, Meyer (1980). Cain's Jaw-Bone that Did the First Murder, Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art. Chatto & Windus, London, ISBN 0701125144. Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer. 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1,802 | Politics_of_Bulgaria | Politics of Bulgaria take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Minister-Chairman is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Since 1990, Bulgaria has an unstable party system, nowadays dominated by the post-communist social democratic Bulgarian Socialist Party and the personalist liberal National Movement Simeon II. The U.S. Freedom House considers Bulgaria a free country. Developments since 1990 The Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP) won the first post-communist Assembly elections in 1990 with a small majority. The BSP government formed at that time was brought down by a general strike in late 1990 and replaced by a transitional coalition government. Meanwhile, Zhelyu Zhelev, a communist-era dissident, was elected President by the Assembly in 1990, and in 1992 won Bulgaria's first direct presidential elections. Zhelev served until early 1997. The country's first fully democratic Assembly elections, in November 1991, ushered in another coalition government, which was led by the pro-reform Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) in partnership with the Turkish party Movement for Rights and Freedoms (MRF). This coalition collapsed in late 1992, and was succeeded by a technocratic team, put forward by the MRF, which governed at the sufferance of the BSP for 2 years. The BSP won pre-term elections in December 1994 and remained in office until February 1997, when a populace alienated by the BSP's failed, corrupt government demanded its resignation and called for new elections. A caretaker cabinet appointed by the President served until pre-term parliamentary elections in April 1997, which yielded a landslide victory for pro-reform forces led by the UDF in the United Democratic Forces coalition. In 2001, former King Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha returned to power, this time as Prime Minister with his National Movement Simeon II. The last parliamentary elections took place on 25 June 2005. Bulgaria did not decriminalize homosexuality until 2002, doing so to conform to European Union norms as it pressed for membership. Nevertheless, polls from the end of 2007 showed that 80% of Bulgarian respondents expressed a negative view of gays and lesbians, with 53% voicing an "extremely negative" view. GayCityNews - E. Europe Still Anti-Gay Bloc On July 27, 2005 the Bulgarian Parliament chose Sergey Stanishev of the Bulgarian Socialist Party as the new Prime Minister in a coalition government with the Movement for Rights and Freedoms. The vote was 120 against 119. However, the parliament voted against the cabinet's staff by 119 to 117 votes. Finally, on August 15, 2005, the BSP and National Movement Simeon II formed a stable government, along with the Movement for Rights and Freedoms. This grand coalition comprises the three largest parties. This coalition will have a large majority in parliament with 169 of the 240 deputies. Bulgaria joined the European Union in 2007. Bulgaria Main office holders !align=left|President |Georgi Parvanov |BSP |22 January 2002 |- !align=left|Vice President |Angel Marin |BSP |22 January 2002 |- !align=left|Prime Minister |Sergey Stanishev |BSP |17 August 2005 |- |Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs |Ivaylo Kalfin |BSP |17 August 2005 |- |Deputy Prime Minister |Meglena Plougchieva Biographies | | |- |Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Science |Daniel Valchev |NDSV |17 August 2005 |- |Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Disaster Management Policy |Emel Etem Toshkova |DPS |17 August 2005 |- !align=left|Chairperson of the National Assembly |Georgi Pirinski |BSP |11 July 2005 |- |Vice Chairperson of the National Assembly |Lyuben Kornezov |BSP |11 July 2005 |- |Vice Chairperson of the National Assembly |Kamelia Kasabova |NDSV |11 July 2005 |- |Vice Chairperson of the National Assembly |Yunal Lyutfi |DPS |11 July 2005 |- !align=left|Chairperson of the Constitutional Court |Rumen Yankov | |8 November 2006 |} Executive branch The president of Bulgaria (Georgi Parvanov since 22 January 2002) is directly elected for a 5-year term with the right to one re-election. The president serves as the head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The President's main duties are to schedule elections and referendums, represent Bulgaria abroad, conclude international treaties, and head the Consultative Council for National Security. The President may return legislation to the National Assembly for further debate--a kind of veto--but the legislation can be passed again by an absolute majority vote. The Council of Ministers is the principal organ of the executive branch. It is usually formed by the majority party in Parliament, if one exists, or by the largest party in Parliament along with coalition partners. Chaired by the Prime Minister, it is responsible for carrying out state policy, managing the state budget, and maintaining law and order. The Council must resign if the National Assembly passes a vote of no confidence in the Council or the Prime Minister or rejects a vote of confidence. The current governmental coalition is made of the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), National Movement Simeon II (NMS), and the Movement for Rights and Freedoms (representing mainly the Turkish minority). The Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly. The ministers are: Sergey Stanishev - Prime Minister Ivaylo Kalfin - Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs Daniel Valchev - Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Science Emel Etem Toshkova - Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Disaster Management Policy Plamen Oresharski - Minister of Finance Rumen Petkov - Minister of Interior Affairs Veselin Bliznakov - Minister of Defence Miglena Tacheva - Minister of Justice Nikolay Vassilev - Minister of Public Administration and Administrative Reform Petar Dimitrov - Minister of Economy and Energy Petar Mutafchiev - Minister of Transport Asen Gagauzov - Minister of Regional Development and Public Works Dzhevdet Chakarov - Minister of Environment and Water Nihat Kabil - Minister of Agriculture and Forestry Emilia Maslarova - Minister of Labour and Social Policy Radoslav Gaydarski - Minister of Health Stefan Danailov - Minister of Culture Gergana Grancharova - Minister of European Affairs In addition: Anelia Krushkova - State agency for Tourism Vesela Lecheva - State agency for Youth and Sport Plamen Vachkov - State agency for Information technology and Communications Legislative branch The National Assembly The Bulgarian unicameral parliament, the National Assembly or Narodno Sabranie, consists of 240 deputies who are elected for 4-year-terms by popular vote. The votes are for party or coalition lists of candidates for each of the twenty-eight administrative divisions. A party or coalition must garner a minimum of 4% of the vote in order to enter parliament. Parliament is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the prime minister and other ministers, declaration of war, deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The Bulgarian judicial system consists of regional, district and appeal courts, as well as a Supreme Court of Cassation. In addition, there is a Supreme Administrative Court and a system of military courts. The Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation, Supreme Administrative Court and the Prosecutor General are elected by a qualified majority of two-thirds from all the members of the Supreme Judicial Council and are appointed by the President of the Republic. The Supreme Judicial Council is in charge of the self-administration and organisation of the Judiciary. The Constitutional Court of Bulgaria is in charge of reviewing the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it, as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the Government has signed. The 12 members of the Constitutional Court serve a nine-year term. Parliament elects 1/3 of them. Administrative divisions The territory of the Republic of Bulgaria is divided into provinces and municipalities. In all Bulgaria has 28 provinces, each headed by a provincial governor appointed by the government. In addition, there are 263 municipalities. International relations ACCT Australia Group BSEC CE CEI CERN EAPC EBRD ECE EU FAO G-9 IAEA IBRD ICAO ICCt ICRM IFC IFRCS IHO (pending member) ILO IMF IMO Interpol IOC IOM ISO ITU ITUC NAM (guest) NATO NSG OAS (observer) OPCW OSCE PCA PFP SECI UN UN Security Council (temporary) UNCTAD UNESCO UNIDO UNMEE UNMIBH UNMIK UNMOP UPU WCO WEU (associate partner) WFTU WHO WIPO WMO WToO WTrO ZC Other data Political pressure groups and leaders: Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB Confederation of Labour Podkrepa numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas See also List of ministries of Bulgaria Bulgaria Foreign relations of Bulgaria Flag of Bulgaria References | Politics_of_Bulgaria |@lemmatized politics:1 bulgaria:18 take:2 place:2 framework:1 parliamentary:3 representative:1 democratic:5 republic:3 whereby:1 minister:39 chairman:1 head:4 government:11 multi:1 party:13 system:4 executive:4 power:3 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 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1,803 | H | H is the eighth letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in both British and American English is aitch "H" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "haitch", op. cit. (), though it is also pronounced haitch () in most dialects (see the discussion below). In the International Phonetic Alphabet, this symbol is used to represent two sounds. Its lowercase form, , represents the voiceless glottal fricative or 'aspirate', and its small capital form, , represents the voiceless epiglottal fricative. History Egyptian hieroglyph fence Proto-Semitic Phoenician Etruscan H Greek etaN24Image:Proto-semiticH-01.pngImage:PhoenicianH-01.png The Semitic letter ח () most likely represented the voiceless pharyngeal fricative (). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence or posts. The early Greek H stood for , but later on, this letter, eta (Η, η), became a long vowel, . (In Modern Greek, this phoneme has merged with , similar to the English development where Middle English ea and ee came to be both pronounced .) Etruscan and Latin had as a phoneme, but almost all Romance languages lost the sound — Romanian later re-borrowed the phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, Spanish developed a secondary from F, before losing it again (and now has developed an allophone of in some Spanish-speaking countries, but this isn't spelled with h.) In German, h is typically used as a vowel lengthener, as well as for the phoneme . This may be because was sometimes lost between vowels in German. H is also used in many spelling systems in digraphs and trigraphs, such as ch in Spanish and English , French and Portuguese from , Italian , German , Czech and Slovak . Usage in English Name In most dialects of English, the name for the letter is pronounced and spelled aitch or occasionally eitch. Pronunciation and hence a spelling of haitch is usually considered to be h-adding and hence nonstandard. It is however standard in Hiberno-English and Singaporean English. In Northern Ireland it is a shibboleth as Protestant schools teach aitch and Catholics haitch. In Newfoundland, the pronunciation is /heɪtʃ/. The Association for Scottish Literary Studies This has also been indicative of Catholic school teaching in Australia. The perceived name of the letter affects the choice of indefinite article before initialisms beginning with H: for example "an HTML page" or "a HTML page". The pronunciation may be a hypercorrection formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent. Todd, L. & Hancock I.: "International English Usage", page 254. Routledge, 1990. Authorities disagree about the history of the letter's name. The Oxford English Dictionary says the original name of the letter was ; this became in Latin, passed into English via Old French , and by Middle English was pronounced . The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language derives it from French hache from Latin haca or hic. Value in English In English, H occurs as a single-letter grapheme (with value or silent) and in various digraphs, such as ch (, French and Portuguese-derived , Greek and Italian , German and Scots ), gh (silent, , or ) , ph (Greek-derived words in ), rh (Greek words in ), sh (), th ( as in thin or as in then), wh (, , or : see wine-whine merger). In transcriptions of other writing systems, zh may occur (as in Russian Doctor Zhivago); this is generally pronounced in English, although this is not necessarily faithful to the sound in the original language, as in the case of pinyin transcriptions. H is silent in a syllable rime, as in ah, ohm, dahlia, cheetah, pooh-poohed. H is often silent in the weak form of some function words beginning with H, including had, has, have, he, her, him, his. H is silent in some words of Romance origin: Initially in heir, honest, honour, hour; for American English usually also herb, and sometimes homage; as well as non-anglicized loanwords such as hors-d'oeuvres Internally in silhouette, chihuahua, and often piranha For some speakers, also in an initial unstressed syllable, as in "an historic occasion", "an hotel". After ex when x has value , as exhaust. For many speakers, after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed, as annihilate, vehicle (but not vehicular). Usage in Spanish In Spanish, H is a silent letter with no pronunciation, as in hijo ('son'), hola ('hello'), and hábil ('skillful'). The spelling reflects an earlier pronunciation of the sound . The sound exists in a number of dialects in Spanish, either as a syllable-final allophone of (for example Andalusia, Argentina or Cuba - vg. esto 'this' , or as a dialectal realization of Standard (for example Mexican caja 'box' ). Usage in French In the French language, the name of the letter is pronounced . The French language classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways that must be learned to use French properly, even though it is a silent letter either way. The h muet, or "mute h", is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so singular nouns get the article le or la replaced by the sequence l'''. Similarly, words such as un, whose pronunciation would elide onto the following word would do so for a word with h muet. For example Le hébergement becomes L'hébergement. The other way is called h aspiré, or "aspirated h" (though it is no longer aspirated) and is treated as a phantom consonant. Hence masculine nouns get the le, separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop. There is no elision with such a word; the preceding word is kept separate by similar means. Most words that begin with an h muet come from Latin (honneur, homme) or from Greek through Latin (hécatombe), whereas most words beginning with an h aspiré come from Germanic (harpe, hareng) or non-Indo-European languages (harem, hamac, haricot). As is generally the case with French, there are numerous exceptions. In some cases, an h was added to disambiguate the and semivowel pronunciations, before the introduction of the distinction between the letters V and U: huit (from uit, ultimately from Latin octo), huître (from uistre, ultimately from Greek through Latin ostrea). Some of these distinctions have been preserved in English through Anglo-French: an honour vs. a harp (though in this case, as many others in English, the use of 'an' does not seem arbitrary because the initial h is still aspirated). Dictionaries mark those words that have this second kind of h with a preceding mark, either an asterisk, a dagger, or a little circle lower than a degree-symbol. Usage in German In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced . In the German language, this letter is used in the digraph "ch" and the trigraph "sch" to indicate completely different sounds. Following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long: In the word "heighten", only the first <h> represents . In 1901, there was a spelling reform which eliminated the silent <h> in nearly all instances of <th> in native German words such as thun "to do" or Thür'' "door". It has been left unchanged in words derived from Greek, such as "theater" and "throne", which continue to be spelled with even after the last German spelling reform. Usage in Italian In Italian H has no real phonological value. It is rather a diacritic grapheme. The most important uses are: in verb avere (to have) it differentiates some forms of the present tense from other common words: ho (I have, 1st person singular) vs. o (or, conjunction) hai (you have, 2nd person singular) vs. ai (to the, preposition) ha (he/she/it has, 3rd person singular) vs. a (to, preposition) hanno (they have, 3rd person plural) vs. anno (year) in short interjections, to differentiate them from other common words (ah, oh, eh...) but also when no ambiguity is present (toh, beh). In these cases, the H reinforces the interjective nature of the word, which can be at the same time stressed by other signs like an exclamation mark. As a general rule for interjections, and also to avoid confusion with forms of the verb avere, the H should always be placed after the first syllable of the interjection: ahi!, ehi!, ohibò!. in digraphs ch and gh it indicated the pronunciation of the c and g letters as, respectively, and . Usage in other languages Some languages, including, but not limited to, English, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian and Finnish use H as a breathy voiced glottal fricative , often as an allophone of otherwise voiceless /h/ in a voiced environment. In Ukrainian and Belarusian, when written in the Latin alphabet, H is also commonly used for , normally written with the Cyrillic letter Г. (Note the difference from Russian pronunciation and romanisation). In Irish H after a consonant indicates lenition of that consonant; it is known as a séimhiú. In Japanese, H refers to Hentai. Other representations Computer codes In Unicode the capital H is codepoint U+0048 and the lower case h is U+0068. The ASCII code for capital H is 72 and for lowercase h is 104; or in binary 01001000 and 01101000, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital H is 200 and for lowercase h is 136. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "H" and "h" for upper and lower case respectively. Other systems In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'h' is represented as both hands with flat palms where the right hand slides over left hand from the wrist to beyond the finger tips. See also ĥ ħ Н, н - En (Cyrillic) Η, η - Eta (Greek) Х, х - Kha (Cyrillic) References | H |@lemmatized h:44 eighth:1 letter:21 latin:9 alphabet:4 name:9 british:2 american:3 english:22 aitch:3 oxford:2 dictionary:5 edition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 third:1 new:1 international:3 language:12 unabridged:1 haitch:4 op:1 cit:1 though:5 also:9 pronounced:2 dialect:3 see:3 discussion:1 phonetic:1 symbol:2 use:8 represent:7 two:2 sound:7 lowercase:3 form:7 voiceless:4 glottal:3 fricative:4 aspirate:4 small:1 capital:4 epiglottal:1 history:2 egyptian:1 hieroglyph:1 fence:2 proto:2 semitic:2 phoenician:1 etruscan:2 greek:10 semitich:1 pngimage:1 phoenicianh:1 png:1 ח:1 likely:1 pharyngeal:1 probably:1 stand:2 post:1 early:2 later:2 eta:2 η:4 become:3 long:2 vowel:6 modern:1 phoneme:4 merge:1 similar:2 development:1 middle:2 ea:1 ee:1 come:3 almost:1 romance:2 languages:1 lose:3 romanian:1 borrow:1 neighbour:1 slavic:1 spanish:6 develop:2 secondary:1 f:1 allophone:3 speaking:1 country:1 spell:5 german:9 typically:1 lengthener:1 well:2 may:3 sometimes:2 many:3 system:3 digraph:4 trigraphs:1 ch:4 french:10 portuguese:2 italian:4 czech:2 slovak:2 usage:7 pronounce:5 occasionally:1 eitch:1 pronunciation:9 hence:3 spelling:3 usually:2 consider:2 add:2 nonstandard:1 however:1 standard:2 hiberno:1 singaporean:1 northern:1 ireland:1 shibboleth:1 protestant:1 school:2 teach:2 catholic:2 newfoundland:1 heɪtʃ:1 association:1 scottish:1 literary:1 study:1 indicative:1 australia:1 perceived:1 affect:1 choice:1 indefinite:1 article:2 initialisms:1 begin:5 example:4 html:3 page:3 hypercorrection:1 analogy:1 include:3 todd:1 l:3 hancock:1 routledge:1 authority:1 disagree:1 say:1 original:2 pass:1 via:1 old:1 heritage:1 derive:4 hache:1 haca:1 hic:1 value:4 occur:2 single:1 grapheme:2 silent:8 various:1 scots:1 gh:2 ph:1 word:19 rh:1 sh:1 th:2 thin:1 wh:1 wine:1 whine:1 merger:1 transcription:2 write:3 zh:1 russian:2 doctor:1 zhivago:1 generally:2 although:1 necessarily:1 faithful:1 case:7 pinyin:1 syllable:4 rime:1 ah:2 ohm:1 dahlia:1 cheetah:1 pooh:1 poohed:1 often:4 weak:1 function:1 origin:1 initially:1 heir:1 honest:1 honour:2 hour:1 herb:1 homage:1 non:2 anglicized:1 loanword:1 hors:1 oeuvre:1 internally:1 silhouette:1 chihuahua:1 piranha:1 speaker:2 initial:2 unstressed:2 historic:1 occasion:1 hotel:1 ex:1 x:1 exhaust:1 stressed:1 annihilate:1 vehicle:1 vehicular:1 hijo:1 son:1 hola:1 hello:1 hábil:1 skillful:1 reflect:1 exist:1 number:1 either:3 final:1 andalusia:1 argentina:1 cuba:1 vg:1 esto:1 dialectal:1 realization:1 mexican:1 caja:1 box:1 classifies:1 way:3 must:1 learn:1 properly:1 even:2 muet:3 mute:1 singular:4 noun:2 get:2 le:3 la:1 replace:1 sequence:1 similarly:1 un:1 whose:1 would:2 elide:1 onto:1 following:1 hébergement:2 call:1 aspiré:2 longer:1 treat:1 phantom:1 consonant:3 masculine:1 nouns:1 separate:2 bit:1 stop:1 elision:1 preceding:1 keep:1 mean:1 honneur:1 homme:1 hécatombe:1 whereas:1 germanic:1 harpe:1 hareng:1 indo:1 european:1 harem:1 hamac:1 haricot:1 numerous:1 exception:1 disambiguate:1 semivowel:1 introduction:1 distinction:2 v:6 u:3 huit:1 uit:1 ultimately:2 octo:1 huître:1 uistre:1 ostrea:1 preserve:1 anglo:1 harp:1 others:1 seem:1 arbitrary:1 still:1 mark:3 second:1 kind:1 precede:1 asterisk:1 dagger:1 little:1 circle:1 low:3 degree:1 trigraph:1 sch:1 indicate:4 completely:1 different:1 follow:1 silently:1 heighten:1 first:2 reform:2 eliminate:1 nearly:1 instance:1 native:1 thun:1 thür:1 door:1 leave:1 unchanged:1 theater:1 throne:1 continue:1 last:1 real:1 phonological:1 rather:1 diacritic:1 important:1 us:1 verb:2 avere:2 differentiate:2 present:2 tense:1 common:2 ho:1 person:4 conjunction:1 hai:1 ai:1 preposition:2 ha:1 hanno:1 plural:1 anno:1 year:1 short:1 interjection:3 oh:1 eh:1 ambiguity:1 toh:1 beh:1 reinforce:1 interjective:1 nature:1 time:1 stress:1 sign:2 like:1 exclamation:1 general:1 rule:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 always:1 place:1 ahi:1 ehi:1 ohibò:1 c:1 g:1 respectively:2 limited:1 hungarian:1 finnish:1 breathy:1 voice:1 otherwise:1 voiced:1 environment:1 ukrainian:1 belarusian:1 commonly:1 normally:1 cyrillic:3 г:1 note:1 difference:1 romanisation:1 irish:1 lenition:1 know:1 séimhiú:1 japanese:1 refers:1 hentai:1 representation:1 computer:1 code:3 unicode:1 codepoint:1 ascii:1 binary:1 correspondingly:1 ebcdic:1 numeric:1 character:1 reference:2 xml:1 upper:1 bsl:1 hand:3 flat:1 palm:1 right:1 slide:1 left:1 wrist:1 beyond:1 finger:1 tip:1 ĥ:1 ħ:1 н:2 en:1 х:2 kha:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 op_cit:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 voiceless_glottal:1 glottal_fricative:2 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 proto_semitic:1 voiceless_pharyngeal:1 pharyngeal_fricative:1 romance_languages:1 digraph_trigraphs:1 czech_slovak:2 hiberno_english:1 digraph_ch:3 doctor_zhivago:1 hors_oeuvre:1 unstressed_syllable:1 masculine_nouns:1 glottal_stop:1 indo_european:1 exclamation_mark:1 avoid_confusion:1 breathy_voice:1 ukrainian_belarusian:1 |
1,804 | Esperanto_culture | The language Esperanto is often used to access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated literature. There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines. Many Esperanto speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the Pasporta Servo. Others like the idea of having pen pals in many countries around the world using services like the Esperanto Pen Pal Service. Every year, Esperanto speakers meet for the World Congress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso de Esperanto). These attract around 1500-3000 speakers, and the best-attended conferences are regularly those held in Central or Eastern Europe, close to the birthplace of Esperanto (see statistics at World Congress of Esperanto). Literature, music and film Every year, hundreds of new titles are published in Esperanto along with music. Also, many Esperanto newspapers and magazines exist. Monato is a general news magazine "like a genuinely international Time or Newsweek" , but written by local correspondents. A magazine for the blind, Aŭroro, has been published since 1920. Esperanto can be heard in television and radio broadcasts and on the internet. There are currently radio broadcasts from China Radio International, Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio, Radio Habana Cuba, Radio Audizioni Italiane (Rai), Radio Polonia, and Radio Vatican. Internacia Televido, an internet television channel, began broadcasting in November 2005. Historically most of the music published in Esperanto has been in various folk traditions; in recent decades more rock and other modern genres has appeared. In 1964, Jacques-Louis Mahé produced the first full-length feature film in Esperanto, entitled Angoroj. This was followed in 1965 by the first American Esperanto-production: Incubus, starring William Shatner. Several shorter films have been produced since. , the Esperanto-language Wikipedia lists 14 films and 3 short films. The Serbian actor Sasha Pilipovic presents his cabaret at the World Esperanto Congress, Rotterdam 2008 Cultural community There are cultural commonalities between Esperanto speakers, which is a distinctive feature of a cultural community. Esperanto was created to foster universal understanding, solidarity and peace. A large proportion of the Esperanto movement continue to hold such goals, and most are at least sympathetic to them. Additionally, many Esperantists use the language as a window to the larger world, to meet people from other countries on an equal footing, and for travel. The Esperanto-community has a certain set of shared background knowledge. To some extent there are also shared traditions, like the Zamenhof Day, and shared behaviour patterns, like avoiding the usage of one's national language at Esperanto meetings unless there is good reasons for its use (Esperanto culture has a special word, krokodili ("to crocodile"), to describe this avoided behaviour). On the other hand, it has been said that some aspects of shared traditions normally found in cultural communities, like clothing and cooking, aren't found in the Esperanto community. Not everyone would agree. Like other people, Esperanto speakers who are interested in cookery exchange and share recipes, both their own creations and their national and regional dishes. Various collections of such recipes have been published in book form in Esperanto, e.g. Internacie kuiri (“Cooking Internationally”) by Maria Becker-Meisberger, published by FEL (Flemish Esperanto League), Antwerp 1989, ISBN 90-71205-34-7, Manĝoj el sanigaj plantoj (“Healthy Vegetable Dishes”) by Zlata Nanić, published by BIO-ZRNO, Zagreb 2002, ISBN 953-97664-5-1. Sometimes at Esperanto gatherings, such original dishes as those devised by Zlatka Nanić can be sampled. Some Esperanto periodicals, such as MONATO include cookery items from time to time. As regards clothing, at every Universala Kongreso, held every year in a different country, many of those attending can been seen wearing their national or regional costumes, a practice which, in addition to being colourful, may well provide inspiration for alternative ways of dressing and for the creation of new fashions. On December 15 (L. L. Zamenhof's birthday), Esperanto speakers around the world celebrate Zamenhof Day, sometimes relabelled Esperanto Book Day. The poem La Espero is generally considered to be the Esperanto anthem. It speaks of the achievement of world peace, "sacred harmony" and "eternal blessing" on the basis of a neutral language. Nonetheless Esperanto speakers may or may not agree whether the stated benefits could in fact be achieved in this way. At the first Esperanto congress, in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1905, a declaration was made which defined an "Esperantist" merely as one who knows and uses the language "regardless of what kind of aims he uses it for", and which also specifically declared any ideal beyond the spread of the language itself to be a private matter for the individual speaker. See also Esperanto literature Esperanto music Esperanto flag External links Esperanto Kaj Turismo Esperanto-USA's Esperanto Day page Jacques-Louis Mahé Generator for Esperanto typographical filler text esperanto-panorama.net: Radio in Esperanto Esperanto Radio Arkivo Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio program with Esperanto entry Propono por la tago de Esperanto-libro kaj Zamenhof-festo Esperanto website from Spain Le Monde diplomatique in Esperanto | Esperanto_culture |@lemmatized language:8 esperanto:49 often:1 use:8 access:1 international:3 culture:2 include:2 large:3 body:1 original:3 well:3 translate:1 literature:3 book:3 translation:1 hundred:2 regularly:2 distribute:1 magazine:4 many:5 speaker:8 free:1 travel:2 throughout:1 world:8 pasporta:1 servo:1 others:1 like:7 idea:1 pen:2 pal:2 country:3 around:3 service:2 every:4 year:3 meet:2 congress:4 universala:2 kongreso:2 de:2 attract:1 best:1 attended:1 conference:1 hold:3 central:1 eastern:1 europe:1 close:1 birthplace:1 see:3 statistic:1 music:4 film:5 new:2 title:1 publish:6 along:1 also:4 newspaper:1 exist:1 monato:2 general:1 news:1 genuinely:1 time:3 newsweek:1 write:1 local:1 correspondent:1 blind:1 aŭroro:1 since:2 hear:1 television:2 radio:11 broadcast:3 internet:2 currently:1 china:1 melbourne:2 ethnic:2 community:7 habana:1 cuba:1 audizioni:1 italiane:1 rai:1 polonia:1 vatican:1 internacia:1 televido:1 channel:1 begin:1 november:1 historically:1 various:2 folk:1 tradition:3 recent:1 decade:1 rock:1 modern:1 genre:1 appear:1 jacques:2 louis:2 mahé:2 produce:2 first:3 full:1 length:1 feature:2 entitle:1 angoroj:1 follow:1 american:1 production:1 incubus:1 star:1 william:1 shatner:1 several:1 short:2 wikipedia:1 list:1 serbian:1 actor:1 sasha:1 pilipovic:1 present:1 cabaret:1 rotterdam:1 cultural:4 commonality:1 distinctive:1 create:1 foster:1 universal:1 understanding:1 solidarity:1 peace:2 proportion:1 movement:1 continue:1 goal:1 least:1 sympathetic:1 additionally:1 esperantists:1 window:1 people:2 equal:1 footing:1 certain:1 set:1 share:5 background:1 knowledge:1 extent:1 zamenhof:4 day:4 behaviour:2 pattern:1 avoid:1 usage:1 one:2 national:3 meeting:1 unless:1 good:1 reason:1 special:1 word:1 krokodili:1 crocodile:1 describe:1 avoided:1 hand:1 say:1 aspect:1 normally:1 find:2 clothing:2 cooking:1 everyone:1 would:1 agree:2 interested:1 cookery:2 exchange:1 recipe:2 creation:2 regional:2 dish:3 collection:1 form:1 e:1 g:1 internacie:1 kuiri:1 cook:1 internationally:1 maria:1 becker:1 meisberger:1 fel:1 flemish:1 league:1 antwerp:1 isbn:2 manĝoj:1 el:1 sanigaj:1 plantoj:1 healthy:1 vegetable:1 zlata:1 nanić:2 bio:1 zrno:1 zagreb:1 sometimes:2 gathering:1 devise:1 zlatka:1 sample:1 periodical:1 item:1 regard:1 different:1 attend:1 wear:1 costume:1 practice:1 addition:1 colourful:1 may:3 provide:1 inspiration:1 alternative:1 way:2 dressing:1 fashion:1 december:1 l:2 birthday:1 celebrate:1 relabelled:1 poem:1 la:2 espero:1 generally:1 consider:1 anthem:1 speak:1 achievement:1 sacred:1 harmony:1 eternal:1 blessing:1 basis:1 neutral:1 nonetheless:1 whether:1 stated:1 benefit:1 could:1 fact:1 achieve:1 boulogne:1 sur:1 mer:1 declaration:1 make:1 define:1 esperantist:1 merely:1 know:1 regardless:1 kind:1 aim:1 specifically:1 declare:1 ideal:1 beyond:1 spread:1 private:1 matter:1 individual:1 flag:1 external:1 link:1 kaj:2 turismo:1 usa:1 page:1 generator:1 typographical:1 filler:1 text:1 panorama:1 net:1 arkivo:1 program:1 entry:1 propono:1 por:1 tago:1 libro:1 festo:1 website:1 spain:1 le:1 monde:1 diplomatique:1 |@bigram pasporta_servo:1 pen_pal:2 esperanto_universala:1 universala_kongreso:2 william_shatner:1 equal_footing:1 la_espero:1 boulogne_sur:1 sur_mer:1 external_link:1 le_monde:1 monde_diplomatique:1 |
1,805 | Century | A century (from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred) is one hundred consecutive years. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages (e.g. "the seventh century AD"). Start and end in the Gregorian Calendar According to the Gregorian calendar, the 1st century AD started on January 1, 1 and ended on December 31, 100. The 2nd century started at year 101, the third at 201, etc. The n-th century started/will start on the year 100×n - 99. A century will only include one year, the centennial year, that starts with the century's number (e.g. 1900 is the final year in the 19th century). End of the 20th century It is commonly-held misconception that the 20th century ended on December 31, 1999. The 20th century actually ended on December 31, 2000, its centennial year. 1st century AD and BC There is no "zeroth century" in between the first century BC and the first century AD. Also, there is no 0 A.D. The Gregorian calendar "jumps" from 1B.C. to 1 A.D. The first century BC includes the years 100 BC to 1 BC. Other centuries BC follow the same pattern. Dating units in other calendar systems Besides the Gregorian calendar, the Julian calendar and the Hindu calendar have cycles of years which are used to delineate whole time periods; the Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60. Centuries in Astronomical Year Numbering Astronomical year numbering, used by astronomers, includes a year zero (0). Consequently, the first century in these calendars may designate the years 0 to 99 as the first century, years 100 to 199 as the second etc. However, in order to regard 2000 as the first year of the twenty-first century according to the astronomical year numbering, the astronomical year 0 has to correspond to the Gregorian year 1 BC. Alternative naming systems In Swedish and Finnish centuries are typically not named ordinally, but according to the hundreds part of the year, and consequently centuries start at even multiples of 100. For example, Swedish nittonhundratalet (or 1900-talet) and Finnish tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku (or 1900-luku) refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999. The same system is used informally in English. For example, the years 1900-1999 are sometimes referred to as the nineteen hundreds(1900s). This is similar to the English decade names (1980s = the years 1980–1989). References The Battle of the Centuries, Ruth Freitag, U.S. Government Printing Office. Available from the Superintendent of Documents, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250- 7954. Cite stock no. 030-001-00153-9. See also List of centuries Millennium Lustrum Decade | Century |@lemmatized century:26 latin:1 centum:1 mean:1 one:3 hundred:4 consecutive:1 year:23 number:3 ordinally:2 english:3 many:1 language:1 e:2 g:2 seventh:1 ad:4 start:7 end:5 gregorian:5 calendar:9 accord:3 january:1 december:3 third:1 etc:2 n:2 th:1 include:3 centennial:2 final:1 commonly:1 hold:1 misconception:1 actually:1 bc:7 zeroth:1 first:7 also:2 jump:1 c:1 follow:1 pattern:1 date:1 unit:1 system:3 besides:1 julian:1 hindu:2 cycle:1 use:3 delineate:1 whole:1 time:1 period:1 particular:1 summarize:1 group:1 astronomical:4 numbering:2 astronomer:1 zero:1 consequently:2 may:1 designate:1 second:1 however:1 order:1 regard:1 twenty:1 correspond:1 alternative:1 name:3 swedish:2 finnish:2 typically:1 part:1 even:1 multiple:1 example:2 nittonhundratalet:1 talet:1 tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku:1 luku:1 refer:2 unambiguously:1 informally:1 sometimes:1 nineteen:1 similar:1 decade:2 reference:1 battle:1 ruth:1 freitag:1 u:1 government:1 print:1 office:1 available:1 superintendent:1 document:1 p:1 box:1 pittsburgh:1 pa:1 cite:1 stock:1 see:1 list:1 millennium:1 lustrum:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:4 julian_calendar:1 pittsburgh_pa:1 |
1,806 | Billy_Bob_Thornton | Billy Bob Thornton He was born under the name "Billy Bob" and in Hot Springs, according to interview on Inside the Actors Studio (born August 4, 1955) is an American actor, director, musician, playwright, and Academy Award-winning screenwriter. His rise to fame began in the mid-1990s, after writing, directing, and starring in the film Sling Blade, for which he won an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay. Early life Thornton was born in Hot Springs, Arkansas, the son of Virginia Roberta (née Faulkner), an alleged psychic, and William Raymond (Billy Ray) Thornton, a high-school history teacher and basketball coach. Stated on Inside the Actors Studio He is the oldest of four sons. Thornton lived in both Alpine, Arkansas and Malvern, Arkansas during his childhood, and also spent time with his grandfather, Otis Thornton, a forest ranger, in a small shack in the woods. Thornton is the cousin of noted professional wrestlers Dory Funk, Jr. and Terry Funk. Terry Funk makes note of this in his autobiography Terry Funk: More Than Hardcore as well as a cousin to children's author, Steve Buchanan. He was raised a Methodist. beliefnet: Billy Bob Thornton, Astronaut Farmer, Celebrities, Celebrity Interview A good high school baseball player, he tried out for the Kansas City Royals, but was let go after an injury. On the Move: Billy Bob Thornton The Times - 23 September, 2007 After a short period laying asphalt for the Arkansas State Transportation Department, he attended Henderson State University, in Arkadelphia, Arkansas, to pursue studies in psychology, but dropped out after two semesters. In the late 1980s, Thornton settled in Los Angeles, to pursue his career as an actor, with future writing partner Tom Epperson. Stated on Inside the Actors Studio Thornton initially had a difficult time succeeding as an actor, and worked in telemarketing, offshore wind farming, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/driving/article2503490.ece and fast-food management between auditioning for acting jobs. He also played drums and sang with South African rock band Jack Hammer. While Thornton worked as a waiter for an industry event, he served film director Billy Wilder and struck up a conversation with Wilder, who advised Thornton to consider a career as a screenwriter, for which he eventually won an Oscar in the category of best screenplay. Career Thornton first came to semi-prominence as a cast member on the CBS sitcom Hearts Afire with John Ritter and Markie Post. His role as the villain in 1992's One False Move, which he also co-wrote, brought him to the attention of critics. He also had small roles in the early 1990s films Indecent Proposal, On Deadly Ground, Bound by Honor, Grey Knight, and Tombstone. Thornton put Wilder's advice to good use, and went on to write, direct and star in the independent film Sling Blade, which was released in 1996. The film, an expansion of a short film titled Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade, introduced the story of Karl Childers, a mentally handicapped man imprisoned for a gruesome and seemingly inexplicable murder. Sling Blade garnered international acclaim. Thornton's screenplay earned him an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, a Writers Guild of America Award, and an Edgar Award, while his performance received Oscar and Screen Actors Guild nominations for Best Actor. In 1998, he portrayed the James-Carville-like Richard Jemmons in Primary Colors. Thornton adapted the book All the Pretty Horses into a 2000 film with the same name, starring Matt Damon and Penélope Cruz. The negative experience (he was forced to cut more than an hour) led to his decision to never direct another film (a subsequent release, Daddy and Them, had been filmed earlier). Also in 2000, an early script which he and Tom Epperson wrote together was made into The Gift which starred Cate Blanchett, Hilary Swank, Keanu Reeves, Katie Holmes and Giovanni Ribisi. During the late 1990s, Thornton, who has had a life-long love for music, began a career as a singer-songwriter. He released a roots rock album titled Private Radio in 2001, and two more albums, The Edge of the World (2003) and Hobo (2005). Thornton was the singer of a blues rock band named Tres Hombres. Guitarist Billy Gibbons referred to the band as "The best little cover band in Texas", and Thornton bears a tattoo with the band's name on it. He performed the Warren Zevon song The Wind on the tribute album Enjoy Every Sandwich: Songs of Warren Zevon. Thornton recorded a cover of the Johnny Cash classic "Ring of Fire" for the Oxford American magazine's Southern Music CD in 2001. Thornton's screen persona has been described by the press as that of a "tattooed, hirsute man's man". He appeared in several major film roles following Sling Blade 's success, including 1998's Armageddon and A Simple Plan. In 2001 he had starring roles in three hollywood pictures, Monster's Ball, Bandits and The Man Who Wasn't There, for which he received many awards. He played a malicious mall Santa Claus in 2003's Bad Santa, a black comedy that performed well at the box office and established Thornton as a leading comic actor. Thornton has stated that, following Bad Santa'''s success, audiences "like to watch [him] play that kind of guy," and "they [casting directors] call [him] up when they need an asshole. It's kinda that simple... you know how narrow the imagination in this business can be." In 2004 he played Davy Crockett in The Alamo. He appeared in the comic film School for Scoundrels, which was released on September 29, 2006. In the film, he plays a self-help doctor; the role was written specifically for Thornton. His most recent film roles were The Astronaut Farmer, a drama released on February 23, 2007, and the comedy, Mr. Woodcock, in which Thornton plays a sadistic gym teacher. He will next star in the drama Peace Like a River. Thornton has also expressed an interest in directing another film, possibly a period piece about cave explorer Floyd Collins, based on the book Trapped! The Story of Floyd Collins by Robert K. Murray and Roger Brucker. In September 2008, Thorton starred in the big brother action movie Eagle Eye along side Shia LaBeouf and Michelle Monaghan. Thornton received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 7, 2004. CBC interview and Canadian tour On April 8, 2009 Thorton and his musical group The Boxmasters appeared on the CBC Radio One program Q, hosted by Jian Ghomeshi. Thorton began the interview sounding nervous and confused, replying "I don't know" when asked how long the band had been together and expounding at length on "Famous Monsters of Filmland" magazine in response to his musical influences as a child. Other band members answered questions without incident. Mid-interview Thorton clarified he had "instructed" the show's producers to not ask questions about his career as screenwriter and actor. Thornton obnoxious in CBC interview, UPI, April 9, 2009 Thornton clashes with radio host, April 9, 2009 Ghomeshi had mentioned Thorton’s acting credentials in the introduction. Thorton also complained Canadian audiences were like “mashed potatoes without the gravy". Billy Bob Thornton 'Blow Up' on Q TV (video), Youtube, April 8, 2009 The interview received worldwide criticism. Billy Bob Thornton does a Joaquin Phoenix on Canadian radio, The Times, April 9, 2009 Rolling Stone http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2009/04/08/billy-bob-thornton-attempts-to-outdo-joaquin-phoenix-in-cbc-interview/ The following night, Thornton's band opened for Willie Nelson at Toronto's Massey Hall. When Thornton explained mid-set he liked Canadians but not the CBC radio host, boos and catcalls erupted. http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/616601 On April 10 Thornton announced The Boxmasters would not be playing with Nelson during concerts scheduled in Canada due to members of the crew and band having the flu. http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/616913 Personal life Thornton has repeatedly stated that he has obsessive–compulsive disorder. He and rock singer Warren Zevon became close friends after sharing their common experiences with the disorder. Various idiosyncratic behaviors have been well-documented in interviews with the actor; among these is a phobia of antique furniture — a disorder shared by the Dwight Yoakam character in the Thornton-penned Sling Blade, and by Thornton's own character in the 2001 film Bandits. Additionally, he has stated that he has a fear of certain types of flatware, a trait assumed by his character, Hank Grotowski, in 2001's Monster's Ball, in which Grotowski insists on a plastic spoon for his daily bowl of chocolate ice cream. In a 2004 interview with The Independent, Thornton explained: "It's just that I won't use real silver. You know, like the big, old, heavy-ass forks and knives, I can't do that. It's the same thing as the antique furniture. I just don't like old stuff. I'm creeped out by it, and I have no explanation why...I don't have a phobia about American antiques, it's mostly French — you know, like the big, old, gold-carved chairs with the velvet cushions. The Louis XIV type. That's what creeps me out. I can spot the imitation antiques a mile off. They have a different vibe. Not as much dust." In addition to his aversion to silver cutlery, velvet, and "creepy, castle-y stuff," Thornton confesses that "pieces from 1700 and 1800 France and England really freak me out, especially harpsichords." Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: On the Street at Officer.com Thornton lives in Los Angeles. He has been married five times, most notably to actress Angelina Jolie. The pair were known for their eccentric behavior, which reportedly included wearing vials of each others' blood around their necks; Thornton later clarified that the "vials" were, instead, two small lockets, each containing only a single drop of blood. What I've Learned: Billy Bob Thornton - MSN Lifestyle: Men Thornton and Jolie adopted a child from Cambodia whom they named Maddox. Jolie's divorce petition defined the child as both her and Thornton's, and requested the Court grant her custody and Thornton reasonable parenting-time. Thornton is the biological father of four children: (with his first wife, Melissa Gatlin) Amanda Spence, born June 30, 1979, (with his fourth wife, Pietra Cherniak) William Langston, born June 27, 1993, and Harry James, born June 19, 1994, and (with current girlfriend, Connie Angland) Bella, born September 22, 2004. Thornton has also stated that he will likely not marry again; he has specified that he believes marriage "doesn't work" for him. His oldest and youngest child have a 25 year age gap. He has 3 younger brothers and his two youngest brothers are twins. He and his youngest brothers have a 15 year age gap. Filmography Year Film Role Notes1986Hunter's BloodBilly Bob 1988 South of Reno Counterman 1989 Going Overboard Dave Chopper Chicks in Zombietown Tommy1991The Dark BackwardPatron at Sloppy's(uncredited)For the BoysMarine Sergeant, Korea 1992 One False Move Ray Malcolm 1993 Tombstone Johnny Tyler Bound by Honor Lightning Indecent Proposal Day TripperThe Killing BoxLangstonTrouble BoundColdface 1994 On Deadly Ground Homer CarltonFlounderingGun ClerkSome Folks Call It a Sling BladeKarl ChildersShort film 1995 Dead Man Big George DrakouliousThe Stars Fell on Henrietta Roy 1996 Sling Blade Karl ChildersChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorChlotrudis Award for Best ActorKansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Don't Look Back MarshallThe Winner Jack 1997 The Apostle Troublemaker U Turn Darrell Princess Mononoke Jigo 1998 A Simple Plan Jacob MitchellBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorChlotrudis Award for Best Supporting ActorLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorSan Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Saturn Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureNominated — Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion PictureNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Armageddon Dan Truman, NASA Administrator Homegrown Jack Marsden The Thin Red Line Narrator (Edited) Primary Colors Richard Jemmons 1999 Pushing Tin Russell Bell 2000 The Last Real Cowboys TarSouth of Heaven, West of Hell Brig. Smalls 2001 Daddy and Them Claude Montgomery Monster's Ball Hank GrotowskiFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor also for Bandits and The Man Who Wasn't ThereNational Board of Review Award for Best Actor also for Bandits and The Man Who Wasn't ThereNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama Bandits Terry Lee CollinsFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor also for Monster's Ball and The Man Who Wasn't ThereNational Board of Review Award for Best Actor also for Monster's Ball and The Man Who Wasn't ThereNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated — Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Actor The Man Who Wasn't There Ed CraneChlotrudis Audience Award for Best ActorFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor also for Bandits and Monster's BallLondon Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorNational Board of Review Award for Best Actor also for Bandits and Monster's BallOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorRussian Guild of Film Critics Award for Best Foreign ActorSoutheastern Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated — American Film Institute Award AFI Actor of the YearNominated — Saturn Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor 2002 Waking Up in Reno Lonnie Earl Dodd The Badge Sheriff Darl Hardwick 2003 Bad Santa WillieNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or ComedyNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Love Actually The US President Intolerable Cruelty Howard D. Doyle Levity Manuel Jordan 2004 Friday Night Lights Coach Gary Gaines The Alamo David Crockett Chrystal Joe 2005 The Ice Harvest Vic Cavanaugh Bad News Bears Morris Buttermaker 2006 School for Scoundrels Dr. P/Dennis Sherman 2007 The Astronaut Farmer Charles Farmer Mr. Woodcock Mr. Woodcock 2008 Eagle Eye Morgan 2009 The Informers William Peace Like a River (in production)2010 Zero Theorem Qohen Leth(pre-production) Other screen credits Year Film Role Notes1992One False MoveWriterNominated — Independent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay1994Some Folks Call It a Sling BladeWriter1996 A Family ThingWriterHumanitas Prize Sling Blade Director/WriterAcademy Award for Best Writing (Adapted Screenplay)Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture ScreenplayNational Board of Review Award for Special Achievement in FilmmakingIndependent Spirit Award for Best First FeatureWriters Guild of America Award for Best Adapted ScreenplayNominated — Chlotrudis Award for Best DirectorNominated — Satellite Award for Best Original ScreenplayDon't Look BackStory and teleplay2000 All the Pretty HorsesDirector/ProducerThe GiftWriterNominated — Saturn Award for Best Writing2001CamouflageStory and screenplayas Reginald PerryDaddy and ThemDirector/Writer DiscographyFor albums and songs recorded by Thornton's band, see The Boxmasters#Discography. Private Radio (CD) - Universal Records - 2001 Earl Scruggs And Friends (CD) - MCA Records - 2001 The Edge of the World (CD) - Sanctuary Records - 2003 Hobo'' (CD) - Big Deal Records - 2005 Beautiful Door (CD) - New Door Records - 2007 References Further reading External links Billy Bob Thornton official site Billy Bob Thornton attacks CBC Radio Host Six Degrees of Swampland, Billy Bob Thornton Swampland: GRITZ Billy Bob Thornton Interview 2008 Alamo SentryInterview with Thornton regarding his role as David Crockett. Billy Bob Thornton interview Billy Bob Thornton Radio Interview - September 27, 2005 with Chris Comer & Rob Ervin "Set For Launch: A Video Interview with the Makers of 'The Astronaut Farmer'" — eFilmCritic.com video interviews with Billy Bob Thornton, Virginia Madsen and the Polish Brothers Stumped? Interview | Billy_Bob_Thornton |@lemmatized billy:18 bob:16 thornton:57 bear:8 name:5 hot:2 spring:2 accord:1 interview:16 inside:3 actor:33 studio:3 august:1 american:4 director:4 musician:1 playwright:1 academy:4 award:53 win:4 screenwriter:3 rise:1 fame:2 begin:3 mid:3 write:6 direct:4 star:9 film:36 sling:10 blade:8 oscar:3 best:48 adapt:4 screenplay:5 early:3 life:4 arkansas:5 son:2 virginia:2 roberta:1 née:1 faulkner:1 alleged:1 psychic:1 william:3 raymond:1 ray:2 high:2 school:4 history:1 teacher:2 basketball:1 coach:2 state:8 old:5 four:2 live:1 alpine:1 malvern:1 childhood:1 also:14 spend:1 time:6 grandfather:1 otis:1 forest:1 ranger:1 small:4 shack:1 wood:1 cousin:2 noted:1 professional:1 wrestler:1 dory:1 funk:4 jr:1 terry:4 make:2 note:1 autobiography:1 hardcore:1 well:3 child:6 author:1 steve:1 buchanan:1 raise:1 methodist:1 beliefnet:1 astronaut:4 farmer:5 celebrity:2 good:2 baseball:1 player:1 try:1 kansas:1 city:2 royal:1 let:1 go:3 injury:1 move:3 september:5 short:2 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1,807 | Economy_of_Estonia | Estonia is a member of the European Union and a developed market economy. Before the Second World War Estonia's economy was based on agriculture, but there was a significant knowledge sector (with Tartu known for scientific contributions) and growing industrial sector, similar to Finland. Products such as butter, milk and cheese were widely known on the western European markets. Main markets were Germany and United Kingdom, and only 3% of all commerce was with the neighbouring USSR. The USSR's forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. Post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure. Estonia and Finland had about the same GDP per capita before Estonia became a socialist economy. By 1987, the capitalist Finland's GDP per capita was 14,370 USD and the socialist Estonia's GDP per capita was around 2,000 USD. After Estonia moved away from socialism in the late 1980s and became an independent capitalist economy in 1991, Estonia emerged as a pioneer in global economy. In 1994, Estonia became one of the first countries in the world to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. In January 2005 the personal income tax rate was reduced to 24%. A subsequent reduction to 23% followed in January 2006. The income tax rate will be decreased by 1% annually to reach 18% by January 2010. Estonia received more foreign investment per capita in the second half of the 1990s than any other country in Central and Eastern Europe. The Estonian Economic Miracle, by Mart Laar. August 7, 2007. Estonia has been fast catching up with the EU-15, having grown GDP per capita from 34.8% of the EU-15 average in 1996 to 65% in 2007, similar to Central Europe. Estonia is already rated high income country by the World Bank. The Estonian economic miracle has been termed a Baltic Tiger. Estonia is ranked 12th of 162 countries in the Index of Economic Freedom 2008, the best of any ex-communist country. Estonia is on bottom of Europe by labour market freedom, but the government is drafting improvements. Estonia on bottom of Europe by labour market freedom, Baltic Business News. May 20th 2008. Estonia is 17th on the Ease of Doing Business Index 2007 by World Bank Group. The Government of Estonia finalized the design of Estonia's euro coins in late 2004, and is now intending to adopt the euro as the country's currency between 2011 and 2013, later than planned due to continued high inflation. The Estonian kroon is pegged to the Euro at rate 1 EUR = 15.64664 EEK. Early history For centuries until 1920, Estonian agriculture consisted of native peasants working large feudal-type estates held by ethnic German landlords. In the decades prior to independence, centralized Czarist rule had contributed a rather large industrial sector dominated by the world's largest cotton mill, a ruined post-war economy, and an inflated ruble currency. In years 1920 to 1930, Estonia entirely transformed its economy, despite considerable hardship, dislocation, and unemployment. Compensating the German landowners for their holdings, the government confiscated the estates and divided them into small farms which subsequently formed the basis of Estonian prosperity. By 1929, a stable currency, the Kroon (or crown), was established. It is issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank. Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom. Only 3% of all commerce was with the U.S.S.R. The U.S.S.R.'s forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. Post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the U.S.S.R.'s centrally planned structure. More than 56% of Estonian farms were collectivized in the month of April 1949 alone. Moscow expanded on those Estonian industries which had locally available raw materials, such as oil shale mining and phosphorites. As a laboratory for economic experiments, especially in industrial management techniques, Estonia enjoyed more success and greater prosperity than other regions under Soviet rule and by the end of Soviet times in 1990 was only slightly behind Russia in quality of life according to Human Development Index estimates. Modernization and liberalization Since reestablishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and aggressively pursued economic reform and integration with the West. Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area. A balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, fully convertible currency backed by currency board and a strong peg to the euro, competitive commercial banking sector, hospitable environment for foreign investment, innovative e-Services and even mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy. Estonia also has made excellent progress in regard to structural adjustment. In June 1992, Estonia replaced the ruble with its own freely convertible currency, the Kroon (EEK). A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate at 8 EEK for 1 DEM. When Germany introduced the Euro the peg was changed to 15.6466 Kroon for 1 Euro. Estonia was set to adopt the Euro in 2008 but due to high inflation rates the date was set on January 2010. The privatization of state-owned firms is virtually complete, with only the port and the main power plants remaining in government hands. The constitution requires a balanced budget, and the protection afforded by Estonia's intellectual property laws is on a par of that of Europe's. In early 1992 both liquidity problems and structural weakness stemming from the communist era precipitated a banking crisis. As a result, effective bankruptcy legislation was enacted and privately owned, well-managed banks emerged as market leaders. Today, near-ideal conditions for the banking sector exist. Foreigners are not restricted from buying bank shares or acquiring majority holdings. Tallinn's fully electronic stock exchange opened in early 1996 and was bought out by Finland's Helsinki Stock Exchange in 2001. It is estimated that the unregistered economy provides almost 12% of annual GDP. The economy today Real GDP growth in Estonia 1996-2006. Estonian economy was one of the fastest growing in the world until 2006 with growth rates even exceeding 10% annually. Despite some concerns both in and outside of the country, the Estonian economy and its currency remained highly resilient and solvent. Until recent years the Estonian economy continued to grow with admirable rates. Estonian GDP grew by 6.4% in the year 2000 and with double speeds after accession to the EU in 2004. The GDP grew by 7.9% in 2007 alone. Increases in labor costs, rise of taxation on tobacco, alcohol, electricity, fuel, and gas, and also external pressures (growing prices of oil and food on the global market) are expected to raise inflation just above the 10% mark in the first months of 2009. In the first quarter 2008 GDP grew only 0,1%. The government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by Riigikogu. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion. Ministry of Finance Estonia joined the World Trade Organization in 1999. A sizable current account deficits remains, but started to shrink in the last months of 2008 and is expected to do so in the near future. In the fourth quarter of 2008, the average monthly gross wage in Estonia was 13,117 kroons (€838, US$1,066.5). Statistics Estonia Estonia is nearly energy independent supplying over 90% of its electricity needs with locally mined oil shale. Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Estonia imports needed petroleum products from western Europe and Russia. Oil shale energy, telecommunications, textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy. The ice-free port of Muuga, near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and brand-new oil tanker off-loading capabilities. The railroad serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points to the East. After a long period of very high growth of GDP, the GDP of Estonia decreased by a little over 3% on a yearly basis in the 3rd quarter of 2008. In the 4th quarter of 2008 the negative growth was already -9,4%. Some international experts and journalists, who like to view the three Baltic states as a single economic identity, have failed to notice that Estonia has constantly performed better than Lithuania and Latvia on many fundamental indicators. The current account deficit and inflation is lower than in Latvia, the GDP higher than in Latvia and Lithuania, Estonia's public debt is a very low 3.8% of GDP and government reserves are close to 10% of GDP. The difference is exemplified by the fact that in December 2008 Estonia became one of the donor countries to the IMF lead rescue package for Latvia. The central bank uses a currency board system and has independent reserves, which are big enough to buy back all the currency in circulation. Estonia today is mainly influenced by developments in Germany, Finland and Sweden - the three main trade partners. The government recently increased greatly its spending on innovation. The prime minister of Estonian Reform Party has stated its goal of bringing Estonian GDP per capita into the TOP 5 of EU by 2022. Ireland is sometimes seen as a model for Estonian economic future.However, the GDP of Estonia decreased by 1.4% in the 2nd quarter of 2008, over 3% in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and over 9% in the 4rd quarter of 2008. Sectors The 20 most valuable companies based on 2007 profit estimates by GILD are: Hansapank, Eesti Energia, SEB Eesti Ühispank, Eesti Telekom, Tallink Grupp, Olympic Entertainment Group, Tallinna Sadam, Tele2 Eesti, Sampo Pank, Tallinna Kaubamaja, Merko Grupp, BLRT Grupp, Elisa, Tallinna Vesi, Transgroup Invest, Eesti Raudtee, Kunda Nordic Tsement, Viru Keemia Grupp, Falck Baltics, and Pro Kapital Grupp. GILD TOP 100 - The most valuable Estonian companies, GILD, 2007 In terms of 2003 sales, the 20 largest companies included Kesko Food, Stora Enso Timbe, EMT, Elion Ettevõtted, Eesti Põlevkivi, Silberauto, Toyota Baltic, Eesti Statoil, Rakvere Lihakombinaat, Lukoil Eesti, Kreenholmi Valduse, and Eesti Gaas. Largest Estonian companies in terms of 2003 sales, Baltic Business News Estonian Institute of Economic Research publishes top company awards in various categories, where Estonian small and medium size companies take many top positions. Tallinn has emerged as a financial center. According to Invest in Estonia, advantages of Estonian financial sector are low taxes, unbureaucratic cooperation between companies and authorities, and educated people. The largest banks are Hansabank, SEB, Nordea, and Sampo Bank. Several IPOs have been made recently on the Tallinn Stock Exchange, a member OMX system. Estonia is ranked 21st of 121 countries in the Capital Access Index 2005 by Milken Institute, outperforming Austria and Italy among others. A Financial Center in Northern Europe, Invest in Estonia The rent levels of new office spaces in Tallinn starts at 15 euros per square meter or 2000 euro sale price, with demand exceeding supply. Estonian service sector employs over 60% of workforce. Estonia has a strong information technology (IT) sector, partly due to the Tiigrihüpe project undertaken in mid 1990s, and has been mentioned as the most "wired" and advanced country in Europe in the terms of e-government. Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe, August 2007 Farming, collectivized until 20 year ago, has become privatized, more efficient, and the farming area has increased recently. The rural economy in Estonia The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product decreased from 15% to 3.3% during 1991–2000, while employment in agriculture decreased from 15% to 5.2%. The biggest share of the gross domestic product of Estonia is continuously created in Harju county, Statistics Estonia Mining industry makes 1% of the GDP. Mined commodities include oil shale, peat, and industrial minerals, such as clays, limestone, sand and gravel. The mineral industries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. By Chin S. Kuo Soviets created badly polluting industry in the early 1950s, concentrated in North East Estonia. Socialist economy and military areas left Estonia highly polluted, and mainly because of oil shale industry in East-Virumaa, sulphur dioxide emissions per person is almost as high as in Czech Republic. The coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations, mainly in East-Estonia. The government is looking for ways to reduce pollution further. State Environment in Estonia: Pollution load In 2000 the emissions were 80% smaller than in 1980 and the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies was one twentieth the level of 1980. http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/geos/en.html Environment - current issues in Estonia. CIA Factbook Estonia has around 600,000 employees. Estonian productivity is growing fast, and consequently wages are rising fast, with around 8% rise in private consumption in 2005. According to Estonian Institute of Economic Research, the largest contributors to GDP growth in 2005 were processing industry, financial intermediation, retailing and wholesale trade, transport and communications. Top Estonian Enterprises 2006, Estonian Institute of Economic Research Estonia has a shortage of skilled labor and, since skill shortages are experienced everywhere in Europe, the government has increased working visa quota for non-EEA citizens, although still criticized for being inadequate to address skill shortage challenges. Infrastructure Railway transport dominates the cargo sector, comprising 70% of all carried goods, domestic and international. Road transport is the one that prevails in the passenger sector, accounting for over 90% of all transported passengers. 5 major cargo ports offer easy navigational access, deep waters, and good ice conditions. There are 12 airports and 1 heliport in Estonia. Tallinn International Airport is the largest airport in Estonia, with 1,73 million passengers and 22,764 tons of cargo (annual cargo growth 119,7%) in 2007. International flight companies such as SAS, Finnair, Lufthansa, EasyJet, and Estonian Air provide direct flights to 27 destinations. TRANSPORTATION, Invest in Estonia Approximately 7.5% of the country’s workforce is employed in transportation and the sector contributes over 10% of GDP. Estonia is getting much business from traffic between Europe and Russia, especially oil cargo through Estonia ports. Transit trade's share of GDP is disputed, but many agree that Russia's increased hostility is decreasing the share. Transit trade trough Estonia: problems and developments By Alari Purju Estonian businessman: Estonian transit will struggle another 10 years, Baltic Business News Instead of coal, companies are encouraged to burn oil shale, with stations mainly in Narva making around 75% of the country's energy. Other energy sources are natural gas imported from Russia, wood, motor fuels, and fuel oils. Countries: Estonia - Wind energy in the Baltic Sea Region Wind power in Estonia amounts to 58.1 megawatts, whilst roughly 399 megawatts worth of projects are currently being developed. Estonian energy liberalization is lagging far behind the Nordic energy market. During the accession negotiations with the EU, Estonia agreed that at least 35% of the market are opened before 2009 and all of non-household market, which totals around 77% of consumption, before 2013. Estonia is concerned that Russia could use energy markets to bully it. http://www.evi.ee/lib/Security.pdf The government is considering granting permits to nuclear power companies and there are plans for a shared nuclear facility with Latvia and Lithuania. AFP | Latvia, Estonia push for Baltic nuclear plant Internet connections are available throughout most of the country and Estonia has a high Internet penetration. Trade EstoniaExportImport</tr> Finland 18.4%18.2% Sweden 12.4%9% Latvia 8.9%5.7% Russia 8.1%13.1% Germany 5.1%12.4% Lithuania 4.8%6.4% Estonia exports machinery and equipment (33% of all exports annually), wood and paper (15% of all exports annually), textiles (14% of all exports annually), food products (8% of all exports annually), furniture (7% of all exports annually), and metals and chemical products. CIA World Factbook: Estonia Estonia also exports 1.562 billion kilowatt hours of electricity annually. Estonia imports machinery and equipment (33.5% of all imports annually), chemical products (11.6% of all imports annually), textiles (10.3'% of all imports annually), food products (9.4% of all imports annually), and transportation equipment (8.9% of all imports annually). Estonia imports 200 million kilowatt hours of electricity annually. Natural resources ResourceLocationReservs</tr> Oil-shale North-East Estonia1,137,700,000 mln t Sea mud (medical) South-Estonia1,356,400,000 mln t Construction sand across the country166,700,000 mln m³ Construction gravel North-Estonia32,800,000 mln m³ Lake mud (medical)across the country1,133,300 mln t Lake mud (fertilizer)East-Estonia170,900 t Ceramic clay across the country10,600,000 mln m³ Ceramsid clay (for gravel) across the country2,600,000 mln m³ Technological dolomite West-Estonia16,600,000 mln m³ Technological limestone North-Estonia13,800,000 mln m³ Decoration dolomite West-Estonia2,900,000 mln m³ Construction dolomite West-Estonia32,900,000 mln m³ Blue clay across the country2,044,000 mln t Granite across the country1,245,100,000 mln m³ Peat across the country230,300,000 mln t Construction limestone North-Estonia110,300,000 mln m³ Limestone cement North-Estonia9,400,000 mln m³ Clay cement North-Estonia15,6000,000 mln m³ Dictyonema flabelliforme http://www.ut.ee/BGGM/maavara/dityoneema.html Uranium production at Sillamäe North-Estonia 64,000,000,000 mln t Wood across the country15,6000,000 mln m³ Technological sand North-Estonia3,300,000 mln m³ Lake lime North-EstoniaSouth-Estonia 808,000 t Phosphorite North-Estoniaover 350,000,000 mln t (estimated) Subsoil across the country 21,1 km³ See also Economy of Europe Estonia Baltic Tiger Notes | Economy_of_Estonia |@lemmatized estonia:78 member:2 european:2 union:1 developed:1 market:14 economy:21 second:2 world:10 war:6 base:4 agriculture:4 significant:1 knowledge:1 sector:12 tartu:1 know:2 scientific:1 contribution:1 grow:8 industrial:4 similar:2 finland:6 product:9 butter:1 milk:1 cheese:1 widely:1 western:2 main:3 germany:5 united:2 kingdom:2 commerce:2 neighbour:1 ussr:3 forcible:2 annexation:2 ensue:2 nazi:2 soviet:5 destruction:2 ii:2 cripple:2 estonian:30 post:3 sovietization:2 life:3 continue:3 integration:3 industry:8 centrally:2 plan:4 structure:2 gdp:20 per:8 caput:6 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1,808 | History_of_Liberia | Liberia was set up by citizens of the United States as a colony for former African-American slaves. There is only one other state in the world that is started by citizens of a political power as a settlement for former slaves from the same political power: Sierra Leone, begun for that same purpose by Britain. Early times Indigenous peoples It is believed that many of the indigenous peoples of Liberia migrated there from the north and east between the 12th and 16th centuries AD. The area of West Africa that later became Liberia was invaded in the sixteenth century by Mane, Malian Soldiers tribes from what is now the interior of Ivory Coast and Ghana. The Manes partitioned the conquered territories and their peoples among Mane leaders with one chieftain over all. The supreme chief resided in the Grand Cape Mount region. Shortly after the Manes conquered the region there was a migration of the Vai people into the region of Grand Cape Mount. The Vai were part of the Mali Empire and were forced to migrate when the empire collapsed in the fourteenth century. The Vai chose to migrate to the coastal region. The Kru opposed the migration of the Vai into their region. An alliance of the Manes and Kru was able to stop the further migration of the Vai but the Vai remained in the Grand Cape Mount region (where the city of Robertsport is now located). The Kru became involved with trading with Europeans. Initially the Kru traded in non-slave commodities but later became active participants in the slave trade. Kru traders also engaged in a surprising form of trade. Kru traders and their canoes would be taken on board European ships and would engage in trade along the coast. At some agreed upon point the Kru traders and their canoes would be put off the ship and the traders would paddle back to their home territory. Kru laborers left their territory to work on plantations and in construction as paid laborers, some even worked building the Suez and Panama Canals. Another tribal group in the area was the Glebo. The Glebo were driven, as a result of the Manes invasion, to migrate to the coast of what later became Liberia. Contact with European explorers and traders Map of Liberia circa 1830 Portuguese explorers established contacts with the land later known as "Liberia" as early as 1461 and named the area Costa da Pimenta, Grain Coast, because of the abundance of grains of melegueta pepper. In 1602 the Dutch established a trading post at Grand Cape Mount but destroyed the post a year later. In 1663 the British installed trading posts on the Grain Coast. No further known settlements by non-African colonists occurred along the Grain Coast until the arrival of freed American slaves starting in 1821. Colonization (1821–1847) (See also: American Colonization Society) From around 1800, in the United States of America ideas and plans were being conceived, to set up a colony in Africa for freed African-American slaves. Between 1821 and 1847, by a combination of purchase and conquest, American ‘Societies’ developed the colony ‘Liberia’, which in 1847 declared itself an independent nation. First ideas of colonization As early as the period of the American Revolution, many white members of American society could see no way for African Americans to live in ‘their’ society as free people, either because they considered blacks physically and mentally inferior to whites, or because they saw racism and societal polarization as insurmountable obstacles for harmonious integration of the races, or for a number of other reasons. As a solution acceptable for these worried whites as well as for those proposing immediate, nationwide abolition of slavery, the young politician Thomas Jefferson proposed colonization; relocating free blacks outside the new nation. Growing numbers of free blacks After 1783 the ranks of free blacks expanded, due to manumission efforts sparked by the Revolutionary War and to the abolition of slavery in Northern states of the U.S.. In 1800 and 1802, unsuccessful slave rebellions occurred (see Gabriel’s rebellion) in Virginia, which were brutally suppressed, and Americans in Southern states feared free blacks would encourage slaves to run away or revolt. Meanwhile, the number of free African-Americans in the United States kept increasing. In 1790, there were 59,467 free blacks, out of a total U.S. population of almost four million and a total black U.S. population of 800,000. By 1800, there were 108,378 free blacks in a population of 7.2 million. These factors significantly influenced the popularity of the concept of colonization as a ‘solution’ to the ‘problem’ of free blacks. Sierra Leone In 1787, Britain had started to settle ‘black poor’ from London – many of them African-Americans who where set free by the British for their help on the British side in the American Revolution – and other ex-slaves initially settled by them in Nova Scotia, in the colony Freetown in modern-day Sierra Leone. American Paul Cuffe saw as a viable option to also bring African-Americans out of the United States to this British colony. With support from some members of Congress, and from British officials, he in 1816 took thirty-eight American blacks at his own expense to Freetown. Subsequent voyages of this kind were precluded by Cuffe’s death in 1817. This private initiative again added to the favour in the U.S. for the concept of colonization. Cape Mesurado In this same period, on the initiative of the Virginian politician Charles F. Mercer and the Presbyterian minister Robert Finley from New Jersey, in 1816 the American Colonization Society (ACS) was established in Washington D.C. by American politicians, senators and religious leaders from a variety of orientations, who, with sometimes divergent reasonings, united themselves on the project of ‘colonizing’ free blacks out of the U.S., to Africa. From January, 1820, the ACS sent ships from New York to West Africa, the first one with 88 free black emigrants and three white ACS agents on board, intending to seek an appropriate spot of land to ground a settlement. After several attempts and hardships, ACS representatives in December 1821 succeeded, perhaps with some threat of force (see American Colonization Society), to buy Cape Mesurado, a 36-mile long strip of land near nowadays Monrovia, from indigenous ruler King Peter. From the beginning, the colonists were attacked by indigenous peoples like the Malinké tribes, and suffered from diseases, the harsh climate, lack of food and medicine, and poor housing conditions. Expansion Up until 1835, five more colonies were started by American Societies other than the ACS, and one by the U.S. government, all on the same West African coast. The first colony on Cape Mesurado was extended, along the coast as well as inland, sometimes by use of force, and in 1824 named Liberia, with capital Monrovia. By 1842, four of the other American colonies were incorporated into Liberia, one was destroyed by natives. The colonists of African-American descent, varying from slightly less ‘black’ than the indigenous Africans to nearly ‘white’, were soon indicated as Americo-Liberians. Handing over command to Americo-Liberians Joseph Jenkins Roberts, governor and first president. Daguerreotype taken probably between 1840 and 1850. As the colony Liberia expanded and became more self-sufficient, the white administrators from the ACS more and more handed the control over running the colony to the Americo-Liberians. In 1841, J.J. Roberts became the first black governor of Liberia, which in 1839 had been renamed the Commonwealth of Liberia. By the 1840s, the ACS was effectively bankrupt; Liberia had become a financial burden for it. In 1846, the ACS directed the Americo-Liberians to proclaim their independence. In 1847, Roberts proclaimed the colony the free and independent republic of Liberia. It then counted some 3000 settlers. A Constitution was drawn up along the lines of the United States’, denying voting rights to the indigenous Liberians. Americo-Liberian Rule (1847–1980) Between 1847 and 1980, the state of Liberia was governed by the small minority of African-American colonists and their offspring, together called Americo-Liberians, suppressing the large indigenous majority of 95% of the Liberian population. The history of Liberia in this period can be described as four major, intertwined and interacting developments: Relations between Americo-Liberians and the indigenous peoples Relations between the U.S. and Liberia Relations between non-U.S. foreign powers and Liberia Liberian economy, industry and natural resources Relations between Americo-Liberians and the indigenous peoples Relations between colonists and natives were contentious from the founding of Liberia, and eventually led to the overthrow of the Americo-Liberian regime in 1980. Resistance The original inhabitants of the area resented the American settlements and their territorial expansions. They engaged in resistance in all imaginable forms from the inception of colonization until at least 1980. Americo-Liberian domination and suppression The Americo-Liberians had been cut off from their African cultural inheritance by the conditions of slavery, and were entirely acculturated to contemporary Euro-America society. They were of mixed African and European ancestry and therefore generally lighter-skinned than the indigenous blacks. Crucially, they had absorbed beliefs in the religious superiority of Protestant Christianity, the cultural superiority of European civilization, and the aesthetic superiority of European skin color and hair texture. They created a social and material facsimile of American society in Liberia, maintaining their English-speaking, Americanized way of life, and building churches and houses resembling those of the Southern U.S. The Americo-Liberians never constituted above five percent of the population of Liberia, but they controlled key resources that allowed them to dominate the local native peoples: access to the ocean, modern technical skills, literacy and higher levels of education, and valuable relationships with many American institutions, including the American government. Ironically, one aspect of American society that the Americo-Liberians recreated was a cultural and racial caste system--however in this case with themselves at the top instead of the bottom. To them, their society must have seemed radically different from the USA because it rejected the ubiquitous Western belief in immutable racial hierarchy, which had led the colonists to despair of life in the USA. They, on the other hand, believed in racial equality, and therefore in the potential of all people to become 'civilized' through evangelization and education. Like many white missionaries before and after them, they were frustrated by the natives' lack of interest in becoming 'civilized.' Some local people assimilated into Americo-Liberian society, often by marriage. Some entire coastal tribes became Protestants and learned English, but most indigenous Africans kept to their traditional languages and religions. Pretty soon, Liberian society was arranged in layers, with an Americo-Liberian ruling elite living rather prosperously, sending their children to America for (often racially segregated) high school and college education, and keeping the indigenous peoples excluded from all political and economic leadership. Native insurgencies The Americo-Liberian settlers in 1878 organized their political power in the True Whig Party, which permitted no organized political opposition. Until 1980, the Americo-Liberians firmly held onto their position of authority, meeting with unremitting uprising, rebellion and riots from the native peoples. The United States would, at least until 1915, take sides with the ruling Americo-Liberians in these struggles (see Relations between the U.S. and Liberia); European powers would, in the 19th century, stir up internal unrest in Liberia (see military threats). 1856: war with Grebo and Kru peoples, leading to the last American African colony, Republic of Maryland, joining Liberia. It was annexed into Liberia as Maryland County in 1857. World Statesmen.org: Liberia - retrieved July 3 2006 On Afric's Shore: A History of Maryland in Liberia, 1834-1857, Maryland Historical Society, 2003. (See 1856-64, Presidency Benson.) 1864: uprisings of inland and coastal tribes (Presidency Benson) 1875-76: war in Cape Palmas (see 1876-78, Presidency Payne-II) circa 1886: an uprising (Presidency Johnson) mid 1880s until late 1890s: some tribes stay at war (see 1896-1900, Presidency Coleman) 1893: Grebo tribe attacked settlement of Harper (Presidency Cheeseman) 1900: bloody battle (Presidency Coleman) 1915: rebellion of the Kru (Presidency Howard) 1912-20: internal wars (Presidency Howard) Admonishment from the League of Nations After 1927, the League of Nations investigated accusations that the Liberian government recruited and sold indigenous people as contract labor or slaves. In its 1930 report the League admonished the Liberian government for ‘systematically and for years fostering and encouraging a policy of gross intimidation and suppression’, “in order to suppress the native, prevent him from realizing his powers and limitations and prevent him from asserting himself in any way whatever, for the benefit of the dominant and colonizing race, although originally the same African stock as themselves” (see also Presidency Charles King 1920-1930). President King hastily resigned. Social tensions 1940-1980 During World War II thousands of indigenous Liberians came from the nation’s interior to the coastal regions in search of jobs. The Liberian Government had long opposed this kind of migration, but was no longer able to restrain it. In the decades after 1945, the Liberian government received hundreds of millions of dollars of unrestricted foreign investment, which destabilized the Liberian economy. Liberian Government revenue rose enormously, but was being grossly embezzled by government officials. Growing economic disparities caused increased hostility between indigenous groups and Americo-Liberians. The social tensions led President Tubman to enfranchise the indigenous Liberians either in 1951 or 1963 (accounts differ). Regardless of the date, this was enfranchisement in name only, since Tubman continued to repress political opposition, and to rig elections. President Tolbert (1971-80) continued to suppress opposition harshly. Dissatisfaction over governmental plans to raise the price of rice in 1979 led to protest demonstrations in the streets of Monrovia. Tolbert ordered his troops to fire on the demonstrators, and seventy people were killed. Rioting ensued throughout Liberia, finally leading to a military coup d’état in April 1980. Relations between the U.S. and Liberia During their 133 years in power (1847-1980), the Americo-Liberian ruling class had a complicated relationship with the U.S. U.S. assists Americo-Liberians At least until 1915, the U.S. assisted the Liberian rulers in putting down rebellions and uprisings of indigenous tribes. Between 1882 and 1919, whenever Britain and France annexed or threatened to annex, parts of Liberian territory, U.S. naval assistance was helpful in preserving Liberian independence (see presidencies Presidency Gardiner, Johnson and Gibson). Around 1906, after decades of financial crises and ruinous British bank loans (see Relations with European powers), the Liberian government was essentially bankrupt. In 1912 the U.S. arranged a 40-year international loan of $ 1.7 million, against which Liberia had to agree to four Western powers (America, Britain, France and Germany) controlling Liberian Government revenues for the next 14 years, until 1926. President Edwin Barclay (right) and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, January 1943 In 1926, the Liberian government gave a concession to the American rubber company Firestone to start the world’s largest rubber plantation at Harbel, Liberia. At the same time, Firestone arranged a $5 million private loan to Liberia. In the 1930s Liberia was again virtually bankrupt, and, after some American pressure, agreed to an assistance plan from the League of Nations. As part of this plan, two key officials of the League were placed in positions to ´advise´ the Liberian government. War involvement In World War II, Liberia signed a Defence Pact with the U.S. in 1942, and assured the Americans and their allies of all the supply of natural rubber (a strategic commodity in wartime) that they needed. It also allowed the U.S. to use its territory for military bases, and as a bridgehead for American transports of soldiers and war supplies. U.S. subsidized the construction of airports (Roberts Field), the Freeport of Monrovia, and roads into the interior of Liberia. Cold War, foreign investment, exploitation President Tolbert and U.S. President Jimmy Carter (in car, left) in Monrovia, 1978 After World War II, the U.S. viewed Liberia as a useful post from which to resist the expansion of Soviet influence in Africa during the Cold War. Liberian president Tubman was agreeable to this policy. Between 1946 and 1960 Liberia received from some $500 million in unrestricted foreign investment, mainly from the U.S. Liberia voted with the U.S. on most matters at the UN, and supported the United States on the Vietnam War. The U.S. set up a permanent mission to train the Liberian military, and began bringing Liberian officers to American institutions for further training. In the 1960s, the U.S. built two sophisticated communications facilities in Liberia to handle diplomatic and intelligence traffic to and from Africa, monitor broadcasts in the region, and relay the Voice of America throughout the continent. From 1962 to 1980, the U.S. donated $280 million in aid to Liberia. In exchange, Liberia offered land rent-free for U.S. government facilities. In the 1970s under president Tolbert, Liberia strove for a more non-aligned and independent posture, and established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and Eastern bloc countries. It also severed ties with Israel during the Yom Kippur War in 1973, but kept supporting the U.S. on the Vietnam War. Relations between non-U.S. foreign powers and Liberia Relations between Liberia and European powers have consistently been key to the stability of the Liberian government. Dubious commerce, military threats From the founding of Liberia, Europeans had commercial contacts with the nation. During the period 1856-64 European merchants consistently evaded Liberian import and export duties, in which they were supported by their own governments. This practice started or aggravated the financial tightness of the new state. By 1870 Liberia had sunk into financial crisis, which dragged on into the 1930s. Several times the Liberian government borrowed money from English banks on severe terms, and even from local German merchants. In 1912 the U.S. intervened into Liberia’s dire financial situation (see Relations between the U.S. and Liberia). Between 1878 and 1919 Britain, France and Germany, busy extending their own colonial territories in the region, threatened Liberia militarily, and France and Britain forced Liberia to cede parts of its territory to them (1883, 1885, 1892, 1903, 1919). Only after 1892 were Liberia's borders officially negotiated with these European powers. The British (in 1875) and French (in 1886) are also supposed to have fuelled internal Liberian uprisings and wars. From 1878 onwards Liberian presidents regularly called for more foreign trade and more foreign investment in Liberia. Two World Wars Between 1910 and 1943 Germany was Liberia’s major trading partner. In World War I, Liberia nevertheless tended to support the Allies, whose (French and British) colonial territories surrounded Liberia. At this time Germany withdrew business from Liberia, causing Liberian customs revenue to decrease significantly. In the 1930s Dutch, Danish, German and Polish investors signed agreements for economic activities. In the Second World War, the U.S. pressured Liberia to side with the Allies, and to expel all German citizens and business representatives in 1944. This would have again significantly disturbed the Liberian economy, but America had already in 1942 begun investing substantially in Liberia, in projects related to America’s war effort. Large scale investments Between 1945 and 1980, the posture of Western European states towards Liberia was largely that of the U.S.. Americo-Liberian rulers received hundreds of millions of dollars in unrestricted foreign investment, mainly from the U.S., but also from Western Europe. Many Western politicians courted president Tubman. Liberian rulers also built up ties with the Soviet bloc and other powers, striving for an independent position in world politics, as far as their strong bonds with the Western world allowed them to. Liberian economy, industry and natural resources The Liberian economy between 1847 and 1980 expanded from primitive agriculture, through large scale rubber industry, to exploitation of mineral resources and rendering services. Agriculture From its foundation, Liberia had flourishing trade contacts in West Africa, and soon started trading with Europeans. Primary export products were coffee, rice, palm oil, palm kernels, piassava, sugarcane and (hardwood) timber. Shipbuilding was important, until it declined in the 1870s with the competition from steamships. Also in the 1870s competition from Brazilian coffee and European sugar beets caused a decline in Liberian exports. Liberia then tried to modernize its largely agricultural economy. President Gardiner (1878-83) called for increases of foreign trade and investment. President Coleman (1896-1900) considered the future of Liberia to depend on exploitation of the resources of Liberia’s interior. President Gibson (1900-04) granted rights to Union Mining Company to investigate the hinterland for minerals. During World War I, Germany, at that time Liberia’s major trading partner, withdrew from the country, causing Liberian customs revenue to decrease. Additionally a German submarine blockade of Liberia caused trade with Britain, France and the U.S. to decrease to negligible amounts. Rubber, and minerals Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree In 1926, Firestone, an American rubber company, started the worlds largest rubber plantation in Liberia. This industry created 25,000 jobs, and rubber quickly became the backbone of the Liberian economy; in the 1950s, rubber accounted for 40 percent of the national budget. In the 1930s, Liberia signed concession agreements with Dutch, Danish, German and Polish investors. Fred p.m. van der Kraaij, ‘The Open Door Policy of Liberia. An Economic history of Modern Liberia (Bremen, 1983), Chapter 2, The origins of the Closed Door Policies and Open Door Policies 1847-1947, pp. 12-46. In World War II, rubber was very strategically important, and Liberia assured the U.S. and its allies of all the natural rubber they needed. Also, Liberia allowed the U.S. to use its territory as a bridgehead for transports of soldiers and war supplies, to construct military bases, airports, the Freeport of Monrovia, roads to the interior, etc. The American military presence boosted the Liberian economy; thousands of laborers descended from the interior to the coastal region. The country’s huge iron ore deposits were made accessible to commerce. Large scale exploiting Between 1946 and 1960, the Liberian government attracted $500 million in foreign investment, mainly American, partly also from multinational corporations. By 1971, this amounted to more than $ one billion. Exports of iron, timber and rubber rose strongly. In 1971, Liberia had the world’s largest rubber industry, and was the third largest exporter of iron ore. Other mineral deposits also generated state income. From 1948 Ship registrations became another large new source of state revenue. From 1962 until 1980, the U.S. donated $280 million in aid to Liberia, in exchange for which Liberia offered its land free of rent for U.S. government facilities. Throughout the 1970s the price of rubber in the world commodities market was depressed, putting pressure on Liberian state finances. Presidencies For further events, and details on events, during presidencies between 1847 and 1980, see: 1847-56, Presidency Roberts-I 1856-64, Presidency Benson 1864-68, Presidency Warner 1868-70, Presidency Payne-I 1870-71, Presidency Roye 1871-72, Presidency Smith 1872-76, Presidency Roberts-II 1876-78, Presidency Payne-II 1878-83, Presidency Gardner 1883-84, Presidency Russell 1884-92, Presidency Johnson 1892-1896, Presidency Cheeseman 1896-1900, Presidency Coleman 1900-1904, Presidency Gibson 1904-1912, Presidency A. Barclay 1912-1920, Presidency Howard World War I (1914-18) 1920-1930, Presidency King 1930-1944, Presidency E. Barclay World War II (1939-45) 1944-1971, Presidency Tubman 1971-1980, Presidency Tolbert Samuel Doe and the People’s Redemption Council (1980–1989) After a bloody overthrow of the Americo-Liberian régime by indigenous Liberians in 1980, a ‘Redemption Council’ took control of Liberia. Internal unrest, opposition to the new military regime, and governmental repression steadily grew, until in 1989 Liberia sank into outright tribal and civil war. Coup d’état; relations with U.S. Samuel Kanyon Doe (1951-1990) was a member of the small ethnic group of the Krahn, a master sergeant in the Liberian army, and trained by U.S. Army Special Forces. On April 12, 1980, Doe led a bloody coup d'état against president Tolbert, in which Tolbert and twenty-six of his supporters were murdered; ten days later thirteen of Tolbert’s Cabinet members were publicly executed. Thus ended 133 years of Americo-Liberian political domination over Liberia. Doe established a military regime called the People's Redemption Council (PRC). Many people welcomed Doe's takeover as a shift favouring the majority of the population that had been excluded from power. Immediately following the coup, the PRC tolerated a relatively free press. Doe quickly established good relations with the United States, especially after U.S. President Ronald Reagan took office in 1981. Reagan increased financial aid for Liberia, from the $20 million it had been in 1979, to $75 million, and later $95 million per year. Liberia became again an important Cold War ally of the U.S.. Liberia served to protect important U.S. facilities and investments, and to counter the perceived spread of Soviet influence in Africa. Doe closed the Libyan mission in Monrovia and even severed diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. He agreed to a modification of the mutual defence pact with the U.S. granting staging rights on 24-hour notice at Liberia's sea- and airports for the U.S. Rapid Deployment Forces. American ties with the Liberian army were strengthened: the military component of the aid package for the period 1981-85 was about $15 million. Under Doe, Liberian ports were opened to American, Canadian, and European ships, which brought in considerable foreign investment from shipping firms and earned Liberia a reputation as a tax haven. Fear of counter-coup; repression Doe overcame seven coup attempts between 1981 and 1985. In August 1981 he had Thomas Weh Syen and four other PRC members arrested and executed for allegedly conspiring against him. Then Doe’s government declared an amnesty for all political prisoners and exiles, and released sixty political prisoners. Soon there were more internal rifts in the PRC. Doe became paranoid about the possibility of a counter-coup, and his government grew increasingly corrupt and repressive, banning political opposition, shutting down newspapers and jailing reporters. He began to systematically eliminate PRC members who challenged his authority, and to place people of his own ethnic Krahn background in key positions, which intensified popular anger. Meanwhile, the economy deteriorated precipitously. Popular support for Doe's government evaporated. 1985 presidential election A draft constitution providing for a multiparty republic had been issued in 1983 and was approved by referendum in 1984. After the referendum, Doe staged a presidential election on October 15, 1985. Nine political parties sought to challenge Doe's National Democratic Party of Liberia (NDPL), but only three were allowed to take part. Prior to the election, more than fifty of Doe's opponents were murdered. Doe was ‘elected’ with 51% of the vote, but the election was heavily rigged. Foreign observers declared the elections fraudulent, and most of the elected opposition candidates refused to take their seats. U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Chester Crocker testified before Congress that the election was imperfect but that at least it was a step toward democracy. He further justified his support for the election results with the claim that, in any case, all African elections were known to be rigged at that time. Repression escalates into tribal warfare (see also First Liberian Civil War) In November 1985 Thomas Quiwonkpa, Doe’s former second-in-command, with an estimated 500 to 600 people, failed in an attempt to seize power; all were killed. Doe was sworn in as President on January 6, 1986. Doe then initiated crackdowns against certain tribes, such as the Gio (or Dan) and Mano, in the north, where most of the coup plotters came from. This government's mistreatment of certain ethnic groups resulted in divisions and violence among indigenous populations, who until then had coexisted relatively peacefully. In the late 1980s, as fiscal austerity took hold in the United States and the perceived threat of Communism declined with the waning of the Cold War, the U.S. became disenchanted with Doe's government and began cutting off critical foreign aid to Liberia. This, together with the popular opposition, made Doe’s position precarious. Nonetheless, the Krahn tribe of president Doe attacked tribes in Nimba County in the north; some northerners fled to bordering Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast). In the late 1980s, Charles Taylor assembled rebels from Gio and Mano tribes in Ivory Coast into a militia, invaded Nimba County in 1989, and by 1990 a full-blown tribal war was taking place. First Liberian Civil War (1989–1996) (See also: First Liberian Civil War and Charles Taylor) Sources In the late 1980s opposition from abroad to Doe’s regime led to economic collapse. Doe had already been repressing and crushing internal opposition for some time, when in November 1985 another coup attempt against him failed. Doe retaliated against tribes such as the Gio (or Dan) and Mano in the north, where most of the coup plotters had come from. Perhaps as a sequel to these governmental retaliations, perhaps as another circumscription of these same events: Doe’s Krahn tribe began attacking other tribes, particularly in Nimba County in the northeast of Liberia, bordering on Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and on Guinea. Some Liberian northerners fled for brutal treatment from the Liberian army into the Ivory Coast. Charles Taylor and the NPFL 1980-’89 Charles Taylor, born 1948, is son to a Gola mother and either an Americo-Liberian or an Afro-Trinidadian father. Taylor was a student at Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts, U.S.A., from 1972 to 1977, earning a degree in economics. After the 1980 coup d’état he served some time in Doe’s government until he was sacked in 1983 on accusation of embezzling government funds. He fled Liberia, was arrested in 1984 in Massachusetts on a Liberian warrant for extradition, and jailed in Massachusetts; escaped from jail in 1985, and probably fled to Libya. Some time later, Taylor in Ivory Coast assembled a group of rebels into the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), mostly from the Gio and Mano tribes. War December 1989, NPFL invaded Nimba County in Liberia. Thousands of Gio and Mano joined them, Liberians of other ethnic background as well. The Liberian army (AFL) counterattacked, and retaliated against the whole population of the region. Mid 1990, a war was raging between Krahn on one side, and Gio and Mano on the other. On both sides, thousands of civilians were massacred. 1990-1991 By the middle of 1990, Taylor controlled much of the country, and by June laid siege to Monrovia. In July, Yormie Johnson split off from NPFL and formed the INPFL, based on the Gio tribe. Both NPFL and INPFL continued siege on Monrovia. Bloodshed was all over. In August 1990, ECOWAS, an organisation of West African states, created a military intervention force called ECOMOG of 4,000 troops, to restore order. President Doe and Yormie Johnson (INPFL) agreed to this intervention, Taylor didn’t. 9 September, President Doe paid a visit to the barely established headquarters of ECOMOG in the Free Port of Monrovia, was at the ECOMOG headquarters attacked by INPFL, taken to the INPFL’s Caldwell base, tortured and killed. November 1990, ECOWAS agreed with some principal Liberian players but without Charles Taylor, on an Interim Government (IGNU) under President Dr. Amos Sawyer. Sawyer established his authority over most of Monrovia, the rest of the country was in the hands of factions or gangs. June 1991, former AFL fighters formed rebel group ULIMO, entered western Liberia in September ’91, and gained territories from the NPFL. 1993 - 1996 1993, ECOWAS brokered a peace agreement in Cotonou, Benin. On 22 September ’93, the UN established an observer mission UNOMIL to support ECOMOG in implementing the Cotonou agreement. March 1994, the ‘interim government’ of Sawyer was succeeded by a Council of State collective presidency of six members headed by David D. Kpormakpor. May 1994, renewed armed hostilities broke out and held on. Somewhere 1994, ULIMO broke into two militias: ULIMO-J, a Krahn faction led by Roosevelt Johnson and ULIMO-K, a Mandigo-based faction under Alhaji G.V. Kromah. September ’94, factional leaders agreed to the Akosombo peace agreement in Ghana, but to little consequence. October ‘94, the UN reduced its number of UNOMIL observers to about 90 because of the lack of will of combatants to honour peace agreements. December ’94, factions and parties signed the Accra agreement, but fighting continued. August 1995, factions signed an agreement largely brokered by Jerry Rawlings, Ghanaian President; Charles Taylor agreed. September ’95, Kpormakpor’s Council of State is succeeded by one under civilian Wilton G. S. Sankawulo and with the factional heads Charles Taylor, Alhaji Kromah and George Boley in it. April 1996, followers of Taylor and Kromah assaulted the headquarters of Roosevelt Johnson in Monrovia, and the peace accord collapsed. In August ’96, a new ceasefire is reached in Abuja, Nigeria. 3 September 1996, Ruth Perry followed Sankawulo as chairwoman of the Council of State, with the same three militia leaders in it. Second Liberian Civil War (1997–2003) (See also: First Liberian Civil War, Charles Taylor and Second Liberian Civil War) Elections 1997 July 1997, assisted by widespread intimidation, Charles Taylor won presidential elections with 75 percent of the vote. The election was judged free and fair though by some observers. August 2nd, Taylor took office. 1997-1999 Bloodshed in Liberia did slow considerably, but it did not end. Violence kept flaring up. During his entire reign, Taylor had to fight insurgencies against his government. Suspicions were, Taylor continued to assist rebel forces in neighbouring countries, like Sierra Leone, selling them weapons against diamonds. 1999 - 2003 Some ULIMO forces reformed themselves as the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), backed by the government of neighbouring Guinea. In 1999, they emerged in northern Liberia, in April 2000 they started fighting in Lofa County in northernmost Liberia. By the spring of 2001 they were posing a major threat to the Taylor government. Liberia was now engaged in a complex three-way conflict with Sierra Leone and the Guinea Republic. Meanwhile, the United Nations Security Council in March, 2001 (Resolution 1343) concluded that Liberia and Charles Taylor played roles in the civil war in Sierra Leone, and therefore: banned all arms sales to, and diamonds sales from Liberia; and banned high Liberian Government members to travel to UN-states. By the beginning of 2002, Sierra Leone and Guinea were supporting the LURD, while Taylor was supporting opposition factions in both countries. By supporting Sierra Leonean rebels, Taylor also drew the enmity of the British and Americans. Other elements of the former ULIMO-factions formed another new rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL). Early 2003, MODEL emerged in the south of Liberia. Another UN embargo, and arrest warrant against Taylor The Buduburam refugee camp west of Accra, Ghana, home in 2005 to more than 40,000 refugees from Liberia On March 7, 2003, the war tribunal Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) decided to summon Charles Taylor and charge him with war crimes and crimes against humanity, but they kept this decision and this charge secret until June that year. NRC Handelsblad (Dutch newspaper), 5 June, 2003 May 6, 2003, the UN Security Council (Resolution 1478) decided to an embargo also on Liberian “round logs and timber products”. By mid-2003, LURD controlled the northern third of the country and was threatening the capital, MODEL was active in the south, and Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country: Monrovia and central Liberia. On June 4, 2003, ECOWAS organized peace talks in Accra, Ghana, among the Government of Liberia, civil society, and the rebel groups LURD and MODEL. On the opening ceremony, in Taylor’s presence, the SCSL revealed their charge against Taylor which they had kept secret since March, and also issued an international arrest warrant for Taylor. The SCSL indicted Taylor for “bearing the greatest responsibility” for atrocities in Sierra Leone since November 1996. The Ghanaian authorities did not attempt to arrest Taylor, declaring they could not round up a president they themselves had invited as a guest for peace talks. The same day, Taylor returned to Liberia. Pressure of rebels, Presidents, and UN: Taylor resigns June 2003, LURD began a siege of Monrovia. July 9, the Nigerian President offered Taylor safe exile in his country, if Taylor stayed out of Liberian politics. Also in July, American President Bush stated twice that Taylor “must leave Liberia”. Taylor insisted that he would resign only if American peacekeeping troops were deployed to Liberia. 1 August 2003, the Security Council, (Resolution 1497) decided on a multinational force in Liberia, to be followed-on by a United Nations stabilization force. ECOWAS sent troops under the banner of 'ECOMIL' to Liberia. These troops started to arrive in Liberia probably as of 15 August. The U.S. provided logistical support. 11 August, under U.S. and international pressure, President Taylor resigned, and flew into exile in Nigeria. Vice-President Moses Blah replaced Taylor as interim-President. Under pressure from the United States, a hastily assembled ECOWAS-ECOMIL force of 1000 Nigerian troops was airlifted into Liberia on August 15, to halt the occupation of Monrovia by rebel forces. Meanwhile, U.S. stationed a Marine Expeditionary Unit with 2300 Marines offshore Liberia. Peace agreement and transitional government (2003–2005) Gyude Bryant On August 18, 2003, the Liberian Government, the rebels, political parties, and leaders from civil society signed a peace agreement that laid the framework for a two-year National Transitional Government of Liberia. August 21, they selected businessman Charles Gyude Bryant as Chair of the National Transitional Government of Liberia (NTGL), effective on October 14. These changes paved the way for the ECOWAS peacekeeping mission to expand into a 3,600-strong force, constituted by Benin, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal and Togo. On October 1, 2003, UNMIL took over the peacekeeping duties from ECOWAS. Some 3,500 West African troops were provisionally ‘re-hatted’ as United Nations peacekeepers. The U.N. Secretary-General commended the African Governments who have contributed to UNMIL, as well as the United States for its support to the regional force. October 14, 2003, Blah handed power to Charles Gyude Bryant. Fighting initially continued in parts of the country, and tensions between the factions did not immediately vanish. But fighters were being disarmed; in June 2004, a program to reintegrate the fighters into society began; the economy recovered somewhat in 2004; by year's end, the funds for the re-integration program proved inadequate; also by the end of 2004, more than 100,000 Liberian fighters had been disarmed, and the disarmament program was ended. In light of the progress made, President Bryant requested an end to the UN embargo on Liberian diamonds (since March 2001) and timber (since May 2003), but the Security Council postponed such a move until the peace was more secure. Because of a supposed ‘fundamentally broken system of governance that contributed to 23 years of conflict in Liberia’, and failures of the Transitional Government in curbing corruption, the Liberian government and the International Contact Group on Liberia signed onto the anti-corruption program GEMAP, starting September 2005. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf elected president (2005) Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf The transitional government prepared for fair and peaceful democratic elections on October 11, 2005, with UNMIL troops safeguarding the peace. Twenty three candidates stood for the presidential election, with George Weah, internationally famous footballer, UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador and member of the Kru ethnic group, and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a former World Bank economist and finance minister, Harvard-trained economist and of mixed Americo-Liberian and indigenous descent. In the first round, no candidate took the required majority, Weah won this round with 28% of the vote. A run-off between the top two vote getters, Weah and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, was necessary. The second round of elections took place on November 8, 2005. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf won this runoff decisively. Both the general election and runoff were marked by peace and order, with thousands of Liberians waiting patiently in the Liberian heat to cast their ballots. Johnson-Sirleaf claimed victory of this round, winning 59 per cent of the vote. However, Weah alleged electoral fraud, despite international observers declaring the election to be free and fair. Although Weah was still threatening to take his claims to the Supreme Court if no evidence of fraud was found, Johnson-Sirleaf was declared winner on November 23, 2005, and took office on January 16, 2006. Recent events (2006–present) Allegations of labor rights abuses by Firestone In November 2005, the International Labor Rights Fund filed an Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA) case against Bridgestone, the parent company of Firestone, alleging “forced labor, the modern equivalent of slavery”, on the Firestone Plantation in Harbel. In May 2006, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) released a report: “Human Rights in Liberia’s Rubber Plantations: Tapping into the Future” which detailed the results of its investigation into the conditions on the Firestone plantation in Liberia. Extradition and trial of Charles Taylor, arrest of Bryant Under international pressure, President Sirleaf requested in March 2006 that Nigeria extradite Charles Taylor, who was then brought before an international tribunal in Sierra Leone to face charges of crimes against humanity, arising from events during the Sierra Leone civil war (his trial was later transferred to The Hague for security purposes). In June, 2006, the United Nations ended its embargo on Liberian timber (effective since May 2003), but continued its diamond embargo (effective since March 2001) until an effective certificate of origin program was established, a decision that was reaffirmed in October 2006. In March 2007, former interim president Bryant was arrested and charged with having embezzled government funds while in office. In August 2007, the Supreme Court of Liberia allowed the criminal prosecution for this to proceed in the lower courts. “Liberia's Supreme Court endorses ex-leader's trial”, Africa News, August 27 2007. The court ruled that Bryant was not entitled to immunity as the head of state under the Constitution as he was not elected to the position and he was not acting in accordance with law when he allegedly stole USD $1.3 million in property from the government. The Inquirer. “Liberia; Corruption Case Against Bryant to Be Decided This Week”, Africa News, August 8 2007. 2008-2009 In July 2008, the Legislature reintroduced the death penalty into Liberian law, with President Sirleaf signing the bill into law. The Analyst. "Liberia; Death Penalty Under Fire", Africa News, August 7 2008. The law allowed for executions for convictions of armed robbery, rape, terrorism, and hijacking. Some parts of the country were declared disaster zones due to a plague of caterpillars. Liberia Overwhelmed By Plague of Caterpillars See also American Colonization Society Lott Carey, of Richmond, Virginia, the first American missionary to Liberia History of Africa History of West Africa Republic of Maryland References Further reading Boley, G.E. Saigbe, Liberia: The Rise and Fall of the First Republic. New York: MacMillan Publishers, 1983 Cassell, C. Abayomi, Liberia: The History of the First African Republic. New York: Fountainhead Publishers', Inc, 1970. Dunn, Elwood D., and Holsoe, Svend E., Historical Dictionary of Liberia. African Historical Dictionaries Series. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1985. Johnston, Harry, Liberia. London: Hutchinson, 1906. Liebenow, J. Gus, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. Nelson, Harold D., ed., Liberia: A Country Study. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985. Shick, Tom W., Behold the Promised Land: The History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980 Smith, James Wesley, Sojourners in Search of Freedom: The Settlement of Liberia of Black Americans. Lanham: University Press of America, 1987. Staudenraus, P.J., The African Colonization Movement, 1816 - 1865. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961; reprint, New York: Octagon Books, 1980. External links The Struggle for the Recognition of Haiti and Liberia as Independent Republics - From Haitian history Wiki Liberia - Entry on Liberia from the 1907 Catholic Encyclopedia. Article Liberia, from Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910 edition, from EB 1911 History of Liberia - Offers a history of Liberia from 1461 to the present. The Liberian Post - Extensive background information with links and photos. Liberian Law - Cornell Law Library - contains digitized documents dealing with the creation of the nation of Liberia and the laws enacted at its foundation, as well as extensive links for further research Rulers West Africa U.S. Library of Congress exhibition, based on materials deposited by the ACS. A View of Liberian History and Government: a critical view of the ACS CIA World Factbook : Liberia BBC Country Profile : Liberia Art and Life in Africa : Liberia Timeline Liberia History of Liberia: a Timeline, from Library of Congress Political Resources on the Net: Liberia For the Record: Liberia, from UN Human Rights System | History_of_Liberia |@lemmatized liberia:143 set:4 citizen:3 united:17 state:28 colony:12 former:7 african:23 american:44 slave:10 one:9 world:21 start:11 political:13 power:16 settlement:6 sierra:12 leone:11 begin:8 purpose:2 britain:7 early:4 time:9 indigenous:20 people:21 believe:2 many:7 migrate:4 north:4 east:1 century:5 ad:1 area:4 west:9 africa:16 later:9 become:15 invade:3 sixteenth:1 mane:6 malian:1 soldier:3 tribes:1 interior:6 ivory:6 coast:13 ghana:5 partition:1 conquered:1 territory:10 among:3 leader:6 chieftain:1 supreme:4 chief:1 reside:1 grand:4 cape:8 mount:4 region:11 shortly:1 conquer:1 migration:4 vai:6 part:7 mali:2 empire:2 force:15 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1,809 | London_Underground | The London Underground is a metro system serving a large part of Greater London and neighbouring areas of Essex, Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire in the . The first section opened in 1863, making it the first underground railway system in the world, Wolmar 2004, p. 18. and, starting in 1890, it was the first to operate electric trains. Wolmar 2004, p. 135. It is usually referred to as the Underground or the Tube—the latter deriving from the shape of the system's deep-bore tunnels—although about 55% of the network is above ground. The earlier lines of the present London Underground network, which were built by various private companies, became part of an integrated transport system (which excluded the main line railways) in 1933 with the creation of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB), more commonly known by its shortened name: "London Transport". The underground network became a single entity when London Underground Limited (LUL) was formed by the UK government in 1985. Since 2003 LUL has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, which is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London. The Underground has 270 stations and approximately 400 km (250 miles) of track, making it the longest metro system in the world by route length, http://mic-ro.com/metro/table.html - Metrobits.org and one of the most served in terms of stations. In 2007, over one billion passenger journeys were recorded. The tube map, with its schematic non-geographical layout and colour-coded lines, is considered a design classic, and many other transport maps worldwide have been influenced by it. History Railway construction in the United Kingdom began in the early 19th century. By 1854 six separate railway terminals had been built just outside the centre of London: London Bridge, Euston, Paddington, King's Cross, Bishopsgate and Waterloo. At this point, only Fenchurch Street Station was located in the actual City of London. Traffic congestion in the city and the surrounding areas had increased significantly in this period, partly due to the need for rail travellers to complete their journeys into the city centre by road. The idea of building an underground railway to link the City of London with the mainline terminals had first been proposed in the 1830s, but it was not until the 1850s that the idea was taken seriously as a solution to the traffic congestion problems. Green 1987, pp. 3–4. The first underground railways In 1854 an Act of Parliament was passed approving the construction of an underground railway between Paddington Station and Farringdon Street via King's Cross which was to be called the Metropolitan Railway. The Great Western Railway (GWR) gave financial backing to the project when it was agreed that a junction would be built linking the underground railway with their mainline terminus at Paddington. GWR also agreed to design special trains for the new subterranean railway. Construction was delayed for several years due to a shortage of funds. The fact that this project got under way at all was largely due to the lobbying of Charles Pearson, who was Solicitor to the City of London Corporation at the time. Pearson had supported the idea of an underground railway in London for several years. He advocated plans for the demolition of the unhygienic slums which would be replaced by new accommodation for their inhabitants in the suburbs, with the new railway providing transportation to their places of work in the city centre. Although he was never directly involved in the running of the Metropolitan Railway, he is widely credited as being one of the first true visionaries behind the concept of underground railways. And in 1859 it was Pearson who persuaded the City of London Corporation to help fund the scheme. Work finally began in February 1860, under the guidance of chief engineer John Fowler. Pearson died before the work was completed. The Metropolitan Railway opened on 10 January 1863. Within a few months of opening it was carrying over 26,000 passengers a day. Green 1987, p. 5. The Hammersmith and City Railway was opened on 13 June 1864 between Hammersmith and Paddington. Services were initially operated by GWR between Hammersmith and Farringdon Street. By April 1865 the Metropolitan had taken over the service. On 23 December 1865 the Metropolitan's eastern extension to Moorgate Street opened. Later in the decade other branches were opened to Swiss Cottage, South Kensington and Addison Road, Kensington (now known as Kensington Olympia). The railway had initially been dual gauge, allowing for the use of GWR's signature broad gauge rolling stock and the more widely used standard gauge stock. Disagreements with GWR had forced the Metropolitan to switch to standard gauge in 1863 after GWR withdrew all its stock from the railway. These differences were later patched up, however broad gauge was totally withdrawn from the railway in March 1869. On 24 December 1868, the Metropolitan District Railway began operating services between South Kensington and Westminster using Metropolitan Railway trains and carriages. The company, which soon became known as "the District", was first incorporated in 1864 to complete an Inner Circle railway around London in conjunction with the Metropolitan. This was part of a plan to build both an Inner Circle line and Outer Circle line around London. A fierce rivalry soon developed between the District and the Metropolitan. This severely delayed the completion of the Inner Circle project as the two companies competed to build far more financially lucrative railways in the suburbs of London. The London and North Western Railway (LNWR) began running their Outer Circle service from Broad Street via Willesden Junction, Addison Road and Earl's Court to Mansion House in 1872. The Inner Circle was not completed until 1884, with the Metropolitan and the District jointly running services. In the meantime, the District had finished its route between West Brompton and Blackfriars in 1870, with an interchange with the Metropolitan at South Kensington. In 1877, it began running its own services from Hammersmith to Richmond, on a line which had originally opened by the London & South Western Railway (LSWR) in 1869. The District then opened a new line from Turnham Green to Ealing in 1879 , at p. 72 and extended its West Brompton branch to Fulham in 1880. Over the same decade the Metropolitan was extended to Harrow-on-the-Hill station in the north-west. The early tunnels were dug mainly using cut-and-cover construction methods. This caused widespread disruption and required the demolition of several properties on the surface. The first trains were steam-hauled, which required effective ventilation to the surface. Ventilation shafts at various points on the route allowed the engines to expel steam and bring fresh air into the tunnels. One such vent is at Leinster Gardens, W2. In order to preserve the visual characteristics in what is still a well-to-do street, a five-foot-thick (1.5 m) concrete façade was constructed to resemble a genuine house frontage. On 7 December 1869 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) started operating a service between Wapping and New Cross Gate on the East London Railway (ELR) using the Thames Tunnel designed by Marc Brunel, who designed the revolutionary tunnelling shield method which made its construction not only possible, but safer, and completed by his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel. This had opened in 1843 as a pedestrian tunnel, but in 1865 it was purchased by the ELR (a consortium of six railway companies: the Great Eastern Railway (GER); London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR); London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR); South Eastern Railway (SER); Metropolitan Railway; and the Metropolitan District Railway) and converted into a railway tunnel. In 1884 the District and the Metropolitan began to operate services on the line. By the end of the 1880s, underground railways reached Chesham on the Metropolitan, Hounslow, Wimbledon and Whitechapel on the District and New Cross on the East London Railway. By the end of the 19th century, the Metropolitan had extended its lines far outside of London to Aylesbury, Verney Junction and Brill, creating new suburbs along the route—later publicised by the company as Metro-land. Right up until the 1930s the company maintained ambitions to be considered as a main line rather than an urban railway. First tube lines The nickname "the Tube" comes from the circular tube-like tunnels and platforms through which the trains travel. This photograph shows the southbound station platform at Angel tube station on the Northern Line. Following advances in the use of tunnelling shields, electric traction and deep-level tunnel designs, later railways were built even further underground. This caused much less disruption at ground level and it was therefore cheaper and preferable to the cut-and-cover construction method. The City & South London Railway (C&SLR, now part of the Northern Line) opened in 1890, between Stockwell and the now closed original terminus at King William Street. It was the first "deep-level" electrically operated railway in the world. Wolmar 2004, p. 4. By 1900 it had been extended at both ends, to Clapham Common in the south and Moorgate Street (via a diversion) in the north. The second such railway, the Waterloo and City Railway (W&CR), opened in 1898. Rose 2005. It was built and run by the London and South Western Railway. On 30 July 1900, the Central London Railway (now known as the Central line) was opened, operating services from Bank to Shepherd's Bush. It was nicknamed the "Twopenny Tube" for its flat fare and cylindrical tunnels; Wolmar 2004, pp.154–155. the "tube" nickname was eventually transferred to the Underground system as a whole. An interchange with the C&SLR and the W&CR was provided at Bank. Construction had also begun in August 1898 on the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway, however work came to a halt after 18 months when funds ran out. Wolmar 2004, p. 168. Integration In the early 20th century the presence of six independent operators running different Underground lines caused passengers substantial inconvenience; in many places passengers had to walk some distance above ground to change between lines. The costs associated with running such a system were also heavy, and as a result many companies looked to financiers who could give them the money they needed to expand into the lucrative suburbs as well as electrify the earlier steam operated lines. The most prominent of these was Charles Yerkes, an American tycoon who secured the right to build the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR) on 1 October 1900. In March 1901, he effectively took control of the District and this enabled him to form the Metropolitan District Electric Traction Company (MDET) on 15 July. Through this he acquired the Great Northern & Strand Railway and the Brompton & Piccadilly Circus Railway in September 1901, the construction of which had already been authorised by Parliament, together with the moribund Baker Street & Waterloo Railway in March 1902. On 9 April the MDET evolved into the Underground Electric Railways of London Company Ltd (UERL). The UERL also owned three tramway companies and went on to buy the London General Omnibus Company, creating an organisation colloquially known as "the Combine" which went on to dominate underground railway construction in London until the 1930s. The Circle and District Line platforms at Embankment station With the financial backing of Yerkes, the District opened its South Harrow branch in 1903 and completed its link to the Metropolitan's Uxbridge branch at Rayners Lane in 1904—although services to Uxbridge on the District did not begin until 1910 due to yet another disagreement with the Metropolitan. By the end of 1905, all District Railway and Inner Circle services were run by electric trains. The Baker Street & Waterloo Railway opened in 1906, soon branding itself the Bakerloo, and by 1907 it had been extended to Edgware Road in the north and Elephant & Castle in the south. The newly named Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, combining the two projects acquired by MDET in September 1901, also opened in 1906. With tunnels at an impressive depth of 200 feet below the surface, it ran from Finsbury Park to Hammersmith; a single station branch to Strand (later renamed Aldwych) was added in 1907. In the same year the CCE&HR opened from Charing Cross to Camden Town, with two northward branches, one to Golders Green and one to Highgate (now Archway). Independent ventures did continue in the early part of the 20th century. The independent Great Northern & City Railway opened in 1904 between Finsbury Park and Moorgate. It was the only tube line of sufficient diameter to be capable of handling main line stock, and it was originally intended to be part of a main line railway. However money soon ran out and the route remained separate from the main line network until the 1970s. The C&SLR was also extended northwards to Euston by 1907. In early 1908, in an effort to increase passenger numbers, the underground railway operators agreed to promote their services jointly as "the Underground", publishing new adverts and creating a free publicity map of the network for the purpose. The map featured a key labelling the Bakerloo Railway, the Central London Railway, the City & South London Railway, the District Railway, the Great Northern & City Railway, the Hampstead Railway (the shortened name of the CCE&HR), the Metropolitan Railway and the Piccadilly Railway. Some other railways appeared on the map but with less prominence than the aforementioned lines. These included part of the ELR (although the map wasn't big enough to fit in the whole line) and the Waterloo and City Railway. As the latter was owned by a main line railway company it wasn't included in this early phase of integration. As part of the process, "The Underground" name appeared on stations for the first time and electric ticket-issuing machines were also introduced. This was followed in 1913 by the first appearance of the famous circle and horizontal bar symbol, known as "the roundel", http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/londonunderground/history/1606.aspx designed by Edward Johnston. On 1 January 1913 the UERL absorbed two other independent tube lines, the C&SLR and the Central London Railway. As the Combine expanded, only the Metropolitan stayed away from this process of integration, retaining its ambition to be considered as a main line railway. Proposals were put forward for a merger between the two companies in 1913 but the plan was rejected by the Metropolitan. In the same year the company asserted its independence by buying out the cash strapped Great Northern and City Railway. It also sought a character of its own. The Metropolitan Surplus Lands Committee had been formed in 1887 to develop accommodation alongside the railway and in 1919 Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Ltd. was founded to capitalise on the post-World War One demand for housing. This ensured that the Metropolitan would retain an independent image until the creation of London Transport in 1933. The Metropolitan also sought to electrify its lines. The District and the Metropolitan had agreed to use the low voltage dc system for the Inner Circle, comprising two electric rails to power the trains, back in 1901. At the start of 1905 electric trains began to work the Uxbridge branch and from 1 November 1906 electric locomotives took trains as far as Wembley Park where steam trains took over. This changeover point was moved to Harrow on 19 July 1908. The Hammersmith & City branch had also been upgraded to electric working on 5 November 1906. The electrification of the ELR followed on 31 March 1913, the same year as the opening of its extension to Whitechapel and Shoreditch. Following the Grouping Act of 1921, which merged all the cash strapped main line railways into four companies (thus obliterating the original consortium that had built the ELR), the Metropolitan agreed to run passenger services on the line. The Bakerloo line extension to Queen's Park was completed in 1915, and the service extended to Watford Junction via the London and North Western Railway tracks in 1917. The extension of the Central line to Ealing Broadway was delayed by the war until 1920. The major development of the 1920s was the integration of the CCE&HR and the C&SLR and extensions to form what was to become the Northern line. This necessitated enlargement of the older parts of the C&SLR, which had been built on a modest scale. The integration required temporary closures during 1922—24. The Golders Green branch was extended to Edgware in 1924, and the southern end was extended to Morden in 1926. The Watford branch of the Metropolitan opened in 1925 and in the same year electrification was extended to Rickmansworth. The last major work completed by the Metropolitan was the branch to Stanmore which opened in 1932. By 1933 the Combine had completed the Cockfosters branch of the Piccadilly Line, with through services running (via realigned tracks between Hammersmith and Acton Town) to Hounslow West and Uxbridge. London Transport In 1933 the Combine, the Metropolitan and all the municipal and independent bus and tram undertakings were merged into the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB), a self-supporting and unsubsidised public corporation which came into being on 1 July 1933. The LPTB soon became known as "London Transport" (LT). Shortly after it was created, LT began the process of integrating the underground railways of London into one network. All the separate railways were given new names in order to become lines within it. A free map of these lines, designed by Harry Beck, was issued in 1933. It featured the District Line, the Bakerloo Line, the Piccadilly Line, the Edgware, Highgate and Morden Line, the Metropolitan Line, the Great Northern & City Line, the East London Line and the Central London Line. Commonly regarded as a design classic, an updated version of this map is still in use today. The Waterloo & City line was not included in this map as it was still owned by a main line railway (the Southern Railway since 1923) and not LT. LT announced a scheme for the expansion and modernisation of the network entitled the New Works Programme, which had followed the announcement of improvement proposals for the Metropolitan Line. This consisted of plans to extend some lines, to take over the operation of others from main-line railway companies, and to electrify the entire network. During the 1930s and 1940s, several sections of main-line railways were converted into surface lines of the Underground system. The oldest part of today's Underground network is the Central line between Leyton and Loughton, which opened as a railway seven years before the Underground itself. LT also sought to abandon routes which made a significant financial loss. Soon after the LPTB started operating, services to Verney Junction and Brill on the Metropolitan Railway were stopped. The renamed "Metropolitan Line" terminus was moved to Aylesbury. The outbreak of World War II delayed all the expansion schemes. From mid-1940, the Blitz led to the use of many Underground stations as shelters during air raids and overnight. The authorities initially tried to discourage and prevent this, but later supplied bunks, latrines, and catering facilities. Later in the war, eight London deep-level shelters were constructed under stations, ostensibly to be used as shelters (each deep-level shelter could hold 8,000 people) though plans were in place to convert them for a new express line parallel to the Northern line after the war. Some stations (now mostly disused) were converted into government offices: for example, Down Street was used for the headquarters of the Railway Executive Committee and was also used for meetings of the War Cabinet before the Cabinet War Rooms were completed; Brompton Road was used as a control room for anti-aircraft guns and the remains of the surface building are still used by London's University Royal Naval Unit (URNU) and University London Air Squadron (ULAS). After the war one of the last acts of the LPTB was to give the go-ahead for the completion of the postponed Central Line extensions. The western extension to West Ruislip was completed in 1948, and the eastern extension to Epping in 1949; the single-line branch from Epping to Ongar was taken over and electrified in 1957. Nationalisation |A London Underground 1995 Stock train pulls into Mornington Crescent station on the Northern Line. On 1 January 1948 London Transport was nationalised by the incumbent Labour government, together with the four remaining main line railway companies, and incorporated into the operations of the British Transport Commission (BTC). The LPTB was replaced by the London Transport Executive (LTE). This brought the Underground under the remit of central government for the first time in its history. The implementation of nationalised railways was a move of necessity as well as ideology. The main line railways had struggled to cope with a war economy in the First World War and by the end of World War Two the four remaining companies were on the verge of bankruptcy. Nationalisation was the easiest way to save the railways in the short term and provide money to fix war time damage. The BTC necessarily prioritised the reconstruction of its main line railways over the maintenance of the Underground network. The unfinished parts of the New Works Programme were gradually shelved or postponed. However the BTC did authorise the completion of the electrification of the network, seeking to replace steam locomotives on the parts of the system where they still operated. This phase of the programme was completed when the Metropolitan Line was electrified to Chesham in 1960. Steam locomotives were fully withdrawn from London Underground passenger services on 9 September 1961, when British Railways took over the operations of the Metropolitan line between Amersham and Aylesbury. The last steam shunting and freight locomotive was withdrawn from service in 1971. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/londonunderground/history/1606.aspx In 1963 the LTE was replaced by the London Transport Board, directly accountable to the Ministry of Transport. GLC Control On 1 January 1970, the Greater London Council (GLC) took over responsibility for London Transport. This period is perhaps the most controversial in London's transport history, characterised by staff shortages and a severe lack of funding from central government. In 1980 the Labour-led GLC began the 'Fares Fair' project, which increased local taxation in order to lower ticket prices. The campaign was initially successful and usage of the Tube significantly increased. But serious objections to the policy came from the London Borough of Bromley, an area of London which has no Underground stations. The Council resented the subsidy as it would be of little benefit to its residents. The council took the GLC to the Law Lords who ruled that the policy was illegal based on their interpretation of the Transport (London) Act 1969. They ruled that the Act stipulated that London Transport must plan, as far as was possible, to break even. In line with this judgement, 'Fares Fair' was therefore reversed, leading to a 100% increase in fares in 1982 and a subsequent decline in passenger numbers. The scandal prompted Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Government to remove the Underground from the GLC's control in 1984, a development that turned out to be a prelude to the abolition of the GLC in 1986. However the period saw the first real post-war investment in the network with the opening of the carefully planned Victoria Line, which was built on a diagonal northeast-southwest alignment beneath Central London, incorporating centralised signalling control and automatically driven trains. It opened in stages between 1968 and 1971. The Piccadilly line was extended to Heathrow Airport in 1977, and the Jubilee line was opened in 1979, taking over part of the Bakerloo line, with new tunnels between Baker Street and Charing Cross. There was also one important legacy from the 'Fares Fair' scheme, the introduction of ticket zones, which remain in use today. London Regional Transport In 1984 Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Government removed London Transport from the GLC's control, replacing it with London Regional Transport (LRT) on 19 June 1984 - a statutory corporation for which the Secretary of State for Transport was directly responsible. The Government planned to modernise the system while slashing its subsidy from taxpayers and ratepayers. As part of this strategy London Underground Limited was set up on 1 April 1985 as a wholly owned subsidiary of LRT to run the network. The prognosis for LRT was good. Oliver Green, the then Curator of the London Transport Museum, wrote in 1987: "In its first annual report, London Underground Ltd was able to announce that more passengers had used the system than ever before. In 1985-86 the Underground carried 762 million passengers - well above its previous record total of 720 million in 1948. At the same time costs have been significantly reduced with a new system of train overhaul and the introduction of more driver-only operation. Work is well in hand on the conversion of station booking offices to take the new Underground Ticketing System (UTS)...and prototype trials for the next generation of tube trains (1990) stock started in late 1986. As the London Underground celebrates its 125th anniversary in 1988, the future looks promising." Oliver Green, Illustrated History of the London Underground, page 66 However cost-cutting was not without its critics. At 19:30 on 18 November 1987 a fire swept through King's Cross St Pancras Undeground station, the busiest station on the network, killing 31 people. It later turned out that the fire had started in an escalator shaft serving the Piccadilly Line, which was burnt out along with the top level (entrances and ticket hall) of the deep-level tube station. The escalator on which the fire started had been built just before World War II. The steps and sides of the escalator were partly made of wood, meaning that they burned quickly and easily. Although smoking was banned on the subsurface sections of the London Underground in February 1985 (a consequence of the Oxford Circus fire), the fire was most probably caused by a commuter discarding a burning match, which fell down the side of the escalator onto the running track (Fennell 1988, p. 111). The running track had not been cleaned in some time and was covered in grease and fibrous detritus. The Member of Parliament for the area, Frank Dobson, informed the House of Commons that the number of transportation employees at the station, which handled 200,000 passengers every day at the time, had been cut from 16 to ten, and the cleaning staff from 14 to two. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966071-2,00.html The tragic event led to the abolition of wooden escalators at all Underground stations and pledges of greater investment. In 1994, with the privatisation of British Rail, LRT took control of the Waterloo and City line, incorporating it into the Underground network for the first time. This year also saw the end of services on the little used Epping-Ongar branch of the Central Line and the Aldwych branch of the Piccadilly Line after it was agreed that necessary maintenance and upgrade work would not be cost effective. In 1999 the Jubilee line extension to Stratford in London's East End was completed. This plan included the opening of a completely refurbished interchange station at Westminster. The Jubilee line's old terminal platforms at Charing Cross were closed but maintained operable for emergencies. Public Private Partnership Transport for London (TfL) replaced LRT in 2000, a development that coincided with the creation of a directly-elected Mayor of London and the Greater London Assembly. In January 2003 the Underground began operating as a Public-Private Partnership (PPP), whereby the infrastructure and rolling stock were maintained by two private companies (Metronet and Tube Lines) under 30-year contracts, whilst London Underground Limited remained publicly owned and operated by TfL. There was much controversy over the implementation of the PPP. Supporters of the change claimed that the private sector would eliminate the inefficiencies of public sector enterprises and take on the risks associated with running the network, while opponents said that the need to make profits would reduce the investment and public service aspects of the Underground. There has since been criticism of the performance of the private companies; for example the January 2007 edition of The Londoner, a newsletter published periodically by the Greater London Authority, listed Metronet's mistakes of 2006 under the headline Metronet guilty of 'inexcusable failures. Metronet was placed into administration on 18 July 2007. TfL has since taken over Metronet's outstanding commitments. The UK government has made concerted efforts to find another private firm to fill the vacuum left by the liquidation of Metronet. However so far only TfL has expressed a plausible interest in taking over Metronet's responsibilities. Even though Tube Lines appears to be stable, this has put the long-term future of the PPP scheme in doubt. The case for PPP was also weakened in 2008 when it was revealed that the demise of Metronet had cost the UK government £2 billion. The five private companies that made up the Metronet alliance had to pay £70m each towards paying off the debts acquired by the consortium. But under a deal struck with the government in 2003 the companies were protected from any further liability. The UK taxpayer therefore had to foot the rest of the bill. This undermined the argument that the PPP would place the risks involved in running the network into the hands of the private sector. , at p.6 Transport for London Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London's transport system. It replaced London Regional Transport. It assumed control of London Underground Limited in July 2003. TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules. It has three subsidiaries: London Transport Insurance (Guernsey) Ltd., the TfL Pension Fund Trustee Co. Ltd. and Transport Trading Ltd (TTL). TTL has six wholly-owned subsidiaries, one of which is London Underground Limited. The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London. The Mayor also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London. However the day-to-day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London. The current Commissioner is Peter Hendy. The Mayor is responsible for producing an integrated transport strategy for London and for consulting the GLA, TfL, local councils and others on the strategy. The Mayor is also responsible for setting TfL's budget. The GLA is consulted on the Mayor's transport strategy, and inspects and approves the Mayor's budget. It is able to summon the Mayor and senior staff to account for TfL's performance. London TravelWatch, a body appointed by and reporting to the Assembly, deals with complaints about transport in London. Infrastructure Stations and lines The London Underground's 11 lines are the Bakerloo line, Central line, Circle line, District line, Hammersmith & City line, Jubilee line, Metropolitan line, Northern line, Piccadilly line, Victoria line, and Waterloo & City line. Until 2007 there was a twelfth line, the East London line, but this has closed for rebuilding work. It will be reopen as part of London Overground - part of the National Rail network and eventually connected to its North London Line - in 2010. London Underground lines Name Map colour Firstoperated First sectionopened* Name datesfrom Type Length(km) Length(miles) Stations Tube Stock Journeysper annum (x 1,000) Average journeysper mile (x 1,000)Bakerloo lineBrown 1906 1906 1906 Deep level 23.2 14.5 25 1972 (2013 stock from 2013) 104,000 7,172Central lineRed 1900 1856 1900 Deep level 74 46 49 1992 199,000 4,326Circle lineYellow 1884 1863 1949 Subsurface 22.5 14 27 C Stock (S Stock from 2010) 74,000 5,286District lineGreen 1868 1868 1868–1905 Subsurface 64 40 60 C Stock and D78 Stock (new trains will replace the D78 Stock only from 2015) 188,000 4,700Hammersmith & City linePink 1863 1858 1988 Subsurface 26.5 16.5 29 C Stock (S Stock from 2010) 50,000 3,030Jubilee lineSilver 1979 1879 1979 Deep level 36.2 22.5 27 1996 Stock 127,584 5,670Metropolitan lineDark Magenta 1863 1863 1863 Subsurface 66.7 41.5 34 A60 and A62 Stock (S Stock from 2010) 58,000 1,398Northern lineBlack 1890 1867 1937 Deep level 58 36 50 1995 Stock 206,987 5,743Piccadilly lineDark Blue 1906 1869 1906 Deep level 71 44.3 53 1973 Stock (2014 Stock from 2014/2015) 176,177 3,977Victoria lineLight Blue 1968 1968 1968 Deep level 21 13.25 16 1967 Stock (2009 Stock from mid-2009) 174,000 13,132Waterloo & City lineTurquoise 1898† 1898 1898 Deep level 2.5 1.5 2 1992 Stock 9,616 6,410 * Where a year is shown that is earlier than that shown for First operated, this indicates that the line operates over a route first operated by another Underground line or by another railway company. † Prior to 1994, the Waterloo & City line was operated by British Rail and its predecessors. The Underground serves 268 stations by rail; an additional six stations that were on the East London line are served by Underground replacement buses. Fourteen Underground stations are outside Greater London, of which five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, Chorleywood, Epping) are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the 32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney only has Old Street and Manor House on its boundaries. Zone 1 (central zone) of the Underground (and DLR) network in a geographically more accurate layout than the usual Tube map, using the same style. Underground trains come in two sizes, larger subsurface trains and smaller tube trains. A Metropolitan line A Stock train (left) passes a Piccadilly line 1973 Stock train (right) in the siding at Rayners Lane Lines on the Underground can be classified into two types: subsurface and deep-level. The subsurface lines were dug by the cut-and-cover method, with the tracks running about below the surface. The deep-level or tube lines, bored using a tunnelling shield, run about below the surface (although this varies considerably), with each track in a separate tunnel. These tunnels can have a diameter as small as and the loading gauge is thus considerably smaller than on the subsurface lines. Lines of both types usually emerge onto the surface outside the central area. While the tube lines are for the most part self-contained, the subsurface lines are part of an interconnected network: each shares track with at least two other lines. The subsurface arrangement is similar to the New York City Subway, which also runs separate "lines" over shared tracks. Rolling stock and electrification 1996 Stock trains at Stratford Market Depot The Underground uses rolling stock built between 1960 and 2005. Stock on subsurface lines is identified by a letter (such as A Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year in which it was designed (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line). All lines are worked by a single type of stock except the District line, which uses both C and D Stock. Two types of stock are currently being developed — 2009 Stock for the Victoria line and S stock for the subsurface lines, with the Metropolitan line A Stock being replaced first. Rollout of both is expected to begin about 2009. In addition to the Electric Multiple Units described above, there is engineering stock, such as ballast trains and brake vans, identified by a 1-3 letter prefix then a number. The Underground is one of the few networks in the world that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that on third-rail and overhead networks is provided by the running rails. On the Underground a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energised at +420 V DC, and a top-contact fourth rail is centrally between the running rails, at -210 V DC, which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630 V DC. In cases where the lines are shared with mainline trains which use a three-rail system, the third rail is set at +630 V, and the fourth rail at 0 V DC. Cooling In summer, temperatures on parts of the London Underground can become very uncomfortable due to its deep and poorly ventilated tube tunnels: temperatures as high as were reported in the 2006 European heat wave. Posters may be observed on the Underground network advising that passengers carry a bottle of water to help keep cool. Planned improvements and expansions A diagram at Ealing Common, showing the layout of the Piccadilly line at London Heathrow Airport There are many planned improvements to the London Underground. A new station opened on the Piccadilly line at Heathrow Airport Terminal 5 on 27 March 2008 and is the first extension of the London Underground since 1999. Each line is being upgraded to improve capacity and reliability, with new computerised signalling, automatic train operation (ATO), track replacement and station refurbishment, and, where needed, new rolling stock. A trial programme for a groundwater cooling system in Victoria station took place in 2006 and 2007; it aimed to determine whether such a system would be feasible and effective if in widespread use. A trial of mobile phone coverage on the Waterloo & City line aims to determine whether coverage can be extended across the rest of the Underground network. Although not part of London Underground, the Crossrail scheme will provide a new route across central London integrated with the tube network. The long proposed Chelsea-Hackney line, which is planned to begin operation in 2025, may be part of the London Underground, which would mean it would give the network a new Northeast to South cross London line to provide more interchanges with other lines and relieve overcrowding on other lines. However it is still on the drawing board. It was first proposed in 1901 and has been in planning since then. In 2007 the line was passed over to Cross London Rail Ltd, the current developers of Crossrail. Therefore, the line may be either part of the London Underground network or the National Rail network. There are advantages and disadvantages for both. The Croxley Rail Link proposal envisages diverting the Metropolitan line Watford branch to Watford Junction station along a disused railway track. The project awaits funding from Hertfordshire County Council and the Department for Transport, and remains at the proposal stage. London Mayor Boris Johnson suggested he may be thinking of extending the Bakerloo line to Lewisham, as South London lacks Underground lines. Travelling Ticketing London Underground One-Day Travelcard London Underground Oyster Card The Underground uses TfL's Travelcard zones to calculate fares. Greater London is divided into 6 zones; Zone 1 is the most central, with a boundary just beyond the Circle line, and Zone 6 is the outermost and includes London Heathrow Airport. Stations on the Metropolitan line outside Greater London are in Zones 7-9. Travelcard zones 7–9 also apply on the Euston-Watford Junction line (part of the London Overground) as far as Watford High Street. Watford Junction is outside these zones and special fares apply. There are staffed ticket offices, some open for limited periods only, and ticket machines usable at any time. Some machines that sell a limited range of tickets accept coins only, other touch-screen machines accept coins and banknotes, and usually give change. These machines also accept major credit and debit cards: some newer machines accept cards only. More recently, TfL has introduced the Oyster card, a smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip, that travellers can obtain, charge with credit, and use to pay for travel. Like Travelcards they can be used on the Underground, buses, trams and the Docklands Light Railway. The Oyster card is cheaper to operate than cash ticketing or the older-style magnetic-strip-based Travelcards, and the Underground is encouraging passengers to use Oyster cards instead of Travelcards and cash (on buses) by implementing significant price differences. Oyster-based Travelcards can be used on National Rail throughout London. Pay as you go is available on a restricted, but increasing, number of routes. For tourists or other non-residents, not needing to travel in the morning peak period, the all day travelcard is the best ticketing option available. These are available from any underground station. These cost around £5.50 and allow unlimited travel on the network from 9:30am onwards for the rest of the day. This provides excellent value for money and a huge saving considering one single journey on the network can cost close to £5. Travel cards for multiple days are also available. Penalty fares and fare evasion In addition to automatic and staffed ticket gates, the Underground is patrolled by both uniformed and plain-clothes ticket inspectors with hand-held Oyster card readers. Passengers travelling without a ticket valid for their entire journey are required to pay a £50 (or £25 if paid within 21 days) penalty fare and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 under which they are subject to a fine of up to £1,000, or three months' imprisonment. Oyster card pre-pay users who have failed to touch in at the start of their journey are charged the maximum cash fare (£4, or £5 at some National Rail stations) upon touching out. In addition, an Oyster card user who has failed to touch in at the start of their journey and who is detected mid-journey (i.e. on a train) by an Inspector is now liable to a penalty fare of £50, which is reduced to £25 if paid within 21 days. No £4 maximum charge will be applied to their destination as the inspector will apply an 'exit token' to their card. While the Conditions of Carriage require period Travelcard holders to touch in and touch out at the start and end of their journey, any Oyster card user who has a valid period Travelcard covering their entire journey is not liable to pay a Penalty fare where they have not touched in. Neither the Conditions of Carriage or Schedule 17 of the Greater London Authority Act 1999, which shows how and when Penalty fares can be issued, would allow the issuing of a Penalty fare to a traveller who had already paid the correct fare for their journey. Jubilee line platforms (London Bridge station) Delays According to statistics obtained under the Freedom of Information Act, the average commuter on the Metropolitan line wasted three days, 10 hours and 25 minutes in 2006 due to delays (not including missed connections). Between 17 September 2006 and 14 October 2006, figures show that 211 train services were delayed by more than 15 minutes. Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL. Hours of operation The Underground does not run 24 hours a day (except at New Year and major public events - such as the Queen's Golden Jubilee in 2002 and the Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the London Olympics in 2012) because most lines have only two tracks (one in each direction) and therefore need to close at night for planned maintenance work. First trains start operating around 05:30, running until around 01:00. Unlike systems such as the New York City Subway, few parts of the Underground have express tracks that allow trains to be routed around maintenance sites. Recently, greater use has been made of weekend closures of parts of the system for scheduled engineering work. Accessibility Westminster station — extensive structures are required to support Portcullis House above. Accessibility by people with mobility problems was not considered when most of the system was built, and most older stations are inaccessible to disabled people. More recent stations were designed for accessibility, but retrofitting accessibility features to old stations is at best prohibitively expensive and technically extremely difficult, and often impossible. Even when there are already escalators or lifts, there are often steps between the lift or escalator landings and the platforms. Most stations on the surface have at least a short flight of stairs to gain access from street level, and the great majority of below-ground stations require use of stairs or some of the system's 410 escalators (each going at a speed of per minute, approximately ). There are also some lengthy walks and further flights of steps required to gain access to platforms. The emergency stairs at Covent Garden station have 193 steps to reach the exit (equivalent to climbing to the top of a 15-floor building), so passengers are advised to use the lifts as climbing the steps can be dangerous. The escalators in Underground stations include some of the longest in Europe, and all are custom-built. The longest escalator is at Angel station, long, with a vertical rise of . They run 20 hours a day, 364 days a year, with 95% of them operational at any one time, and can cope with 13,000 passengers per hour. Convention and signage stipulate that people using escalators on the Underground stand on the right-hand side so as not to obstruct those who walk past them on the left. TfL produces a map indicating which stations are accessible, and since 2004 line maps indicate with a wheelchair symbol those stations that provide step-free access from street level. Step height from platform to train is up to , and there can be a large gap between the train and curved platforms. Only the Jubilee Line Extension is completely accessible. TfL plans that by 2020 there should be a network of over 100 fully accessible stations, consists of those recently built or rebuilt, and a handful of suburban stations that happen to have level access, along with selected 'key stations', which will be rebuilt. These key stations have been chosen due to high usage, interchange potential, and geographic spread, so that up to 75% of journeys will be achievable step-free. Overcrowding Overcrowding on the Underground has been of concern for years and is very much the norm for most commuters especially during the morning and evening rush hours. Stations which particularly have a problem include Camden Town station and Covent Garden, which have access restrictions at certain times. Restrictions are introduced at other stations when necessary. Several stations have been rebuilt to deal with overcrowding issues, with Clapham Common and Clapham North on the Northern line being the last remaining stations with a single narrow platform with tracks on both sides. On particularly busy occasions, such as football matches, British Transport Police may be present to help with overcrowding. On 24 September 2007 the entirety of King's Cross underground station was closed due to "overcrowding". Some stations are closed or are made exit-only stations due to overcrowding in peak periods. At other times trains simply don't stop at the overcrowded station and go onto the next closest station, in places where there is another station within walking distance. Overcrowding can also be limited by temporarily disallowing passengers from passing through ticket gates to the platforms at some stations. According to a 2003 House of Commons report, commuters faced a "daily trauma" and were forced to travel in "intolerable conditions". Safety Accidents on the Underground network, which carries around a billion passengers a year, are rare. There is one fatal accident for every 300 million journeys. Safety first. The Economist (23 October 2003) Retrieved 3 December 2006. There are several safety warnings given to passengers, such as the 'mind the gap' announcement and the regular announcements for passengers to keep behind the yellow line. Relatively few accidents are caused by overcrowding on the platforms, and staff monitor platforms and passageways at busy times prevent people entering the system if they become overcrowded. Most fatalities on the network are suicides. Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits beneath the track, originally constructed to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but they also help prevent death or serious injury when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train. Design and the arts The London Underground roundel, seen here at Piccadilly Circus TfL's Tube map and "roundel" logo are instantly recognisable by any Londoner, almost any Briton, and many people around the world. TfL licences the sale of clothing and other accessories featuring its graphic elements and it takes legal action against unauthorised use of its trademarks and of the Tube map. Nevertheless, unauthorised copies of the logo continue to crop up worldwide. Map The original maps were often street maps with the lines superimposed, but as well as being visually complex, this produced problems of space, as central stations were far closer together than outlying ones. The modern stylised Tube map evolved from a design by electrical engineer Harry Beck in 1933. It is characterized by a schematic non-geographical layout (thought to have been based on circuit diagrams) and the use of colour coding for lines. The map is now considered a design classic; virtually every major urban rail system in the world now has a similar map, and many bus companies have also adopted the concept. There are many references in culture to the map, including parodies of it using different station-names, particularly in London advertisements for unrelated products & services. Typography Edward Johnston designed TfL's distinctive sans-serif typeface, in 1916. The typeface is still in use today although substantially modified in 1979 by Eiichi Kono at Banks & Miles to produce "New Johnston". It is noted for the curl at the bottom of the minuscule l, which other sans-serif typefaces have discarded, and for the diamond-shaped tittle on the minuscule i and j, whose shape also appears in the full stop, and is the origin of other punctuation marks in the face. TfL owns the copyright to and exercises control over the New Johnston typeface, but a close approximation of the face exists in the TrueType computer font Paddington, and the Gill Sans typeface also takes inspiration from Johnston. The roundel The use of the roundel with the station name in the blue bar dates from 1908. The roundel seen above can be found at Leytonstone tube station. A few of the Roundels used. The origins of the roundel, in earlier years known as the 'bulls-eye' or 'target', are obscure. While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the 19th-century symbol of the London General Omnibus Company — a wheel with a bar across the centre bearing the word GENERAL''' — its usage on the Underground stems from the decision in 1908 to find a more obvious way of highlighting station names on platforms. The red circle with blue name bar was quickly adopted, with the word "UNDERGROUND" across the bar, as an early corporate identity. The logo was modified by Edward Johnston in 1919. Each station displays the Underground roundel, often containing the station's name in the central bar, at entrances and repeatedly along the platform, so that the name can easily be seen by passengers on arriving trains. The roundel has been used for buses and the tube for many years, and since TfL took control it has been applied to other transport types (taxi, tram, DLR, etc.) in different colour pairs. The roundel has to some extent become a symbol for London itself. The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated by TfL commissioning 100 news works that celebrate the design. Contribution to arts An Edwardian tile pattern at Russell Square tube station The Underground currently sponsors and contributes to the arts via its Platform for Art and Poems on the Underground projects. Poster and billboard space (and in the case of Gloucester Road tube station, an entire disused platform) is given over to artwork and poetry to "create an environment for positive impact and to enhance and enrich the journeys of ... passengers". Its artistic legacy includes the employment since the 1920s of many well-known graphic designers, illustrators and artists for its own publicity posters. Designers who produced work for the Underground in the 1920s and 1930s include Man Ray, Edward McKnight Kauffer and Fougasse. In recent years the Underground has commissioned work from leading artists including R. B. Kitaj, John Bellany and Howard Hodgkin. In architecture, Leslie Green established a house style for the new stations built in the first decade of the 20th century for the Bakerloo, Piccadilly and Northern lines which included individual Edwardian tile patterns on platform walls. Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas – In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art-deco stations for which the Underground remains famous. Holden's design for the Underground's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant-garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore (his first public commission). Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria Line, contributing to the line's uniform look, while the 1990s extension of the Jubilee line featured stations designed by leading architects such as Norman Foster, Michael Hopkins, Will Alsop and Ian Ritchie. These architects were commissioned by Roland Paoletti, chief architect for the Jubilee Line Extension (JLE). Many stations also feature unique interior designs to help passenger identification. Often these have themes of local significance. Tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes's silhouette. Tottenham Court Road features semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi representing the local music industry at Denmark Street. Northern line platforms at Charing Cross feature murals by David Gentleman of the construction of Charing Cross itself. In popular culture The Underground has been featured in many movies and television shows, including Sliding Doors, Tube Tales and Neverwhere. The London Underground Film Office handles over 100 requests per month. The Underground has also featured in music such as The Jam's "Down in the Tube Station at Midnight" and in literature such as the graphic novel V for Vendetta''. Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day. After placing a number of spoof announcements on her web page, London Underground voiceover artiste Emma Clarke had further contracts cancelled in 2007. The announcement "mind the gap", heard when trains stop at certain platforms, has also become a well known catchphrase, as well as a name of a band. The Amateur Transplants have made a spoof of the song "Going Underground" by The Jam, and changed the name to London Underground. They sing about all the "bad things underground". The London Underground map serves as a playing field for the conceptual game of Mornington Crescent. See also 7 July 2005 London bombings British Transport Police Closed London Underground stations Connect Project Crossrail Docklands Light Railway Glasgow Subway Heathrow Connect Inspector Sands Leinster Gardens List of London Underground-related fiction List of London Underground stations List of rapid transit systems London Overground London Post Office Railway and other features of Subterranean London London Underground air pollution London Underground anagram map Lots Road power station Mind the gap Mornington Crescent (game) Paddington Bear Paris Métro The London Game The Tube (London Underground TV series) Tramlink Transport in London (overview) Tube Map Tyne and Wear Metro Underground Ernie References Further reading (and similar volumes covering other lines, published 1972-1976) External links Transport for London Home page | London_Underground |@lemmatized london:142 underground:109 metro:5 system:27 serve:5 large:3 part:26 great:21 neighbour:1 area:5 essex:1 hertfordshire:2 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1,810 | Devanagari | (, in English OED ), or Nāgarī, is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written from left to right, lacks distinct letter cases, and is recognizable by a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the letters that links them together. Devanāgarī is the main script used to write Hindi, Marathi, and Nepali. Since the 19th century, it has been the most commonly used script for Sanskrit. Devanāgarī is also employed for Gujari, Bhili, Bhojpuri, Konkani, Magahi, Maithili, Marwari, Newari, Pahari (Garhwali and Kumaoni), Santhali, Tharu, and sometimes Sindhi, Panjabi, and Kashmiri. It was formerly used to write Gujarati. Origins Devanāgarī is part of the Brahmic family of alphabets of Nepal, India, Tibet, and South-East Asia. It is a descendant of the Gupta script, along with Siddham and Sharada. Eastern variants of Gupta called Nāgarī are first attested from the 8th century; from c. 1200 these gradually replaced Siddham, which survived as a vehicle for Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, and Sharada, which remained in parallel use in Kashmir. Sanskrit is the feminine of "urban(e)", a vrddhi adjectival form of nagara "city". It is feminine from its original phrasing with lipi "script" as "urban(e) script", that is, the script of the cultured. There are several varieties of Nāgarī in use, one of which was distinguished by affixing Deva "god" or "deity" to form a tatpurusha compound meaning the "urban(e) [script] of the gods", or "divine urban(e) [script]". The use of the name is relatively recent, and the older term is still common. The rapid spread of the term may be related to the almost exclusive use of this script to publish sacred Sanskrit texts in colonial times. This has led to such a close connection between Devanāgarī and Sanskrit that Devanāgarī is now widely thought to be the Sanskrit script; however, before the colonial period there was no standard script for Sanskrit, which was written in whichever script was familiar to the local populace. Principles As a Brahmic abugida, the fundamental principle of Devanāgarī is that each letter represents a consonant, which carries an inherent vowel a [ə]. For example, the letter क is read ka, the two letters कन are kana, the three कनय are kanaya, etc. Other vowels, or the absence of vowels, require modification of these consonants or their own letters: Consonant clusters are written with ligatures ( "conjuncts"). For example, the three letters कनय kanaya may be joined to form क्नय knaya, कन्य kanya, or क्न्य knya. Vowels other than the inherent a are written with diacritics. From क ka we get के ke, कु ku, की kī, का kā, etc. For vowels without a consonant, either at the beginning of a word or after another vowel, there are full letters. Thus while the vowel ū is written with the diacritic in कू kū, it has its own letter ऊ in ऊक ūka and कऊ kaū. A final consonant is marked with the diacritic , called the virāma in Sanskrit, halanta in Hindi, and a "killer stroke" in English. This cancels the inherent vowel, so that from क्नय knaya we get क्नय् knay. The halanta will often be used for consonant clusters when typesetting ligatures is not feasible. Such a letter or ligature, with its diacritics, is called an "syllable". For example, कनय kanaya is written with what are counted as three akshara, whereas क्न्य knya and कु ku are each written with one. As far as handwriting is concerned, letters are usually written without the distinctive horizontal bar, which is only added once the word is finished being written. http://archives.conlang.info/sae/shaunvhon/fialphonfhoen.html Letters The letter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brahmi scripts, is based on phonetic principles which consider both the manner and place of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as the "garland of letters". The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages. Vowels The vowels and their arrangement are: Independent formRomanizedAs diacritic with पIndependent formRomanizedAs diacritic with प(Guttural)अपआपा(Palatal)इपिईपी(Labial)उपुऊपू(Cerebral)ऋपृॠपॄ(Dental)ऌपॢॡपॣ(Palato-Guttural)एपेऐपै(Labio-Guttural)ओपोऔपौ Arranged with the vowels are two consonantal diacritics, the final nasal anusvāra ं and the final fricative visarga ः (called अं and अः ). notes of the anusvāra in Sankrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal consonant [...], a nasalized vowel, a nasalized semivowel, or all these according to context". The visarga represents post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative , in Sanskrit an allophone of , or less commonly , usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the vowel after the breath: इः . considers the visarga along with letters ङ and ञ for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system". Another diacritic is the candrabindu/anunāsika ँ. describes it as a "more emphatic form" of the , "sometimes [...] used to mark a true [vowel] nasalization". In a New Indo-Aryan language such as Hindi the distinction is formal: the indicates vowel nasalization while the indicates a homorganic nasal preceding another consonant: e.g. हँसी "laughter", गंगा "Ganges". When an akshara has a vowel diacritic above the top line, that leaves no room for the candra ("moon") stroke candrabindu, which is dispensed with in favour of the lone dot: हूँ "am", but हैं "are". Some writers and typesetters dispense with the "moon" stroke altogether, using only the dot in all situations. The avagraha ऽ (usually transliterated with an apostrophe) is a Sanskrit punctuation mark for the elision of a vowel in sandhi: एकोऽयम् (< + ) "this one". An original long vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a double avagraha: सदाऽऽत्मा (< + ) "always, the self". In Hindi, states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout": आईऽऽऽ! . In Magahi, which has "quite a number of verbal forms [that] end in that inherent vowel" , the avagraha is used to mark the non-elision of word-final inherent a, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention: बइठऽ "sit" versus *बइठ The syllabic consonants , , and are specific to Sanskrit and not included in the of other languages. The sound represented by has been lost as well, and its pronunciation now ranges from (Hindi) to (Marathi). is not an actual phoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters. There are non-regular formations of रु ru and रू rū. Consonants The consonants and their arrangement are: (Stop) (Nasal) (Approximant) (Fricative) Voicing → Aspiration → (Guttural)कखगघङहtālavya(Palatal)चछजझञयशmūrdhanya(Cerebral)टठडढणरषdantya(Dental)तथदधनलस(Labial)पफबभमव Rounding this out where applicable is ळ , which represented the intervocalic lateral flap allophone of the voiced retroflex stop in Vedic Sanskrit, and which is a phoneme in languages such as Marathi and Rajasthani. Beyond the Sanskritic set new shapes have rarely been formulated. offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceive other sounds, unknown to the phoneticians of Sanskrit." Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been either ignored in writing, or dealt through means such as diacritics and ligatures (ignored in recitation). The most prolific diacritic has been the subscript nuqtā ़. Hindi uses it for the Persian sounds क़ qa , ख़ xa , ग़ , ज़ za , and फ़ fa , and for the allophonic developments ड़ and ढ़ . (Although ऴ could also exist but there is no use of it in Hindi.) Sindhi's implosives are accommodated with underlining ॒ : ग॒ , ज॒ , ड॒ , ब॒ . Aspirated sonorants may be represented as conjuncts/ligatures with ह ha: म्ह mha, न्ह nha, ण्ह , व्ह vha, ल्ह lha, ळ्ह , र्ह rha. notes Marwari as using a special symbol for (while ड = ). Conjuncts The -ligature (द्ध्र्य) of JanaSanskritSans. You will only be able to see the ligatures if your system has a Unicode font installed that includes the required ligature glyphs (e.g. one of the TDIL fonts, see "external links" below). As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join together as a 'conjunct' or ligature. The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardized for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which the Unicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules: 24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (ख, घ, ण etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster, they lose that stroke. e.g. त + व = त्व, ण + ढ = ण्ढ, स + थ = स्थ. श ś(a) appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment preceding व va, न na, च ca, ल la, and र ra, squishing down these second members. Thus श्व śva, श्न śna, श्च śca श्ल śla, and श्र śra. र r(a) as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or its ā-diacritic. e.g. र्व rva, र्वा rvā, र्स्प rspa, र्स्पा rspā. As a final member with ट ठ ड ढ ङ छ it is two lines below the character, pointed downwards and apart. Thus ट्र ठ्र ड्र ढ्र ङ्र छ्र. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke jutting leftwards and down. e.g. क्र ग्र भ्र. त ta is shifted up to make त्र tra. As first members, remaining vertical stroke-less characters such as द d(a) and ह h(a) may have their second member, shrunken and minus its horizontal stroke, placed underneath. क k(a), छ ch(a), and फ ph(a) shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member. The conjuncts for and are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct for is क्ष (क् + ष)and for it is ज्ञ (ज् + ञ). The table below shows all the 1296 viable symbols for the biconsonantal clusters formed by collating the 36 fundamental symbols of Sanskrit as listed in . Scroll your cursor over the conjuncts to reveal their romanizations (in IAST-International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration) and IPA pronunciations. Biconsonantal conjuncts क ख ग घ ङ च छ ज झ ञ ट ठ ड ढ ण त थ द ध न प फ ब भ म य र ल व श ष स ह ळ क्ष ज्ञ कखगघङचछजझञटठडढणतथदधनपफबभमयरलवशषसहळक्षज्ञ New Indo-Aryan languages may use the above forms for their Sanskrit loanwords (or otherwise). Accent marks The pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending on shakha. In the Rigveda, anudātta is written with a bar below the line (॒), svarita with a stroke above the line (॑) while udātta is unmarked. Punctuation The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with a danda or vertical line: "I". The end of a full verse may be marked with a double danda or two vertical lines: "II". Numerals + Devanāgarī numerals ० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Transliteration There are several methods of transliteration from Devanāgarī into Roman scripts. The most widely used transliteration method is IAST. However, there are other transliteration options. The following are the major transliteration methods for Devanāgarī: ISO 15919 A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. See also Transliteration of Indic scripts: how to use ISO 15919. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit, IAST. IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanization of Sanskrit. IAST is the de-facto standard used in printed publications, like books and magazines, and with the wider availability of Unicode fonts, it is also increasingly used for electronic texts. It is based on a standard established by the Congress of Orientalists at Athens in 1912. The National Library at Kolkata romanization, intended for the romanization of all Indic scripts, is an extension of IAST. Harvard-Kyoto Compared to IAST, Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words. ITRANS ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. It is an extension of the Harvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the word Devanāgarī is written as "Devanaagarii". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting in Indic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor displays the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July, 2001. ALA-LC Romanization ALA-LC romanization is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi, one for Sanskrit and Prakrit, etc. Encodings ISCII ISCII is a fixed-length 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plain ASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific. It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī, but also various other Indic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts. ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has however attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks. Devanāgarī in Unicode The Unicode range for Devanāgarī is U+0900 .. U+097F. Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points. Devanāgarī Keyboard Layouts The Mac OS X operating system supports convenient editing for the Devanāgarī script by insertion of appropriate Unicode characters with two different keyboard layouts available for use. To input Devanāgarī text, one goes to System Preferences → International → Input Menu and enables the keyboard layout that is to be used. The layout is the same as for INSCRIPT/KDE Linux: INSCRIPT / KDE Linux INSCRIPT Keyboard Layout (Windows, Solaris, Java) This is the India keyboard layout for Linux (variant 'Deva') Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard layout A Devanagari INSCRIPT bilingual keyboard. Typewriter Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India Computer keyboard with the Hindi typewriter layout is available from Intex Technologies (called Swadeshi). It is a bilingual keyboard with English alphabets markings. See Intex Technologies Swadeshi bilingual keyboard. Phonetic Bolnagri phonetic keyboard layout for Linux/GNOME See Bolnagri Home Page See also ISCII Nagari Pracharini Sabha Devanagari transliteration Software Indic script IMEs (keyboard layouts) and other Indic-language software by Microsoft - Windows. Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging - Macintosh HindiWriter - The Phonetic Hindi Writer with AutoWord lookup and Spellcheck for MS Word and OpenOffice.org for Windows. Pango - open source (GNOME) Uniscribe - Windows WorldScript - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above Baraha - Devanāgarī Input using English Keyboard Lipikaar - The indic script typing tool with support for Devanāgarī through a Windows desktop executable or Firefox Extension. References Bibliography . . . . . External links Microsoft BhashaIndia - Indic Language Computing resources Hindi Computing Wiki - Sarvagya (सर्वज्ञ) Omniglot.com - Devanāgarī Alphabets including classical/northern variant forms of अ (a) and related letters, झ (jh), ण (ṇ) Devanagari/Sanskrit alphabet with Unicode values and an extensive list of conjuncts AncientScripts.com - Devanāgarī Intro IS13194:1991 Nepali Traditional keyboard Layout Nepali Romanized keyboard Layout Electronic typesetting Fonts Unicode Compliant Open Type Fonts including ligature glyphs (TDIL Data Centre) Unicode Devanagari font gallery Chandas, Unicode font with all attested ligatures, Vedic signs, and northern/southern variants, with links to other fonts Mangal font (article in Sandbox) Documentation The official Devanāgarī Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India. Unicode Chart for Devanāgarī Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanāgarī Resources for viewing and editing Devanāgarī Unicode support for Web browsers Creating and Viewing Documents in Devanāgarī Hindi/Devanāgarī Script Tutor A compilation of Tools and Techniques for Hindi Computing Tools and applications Intex Technologies Swadeshi bilingual keyboard List of Hindi Typing Tools IndiX, Indian language support for Linux, a site by the Indian National Centre for Software Technology Devanāgarī Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanāgarī Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanāgarī Transliteration EnTrans - Entrans is an online, collaborative translation tool Online Latin to Devanāgarī transliteration tool | Devanagari |@lemmatized english:4 oed:1 nāgarī:3 abugida:2 alphabet:7 india:5 nepal:2 write:14 leave:2 right:3 lack:2 distinct:1 letter:21 case:2 recognizable:1 distinctive:2 horizontal:3 line:7 run:1 along:3 top:2 link:4 together:2 devanāgarī:35 main:2 script:25 use:28 hindi:14 marathi:3 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1,811 | Blue | Blue is a colour, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 440–490 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colours. On the HSV Colour Wheel, the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal mixture of red and green light. On a colour wheel based on traditional colour theory (RYB), the complementary colour to blue is considered to be orange (based on the Munsell colour wheel). The English language commonly uses "blue" to refer to any colour from navy blue to cyan. The word itself is derived from the Old French word bleu. Etymology and definitions Blueberries The modern English word blue comes from the Middle English, bleu or blwe, which came from an Old French word bleu of Germanic origin (Frankish or possibly Old High German blao, "shining"). Bleu replaced Old English blaw. The root of these variations was the Proto-Germanic blæwaz, which was also the root of the Old Norse word bla and the modern Icelandic blár, and the Scandinavian word blå, but it can refer to other non blue colours. A Scots and Scottish English word for "blue-grey" is blae, from the Middle English bla ("dark blue," from the Old English blæd). Ancient Greek lacked a word for blue and Homer called the colour of the sea "wine dark", except that the word kyanos (cyan) was used for dark blue enamel. As a curiosity, blue is thought to be cognate with blond, blank and black through the Germanic word. Through a Proto-Indo-European root, it is also linked with Latin flavus ("yellow"; see flavescent and flavine), with Greek phalos (white), French blanc (white, blank) (borrowed from Old Frankish), and with Russian белый, belyi ("white," see beluga), and Welsh blawr (grey) all of which derive (according to the American Heritage Dictionary) from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhel- meaning "to shine, flash or burn", (more specifically the word bhle-was, which meant light coloured, blue, blond, or yellow), whence came the names of various bright colours, and that of colour black from a derivation meaning "burnt" (other words derived from the root *bhel- include bleach, bleak, blind, blink, blank, blush, blaze, flame, fulminate, flagrant and phlegm). In the English language, blue may refer to the feeling of sadness. "He was feeling blue". This is because blue was related to rain, or storms, and in Greek mythology, the god Zeus would make rain when he was sad (crying), and a storm when he was angry. Kyanos was a name used in Ancient Greek to refer to dark blue tile (in English it means blue-green or cyan). Merriam-Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary Springfield, Mass.:1984--Merriam-Webster Page 319 The phrase "feeling blue" is linked also to a custom among many old deepwater sailing ships. If the ship lost the captain or any of the officers during its voyage, she would fly blue flags and have a blue band painted along her entire hull when returning to home port. "US Navy - origins of Navy Terminology" Many languages do not have separate terms for blue and or green, instead using a cover term for both (when the issue is discussed in linguistics, this cover term is sometimes called grue in English). In science The sky and water often appear blue Pigments Traditionally, blue has been considered a primary colour in painting, with the secondary colour orange as its complement. Blue pigments include azurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), ultramarine (Na8-10Al6Si6O24S2-4), cerulean blue (primarily cobalt (II) stanate: Co2SnO4), cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate: CoAl2O4), and Prussian blue (milori blue: primarily Fe7(CN)18). Scientific natural standards for blue Emission spectrum of Cu2+ Electronic spectrum of aqua-ions Cu(H2O)52+ Animals Blue Jay When an animal's coat is described as "blue", it usually refers to a shade of grey that takes on a bluish tint, a diluted variant of a pure black coat. This designation is used for a variety of animals, including dog coats, some rat coats, cat coats, some chicken breeds, and some horse coat colours. In human culture Symbolic language In the English language, blue often represents the human emotion of sadness, e.g. "He was feeling blue". In German, on the other hand, to be "blue" (blau sein) is to be drunk. This derives from the ancient use of urine (which is produced copiously by the human body after drinking alcohol) in dyeing cloth blue with woad or indigo. Heller, Eva. Wie Farben wirken: Farbpsychologie, Farbsymbolik, kreative Farbgestaltung. Berlin: Rowohlt, 2004. Music The Blue Man Group The blues is a style of music originated by African Americans. In 1958, Domenico Modugno released his song "Nel blu dipinto di blu" ("In the blue painted blue") in the Eurovision Song Contest. It peaked at #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States for five weeks, becoming the biggest hit of that year in the country. It was also the first record ever to receive Grammy Awards for both Record of the Year and Song of the Year. In 1999 Eiffel 65 released the song "Blue (Da Ba Dee)," a hugely popular Eurodance song which peaked at #6 on the Hot 100 in the United States, and reached #1 in 15 countries. The Blue Man Group is a performance arts and experimental rock band whose members are painted blue. Blue is the name of a Scottish rock group Blue is also the name of an English pop boy band. National colours Flag of Greece Coat of Arms symbol of Israel Flag of Somalia Azzurro a light blue, is the national colour of Italy (from the livery colour of the former reigning family, the House of Savoy). Blue is the national sports colour for India, as it denotes secularism. Blue is the national colour used on flags of several countries surrounded by seas or oceans such as Australia and Europe, though not necessarily with this interpretation in mind. Blue and white are the national colours of Argentina, El Salvador, Finland, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Israel, Micronesia, Nicaragua, and Somalia as well as of the United Nations Organization using a light shade of blue symbolizing peace. Blue and yellow are the national colours of Barbados, Kazakhstan, Palau, Sweden, and Ukraine, and along with green, of Brazil, and along with red, of Chad, Colombia, Ecuador, Moldova, Romania, and Venezuela. Blue, white and yellow are the national colours of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Uruguay. Blue and red are the national colours of Haiti and Liechtenstein, and along with white (where it composed the French tricolour whose simple design or colours were taken by other countries), of Australia, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Chile, Croatia, Cuba, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, France, Iceland, North Korea, Laos, Liberia, Luxembourg, Myanmar, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Russia, Samoa, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Blue, white and black are the national colours of Estonia. "Estonia in brief: National Symbols" at Estonica website (www.estonica.org) Mysticism In the metaphysics of the "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "first ray" of "will-power" is represented by the colour blue. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Blue Ray". In Hinduism, Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, throat chakra (Vishuddha). Stevens, Samantha. The Seven Rays: a Universal Guide to the Archangels. City: Insomniac Press, 2004. ISBN 1894663497 pg. 24 Psychics who claim to be able to observe the aura with their third eye report that someone with a blue aura is a person who is oriented toward spirituality. Swami Panchadasi The Human Aura: Astral Colors and Thought Forms Des Plaines, Illinois, USA:1912--Yogi Publications Society Page 36 People with blue auras are said to be interested in social service work and to be in occupations such as social worker, counsellor, teacher, writer, and psychologist. Oslie, Pamalie Life Colors: What the Colors in Your Aura Reveal Novato, California:2000--New World Library Blue Auras: Pages 117-130 Politics Blue has been associated with a variety of political positions, often differentiated from communist red or anarchist black. During the revolt in the Vendée against the French revolution, blues stood for the revolutionary forces, and white for the counter-revolutionaries. Later movements like the Breton blues used the colour to signify allegiance to the ideals of the revolution. Blue is the colour of the respective British and Canadian Conservative parties. In the United States, however, it has become fashionable since the 2000 Presidential Election to refer to the Democratic Party as "blue" and the Republican Party as "red", particularly as in reference to "red states and blue states". In Brazil, blue states are the ones in which the Social Democratic Party has the majority, in opposition to the Workers' Party, usually represented by red. The Blue Dog Democrats are a group of conservative Democrats in the United States House of Representatives. Blue stripes on a traditional Jewish tallit. Religion Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the Preserver of the world and thus intimately connected to water. Krishna and Ram, Vishnu's avatars, are usually blue. Shiva, the Destroyer, is also depicted in light blue tones and is called neela kantha, or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison in an attempt to turn the tide of a battle between the gods and demons in the gods' favour. Blue in Judaism: In the Torah, Numbers 15:38. the Israelites were commanded to put fringes, tzitzit, on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these fringes a "twisted thread of blue (tekhelet)". http://www.tekhelet.com The Ptil Tekhelet Organization In ancient days, this blue thread was made from a dye extracted from a Mediterranean snail called the hilazon. Maimonides claimed that this blue was the colour of "the clear noonday sky"; Rashi, the colour of the evening sky. Mishneh Torah, Tzitzit 2:1; Commentary on Numbers 15:38. According to several rabbinic sages, blue is the colour of God's Glory. Numbers Rabbah 14:3; Hullin 89a. Staring at this colour aids in mediation, bringing us a glimpse of the "pavement of sapphire, like the very sky for purity", which is a likeness of the Throne of God. Exodus 24:10; Ezekiel 1:26; Hullin 89a. (The Hebrew word for glory.) Many items in the Mishkan, the portable sanctuary in the wilderness, such as the menorah, many of the vessels, and the Ark of the Covenant, were covered with blue cloth when transported from place to place. Numbers 4:6-12. Blue in Islam: In verse 20:102 of the Qur’an, the word زرق zurq (plural of azraq 'blue') is used metaphorically for evildoers whose eyes are glazed with fear, as if the sclera is filmed over with a bluish tint. Blue in Christianity: This colour in some traditions is sometimes associated with the clothing of heavenly figures, most commonly (especially in the Catholic tradition) that of Saint Mary. Ironically, it also has connections with the deadly sin of lust. Symbolism In Thailand, blue is associated with Friday on the Thai solar calendar. Anyone may wear blue on Fridays and anyone born on a Friday may adopt blue as their colour. The Thai language, however, is one that has had trouble distinguishing blue from green. The default word for Blue was recently สีน้ำเงิน literally, the colour of silver, a poetical reference to the silvery sheen of the deep blue sea. It now means Navy Blue, and the default word is now สีฟ้า literally, the colour of the sky. In the early 1960s, the United States Air Force ran a television commercial with this jingle: They took the blue from the skies And the pretty girls' eyes And a touch of Old Glory too; And gave it to the men who proudly wear the U. S. Air Force Blue! Variations of blue Dark blue Dark blue is a shade of blue. The name comes from the word "Dark" (which originated from Old English dark, derk, deork; Anglo-Saxon dearc, and Gaelic and Irish dorch, dorcha) and "Blue" (taken from French and originated from the Indo-European root bhlewos). Medium blue Displayed at right is the colour medium blue. Light blue The web colour light blue is displayed in the colour box at right. Also could be known as sky blue, baby blue, or angel blue. The first recorded use of "light blue" as a colour term in English is in the year 1915. Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 190 Pigment blue At right is the colour pigment blue. This is the colour that is achieved by mixing an equal amount of process cyan (printer's cyan) and process magenta (printer's magenta). Variations of blue in culture Fashion Dark clothing for males such as dark blue business suits have become much more popular since the mid-1990s, as opposed to the pastel coloured business suits worn in the 1970s by major leaders in such institutions as the United States Congress (the vast difference in the clothing worn in the 1970s as opposed to the 2000s can be readily seen by looking at a videotape of the Watergate hearings). Law Enforcement In some parts of the world, police wear dark blue or, sometimes, medium blue uniforms. However, the New Age philosopher Alan Watts suggested in the 1960s that police ought to wear baby blue uniforms. Human sexuality In the bandana code of the gay leather subculture, wearing a medium blue bandana means one is into the fetish of having sex with someone who is wearing a police uniform. Card showing list of bandana colours and their meanings, available at Image Leather, 2199 Market St., San Francisco, CA 94114 In Russian, the word for light blue, голубой, can be used to mean 'homosexual'. Sociology Dark blue represents knowledge, power, integrity, and seriousness. In Western civilization, those in the upper classes in high places of political or economic power often wear dark blue suits. Ordinary members of the working class (especially those who work in the computer industry) often refer derisively to these management functionaries as the suits. The Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage, Clifford Stoll, 1989, ISBN 0-7434-1146-3 This terminology is also used in the television industry--the network executives are often referred to by the creative people (actors, directors, and screenwriters) as the suits. Shatner, William (with Chris Kreski) Star Trek Memories New York:1993 Harper Collins In historical atlases published in Germany, light blue is traditionally used as a colour to represent Germany, as opposed to pink for England, purple for France, and light green for Russia. See the Grosshistoricher Weltatlas, 1965 edition (Other German historical atlases use these same colours.) See also Blue flag Blue movie Blue ribbon Blue Screen of Death Distinguishing "blue" from "green" in language Engineer's blue Lapis lazuli, a blue stone List of colours Non-photo blue Three Colors: Blue, a film St. Patrick's Blue Turquoise References | Blue |@lemmatized blue:127 colour:50 perception:1 evoke:1 light:12 spectrum:3 dominate:1 energy:1 wavelength:1 roughly:1 nm:1 consider:3 one:4 additive:1 primary:2 hsv:1 wheel:3 complement:2 yellow:5 correspond:1 equal:2 mixture:1 red:7 green:7 base:2 traditional:2 theory:1 ryb:1 complementary:1 orange:2 munsell:1 english:14 language:7 commonly:2 use:16 refer:8 navy:4 cyan:5 word:18 derive:4 old:10 french:6 bleu:4 etymology:1 definition:1 blueberries:1 modern:2 come:4 middle:2 blwe:1 germanic:3 origin:2 frankish:2 possibly:1 high:2 german:3 blao:1 shin:1 replace:1 blaw:1 root:6 variation:3 proto:3 blæwaz:1 also:10 norse:1 bla:2 icelandic:1 blár:1 scandinavian:1 blå:1 non:2 scots:1 scottish:2 grey:3 blae:1 dark:13 blæd:1 ancient:4 greek:4 lack:1 homer:1 call:5 sea:3 wine:1 except:1 kyanos:2 enamel:1 curiosity:1 think:2 cognate:1 blond:2 blank:3 black:5 indo:3 european:3 link:2 latin:1 flavus:1 see:5 flavescent:1 flavine:1 phalos:1 white:8 blanc:1 borrow:1 russian:2 белый:1 belyi:1 beluga:1 welsh:1 blawr:1 accord:2 american:2 heritage:1 dictionary:3 bhel:2 meaning:3 shine:1 flash:1 burn:1 specifically:1 bhle:1 mean:5 whence:1 name:5 various:1 bright:1 derivation:1 burnt:1 include:3 bleach:1 bleak:1 blind:1 blink:1 blush:1 blaze:1 flame:1 fulminate:1 flagrant:1 phlegm:1 may:3 feeling:2 sadness:2 feel:2 relate:1 rain:2 storm:2 mythology:1 god:6 zeus:1 would:2 make:2 sad:1 cry:1 angry:1 tile:1 merriam:2 webster:2 ninth:1 new:7 collegiate:1 springfield:1 mass:1 page:4 phrase:1 custom:1 among:1 many:5 deepwater:1 sail:1 ship:2 lose:1 captain:1 officer:1 voyage:1 fly:1 flag:5 band:3 paint:2 along:4 entire:1 hull:1 return:1 home:1 port:1 u:3 terminology:2 separate:1 term:4 instead:1 cover:3 issue:1 discuss:1 linguistics:1 sometimes:3 grue:1 science:1 sky:7 water:2 often:6 appear:1 pigment:4 traditionally:2 painting:1 secondary:1 azurite:1 oh:1 ultramarine:1 cerulean:1 primarily:2 cobalt:3 ii:2 stanate:1 aluminate:1 prussian:1 milori:1 cn:1 scientific:1 natural:1 standard:1 emission:1 electronic:1 aqua:1 ion:1 cu:1 animal:3 jay:1 coat:7 describe:1 usually:3 shade:3 take:4 bluish:2 tint:2 diluted:1 variant:1 pure:1 designation:1 variety:2 dog:2 rat:1 cat:1 chicken:1 breed:1 horse:1 human:5 culture:2 symbolic:1 represent:6 emotion:1 e:1 g:1 hand:1 blau:1 sein:1 drunk:1 urine:1 produce:1 copiously:1 body:1 drink:1 alcohol:1 dye:2 cloth:2 woad:1 indigo:1 heller:1 eva:1 wie:1 farben:1 wirken:1 farbpsychologie:1 farbsymbolik:1 kreative:1 farbgestaltung:1 berlin:1 rowohlt:1 music:2 man:2 group:4 style:1 originate:3 african:1 domenico:1 modugno:1 release:2 song:5 nel:1 blu:2 dipinto:1 di:1 eurovision:1 contest:1 peak:2 billboard:1 hot:2 united:9 state:10 five:1 week:1 become:3 big:1 hit:1 year:4 country:4 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1,812 | Nitrox | Typical Nitrox cylinder marking Nitrox refers to any gas mixture composed (excluding trace gases) of nitrogen and oxygen; this includes normal air which is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, primarily argon. However, in SCUBA diving, nitrox is normally differentiated and handled differently from air. The most common use of nitrox mixtures containing higher than normal levels of oxygen is in SCUBA, where the reduced percentage of nitrogen is advantageous in reducing nitrogen take up in the body's tissues and so extending the possible dive time, and/or reducing the risk of decompression sickness (also known as the bends). Purpose Enriched Air Nitrox diving tables, showing adjusted no-decompression times. Enriched Air Nitrox, Nitrox with an oxygen content above 21%, is mainly used in scuba diving to reduce the proportion of nitrogen in the breathing gas mixture. Reducing the proportion of nitrogen by increasing the proportion of oxygen reduces the risk of decompression sickness, allowing extended dive times without increasing the need for decompression stops. Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects; although its use reduces the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risk of oxygen toxicity and fire, which are further discussed below. Breathing nitrox is not thought to reduce the effects of narcosis, as oxygen seems to have equally narcotic properties under pressure as nitrogen; thus one should not expect a reduction in narcotic effects due only to the use of nitrox. Nitrogen is regarded as being 1.7 times as narcotic than oxygen - see narcotic potency of gases Nonetheless, there remains a body of the diving community that insists that they feel reduced narcotic effects at depths breathing nitrox. Although oxygen appears chemically more narcotic at the surface, relative narcotic effects at depth have never been studied in detail. It is clear that different gases result in different narcotic effects at depth. Helium is considered to have very little narcotic effect, but results in HPNS when breathed at high pressures, which does not happen with gases with have greater narcotic qualities. This may be due to a dissociation of the subjective and behavioural effects of narcosis. However, it should be noted that because of risks associated with oxygen toxicity, divers tend not to utilize nitrox at greater depths where more pronounced narcosis symptoms are more likely to occur. For a reduction in narcotic effects trimix or heliox gases which also contain helium are generally used by divers. There is anecdotal evidence that the use of nitrox reduces post-dive fatigue , particularly in older and or obese divers; however a double-blind study to test this found no statistically significant reduction in reported fatigue. There was, however, some suggestion that post dive fatigue is due to sub-clinical decompression sickness (DCS) (i.e. micro bubbles in the blood insufficient to cause symptoms of DCS); the fact that the study mentioned was conducted in a dry chamber with an ideal decompression profile may have been sufficient to reduce sub-clinical DCS and prevent fatigue in both nitrox and air divers. In 2008, a study was published using wet divers at the same depth and confirmed that no statistically significant reduction in reported fatigue is seen. Further studies with a number of different dive profiles, and also different levels of exertion, would be necessary to fully investigate this issue. For example, there is much better scientific evidence that breathing high-oxygen gases increase exercise tolerance, during aerobic exertion. Ergogenic Aids Though even moderate exertion while breathing from the regulator is a relatively uncommon occurrence in scuba, as divers usually try to minimize it in order to conserve gas, episodes of exertion while regulator-breathing do occasionally occur in sport diving. Examples are surface-swimming a distance to a boat or beach after surfacing, where residual "safety" cylinder gas is often used freely, since the remainder will be wasted anyway when the dive is completed. It is possible that these so-far un-studied situations have contributed to some of the positive reputation of nitrox. Naming Nitrox is known by many names: Enhanced Air Nitrox, Oxygen Enriched Air, Nitrox, EANx or Safe Air. The name "nitrox" may be capitalized when referring to specific mixtures such as Nitrox32, which contains 68% nitrogen and 32% oxygen. When one figure is stated, it refers to the oxygen percentage, not the nitrogen percentage. The original convention, Nitrox68/32 became shortened as the second figure is redundant. Although "nitrox" usually refers to a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen with more than 21% oxygen, it can refer to mixtures that are leaner in oxygen than air. "Enriched Air Nitrox", "Enriched Air" or "EAN" are used to emphasise richer than air mixtures. In "EANx", the "x" indicates the percentage of oxygen in the mix and is replaced by a number when the percentage is known; for example a 40% EANx mix is called EAN40. The two most popular blends are EAN32 and EAN36 (also named Nitrox I and Nitrox II, respectively, or Nitrox68/32 and Nitrox64/36). In its early days of introduction to non-technical divers, nitrox has occasionally also been known by detractors by less complimentary terms, such as "devil gas" or "voodoo gas" (a term now sometimes used with pride). These percentages are what the gas blender aims for in partial-pressure blending, but the final actual mix in such cases will be unique, and so a small flow of gas from the cylinder must be measured with a handheld oxygen analyzer, before the diver breathes from the cylinder underwater. Richness of mix The two most common recreational diving nitrox mixes contain 32% and 36% oxygen, which have maximum operating depths (MODs) of and respectively when limited to a maximum partial pressure of oxygen of . EAN32 is common because it is the mixture with the maximum concentration of oxygen that allows the diver to go to the full depth of recreational diving's "No Decompression Limit" for air. Divers may calculate an equivalent air depth to determine their decompression requirements or may use nitrox tables or a nitrox-capable dive computer. Nitrox with more than 40% oxygen is uncommon within recreational diving. There are two main reasons for this: the first is that all pieces of diving equipment that come into contact with mixes containing higher proportions of oxygen, particularly at high pressure, need special cleaning and servicing to reduce the risk of fire. The second reason is that richer mixes extend the time the diver can stay underwater without needing decompression stops far further than the duration of typical diving cylinders. For example, based on the PADI nitrox recommendations, the maximum operating depth for EAN45 would be and the maximum dive time available at this depth even with EAN36 is nearly 1 hour 15 minutes: a diver with a breathing rate of 20 litres per minute using twin 10 litre, 230 bar (about double 85 cu. ft.) cylinders would have completely emptied the cylinders after 1 hour 14 minutes at this depth. Nitrox containing 50% to 100% oxygen is common in technical diving as a decompression gas, which eliminates inert gases such as nitrogen and helium from the tissues more quickly than leaner oxygen mixtures. In deep open circuit technical diving, where hypoxic gases are breathed during the bottom portion of the dive, a Nitrox mix with 50% or less oxygen called a "travel mix" is sometimes breathed during the beginning of the descent in order to avoid hypoxia. Normally, however, the most oxygen-lean of the diver's decompression gases would be used for this purpose, since descent time spent reaching a depth where bottom mix is no longer hypoxic is normally small, and the distance between this depth and the MOD of any nitrox decompression gas is likely to be very short, if it occurs at all. Cylinder markings Any cylinder containing any blend of gas other than the standard air content is required by most diving training organizations to be clearly marked. Some organizations, e.g. GUE, argue that it does not make sense to have a permanent marking on a gas tank that can be filled with any gas. The standard nitrox cylinder is yellow in color and marked with a green band around the shoulder of the tank, with "Nitrox" or "Enriched air" marked in white or yellow letters inside. Tanks of any other color are generally marked with six inch band around the shoulder, with a one inch yellow band on the top and bottom, with four inches of green in the middle. This green band will also have the designation of "NITROX" or something similar inside, in yellow or white letters. Cylinder showing Nitrox band and sticker marked with MOD and O2% Every nitrox cylinder should also have a sticker stating whether or not the cylinder is oxygen clean and suitable for partial pressure blending. Any oxygen clean cylinder may have any mix up to 100% oxygen inside. If by some accident an oxygen clean cylinder is filled at a station which does not supply gas to oxygen-clean standards it is then considered contaminated and must be re-cleaned before a gas containing more than 40% oxygen may again be added. Cylinders marked as not-oxygen clean may only be filled with enriched oxygen mixtures from membrane or stick blending systems where the gas is mixed before being added to the cylinder. Finally, all nitrox cylinders should have a tag that, at minimum, states the oxygen content of the cylinder, the date it was blended, the gas blender's name, and the maximum operating depth along with the partial pressure this depth was calculated with. Other requirements may be made as to what is marked on the cylinder, but these markings are considered standard and safe by the diving community, and any cylinders lacking these markings should be considered possibly unsafe. Training for nitrox certification suggests this tag be verified by the diver himself by using an oxygen analyzer. Dangers Oxygen toxicity Diving and handling nitrox raises a number of potentially fatal dangers due to the high partial pressure of oxygen (ppO2). Nitrox is not a deep-diving gas mixture owing to the increased proportion of oxygen, which becomes toxic when breathed at high pressure. For example, the maximum operating depth of nitrox with 36% oxygen, a popular recreational diving mix, is to ensure a maximum ppO2 of no more than . The exact value of the maximum allowed ppO2 and maximum operating depth varies depending on factors such as the training agency, the type of dive, the breathing equipment and the level of surface support, with professional divers sometimes being allowed to breath higher ppO2 than those recommended to recreational divers. To dive safely with nitrox, the diver must learn good buoyancy control, a vital part of scuba diving in its own right, and a disciplined approach to preparing, planning and executing a dive to ensure that the ppO2 is known, and the maximum operating depth is not exceeded. Reputable dive operators and gas blenders insist on the diver having recognised nitrox training (which appears as an extra notation on a certification card) before selling nitrox to divers. Some training agencies teach the use of two depth limits to protect against oxygen toxicity. The shallower depth is called the "maximum operating depth" and is reached when the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas reaches . The second deeper depth, called the "contingency depth", is reached when the partial pressure reaches . Diving at or beyond this level exposes the diver to the risk of central nervous system (CNS) oxygen toxicity. This can be extremely dangerous since its onset is often without warning and can lead to drowning, as the regulator may be spat out during convulsions which occur in conjunction with sudden unconsciousness (general seizure induced by oxygen toxicity). Divers trained to use nitrox memorise the acronym VENTID (which stands for Vision (blurriness), Ears (ringing sound), Nausea, Twitching, Irritability and Dizziness), which indicate some of the possible warning signs of onsetting convulsions. However, evidence from non-fatal oxygen convulsions indicates that most convulsions are not preceded by any warning symptoms at all. Further, many of the suggested warning signs are also symptoms of nitrogen narcosis, and so may lead to misdiagnosis by a diver. Precautionary procedures at the fill station Many training agencies such as PADI , CMAS, SSI and NAUI train their divers to personally check the oxygen percentage content of each nitrox cylinder before every dive. If the oxygen percentage deviates by more than 1% from the value written on the cylinder by the gas blender, the scuba diver must either recalculate his or her bottom times with the new mix, or else abort the dive to remain safe and avoid oxygen toxicity or decompression sickness. Under IANTD and ANDI http://www.andihq.com/pages/mainpage.html rules for use of nitrox, which are followed by most dive resorts around the world, filled nitrox cylinders are signed out personally in a gas blender log book, which contains, for each cylinder and fill, the cylinder number, the measured oxygen percent composition, the signature of the receiving diver (who should have personally measured the oxygen percent with an instrument at the fill-shop), and finally a calculation of the maximum operating depth for that fill/cylinder. All of these steps minimize danger but increase complexity of operations (for example, personalized cylinders for each diver must generally be kept track of on dive boats with nitrox, which is not the case with generic compressed air cylinders). Fire and toxic cylinder contamination from oxygen reactions Diving cylinders are usually filled with nitrox by a gas blending technique such as partial pressure blending or premix decanting (in which a nitrox mix is supplied to the filler in pressurized larger cylinders). A few facilities have begun to fill cylinders with air which has been enriched with oxygen by a pre-mixing process, so that it is pressurized as nitrox for the first time in the diving cylinder. The pre-mixing is accomplished either by a membrane system which removes nitrogen from the air during compression or by a 'stick' blending technique where pure oxygen is mixed with air in a baffled chamber attached to the compressor intake. With the use of pure oxygen during "partial pressure blending" (where pure oxygen is added from a large oxygen cylinder to the nearly empty dive cylinder until it reaches before air is added by compressor) there is an especially increased risk of fire. Partial blending using pure oxygen is often used to provide nitrox for multiple dives on live-aboard dive boats, but it is also used in some smaller diver shops. However, any gas which contains a significantly larger percentage of oxygen than air is a fire hazard. Furthermore, such gases can also react with hydrocarbons or incorrect lubricants inside a dive cylinder to produce carbon monoxide, even if a recognized fire does not happen. At present, there is some discussion over whether or not mixtures of gas which contain less than 40% oxygen may sometimes be exempt from oxygen clean standards. Some of the controversy comes from a single U.S. regulation intended for commercial divers (not recreational divers) years ago. However, the U.S. Compressed Gas Association (CGA) and two international nitrox teaching agencies (IANTD and ANDI) now support the standard that any gas containing more than 23.5% oxygen should be treated as nitrox (which is to say, no differently from pure oxygen) for purposes of oxygen cleanliness and oxygen compatibility (i.e., oxygen "servicability"). However, the largest training agency - PADI - is still teaching that pre-mixed nitrox (i.e. nitrox which is mixed before being put into the cylinder) below 40% oxygen does not require a specially cleaned cylinder or other equipment. Most nitrox fill stations which supply pre-mixed nitrox will fill non-oxygen clean cylinders with mixtures below 40%. For a history of this controversy see Luxfer cylinders. History In the 1920s or 1930's Draeger of Germany made a nitrox backpack independent air supply for a standard diving suit. In World War II or soon after, British commando frogmen and work divers started sometimes diving with oxygen rebreathers adapted for semi-closed-circuit nitrox (which they called "mixture") diving by fitting larger cylinders and carefully setting the gas flow rate using a flow meter. These developments were kept secret until independently duplicated by civilians in the 1960s. In the 1950s the United States Navy (USN) documented enriched oxygen gas procedures for military use of what we today call nitrox, in the USN Diving Manual. In 1970, Dr. Morgan Wells, who was the first director of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Diving Center, began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air. He also developed a process for mixing oxygen and air which he called a continuous blending system. For many years Dr. Wells' invention was the only practical alternative to partial pressure blending. In 1979 NOAA published Wells' procedures for the scientific use of nitrox in the NOAA Diving Manual. In 1985 Dick Rutkowski, a former NOAA diving safety officer, formed IAND (International Association of Nitrox Divers) and began teaching nitrox use for recreational diving. This was considered dangerous by some, and met with heavy skepticism by the diving community. In 1992 the name was changed to the International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD), the T being added when the European Association of Technical Divers (EATD) merged with IAND. In the early 1990s, the agencies teaching nitrox were not the main scuba agencies. New organizations, including Ed Betts' American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI) - which invented the term "Safe Air" for marketing purposes - and Bret Gilliam's Technical Diving International (TDI) gave scientific credence to nitrox. Meanwhile, diving stores were finding a purely economic reason to offer nitrox: not only was an entire new course and certification needed to use it, but instead of cheap or free tank fills with compressed air, dive shops found they could charge premium amounts of money for custom-gas blending of nitrox to their ordinary moderately experienced divers. With the new dive computers which could be programmed to allow for the longer bottom-times and shorter residual nitrogen times which nitrox gave, the incentive for the sport diver to use the gas increased. An intersection of economics and scientific validity had occurred. In 1996, the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) announced full educational support for nitrox. While other main line scuba organizations had announced their support of nitrox earlier , it was PADI's endorsement that put nitrox over the top as a standard sport diving "option." http://www.americandivecenter.com/nitrox/preview_p03.htm Nitrox in nature Sometimes in the geologic past the Earth's atmosphere contained much more than 20% oxygen: e.g. up to 35% in the Upper Carboniferous. This let animals absorb oxygen more easily and influenced evolution. See also Other Breathing gases: Trimix Argox (scuba) Heliox Hydreliox Hydrox Methods of Gas blending: Membrane method Diving cylinders Equivalent air depth Partial pressure Maximum operating depth Nitrogen narcosis Oxygen toxicity References Footnotes External links Nitrox - frequently asked questions Useful Luxfer FAQ on the CGA and "40% rule" controversy | Nitrox |@lemmatized typical:2 nitrox:79 cylinder:43 mark:8 refers:1 gas:45 mixture:14 compose:1 exclude:1 trace:1 nitrogen:16 oxygen:76 include:2 normal:2 air:29 approximately:1 primarily:1 argon:1 however:9 scuba:9 diving:17 normally:3 differentiate:1 handle:2 differently:2 common:4 use:27 contain:13 high:8 level:4 reduced:1 percentage:9 advantageous:1 reduce:10 take:1 body:2 tissue:2 extend:3 possible:3 dive:42 time:11 risk:8 decompression:14 sickness:5 also:12 know:5 bend:1 purpose:4 enrich:7 table:2 show:2 adjust:1 content:4 mainly:1 proportion:5 breathing:4 increase:7 allow:5 without:3 need:4 stop:2 safer:1 compressed:2 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endorsement:1 option:1 americandivecenter:1 htm:1 nature:1 geologic:1 past:1 earth:1 atmosphere:1 upper:1 carboniferous:1 let:1 animal:1 absorb:1 easily:1 influenced:1 evolution:1 argox:1 hydreliox:1 hydrox:1 method:2 reference:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 useful:1 faq:1 |@bigram nitrox_cylinder:6 scuba_diving:3 decompression_sickness:5 trimix_heliox:1 anecdotal_evidence:1 statistically_significant:2 scuba_diver:2 gas_blender:5 recreational_diving:4 cu_ft:1 inert_gas:1 potentially_fatal:1 recreational_diver:2 nitrogen_narcosis:2 http_www:2 carbon_monoxide:1 kept_secret:1 external_link:1 |
1,813 | Identity_element | In mathematics, an identity element (or neutral element) is a special type of element of a set with respect to a binary operation on that set. It leaves other elements unchanged when combined with them. This is used for groups and related concepts. The term identity element is often shortened to identity when there is no possibility of confusion; we do so in this article. Let (S,*) be a set S with a binary operation * on it (known as a magma). Then an element e of S is called a left identity if e * a = a for all a in S, and a right identity if a * e = a for all a in S. If e is both a left identity and a right identity, then it is called a two-sided identity, or simply an identity. An identity with respect to addition is called an additive identity (often denoted as 0) and an identity with respect to multiplication is called a multiplicative identity (often denoted as 1). The distinction is used most often for sets that support both binary operations, such as rings. The multiplicative identity is often called the unit in the latter context, where, unfortunately, a unit is also sometimes used to mean an element with a multiplicative inverse. Examples setoperationidentityreal numbers+ (addition)0real numbers· (multiplication)1real numbersab (exponentiation)1 (right identity only)m-by-n matrices + (addition)matrix of all zeroesn-by-n square matrices · (multiplication)matrix with 1 on diagonaland 0 elsewhereall functions from a set M to itself∘ (function composition)identity functionall functions from a set M to itself* (convolution)δ (Dirac delta)character strings, lists concatenation empty string, empty listextended real numbers minimum/infimum +∞extended real numbers maximum/supremum −∞subsets of a set M ∩ (intersection) Msets ∪ (union) { } (empty set)boolean logic ∧ (logical and) ⊤ (truth)boolean logic ∨ (logical or) ⊥ (falsity)compact surfaces # (connected sum) S²only two elements {e, f}* defined by e * e = f * e = e and f * f = e * f = fboth e and f are left identities, but there is no right identity and no two-sided identity Properties As the last example shows, it is possible for (S,*) to have several left identities. In fact, every element can be a left identity. Similarly, there can be several right identities. But if there is both a right identity and a left identity, then they are equal and there is just a single two-sided identity. To see this, note that if l is a left identity and r is a right identity then l = l * r = r. In particular, there can never be more than one two-sided identity. If there were two, e and f, then e * f would have to be equal to both e and f. It is also quite possible for an algebra to have no identity element. The most common examples of this are the dot product and cross product of vectors. In the former case the lack of an identity element is related to the fact that the elements multiplied are vectors but the product is a scalar. With cross products the absence of an identity element is related to the fact that the direction of any nonzero cross product is always orthogonal to any element multiplied - so that it is not possible to obtain a vector in the same direction as the original. See also Absorbing element Inverse element Additive inverse Monoid Unital Quasigroup References M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V. Mikhalev, Monoids, Acts and Categories with Applications to Wreath Products and Graphs, De Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics vol. 29, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3110152487, p. 14-15 __NOTOC__ | Identity_element |@lemmatized mathematics:2 identity:31 element:16 neutral:1 special:1 type:1 set:8 respect:3 binary:3 operation:3 leave:3 unchanged:1 combine:1 use:3 group:1 related:1 concept:1 term:1 often:5 shorten:1 possibility:1 confusion:1 article:1 let:1 know:1 magma:1 e:14 call:5 left:5 right:7 two:6 side:4 simply:1 addition:3 additive:2 denote:2 multiplication:3 multiplicative:3 distinction:1 support:1 ring:1 unit:2 latter:1 context:1 unfortunately:1 also:3 sometimes:1 mean:1 inverse:3 example:3 setoperationidentityreal:1 number:4 numbersab:1 exponentiation:1 n:2 matrix:4 zeroesn:1 square:1 diagonaland:1 elsewhereall:1 function:3 composition:1 functionall:1 convolution:1 δ:1 dirac:1 delta:1 character:1 string:2 list:1 concatenation:1 empty:3 listextended:1 real:2 minimum:1 infimum:1 extend:1 maximum:1 supremum:1 subset:1 intersection:1 msets:1 union:1 boolean:2 logic:2 logical:2 truth:1 falsity:1 compact:1 surface:1 connect:1 sum:1 f:9 define:1 fboth:1 property:1 last:1 show:1 possible:3 several:2 fact:3 every:1 similarly:1 equal:2 single:1 see:2 note:1 l:3 r:3 particular:1 never:1 one:1 would:1 quite:1 algebra:1 common:1 dot:1 product:6 cross:3 vector:3 former:1 case:1 lack:1 relate:2 multiply:2 scalar:1 absence:1 direction:2 nonzero:1 always:1 orthogonal:1 obtain:1 original:1 absorb:1 monoid:1 unital:1 quasigroup:1 reference:1 kilp:1 u:1 knauer:1 v:1 mikhalev:1 monoids:1 act:1 category:1 application:1 wreath:1 graph:1 de:2 gruyter:2 exposition:1 vol:1 walter:1 isbn:1 p:1 |@bigram multiplicative_identity:2 multiplicative_inverse:1 dirac_delta:1 boolean_logic:2 additive_inverse:1 de_gruyter:2 |
1,814 | Nineveh | Nineveh (Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ; Hebrew: נינוה, Nīnewē; Arabic: نينوى, Naīnuwa), an "exceeding great city", as it is called in the Book of Jonah, lay on the eastern bank of the Tigris in ancient Assyria, across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, Iraq. Geography Ancient Nineveh's mound-ruins of Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus are located on a level part of the plain near the junction of the Tigris and the Khosr Rivers within an area circumscribed by a brick rampart. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul. Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris. Occupying a central position on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West, wealth flowed into it from many sources, so that it became one of the greatest of all the region's ancient cities. "Proud Nineveh" is a constant emblem of earthly pride in the Old Testament prophecies: "And He will stretch out His hand against the north And destroy Assyria, And He will make Nineveh a desolation, Parched like the wilderness." (Zephaniah 2:13). History Texts from the Hellenistic period and later offered an eponymous Ninus as the founder of Nineveh. The historic Nineveh is mentioned about 1800 BC as a centre of worship of Ishtar, whose cult was responsible for the city's early importance. The goddess' statue was sent to Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in the 14th century BC, by orders of the king of Mitanni. The city of Nineveh was one of Mitanni's vassals until the mid 14th century BC, when the Assyrian kings of Assur seized it. Genesis 10:11 attributes the founding of Nineveh to an Asshur: "Out of that land went forth Asshur, and builded Nineveh". There is no large body of evidence to show that Assyrian monarchs built at all extensively in Nineveh during the 2nd millennium BC. Later monarchs whose inscriptions have appeared on the high city include Shalmaneser I and Tiglath-Pileser I, both of whom were active builders in Assur; the former had founded Calah (Nimrud). Nineveh had to wait for the neo-Assyrian kings, particularly from the time of Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883-859 BC) onward, for a considerable architectural expansion. Thereafter successive monarchs kept in repair and founded new palaces, temples to Sîn, Nergal, Šamaš, Ishtar, and Nabiu of Borsippa. Refined low-relief section of a bull-hunt frieze from Nineveh, alabaster, ca 695 BC (Pergamon Museum), Berlin. It was Sennacherib who made Nineveh a truly magnificent city (c. 700 BC). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the famous "palace without a rival", the plan of which has been mostly recovered and has overall dimensions of about . It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks; it was tall. In total, the foundation is made of roughly of brick (approximately 160 million bricks). The walls on top, made out of mud brick, were an additional tall. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone door figures weighing up to ; they included many winged lions or bulls with a mans head. These were transported from quarries at Balatai and they had to be lifted up once they arrived at the site presumably by a ramp. There are also of stone panels carved in bas-relief, that include pictorial records documenting every construction step including carving the statues and transporting them on a barge. One picture shows 44 men towing a colossal statue. The carving shows 3 men directing the operation while standing on the Colossus. Once the statues arrived at their destination the final carving was done. Most of the statues weigh between . "The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris scarre 1999 (Thames and Hudson) An experiment in the 1950s required 180 men to tow a ten-ton colossus on Easter Island. The stone carvings in the walls include many battle scenes, impalings and scenes showing Sennacherib's men parading the spoils of war before him. He also bragged about his conquests: he wrote of Babylon "Its inhabitants, young and old, I did not spare, and with their corpses I filled the streets of the city." He later wrote about a battle in Lachish "And Hezekiah of Judah who had not submitted to my yoke...him I shut up in Jeruselum his royal city like a caged bird. Earthworks I threw up against him, and anyone coming out of his city gate I made pay for his crime. His cities which I had plundered I had cut off from his land." Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. (1995) At this time the total area of Nineveh comprised about , and fifteen great gates penetrated its walls. An elaborate system of eighteen canals brought water from the hills to Nineveh, and several sections of a magnificently constructed aqueduct erected by Sennacherib were discovered at Jerwan, about distant. The enclosed area had more than 100,000 inhabitants (maybe closer to 150,000), about twice as many as Babylon at the time, placing it among the largest settlements worldwide. See also Historical urban community sizes. Nineveh's greatness was short-lived. Around 633 BC the Assyrian empire began to show signs of weakness, and Nineveh was attacked by the Medes, who about 625 BC, joined by the Babylonians and Susianians, again attacked it. Nineveh fell in 612 BC, and was razed to the ground. The people in the city who could not escape to the last Assyrian strongholds in the west, were either massacred or deported. Many unburied skeletons were found by the archaeologists at the site. The Assyrian empire then came to an end, the Medes and Babylonians dividing its provinces between them. Following the defeat in 612 BC, the site remained unoccupied for centuries until the Sassanian period. The city is mentioned again in the Battle of Nineveh in 627 AD, which was fought between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanian Empire of Persia near the ancient city. From the Arab conquest 637 AD until modern time the city of Mosul on the opposite bank of the river Tigris became the successor of ancient Nineveh. The Middle East through the eyes of the ancient Israelites (reconstructed after the documentary hypothesis). Biblical Nineveh In the Bible, Nineveh is first mentioned in : "Ashur left that land, and built Nineveh". Some modern translations interpret "Ashur" in the Hebrew of this verse as the country "Assyria" rather than a person, thus making Nimrod the builder of Nineveh. Though the Books of Kings and Books of Chronicles talk a great deal about the Assyrian empire, Nineveh itself is not again noticed till the days of Jonah, when it is described (ff; ) as an "exceeding great city of three days' journey", q.e., probably in circuit. This would give a circumference of about . It is also possible that it took three days to cover all its neighborhoods by walking, which would match the size of ancient Nineveh. At the four corners of an irregular quadrangle are the ruins of Kouyunjik, Nimrud, Karamles and Khorsabad. These four great masses of ruins, with the whole area included within the parallelogram they form by lines drawn from the one to the other, are generally regarded as composing the whole ruins of Nineveh. It was also mentioned in Jonah that Nineveh was an evil city that needed to be condemned. To fix this problem, God sent Jonah to preach to Nineveh, and they repented. Nineveh was the flourishing capital of the Assyrian empire (; ). The book of the prophet Nahum is almost exclusively taken up with prophetic denunciations against this city. Its ruin and utter desolation are foretold (; , etc.). Its end was strange, sudden, tragic. () According to the Bible, it was God's doing, his judgment on Assyria's pride (). In fulfilment of prophecy, God made "an utter end of the place". It became a "desolation". Zephaniah also () predicts its destruction along with the fall of the empire of which it was the capital. Nineveh's repentance and salvation from evil is noted in the Gospel of Matthew () and the Gospel of Luke (). Classical history Before the excavations in the 19th century, historical knowledge of the great Assyrian empire and of its magnificent capital was almost wholly a blank. Other cities that had perished, such as Palmyra, Persepolis, and Thebes, had left ruins to mark their sites and tell of their former greatness; but of this city, imperial Nineveh, not a single vestige seemed to remain, and the very place on which it had stood became only matter of conjecture. In the days of the Greek historian Herodotus, 400 BC, Nineveh had become a thing of the past; and when Xenophon the historian passed the place in the Retreat of the Ten Thousand the very memory of its name had been lost. It was buried out of sight. The king hunting lion from the North Palace, Nineveh seen at the British Museum Archaeology Today, Nineveh's location is marked by two large mounds, Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus "Prophet Jonah", and the remains of the city walls (about in circumference). The Neo-Assyrian levels of Kouyunjik have been extensively explored. The other mound, Nabī Yūnus, has not been extensively explored because there is a Muslim shrine dedicated to that prophet on the site. However, Iraqi excavations on Nabī Yūnus in 1990 exposed a number of large Neo-Assyrian sculptures that appeared to be the entrance to a palace. In the 19th century, the French consul at Mosul began to search the vast mounds that lay along the opposite bank of the river. The Arabs whom he employed in these excavations, to their great surprise, came upon the ruins of a building at the mound of Khorsabad, which, on further exploration, turned out to be the royal palace of Sargon II, which was largely explored for sculptures and other precious relics. Bronze lion from Nineveh. In 1847 the young British adventurer Sir Austen Henry Layard explored the ruins. In the Kuyunjik mound Layard rediscovered in 1849 the lost palace of Sennacherib with its 71 rooms and colossal bas-reliefs. He also unearthed the palace and famous library of Ashurbanipal with 22,000 cuneiform clay tablets. The study of the archaeology of Nineveh reveals the wealth and glory of ancient Assyria under kings such as Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (669–626 BC). The work of exploration was carried on by George Smith, Hormuzd Rassam, and others, and a vast treasury of specimens of Assyria was incrementally exhumed for European museums. Palace after palace was discovered, with their decorations and their sculptured slabs, revealing the life and manners of this ancient people, their arts of war and peace, the forms of their religion, the style of their architecture, and the magnificence of their monarchs. The mound of Kuyunjik were excavated again by the archaeologists of the British Museum, ledden by Leonard William King, at the beginning of the twentieth century. Their efforts concentrated on the site of the Temple of Nabu, the god of writing, where another cuneiform library was supposed to exist. However, no such library was ever found: most likely, it had been destroyed by the activities of later residents. The excavations started again in 1927, under the direction of Campbell Thompson, who had already taken part in King's expeditions. These excavations, however, were rather unfortunate. Some works were carried out outside Kouyunjik, for instance on the mound of Nebi Yunus, which was the ancient arsenal of Nineveh, or along the outside walls. Here, near the northwestern corner of the walls, beyond the pavement of a later building, the archaeologists found almost 300 fragments of prisms recording the royal annals of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal, beside a prism of Esarhaddon which was almost perfect. After the Second World War, several excavations were carried out by Iraqi archaeologists. Nineveh was revisited by British archaeologist and Assyriologist Professor David Stronach of the University of California, Berkeley (1981–still). He conducted a series of surveys and digs at the site from 1987–1990, focusing his attentions to the several gates and the existent mudbrick walls, as well as the system that supplied water to the city in times of siege. City wall and gates Simplified plan of ancient Nineveh showing city wall and location of gateways. The ruins of Nineveh are surrounded by the remains of a massive stone and mudbrick wall dating from about 700 BC. About 12 km in length, the wall system consisted of an ashlar stone retaining wall about high surmounted by a mudbrick wall about high and thick. The stone retaining wall had a'foresticking stone towers spaced about every . The stone wall and towers were topped by three-step merlons. Mashki Gate. Reconstructed. The city wall was fitted with fifteen monumental gateways. In addition to serving as checkpoints on entering and exiting the city, these structures were probably used as barracks and armories. With the inner and outer doors shut, the gateways were virtual fortresses. The bases of the walls of the vaulted passages and interior chambers of the gateway were lined with finely cut stone orthostats about high. A stairway led from one of the interior chambers to the top of the mudbrick wall. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists: Mashki Gate Translated "Gate of the Watering Places", it was perhaps used to take livestock to water from the River Tigris which currently flows about to the west. It has been reconstructed in fortified mudbrick to the height of the top of the vaulted passageway. The Assyrian original may have been plastered and ornamented. Nergal Gate Named for the god Nergal, it may have been used for some ceremonial purpose, as it is the only known gate flanked by stone sculptures of winged bull-men (lamassu). The reconstruction is conjectural, as the gate was excavated by Layard in the mid 19th century, and reconstructed in the mid 20th century. Adad Gate Named for the god Adad. A reconstruction was begun in the 1960s by Iraqis, but was not completed. The result is an uneasy mixture of concrete and eroding mudbrick, which nonetheless does give one some idea of the original structure. Fortunately, the excavator left some features inexcavated, allowing a view of the original Assyrian construction. The original brickwork of the outer vaulted passageway is well exposed, as is the entrance of the vaulted stairway to the upper levels. The actions of Nineveh's last defenders can be seen in the hastily built mudbrick construction which narrows the passageway from . Eastern city wall & Shamash Gate. Shamash Gate Named for the Sun god Shamash, it opens to the road to Arbil. It was excavated by Layard in the 19th century. The stone retaining wall and part of the mudbrick structure were reconstructed in the 1960s. The mudbrick reconstruction has deteriorated significantly. The stone wall sticks outward about from the line of main wall for a width of about . It is the only gate with such a significant projection. The mound of its remains towers above the surrounding terrain. Its size and design suggest it was the most important gate in Neo-Assyrian times. Halzi Gate Near the south end of the eastern city wall. Exploratory excavations were undertaken here by the University of California expedition of 1989–90. There is an outward projection of the city wall, though not as pronounced as at the Shamash Gate. The entry passage had been narrowed with mudbrick to about as at the Adad Gate. Human remains from the final battle of Nineveh were found in the passageway. Kuyunjik The ruin mound of Kuyunjik rises about above the surrounding plain of the ancient city. It is quite broad, measuring about . Its upper layers have been extensively excavated and several Neo-Assyrian palaces and temples have been found there. A deep sounding by Max Mallowan revealed evidence of habitation as early as the 6th millennium BC. Today, there is little evidence of these old excavations other than weathered pits and earth piles. In 1990, the only Assyrian remains visible were those of the entry court and the first few chambers of the Palace of Sennacherib. Since that time, the palace chambers have received significant damage by looters due to the turmoil in the area. Portions of relief sculptures that were in the palace chambers in 1990 were seen on the antiquities market by 1996. Photographs of the chambers made in 2003 show that many of the fine relief sculptures there have been reduced to piles of rubble. (see link to Joanne Farchakh-Bajjaly photos) A small area of indisturbed post-Assyrian remains was identified in 1990 near the southwest corner of Kuyunjik. Nebi Yunus Nebi Yunus, located about south of Kuyunjik, is the secondary ruin mound at Nineveh. On the basis of texts of Sennacherib, the site has traditionally been identified as the "armory" of Nineveh, and a gate and pavements excavated by Iraqis in 1954 have been considered to be part of the "armory" complex. Excavations in 1990 revealed a monumental entryway consisting of a number of large inscribed orthostats and "bull-man" sculptures, some apparently unfinished. Rogation of the Ninevites (Nineveh's Wish) Assyrians of the Syriac Orthodox Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, and Assyrian Church of the East practice a fast called Ba'uta d-Ninwe or Bo'utho d-Ninwe (ܒܥܘܬܐ ܕܢܝܢܘܐ) which means Nineveh's Wish. Copts and Ethiopian Orthodox also maintain this fast. See article about the Roagation of the Ninevites Modern Nineveh On 15 October 2005, the province of Nineveh (Ninawa) cast the deciding votes in the referendum for Iraq's Constitution. One of three mostly Sunni Arab provinces whose veto could defeat the constitution, Nineveh was closely watched through the extended electoral count. Home to a majority Sunni Arab population and ethnically diverse minority which includes Kurds (Yezidi and Sunni) and Assyrian Christians, as well as the oil processing center Mosul (which is often considered to be the modern Nineveh city, and is called so by Aramaic speakers), the province of Nineveh promises to play a large role in Iraqi politics into the future. See also Cities of the ancient Near East List of megalithic sites References External links Joanne Farchakh-Bajjaly photos of Nineveh taken in May 2003 showing damage from looters. John Malcolm Russell, "Stolen stones: the modern sack of Nineveh" in Archaeology; looting of sculptures in the 1990s. Nineveh page at the British Museum's website. Includes photographs of items from their collection. University of California Digital Nineveh Archives A teaching and research tool presenting a comprehensive picture of Nineveh within the history of archaeology in the Near East, including a searchable data repository for meaningful analysis of currently unlinked sets of data from different areas of the site and different episodes in the 160-year history of excavations. CyArk Digital Nineveh Archives, publicly accessible, free depository of the data from the previously-linked UC Berkeley Nineveh Archives project, fully linked and georeferenced in a UC Berkeley/CyArk research partnership to develop the archive for open web use. Includes creative commons-licensed media items. 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1,815 | History_of_Esperanto | The constructed international auxiliary language Esperanto was developed in the 1870s and 80s by L. L. Zamenhof, and first published in 1887. The number of speakers has grown gradually over time, although it has not had much support from governments and international bodies, and has sometimes been outlawed or otherwise suppressed. Development of the language before publication Zamenhof would later say that he had dreamed of a world language since he was a child. At first he considered a revival of Latin, but after learning it in school he decided it was too complicated to be a common means of international communication. When he learned English, he realised that verb conjugations were unnecessary, and that grammatical systems could be much simpler than he had expected. He still had the problem of memorising a large vocabulary, until he noticed two Russian signs labelled Швейцарская (švejtsarskaja, a porter's lodge — from швейцар švejtsar, a porter) and Кондитерская (konditerskaja, a confectioner's shop — from кондитер konditer, a confectioner). He then realised that a judicious use of affixes could greatly decrease the number of root words needed for communication. He chose to take his word stock from Romance and Germanic, the languages that were most widely taught in schools around the world and would therefore be recognisable to the largest number of people. Zamenhof taught an early version of the language to his high-school classmates. Then, for several years, he worked on translations and poetry to refine his creation. In 1895 he wrote, "I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that it was already completely ready." When he was ready to publish, the Czarist censors would not allow it. Stymied, he spent his time in translating works such as the Bible and Shakespeare. This enforced delay led to continued improvement. In July 1887 he published his Unua Libro (First Book), a basic introduction to the language. This was essentially the language spoken today. Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress At first the movement grew most in the Russian empire and eastern Europe, but soon spread to western Europe and beyond: to Argentina in 1889; to Canada in 1901; to Algeria, Chile, Japan, Mexico, and Peru in 1903; to Tunisia in 1904; and to Australia, the United States, Guinea, Indochina, New Zealand, Tonkin, and Uruguay in 1905. In its first years Esperanto was used mainly in publications by Zamenhof and early adopters like Anton Grabowski, in extensive correspondence (mostly now lost), in the magazine La Esperantisto, published from 1889 to 1895 and only occasionally in personal encounters. In 1894 under pressure from Wilhelm Trompeter, the publisher of the magazine La Esperantisto, and some other leading users, Zamenhof reluctantly put forward a radical reform to be voted on by readers. He proposed the reduction of the alphabet to 22 letters (by eliminating the accented letters and most of their sounds), the change of the plural to -i, the use of a positional accusative instead of the ending -n, the removal of the distinction between adjectives and adverbs, the reduction of the number of participles from six to two, and the replacement of the table of correlatives with more Latinate words or phrases. These reforms were overwhelmingly rejected, but some were picked up in subsequent reforms (such as Ido) and criticisms of the language. In the following decade Esperanto spread into western Europe, especially France. By 1905 there were already 27 magazines being published (Auld 1988). A small international conference was held in 1904, leading to the first world congress in August 1905 in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. There were 688 Esperanto speakers present from 20 nationalities. At this congress, Zamenhof officially resigned his leadership of the Esperanto movement, as he did not want personal prejudice against himself (or anti-Semitism) to hinder the progress of the language. He proposed a declaration on founding principles of the Esperanto movement, which the attendees of the congress endorsed. Esperanto history since the first congress World congresses have been held every year since 1905, except during the two World Wars. The autonomous territory of Neutral Moresnet, between Belgium and Germany, had a sizeable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language. In the early 1920s, there was a proposal for the League of Nations to accept Esperanto as their working language. Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, Gabriel Hanotaux. Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. However, two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. Many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement. Starting in the 1930s, Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin murdered many Esperanto speakers because of their anti-nationalistic tendencies. Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that it was created as a universal language to unite the Jewish diaspora. Stalin called it "the language of spies". While Esperanto itself was not enough cause for execution, its use was extended among Jews or trade unionists and encouraged contacts with foreigners. The teaching of Esperanto was not allowed in German prisoner-of-war camps during World War II. Esperantists sometimes were able to get around the ban by convincing guards that they were teaching Italian, the language of Germany's closest ally. Fascist Italy, on the other hand, made some efforts of promoting tourism in Italy through Esperanto leaflets. The Cold War, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, put a damper on the Esperanto movement as well, as there were fears on both sides that Esperanto could be used for enemy propaganda. However, the language experienced something of a renaissance in the 1970s and spread to new parts of the world, such as its veritable explosion in popularity in Iran in 1975. By 1991 there were enough African Esperantists to warrant a pan-African congress. The language continues to spread, although it is not officially recognised by any country, and is part of the state educational curriculum of only a few. Evolution of the language The Declaration of Boulogne of 1905 limited changes to Esperanto. That declaration stated, among other things, that the basis of the language should remain the Fundamento de Esperanto ("Foundation of Esperanto", a group of early works by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it. The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style. Many Esperantists believe this declaration stabilising the language is a major reason why the Esperanto speaker community grew beyond the levels attained by other constructed languages and has developed a flourishing culture. Other constructed languages have been hindered from developing a stable speaking community by continual tinkering. Also, many developers of constructed languages have been possessive of their brain-children and have worked to prevent others from contributing to the language. One such ultimately disastrous case was Schleyer's Volapük. In contrast, Zamenhof declared that "Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists", and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the early development of the language. The grammatical description in the earliest books was somewhat vague, so a consensus on usage (influenced by Zamenhof's answers to some questions) developed over time within boundaries set by the initial outline (Auld 1988). Even before the Declaration of Boulogne, the language was remarkably stable; only one set of lexical changes were made in the first year after publication, namely changing "when", "then", "never", "sometimes", "always" from kian, tian, nenian, ian, ĉian to kiam, tiam, neniam etc to avoid confusion with the accusative forms of kia "what sort of", tia "that sort of", etc. Thus Esperanto achieved a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages enjoy by virtue of their native speakers and established bodies of literature. One could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot. Changes could and did occur in the language, but only by acquiring widespread popular support; there was no central authority making arbitrary changes, as happened with Volapük and some other languages. Modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the Fundamento, though the differences are largely semantic (involving changed meaning of words) rather than grammatical or phonological. The translation given for "I like this one", in the sample phrases in the main Esperanto article, offers a significant example. According to the Fundamento, Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun would in fact have meant "I esteem this one". The traditional usage is Tiu ĉi plaĉas al mi (literally, "this one is pleasing to me"), which reflects the phrasing of most European languages (French celui-ci me plaît, Spanish éste me gusta, Russian это мне нравится [eto mnye nravitsya], German Das gefällt mir, Italian mi piace). However, the original Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi continues to be commonly used. For later changes to the language, see Modern evolution of Esperanto. Dialects, Reform Projects and Derived Languages Esperanto has not fragmented into regional dialects through natural language use. This may be because it is the language of daily communication for only a small minority of its speakers. However at least three other factors work against dialects, namely the centripetal force of the Fundamento, the unifying influence of the Plena Vortaro and its successors, which exemplified usage from the works of Zamenhof and leading writers, and the transnational ambitions of the speech community itself. Slang and jargon have developed to some extent, but such features interfere with universal communication — the whole point of Esperanto — and so have generally been avoided. However, in the early twentieth century numerous reform projects were proposed. Almost all of these "esperantido"s were stillborn, but the very first, Ido ("Offspring"), had significant success for several years. Ido was proposed by the Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language in Paris in October 1907. Its main reforms were in bringing the alphabet, semantics, and some grammatical features into closer alignment with the Romance languages, as well as removal of adjectival agreement and the accusative case except when necessary. At first a number of leading Esperantists put their support behind the Ido project, but the movement stagnated and declined, first with the accidental death of one of its main proponents and later as people proposed further changes, and the number of current speakers is estimated at between 250 and 5000. However, Ido has proven to be a rich source of Esperanto vocabulary. Some more focused reform projects, affecting only a particular feature of the language, have gained a few adherents. One of these is "riism", which modifies the language to incorporate non-sexist language and gender-neutral pronouns. However, most of these projects are specific to individual nationalities (riism from English speakers, for example), and the only changes that have gained acceptance in the Esperanto community have been the minor and gradual bottom-up reforms discussed in the last section. Esperanto is credited with influencing or inspiring several later competing language projects, such as Occidental (1922) and Novial (1928). These always lagged far behind Esperanto in their popularity. By contrast, Interlingua (1951) has greatly surpassed Ido in terms of popularity. It shows little or no Esperanto influence, however. See also Esperantido References Auld, William. La Fenomeno Esperanto. Rotterdam: UEA, 1988. Lins, Ulrich. La Danĝera Lingvo. Gerlingen, Germany: Bleicher Eldonejo, 1988. (Also available in Polish ) Privat, Edmond. The Life of Zamenhof. Bailieboro, Ontario: Esperanto Press, 1980. Zamenhof, L. L. Letero al N. Borovko. 1895. Timeline of Esperanto 1859: Lazar Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, is born in Białystok, Russia (now Poland). 1873: The Zamenhof family moves to Warsaw. 1878: Zamenhof celebrates the completion of his universal language project, Lingwe Uniwersala, with high-school friends. 1879: Zamenhof attends medical school in Moscow. His father burns his language project while he's away. Meanwhile Schleyer publishes a sketch of Volapük, the first constructed international auxiliary language to acquire a number of speakers. Many Volapük clubs will later switch to Esperanto. 1881: Zamenhof returns to Warsaw to continue medical school, and starts to recreate his project. 1887: Zamenhof marries, and with his wife's help publishes Unua Libro, the book introducing modern Esperanto. 1888: Leo Tolstoy becomes an early supporter. 1894: Zamenhof, reacting to pressure, puts a radical reform to a vote, but it is overwhelmingly rejected. 1901: Zamenhof publishes his ideas on a universal religion, based on the philosophy of Hillel the Elder. 1905: The first Universala Kongreso (World Congress) is held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, with 688 participants and conducted entirely in Esperanto. The Fundamento de Esperanto is published. 1907: Twelve members of the British parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize. The Ĉekbanko Esperantista (Esperantist Checking Bank) is founded in London, using the spesmilo, an auxiliary Esperanto currency based on the gold standard. A committee organised by Louis Couturat in Paris proposes the Ido reform project, which provides significant competition for Esperanto until the First World War. 1908: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, the World Esperanto Association, is founded by Hector Hodler, a 19-year-old Swiss Esperantist. 1909: The International Association of Esperantist Railway Workers is founded in Barcelona. 1910: 42 members of the French parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize. 1917: Zamenhof dies during World War I. 1910s: Esperanto is taught in state schools in the Republic of China, Samos, and Macedonia. (Today it is part of the curriculum of China, Hungary, and Bulgaria.) 1920: The first Esperanto magazine for the blind, Aŭroro, begins publishing in Czechoslovakia. It's still in print today. 1921: The French Academy of the Sciences recommends using Esperanto for international scientific communication. 1922: Esperanto is banned from French schools. The French delegate to the League of Nations vetoes the use of Esperanto as its working language, leaving English and French. 1924: The League of Nations recommends that member states implement Esperanto as an auxiliary language. 1920s: Offices of the Brazilian Ministry of Education use Esperanto for their international correspondence. Lu Xun, the founder of modern Chinese literature, becomes a supporter of Esperanto. Montagu Butler is the first to raise Esperanto-speaking children. 1933/34: Reorganisation of the international (neutral) Esperanto movement, under the name UEA. 1934: Encyclopedia of Esperanto first published in Budapest. 1935: Kalocsay and Waringhien publish the influential Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto (Complete Grammar of Esperanto). 1936: Esperanto-organisations in Nazi Germany prohibited. 1937: Leaders of the Esperanto-organisation in the Soviet Union arrested, Esperanto activities made impossible. 1938: The World Esperanto Youth Organisation TEJO is founded. 1939-1945: In World War II many countries are occupied by Germany and the Soviet Union, where Esperanto-organisations often were prohibited or Esperanto activities were limited in other ways. 1948: The railway workers' association is refounded as IFEF, the Internacia Fervojista Esperanto-Federacio (International Railway Workers' Esperanto Federation) to foster the use Esperanto in the administration of the railroads of the world (so far, of Eurasia). 1954: UNESCO establishes consultative relations with the World Esperanto Association. 1966: The precursor to Pasporta Servo is launched in Argentina. Pasporta Servo is a global network of Esperanto speakers who host Esperantists traveling through their countries. 1967: István Nemere founds the Renkontiĝo de Esperanto-Familioj, the first organisation for Esperanto-speaking families. 1975: The Esperanto movement spreads to Iran, with three thousand learning the language in Tehran. 1980: The Internacia Junulara Kongreso (International Youth Congress) in Rauma, Finland makes explicit the view of many in the Esperanto movement that Esperanto is a goal in itself. 1985: UNESCO encourages UN member states to add Esperanto to their school curricula. 1987: 6000 Esperantists attend the 72nd Universala Kongreso in Warsaw to mark Esperanto's centennial. 1991: The first pan-African Esperanto Conference is held in Lomé, Togo. 1992: PEN International accepts an Esperanto section. 1999: The Esperanto poet William Auld is nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. 2001: The Vikipedio project (Esperanto Wikipedia) is launched, resulting in the first general encyclopedia written in a constructed language. It is now one of the most popular websites in Esperanto. 2004: The Europe - Democracy - Esperanto party (E°D°E°) contests the European Parliament elections in France, on a platform of making Esperanto the second language of all EU member states, taking 0.15% of the vote. 2007 The State of Israel issues a stamp to commemorate 120 years of Esperanto (1887-2007). An image of Zamenhof is designed in a text describing his life, reproduced from the Wikipedia article on Esperanto. 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1,816 | Musical_keyboard | Layout of a musical keyboard (three octaves shown) The musical keyboard of a Steinway concert grand piano A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument, particularly the piano. Keyboards typically contain keys for playing the twelve notes of the Western musical scale, with a combination of larger, longer keys and smaller, shorter keys that repeats at the interval of an octave. Depressing a key on the keyboard causes the instrument to produce sounds, either by mechanically striking a string or tine (piano, electric piano, clavichord); plucking a string (harpsichord); causing air to flow through a pipe (organ); or strike a bell (carillon). On electric and electronic keyboards, depressing a key connects a circuit (Hammond organ, digital piano, synthesizer). Since the most commonly encountered keyboard instrument is the piano, the keyboard layout is often referred to as the "piano keyboard." Description Harpsichord with black keys for the C major scale The twelve notes of the Western musical scale are laid out with the lowest note on the left; the larger keys (for the seven "natural" notes of the C major scale: C, D, E, F, G, A, B) jut forward. Because these keys are often coloured white on a keyboard, these are often called the white notes or white keys. The keys for the remaining five notes which are not part of the C major scale (namely C/D, D/E, F/G, G/A, A/B) (see Sharp and Flat) are set back. Because these keys are often coloured black, these notes are often called the black notes or black keys. The pattern repeats at the interval of an octave. The arrangement of longer keys for C major with intervening, shorter keys for the intermediate semitones dates to the 15th century. Many keyboard instruments dating from before the nineteenth century, such as harpsichords and pipe organs, have a keyboard with the colours of the keys reversed: darker coloured keys for the white notes and white keys for the black notes. A few electric and electronic instruments from the 1960s and subsequent decades have also done this; Vox's electronic organs of the 1960s, Farfisa's FAST portable organs, Hohner's Clavinet L, one version of Korg's Poly-800 synthesizer and Roland's digital harpsichords. Some 1960s electronic organs used reverse colors or gray sharps or naturals to indicate the lower part(s) of a split keyboard. A split keyboard is a single keyboard which is divided into two parts, each of which produces a different Registration or sound. The reverse-colored keys on Hammond organs such as the B3, C3 and A100 are latch-style radio buttons for selecting pre-set sounds. Size and historical variation A Roland EXR-3 Arranger Keyboard The chromatic compass of keyboard instruments has tended to increase. Harpsichords often extended over five octaves (61+ keys) in the 18th century, while most pianos manufactured since about 1870 have 88 keys. Some modern pianos have even more notes (a Bösendorfer 225 has 92 and a Bösendorfer 290 "Imperial" has 97 keys). While modern synthesizer keyboards commonly have either 61, 76 or 88 keys, small MIDI controllers are available with 25 notes. Organs normally have 61 keys per manual, though some spinet models have 44 or 49. An organ pedalboard is a keyboard with long pedals which are played by the organist's feet. Pedalboards vary in size from 12 to 32 notes. In a typical keyboard layout, black note keys have uniform width, and white note keys have uniform width and uniform spacing at the front of the keyboard. In the larger gaps between the black keys, the width of the natural notes C, D and E differ slightly from the width of keys F, G, A and B. This allows close to uniform spacing of 12 keys per octave while maintaining uniformity of seven "natural" keys per octave. Over the last three hundred years, the octave span distance found on historical keyboard instruments (organs, virginals, clavichords, harpsichords, and pianos) has ranged from as little as 125 mm to as much as 170 mm. Modern piano keyboards ordinarily have an octave span of 164–165 mm, but several reduced-size standards have been proposed and marketed. A 15/16 size (152 mm octave span) and the 7/8 DS Standard (140 mm octave span) keyboard developed by Christopher Donison in the 1970s and developed and marketed by Steinbuhler & Company. U.S. pianist Hannah Reiman has promoted piano keyboards with narrower octave spans and has a U.S. patent on the apparatus and methods for modifying existing pianos to provide interchangeable keyboards of different sizes. Reimann, Hannah: Patent claim #6,020,549, August 10, 1998 There have been variations in the design of the keyboard to address technical and musical issues. During the sixteenth century, when instruments were often tuned in meantone temperament, some harpsichords were constructed with the G♯ and E♭ keys split into two. One portion of the G♯ key operated a string tuned to G♯ and the other operated a string tuned to A♭, similarly one portion of the E♭ key operated a string tuned to E♭, the other portion operating a string tuned to D♯. This type of keyboard layout, known as the enharmonic keyboard, extended the flexibility of the harpsichord, enabling composers to write keyboard music calling for harmonies containing the so-called wolf fifth (G-sharp♭ to E-flat♯), but without producing aural discomfort in the listeners. Other examples of variations in keyboard design include the Janko keyboard and the chromatic keyboard systems on the accordion and bandoneón. On electric and electronic keyboards, there is an electric switch under each key. Depressing a key connects a circuit, which causes the tone generation mechanism to be triggered. Most electronic keyboards use a matrix circuit in which the rows and columns are made up of wiring. Without a matrix circuit, a 61-key keyboard would have to have 61 wires into the integrated circuit of the keyboard. With the matrix circuit, the entire keyboard can send signals to the integrated circuit with two matrices of eight wires that are conceptually arranged into columns and rows. The keyboard controller scans all of the columns, to determine if a key has been pressed. If a key in the column has been pressed, then the controller scan the rows, to determine which row has been activated. In a manner analogous to the children's board game "Battleship!", the keyboard controller determines which key has been pressed, and then closes the switch for that key's note. This entire process takes place so quickly that the performer is not aware of the delay. Dave Dribin: "Keyboard Matrix Help", (June 24, 2000) Playing techniques Despite their apparent similarity, keyboard instruments of different types require different techniques. For instance, a piano will produce a louder note the harder the key is pressed. On the other hand, the volume and timbre of the sound on the pipe organ are dictated by the flow of air from the bellows and the stops selected by the player; in the harpsichord the strings are plucked and the volume of the note is not perceptibly varied by using a different touch on the keyboard. Players of these instruments must use other techniques to color the sound. The arranger keyboard uses preset drum rhythms that respond to chords played in the left hand by the instrumentalist, with other buttons and switches used to change rhythms and even the voice of the instrument. Playing a keyboard instrument can prove to be a challenging task; even though the layout is quite simple and all notes are easily accessible, some music puts high demand on the performer's skills to play accurately and in tempo, and beginners will often struggle to produce a passable rendition of a simple piece due to technique deficiency, which takes training to improve. The sequence of movements executed by the playing hand can be almost arbitrarily complicated, with some possible problems being wide-spanned chords, which can be problematic for people with small hands, chords that require unusual hand positions which can initially be uncomfortable or even painful, and also fast scales, trills and arpeggios. Playing instruments with dynamic keyboards (i.e. ones that respond to varying force with which the key is struck) may require independence of the fingers so that some fingers are able to strike harder while others play more softly. Players need to learn to coordinate two hands and use them independently. Most music is written for two hands; typically the right hand plays the melody in the treble range, while the left plays an accompaniment of bass notes and chords in the bass range. There exist pieces of non-trivial music written for the left hand alone, e.g. several of the Godowsky's 53 Studies on Chopin's Etudes and Ravel's Piano Concerto for the Left Hand. In music that uses counterpoint technique, both hands play different melodies at the same time. Other uses A number of percussion instruments share the keyboard layout, although they are not keyboard instruments with levers that are depressed to sound the notes. Instead, the performer of instruments such as the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and glockenspiel strikes the separate-sounding tone bar of metal or wood for each note using a mallet. These bars are laid out in the same configuration as a common keyboard. There are some examples of a musical keyboard layout used for non-musical devices. For example, some of the earliest printing telegraph machines used a layout similar to a piano keyboard. George M. Phelps, Improvement in Telegraphic Machines issued November 1, 1859 The House Printing Telegraph (image) Keyboard of a Letter-Printing Telegraph Set built by Siemens and Halske in Saint Petersburg, Russia, ca.1900 Keyboards with alternate keys There are some rare variations of keyboards with more or less than 12 keys per octave, mostly used in microtonal music. Some free-reed instrument keyboards such as accordions and Indian harmoniums include microtones. Electronic music pioneer Pauline Oliveros plays one of these. Egyptian belly-dance musicians like Hassam Ramzy use custom-tuned accordions in order to play traditional scales. The small Garmon accordion played in the Music of Azerbaijan sometimes has keys that can play microtones when a "shift" key is pressed. See also Piano Keytar Janko keyboard Prophet 5 Piano key frequencies References External links Keyboard Magazine, selections from magazine, along with multimedia examples Synth Zone, link directory of keyboard and synthesizer resources Electronic Keyboard News, news and reviews of keyboards, synthesizers and synth modules Keyboard Chords, chords for keyboards MathPages, mathematical discussion of the distribution of the keys Keyboard quiz "The Keyboard of a Harpsichord" Instrument Junction, large number of keyboard and piano related articles | Musical_keyboard |@lemmatized layout:8 musical:9 keyboard:65 three:2 octave:12 show:1 steinway:1 concert:1 grand:1 piano:19 set:4 adjacent:1 depressible:1 lever:2 key:48 instrument:18 particularly:1 typically:2 contain:2 play:15 twelve:2 note:23 western:2 scale:7 combination:1 large:4 long:3 small:4 short:2 repeat:2 interval:2 depress:4 cause:3 produce:5 sound:7 either:2 mechanically:1 strike:5 string:7 tine:1 electric:5 clavichord:2 pluck:2 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1,817 | Johnston_Atoll | Location of Johnston Atoll. Map of the islands of Johnston Atoll, showing rim of coral reef. Growth of Johnson Island by coral dredging. Johnston Atoll is a 50 square mile (130 km²) atoll in the North Pacific Ocean United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges from The World Factbook about 1400 km (750 nmi) west of Hawaii. There are four islands located on the coral reef platform, two natural islands, Johnston Island and Sand Island, which have been expanded by coral dredging, as well as North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina), an additional two artificial islands formed by coral dredging. Johnston is an unincorporated territory of the United States, administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior as part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. For statistical purposes, Johnston Atoll is grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. History The American brig Sally, captained by Joseph Pierpont, grounded on a shoal near Johnston Island on September 2, 1796, but did not name or claim the land. American Polynesia and the Hawaiian Chain, E.H. Bryan, Jr., 1941; Honolulu, Hawaii: Tongg Publishing Company p. 35. The island was named for Captain Charles J. Johnston, commanding officer of , who claimed its official discovery on December 14, 1807. Johnston Atoll was claimed by both the United States and the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1858. The Atoll's guano deposits, mined by U.S. interests operating under the Guano Islands Act, were worked until depletion in about 1890. The island was visited from July 10 to 22, 1923, and a pioneer aerial photograph was taken. On July 29, 1926, by Executive Order, President Calvin Coolidge established Johnston Atoll as a Federal bird refuge and placed it under the control of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. On December 29, 1934 President Franklin D. Roosevelt transferred control of Johnston Atoll to the U.S. Navy to establish an air station and also to the Department of the Interior to administer the bird refuge. In 1936, the U.S. Navy began developing a seaplane base, an airstrip and refueling facilities on the atoll. It was designated as a Naval Defensive Sea Area and Airspace Reservation on February 14, 1941. Johnston Atoll was shelled by Japan in World War II. The area was subsequently a U.S. nuclear weapons test site, a missile launch site for some of the first spy satellites, and later the site of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS). Approaching the runway on Johnston Island from the north-east with Sand Island partially visible on the right. The base was closed and the airport inactivated on June 15, 2004. Between 1958 and 1975 several sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island. There were also several nuclear missiles launched from the island in 1962 during the Operation Dominic nuclear test series, from a launchpad at . Twelve thermonuclear missiles were exploded in all, one of which failed and scattered plutonium debris over the island. Afterwards, the radioactive debris and soils were placed in a 25 acre landfill on the island, along with residue from Agent Orange containers returned from Vietnam after the war, PCBs, PAHs, dioxins, and sarin nerve gas from the Soviet Union and East Germany. In 1963, the United States Senate ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty, which contained a provision known as "Safeguard C". Safeguard C was the basis for maintaining Johnston Atoll as a "ready to test" above ground nuclear testing site should atmospheric nuclear testing be deemed necessary. In 1993, Congress zero-funded the Johnston Atoll Safeguard C mission and redefined the island's military mission as the storage and destruction of chemical weapons. The atoll has no indigenous inhabitants, although during the latter 20th century there was an average of 300 U.S. military and 1,000 civilian contractor personnel present at any given time. Flag designed by Cheryl Velk. The central means of transport to the island was the airport which had a paved, military runway. The islands were wired with 13 outgoing and 10 incoming commercial telephone lines, a 60-channel submarine cable, 22 DSN circuits by satellite, an Autodin with standard remote terminal, a digital telephone switch, the Military Affiliated Radio System (MARS station), a UHF/VHF air-ground radio, and a link to the Pacific Consolidated Telecommunications Network (PCTN) satellite. Occasional amateur radio operators transmitted from the island, using the KH3 callsign prefix. The atoll's economic activity was limited to providing services to U.S. military personnel and contractors located on the island. All food and manufactured goods were imported. The base had six 2.5 MW generators supplied by the base's support contractor, Holmes and Narver, using Enterprise Engine and Machinery Company (Oakland, California) DSR-36 diesel engines. The runway facility was also available to commercial airlines for emergency landings (a fairly common event), and for many years was a regular stop on Continental Micronesia's "island hopper" service between Hawaii and the Marshall Islands. By the end of 2003 jurisdiction of the atoll was transferred from the military to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. All structures and facilities, including those used in JACADS, were removed and the runway was marked closed. On August 22, 2006, Johnston Island was struck by Hurricane Ioke. The eastern eyewall passed directly over the atoll, with winds exceeding . On December 9, 2007, the United States Coast Guard swept the runway at Johnston Island of debris and used the runway in the medevac of an ill Taiwanese fisherman to Oahu, Hawaii. The fisherman was transferred from the Taiwanese fishing vessel Sheng Yi Tsai No. 166 to Coast Guard buoy tender Kukui on December 6, 2007. He was transported to the island and picked up by a Coast Guard C-130 transport aircraft out of Kodiak, Alaska. Johnston is part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, proclaimed by U.S. President George W. Bush on January 6, 2009. Geography Johnston Atoll - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) satellite image. The four islands compose a total land mass of 2.67 km². Due to the atoll's tilt, much of the reef on the south-east portion has subsided. But even though it does not have an encircling reef crest, the reef crest on the north-west portion of the atoll does provide for a shallow lagoon, with depths ranging from 3-10 m. IslandOriginal Size1942 (ha)Final Size1964 (ha)Johnston Island19241Sand Island49North (Akau) Island-10East (Hikina) Island-7Johnston Atoll23267Lagoon13,00013,000 Its climate is tropical but generally dry. North-east trade winds are consistent and there is little seasonal temperature variation. With elevation ranging from sea level to 5 m at Summit Peak, the islands contain some low-growing vegetation on mostly flat terrain and no natural fresh water resources. Wildlife About 300 species of fish have been recorded from the reefs and inshore waters of the atoll. It is also visited by Green Turtles and Hawaiian Monk Seals. Seabird species recorded as breeding on the atoll include Bulwer's Petrel, Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Christmas Shearwater, White-tailed Tropicbird, Red-tailed Tropicbird, Brown Booby, Red-footed Booby, Masked Booby, Great Frigatebird, Gray-backed Tern, Sooty Tern, Brown Noddy, Black Noddy and White Tern. It is visited by migratory shorebirds, including the Pacific Golden Plover, Wandering Tattler, Bristle-thighed Curlew, Ruddy Turnstone and Sanderling. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Bird list of Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.Version 30DEC2002 License plates There have been a number of supposed "Johnston Atoll" license plates issued for sale on-line. According to reputable license plate collectors, these were made as souvenirs and were never officially issued. Johnston Atoll only had one road, which made the use of official license plates unnecessary. Official vehicles had either U.S. Government license plates or a Department of Defense registration number painted on the front and rear of the vehicle. Passenger vehicles had plates from the original place of registration (often Hawaii). References External links Johnston Island Memories Site, the personal website of an AFRTS serviceman stationed there in 1975-6 End of JACADS celebrated (US Army) Coast Guard Successful on Risky Medevac from Johnston Island, press release on December 2007 medevac operation. Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island, photo from December 2007 medevac operation. 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1,818 | Jardine_Matheson | Jardine's Headquarters(Jardine House) Jardine Matheson Holdings Limited ( , ) often called Jardines or Jardine's (怡和), is a multinational corporation that is incorporated in Bermuda and based in Hong Kong. While listed on the London Stock Exchange and the Singapore Exchange, the vast majority of Jardines shares are traded in Singapore. http://investing.businessweek.com/businessweek/research/stocks/snapshot/snapshot.asp?ric=JARD.SI http://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/overview?symbol=JARD.SI Currently Jardines consists of the following companies: Jardine Pacific, Jardine Motors Group, Jardine Strategic, Dairy Farm, Hongkong Land, Mandarin Oriental, Jardine Cycle & Carriage and Astra International. http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD/GBR/0012/MS%20JM http://www.corporateinformation.com/Company-Snapshot.aspx?cusip=C344E1820 http://www.transnationale.org/companies/jardine_matheson.php It also owns 30.3% of Jardine Lloyd Thompson Group. History E-WO: The house of Jardine, Matheson & Co. Taipans: Dr. William Jardine and James Matheson Overview Jardine, Matheson & Co. was founded in Canton on 1 July 1832, following a meeting between William Jardine and another Scots trader, James Matheson from Sutherland. In 1834, the pair sent the first private shipments of Chinese tea to England; another big export to the UK was silk. In return, they illegally traded opium to the Chinese. "Four of the fastest were built in American yards for Russell & Co., the Yankee trading house, that would use their speed to challenge the great British opium merchants, Jardine Matheson & Co." McCoy, Prof. Alfred W. (2003). "THE POLITICS OF HEROIN — CIA COMPLICITY IN THE GLOBAL DRUG TRADE", 2nd Rev. Ed., Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-483-7, p. 87. Jardine Matheson’s early profits were based on this trading of Indian opium into China. When the Chinese emperor tried to ban the trade, the company called on Britain to compel China to compensate for the confiscated goods, leading in 1840 to two Opium Wars. Early history In 1802, Dr. William Jardine was practicing medicine on British East India Company vessels sailing between Calcutta and Canton. Under a charter granted in the seventeenth century by Charles I of England, the directors in London's Leadenhall Street held a monopoly on British trade between India and China. It was customary, however, for the Company's servants to conduct a certain amount of private business of their own. In order to regularise this, the East India Company allowed each officer and member of the crew a space about equal to two chests; what the men did with this space was their own business. Using this space, the doctor soon discovered that trading illegal narcotics was far more lucrative than doctoring. It was during these early days that William Jardine found himself onboard a ship captured by the French with all cargo seized. However, what was to become a highly lucrative partnership was formed with a fellow passenger, a Parsee Indian called Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy. They became good friends, becoming prominent in their respective business fields and forming a trading relationship that was to endure for many years to come. In Canton, Dr. Jardine met a naturalised Briton of Huguenot extraction named Hollingworth Magniac and learned that there were ways by which, to a small extent, the monopoly of the East India Company could be circumvented. In 1817, Jardine left his first employers and began the struggle towards establishing his own private firm. In the meantime, James Matheson was in his uncle's business in Calcutta. His uncle one day entrusted him with a letter to be delivered to the captain of a British vessel which was on the point of departure. James forgot to deliver the letter, and the vessel sailed. His uncle was incensed at this negligence, and it was suggested that young James had better go home. He took his uncle at his word and went to engage a passage to England. "Why not try Canton instead?" an old skipper advised him. James Matheson did try Canton. And it was there, in 1818, that he met Jardine. The two men formed a partnership which included also Hollingworth Magniac and Beale, an English inventor of clocks and automata. At first they dealt only with Bombay and Calcutta, the so-called "country trade," but later they extended their business to London. The activities of these four men made an important contribution towards bringing to an end, in 1834, the monopoly of the East India Company in China. http://www.jardines.com/profile/history.html http://www.archiveshub.ac.uk/news/03021205.html Records of Social and Economic History New Series “China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827-1843” Alain le Pichon Establishment of the private firm of Jardine, Matheson & Co. For a long time the British East India Company had been growing increasingly unpopular in Britain. Men such as Sheridan, Elliot, Charles James Fox, William Windham, and Edmund Burke were its bitter enemies. Many British people believed that freedom of the seas and freedom of trade were synonymous. They had fought for years to establish this freedom, only to see it threatened by a King's charter to a group of London merchants. Further, certain high-handed methods used by the East India Company in dealing with competitors aroused the moral indignation of the British at home. Nevertheless, open competition with the East India Company was risky business. The Company was empowered to punish transgressors vigorously--even to the extent of hanging. Occasionally, free traders did manage to secure a license from the Company to engage in the "country trade," usually with India, but never with Britain. In rare instances, other free traders, called "interlopers," competed with the Company. The interlopers usually were friends of the Government in England from which they had been able to obtain some form of charter of their own. Sooner or later, however, the East India Company always managed to have these other charters revoked. There was one method, however, by which a Briton could establish a business on the East India Company's preserves. He could accept the consulship of a foreign country and register under its laws. This method was employed by Jardine to establish himself in Canton. Magniac had obtained an appointment from the King of Prussia, and later James Matheson represented Denmark and Hawaii. On this basis the partners had nothing to fear from the Company; in fact, relations between these two and the East India Company seemed in time to have become amicable. It is recorded that when ships of the East India Company were detained outside the harbour by the authorities, Jardine offered his services "without fee or reward." These services saved the East India Company a considerable sum of money and earned for Jardine the Company's gratitude. By 1830, the enemies of the East India Company had begun to triumph, and its hold on trade with the East had weakened noticeably. Furthermore, at this time, both Magniac and Beale were getting ready to retire. In 1832, two years before the East India Company finally was dissolved, William Jardine and James Matheson entered into formal partnership as a private firm, Jardine, Matheson & Co. Establishment of the firm in Hong Kong In 1834 the first free ship, Jardine's Sarah, left Whampoa with a cargo of tea for London. This was the signal that showed the East India Company was no longer a power in the East, and was immediately followed by a rush to participate in the fast developing China trade, which was centered on tea. From the middle of the seventeenth century this drink had been growing in popularity in Britain and the British colonies, but the trade in teas was far from simple. Due to the rapacious British tax collector, the tax on tea was often as much as two hundred percent of the value. This exorbitant taxation gave rise to widespread smuggling which became an additional hazard to legitimate business. To profit in the China trade one had to be ahead of all competition, both legitimate and otherwise. Each year, fast ships from Britain, Europe, and America lay ready at the Chinese ports to load the first of the new season's teas. The ships raced home with their precious cargoes, each attempting to be the first to reach the consumer markets, thereby obtaining the premium prices offered for the early deliveries. Jardines became so well established they commanded an enviable portion of the China trade. Raw and manufactured goods were imported from India and the United Kingdom. Teas and silks were exported. In 1842, the firm built the first substantial house and established their head office on the recently acquired island of Hong Kong. This began an era of increased prosperity and expansion. New offices soon were opened in the trading centres of Shanghai, Fuzhou, and Tianjin. Since then Jardines have never ceased to expand. William Keswick, the young nephew of Dr. Jardine, was sent to Japan in 1858 to open up trading for the firm. He established an office in Yokohama. In Japan, Jardines also expanded rapidly and additional offices were opened -- in Kobe, Nagasaki, and other ports. From the beginning, a large and profitable business was conducted in imports, exports, shipping, and insurance. By the end of the nineteenth century, business in the Far East no longer was confined to simple trading. Industrial expansion had begun. In its wake, the Indo-China Steam Navigation Company had been formed. To aid further in this development, Jardines had created insurance companies. They built cotton mills. Great wharves and warehouses were set up. Cold storage and press packing plants for China's widening export trade were erected. A more recent example of enterprise was the building of Ewo Brewery in 1935. The directors of Jardines have built a great modern business structure on the foundation so solidly laid by the pioneers of the firm. http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Jardine-Matheson-Holdings-Limited-Company-History.html War and reconstruction In 1932, after the first Japanese attack on China, the firm closed its offices in Manchuria; when the Japanese went in, Jardines walked out. When the war came in 1941, the Japanese took over all Jardine's interests in Hong Kong and occupied China--but not before offices of the firm had been established in Chongqing and Kunming. (Offices in Bombay were also established around this time.) Contact with the war-time world of Chinese official and commercial life thus was maintained. The house flag was kept flying. Immediately on cessation of hostilities, the staff from these offices and from internment camps in China were first in the field recovering the firm's properties from the Japanese forces. In the summer of 1947, as soon as the authorities permitted, Jardines re-entered Japan. From that date, the task of re-establishing their former wide interests in that country has been under way. In Taiwan Jardines have maintained offices since early in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Today the Taipei office not only is the leading tea exporter to Europe, Asia, and America, but also is engaged in shipping and in general export and import business. Scottish leadership Jardines is controlled by the Keswick (pronounced "Kezzick") family who are direct descendants of William Jardine's sister. While the leadership of Jardines is Scottish, the firm is international in its dealings. The staff of Jardines (239,000 employees as of January 2007) is predominantly Asian, with the senior levels being a mixture of British, Chinese, Indonesian, European, Australian and American. The Keswicks have maintained a relationship with another prominent Scottish family, the Flemings. Ian Fleming, the author of the James Bond series, was also a member of the same family. From 1970 until 1998, Jardine Matheson operated a pan-Asian investment banking joint venture, Jardine Fleming, with Robert Fleming & Co., a London merchant bank controlled by the Fleming family. In 2000, Jardine Fleming and Robert Fleming & Co. were sold to JP Morgan Chase. The shipping interests From the earliest days of the firm, shipping can justly claim to have been the most prominent among the many and varied enterprises of Jardines. It was the practice of Jardines to possess the fastest and best-handled ships that money could buy. The firm did this in order that its leading position could not be assailed. In the early days, it was often possible to make a fortune with the exclusive possession of market or budget news for a period even so brief as a few hours. Conversely, a fortune could be lost if the despatches from home were late. The keen competition for faster and more efficient shipping helped immeasurably in the rapid development of trade with the Far East. It was due largely, to the excellence of the fleet that Jardines outlived all rivals. In the days of the sailing ships, many of the most famous clippers were those of the Company's fleet. Among these were illustrious names such as "Red Rover", "Falcon", and "Sylph". The last-named clipper made a sailing record that was never beaten. It sailed from Calcutta to Lintin in the Pearl River estuary in seventeen days, seventeen hours. The first merchant steamer in China, the Jardine, was built to order for the firm in 1835. She was a small vessel intended for use as a mail and passenger carrier between Lintin Island, Macau, and Whampoa. However, after several trips, the Chinese authorities, for reasons best known to themselves, prohibited her entrance into the river. She perforce had to be sent to Singapore. The first steam ships owned by Jardines ran chiefly between Calcutta and the Chinese ports. They were fast enough so that they could make the 1,400-mile trip in two days less than the P. & O. vessels. As time passed, more and more ships were procured for Jardines' fleet. The ports of call extended as conditions allowed. The firm was among the first to send ships to Japan, and at an early date established a regular service between Yokohama, Kobe, and China's ports. Until 1881, the India and China coastal and river services were operated by several companies. In that year, however, these were merged into the Indo-China Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., a public company under the management of Jardines. The activities of this company extended from India to Japan, including the Straits Settlements, Borneo, and, of course, the China coast. In the latter sphere, the "Indo-China" developed rapidly. The company pushed inland up the Yangtsze River on which a specially designed fleet was built to meet all requirements of the river trade. For many years, this fleet gave unequalled service. Jardines established an enviable reputation for the efficient handling of shipping. As a result, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company invited the firm to attend to the Agency of their Shire Line which operated in the Far East. This occurred shortly before the first World War and necessitated a further expansion of the firm's shipping organisation. Today, no less than fifteen internationally known British, Canadian, and United States shipping companies entrust their agencies to this organisation. In China, the bulk of freight emanates from domestic sources. On account of this an efficient and well-connected Chinese staff is maintained at all Jardines' branches. These branches are continuously in touch with the special features and tendencies of the Chinese markets. With the disappearance of Japanese competition as a result of the war, and with the resurrection of China's merchant navy, shipping conditions in the Far East have changed vastly. The business demands an extreme degree of flexibility in the operation of foreign shipping. Jardines possess a rich fund of experience which was gained in the pioneering years of the last century and which extends through two world wars to the uncertainties of the present day. Jardines' shipping organisation offers unequalled service to shipowners, not only in the great ports of Hong Kong and Shanghai, but at every major coast port in China and also in Japan. In addition, since World War II, the firm has been operating the Australia-China Line, an enterprise owned jointly with Commons Bros., Ltd., of Newcastle. This line runs from Australia to Hong Kong and Shanghai. Jardines are leaders also in Sino-foreign shipping co-operation. Interests in wharves and warehouses Hong Kong On the initiative of Jardines and the late Sir Paul Chater, the Hongkong & Kowloon Wharf & Godown Company was formed in 1886. Since that date, the chairmanship of the board has been held by the managing director of Jardines. At the property known as Kowloon Point, ten ocean-going vessels of up to thirty-two feet draught can be berthed regardless of the state of the tide. At the West Point property on Hongkong Island itself, one coastal vessel can be accommodated. Kowloon Point provides storage space for about 750,000 tons of cargo. The transit sheds have been designed specially to provide maximum light and sorting space. The godowns are six-storeyed, of reinforced concrete, and are fully equipped with cargo lifts and cranes. A treasury, or strong room, capable of storing up to 500 measurement tons of bullion or other valuable cargo, is a part of the facilities offered. The company also operates a launch and lighter fleet for the discharge of vessels at buoys and for general transshipment work. Shanghai Following an amalgamation of several local wharves in 1875, Jardine, Matheson & Co. were appointed general managers of the Shanghai & Hongkew Wharf Co., Ltd. In 1883, the Old Ningpo Wharf was added, and in 1890 the Pootung Wharf was purchased to complete the Company's already extensive properties. For three quarters of a century, therefore, Jardines have served the great port of Shanghai. The Company owns some 3,000 feet of the most valuable wharf frontage on the Shanghai side of the river. On the opposite, or Pudong (Pootung), side their frontage extends to 2,550. The wharves are capable of accommodating ten large ocean-going vessels at a time. Before the Pacific War, the Company possessed godown, or warehouse, space of 2,505,000 square feet. Unfortunately there was considerable destruction by the Japanese. Rehabilitation progressed rapidly, however, and the standard of efficient working for which the company is well known has been re-established. Railway building in China 1898 also saw the formation by Jardines and HSBC of the British and China Corporation ('BCC') which was responsible for much of the development of China's railway system. Airways department Keeping abreast of the times, Jardines have opened an Airways Department. Whether acting as general agents, traffic handling, or booking agents, the firm gives the same efficient service to international air lines as their shipping organisation for the past half century has been giving to ocean shipping companies of the world. The firm has formed in Hong Kong an Air Maintenance Company which will bring the most up-to-date technical and maintenance facilities to the many air lines operating from and through Hong Kong. The British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) appointed Jardines as their general agents for Hong Kong and China. Please see Wikipedia entry for Hong Kong Airways for more contemporary information on Jardine Airways Insurance interests Jardine Lloyd Thompson Group "JLT" is 30% owned by Jardine Matheson and is the vehicle for Jardines participation in this business field. Insurance was one of the first lines of business undertaken by Jardines in 19th century China. Companies The Jardine Engineering Corporation, Ltd. The Jardine Engineering Corporation, Ltd., was founded in 1923 as a private limited company. Its purpose was to take over the business of importing machinery into China. Previously, this had been done by the firm's Engineering Department. The new company was formed in order to be in a position to cater more efficiently to the evergrowing needs of the Chinese. This policy has resulted in the development of a large and vigorous corporation. Offices have been established in Shanghai, Hongkong, Tianjin, Chongqing, and Nanjing, and further branches are being created as the need for this company's services becomes apparent. The Corporation represents many of the greatest engineering and manufacturing names in the world. A complete field of engineering and equipment requirements is covered. Ewo Cold Storage Company The Jardines-owned Ewo Cold Storage Company was established in 1920 on the Shanghai river front for the manufacture and export of dried eggs. Two or three years later, extensions were made to permit the processing of liquid and shell eggs, as well. Since then, each year, large quantities of these products have been prepared under the most hygienic conditions for shipment abroad, mainly to the United Kingdom. During the past quarter century, export trade in eggs and egg products has become an increasingly important factor in China's economy. Immediately prior to the outbreak of the Pacific War, egg trading was high in the list of leading exports. During the war, the Japanese occupation forces gravely diminished the stock of poultry. However, this handicap was quickly overcome, for poultry production in China was never confined to large centres, difficult to reconstruct; instead it is chiefly in innumerable small units scattered over vast areas. Ewo Cotton Mills, Ltd. Ewo Cotton Mills, Ltd., is a limited liability company (registered in Hongkong), managed by Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd. The firm was first in the field in the cotton industry in China, having established the Ewo Cotton Spinning and Weaving Co. in Shanghai in 1895. Subsequently two other mills were started up in Shanghai--the Yangtszepoo Cotton Mill and the Kung Yik Mill. In 1921 these three companies were amalgamated as Ewo Cotton Mills, Ltd., which concern operated 175,000 cotton spindles and 3,200 looms before the war. In addition the Company extended its activities to include the manufacture of waste cotton products, jute materials, and worsted yarns and cloths. The Company suffered considerable loss of machinery during the war, but its products, which have always enjoyed a high reputation, are back on the market again. Ewo Press Packing Company Under the name of Ewo Yuen Press Packing Company, the Ewo Press Packing Company was established in Shanghai in the year 1907. It was then owned jointly by Jardines and a Chinese partner. This partner decided to retire, and in 1919 Jardines became sole proprietors under the present name. The company operates a total floor space of 125,000 square feet, providing a normal annual output of 40,000 to 50,000 bales. Double this quantity has been achieved in peak years. The activities of the concern cover raw cotton, cotton yarn, waste silk, wool, hides, goatskins, and other commodities for which press packing for shipment or storage is suitable. In addition to the packing facilities offered by the company, well-lighted and airy rooms are available to the public for sorting, grading, and storage of all types of cargo. The plant is advantageously situated near the mouth of the well-known Soochow Creek. Whether the merchandise is destined for inland, the coast, or abroad, this location provides economical and ready access to the transporting vessels lying in the harbour of Shanghai. Ewo Breweries, Limited Although it is the youngest of Jardines' enterprises, Ewo Breweries, Limited, is already as flourishing a concern as any controlled by the firm. It was founded in 1935, its production commenced in 1936, and Ewo Breweries became a public company under Jardines' management in 1940. The brewery, built on the outskirts of Shanghai, passed unscathed through two Japanese wars, in 1937 and 1941-45, and during the first of them it was in the centre of hostilities; however, the staff kept to their posts, and the products from time to time found their way through the Japanese lines on to their own markets. The brewery produces Pilsner and Munich types of beers, both being suitable to Far Eastern climatic conditions: The brewery is recognised as the finest and most up-to-date in the Far East, where the popularity of its brews is unrivalled. Export and import departments Tea Tea is the most romantic of all China's trades and always must remain inseparably linked in memory to the hey-day of the racing clippers. Now, as in the first half of the nineteenth century, Jardines are the leading shippers. Their connection with this trade dates from 1801 when the forerunners of the firm secured the first free license to exports teas to New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. When the monopoly held by the East India Company finally was broken, Jardines were again to the fore, this time trading under their own name. The firm despatched the first teas to London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Trading offices are located now in Shanghai, Hongkong, Fuzhou, Taipei, and Hankou. From picturesque old Fuzhou and the beautiful island of Taiwan, as well as from the godowns on the Shanghai Bund, ocean steamers once again are carrying valuable cargoes of Jardines' teas. The chests of teas are labelled with Old World names such as Keemuns. Soochongs, Oolongs, Gunpowders, and Chun Meas, and are borne to the Mincing Lane and the tea-cups of Europe, Africa, and America. Silk The Silk Room, operating in Shanghai, is one of the oldest of the offices within Jardines' organisation. For over a century, the firm has been shipping raw silk from Shanghai. Before the war, silk was shipped from Japan to America, France, Switzerland, England, and elsewhere. Also, for many years before the war, the firm operated its own Ewo Silk Filature. Silk inspectors are highly specialised skilled technicians. Usually, they are of Swiss or Italian descent. The Swiss who heads this Department of Jardines today is acknowledged to be the doyen of the silk men in China. CHINA PRODUCE: The China Produce Department for many years has exported the raw materials of China everywhere abroad. To ensure the maintenance of Jardines' standards, large warehouses were constructed in Shanghai, Tientsin, Tsingtao, Hankow, and Hongkong, all of these cities being the trading centres for vast producing areas. The interests of the Department, accordingly, cover the products of the cold north, such as wool, furs, soya beans, oils, and oilseeds and bristles; the produce of the vast agricultural centre, which includes tung and other vegetable oils and oilseeds, egg products, bristles, and beans; and also the marketable yield of the sunny south, its tung oil, aniseed, cassia, and ginger. And these are only a few of the commodities which pass through Jardines from China to the markets of the world. Knowledge of individual processing and marketing requirements of these articles takes many years to acquire. Jardines' vast experience in these lines extends throughout the entire period of China's trading relations with the outside world. IMPORTS: The main centres of Jardines' extensive and well-known import business are Hongkong and Shanghai, but the Department is fully represented in all of the firm's branches. In the early days, the principal interest was piece goods, but expansion in many and varied directions has developed as China more and more showed desire to share in the goods manufactured and produced by countries far from her shores. The range of commodities handled by this Department is amazingly wide. It runs the gamut from timber to foodstuffs, from textiles to medicines, from metals to fertilizers, and from wines and spirits to the cosmetic requirements of a lady's boudoir. The Import Departments in recent years formed a section for the export of Chinese articles manufactured from silks and linens. This has developed into an increasing business, with an ever-broadening scope of articles of all descriptions. The development of the colony of Hong Kong by Jardine, Matheson & Co. At the mouth of the Pearl River, about ninety miles from Canton, there stands a small island. It is separated from the mainland by a strip of water which, at the narrowest point, is only a quarter of a mile wide. As late as 1840, the island seemed to have no potential development value except perhaps to a few visionaries. The island lies just below the Tropic of Cancer, and its climate was always thought to be hot, humid, and unhealthy. In area the island is less than thirty square miles, and it rises steeply from the water. No one lived there except a few stonecutters and fishermen whose huts were scattered along the southern shore, and it was suspected that the island was a hiding place for pirates. Its only recommendation was a natural deep-water harbour. It was this island, together with a small strip of China's mainland that was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. Despite all obstacles of terrain and climate, in spite of opposition from many of the Canton merchants, this outpost was developed with almost incredible rapidity. Today, on the northern slopes of the island, close-packed roofs of the city blot out the natural landscape. The harbour, world-famous for its beauty, presents a scene of bustling activity, vessels from the Earth's four corners come and go, small steamers sail to and from Canton, and ferryboats hurry back and forth from the mainland. The island has become a great port and trading centre in the Far East--Hongkong. James Matheson had long believed in the future of Hongkong. His enthusiasm was not shared by many of his fellow merchants. Understandably, they preferred not to abandon their comfortable residences on Canton's Praya Grande for the bleak slopes of Hongkong Island. Bad luck made matters worse for the early builders of Victoria. In quick succession, two typhoons and two fires flattened the new settlement. An epidemic of virulent malaria almost succeeded in returning the island to the oblivion from which it had risen. For years, the Canton Press in Macau never lost an opportunity to ridicule and slander the venture. Even Queen Victoria was unimpressed with her new acquisition. Once she wrote in gentle sarcasm to the King of the Belgians:"--Albert is so much amused at my having got the island of Hongkong, and we think Victoria ought to be called Princess of Hongkong as well as Princess Royal." Nevertheless, the founders refused to be discouraged. On 14 June 1841, the first lots were sold on Hongkong. At the instigation of James Matheson, three of these lots, comprising 57,150 square feet, were purchased for the sum of Pounds 565, and Jardines set up one of the first offices to be established in the new colony. Lot No 1 is presently the site of the Mandarin Oriental Hotel (owned by Jardines) and is still referred to in the company as No.1. In the beginning, the settlement consisted of hastily constructed mat sheds and wooden buildings. Jardines built the first house of consequence. It was erected at East Point, and the firm still retains most of the original property. Among the buildings that can be seen there today is one of the old warehouses with the date 1843 engraved in the stone above the door. Throughout the history of Hongkong, Jardines have played a large part in all the affairs of the colony. In June, 1850, David Jardine was one of the first two unofficial members of the Legislative Council. Hongkong is the head office of the Company, and, on many occasions, the managing directors have been members of both the legislative and executive councils of the government. The firm has been closely connected with every phase of Hongkong's development. Many of the essential services that are operating at present owe their inception to the firm. The Indo-China Steam Navigation Co., Ltd., has its head office in Hongkong. The chairmanship of the boards of directors of the Hongkong Land Investment Co., Ltd., the Hongkong & Kowloon Wharf & Godown Co., Ltd., the Star Ferry Co., Ltd., and the Hong Kong Tramways, Ltd., has always been held by the managing director of Jardines in Hongkong. It is worth noting that Jardines, although they control these companies, hold majority stock in none of them. The company's power is derived from many special voting shares issued upon the formation of these companies. There are numerous landmarks which denote the part that has been played by the seniors of the firm in the history of this thriving community. In the early days, fevers and plagues were a constant menace to the dwellers in Hongkong, and, the heat during the summer months was difficult to bear. The directors of the firm were pioneers in building residences on The Peak where living is more pleasant and healthful. "Jardines' Corner" is well known to the inhabitants of Hong Kong, but chief among the place names associated with the firm is a hill top known as "Jardine's Lookout." It was from here, in the days of the sailing ships, that a watch was kept for the first glimpse of the sails of the firm's clippers coming from India and London. As soon as a vessel was signalled, a fast whaleboat was sent out to collect Jardines' mails. The correspondence was rushed back to the office so that the directors could have the first possible information on the world's markets. The same speed, efficiency, and enterprise of those early days still persists, and are responsible for the solid foundation on which Jardines now stand. Thus, the firm's position as the leading foreign commercial enterprise in China remains unchallenged. Branch offices in China Branches of Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., are established at Shanghai (the largest office of Jardine's), Guangzhou, Swatow, Fuzhou, Chongqing, Qingdao, and Tianjin. The firm has correspondents in Kunming, Xiamen, Beijing, and in the Yangtze River ports of Jinjiang, Nanjing, Wuhu, Jiujiang, Yichang and Changsha. Of these branches, Hankou and Tianjin are the greatest. Today, Hankou is mostly a ruin and a reminder of hideous warfare. Rehabilitation is sure, but it will take time. Tianjin, through which vast volumes of trade flowed outwards and inwards in days gone by, survived undamaged and is returning gradually to the position of the leading port of North China. Qingdao, one of China's few good harbours, came through the war with little or no damage, and is fast resuming its important role in the trade of China. Jardine representations abroad Matheson & Co., Ltd., are Jardines' correspondents in London. "Mathesons" was founded in 1848 as a private house of merchant bankers, and in 1906 it became a limited liability company. It is controlled by Jardine, Matheson & Co., Ltd., and Keswick family. It is the leading Far Eastern house in London, enjoying an enviable reputation for enterprise and long-established reliability. In the United States of America the correspondents are Balfour, Guthrie & Co., Ltd., New York. This is a firm of the highest standing, the centre of a network of worldwide trading and manufacturing interests. Throughout the world, in Africa, Asia, Australia, and Europe, there are correspondents. In Calcutta, the sister firm Jardine, Henderson, Ltd. (which for many years was styled Jardine, Skinner & Co.), still maintains the closest links. These links reach back to the early days when Jardine and Matheson and the other pioneers were trading between Canton, Hong Kong, and India. Today The Jardine Matheson Group is still very much active in Hong Kong, being one of the largest conglomerates in Hong Kong and its largest private employer, second only to the government. Several landmarks in present day Hong Kong are named after the firm and the founders Jardine and Matheson like Jardine's Bazaar, Jardine's Crescent, Jardine's Bridge, Jardine's Lookout, Yee Wo Street, Matheson Street, Jardine House and the Noon-day Gun. Jardines is primarily active in Asia. Datamonitor, Jardine Matheson Holdings Limited - SWOT Analysis, January 2009 It went through several major internal changes throughout the 19th and 20th century, in 1947 a Trust was formed by members of the family to permit the management of the company to participate in the financial growth of the company. Jardine, Matheson and Co. offered its shares to the public in 1961 under the tenure of taipan Sir Hugh Barton and was oversubscribed 56 times. The Keswick family, in consortium with several London-based banks and financial institutions, bought out the controlling shares of the Buchanan-Jardine family in 1959 but subsequently sold most of the shares during the 1961 public offering, retaining only about 10% of the company. The company redomiciled to Bermuda in 1984 under the tenure of taipan Simon Keswick so as to maintain its governance under a familiar British-based legal system. In the late 1980s, the corporate structure of the Jardine, Matheson Group, including all its allied companies, were restructured. In late 1987, there was an attempted takeover of Hongkong Land, a real-estate company considered the jewel in the Jardines crown as its properties included some of the most prestigious office and commercial space in Hong Kong. The hostile bid which was ultimately unsuccessful had been led by a group of Hong Kong tycoons, including Li Ka-shing, working together with the mainland's state-owned China International Trust & Investment Corp. As a result, Jardine Matheson asked Hong Kong's Securities and Futures Commission (SFC) for an exemption from the takeover and mergers code in 1994, in order to give the company greater security if Chinese parties attempted a hostile takeover of its listed companies after Hong Kong's 1997 handover from British to Chinese sovereignty. However, the SFC refused and so Jardine firm delisted from the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (Hang Seng Index) in 1994 under the tenure of Alasdair Morrison and placed its primary listing in London. Officials in the People's Republic of China (PRC) regarded the delisting as a rebuke to the future of Hong Kong and the government of PRC. This caused trouble when Jardine Matheson attempted to participate in the Container Terminal 9. The present Chairmain of Jardine Matheson Holdings Ltd. is Henry Keswick, the company's tai-pan from 1970 (aged 31) to 1975 and was the 6th Keswick to be tai-pan of the company. His brother, Simon, was the company's tai-pan from 1983 to 1988 and is the 7th Keswick to be tai-pan. Both brothers are the 4th generation of Keswicks in the company. The 5th generation of Keswicks are also active within the organisation, Ben Keswick, son of Simon, is in charge of Jardine, Cycle & Carriage in Singapore and Adam Keswick, son of Chips, is in charge of Jardine Pacific and Jardine Motors Group in Hong Kong. The organizational structure of Jardines has changed almost totally, but the members of the family of Dr. William Jardine still have significant influence in the firm. Miscellaneous Jardines' history was the inspiration for a series of novels written by James Clavell, including Tai-Pan, Gai-Jin, and Noble House. Jardines installed the first elevator in China in Tianjin. Mail sent to Jardines requires no address - just the name is enough to ensure its delivery. Jardines' official website gives no mention of their opium trading exploits (on which the wealth of the company was built). Jardines' have a strict policy of not buying/investing in new companies as it is said to be against William Jardines' wishes. References See also The Hongs 437.Jardine Matheson/Fortune Global 500 External links Official website Official Jardine Motors Group website Jardines company silver marks | Jardine_Matheson |@lemmatized jardine:74 headquarters:1 house:10 matheson:36 holding:4 limit:4 often:3 call:7 jardines:68 怡和:1 multinational:1 corporation:7 incorporate:1 bermuda:2 base:4 hong:26 kong:26 list:3 london:12 stock:6 exchange:3 singapore:4 vast:6 majority:2 share:7 trade:24 http:8 invest:2 businessweek:2 com:5 research:1 snapshot:3 asp:1 ric:1 jard:2 si:2 www:6 reuters:1 finance:1 overview:2 symbol:1 currently:1 consists:1 following:1 company:83 pacific:4 motor:3 group:9 strategic:1 dairy:1 farm:1 hongkong:23 land:4 mandarin:2 oriental:2 cycle:2 carriage:2 astra:1 international:4 janus:1 lib:1 cam:1 ac:2 uk:3 db:1 node:1 xsp:1 id:1 ead:1 gbr:1 ms:1 corporateinformation:1 aspx:1 cusip:1 transnationale:1 org:1 php:1 also:14 lloyd:2 thompson:2 history:9 e:1 wo:2 co:25 taipan:3 dr:5 william:10 james:13 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1,819 | Food_irradiation | The Radura logo, used to show a food has been treated with ionizing radiation. Food irradiation anon., Food Irradiation - A technique for preserving and improving the safety of food, WHO, Geneva, 1991 is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation to destroy microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the food. Further applications include sprout inhibition, delay of ripening, increase of juice yield, and improvement of re-hydration. Irradiation is a more general term of deliberate exposure of materials to radiation to achieve a technical goal (in this context 'ionizing radiation' is implied). As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones. Compared to the amount of food irradiated, the volume of those every-day applications is huge but not noticed by the consumer. The genuine effect of processing food by ionizing radiation involves damage to DNA, the basic genetic information for life. Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities. Spoilage-causing micro-organisms cannot continue their activities. Insects do not survive, or become incapable of proliferation. Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process. The speciality of processing food by ionizing radiation is that the energy density per atomic transition is very high; it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name), which is not achieved by mere heating. This is the reason for both new effects and new concerns. The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the term "cold pasteurization" to describe irradiated foods is controversial, since pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes. Food irradiation is currently permitted by over 40 countries, and the volume of food so treated is estimated to exceed 500,000 metric tons annually world wide. NUCLEUS - Food Irradiation Clearances Food irradiation, Position of ADA, J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100:246-253. http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Irradiation-Position-ADA.htm retrieved 2007-11-15 C.M. Deeley, M. Gao, R. Hunter, D.A.E. Ehlermann, The development of food irradiation in the Asia Pacific, the Americas and Europe; tutorial presented to the International Meeting on Radiation Processing, Kuala Lumpur, 2006. http://www.doubleia.org/index.php?sectionid=43&parentid=13&contentid=494 last visited 2007-11-16 Kume, T. et al., Status of food irradiation in the world, Radiat.Phys.Chem. 78(2009), 222-226 Processing of food by ionizing radiation By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the harmful bacteria and other pathogens present are killed. This prolongs the shelf-life of the food in cases where microbial spoilage is the limiting factor. Some foods (e.g., herbs and spices) are irradiated at sufficient doses (five kilograys or more) to reduce the microbial counts by several orders of magnitude; such ingredients will not carry over spoilage or pathogen microorganisms into the final product. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening of fruits or the sprouting of vegetables. Furthermore, insect pests can be sterilized (be made incapable of proliferation) using irradiation at relatively low doses. Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, IAEA, International Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization - IDIDAS - http://www-ididas.iaea.org/IDIDAS/default.htm last visited 2007-11-16 In consequence, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has approved the use of low-level irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit flies and seed weevils; the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has cleared among a number of other applications the treatment of hamburger patties to eliminate the residual risk of a contamination by a virulent E. coli. The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has passed a motion to commit member states to implement irradiation technology for their national phytosanitary programs; the General assembly of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has urged to make wider use of the irradiation technology. Additionally, the USDA has made a number of bi-lateral agreements with developing countries to facilitate the imports of exotic fruits and to simplify the quarantine procedures. The European Union has regulated processing of food by ionizing radiation in specific directives since 1999; the relevant documents and reports are accessible online. EU: Food Irradiation - Community Legislation http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/irradiation/comm_legisl_en.htm The 'implementing' directive contains a 'positive list' permitting irradiation of only dried aromatic herbs, spices, and vegetable seasonings. Official Journal of the European Communities. 13 March 1999. Directive 1999/3/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999 on the establishment of a Community list of foods and food ingredients treated with ionising radiation. However, any Member State is permitted to maintain previously granted clearances or to add new clearance as granted in other Member States, in the case the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) has given a positive vote for the respective application. Presently, six Member States (Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, United Kingdom) have adopted such provisions. Official Journal of the European Communities. 5 December 2006. List of Member States' authorisations of food and food ingredients which may be treated with ionising radiation. Because of the 'Single Market' of the EC, any food--even if irradiated--must be allowed to be marketed in any other Member State even if a general ban of food irradiation prevails, under the condition that the food has been irradiated legally in the state of origin. Furthermore, imports into the EC are possible from third countries if the irradiation facility had been inspected and licensed by the EC and the treatment is legal within the EC or some Member state. Official Journal of the European Communities. 13 October 2004. COMMISSION DECISION of 7 October 2004 amending Decision 2002/840/EC adopting the list of approved facilities in third countries for the irradiation of foods. The Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) of the EC has given a positive vote on eight categories of food to be irradiated. Scientific Committee on Food. Report 18. However, in a compromise between the European Parliament and the European Commission, only dried aromatic herbs, spices, and vegetable seasonings can be found in the positive list. The European Commission was due to provide a final draft for the positive list by the end of 2000; however, this failed because of a veto from Germany and a few other Member States. In 1992, Scientific Committee on Food. Report 31. and in 1998 Scientific Committee on Food. 15. the SCF voted 'positive' on a number of irradiation applications which had been allowed in some Member States before the EC Directives came into force, in order to enable those Member States to maintain their national authorizations. In 2003, when Codex Alimentarius was about to remove any upper dose limit for food irradiation, the SCF adopted a 'revised opinion', Scientific Committee on Food. Revised opinion #193. which in fact was a re-confirmation and endorsement of the 1986 opinion. The opinion denied cancellation of the upper dose limit, and required that before the actual list of individual items or food classes (as in the opinions expressed in 1986, 1992 and 1998) can be expanded, new individual studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. The SCF has subsequently been replaced by the new European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which has not yet ruled on the processing of food by ionizing radiation. Other countries, including New Zealand, Australia, Thailand, India, and Mexico, have permitted the irradiation of fresh fruits for fruit fly quarantine purposes, amongst others. Such countries as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex Alimentarius Standard on Irradiated Food without any reservation or restriction: i.e., any food may be irradiated to any dose. Radiation absorbed dose A 'dose' is the physical quantity governing the radiation processing of food, relating to the beneficial effects to be achieved. Unit of measure for irradiation dose The dose of radiation is measured in the SI unit known as Gray (Gy). One Gray (Gy) dose of radiation is equal to 1 joule of energy absorbed per kg of food material. In radiation processing of foods, the doses are generally measured in kGy (1,000 Gy). Dosimetry The measurement of radiation dose is referred to as dosimetry, and involves exposing dosimeters jointly with the treated food item. anon., Dosimetry for Food Irradiation, IAEA, Vienna, 2002, Technical Reports Series no. 409 K. Mehta, Radiation Processing Dosimetry - A practical manual, 2006, GEX Corporation, Centennial, USA Dosimeters are small components attached to the irradiated product made of materials that, when exposed to ionizing radiation, change specific, measureable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Modern dosimeters are made of a range of materials, such as alanine pellets, perspex (PMMA) blocks, and radiochromic films, as well as special solutions and other materials. These dosimeters are used in combination with specialized read out devices. Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry, as well as procedures to relate the measured dose to the effects achieved and to report and document such results, are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards. (see Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 12.02, West Conshohocken,PA, USA) Applications On the basis of the dose of radiation the application is generally divided into three main categories as detailed under: Low Dose Applications (up to 1 kGy) Sprout inhibition in bulbs and tubers 0.03-0.15 kGy Delay in fruit ripening 0.25-0.75 kGy Insect disinfestation including quarantine treatment and elimination of food borne parasites 0.07-1.00 kGy Medium Dose Applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy) Reduction of spoilage microbes to prolong shelf-life of meat, poultry and seafoods under refrigeration 1.50–3.00 kGy Reduction of pathogenic microbes in fresh and frozen meat, poultry and seafoods 3.00–7.00 kGy Reducing the number of microorganisms in spices to improve hygienic quality 10.00 kGy High Dose Applications (above 10 kGy) Sterilisation of packaged meat, poultry and their products which are shelf stable without refrigeration. 25.00-70.00 kGy Sterilisation of Hospital diets 25.00-70.00 kGy Product improvement as increased juice yield or improved re-hydration It is important to note that these doses are above those currently permitted for these food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world. The Codex Alimentarius Standard on Irradiated Food does not specify any upper dose limit. General Standard for Irradiated Foods, STAN 106-1983, REV. 1-2003 1. Recommended International Code of Practice for Radiation Processing of Food, CAC/RCP 19-1979, Rev. 2-2003 NASA is authorized to sterilize frozen meat for astronauts at doses of 44 kGy as a notable exception. U. S. Food and Drug Administration. Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. Office of Premarket Approval. Food Irradiation: The treatment of foods with ionizing radiation Kim M. Morehouse, Ph.D. Published in Food Testing & Analysis, June/July 1998 edition (Vol. 4, No. 3, Pages 9, 32, 35) Irradiation treatments are also sometimes classified as radappertization, radicidation and radurization. D.A.E. Ehlermann, The RADURA-terminology and food irradiation, Food Control 20 (2009), 526-528, doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.07.023 Technologies Electron irradiation Electron irradiation uses electrons accelerated in an electric field to a velocity close to the speed of light. Electrons are particulate radiation and, hence, have cross section many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches, depending on product density. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure. Gamma irradiation Gamma radiation is radiation of photons in the gamma part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally Cobalt-60 or, in theory, Cesium-137. Cobalt-60 is intentionally bred from Cobalt-59 using specifically designed nuclear reactors. Cesium-137 is recovered during the refinement of spent nuclear fuel. Because this technology - except for military applications - is not commercially available, insufficient quantities of it are available on the global isotope markets for use in large scale, commercial irradiators. Presently, Cesium-137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before transfusion to prevent Graft-versus-host disease. Food irradiation using Cobalt-60 is the preferred method by most processors, because the deeper penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, reducing the need for material handling. anon., Gamma Irradiators for Radiation Processing, IAEA, Vienna, 2005 A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes to hours depending on dose. Radioactive material must be monitored and carefully stored to shield workers and the environment from its gamma rays. During operation this is achieved by substantial concrete shields. With most designs the radioisotope can be lowered into a water-filled source storage pool to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs the radiation. Other uncommonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that reduce radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber. One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the Cobalt-60 under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No further shielding is required for such designs. X-ray irradiation Similar to gamma radiation, X-rays are photon radiation of a wide energy spectrum and an alternative to isotope based irradiation systems. X-rays are generated by colliding accelerated electrons with a dense material (target) such as tantalum or tungsten in a process known as bremsstrahlung-conversion. X-ray irradiators are scalable and have deep penetration comparable to Co-60, with the added effect of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also permit dose uniformity. However, these systems generally have low energetic efficiency during the conversion of electron energy to photon radiation requiring much more electrical energy than other systems. Like most other types of facilities, X-ray systems rely on concrete shields to protect the environment and workers from radiation. Nominal X-ray energy is usually limited to 5 MeV; however, USA has provisions for up to 7.5 MeV which increases the conversion efficiency. An other development is the availability of electron accelerators with extremely high power output, up to 1,000 kW beam. At a conversion efficiency of up to 12%, the X-ray power may reach (including filtering and other losses) 100 kW; This power would be equivalent to a gamma facility with Co-60 of about 6.5 MCi. Irradiated foods in the market place Current U.S. market Some U.S. supermarkets carry irradiated food products today ranging from fresh tropical fruit from Hawaii or Florida, http://www.hawaiipride.com/ retrieved 2007-11-15 dehydrated spices anon., Are irradiated foods in the U.S. supermarkets now? http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus1.shtml retrieved on 2007-11-15 and ground meat products. anon., Is this technology being used in other countries? http://ccr.ucdavis.edu/irr/inus2.shtml retrieved on 2007-11-15 Public Citizen, Action Alert! Tell your supermarkets to keep irradiated foods off their shelves! http://www.citizen.org/print_article.cfm?ID=11108 (undated document) retrieved on 2007-11-15 Certain supermarkets like Whole Foods Market prefer not to carry irradiated products for reasons of consumer perception. General economic aspects Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are not available for sale on the global market, unless they are treated in order to prolong shelf life for transportation; this may include radiation processing. However, this application has not yet been exploited. In contrast, irradiation to eliminate insect pests in order to fulfill quarantine requirements is gaining commercial significance. In particular for fruits from Hawaii to be sold on mainland US; and increasingly for imports from subtropical countries to the US (under bilateral agreements) which allows those less developed countries to earn income through food exports. The actual cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, the food's tolerance of radiation, handling conditions (i.e., packaging and stacking requirements), construction costs, financing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation. (Forsythe and Evangel 1993, USDA 1989) Irradiation is a capital-intensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. In the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a radiation source (cobalt-60), hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs (Kunstadt et al., USDA 1989) The Use of Irradiation for Post-Harvest and Quarantine Commodity Control | Ozone Depletion - Regulatory Programs | U.S. EPA Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. Low dose applications such as disinfestation of fruit range between $US 0.01/lbs and $US 0.08/lbs while higher dose applications can cost as much as $US 0.20 / lbs. Consumer perception Opponents to food irradiation, consumer organizations and environmentalist groups refer to some studies suggesting that a large part of the public questions the safety of irradiated foods, and will not buy foods that have been irradiated. Food Marketing Institute poll 2000 On the other hand, other studies indicate the number of consumers concerned about the safety of irradiated food has decreased in the last 10 years and continues to be less than the number of those concerned about pesticide residues, microbiological contamination, and other food related concerns. The number of people reporting no concerns about irradiated food is among the lowest for food issues, comparable to that of people with no concern about food additives and preservatives. Consumers, given a choice and access to the real irradiated product are ready to buy it in considerably large numbers. Consumer Attitudes and Market Response to Irradiated Food, Author: Bruhn, Christine M.1 Journal of Food Protection, Volume 58, Number 2, February 1995 , pp. 175–181(7), Publisher: International Association for Food Protection Conley, S.T., What do consumers think about irradiated foods, FSIS Food Safety Review (1992), p. 5 The globalized food supply Opponents of food irradiation sometimes state that large-scale irradiation would increase processing, transportation, and handling times for fruits and vegetables thus contributing to a negative ecological balance compared to locally grown foods. Labeling and terminology issues Labeling laws differ from country to country. While Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard in particular under the WTO-agreement, member states are free to convert those standards into national regulations. With regard to labelling of irradiated food, detailed rules are published at CODEX-STAN - 1 (2005) labelling of prepacked food. GENERAL STANDARD FOR THE LABELLING OF PREPACKAGED FOODS. CODEX STAN 1-1985. The provisions are that any 'first generation' product must be labelled 'irradiated' as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient will not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is optional; several countries use a graphical version which differs from the Codex-version. In the US as in many other countries irradiated food must be labeled as "Treated with irradiation" or "Treated by radiation" and require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point of sale. However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens affected by irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement in the US; other countries follow the Codex Alimentarius provision to label irradiated ingredients down to the last molecule (cf. EU). FDA is currently proposing a rule that in some cases would allow certain irradiated foods to be marketed without any labeling at all. Under the new rules, only those irradiated foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the consequences that may result from the use of the food, would bear the Radura symbol and the term "irradiated", or a derivative thereof, in conjunction with explicit language describing the change in the food or its conditions of use. In the same rule FDA is proposing to permit a firm to use the terms "electronically pasteurized" or "cold pasteurized" in lieu of "irradiated", provided it notifies the agency that the irradiation process being used meets the criteria specified for use of the term "pasteurized". Regulations.gov. FDA proposal regarding usage of the terms "electronically pasteurized" or "cold pasteurized" in lieu of "irradiated". Food irradiation is sometimes referred to as 'cold pasteurization' Cold Pasteurization of Food By Irradiation by Tim Roberts, Extension Specialist, Food Safety, Virginia Tech; Publication Number 458-300, posted August 1998 http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/458-300/458-300.html retrieved on 2007-11-15 or 'electronic pasteurization' See, e.g., The Truth about Irradiated Meat, CONSUMER REPORTS 34-37 (Aug. 2003). because ionizing the food does not heat the food to high temperatures during the process, as in heat-pasteurization (at a typical dose of 10 kGy, food that is physically equivalent to water would warm by about 2.5 °C). The treatment of solid food by ionizing radiation can provide an effect similar to heat pasteurization of liquids, such as milk. However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar. Consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those which processed using other food processes. "People think the product is radioactive," said Harlan Clemmons, president of Sadex, a food irradiation company based in Sioux City, Iowa. Harris, Gardinier, "F.D.A. Allows Irradiation of Some Produce", The New York Times, August 22, 2008. Enforcement of labelling There are analytical methods available to detect the usage of irradiation on food items in the marketplace. McMurray, C.H., Gray, R., Stewart, E.M., Pearce, J., Detection methods for irradiated foods, Royal Society of Chemistry; Cambridge (GB); 1996 Raffi, J., Delincée, H., Marchioni, E., Hasselmann, C., Sjöberg, A.-M., Leonardi, M., Kent, M., Bögl, K.-W., Schreiber, G., Stevenson, H., Meier, W., Concerted action of the community bureau of reference on methods of identification of irradiated foods; bcr information; European Commission; Luxembourg; 1994, 119 p.; EUR--15261 http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/377/CXS_231e.pdf General Codex Methods for the Detection of Irradiated Foods, CODEX STAN 231-2001, Rev.1 2003] This is understood as a tool for government authorities to enforce existing labeling standards and to bolster consumer confidence. The European Union is particularly strict in enforcing irradiation labeling requiring its member countries to perform tests on a cross section of food items in the market-place and to report to the European Commission; the results are published annually in the OJ of the European Communities. http://ec.europa.eu/food/biosafety/irradiation/index_htm and select respective annual report and language US Regulators of Food Irradiation The Radura logo, as required by regulation of the USFDA to show a food has been treated with ionizing radiation. Food irradiation in the United States is primarily regulated by the FDA FDA, Irradiation in the production, processing and handling of food. Final rule, Fed. Reg., 51: 13376-13399 (1986) this is the initial and general ruling; later amendments on various details have been published in Fed. Reg. since it is considered a food additive. Other federal agencies that regulate aspects of food irradiation include: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) - meat and poultry products, fresh fruit USDA/FSIS and USDA/APHIS, various final rules on pork, poultry and fresh fruits: Fed.Reg. 51:1769–1771 (1986); 54:387-393 (1989); 57:43588-43600 (1992); and others more Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) - safety of the processing facility Department of Transportation (DOT) - safe transport of the radioactive sources Each new food is approved separately with a guideline specifying a maximum dosage; in case of quarantine applications the minimum dose is regulated. Packaging materials containing the food processed by irradiation must also undergo approval. Food Safety Research Information Office."A Focus on Food Irradiation". Created June 2003, Updated December 2005. note: The Radura logo as regulated by FDA is slightly different from the international version as proposed in Codex Alimentarius. Safety aspects Safety, security and wholesomeness aspects Hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food, including multigenerational studies, have been performed since 1950. Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated food, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.) Endpoints investigated have included subchronic and chronic changes in metabolism, histopathology, and function of most systems; reproductive effects; growth; teratogenicity; and mutagenicity. A large number of studies have been performed, some having demonstrated adverse effects of irradiation, and some concluding the process yields safer foods. World Health Organization. Safety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1994 US Department of Health, and Human Services, Food, and Drug Administration Irradiation in the production, processing, and handling of food. Federal Register 1986; 51:13376-13399 World Health Organization. High-Dose Irradiation: Wholesomeness of Food Irradiated With Doses Above 10 kGy. Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999. WHO Technical Report Series No. 890 Consumer advocacy groups such as Public Citizen or Food and Water Watch maintain that the safety of irradiated food is not proven, in particular long-term studies are still lacking, and strongly oppose the use of the technology. Public Citizen | Energy Program | Energy Program - Why Oppose Food Irradiation? http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/food/foodirradiation/food-irradiation A report of fatal incidences with pet food in Australia Food Magazine. News. 24 November 2008. Petfood recall prompted by cat deaths. Accessed November 27, 2008 led to some rumours and speculations about the safety of irradiated food and a nationwide recall. In the Australian case 16 cats were reported to have been euthanized after severe paralysis subsequent to being fed a certain cat food http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,28383,25025205-5007185,00.html The company issuing a recall blamed the Australian Quarantine Inspection Services (AQIS) requirements, which ask for irradiation at a minimum dose of 50 kGy or heating of imported dry food for causing death and illness of the animals. Grenfell Record. Kelly Burke, Consumer Affairs Reporter. 28 November 2008. Cat food firm blames deaths on quarantine controls Accessed November 28, 2008. . Despite this allegations it was the pet food manufacturer itself creating a compassion fund for pet owners. Orijen compassion fund The cause of the cat illness is not yet clearly understood and is still under investigation and verification. Vitamin A depletion wasn't confirmed in the affected cats. Researchers from Wisconsin University announcing their conference presentation said in the published abstract: "Here, we show that cats fed an irradiated diet during gestation developed a severe neurologic disease resulting from extensive myelin vacuolation and subsequent demyelination." University of Wisconsin-Madison Accessed April, 2009. There are several Youtube videos claiming to show cats suffering from irradiated feed [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKL7QWQVAEQ Cats suffering from disease and a video including excerpts from an interview with Dr. Georgina Childs, the veterinarian from SASH involved in the initial cat cases. [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kO5GsmKt24 Interview with doctor, dealers and pet owners Criticism and concerns about food irradiation Concerns have been expressed by public interest groups and public health experts that irradiation, as a non-preventive measure, might disguise or otherwise divert attention away from poor working conditions, sanitation, and poor food-handling procedures that lead to contamination in the first place. http://www.organicconsumers.org/irrad/epsteinsanitation.rtf A complaint list may contain the following concerns and objections Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster, 1996 (2. ed.) which not all can be covered and discussed in this article: Food irradiation will - be used to mask spoiled food, - discourage strict adherence to Good Manufacturing Practices, - preferentially kill 'good' bacteria, encourage growth of 'bad' bacteria, - devitalise and denature irradiated food, - impair the flavour, - not destroy bacterial toxins already present, - cause chemical changes which are harmful to the consumer, and, on top of all, is unnecessary in today's food system. "Food irradiation is a pseudo-fix," said Bill Freese, a science policy analyst with the Center for Food Safety in Washington, DC. "It's a way to try to come in and clean up problems that are created in the middle of the food production chain. I think it's clearly a disincentive to clean up the problems at the source." Hedges, Stephen J., "Irradiation step doesn't quiet debate on FDA moves", Chicago Tribune, August 25, 2008. Processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections, and potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization; including fines, recalls, and criminal prosecutions. But critics of the practice claim that a lack of regulatory oversight (such as regular food processing plant inspections) necessitates irradiation. "[Irradiation] is a total cop-out," said Patty Lovera, assistant director of Food and Water Watch. "They don't have the resources, the authority or the political will to really protect consumers from unsafe food." Harris, Gardinier, "F.D.A. Allows Irradiation of Some Produce", The New York Times, August 22, 2008. While food irradiation can in some cases maintain the quality (ie. general appearance and 'inner' quality) of certain perishable food for a longer period of time, it cannot undo spoilage which has occurred prior to irradiation. Irradiation cannot be successfully used to mask quality issues other than pathogens. However, as heat pasteurization (example milk), processing by ionizing radiation can contribute to eliminate pathogen risks from solid food (example meat or lettuce). Milk heat-pasteurization is not considered to be a method 'to cover up poor food quality'; consequently, food irradiation should not be accused to serve such criminal purposes. Under a HACCP-concept (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) radiation processing can serve and contribute as an ultimate critical control point before the food reaches the consumer. Opponents to food irradiation and consumer activists frequently state that the final proof is missing that irradiated food is 'safe' (not unwholesome). Moreover, the lack of long-term studies would be a further reason not to permit food irradiation. Such questions, by the principle, cannot be answered by science as any scientist should have learned during his study. Proving the absence of a negative is virtually impossible. For such reasons the basic question needs to be rephrased: What are the chances - the probabilities - that consuming irradiated food will in some way produce unhealthful effects? The scientific consensus is "very slim". R.L. Wolke, What Einstein told his cook - Kitchen science explained, W.W. Norton & Company Inc., New York, 2002; see p.310 'Some Illumination on Irradiation A few quick answers: Do irradiated foods cause cancer or genetic damage? It has never happened. Does irradiation change the chemical composition of whatever is irradiated? Of course it does. That's why it works. (Some details in other sections of this article) Long-term studies have already been carried on huge numbers of laboratory animals, many species and multiple generations. No negative effects have been observed which could be correlated in a causal way to the irradiation treatment of the feed. But again, the absence of a noxious effect cannot be proven by the principle, even not in long-term studies. A further complaint is that animal studies cannot be transferred to humans. However, how could we collect such experiences on men as long as irradiated food is not available widely in sufficient quantities? And considering human volunteers: who would be willing for a life-long experiment consuming exclusively high-dose irradiated food (as the test-animals were forced to)? And finally, after such experiment did not show any negative effect, the new argument and demand would be to carry out such experiments over even longer terms. Worker safety and impact on the environment The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The incidents that have occurred in the past are documented by the agency and thoroughly analyzed to determine root cause and improvement potential. Such improvements are then mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design. Care must be taken not to expose the operators and the environment to radiation or radioactive contamination. Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this risk. Nevertheless there have been radiation related deaths and injury amongst workers of such facilities, many of them caused by the operators themselves overriding the interlocks. International Atomic Energy Agency. The Radiological Accident in Soreq It should be noted that 'ordinary' occupational safety regulations also apply to radiation processing facilities; the radiation aspect are typically excluded and supervised by special authorities. An incident in Decatur, Georgia where water soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring NRC intervention Information Notice No. 89-82: RECENT SAFETY-RELATED INCIDENTS AT LARGE IRRADIATORS has led to near elimination of this radioisotope; it has been replaced by the more costly, non-water soluble cobalt-60. National and international regulations on the levels and types of energy used to irradiate food generally set standards that prevent the possibility of inducing radioactivity in treated foods, and, hence, excluding the risk to workers and the environment. Alternatives Other methods to reduce several pathogens in food include heat-pasteurization, ultra-high temperature processing, UV radiation, ozone or fumigation with ethylene oxide. For quarantine purposes, insect pests can also be eliminated by fumigation with methyl bromide or aluminum phosphine, vapour heat, forced hot air, hot water dipping, or cold treatment. Other methods to extend shelf life of food items include modified atmosphere packaging, carbon monoxide, dehydration, vacuum packaging, freezing and flash freezing as well as chemical additives. Opponents to food irradiation and consumer activists (cf. Public Citizen) maintain that the best alternative to food irradiation to reduce pathogens is in good agricultural practices. For example, farmers and processing plants should improve sanitation practices, water used for irrigation and processing should be regularly tested for E. coli, and production plants should be routinely inspected. Concentrated animal feeding operations near farmland where produce is grown should be regulated. Proponents of food irradiation have said that practices of organic farming can only reduce the extent of the microorganism load. They assert that residual flora including pathogen germs will always persist; and that processing by ionizing radiation could be the ultimate measure (as a CCP under a HACCP-concept) to practically eliminate such risks. Osterholm, M.T. and Potter, M.E., Irradiation pasteurization of solid foods: Taking food safety to the next level, Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(1997) no.4, 575-577 Bender, J.B., Smith, K.E., Hedberg, C., Osterholm, M.T., Food-borne disease in the 21st century. What challenges await us? Postgrad. Med. 106(1999) no.2, 109-112, 115-116, 119 Osterholm, M.T. and Norgan, A.P., The role of irradiation in food safety, N.Engl.J.Med. 350 (2004) no.18, 1898–1901 See also Deinococcus radiodurans Food labeling regulations Food and cooking hygiene Irradiated mail Further reading World Health Organization publications: Food irradiation — A technique for preserving and improving the safety of Food, WHO, Geneva, 1991 (revised) Wholesomeness of irradiated food, WHO, Geneva, Technical Report Series no. 659, 1981 Safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated food, WHO, Geneva, 1994 High-dose irradiation: Wholesomeness of food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy, WHO, Geneva, 1999, Technical Report Series no. 890 WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated food, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.) Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster, 1996 (2. ed.) Urbain, W.M., Food irradiation, Academic Press, Orlando, 1986 Molins, R. (ed.), Food irradiation - Principles and applications, Wiley Interscience, N.Y., 2001 Sommers, C.H. and Fan, X. (eds.), Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, 2006 Hauter, W. and Worth, M., Zapped! Irradiation and the Death of Food, Food & Water Watch Press, Washington, DC, 2008. References External links Codex Alimentarius Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Irradiated Foods (CAC/STAN 106-1983, rev.1 2003) Codex Alimentarius Recommended International Code of Practice Code for Radiation Processing of Foods (CAC/RCP 19-1979, rev.2 - 2003) Food Irradiation Processing Alliance FIPA represents the irradiation service industry, manufacturers of food irradiators and suppliers of cobalt-60 sources. Food & Water Watch -- food irradiation page U.S. Food Irradiation FAQ, Food and Water Watch Remarks by Mark Worth, Public Citizen, to the FDA, Jan. 12, 2005 Irradiation of Food and Food Packaging, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Irradiation Fact Sheet, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Facts about Food Irradiation, a series of 14 fact sheets, International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1991 Bibliography on Food Irradiation, Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany Should we irradiate fruit and vegetables? Dateline NBC investigation Irradiation FAQ provided by BENEBION of Mexico anon. What's wrong with food irradiation, revised Feb. 2001, Organic Consumers Association, USA Comment by Dr. Henry Delincée on an affidavit misrepresenting the conclusions of his studies on unique radiolytical byproducts The Basics on the Foodfight Over Irradiation | health.usnews.com | Food_irradiation |@lemmatized radura:7 logo:4 use:31 show:6 food:224 treat:10 ionize:16 radiation:54 irradiation:113 anon:6 technique:3 preserve:2 improve:5 safety:28 geneva:7 process:15 expose:5 destroy:2 microorganism:5 bacteria:4 virus:1 insect:8 might:2 present:4 application:16 include:16 sprout:2 inhibition:2 delay:3 ripening:3 increase:4 juice:2 yield:3 improvement:4 hydration:2 general:11 term:12 deliberate:1 exposure:2 material:13 achieve:6 technical:5 goal:1 context:1 imply:1 also:9 non:3 item:7 medical:1 hardware:2 plastic:1 tube:1 gas:1 pipeline:1 hose:1 floor:1 heating:3 shrink:1 foil:1 packaging:6 automobile:1 part:3 wire:1 cable:1 isolation:1 tire:1 even:7 gemstone:1 compare:2 amount:3 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1,820 | Augustine_of_Hippo | Augustine of Hippo ( or ) (; The nomen Aurelius is virtually meaningless, signifying little more than Roman citizenship (see: ). ) (November 13, 354 – August 28, 430), Bishop of Hippo Regius, also known as St. Augustine or St. Austin , was a philosopher and theologian. Augustine, a Latin church father, is one of the most important figures in the development of Western Christianity. Augustine was heavily influenced by the Neo-Platonism of Plotinus. He framed the concepts of original sin and just war. When the Roman Empire in the West was starting to disintegrate, Augustine developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual City of God (in a book of the same name) distinct from the material City of Man. His thought profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Augustine's City of God was closely identified with the church, and was the community which worshipped God. Augustine was born in the city of Thagaste , the present day Souk Ahras, Algeria, to a Catholic mother named Monica. He was educated in North Africa and resisted his mother's pleas to become Christian. Living as a pagan intellectual, he took a concubine and became a Manichean. Later he converted to the Catholic Church, became a bishop, and opposed heresies, such as the belief that people can have the ability to choose to be good to such a degree as to merit salvation without divine aid (Pelagianism). In Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint and pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinian religious order; his memorial is celebrated 28 August. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists, consider him to be one of the theological fathers of Reformation teaching on salvation and divine grace. In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is blessed, and his feast day is celebrated on 15 June, though a minority are of the opinion that he is a heretic, primarily because of his statements concerning what became known as the filioque clause. Among the Orthodox he is called Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed. "Blessed" here does not mean that he is less than a saint, but is a title bestowed upon him as a sign of respect. Life Early childhood Augustine was of Berber descent. (a) Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005, v.3, p.569 (b) Norman Cantor. The Civilization of the Middle Ages, A Completely Revised and Expanded Edition of Medieval History, Harper Perennial, 1994, p.74. ISBN 0-06-092553-1 (c) Étienne Gilson, Le philosophe et la théologie (1960), Vrin, 2005, p.175 (d) Gilbert Meynier, L'Algérie des origines, La Découverte, 2007, p.73, ISBN 2-7071-5088-6 (e) Grand Larousse encyclopédique, Librairie Larousse, 1960, t.1, p.144 (f) American University, Area Handbook for Algeria, Government printing office, 1965, p.10 (g) Fernand Braudel, Grammaire des civilisations (1963), Flammarion, 2008, p.453, etc He was born in A.D. 354 in Thagaste (present-day Souk Ahras, Algeria), a provincial Roman city in North Africa. Encyclopedia Americana, v.2, p. 685. Danbury, CT: Grolier Incorporated, 1997. ISBN 0-7172-0129-5. At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus, a small Numidian city about 19 miles south of Thagaste noted for its pagan climate. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices. Andrew Knowles and Pachomios Penkett, Augustine and his World Ch.2. In 369 and 370, he remained at home. During this period he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression on him and sparking his interest in philosophy. Studying at Carthage At age 17, through the generosity of a fellow citizen Romanianus, he went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric. His mother, Monica, Monica was a Berber name derived from the Libyan deity Mon worshiped in the neighbouring town of Thibilis. However, no information is available on the ethnicity of her husband. was a Berber and a devout Catholic, and his father, Patricius, a pagan. Although raised as a Catholic, Augustine left the Church to follow the Manichaean religion, much to the despair of his mother. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with hooligans (Latin: euersores, literally meaning wreckers) Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:3 who boasted of their experience with the opposite sex and urged the inexperienced boys, like Augustine, to seek out experiences with women or to make up stories about experiences in order to gain acceptance and avoid ridicule Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 3:3 . At a young age, he developed a stable relationship with a young woman in Carthage, who would be his concubine for over thirteen years and who gave birth to his son, Adeodatus Augustine of Hippo, Confessions, 4:2 According to J.Fersuson and Garry Wills, Adeodatus, the name of Augustine's son is a Latinization of the Berber name Iatanbaal (given by God). (Milania) Rhetoric During the years 373 and 374, Augustine taught grammar at Tagaste. The following year, he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric, and would remain there for the next nine years. Disturbed by the unruly behaviour of the students in Carthage, in 383 he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced. However, Augustine was disappointed with the Roman schools, which he found apathetic. Once the time came for his students to pay their fees they simply fled. Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked to provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at Milan. The young provincial won the job and headed north to take up his position in late 384. At age thirty, Augustine had won the most visible academic chair in the Latin world, at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. During this time, Augustine was a devout follower of Manichaeism. While he was in Milan, Augustine's life changed. While still at Carthage, he had begun to move away from Manichaeism, in part because of a disappointing meeting with a key exponent of Manichaean theology. In Rome, he is reported to have completely turned away from Manichaeanism, and instead embraced the skepticism of the New Academy movement. At Milan, his mother pressured him to become a Catholic. Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism were also leading him in this direction, and his friend Simplicianus urged him that way as well. But it was the bishop of Milan, Ambrose, who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced. Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage, for which he abandoned his concubine. It is believed that Augustine truly loved the woman he had lived with for so long. In his "Confessions," he expressed how deeply he was hurt by ending this relationship, and also admitted that the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain over time. However, he had to wait two years until his fiancee came of age, so despite the grief he felt over leaving "The One" as he called her, he soon took another concubine. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancee, but never renewed his relationship with "The One" and soon left his second concubine. It was during this period that he uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet" (da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo). Conf. 8.7.17 Christian conversion In the summer of 386, after having read an account of the life of Saint Anthony of the Desert which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal crisis and decided to convert to Catholic Christianity, abandon his career in rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of marriage, and devote himself entirely to serving God and to the practices of priesthood, which included celibacy. Key to this conversion was the voice of an unseen child he heard while in his garden in Milan telling him in a sing-song voice, tolle, lege ("take up and read"). He grabbed the nearest text to him, which was Paul's Epistle to the Romans, and opened it at random to 13:13-14, which read: "Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying; but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires." "...et legi in silentio capitulum quo primum coniecti sunt oculi mei: non in comessationibus et ebrietatibus, non in cubilibus et impudicitiis, non in contentione et aemulatione, sed induite dominum Iesum Christum et carnis providentiam ne feceritis in concupiscentiis." Confessiones 8.12.29 He would detail his spiritual journey in his famous Confessions, which became a classic of both Christian theology and world literature. Ambrose baptized Augustine, along with his son, Adeodatus, on Easter Vigil in 387 in Milan, and soon thereafter in 388 he returned to Africa. On his way back to Africa his mother died, as did his son soon after, leaving him alone in the world without family. This was a very difficult process for Augustine and he did not know how he would do on his own Priesthood Upon his return to north Africa he sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. The only thing he kept was the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends. In 391 he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba, in Algeria). He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered. In 396 he was made coadjutor bishop of Hippo (assistant with the right of succession on the death of the current bishop), and became full bishop shortly thereafter. He remained in this position at Hippo until his death in 430. Augustine worked tirelessly in trying to convince the people of Hippo, who were a diverse racial and religious group, to convert to the Catholic faith. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a rule (Latin, regula) for his monastery that has led him to be designated the "patron saint of regular clergy", that is, clergy who live by a monastic rule. Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama, in his Sancti Augustini Vita. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend the Catholic faith against all detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see. Weiskotten, Herbert T. The Life of Saint Augustine: A Translation of the Sancti Augustini Vita by Possidius, Bishop of Calama . Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, 2008. ISBN 1-889758-90-6 Teaching philosophy Along with being a prominent figure in the religious spectrum, Augustine was also very influential in the history of education. He introduced the theory of three different types of students, and instructed teachers to adapt their teaching styles to each student's individual learning style. The three different kinds of students are: the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers; the student who has had no education; and the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated. If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material which they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding," and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge. Another radical idea which Augustine introduced is the idea of teachers responding positively to the questions they may receive from their students, no matter if the student interrupted his teacher. However, he also added that: the good Christian should beware of mathematicians, .... the danger already exists that the mathematicians have made a covenant with the devil to darken the spirit and to confine man in the bonds of Hell Augustine of Hippo, The Literal Meaning of Genesis, 2:18:37 . Augustine also founded the restrained style of teaching. This teaching style ensures the students' full understanding of a concept because the teacher does not bombard the student with too much material; focuses on one topic at a time; helps them discover what they don't understand, rather than moving on too quickly; anticipates questions; and helps them learn to solve difficulties and find solutions to problems. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Encyclopedia of Education Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline. For example, he agreed with using punishment as an incentive for children to learn. He believed all people tend toward evil, and students must therefore be physically punished when they allow their evil desires to direct their actions. http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/agexed/aee501/augustine.html Death Shortly before Augustine's death, Roman Africa was overrun by the Vandals, a warlike tribe with Arian sympathies. They had entered Africa at the instigation of Count Boniface, but soon turned to lawlessness, plundering private citizens and churches and killing many of the inhabitants. Weiskotten, 40 The Vandals arrived in the spring of 430 to besiege Hippo and during that time, Augustine endured his final illness. Possidius records that one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine took place during the siege. While Augustine was confined to his sick bed, a man petitioned him that he might lay his hands upon a relative who was ill. Augustine replied that if he had any power to cure the sick, he would surely have applied it on himself first. The visitor declared that he was told in a dream to go to Augustine so that his relative would be made whole. When Augustine heard this, he no longer hesitated, but laid his hands upon the sick man, who departed from Augustine's presence healed. Weiskotten, 43 Possidius also gives a first-hand account of Augustine's death, which occurred on August 28, 430, during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals. Augustine spent his final days in prayer and repentance, requesting that the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so that he could read them. He directed that the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. Weiskotten, 57 Shortly after his death, the Vandals raised the siege of Hippo, but they returned not long thereafter and burned the city. They destroyed all of it but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched. Tradition indicates that Augustine's body was later moved to Pavia, where it is said to remain to this day. Another tradition, however, claims that his remains were moved to Cagliari (Karalis) in a small chapel at the base of a hill, on the summit of which lies the sanctuary of Bonaria. The chapel bears an ancient, weathered stone plaque with an inscription leading to St.Augustine's remains. Works Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than a hundred separate titles. Passage based on F.A. Wright and T.A. Sinclair, A History of Later Latin Literature (London 1931), pp. 56 ff. They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians, texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine), exegetical works such as commentaries on Book of Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans, many sermons and letters, and the Retractationes (Retractions), a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life. Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his Confessiones (Confessions), which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for De civitate dei (The City of God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His De trinitate (On the Trinity), in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also among his masterpieces, and arguably one of the greatest theological works of all time. He also wrote "On Free Choice Of The Will," answering why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil. Influence as a theologian and thinker Augustine was a bishop, priest, and father who remains a central figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought, and is considered by modern historian Thomas Cahill to be the first medieval man and the last classical man. Thomas Cahill, How the Irish Saved Civilization Ch.2. In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neo-platonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Although he later abandoned Neo-Platonism some ideas are still visible in his early writings Bertrand Russell History of western Philosophy Book II Chapter IV . His generally favourable view of Neoplatonic thought contributed to the "baptism" of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently the European intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. In addition, Augustine was influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), Cicero (known for his teaching on argument), and Aristotle (particularly his Rhetoric and Poetics). Augustine's concept of original sin was expounded in his works against the Pelagians. However, St. Thomas Aquinas took much of Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the work of Aristotle. While Augustine's doctrine of divine predestination and efficacious grace would never be wholly forgotten within the Roman Catholic Church, finding eloquent expression in the works of Bernard of Clairvaux, Reformation theologians such as Martin Luther and John Calvin would look back to him as the inspiration for their avowed capturing of the Biblical Gospel. Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is August 28, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses. The latter part of Augustine's Confessions consists of an extended meditation on the nature of time. Even the agnostic philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by this. He wrote, "a very admirable relativistic theory of time. ... It contains a better and clearer statement than Kant's of the subjective theory of time - a theory which, since Kant, has been widely accepted among philosophers." History of Western Philosophy, 1946, reprinted Unwin Paperbacks 1979, pp 352-3 Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory Confessiones Liber X: commentary on 10.8.12 (in Latin) clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information. Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions, has had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem." Husserl, Edmund. Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness. Tr. James S. Churchill. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1964, 21. Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work, Being and Time. For example, Heidegger's articulations of how "Being-in-the-world" is described through thinking about seeing: "The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation of concupiscentia." Heidegger then quotes the Confessions: "Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines', ... 'but we even say, 'See how that sounds'". Being and Time Trs. Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964. 171 Hannah Arendt, the much appreciated phenomenologist of social and political life, began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity." Chiba, Shin. Hannah Arendt on Love and the Political: Love, Friendship, and Citizenship.The Review of Politics, Vol. 57, No. 3 (Summer, 1995), 507. Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and the Limits of Politics finds likeness between Augustine and Arendt in their concepts of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamourously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann in Jerusalem]." Tinder, Glenn. The American Political Science Review, Vol. 91, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 432-433 Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th century figures. According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and Eco-fundamentalism. Lal, D. Morality and Capitalism: Learning from the Past. Working Paper Number 812, Department of Economics, University of California, Los Angeles. March 2002 Influence on St. Thomas Aquinas For quotations of St. Augustine by St. Thomas Aquinas see Aquinas and the Sacraments and Thought of Thomas Aquinas. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Original Sin Influence on Protestant reformers While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty(see total depravity). Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article: Original Sin Theology Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation Augustine took the view that the Biblical text should not be interpreted literally if it contradicts what we know from science and our God-given reason. In "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis" (early 5th century, AD), St. Augustine wrote: A more clear distinction between "metaphorical" and "literal" in literary texts arose with the rise of the Scientific Revolution, although its source could be found in earlier writings, such as those of Herodotus (5th century BC). It was even considered heretical to interpret the Bible literally at times. Origen, St. Jerome: "On First Principles", Book III, Chapter III, Verse 1. Translated by K. Froehlich. Biblical Interpretation in the Early Church. Fortress Press, 1985 Creation In "The Literal Interpretation of Genesis" Augustine took the view that everything in the universe was created simultaneously by God, and not in seven calendar days like a plain account of Genesis would require. He argued that the six-day structure of creation presented in the book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way - it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. Augustine also does not envision original sin as originating structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall. Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognizes that the interpretation of the creation story is difficult, and remarks that we should be willing to change our mind about it as new information comes up. In "City of God", Augustine rejected both the immortality of the human race proposed by pagans, and contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings: Original sin Augustine viewed that a major result of original sin was disobedience of the flesh to the spirit as a punishment of their disobedience to God: The view that sex was an evil was prevalent in Augustine's time. Plotinus, a neo-Platonist that Augustine praises in his Confessions, Conf. 8.2 taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind. Gerson, Lloyd P. Plotinus. New York, NY: Routledge, 1994. 203 Augustine, likewise, had served as a "Hearer" for the Manicheans for about nine years, Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967. ISBN 0-520-00186-9, 35 and they also taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge. Manichaean Version of Genesis 2-4, the. Translated from the Arabic text of Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, as reproduced by G. Flügel, Mani: Seine Lehre und seine Schriften (Leipzig, 1862; reprinted, Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1969) 58.11-61.13. 10 December 2006 (http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm). In his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin was transmitted by concupiscence (roughly, lust), making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will. In the struggle against Pelagianism, the principles of Augustine's teaching were confirmed by many councils, especially the Second Council of Orange (529). Anselm of Canterbury established the definition that was followed by the great Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess", thus separating it from concupiscence, with which Augustine's disciples had often defined it, as later did Luther and Calvin, who instead of seeing concupiscence, like Augustine, as a vehicle of transmission of Original Sin actually equated the two, a doctrine condemned in 1567 by Pope Pius V. Augustine's formulation of the doctrine of original sin has substantially influenced both Catholic and Reformed (that is, Calvinist) theology. His understanding of sin and grace was developed against that of Pelagius. Expositions on the topics are found in his works On Original Sin, On the Predestination of the Saints, On the Gift of Perseverance and On Nature and Grace. Some attribute his insistence on absolute abstinence and devotion to God as coming from his need to reject his highly sensual nature. (The following section is disputed on the grounds that Augustine did not believe humans are utterly depraved in nature. That teaching comes later, from Calvinism. Augustine believed that evil was only the privation of good and that everything was created originally good by God. Therefore, nothing exists that is entirely evil.) Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all human beings inherit. As sinners, human beings are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without divine grace. Grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance. Augustine's idea of predestination rests on the assertion that God has foreordained, from eternity, those who will be saved. The number of the elect is fixed. God has chosen the elect certainly and gratuitously, without any previous merit (ante merita) on their part. The Roman Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that any can be saved if they wish. While God knows who will be saved and who will not, with no possibility that one destined to be lost will be saved, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies. Encyclopedia (1914) Ecclesiology Augustine developed his doctrine of the church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught a distinction between the "church visible" and "church invisible". The former is the institutional body on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The visible church will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that they were the only "true" or "pure" church on earth. Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in City of God. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that the bishops of the church are the successors of the apostles. In addition, he believed in papal supremacy. "Carthage was also near the countries over the sea, and distinguished by illustrious renown,so that it had a bishop of more than ordinary influence, who could afford to disregard a number of conspiring enemies because he saw himself joined by letters of communion to the Roman Church, in which the supremacy of an apostolic chair has always flourished" Letter 43 Chapter 9 Sacramental theology Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised. Against the Pelagians Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question if baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation however, Augustine appears to have changed his mind during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. In 395, he said in one of his sermons: "God does not remit sins but to the baptized". A Sermon to Catechumens on the Creed paragraph 16, by Augustine of Hippo This belief was shared and followed by many Christians in the early Catholic Church, until in the 12th century pope Innocent III accepted the doctrine of limbo as promulgated by Peter Abelard. It was the place where the unbaptized went and suffered no pain but, as the Church maintained, being still in a state of original sin, they did not deserve Paradise, therefore they did not know happiness either. Later however, Augustine wrote in his City of God (which he completed in 426): "For whatever unbaptized persons die confessing Christ, this confession is of the same efficacy for the remission of sins as if they were washed in the sacred font of baptism." City of God, book 13, ch. 7 by Augustine of Hippo Since small children cannot really confess, it is not clear from this passage if babies who die before baptism could be saved according to Augustine. A passage from another chapter of this book, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate that Augustine did believe this for children born to Christian parents: "But what shall become of the little ones? For it is beyond all belief that in these days [the Apocalypse] there shall not be found some Christian children born, but not yet baptized, and that there shall not also be some born during that very period; and if there be such, we cannot believe that their parents shall not find some way of bringing them to the laver of regeneration." City of God, book 20, ch. 8 by Augustine of Hippo The Eastern Orthodox position differs from Augustine's position in that they do not believe that Original Sin carries over the guilt of Original Sin (which only Adam himself is guilty of) but only the consequences of Original Sin. Therefore they also disagree with Augustine's early belief that unbaptized infants will go to hell or to even a state of limbo as advocated by Anselm. The same can be said for Unitarians, who never accepted the doctrine of Original Sin Unitarian South Africa's website . Most later forms of Christianity, including many Protestant movements, do not see baptism as an absolute requirement for salvation, although some believe in Original Sin. Mariology Augustine did not develop an independent mariology, but his statements on Mary surpass in number and depths those of other early writers. O Stegmüller, in Marienkunde, 455 The Virgin Mary “conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever” De Saca virginitate 18 Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the ever Virgin Mary as the mother of God, who, because of her virginity, is full of grace De Sacra Virginitate, 6,6, 191. She was free of any temporal sin, but theologians disagree as to whether Augustine considered Mary free of original sin as well. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura Hugo Rahner against Henry Newman and others Because of a woman, the whole human race was saved. Per feminam mors, per feminam vita De Sacra Virginitate,289 Eschatology Augustine originally believed that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection (premillennialism or chiliasm) but rejected the system as carnal. He was the first theologian to systematically expound a doctrine of amillennialism, although some theologians and Christian historians believe his position was closer to that of modern postmillennialists. The mediaeval Catholic church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where the Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church. At the Reformation, theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism while rejecting aspects of mediaeval ecclesiology which had been built on Augustine's teaching. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, unspecified article Enchiridion 110 and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those that died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology. Just war Augustine developed a theology of just war, that is, war that is acceptable under certain conditions. Firstly, war must occur for a good and just purpose rather than for self-gain or as an exercise of power. Secondly, just war must be waged by a properly instituted authority such as the state. Thirdly, love must be a central motive even in the midst of violence. Views on lust Augustine struggled with lust throughout his life. He associated sexual desire with the sin of Adam, and believed that it was still sinful, even though the Fall has made it part of human nature. In the Confessions, Augustine describes his personal struggle in vivid terms: "But I, wretched, most wretched, in the very commencement of my early youth, had begged chastity of Thee, and said, 'Grant me chastity and continence, only not yet.'" Conf. 8.7.17 At sixteen Augustine moved to Carthage where again he was plagued by this "wretched sin": For Augustine, the evil was not in the sexual act itself, but rather in the emotions that typically accompany it. To the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome, he writes, "Truth, another's lust cannot pollute thee." Chastity is "a virtue of the mind, and is not lost by rape, but is lost by the intention of sin, even if unperformed." A history of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell, Simon & Schuster, 1945. Augustine viewed erections themselves as involuntary: at times, without intention, the body stirs on its own, insistent; at other times, it leaves a straining lover in the lurch Augustine of Hippo, City of God, 14.17 In short, Augustine's life experience led him to consider lust to be one of the most grievous sins, and a serious obstacle to the virtuous life. Statements on Jews Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people, Diarmaid MacCulloch. The Reformation: A History (Penguin Group, 2005) p 8. though he also considered the scattering of Jews by the Roman empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy. City of God, book 18, chapter 46. Augustine also quotes part of the same prophecy that says "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine argued that God had allowed the Jews to survive this dispersion as a warning to Christians, thus they were to be permitted to dwell in Christian lands. Augustine further argued that the Jews would be converted at the end of time. J. Edwards, The Spanish Inquisition (Stroud, 1999), pp33-5. Abortion and ensoulment Like other Church Fathers, St Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion". Fitzgerald, 1 In his works, Augustine did consider that the gravity of participation in an abortion depended whether or not the fetus had yet received a soul at the time of abortion. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080828/ap_on_el_pr/cvn_pelosi_theology He held that this ensoulment occurred at 40 days for males, and 90 for females. In the summer of 2008, this aspect of Augustine's thought (i.e., the gravity of abortion vis-a-vis the ensoulment of the fetus) was used by the Speaker of the US House of Representatives, Nancy Pelosi, in defence of her pro-choice political stance. She quoted one of his works, in which he wrote (the following, it should be noted, is not a report of Pelosi's actual quotation, but the current author's selection of a passage from the same work.) "The law does not provide that the act [abortion] pertains to homicide, for there cannot yet be said to be a live soul in a body that lacks sensation.''' 'Pelosi camp responds to archbishop's critique' In the week following her comments, this was criticized by numerous American bishops, such as Archbishop Charles J. Chaput of Denver, who was critical of the Speaker of the House for obfuscating the official teaching of the Church, which, he stated, has always held that directly induced abortion constituted a "mortal" or grave sin, whether or not a specific act was in fact homicide. Cf. Pope John Paul II, Evangelium Vitae, n. 62. Archbishop Chaput spoke for the United States Bishops' Conference, writing in reply: "In the absence of modern medical knowledge, some of the Early Fathers held that abortion was homicide; others that it was tantamount to homicide; and various scholars theorized about when and how the unborn child might be animated or "ensouled." But none diminished the unique evil of abortion as an attack on life itself..." http://www.archden.org/images/ArchbishopCorner/ByTopic/onseparationofsense&state_openlettercjc8.25.08.pdf Works (books, letters and sermons) On Christian Doctrine (, 397-426) Confessions (Confessiones, 397-398) City of God (De civitate Dei, begun ca. 413, finished 426) On the Trinity (De trinitate, 400-416) Enchiridion (Enchiridion ad Laurentium, seu de fide, spe et caritate) Retractions (Retractationes): At the end of his life (ca. 426-428) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order in a work titled the Retractions (in Latin, "Retractationes"). The English translation of the title has led some to assume that at the end of his career, Augustine retreated from his earlier theological positions. In fact, the Latin title literally means 're-treatments" (not "Retractions") and though in this work Augustine suggested what he would have said differently, it provides little in the way of actual "retraction." It does, however, give the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts. The Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram) On Free Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio) On the Catechising of the Uninstructed (De catechizandis rudibus) On Faith and the Creed (De fide et symbolo) Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen (De fide rerum invisibilium) On the Profit of Believing (De utilitate credendi) On the Creed: A Sermon to Catechumens (De symbolo ad catechumenos) On Continence (De continentia) On the Good of Marriage (De bono coniugali) On Holy Virginity (De sancta virginitate) On the Good of Widowhood (De bono viduitatis) On Lying (De mendacio) To Consentius: Against Lying (Contra mendacium [ad Consentium]) On the Work of Monks (De opere monachorum) On Patience (De patientia) On Care to be Had For the Dead (De cura pro mortuis gerenda) On the Morals of the Catholic Church and on the Morals of the Manichaeans (De moribus ecclesiae catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum) On Two Souls, Against the Manichaeans (De duabus animabus [contra Manichaeos]) Acts or Disputation Against Fortunatus the Manichaean ([Acta] contra Fortunatum [Manichaeum]) Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Called Fundamental (Contra epistulam Manichaei quam vocant fundamenti) Reply to Faustus the Manichaean (Contra Faustum [Manichaeum]) Concerning the Nature of Good, Against the Manichaeans (De natura boni contra Manichaeos) On Baptism, Against the Donatists (De baptismo [contra Donatistas]) The Correction of the Donatists (De correctione Donatistarum) On Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism (De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum) On the Spirit and the Letter (De spiritu et littera) On Nature and Grace (De natura et gratia) On Man's Perfection in Righteousness (De perfectione iustitiae hominis) On the Proceedings of Pelagius (De gestis Pelagii) On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin (De gratia Christi et de peccato originali) On Marriage and Concupiscence (De nuptiis et concupiscientia) On the Nature of the Soul and its Origin (De natura et origine animae) Against Two Letters of the Pelagians (Contra duas epistulas Pelagianorum) On Grace and Free Will (De gratia et libero arbitrio) On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia) On the Predestination of the Saints (De praedestinatione sanctorum) On the Gift of Perseverance (De dono perseverantiae) Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount (De sermone Domini in monte) On the Harmony of the Evangelists (De consensu evangelistarum) Treatises on the Gospel of John (In Iohannis evangelium tractatus) Soliloquies (Soliloquiorum libri duo) Enarrations, or Expositions, on the Psalms (Enarrationes in Psalmos) On the Immortality of the Soul (De immortalitate animae) Answer to the Letters of Petilian, Bishop of Cirta (Contra litteras Petiliani) Sermons, among which a series on selected lessons of the New Testament Homilies, among which a series on the First Epistle of John References Bibliography g Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; City of God 51, 52, 53 and The Confessions 50, 51, 52 Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35. Translations See also External links General Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc. Bibliography Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles Works by Augustine St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library Aurelius Augustinus at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list Augustinus.it – Latin and Italian texts Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books Biography and criticism Order of St Augustine Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church be-x-old:Аўгустын | Augustine_of_Hippo |@lemmatized augustine:151 hippo:22 nomen:1 aurelius:2 virtually:1 meaningless:1 signify:1 little:3 roman:13 citizenship:2 see:16 november:1 august:4 bishop:13 regius:2 also:19 know:12 st:14 austin:1 philosopher:4 theologian:10 latin:12 church:38 father:6 one:15 important:1 figure:4 development:2 western:5 christianity:4 heavily:1 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1,821 | Books_of_Samuel | The Books of Samuel () are part of the Tanakh (part of Judaism's Hebrew Bible) and also of the Christian Old Testament. The work was originally written in Hebrew, and the Book(s) of Samuel originally formed a single text, as they are often considered today in Hebrew bibles. Together with what is now referred to as the Book(s) of Kings, the translators who created the Greek Septuagint divided the text into four books, which they named the Books of the Kingdoms. In the Latin Vulgate version, these then became the Books of the Kings, thus 1 and 2 Samuel were referred to as 1 and 2 Kings, with 3 and 4 Kings being what are called 1 and 2 Kings by the King James Bible and its successors. Structure The two books can be essentially broken down into seven parts, which can be subdivided: I. Historical Setting for the Establishment of Kingship (1 Samuel 1-7) A. Samuel's birth, youth and calling; judgment on Eli's house (1 Samuel 1-3) B. The defeat of Israel by the Philistines; the capture and recovery of the ark (1 Samuel 4-7) II. The Establishment of Kingship Under Samuel (1 Samuel 8-12) A. Israel asks for a king and God accepts (1 Samuel 8) B. Samuel anoints Saul privately as king (1 Samuel 9 - 10:16) C. Samuel makes God's choice of king known to the people at Mizpah (1 Samuel 10:17-27) D. Saul's choice confirmed by victory over the Ammonites (1 Samuel 11:1-13) E. Saul's reign inaugurated and the covenant renewed at Gilgal (1 Samuel 11:14 - 12) III. Saul's Kingship A Failure (1 Samuel 13-15) IV. David's Rise to the Throne and the End of Saul's Reign (1 Samuel 16 - 2 Samuel 5:5) A. David is anointed, enters Saul's service and flees (1 Samuel 16-26) B. David seeks refuge with the Philistines; Saul is killed (1 Samuel 27-31) C. David becomes king over Judah (2 Samuel 1-4) D. David becomes king over all Israel (2 Samuel 5:1-5) V. The Accomplishments and Glory of David's Kingship (2 Samuel 5:6 - 9) A. Conquest of Jerusalem and defeat of the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:6-25) B. The ark is brought to Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6) C. God's promise to David (2 Samuel 7) D. David's victories and justice (2 Samuel 8) E. David's kindness to the last of Saul's relatives (2 Samuel 9) VI. The Weaknesses and Failures of David's Kingship (2 Samuel 10-20) A. David commits adultery and murder (2 Samuel 10-12) B. David loses his sons Amnon and Absalom (2 Samuel 13-20) VII. Appendix - final reflections on David's reign (2 Samuel 21-24) A conclusion of sorts appears at 1 Kings 1–2, concerning Solomon enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in Chronicles, it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2–12:29) containing an account of the matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20. Contents Samuel Hannah is introduced as childless, but she makes a vow to YHWH stating that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to Yahweh as a permanent Nazirite. Eli blesses her, and a child named Samuel is soon born. At the same time, Eli's two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, are priests at Shiloh who abuse their position. A "man of God" comes to Eli and tells him that due his tolerance of their behavior, YHWH has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for Eli's family, and that Eli's sons will later die on the same day. Samuel confirms that there is no way for them to avoid this fate. A while later, following a battle between the Israelites and the Philistines, it is reported to Eli that his sons are dead and that the Philistines have captured the Ark of the Covenant. Upon hearing the latter, Eli falls backward off his seat, breaks his neck and dies. Phinehas's wife, hearing that Eli had died and that the Ark of the Covenant was captured, is overcome with birth pains. Giving birth to a son, she names him Ichabod (without glory), and dies shortly thereafter. The Philistines take the Ark of the Covenant to their temple of the god Dagon. The next morning, the Dagon statue is found prostrate before the Ark, so they adjust the statue; but the morning after, it is found broken into pieces. The town surrounding the Ark falls victim to a plague, so the Philistines resign themselves to get rid of the Ark, first sending it on to Gath, then to Ekron, both of which fall victim to the same plague. At the advice of fortune tellers, the Philistines put the Ark and additional offerings on a cow-pulled cart, sending it off without a driver. The cart reaches Beth-shemesh, and the locals celebrate, but then mourn because some of their men are struck dead by YHWH for looking into the Ark of the Covenant. So they ask the people of Kiriath-jearim to collect the ark, which they do, and it is taken into the house of Abinadab. Later, the Philistines attack the Israelites gathered at Mizpah. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. As a result, Samuel sets up a memorial stone between Mizpah and Shen, naming it Ebenezer. Israel reclaims the territory spanning Ekron to Gath, and makes peace with the Amorites. Saul In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons as judges, but they do not follow his example, so the people clamour for a king. God begrudgingly accedes, and Samuel gives the people a list of regulations about the king. Meanwhile, Saul, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, a handsome man a head taller than anyone else, is searching for the donkeys of his family. His search takes him to Zuph; he seeks out the wise man who lives there, on the advice of his servant and some girls. Samuel comes toward Saul as he enters the town and realises that Saul is the man that Yahweh has chosen to be king, so he is hospitable to him. The next day, Samuel anoints him and gives three prophecies of events on Saul's journey home. They all come true, including the third, that Saul will prophesy amongst a band of prophets preceded by musical instruments, leading to the proverb Is Saul also among the Prophets? (cf. 1 Samuel 10:12). After calling the people together at Mizpah, Samuel whittles them down by lot to Saul and announces that he is king. Saul tries to hide but is discovered. Some people criticise the decision. Nahash, an Ammonite, lays siege to Jabesh-Gilead, so its people request a treaty, but Nahash is arrogant and requires that each person must have their right eye gouged out. The people request that Nahash let them send out messengers in search of a savior, and Nahash agrees, unaware that Israel has a king and believing that the tribes are still separated. After hearing of the siege, Saul orders the people of Israel to join him in an attack on Nahash and threatens them by sending out a piece of a cow to each of the 12 tribes, stating that if they do not comply, he will do the same to their cattle. Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks Nahash, obliterating his army. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so they are told by Samuel to appoint him king, which they do. Samuel gives a speech reminding the Israelites not to fall into heathenism like their previous generations have done. The Hebrews/Jonathan (depending on the text—Masoretic has Jonathan, Septuagint has Hebrews) overcome the Philistines in Gibeah. Saul sounds the trumpet to tell all Israel that he (Saul) has overcome the Philistines there. The Philistines assemble for battle, frightening the Israelites, but in accordance with Samuel's instructions, Saul waits seven days for Samuel to arrive, before giving up his wait and making a sacrifice. Samuel castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result his kingdom will not last. Saul, successful and brave, defeats Amalek. Samuel orders Saul to exterminate Amalek, but although Saul subsequently slaughters the Amalekites, he does not slaughter the animals, and he captures King Agag alive. Saul also erects a trophy at Carmel in his own honour. Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination completely, so Saul repents and begs Samuel to go with him. Samuel refuses and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantle, for which Samuel says that part of Saul's kingdom will be torn off and given to another. Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces (wa-yeshassef). While Saul and his son occupy Geba, the Philistines raid the nearby land. Previously, the Philistines had ensured that there were no smiths in the land, causing the people of Israel to be devoid of weaponry, except for Saul and Jonathan. Jonathan secretly heads to the Philistine outpost at Michmash with his armour bearer, first crossing a ravine, and they slaughter large numbers of Philistines who panic and scatter. Saul notices and eventually sends his army to help. The Hebrews were previously on the Philistine side (some translations add the words some of, making this refer only to a sub group of Hebrews) but decide to join the forces of Israel. In a moment of foolishness, Saul curses anyone that eats anything before the evening, but Jonathan does not notice and consumes some honey he finds. This rapidly leads to others following suit and ignoring Saul's curse. Saul builds an altar, insisting that it be used to sacrifice before the food is eaten, and he condemns to death whoever is at fault for violating his curse. Saul uses Urim and Thummim to find out it was Jonathan, so reluctantly condemns him, but the army threatens to revolt if Saul kills him, so he does not. Ascent of David Samuel is told to go to Bethlehem by Yahweh, to find a replacement for Saul. Each of the sons of Jesse are rejected in turn, except David, the youngest, who Samuel is told to anoint. A demon is sent by Yahweh to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a harpist to soothe his temper. David is known for his skill in the art and so is brought to court. The Philistines rally against Israel, and Goliath of Gath steps out and suggests that rather than fight a battle, the Israelites should just send a champion to fight him. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him. David persuades a reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David takes down Goliath with a single stone from a sling and kills him by decapitation with Goliath's own sword, and so the Philistines flee. Saul seeks to kill David Jonathan befriends David, and since David succeeds in everything Saul tasks him with, women praise David as greater than Saul. To get rid of this perceived threat, Saul promises David the hand of his daughter, Merab, in marriage if he becomes Saul's champion, but Merob is married off to someone else before David accepts. Saul notices that Michal, his other daughter, is in love with David, so in order to send him on to his death offers her to him in exchange for 100 foreskins of the Philistines, but David successfully kills 200 Philistines, so weds Michal. Saul talks to Jonathan about his plans to kill David, but owing to Jonathan's relationship with David, Jonathan dissuades Saul and informs David. While David is in Saul's court, Saul throws a spear at David but misses. Saul then sends guards to David's house, but Michal makes David escape and places a statue in the bed and pretends to the guards that it is him. On discovering David's location, Saul sends out successive guards, but they all meet a group of prophets and join them instead, as does Saul when he eventually decides to go himself, hence the phrase Is Saul also among the prophets? (c.f. 1 Samuel 19:24). David then meets Jonathan and asks him to secretly find out Saul's intentions, but Saul tells Jonathan that he knows that Jonathan is David's companion, and that he intends to kill David. Jonathan is so hurt that he stops eating and then later goes off to tell David. David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who only has holy bread. Since David abstains from the company of women on such journeys, Ahimelech allows David to take the bread and Goliath's sword which Ahimelech had been keeping. David then flees. Saul's chief henchman, Doeg, witnessed Ahimelech assisting David, so Saul has Doeg kill him and all the people in Nob. However, Ahimelech's son Abiathar escapes to tell David. David in hiding David flees to the cave of Adullam, where he amasses a band of outlaws. David decides to leave his parents in the care of the king of Moab, where the prophet Gad tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. The people of Keilah are attacked by the Philistines so David rescues them, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him, so David flees. Jonathan briefly visits David at Horesh and returns home. The people of Ziph tell Saul where David is, so Saul chases David into a gorge but is forced to break pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them. The gorge becomes known as Sela-hammahlekoth (gorge of divisions) David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul hears of this and pursues him. Saul enters a cave to relieve himself, coincidentally the cave in which David is hiding, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle (Saul had also done this to Samuel). Because Saul has been anointed, David regrets this and forbids his men from harming Saul, and then he steps out of the cave to show himself. David convinces Saul that he is not a threat, and the two reconcile. The two depart from one another, and Samuel dies. Men from Ziph tell Saul that David is hiding at Hachilah, so Saul goes to search for him. David and Abishai sneak into Saul's camp and steal Saul's spear. They then go a long way away and shout back what they have just done and persuade Saul that David is not a threat; the two consequently are reconciled. David tries to get hospitality from a man at Ma'on, named Nabal, who owns property in Carmel, but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to attack Nabal and kill those surrounding him. Nabal's clever and pretty wife, Abigail, sends David provisions, causing David to relent. She tells Nabal once he has sobered up, and Nabal is soon after struck dead by Yahweh. David thus proposes marriage to Abigail, who accepts. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel, though meanwhile Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man, Palti. David decides that it is better to be on the safe side and so chooses to reside amongst the Philistines, staying with the King Achish of Gath. Previously David had briefly fled to Achish having left Ahimelech, where he feigned insanity to avoid attracting attention, but this time he lets Achish realise that he is an enemy of Saul. However, David continues to make raids against the surrounding population, slaughtering everyone he meets so that none will tell Achish what he has done. When he brings back spoils, he tells the king of Gath that he has raided against some foreign group or the Israelites or Judah. Achish trusts him implicitly and so requests that David join him in an attack on Jezreel. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites but are curious why the Hebrews (some translations have "some of the Hebrews") are amongst the Philistines. Uneasy about David's presence, they tell Achish to send him away, and so Achish reluctantly does so. Saul sees the Philistines encamping at Shunem and is disheartened. Saul tries to consult God for advice but receives no reply, and since he has banned necromancy and prophecy in accordance with the mitzvah, he is forced to disguise himself and go to the Witch of Endor. He asks her to bring up Samuel from the dead, which she does, and Samuel admonishes Saul for acting this way and tells him that owing to Saul's past failure to commit complete genocide regarding Amalek, Saul is already condemned. Saul becomes deeply shaken and refuses to eat, but he is eventually persuaded. Ziklag Ziklag is burnt to the ground by the Amalekites, they take the people captive, including David's wives. David and his men therefore set off in pursuit, though some give up on the way. The men meet an escaped Amalekite slave, and he leads them to the Amalekite raiders. David slaughters all but 400 of the raiders and recovers his property and wives, as well as extra spoil which he divides amongst his followers, including those that gave up . He sends a portion of the spoil to Judah. Death of Saul and Jonathan The Philistines attack the Israelites at Gilboa and kill Jonathan and inflict a mortal wound on Saul. Saul asks his armour bearer to finish him off. His armour bearer refuses so Saul falls on his own sword. The armour bearer then kills himself. The Philistines cut the bodies into pieces, displaying them on the wall of Bethshan, though the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones under a tamarisk tree. An Amalekite comes to David and tells him that Saul and Jonathan are dead, and that Saul was mortally wounded and asked him to finish him, so he did. David is incensed and orders the Amalekite to be killed, delivering a eulogy about Jonathan and Saul, which is recorded in the Book of Jasher. Court of David David is anointed king in Hebron but only over Judah. Saul's son, Ishbaal, is taken by Abner to Mahanaim and appointed king of Israel. The two sides meet at Gibeon and stage some form of activity between 12 men on each side, thrusting swords into their opponents, hence the place became known as Helkath-hazzurim (field of sides). After a fierce battle, David's side wins. Asahel, brother of Joab, David's commander, sets out after Abner, but Abner twice tells him to stop. Since he does not listen, Abner thrusts his javelin into Asahel, who dies. Joab continues the chase as far as Ammah where Abner warns him to stop to avoid more bad blood, so Joab stops the pursuit. However, there was a war between the two groups that lasted for ages with David's side gradually winning. Abner is accused of being intimate with Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, by Ishbaal. Abner decides to change sides because of this accusation and brings Michal back to David, sending Paltiel, her other husband, back home weeping. Abner persuades the elders of Israel to change to David's side as well. When Abner arrives in David's court, Joab secretly follows him and stabs Abner in revenge for killing his brother. David curses Joab for this and sings a eulogy to Abner. Ishbaal is killed in his sleep by his own leaders, the sons of Rimmon, who cut off his head and take it to David, but David has them killed for killing a king. David is anointed King of Israel in Hebron. Conquest of Jerusalem David sets out for Jerusalem and manages to take the stronghold of Zion. Since he was told by the Jebusites that the blind and the lame would turn him away, he makes the blind and the lame his personal enemy. David instructs his people to attack the Jebusites via the water shaft. Hiram, king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace, and David also builds up the area surrounding it. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but he defeats them at a place that becomes known as Baal-perazim (lord of scatterings). The second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David approaches via the rear, and they are routed. David then requests the Ark be moved to Jerusalem, but when it reaches Nodan it is unsteady, and Uzzah puts his hand on it to steady it but is struck dead for this by Yahweh. David becomes more cautious and leaves the ark with Obed-Edom for three months, though noting Obed-edom's subsequent good fortune, he brings the Ark to Zion. David joins the subsequent celebrations but is castigated for doing so by Michal, who accuses him of exposing himself, and hence Michal is made permanently infertile by Yahweh. David asks Nathan whether the Ark should be housed in grander settings, but Nathan tells him that it is fine for the moment and prophecies that one of David's sons will be the one to build a new home for it. David attacks the Philistines, taking their methegammah (literally bridle of the cubit though many translations render this as chief cities). David also defeats Moab and executes a proportion (either ⅓ or ⅔) of their entire population, making Moab a vassal. David then defeats Hadadezer, and though the Aramaeans come to Hadadezer's aid, David slaughters them, making the Aramaeans vassals. King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's enemy, congratulates David and adds to his spoils of precious metals. On his return (from an unspecified location), David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 Edomites, whereupon Edom becomes a vassal state. A list of officers in David's court is given on two occasions. The list includes the head of the army, chancellor (Jehoshaphat), master of the slaves, and commander of foreign troops, as well as the two priests, Zadok and Abiathar. The king of the Ammonites dies and is succeeded by Hanun. Reflecting the prior king's kindness to David, David sends messengers to Hanun to give his condolences. However, they are interpreted by Hanun as spies, so he has the base of their beards cut off and the base of their garments below their buttocks, giving them a Babylonian appearance. When they return, David tells them to wait in Jericho until their beards grow. The Ammonites then prepare for war and hire a mercenary army from Aram, Tob, and Maacah, but it does not reach the Ammonites before David's army are too close. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites. The Aramaeans flee before David's army, and so the Ammonites withdraw. Hadadezer hires Aramaeans that live beyond the Euphrates, and they attack the Israelites at Helam. Shobach, Hadadezer's general, is defeated and killed, and so Hadadezer's vassal states decide to become David's vassals instead. Bathsheba David sends his army to besiege Rabbah. From his rooftop, he spots a pretty woman and later finds out that she is Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, Joab's armour bearer. David has intercourse with her, and she becomes pregnant, so he orders Uriah to be placed in the heaviest part of the fighting and for the army to draw back from him. Uriah is consequently killed by an archer, and David marries Bathsheba. Nathan tells David a parable, asking him for an analysis. When Nathan reveals that the parable describes his actions over Uriah, David realizes that by his analysis he has condemned himself. Nathan tells him that the house of David will be cursed with always falling victim to the sword. More directly, Bathsheba's child dies as punishment. David has intercourse with her again, and she has a son that she names Solomon, but Nathan names him Jedediah. Joab finally captures Rabbah, and the bejewelled crown of Milcom is taken and given to David for his own head. Children of David David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. His cousin advises him to feign illness and have Tamar be his sick nurse, which he does. Persuading Tamar to feed him at his bedside, Amnon rapes her. Tamar complains to her brother, Absalom, but since Amnon is his eldest son, David will not do anything. Absalom holds a party and invites all the princes, and Amnon is sent there on David's behalf. When Amnon becomes drunk, he is killed by Absalom's servants, under the order of Absalom. The princes flee back to David, and Absalom flees to the king of Geshur. Over time, David becomes reconciled to Absalom. Joab, however, gets a woman to visit David and feign sorrow about a situation that mirrors that of David, tricking him into acknowledging that Absalom should be brought back and not harmed. When Absalom is brought back, David orders him to remain in his own home, but Absalom keeps asking Joab to see David. Joab does not respond so Absalom sets Joab's field on fire, and Absalom persuades Joab to let him see David, who becomes reconciled to Absalom. Absalom builds up a gradual following, eventually having enough supporters that he plans a coup against David. An informant tells David, who tells his supporters to flee Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives. At the Mount of Olives, David tells his foreign mercenaries to go back to Jerusalem since they owe no allegiance, but they insist on going with David. David also sends back Zadok and Abiathar, the priests, and his friend, Hushai, to act as an informant. A man of the house of Saul, Shimei, throws stones at David and curses him, so Abishai asks David to kill Shimei, but David will not let him, claiming that Yahweh has made Shimei do this. On the advice of Ahithophel, Absalom has relations with David's concubines on his roof, so that the whole nation can see his contempt for David. After receiving counsel from both Ahithophel and Hushai, Absalom chooses Hushai's plan to send all Israel to attack David over Ahithophel's, so Ahithophel commits suicide in shame. Hushai sends word to David of the plan via spies hidden in a cistern at En-rogel. Absalom sends his army across the Jordan, and David prepares his own troops, asking that Absalom be treated gently. A huge battle erupts between the armies in the forests near Mahanaim, but while riding on his mule, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair and is stuck hanging there. Although the first people from David's side to discover Absalom like this refuse to harm him, owing to David's request, Joab has no such qualms and kills Absalom. David becomes extremely upset but pulls himself together and returns victorious to Jerusalem, accompanied by Judah. Jonathan had a son named Meribbaal, who was 5 when Jonathan and Saul were killed. When she heard the news of this, Meribaal's nurse took him and fled, but he fell and became crippled. In memory of Jonathan, David shows Meribbaal kindness, gives him Saul's lands, and lets him dine at David's table. He also tells Ziba, a servant of Saul, that Ziba and his family must serve Meribbaal. During Absalom's revolt, Meribbaal remained in Jerusalem; Ziba told David that this was because Meribbaal hoped that the people of Israel would restore him to his father's throne. Meribbaal does not wash his feet or his clothes or trim his moustache until David returns to the throne in Jerusalem. On meeting David, Meribbaal tells him that Ziba was lying about his motive for remaining and reminds David that Meribbaal is lame. David does not care and orders Meribbaal to split his property with Ziba. The people of Israel feel slighted that those of Judah were preferred by David to accompany him back to the throne, so a war of words breaks out between them. A man named Sheba sounds a horn rallying the people of Israel to him. David asks Amasa to summon the people of Judah to him and go after Sheba. At the great stone in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab and them, and while asking how he is, Joab stabs Amasa to death and drags the body to the side of the road. Joab leads the amassed army of Judah against Sheba who has amassed his own army of Israel at Abel Beth-maachah. Joab lays siege to the town, but a wise woman tells Joab of an ancient expression and that Joab is effectively trying to destroy Yahweh's inheritance. Joab tells her they are only after Sheba, so she gets the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem, and the rebellion ends. Appendix The last section of the books contains miscellaneous material, although it employs a literary pattern, a-b-c-c-b-a. The first and last units deal with David dealing with God's wrath; the second and fifth are accounts of David's warriors, and there are two songs of David at the centre. A famine arises which David blames on Saul for having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement, and they ask to dismember seven men from among Saul's descendants on Yahweh's mountain. David gives seven of Sauls descendants to them, and they are dismembered. Rizpah, the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers, and so David collects the bones of Saul, Jonathon, and those of the seven, and buries them at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends. There are four battles against the Philistines, in each one a Rephaim being killed. Goliath (specified as the "brother of Goliath" in 1 Chronicles 20:5) is one of these and is killed by Elhanan. Several warriors of David are listed, with a gloss covering some of their deeds. A significance is attached to the Thirty and the Three, all the warriors being in at least one of these groups, with the Three being the more significant. Despite the name of the group, 37 people are listed, and it is made explicit that there are 37. Yahweh becomes angry with the people, and he incites David to order a census (this story is also told in 1 Chronicles 21:1ff, where it says that it was Satan that "moved" David to number the people). The census makes Yahweh angry (as it was motivated either by pride in the size of his empire and reliance for his security on the number of men he could muster) so Gad the prophet tells David that Yahweh has given David three options of punishment . David chooses the pestilence option, and so an angel duly goes out and starts killing people. When the angel approaches Jerusalem, Yahweh commands the angel to stop. David buys the land where the angel halted from its owner, Araunah, and builds an altar upon it. Authorship Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be Samuel, Gad, and Nathan. Samuel is believed to have penned the first twenty-four chapters of the first book. Gad, the companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history thus commenced; and Nathan is believed to have completed it, probably arranging the whole in the form in which we now have it (1 Chronicles 29:29). Modern scholars consider that the text is clearly not the work of men contemporary with the events. Roughly in the order they are believed to have been created historically, the sources used to construct 1 & 2 Samuel are: Jerusalem source: a fairly brief source discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites. Republican source: a source with an anti-monarchial bias. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the Philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual chosen by God to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son Jonathan becomes friends with David, which some commentators view as romantic, and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God on the eve of battle, Saul consults a medium at Endor, only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathan, tearing his clothes apart. Court History of David: a continuous source covering the history of David's kingship, and believed to be the source going by this name in the Book of Chronicles. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David originally being king of Judah only. David conquers Israel, but Israel rebels under Absalom, identified as David's son, and David is forced into exile. Israel's forces attack David while he is in exile, but he wins, and Judah accompanies him back to Jerusalem. Israel engages in another rebellion under Sheba, but David lays siege to a city housing the leader, and wins. Sanctuaries source: a short source which interrupts the narrative in order to recount an episode concerning the capture of the Ark by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it. The source demonstrates a bias toward the viewpoint of the kingdom of Israel. Monarchial source: a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the republican source. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel (some scholars think this originally referred to Saul, see below). It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites, being chosen by the people to be king, and leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal, Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible killed. Redactions: additions by the redactor to harmonise the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this editing. Various: several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists. The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn redacted together. Though some scholars disagree, many academics have proposed that several of the sources are continuations of others, such as the Jerusalem source, and royal source being in some way continuous with one another, and the prophetic source and sanctuaries source being likewise continuous with each other. Some, most recently Richard Elliott Friedman, have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the Elohist, Jahwist, and possibly Priestly, sources of the Torah, with the court history of David being considered part of the Yahwist text. What is considered likely is that the Deuteronomist is the one which redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel. Within these, there are sometimes what appear to be very minor redactions. For example, 1 Samuel 1:20 explains that Samuel is so called because his mother had asked Yahweh for him; however Samuel means name of God, while Saul means asked; this has suggested to many biblical critics that the narrative originally concerned Saul at this point, a later editor substituting Samuel's name. There are also several points in the Masoretic Text that appear more obviously corrupted in comparison to the Septuagint version. Tribes and peoples Although most traditional interpretations of Jewish history view the Israelites as the ancestors of both the Kingdom of Israel and that of Judah, which arose only after David's rule, and Hebrews as an alternative name for them, the text makes a strong distinction between Hebrews, Judahites, and Israelites. Israelites consistently refers to Saul's forces. It also is used to refer to the supporters of the rebellions against David's reign, in contrast to his supportes. Judahites consistently refers to David's supporters during the rebellions against his rule, in contrast to the rebels. Hebrews is consistently used to designate a group distinct from both Israelites and Judahites, and who sometimes take the side of the Philistines against Israel and Judah. It is weakly associated with Jonathan initially, and then more strongly with David's band of outlaws. None of the three terms are described as representing groups which were part of one another, suggesting that Israel, Judah, and the Hebrews had always been three distinct groups. Gilead and Jezreel are listed as tribes of Israel, rather than being treated strictly as locations. In accordance with evidence of this kind elsewhere, all attributed by scholars to the earliest sources, such as in the Song of Deborah, scholars have concluded that the tribal system known as the tribes of Israel evolved over a period of time: Gilead, Jezreel and Joseph were originally three tribes in the confederation. Jezreel later split into Zebulun and Issachar. Gilead later split into Machir, Gad, and Reuben. Machir later merged with part of Joseph to form Manasseh, while the other part split off to become Ephraim. External links Masoretic Text שמואל א Shmuel Aleph - Samuel A (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) שמואל ב Shmuel Bet - Samuel B (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Jewish translations 1 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) 2 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Shmuel I - Samuel I (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Shmuel II - Samuel II (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations Online Bible at GospelHall.org Related articles Introduction to the book of 1 Samuel from the NIV Study Bible Introduction to the book of 2 Samuel from the NIV Study Bible JewishEncyclopedia.com - SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. | Books_of_Samuel |@lemmatized book:17 samuel:86 part:12 tanakh:1 judaism:1 hebrew:14 bible:6 also:14 christian:2 old:2 testament:1 work:2 originally:7 write:1 form:4 single:2 text:10 often:1 consider:4 today:1 together:6 refer:5 king:34 translator:1 create:2 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1,822 | Anxiety | Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. & Rosenhan, D.L. (2001). Abnormal psychology, (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. These components combine to create an unpleasant feeling that is typically associated with uneasiness, fear, or worry. Anxiety is a generalized mood condition that occurs without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which occurs in the presence of an external threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is the result of threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. Ohman, A. (2000). Fear and anxiety: Evolutionary, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.). Handbook of emotions. (pp.573-593). New York: The Guilford Press. Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. When anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder. National Institute of Mental Health Retrieved September 3, 2008. Symptoms Anxiety can be accompanied by physical effects such as heart palpitations, fatigue, nausea, chest pain, shortness of breath, stomach aches, or headaches. Physically, the body prepares the organism to deal with a threat. Blood pressure and heart rate are increased, sweating is increased, bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased, and immune and digestive system functions are inhibited (the fight or flight response). External signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating, trembling, and pupillary dilation. Someone suffering from anxiety might also experience it as a sense of dread or panic. Although panic attacks are not experienced by every anxiety sufferer, they are a common symptom. Panic attacks usually come without warning, and although the fear is generally irrational, the perception of danger is very real. A person experiencing a panic attack will often feel as if he or she is about to die or pass out. Panic attacks may be confused with heart attacks. Anxiety does not only consist of physical symptoms. There are many emotional symptoms involved as well. Some of them include: "Feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurences) or danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank." Smith, Melinda (2008, June). Anxiety attacks and disorders: Guide to the signs, symptoms, and treatment options. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Helpguide Web site: http://www.helpguide.org/mental/anxiety_types_symptoms_treatment.htm> There's also, "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, deja vu, a trapped in your mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary." (1987-2008). Anxiety Symptoms, Anxiety Attack Symptoms (Panic Attack Symptoms), Symptoms of Anxiety. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Anxiety Centre Web site: http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms.shtml One of the most common symptoms of anxiety is fear, which includes the fear of dying. "You may...fear that the chest pains [a physical symptom of anxiety] are a deadly heart attack or that the shooting pains in your head [another physical symptom of anxiety] are the result of a tumor or aneurysm. You feel an intense fear when you think of dying, or you may think of it more often than normal, or can’t get it out of your mind." (1987-2008). Anxiety symptoms - Fear of dying. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Anxiety Centre Web site: http://www.anxietycentre.com/anxiety-symptoms/fear-of-dying.shtml Psychobiological Theories Psychological Theories In psychoanalytic theory, anxiety is a signal that an unacceptable drive or impulse ( such as aggression or sex) is surfacing, which arouses the individual to prevent unconsciously its expression. The anxiety symptoms are seen as incomplete containment, or “repression” of the unacceptable drive. Behavior theory considers anxiety, and particularly phobias, to be based originally upon learned responses to painful or fearful stimuli. Eventually the anxious response can occur without the stimulus. More recently, cognitive psychology approaches have emphasized faulty and distorted thinking patterns that precede expression of anxiety symptoms. For example, patients with panic disorder may significantly overreact to normal body sensations (such as feeling light-headed and increased heart rate), eventually spirals into a panic attack. Biological Theories Many biological abnormalities have been associated with anxiety disorders, including obscured increase in brain neurotransmitters.The locus ceruleus, a part of the brain located in the brainstem, may be responsible for many anxiety symptoms. Electrical stimulation of the locus ceruleus produces marked fear and anxiety. Drugs like yohibine, which increase locus ceruleus activity (such as benzodiazepines, clonidine, and propranolol) have anti-anxiety effects. Many patients with panic disorder are extremely sensitive to slight increases in carbon dioxide in the air. (2009). Psychological Biological Theories . Retrieved MAY 7, 2009, from oh anxiety Web site: http://www.ohanxiety.com/anxiery-resource/74-psychological-biological-theories Biological basis Neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to underlie anxiety . When confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala. In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. Varieties Existential anxiety Theologian Paul Tillich characterized existential anxiety Tillich, Paul, (1952). The Courage To Be, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08471-4 as "the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing" and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral (guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness). According to Tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods. Tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences. In its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to "drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority" even though such "undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality". According to Viktor Frankl, author of Man's Search for Meaning, when faced with extreme mortal dangers the very basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat this "trauma of nonbeing" as death is near and succumbing to it (even by suicide) seems attractive. The "father" of existentialism, Søren Kierkegaard, regarded all humans to be born into despair by default (in The Sickness Unto Death). Such despair was created by having a false conception of the self. He regarded the mortal self which can exist relatively, and therefore be born or die, as the false self. The true self was the relationship of self to God, rather than to any relative object. For more information see angst and existential crisis. Test anxiety Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth, fear of embarrassment by a teacher, fear of alienation from parents or friends, time pressures, or feeling a loss of control. Emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical components can all be present in test anxiety. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common. An optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam; however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, it results in a decline in performance. Because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation, debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia. In 2006, approximately 49%(need reference) of high school students were reportedly experiencing this condition. While the term "test anxiety" refers specifically to students, many adults share the same experience with regard to their career or profession. The fear of failing a task and being negatively evaluated for it can have a similarly negative effect on the adult. Stranger and social anxiety Anxiety when meeting or interacting with unknown people is a common stage of development in young people. For others, it may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia. "Stranger anxiety" in small children is not a phobia. Rather it is a developmentally appropriate fear by toddlers and preschool children of those who are not parents or family members. In adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage; it is called social anxiety. Trait anxiety Anxiety can be either a short term "state" or a long term "trait." Trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency to respond with state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations. It is closely related to the personality trait of neuroticism. Genes associated with anxiety Although single genes have little effect on complex traits and interact heavily both between themselves and with the external factors, the research is ongoing to unravel possible molecular mechanisms of anxiety and comorbid conditions. PLXNA2 Clinical Scales The HAM-A (Hamilton Anxiety Scale) Psychiatric Times. Clinically Useful Psychiatric Scales: HAM-A (Hamilton Anxiety Scale). Accessed on March 6, 2009. is a widely used interview scale that measures the severity of a patient's anxiety, based on 14 parameters, including anxious mood, tension, fears, insomnia, somatic complaints and behavior at the interview. Developed by M. Hamilton in 1959, the scale predates the current definition of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). However, it covers many of the features of GAD and can be helpful in assessing its severity. External links Self help guide (NHS Direct) See also Angst Anxiety disorder Beck Anxiety Inventory Generalized anxiety disorder Mathematical anxiety Panic attack Panic disorder Paranoia Social anxiety Somatic anxiety Stage fright Stress References | Anxiety |@lemmatized anxiety:72 psychological:4 physiological:1 state:4 characterize:2 cognitive:4 somatic:3 emotional:3 behavioral:2 component:3 seligman:1 e:2 p:1 walker:1 f:1 rosenhan:1 l:1 abnormal:1 psychology:2 ed:2 new:3 york:2 w:2 norton:1 company:1 inc:1 combine:1 create:2 unpleasant:2 feeling:3 typically:1 associate:3 uneasiness:2 fear:20 worry:1 generalized:2 mood:2 condition:4 occur:3 without:3 identifiable:1 triggering:1 stimulus:4 distinguish:1 presence:1 external:4 threat:3 additionally:1 relate:2 specific:2 behavior:4 escape:1 avoidance:1 whereas:1 result:4 perceive:1 uncontrollable:1 unavoidable:1 ohman:1 evolutionary:1 clinical:2 perspective:1 lewis:1 j:1 haviland:1 jones:1 handbook:1 emotion:1 pp:1 guilford:1 press:2 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1,823 | Interrupt_latency | In real-time operating systems, interrupt latency is the time between the generation of an interrupt by a device and the servicing of the device which generated the interrupt. For many operating systems, devices are serviced as soon as the device's interrupt handler is executed. Interrupt latency may be affected by interrupt controllers, interrupt masking, and the operating system's (OS) interrupt handling methods. Background There is usually a tradeoff between interrupt latency, throughput, and processor utilization. Many of the techniques of CPU and OS design that improve interrupt latency will decrease throughput and increase processor utilization. Techniques that increase throughput may increase interrupt latency and increase processor utilization. Lastly, trying to reduce processor utilization may increase interrupt latency and decrease throughput. Minimum interrupt latency is largely determined by the interrupt controller circuit and its configuration. They can also affect the jitter in the interrupt latency, which can drastically affect the real-time schedulability of the system. The Intel APIC Architecture is well known for producing a huge amount of interrupt latency jitter. Maximum interrupt latency is largely determined by the methods an OS uses for interrupt handling. For example, most processors allow programs to disable interrupts, putting off the execution of interrupt handlers, in order to protect critical sections of code. During the execution of such a critical section, all interrupt handlers that cannot execute safely within a critical section are blocked (they save the minimum amount of information required to restart the interrupt handler after all critical sections have exited). So the interrupt latency for a blocked interrupt is extended to the end of the critical section, plus any interrupts with equal and higher priority that arrived while the block was in place. Many computer systems require low interrupt latencies, especially embedded systems that need to control machinery in real-time. Sometimes these systems use a real-time operating system (RTOS). An RTOS makes the promise that no more than an agreed upon maximum amount of time will pass between executions of subroutines. In order to do this, the RTOS must also guarantee that interrupt latency will never exceed a predefined maximum. Considerations There are many methods that hardware may use to increase the interrupt latency that can be tolerated. These include buffers, and flow control. For example, most network cards implement transmit and receive ring buffers, interrupt rate limiting, and hardware flow control. Buffers allow data to be stored until it can be transferred, and flow control allows the network card to pause communications without having to discard data if the buffer is full. Modern hardware also implements interrupt rate limiting. This helps prevent interrupt storms or live lock by having the hardware wait a programmable minimum amount of time between each interrupt it generates. Interrupt rate limiting reduces the amount of time spent servicing interrupts, allowing the processor to spend more time doing useful work. Exceeding this time results in a soft (recoverable) or hard (non-recoverable) error. See also Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller Programmable Interrupt Controller IEEE 802.3 (802.3x PAUSE frames for flow control) Ethernet flow control Inter-Processor Interrupt Interrupt Interrupt Handler Non-Maskable Interrupt | Interrupt_latency |@lemmatized real:4 time:10 operate:3 system:8 interrupt:40 latency:14 generation:1 device:4 servicing:1 generate:2 many:4 service:2 soon:1 handler:5 execute:2 may:4 affect:3 controller:4 masking:1 operating:1 handle:1 method:3 background:1 usually:1 tradeoff:1 throughput:4 processor:7 utilization:4 technique:2 cpu:1 os:2 design:1 improve:1 decrease:2 increase:6 lastly:1 try:1 reduce:2 minimum:3 largely:2 determine:2 circuit:1 configuration:1 also:4 jitter:2 drastically:1 schedulability:1 intel:1 apic:1 architecture:1 well:1 know:1 produce:1 huge:1 amount:5 maximum:3 us:1 handling:1 example:2 allow:4 program:1 disable:1 put:1 execution:3 order:2 protect:1 critical:5 section:5 code:1 cannot:1 safely:1 within:1 block:2 save:1 information:1 require:2 restart:1 exit:1 blocked:1 extend:1 end:1 plus:1 equal:1 high:1 priority:1 arrive:1 place:1 computer:1 low:1 especially:1 embedded:1 need:1 control:6 machinery:1 sometimes:1 use:2 rtos:3 make:1 promise:1 agreed:1 upon:1 pass:1 subroutine:1 must:1 guarantee:1 never:1 exceed:2 predefined:1 consideration:1 hardware:4 tolerate:1 include:1 buffer:4 flow:5 network:2 card:2 implement:2 transmit:1 receive:1 ring:1 rate:3 limiting:3 data:2 store:1 transfer:1 pause:2 communication:1 without:1 discard:1 full:1 modern:1 help:1 prevent:1 storm:1 live:1 lock:1 wait:1 programmable:3 spend:2 useful:1 work:1 result:1 soft:1 recoverable:2 hard:1 non:2 error:1 see:1 advanced:1 ieee:1 frame:1 ethernet:1 inter:1 maskable:1 |@bigram interrupt_latency:14 interrupt_handler:5 programmable_interrupt:2 non_maskable:1 maskable_interrupt:1 |
1,824 | Mariah_Carey | Mariah Carey (born March 27, 1970) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and actress. She made her recording debut in 1990 under the guidance of Columbia Records executive Tommy Mottola, and became the first recording artist to have her first five singles top the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. Following her marriage to Mottola in 1993, a series of hit records established her position as Columbia's highest-selling act. According to Billboard magazine, she was the most successful artist of the 1990s in the United States. Shapiro, Marc. Mariah Carey (2001). pg. 145. UK: ECW Press, Canada. ISBN 1-55022-444-1. Following her separation from Mottola in 1997, Carey introduced elements of hip hop into her album work, to much initial success, but her popularity was in decline when she left Columbia in 2001, and she was dropped by Virgin Records the following year after a highly publicized physical and emotional breakdown, as well as the poor reception given to Glitter, her film and soundtrack project. In 2002, Carey signed with Island Records, and after a relatively unsuccessful period, she returned to the top of pop music in 2005. Lamb, Bill. "Mariah Carey- Comeback of the Year". About.com. June 4, 2005. Retrieved March 12, 2008. Anderman, Joan. "Cary's On". The Boston Globe. February 5, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2008. Carey was named the best-selling female pop artist of the millennium at the 2000 World Music Awards. "Winners of the World Music Awards". World Music Awards. May 2000. Retrieved November 19, 2006 from the Wayback Machine; "Michael Jackson And Mariah Carey Named Best-Selling Artists Of Millennium At World Music Awards In Monaco". Jet. May 29, 2000. Retrieved November 19, 2006. She has the most number-one singles for a solo artist in the United States (eighteen; second artist overall behind The Beatles), Pietroluongo, Silvio. Mariah, Madonna Make Billboard Chart History. Billboard. April 2, 2008. Retrieved April 2, 2008 where, according to the Recording Industry Association of America, she is one of the best-selling female artists and sixteenth overall recording artist. "Gold and Platinum - Top Selling Artists". Recording Industry Association of America In addition to her commercial accomplishments, Carey has earned five Grammy Awards, and is well-known for her vocal range, power, melismatic style, and use of the whistle register. She is ranked as the best-selling female artist of the U.S. Nielsen Soundscan era (third best-selling artist overall), with sales of over 50 million albums in the US http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=94296 and has sold over 200 million records worldwide. http://www.sonymusic.com/artists/MariahCarey/ Life and music career Childhood and youth Mariah Carey was born in Huntington, Long Island, New York. She is the third and youngest child of Patricia Carey (née Hickey), a former opera singer and vocal coach of Irish descent, and Alfred Roy Carey, an aeronautical engineer of Afro-Venezuelan descent. Shapiro, pg. 16. "Mulatto - An Invisible American Identity". racerelations.about.com. Retrieved April 3, 2008. Carey was named after the song "They Call the Wind Mariah". People.com: Mariah Carey. People. Retrieved April 3, 2009. Carey's parents divorced when she was three years old. Shapiro, pg. 19-20. While living in Huntington, racist neighbors allegedly poisoned the family dog and set fire to her family's car. After her parents' divorce, Carey had little contact with her father, and her mother worked several jobs to support the family. Carey spent much of her time at home alone and turned to music to occupy herself. She began singing at around the age of three, when her mother began to teach her after Carey imitated her mother practicing Verdi's opera Rigoletto in Italian. Shapiro, pg. 18–19. Carey graduated from Harborfields High School in Greenlawn, New York. She was frequently absent because of her work as a demo singer for local recording studios; her classmates consequently gave her the nickname "Mirage." Shapiro, pg. 31. Her work in the Long Island music scene gave her opportunities to work with musicians such as Gavin Christopher and Ben Margulies, with whom she co-wrote material for her demo tape. After moving to New York City, Carey worked part-time jobs to pay the rent, and she completed 500 hours of beauty school. Handelman, David. "Miss Mariah." Cosmopolitan. December 1997. Eventually, she became a backup singer for Puerto Rican freestyle singer Brenda K. Starr. In 1988, Carey met Columbia Records executive Tommy Mottola at a party, where Starr gave him Carey's demo tape. Mottola played the tape when leaving the party and was impressed. He returned to find Carey, but she had left. Nevertheless, Mottola tracked her down and signed her to a recording contract. This Cinderella-like story became part of the standard publicity surrounding Carey's entrance into the industry. Gardner, Elysa. "Cinderella Story." VIBE. April 1996. 1990–1992: Early commercial success Carey co-wrote the tracks on her 1990 debut album Mariah Carey, and she has co-written most of her material since. During the recording, she expressed dissatisfaction with the contributions of producers such as Ric Wake and Rhett Lawrence, whom the executives at Columbia had enlisted to help make the album more commercially viable. Shapiro, pg. 47, 60. Backed by a substantial promotional budget, the album reached number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, where it remained for several weeks. It yielded four number-one singles and made Carey a star in the United States, but it was less successful in other countries. Critics rated the album highly, and Carey won Grammys for Best New Artist, and—for her debut single, "Vision of Love" —Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Carey conceived Emotions, her second album, as an homage to Motown soul music (see Motown Sound), and she worked with Walter Afanasieff and Clivillés & Cole (from the dance group C&C Music Factory) on the record. It was released soon after her debut album—in late 1991—but was neither critically nor commercially as successful; Rolling Stone described it as "more of the same, with less interesting material [...] pop-psych love songs played with airless, intimidating expertise." Evans, Paul. The Rolling Stone Album Guide (1992). pg. 110–111. UK: Virgin Books. ISBN 0-86369-643-0. The title track "Emotions" made Carey the only recording act whose first five singles have reached number one on the U.S. Hot 100 chart, although the album's follow-up singles failed to match this feat. Carey had been lobbying to produce her own songs, and beginning with Emotions, she has co-produced most of her material. "I didn't want [Emotions] to be somebody else's vision of me," she said. "There's more of me on this album." Shapiro, pg. 62. Although Carey performed live occasionally, stage fright prevented her from embarking on a major tour. Kaufman, Gil. "20 Things You Didn't Know About Mariah Carey". VH1. March 12, 2008. Retrieved March 12, 2008. Her first widely seen appearance was featured on the television show MTV Unplugged in 1992, and she remarked that she felt her performance that night proved her vocal abilities were not, as some had previously speculated, simulated with studio equipment. Shapiro, pg. 69. Alongside acoustic versions of some of her earlier songs, Carey premiered a cover of The Jackson 5's "I'll Be There" with her back-up singer Trey Lorenz. The duet was released as a single, reached number one in the U.S., and led to a record deal for Lorenz, whose debut album Carey later co-produced. Because of high ratings for the Unplugged television special, the concert's set list was released on the EP MTV Unplugged, which Entertainment Weekly called "the strongest, most genuinely musical record she has ever made [...] Did this live performance help her take her first steps toward growing up?." Sandow, Greg. "MTV Unplugged EP". Entertainment Weekly. June 19, 1992. 1993–1996: Worldwide popularity Carey and Tommy Mottola had become involved romantically during the making of her debut album, and in June 1993, they were married. Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds consulted on the album Music Box, which was released later that year and became Carey's most successful worldwide. It yielded her first UK Singles Chart number-one, Retrieved January 2, 2008. a cover of Badfinger's "Without You", and the U.S. number-ones "Dreamlover" and "Hero". Billboard magazine proclaimed it "heart-piercing [...] easily the most elemental of Carey's releases, her vocal eurythmics in natural sync with the songs", White, Timothy. "Mariah Carey's stirring 'Music Box'". Billboard. New York: pg. 5, August 28, 1993, Vol. 105, Iss. 35. but TIME magazine lamented Carey's attempt at a mellower work, "[Music Box] seems perfunctory and almost passionless [...] Carey could be a pop-soul great; instead she has once again settled for Salieri-like mediocrity." Farley, Christopher John. "Hurray! a B Minus!". TIME. September 6, 1993. Retrieved March 4, 2006. In response to such comments, Carey said, "As soon as you have a big success, a lot of people don't like that. There's nothing I can do about it. All I can do is make music I believe in." Shapiro, pg. 78. Most critics slighted the opening of her subsequent U.S. Music Box Tour. Shapiro, pg. 84. In late 1994, after her duet with Luther Vandross on a cover of Lionel Richie and Diana Ross's "Endless Love" became a hit, Carey released the holiday album Merry Christmas. It contained cover material and original compositions such as "All I Want for Christmas Is You," which became Carey's biggest single in Japan and, in subsequent years, emerged as one of her most perennially popular songs on U.S. radio. "Mariah Carey – Billboard Singles". Allmusic. Retrieved September 19, 2006. Critical reception of Merry Christmas was mixed, with Allmusic calling it an "otherwise vanilla set [...] pretensions to high opera on 'O Holy Night' and a horrid danceclub take on 'Joy to the World'." Parisien, Roch. "Merry Christmas - Review". Allmusic. Retrieved March 17, 2006. It became one of the most successful Christmas albums of all time. http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/holidaygiftguide/top-holiday-albums.html In 1995, Columbia released Carey's fifth album, Daydream, which combined the pop sensibilities of Music Box with downbeat R&B and hip hop influences. A remix of "Fantasy," its first single, featured rapper Ol' Dirty Bastard. Carey said that Columbia reacted negatively to her intentions for the album: "Everybody was like 'What, are you crazy?'. They're very nervous about breaking the formula." Shapiro, pg. 92. It became her biggest-selling album in the U.S., and its singles achieved similar success—"Fantasy" became the second single to debut at number one in the U.S. and topped the Canadian Singles Chart for twelve weeks; "One Sweet Day" (a duet with Boyz II Men) spent a record-holding sixteen weeks at number one in the U.S.; and "Always Be My Baby" (co-produced by Jermaine Dupri) was the most successful record on U.S. radio in 1996, according to Billboard magazine. Daydream generated career-best reviews for Carey, Shapiro, pg. 94–96. and publications such as The New York Times named it one of 1995's best albums; the Times wrote that its "best cuts bring pop candy-making to a new peak of textural refinement [...] Carey's songwriting has taken a leap forward, becoming more relaxed, sexier and less reliant on thudding clichés." Holden, Stephen. "Mariah Carey Glides Into New Territory." The New York Times. pg. 76, October 13, 1995. The short but profitable Daydream World Tour augmented sales of the album, which received six Grammy Award nominations. 1997–2000: New image and independence Carey and Mottola officially separated in 1997. Although the public image of the marriage was a happy one, she said that in reality she had felt trapped by her relationship with Mottola, whom she often described as controlling. Shapiro, pg. 97–98. They officially announced their separation in 1997, and their divorce became final the following year. Soon after the separation, Carey hired an independent publicist and a new attorney and manager. She continued to write and produce for other artists during this period, contributing to the debut albums of Allure and 7 Mile through her short-lived imprint Crave Records. Carey's next album, Butterfly (1997), yielded the number-one single "Honey," the lyrics and music video for which presented a more overtly sexual image of her than had been previously seen. Shapiro, pg. 101; Handelman. She stated that Butterfly marked the point when she attained full creative control over her music. Mariah Carey's Biography. Fox News. March 24, 2008. Retrieved April 1, 2008. However, she added, "I don't think it's that much of a departure from what I've done in the past [...] It's not like I went psycho and thought I was going to be a rapper. Personally, this album is about doing whatever the hell I wanted to do." Shapiro, pg. 101. Reviews were generally positive: LAUNCHcast said Butterfly "pushes the envelope," a move its critic thought "may prove disconcerting to more conservative fans" but praised as "a welcome change." Reynolds, J.R. "Album Review: Butterfly". Yahoo! Music. September 16, 1997. Retrieved March 17, 2006. The Los Angeles Times wrote, "[Butterfly] is easily the most personal, confessional-sounding record she's ever done [...] Carey-bashing just might become a thing of the past." Johnson, Connie. Los Angeles Times. pg. 58, September 14, 1997. The album was a commercial success—although not to the degree of her previous three albums—and "My All" (her thirteenth Hot 100 number-one) gave her the record for the most U.S. number-ones by a female artist. Toward the turn of the millennium, Carey was developing the film project Glitter and wrote songs for the films Men in Black (1997) and How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000). During the production of Butterfly, Carey became romantically involved with New York Yankees baseball star Derek Jeter. Their relationship ended in 1998, with both parties citing media interference as the main reason for the split. Shapiro, pg. 112. The same year, Columbia released the album #1's, a collection of Carey's U.S. number-one singles alongside new material, which she said was a way of rewarding her fans. Shapiro, pg. 116. The song "When You Believe," a duet with Whitney Houston, was recorded for the soundtrack of The Prince of Egypt (1998) and won an Academy Award. #1's sold above expectations, but a review in NME labeled Carey "a purveyor of saccharine bilge like 'Hero', whose message seems wholesome enough: that if you vacate your mind of all intelligent thought, flutter your eyelashes and wish hard, sweet babies and honey will follow." "#1's". NME. Retrieved March 10, 2006. Also that year, she appeared on the first televised VH1 Divas benefit concert program, although her alleged prima donna behavior had already led many to consider her a diva. Haring, Bruce. "Mariah: I'm Not a Diva". Yahoo! Music. May 14, 1998. Retrieved March 17, 2006. By the following year, she had entered a relationship with singer Luis Miguel. Rainbow, Carey's seventh studio album, was released in 1999 and comprised more R&B/hip hop–oriented songs, many of them co-created with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Hitmaking Producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis Score 14th No. 1 Hit Song. Business Wire. August 31, 2000. Retrieved March 31, 2008. "Heartbreaker" and "Thank God I Found You" (the former featuring Jay-Z, the latter featuring Joe and boy band 98 Degrees) reached number one in the U.S. and the success of the former made Carey the only act to have a number-one single in each year of the 1990s. A cover of Phil Collins's "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)" went to number one in the UK after Carey re-recorded it with boy band Westlife. Media reception of Rainbow was generally enthusiastic, with the Sunday Herald saying the album "sees her impressively tottering between soul ballads and collaborations with R&B heavyweights like Snoop Doggy Dogg, Usher [...] It's a polished collection of pop-soul." Virtue, Graham. "Rainbow, Mariah Carey." Sunday Herald, November 7, 1999. VIBE magazine expressed similar sentiments, writing, "She pulls out all stops [...] Rainbow will garner even more adoration" "Mariah Carey, Rainbow." VIBE. pg. 258, December 1999. but it became Carey's lowest-selling album up to that point, and there was a recurring criticism that the tracks were too alike. When the double A-side "Crybaby" (featuring Snoop Dogg)/"Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" became her first single to peak outside the U.S. top twenty, Carey accused Sony of under promoting it: "The political situation in my professional career is not positive [...] I'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people," she wrote on her official website. Shapiro, pg. 134. 2001–2004: Personal and professional struggles 100x120|Carey at The Tribeca Film festival in 2008 After receiving [[Billboard Artist of the Decade Award|Billboard'''s Artist of the Decade Award]] and the World Music Award for Best-Selling Female Artist of the Millennium, Carey parted from Columbia and signed a contract with EMI's Virgin Records worth a reported US$80 million. She often stated that Columbia had regarded her as a commodity, with her separation from Mottola exacerbating her relations with label executives. Just a few months later, in July 2001, it was widely reported that Carey had suffered a physical and emotional breakdown. She had left messages on her website complaining of being overworked, Friedman, Roger. "Mariah Melts Down; Madonna Disappoints". Fox News Channel. July 26, 2001. Retrieved March 17, 2006. and her relationship with Luis Miguel was ending. Davies, Hugh. Let me sort myself out, singer Carey tells fans. The Daily Telegraph. July 28, 2001. Retrieved April 1, 2008. In an interview the following year, she said, "I was with people who didn't really know me, and I had no personal assistant. I'd be doing interviews all day long, getting two hours of sleep a night, if that." Gardner, Elysa. "Mariah Carey, 'standing again'". USA Today. November 28, 2002. Retrieved March 17, 2006. During an appearance on MTV's Total Request Live, Carey handed out popsicles to the audience and began what was later described as a "strip tease". "Carey Shocked by MTV Striptease Fuss". The Internet Movie Database. December 3, 2002. Retrieved March 17, 2006. By the month's end, she had checked into a hospital, and her publicist announced that Carey was taking a break from public appearances. Cook, Shanon. "Mariah before breakdown - 'It all seems like one continuous day'". CNN. August 14, 2001. Retrieved March 17, 2006. Critics panned Glitter, Carey's much delayed semi-autobiographical film, and it was a box office failure. Patterson, Sylvia. Mariah Carey: Come in and smell the perfume. The Daily Telegraph. March 17, 2008. Retrieved March 31, 2008. The accompanying soundtrack album, Glitter, was inspired by the music of the 1980s and featured collaborations with Rick James and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis; it generated Carey's worst showing on the U.S. chart. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch dismissed it as "an absolute mess that'll go down as an annoying blemish on a career that, while not always critically heralded, was at least nearly consistently successful", Johnson, Kevin C. "Mariah Carey's New "Glitter" Is a Far Cry from Golden". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. pg. F.5, September 16, 2001 [FIVE STAR LIFT Edition]. while Blender magazine opined, "After years of trading her signature flourishes for a radio-ready purr, Carey's left with almost no presence at all." "Glitter". Blender. pg. 118, August–September 2001. The lead single, "Loverboy" (featuring Cameo), reached number two on the Hot 100 due to the release of the physical single, but the album's follow-up singles failed to chart; however, a live rendition/medley of the single, "Never Too Far" made its way to #81. Later in the year, Columbia released the low-charting compilation album Greatest Hits shortly after the failure of Glitter, and in early 2002, Virgin bought out Carey's contract for $28 million, creating further negative publicity. Carey later said her time at Virgin was "a complete and total stress-fest [...] I made a total snap decision which was based on money, and I never make decisions based on money. I learned a big lesson from that." "The fall and rise of Mariah Carey". BBC.co.uk. February 8, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Later that year, she signed a contract with Island Records, valued at more than 22 million. Holson, Laura M. Mariah Carey And Universal Agree to Terms Of Record Deal. The New York Times. May 9, 2002. Retrieved April 1, 2008. and launched the record label MonarC. To add further to Carey's emotional burdens, her father, with whom she had little contact since childhood, died of cancer that year. Rader, Dotson. "I Didn’t Feel Worthy Of Happiness". Parade. June 05, 2005. Retrieved June 29, 2008. In 2002, she performed the American national anthem, in front of an audience at the Super Bowl XXXVI at the Louisiana Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana. Following a well-received supporting role in the 2002 film WiseGirls, Carey released the album Charmbracelet, which she said marked "a new lease on life" for her. Sales of Charmbracelet were moderate, and the quality of Carey's vocals came under severe criticism. The Boston Globe declared the album "the worst of her career, revealing a voice no longer capable of either gravity-defying gymnastics or soft coos", Anderman, Joan. "For Carey, the Glory's Gone but the Glitter Lives On". Boston Globe. pg. D.4, September 10, 2003 [THIRD Edition]. and Rolling Stone commented, "Carey needs bold songs that help her use the power and range for which she is famous. Charmbracelet is like a stream of watercolors that bleed into a puddle of brown." Walters, Barry. "Charmbracelet". Rolling Stone. New York: pg. 93, December 12, 2002, iss. 911. The album's only charting single in America, "Through the Rain", was a failure on pop radio, which had become less open to maturing "diva" stylists such as Celine Dion, or Carey herself in favor of younger singers such as Kelly Clarkson or Christina Aguilera, who had vocal styles very similar to Carey's. "I Know What You Want", a 2003 Busta Rhymes single on which Carey guest starred, fared considerably better and reached the U.S. top five; it was also included a Columbia's release of The Remixes, a compilation of Carey's best remixes and some new tracks. That year, she embarked on the Charmbracelet World Tour and was awarded the Chopard Diamond award for selling over 100 million albums worldwide. "Diamond Award". World Music Awards. Retrieved April 7, 2006. She was featured on rapper Jadakiss's 2004 single "U Make Me Wanna", which reached the top ten on Billboards R&B/Hip-Hop chart. 2005-present: Return to prominence Carey performing on stage with her dancers in Tampa, Florida during her successful The Adventures of Mimi Tour on August 7, 2006 Carey's tenth studio album, The Emancipation of Mimi (2005), contained contributions from producers such as The Neptunes, Kanye West and Carey's longtime collaborator, Jermaine Dupri. Carey said it was "very much like a party record [...] the process of putting on makeup and getting ready to go out [...] I wanted to make a record that was reflective of that."; Ferber, Lawrence. "Mariah Carey: Free at last". HX. April 4, 2005. The Emancipation of Mimi became 2005's best-selling album in the U.S., and The Guardian reviewer defined it as "cool, focused and urban [... some of] the first Mariah Carey tunes in years I wouldn't have to be paid to listen to again". Sullivan, Caroline. "Mariah Carey, The Emancipation of Mimi". The Guardian. April 1, 2005. Retrieved March 17, 2006. The album earned Carey a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album, and the single "We Belong Together" won Best Female R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. "We Belong Together" held the Hot 100's number-one position for fourteen weeks, her longest run at the top as a solo lead artist. Subsequently, the single "Shake It Off" reached number two for a week, making Carey the first female lead vocalist to have simultaneously held the Hot 100's top two positions (While topping the charts in 2002, Ashanti was the "featured" singer on the #2 single.) Bronson, Fred. Chart Beat. Billboard. April 20, 2002. Retrieved July 19, 2008. Bronson, Fred; "The Billboard Book of Number One Hits", pg. 44 Feldman, Christopher; "The Billboard Book of Number Two Hits" Jeckell, Barry A. "Mariah Matches Hot 100 Milestone". Billboard. September 1, 2005. Retrieved June 9, 2006. Chart Beat. Billboard. September 1, 2005. Retrieved June 10, 2008. Carey began a concert tour in mid-2006, called The Adventures of Mimi Tour, which was the most successful tour of her career, although some dates had to be canceled. "Mariah Carey's Hong Kong Show Canceled". Washington Post. October 26, 2006. Retrieved December 15, 2007. In separate appearances on 106 & Park and TRL Carey announced plans to go back on tour in November or December 2008. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1591425/20080723/id_0.jhtml She appeared on the cover of the March 2007 edition of Playboy magazine on a non-nude photo session. "Modest Mariah". New York Post. December 31, 2006. Retrieved January 27, 2007. In early 2007, she was featured with Bow Wow on the Bone Thugs-n-Harmony single "Lil' L.O.V.E.". Later in the year, Carey received a "recording star" on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. "Hollywood Walk of Fame names 2007 honorees". Associated Press. June 23, 2006. Retrieved August 1, 2006. Carey performing on stage with her dancers in summer 2008 By spring 2007, she had begun working on her eleventh studio album, E=MC². "MARIAH CAREY ANNOUNCES NEW ALBUM E=MC2" MariahCarey.com. Retrieved February 13, 2008. Asked about the album title and its meaning, Carey said "Einstein’s theory? Physics? Me? Hello! [...] Of course I’m poking fun." She characterized the project as "Emancipation of Mimi to the second power", saying she was "freer on this album than" any other. Like her previous one, this album mainly concentrates on pop and R&B, but also borrows hip hop, gospel and even reggae ("Cruise Control") elements. Swift, Jacqui. "My dog has a bigger ego". The Sun. April 10, 2008. Retrieved July 19, 2008. "Mariah Carey's "E=MC2" offers genre-crossing equation" Reuters. March 28, 2008. Retrieved March 29, 2008. Although E=MC² was well received by most critics, "The Emancipation Of Mimi Reviews". Metacritic.com. Retrieved April 10, 2008. some of them criticized it for being "a clone of The Emancipation of Mimi". Cromelin, Richard. CD: Mariah Carey's 'E=MC2'. LA Times. April 12, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2008. Bleu Magazine'''s critic said that the "facsimiles aren't terrible, they're just boring and forgettable at this point". Irby, Adam Benjamin. "Bleu Magazine review of E=MC²". TheBleuMag.com. April 5, 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008. Two weeks before the album's release, on April 2, 2008, "Touch My Body", her first single from the album, became Carey's eighteenth number-one single on the Hot 100, pushing her past Elvis Presley into second place for the most number-one singles among all artists in the rock era, according to Billboard magazine's revised methodology. Bronson, Fred. "Chart Beat Chat". Billboard. December 22, 2005. Retrieved March 17, 2006. Mariah Carey surpasses Elvis in No. 1s. MSNBC. April 2, 2008. Retrieved April 2, 2008. Pietroluongo, Silvio. Mariah, Madonna eclipse Elvis in Billboard charts. Reuters. April 2, 2008. Retrieved April 2, 2008. Carey is now second only to The Beatles who have twenty number-one singles. Bronson, Fred. Mariah Closing In On Record For No. 1 Hits. Billboard. March 28, 2008. Retrieved April 2, 2008. Carey's singles have, collectively, topped the charts for seventy-nine weeks, which places her just behind Presley, who topped the combined charts for eighty weeks. [Whitburn, Joel, Top Pop Singles 1955-2006, pg. 1139] Carey has also had notable success on international charts, though not to the same degree as in the United States. Thus far, she has had two number-one singles in Britain, two in Australia, and six in Canada. Her highest-charting single in Japan peaked at number two. http://www.onlineweb.com/theones/ http://www.onmc.iinet.net.au/trivia/aus_list.htm http://www2.wbs.ne.jp/~ms-db/oricon/japan%20no1%20single%2068-.htm On April 30, 2008, Carey married actor Nick Cannon, at Carey's private estate on Windermere Island in the Bahamas. Confirming rumors of the marriage, Carey stated that she felt the pair were "soulmates". Liz McNeil. EXCLUSIVE: See Mariah & Nick's Wedding Photo!. People. May 7, 2008. Retrieved May 7, 2008. Carey was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame on October 30, 2008 at the Garden City Hotel in Garden City, New York. http://www.limusichalloffame.org/ http://www.mariahdaily.com/temp/limhof2.jpg Carey performed "Hero" at the Neighborhood Inaugural Ball after Barack Obama was sworn in as the first African-American president in history on January 20, 2009. http://omg.yahoo.com/news/access-exclusive-mariah-carey-to-sing-hero-for-obama/17747 Carey was featured on the second single from The-Dream's sophomore album Love vs. Money called "My Love". Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel In early 2009, singer-songwriter The-Dream stated that he and Carey had already begun working on her next studio album: http://www.youtube.com/user/skeetv In March 2009, Carey wrote on Twitter that she finished working on two songs with James "Big Jim" Wright and Christopher "Tricky" Stewart. Twitter - Mariah Carey That same month, Brian Michael Cox and Jermaine Dupri said in their posts on Twitter that they worked on a song for Carey called "100 Percent". http://twitter.com/nachojohnny http://twitter.com/LTLline http://www.mariahdaily.com/news/news-archive-3-2009.shtml#newsitemEkFluVuyZFVAZGMuim "100 Perecent" will be the theme song for Carey's upcoming movie "Precious". http://www.showbiz411.com/?p=290 In May 2009, Carey also stated on Twitter that she worked with Timbaland. http://twitter.com/mariahcarey The New York Post reported that Carey covered Foreigner's "I Want to Know What Love Is" for her new album. Mariah Carey's Rock remake. New York Post. April 15, 2009. Retrieved April 16, 2009. On May 20, Carey announced on her Twitter page the title of her new album, "Bcuz I Love U, I want u to be the first to know the title of my new album "Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel" Its very personal & dedicated to u". . Twitter. May 20, 2009. Retrieved May 20, 2009. That same day, L.A. Reid played a song from the album titled "Hate U" during an Island Def Jam Event. http://www.rap-up.com/2009/05/21/la-reid-unveils-his-spring-collection/#more-18771 Acting career Carey began to take professional acting lessons in 1997, and in the coming year, she was auditioning for film roles. She made her debut as an opera singer in the romantic comedy The Bachelor (1999), starring Chris O'Donnell and Renée Zellweger. CNN referred derisively to her casting as a talentless diva as "letter-perfect [...] the "can't act" part informs Carey's entire performance". Tatara, Paul. "Review: 'The Bachelor' – cold feet, bad film". CNN.com. November 9, 1999. Retrieved March 17, 2006. Carey's first starring role was in Glitter (2001), in which she played a struggling musician in the 1980s who breaks into the music industry after meeting a disc jockey (Max Beesley). Though Roger Ebert said "[Carey]'s acting ranges from dutiful flirtatiousness to intense sincerity", Ebert, Roger. "'Glitter' glosses over important moments". Chicago Sun-Times. September 23, 2001. Retrieved from the Wayback Machine on March 17, 2006. most critics panned it: Halliwell's Film Guide called it a "vapid star vehicle for a pop singer with no visible acting ability", Walker, John. Halliwell's Film Guide 2004: 19th Edition (2003). pg. 338. UK: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-06-055408-8. and The Village Voice observed: "When [Carey] tries for an emotion — any emotion — she looks as if she's lost her car keys." Atkinson, Michael. "Eat Drink Man Mariah". The Village Voice. September 26 — October 2, 2001. Retrieved March 17, 2006. Glitter was a box office failure, and Carey earned a Razzie Award for her role. She later said that the film "started out as a concept with substance, but it ended up being geared to 10-year-olds. It lost a lot of grit [...] I kind of got in over my head." Carey, Mira Sorvino and Melora Walters co-starred as waitresses at a mobster-operated restaurant in the independent film WiseGirls (2002), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival but went straight to cable in the U.S. Critics commended Carey for her efforts — The Hollywood Reporter predicted, "Those scathing notices for Glitter will be a forgotten memory for the singer once people warm up to Raychel", Honeycutt, Kirk. "Wisegirls". The Hollywood Reporter. January 15, 2002. Retrieved March 17, 2006. and Roger Friedman, referring to her as "a Thelma Ritter for the new millennium", said, "Her line delivery is sharp and she manages to get the right laughs". Friedman, Roger. "Mariah Makes Good in Mob Movie". FOX News. January 14, 2002. Retrieved March 17, 2006. WiseGirls producer Anthony Esposito cast Carey in The Sweet Science (2006), a film about an unknown female boxer recruited by a boxing manager, but it never entered production. Moss, Corey. "Despite 'Glitter,' Mariah Carey's Movie Career Could Still Sparkle". MTV.com. February 20, 2002. Retrieved March 17, 2006. Carey was one of several musicians who appeared in the independently produced Damon Dash films Death of a Dynasty (2003) and State Property 2 (2005). Her television work has been limited to a January 2002 episode of Ally McBeal. Carey had a cameo appearance in Adam Sandler's 2008 film You Don't Mess with the Zohan, playing herself. Sampson, Mike. "Mariah and Sandler?". JoBlo.com. June 11, 2007. Retrieved June 12, 2007. In 2006, Carey joined the cast of the indie film Tennessee (2008), taking the role of an aspiring singer who flees her controlling husband and joins two brothers on a journey to find their long-lost father. "Tennesse Official Site". Retrieved December 26, 2008. The movie received mixed reviews, but most of them raved about Carey's performance and praised it as "understated and very effective." http://www.nypost.com/seven/03182009/gossip/pagesix/mariah_moving_160144.htm http://www.cinematical.com/2008/04/30/tribeca-review-tennessee/ http://www.reuters.com/article/filmNews/idUSN0154359820080501 In 2009, she appeared as a social worker in Precious, the movie adaptation of the 1996 novel Push by Sapphire. Variety described her acting as "pitch-perfect". http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=festivals&jump=review&id=2471&reviewid=VE1117939367&cs=1 Artistry Carey has said that from childhood she was influenced by R&B and soul musicians such as Billie Holiday, Sarah Vaughan, Gladys Knight, Aretha Franklin, Al Green, Stevie Wonder, and Whitney Houston http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mZL1xmp3xg Her music contains strong influences of gospel music, and her favorite gospel singers include The Clark Sisters, Shirley Caesar and Edwin Hawkins. Norent, Lynn. "Mariah Carey: 'Not another White girl trying to sing Black'". Ebony. March 1991. When Carey incorporated hip hop into her sound, speculation arose that she was making an attempt to take advantage of the genre's popularity, but she told Newsweek, "People just don't understand. I grew up with this music". Shapiro, pg. 124. She has expressed appreciation for rappers such as The Sugarhill Gang, Eric B. & Rakim, the Wu-Tang Clan, The Notorious B.I.G. and Mobb Deep, with whom she collaborated on the single "The Roof (Back in Time)" (1998). During Carey's career, her vocal and musical style, along with her level of success, has been compared to Whitney Houston and Celine Dion. Carey and her peers, according to Garry Mulholland, are "the princesses of wails [...] virtuoso vocalists who blend chart-oriented pop with mature MOR torch song". Mulholland, Garry. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music (2003). pg. 57. UK: Flame Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-904041-70-1. In She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul (2002), writer Lucy O'Brien attributed the comeback of Barbra Streisand's "old-fashioned showgirl" to Carey and Dion, and described them and Houston as "groomed, airbrushed and overblown to perfection". O'Brien, Lucy. She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul (2002). pg. 476-477. UK: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-5776-2 (paperback). Carey's musical transition and use of more revealing clothing during the late 1990s were, in part, initiated to distance herself from this image, and she subsequently said that most of her early work was "schmaltzy MOR". Some have noted that unlike Houston and Dion, Carey co-writes her own songs, and the Guinness Rockopedia (1998) classified her as the "songbird supreme". Guinness Rockopedia (1998). pg. 74. UK: Guinness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85112-072-5. Despite the fact that Carey is often credited with co-writing her material, she has also been accused of plagiarism on several occasions. Many of these cases were eventually settled out of court. June 26, 2001. Retrieved January 2, 2008. August 10, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2008. August 17, 2004. Retrieved January 2, 2008. Voice Although she self-identifies as "an alto with a five-octave range," Entertainment Weekly. Carey has "a range wide enough to cover all the octaves between an alto and a soprano and the agility to move between those roles with swiftness and aplomb", Farber, Jim. "More like a screaming 'Mimi'". New York Daily News. April 12, 2005. Retrieved October 21, 2007. and her vocal trademark is her ability to sing in the whistle register. Frere-Jones, Sasha. "On Top: Mariah Carey’s record-breaking career". The New Yorker. April 3, 2006. She has cited Minnie Riperton as the greatest influence on her singing technique "Higher and Higher" and from a very early age, she attempted to emulate Riperton's high notes, to increasing degrees of success as her vocal range expanded. At one point, The Guinness Book of Records recorded that there was no other singer who could hold a higher note than Carey. In 2003, her voice was ranked first in MTV and Blender magazine's countdown of the 22 Greatest Voices in Music, as voted by fans and readers in an online poll. Carey said of the poll, "What it really means is voice of the MTV generation. Of course, it's an enormous compliment, but I don't feel that way about myself." "Princess Positive is taking care of the inner Mariah". The Sydney Morning Herald. April 1, 2003. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Themes and musical style Love is the subject of the majority of Carey's lyrics, although she has written about themes such as racism, social alienation, death, world hunger, and spirituality. She has said that much of her work is partly autobiographical, but TIME magazine wrote: "If only Mariah Carey's music had the drama of her life. Her songs are often sugary and artificial—NutraSweet soul. But her life has passion and conflict." Farley, Christopher John. "Pop's Princess Grows Up". TIME. September 25, 1995. Retrieved March 12, 2006. The Village Voice wrote in 2001 that, in that respect, Carey compared unfavorably with singers such as Mary J. Blige, saying "Carey's Strawberry Shortcake soul still provides the template with which teen-pop cuties draw curlicues around those centerless [Diane] Warren ballads [...] it's largely because of [Blige] that the new r&b demands a greater range of emotional expression, smarter poetry, more from-the-gut testifying, and less unnecessary notes than the squeaky-clean and just plain squeaky Mariah era. Nowadays it's the Christina Aguileras and Jessica Simpsons who awkwardly oversing, while the women with roof-raising lung power keep it in check when tune or lyric demands." Walters, Barry."Marked Woman". The Village Voice. September 5 — September 11, 2001. Carey's output makes use of electronic instruments such as drum machines, keyboards and synthesizers. Many of her songs contain piano music, and she was given piano lessons when she was six years old. Carey said that she cannot read sheet music and prefers to collaborate with a pianist when composing her material, but feels that it is easier to experiment with faster and less conventional melodies and chord progressions using this technique. Some of her arrangements have been inspired by the work of musicians such as Stevie Wonder, a soul pianist to whom Carey once referred as "the genius of the [twentieth] century", but she has said, "My voice is my instrument; it always has been." "Mariah Carey savors a charmed year". Yahoo! Music. November 2005. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Carey began commissioning remixes of her material early in her career and helped to spearhead the practice of recording entirely new vocals for remixes. Norris, John. "Mariah: Remixes, Reunions and Russia". MTV.com. October 2003. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Disc jockey David Morales has collaborated with Carey several times, starting with "Dreamlover" (1993), which popularized the tradition of remixing pop songs into house records, and which Slant magazine named one of the greatest dance songs of all time. "100 Greatest Dance Songs: 100-91". Slant. 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006. From "Fantasy" (1995) onward, Carey enlisted both hip hop and house producers to re-imagine her album compositions. Entertainment Weekly included two remixes of "Fantasy" on a list of Carey's greatest recordings compiled in 2005: "Gem Carey". Entertainment Weekly. January 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006. a National Dance Music Award-winning remix produced by Morales, and a Sean Combs production featuring rapper Ol' Dirty Bastard. The latter has been credited with popularizing the pop/hip hop collaboration trend that has continued into the 2000s through artists such as Ashanti and Beyoncé. People in the News. CNN. Airdate: April 30, 2005. Combs said that Carey "knows the importance of mixes, so you feel like you're with an artist who appreciates your work—an artist who wants to come up with something with you". She continues to consult on remixes by producers such as Morales, Jermaine Dupri, Junior Vasquez and DJ Clue, and guest performers contribute frequently to them. The popularity in U.S. nightclubs of the dance remixes, which often sound radically different from their album counterparts, has been known to eclipse the mainstream chart success of the original songs. Philanthropy and other activities Carey is a philanthropist who has donated time and money to organizations such as the Fresh Air Fund. She became associated with the Fund in the early 1990s, and is the co-founder of a camp located in Fishkill, New York, that enables inner-city youth to embrace the arts and introduces them to career opportunities. The camp was called Camp Mariah "for her generous support and dedication to Fresh Air children", "Fresh Air Fund Summer Programs: Summer Camping". Fresh Air Fund. Retrieved March 17, 2006. and she received a Congressional Horizon Award for her youth-related charity work. "Mariah Carey to Receive Congressional Award for Charity Efforts". MTV.com. April 13, 1999. Retrieved April 22, 2006. She is well-known nationally for her work with the Make-a-Wish Foundation in granting the wishes of children with life-threatening illnesses, and in November 2006 she was awarded the Foundation's Wish Idol for her "extraordinary generosity and her many wish granting achievements". "Mariah Receives Wish Icon Award". MariahCarey.com. November 20, 2006. Retrieved November 21, 2006. Carey has volunteered for the New York City Police Athletic League and contributed to the obstetrics department of New York Presbyterian Hospital Cornell Medical Center. A percentage of the sales of MTV Unplugged was donated to various other charities. In 2008, Carey was named Hunger Ambassador of the World Hunger Relief Movement. She is giving a free download of her song, "Love Story", to customers who donate to the organization at participating restaurants. Hunger to Hope Retrieved October 5, 2008 One of Carey's most high-profile benefit concert appearances was on VH1's 1998 Divas Live special, during which she performed alongside other female singers in support of the Save the Music Foundation. The concert was a ratings success, and Carey participated in the 2000 special. In 2007, the Save the Music Foundation honored Carey at their tenth gala event for her support towards the foundation since its inception. Friedman, Roger. "Mariah Carey Back: Diva Readies for Dec. 4 Release". FOX News. September 21, 2007. She appeared at the America: A Tribute to Heroes nationally televised fundraiser in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks, and in December 2001, she performed before peacekeeping troops in Kosovo. Carey hosted the CBS television special At Home for the Holidays, which documented real-life stories of adopted children and foster families, Duffy, Mike. "Mariah Carey leads heartfelt holiday special to promote adoption". Detroit Free Press. December 21, 2001. Retrieved from the Wayback Machine on April 22, 2006. and she has worked with the New York City Administration for Children's Services. In 2005, Carey performed for Live 8 in London and at the Hurricane Katrina relief telethon "Shelter from the Storm". In August 2008, Carey and other singers recorded the charity single, "Just Stand Up" produced by Babyface and L. A. Reid, to support "Stand Up to Cancer". On September 5, the singers performed it live on TV. Declining offers to appear in commercials in the United States during her early career, Carey was not involved in brand marketing initiatives until 2006, when she participated in endorsements for Intel Centrino personal computers and launched a jewelry and accessories line for teenagers, Glamorized, in American Claire's and Icing stores. Paoletta, Michael."The branding of Mimi" Billboard. July 10, 2006.Retrieved July 27, 2007. Serpe, Gina. "Mariah Pulls a J.Lo". E! Online. March 3, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006. During this period, as part of a partnership with Pepsi and Motorola, Carey recorded and promoted a series of exclusive ringtones, including "Time of Your Life". "Mariah Carey Hits Perfect Note With Pepsi". PR Newswire. April 19, 2006. Retrieved August 1, 2006. She signed a licensing deal with the cosmetics company Elizabeth Arden, and in 2007, she released her own fragrance, "M". Vineyard, Jennifer and Bland, Bridget. "Mariah Wants All Fans to See Her — And Even Smell Like Her". MTV.com. April 6, 2006. Retrieved April 7, 2006. Naughton, Julie. "Ready for a Revival: More Stars Launch Scents". WWD.com. June 22, 2007. Retrieved July 1, 2007. According to Forbes, Carey was the sixth richest woman in entertainment , with an estimated net worth of US $225 million. "The Richest 20 Women In Entertainment". Forbes. January 18, 2007. Retrieved January 21, 2007. Carey directed or co-directed several of the music videos for her singles during the 1990s. Slant magazine named the video for "The Roof (Back in Time)", which Carey co-directed with Diane Martel, one of the twenty greatest music videos of all time. Gonzalez, Ed and Cinquemani, Sal. "100 Greatest Music Videos - 20 1". Slant. 2003. Retrieved August 1, 2007. In 2008, Carey made Times annual list of 100 most Influential people. "Sonia, Tata in Time's most influential list". expressindia.com. May 01, 2008. Retrieved May 01, 2008. "Tony Blair makes list of 100 most influential people – but there's no place for Gordon Brown". Daily Mail. May 01, 2008. Retrieved May 01, 2008. "Mariah Carey". Time. May 01, 2008. Retrieved May 01, 2008. Discography Studio albums 1990: Mariah Carey 1991: Emotions 1993: Music Box 1994: Merry Christmas 1995: Daydream 1997: Butterfly 1999: Rainbow 2001: Glitter 2002: Charmbracelet 2005: The Emancipation of Mimi 2008: E=MC² 2009: Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel Other albums 1992: MTV Unplugged 1998: #1's 2000: Valentines 2001: Greatest Hits 2003: The Remixes 2008: The Ballads'' Awards Tours 1993: Music Box Tour 1996: Daydream World Tour 1998: Butterfly World Tour 2000: Rainbow World Tour 2003-2004: Charmbracelet World Tour 2006: The Adventures of Mimi Tour Filmography Movies Year Title Role Notes and Awards 1999 The Bachelor Ilana 2001 Glitter Billie Frank Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Actress 2002 WiseGirls Raychel 2003 Death of a Dynasty Herself 2005 State Property 2 Dame's Wifey 2008 You Don't Mess with the Zohan Herself 2009 Tennessee Krystal Release date: June 5, 2009 Release date - Tennessee. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved April 12, 2009. Precious Mrs. Weiss Release date: November 6, 2009 Release date - Precious. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved March 29, 2009. Television Year Title Role Notes and Awards 2002 Ally McBeal Candy Cushnip Episode "Playing with Matches" 2003 The Proud Family Herself Voice See also List of best-selling music artists List of best selling music artists in U.S. List of artists by total number of USA number one singles List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart List of best-selling albums worldwide List of best-selling albums in Australia List of best-selling albums in the United States List of best-selling singles worldwide List of best-selling singles in Japan List of best-selling singles in the United States List of honorific titles in popular music List of most expensive music videos Sales and charts achievements for Mariah Carey Notes References Shapiro, Marc. Mariah Carey (2001). UK: ECW Press, Canada. ISBN 1-55022-444-1. Hardy, Phil. The Faber Companion to 20th Century Popular Music: Fully Revised Third Edition (2001). pg. 156–157. UK: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 0-571-19608-X. Mulholland, Garry. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music (2003). pg. 57. UK: Flame Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-904041-70-1. Guinness Rockopedia (1998). pg. 74. UK: Guinness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-85112-072-5. Larkin, Colin. The Encyclopedia of Popular Music Volume II: 3rd Edition (1998). pg. 934. UK: Muze UK Ltd. ISBN 0-333-74134-X. O'Brien, Lucy. She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul (2002). pg. 29, 476–481. UK: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-5776-2 (paperback). Mariah Carey – Credits. Allmusic. Retrieved April 22, 2006. U.S. charts and sales compiled by Billboard magazine (http://www.billboard.com/) and Nielsen SoundScan (http://www.soundscan.com/); see http://www.mariahdaily.com/corantofiles/news-archive-1-2006.shtml. Retrieved February 7, 2007. "Mariah Carey – Artist Chart History". Billboard. Retrieved March 12, 2006. UK charts compiled by The Official UK Charts Company (http://www.theofficialcharts.com/); see http://www.mariah-charts.com/chartdata/UKTop40.htm. Retrieved February 7, 2007. Canadian charts compiled by Jam Canoe (http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/) and Nielsen SoundScan; see http://www.mariah-charts.com/chartdata/Canada.htm. Retrieved February 7, 2007. Australian charts compiled by the Australian Recording Industry Association (http://www.aria.com.au/); see http://www.mariah-charts.com/chartdata/Australia.htm. Japanese charts compiled by Oricon; see http://www.oricon.co.jp/artists/163336/. Retrieved February 7, 2007. People in the News. CNN. Airdate: April 30, 2005. Larry King Live. CNN. Airdate: December 19, 2002. "Mariah Carey to Receive Congressional Award for Charity Efforts". MTV.com. April 13, 1999. Retrieved April 22, 2006. Duffy, Mike. "Mariah Carey leads heartfelt holiday special to promote adoption". Detroit Free Press. December 21, 2001. Retrieved from the Wayback Machine on April 22, 2006. "The fall and rise of Mariah Carey". Bbc.co.uk. February 8, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Norris, John. "Mariah: Remixes, Reunions and Russia". MTV.com. October 2003. Retrieved March 12, 2006. Frere-Jones, Sasha. "On Top: Mariah Carey’s record-breaking career". The New Yorker. April 3, 2006. "Awards". MariahCarey.com. Retrieved April 22, 2006. "ARC Weekly Top 40 timeline— Mariah Carey". Retrieved May 13, 2006. Fred Bronson's Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits, 5th Edition (ISBN 0-8230-7677-6) Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Sixties (ISBN 0-89820-074-1) Joel Whitburn Presents the Billboard Hot 100 Charts: The Nineties (ISBN 0-89820-137-3) Additional information concerning Carey's chart history can be retrieved and verified in Billboard's online archive services and print editions of the magazine. External links Official website Mariah Carey at Allmusic Mariah Carey at LAUNCHcast Mariah Carey at Rock on the Net, the official ARC Weekly Top 40 website | Mariah_Carey |@lemmatized mariah:79 carey:205 bear:2 march:46 american:5 singer:21 songwriter:2 record:37 producer:7 actress:2 make:21 debut:9 guidance:1 columbia:12 executive:4 tommy:3 mottola:10 become:20 first:16 artist:29 five:6 single:45 top:18 u:33 billboard:30 hot:11 chart:37 follow:6 marriage:3 series:2 hit:10 establish:1 position:3 high:10 selling:10 act:8 accord:6 magazine:16 successful:9 united:7 state:14 shapiro:20 marc:2 pg:39 uk:19 ecw:2 press:5 canada:4 isbn:15 separation:4 introduce:1 element:2 hip:8 hop:8 album:62 work:21 much:6 initial:1 success:11 popularity:4 decline:2 leave:4 drop:1 virgin:5 following:4 year:24 highly:2 publicize:1 physical:3 emotional:4 breakdown:3 well:6 poor:1 reception:3 give:7 glitter:15 film:17 soundtrack:3 project:3 sign:5 island:7 relatively:1 unsuccessful:1 period:3 return:3 pop:20 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1,825 | Battle_of_Bosworth_Field | The Battle of Bosworth Field was the penultimate battle in the Wars of the Roses, a civil war between the House of Lancaster and the House of York that raged across England in the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by Lancastrian Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who by his victory and subsequent marriage to a Yorkist princess became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent Richard III, the last King of England from the House of York, was killed during the battle. Historians consider the battle to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it one of the defining moments of English history. Literature, from the 15th to 18th centuries, glamorized the conflict as a victory of good over evil—the battle forms the finale of William Shakespeare's play about Richard's rise and fall. Richard's reign over England began in 1483 when he seized the throne from his twelve-year-old nephew Edward V. The boy and his younger brother, Richard of Shrewsbury, soon disappeared, and the people of southern and western England suspected Richard III had murdered his nephews. In the north, support for Richard was eroded by rumours of his involvement in the death of his wife, Anne Neville. Across the English Channel, Henry, a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster, used his tenuous link to English royalty to lay claim on the throne. Several hundred Englishmen left their country to join Henry in exile, and revive the fortunes of the House of Lancaster. Henry's first invasion of England (1484) floundered in a storm, and he launched his next attempt on 1 August 1485. Landing unopposed on the southwest shores of Wales, his army marched inland, growing in strength as it gathered followers. Richard hurriedly gathered troops and intercepted Henry's army near Ambion Hill, south of the town of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Baron Stanley and Sir William Stanley were at the battlefield, considering which side would be more advantageous to them to support. Richard's forces outnumbered Henry's, however Richard divided his army into three groups, each smaller than Henry's total force. Henry concentrated most of his army into one group and handed its command to the experienced John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford. Richard's vanguard struggled against Oxford's group, and on seeing the inaction of his other group's commander, Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, the Yorkist king decided to risk a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry and end the fight. But the Stanleys intervened and Sir William led his men to Henry's aid, surrounding and killing Richard. After the battle, Henry was crowned king on Crown Hill. Henry hired chroniclers to portray his reign in a good light; the Battle of Bosworth Field was popularised to represent his Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age, marking the end of the Middle Ages for England. Plays, stories, and schoolbook texts were based on the Tudor historians' version of events, focusing on the death of Richard, who was portrayed as the embodiment of evil. This theme was most evident in the Shakespearian play, Richard III, and as the finale of the play, the battle has become a focal point for critics in later film adaptations. The exact location of the battlefield is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data, and memorials have been erected at questionable locations. The Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built, in 1974, on a site that was chosen based on a theory that was later challenged on the battle's quincentenary. Background In 1471, the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury secured the English throne to Yorkist King Edward IV, at the expense of his Lancastrian predecessor, King Henry VI. Edward died twelve years later, on 9 April 1483. Ross (1999), p. 21. His twelve-year-old elder son succeeded him as King Edward V, and the younger son, nine-year-old Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York, was next in line to the throne. The royal court was worried, as Edward V was too young to rule and the Woodvilles, relatives of the Queen Mother Elizabeth, were plotting to seize control of the Royal Council who planned to rule the country until the king's coming of age. Ross (1999), p. 65. Having offended many in their quest for wealth and power, the Woodville family was not popular. Ross (1999), pp. 35–43. To frustrate the Woodvilles' ambitions, Lord William Hastings and other members of the council turned to the uncle of the new king—Richard, Duke of Gloucester, brother of Edward IV. The courtiers urged Glouchester to assume the role of Protector quickly, as had been previously requested by the now dead king. Ross (1999), pp. 40–41. On 29 April, Gloucester, accompanied by a contingent of guards and Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, secured Edward V, and arrested several prominent members of the Woodville family. Ross (1999), pp. 71–72. After bringing the young king to London, Gloucester had the Woodvilles executed, without trial, on charges of treason. Ross (1999), p. 63. On 13 June, Gloucester accused Hastings of plotting with the Woodvilles and had him beheaded. Ross (1999), pp. 83–85. Nine days later, Gloucester convinced Parliament to declare the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth illegal, rendering their children illegitimate and disqualifying them from the throne. Ross (1999), pp. 88–91. With his nephews out of the way, he was next in the line of succession and was proclaimed King Richard III on 26 June. Ross (1999), p. 93. The timing and extra judicial nature of the deeds done to obtain the throne for Richard won him no popularity, and rumours that spoke ill of the new king spread throughout England. Ross (1999), pp. 94–95. After they were declared bastards, the two princes were confined in the Tower of London and never seen in public again. Ross (1999), pp. 99–100. Except for those in the north, the people of England firmly believed that Richard, the tyrant, Lander (1981), p. 327. had his nephews murdered. Ross (1999), p. 104. As Richard took control of the country and the House of York, a noble from the House of Lancaster challenged the king's right to the throne. The once great house had languished after the Battle of Tewkesbury, in which the lineage of King Henry VI was extinguished. However, it was revived as dissenters to Richard's rule fled England and swelled the ranks of the house in support of its claimant to the throne. Ross (1999), p. 192. The Lancastrian challenger was Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, then in exile in Brittany. Henry was the son of Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, but did not succeed to his father's title because William Herbert seized the title and its estates after taking control of Tudor's castle. After Herbert's death, the title and its lands passed to Richard III; Henry Tudor nonetheless insisted on using the title. Chrimes (1999), pp. 15, 328. Henry's claim to the English throne was based on his descent through his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, from John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster—Gaunt was the brother of King Richard II, the father of King Henry IV, and Henry Tudor's great-great-grandfather. Chrimes (1999), p. 3. The Beauforts were originally bastards, but Henry IV legitimatised them on the condition that their descendants would not contest for the throne. Chrimes (1999), p. 21. Henry Tudor and his supporters disregarded that ruling, and he swore an oath to marry Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, to unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster. Ross (1999), p. 196. While Henry remained in Brittany, his mother worked in England to promote his cause and obtained Buckingham's aid. Loyalists to Edward IV had started rebellions in England, and the duke saw the uprisings as a sign that Richard's hold on the throne was weakening. Historians Michael Jones and Malcolm Underwood suggest that Margaret deceived Buckingham into thinking he was their candidate to be the next king. Jones (1993), p. 64. The plan was to have Buckingham start a rebellion inland, invading from Wales, while Henry invaded by sea. Ross (1999), pp. 112–115. However, bad weather and timing wrecked their plot. Buckingham's castle was seized by his Welsh enemies when he set forth with his forces to start the rebellion. Forces loyal to Richard seized the bridges across the Severn and Buckingham could not cross the river, which was swollen by a violent storm. Ross (1999), p. 116. Trapped and without a base to retreat to, the duke gave up his plans and fled to Wem. He was betrayed by his servant and arrested by Richard's men. On 2 November, he was executed. Ross (1999), p. 117. Henry had attempted a landing on 10 October (or 19 October), but his fleet was scattered by a storm. He reached the coast of England (at either Plymouth or Poole), and a group of soldiers hailed him to come ashore. Chrimes (1999), p. 26. They were, in truth, Richard's men, prepared to capture Henry once he set foot on English soil. Henry, however, was not deceived and returned to Brittany, abandoning the invasion. Chrimes (1999), p. 27. Henry had entered the custody of Francis II, Duke of Brittany, in 1471; when fleeing for France, he and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, were forced by strong winds to beach on the shores of Brittany. Chrimes (1999), p. 17. Despite continual requests by Edward IV and Richard III to repatriate the fugitives, Francis held on to the Tudors, using them to obtain favourable terms from the Yorkist kings. Chrimes (1999), pp. 18–19. In mid-1484 (several months after Henry's aborted invasion), Francis was incapacitated by illness and his treasurer, Peter Landois, took over the reins of government while the duke was recuperating. Landois reached an agreement with Richard to send back Henry and his uncle in exchange for military and financial aid. John Morton, however, learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors, who fled to France. Lander (1981), p. 324. There, they entered the court of fourteen-year-old King Charles VIII, who was controlled by his eldest sister, Anne of Beaujeu. The Tudors were allowed to stay; Anne planned for France to annex Brittany, and Henry and his supporters were useful pawns to ensure that Richard's England did not interfere with her plan. Chrimes (1999), p. 31. On 16 March 1485, Richard's queen, Anne Neville, died. The royal couple had no living children; their only child, Edward, Prince of Wales, had died a year earlier. Ross (1999), p. 144. Rumours spread across the country that Anne was murdered to pave the way for Richard to marry his niece, Elizabeth. The gossip alienated Richard from some of his northern supporters. Ross (1999), p. 145–146. Across the English Channel, Henry was considerably upset by the hearsay. Chrimes (1999), p. 38. The loss of Elizabeth's hand in marriage could unravel the alliance between his supporters who were Lancastrians and those who were loyalists to Edward IV. Chrimes (1999), p. 39. Anxious to secure his bride, Henry assembled approximately 2,000 men and set sail from France on 1 August. Lander (1981), p. 325. Commanders Yorkist Unlike other prominent members of his family, Richard III was small and slender. His slight physique belied his enjoyment of rough sports and activities that were considered manly. Richard was a militant man and wanted to "drive away not only the Turks, but all [his] foes". Ross (1999), p. 142. Following his impressive performances on the battlefields of Barnet and Tewkesbury, he was made Edward IV's right hand man. Ross (1999), pp. 21–22. During the early 1480s Richard defended the northern borders of England, engaging Scottish forces in border wars. In 1482, Edward appointed him the command of an army to invade Scotland and supplant King James III with the Duke of Albany. Ross (1999), pp. 44–45. Richard's forces cut through the disorganised Scottish resistance easily, retaking the town of Berwick-upon-Tweed (which was conquered by the Scots in 1460) Ross (1999), p. 45. and occupying the capital, Edinburgh. A Scottish revolt resulted in James' execution and an accord with Albany to abandon his claim on the Scottish throne in exchange for the post of lieutenant general. Richard received an assurance from Albany that the Scottish government would concede territories and diplomatic benefits to the English crown as he had earlier promised. Ross (1999), p. 47. Historian Charles Ross said that Richard's lack of resolution and failing to install Albany as a puppet ruler for the English or to demand for greater concessions while his forces were in control of Edinburgh, rendered the invasion less than a success. Ross (1997), pp. 289–290. The meagre gains from the invasion irritated Richard's brother. In her analysis of Richard's character, Christine Carpenter saw him as a soldier who was more used to taking commands than making decisions on his own. Carpenter (2002), p. 210. John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, commander of Richard's vanguard, was a Yorkist who had served many years under Edward IV. He was one of Edward's closer confidantes, Ross (1997), p. 226. but might have bore a grudge against the Yorkist king. Howard had his eyes on the Mowbray estate, and was next in line to inherit the estate after the current heiress. Edward, however, married the girl to his son, Richard of Shrewsbury, thereby allowing the young boy to become master of the estate. Carpenter (2002), p. 203. Howard's dukedom was a reward for supporting Richard III in the deposition of Edward V. Carpenter (2002), p. 208. His son handled Hasting's arrest and execution, and the Mowbray estates became Norfolk's after Shrewsbury's death. Norfolk was a veteran of the Wars of the Roses and had participated in several battles. He had fought in the Battle of Towton in 1461, Ross (1997), p. 36. and in 1471, accompanied Hastings as his deputy to Calais on a crusade against the Saracens. Ross (1997), p. 181. He had also commanded the Yorkist fleet in 1470 and 1481. Hicks (2002), p. 287. Ross (1997), p. 280. Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, also accompanied Richard to Bosworth. The Percys had supported Lancaster at the start of the Wars of the Roses. Their fortunes declined and by 1461, Henry Percy was imprisoned in the tower of London and the earldom of Northumberland was given to John Neville. On 27 October 1469, Edward released Percy, Hicks (2002), p. 280. and five months later, restored the earldom to him. Ross (1997), p. 144. Indebted to Edward, Northumberland took no action against the young Yorkist king when he invaded England in 1471 to reclaim his crown from Henry VI. Hicks (2002), p. 307. He proved his loyalty to Edward, putting down rebellions in the north while the Yorkists were fighting the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury. Carpenter (2002), p. 180. Northumberland had issues with Richard when the young duke was groomed by Edward to become the leading power of the north. The earl was mollified when he was guaranteed to be the Warden of the East March, a position that was formerly hereditary for the Percys, Carpenter (2002), p. 185. and served under Richard during the 1482 invasion of Scotland. Ross (1997), p. 288. After Richard became king, he moulded his nephew, John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, to take over his former position as leader of the north, ignoring Northumberland for the post. According to Carpenter, although the earl was amply compensated, he despaired of any possibility of advancement under Richard. Carpenter (2002), p. 215. Lancastrian Hailed as the Prince of Wales, Henry Tudor had only a fraction of Welsh blood in him and it was unlikely he could speak Welsh. Elton (2003), p. 89. Although he lived in Pembroke Castle until he was fourteen years old, he was brought up mainly by his English mother and later in the household of William Herbert. Chrimes (1999), pp. 15–17. His spent the next fourteen years in Brittany and France. Nonetheless his tenuous Welsh ancestry and links to English royalty earned him the loyalty of the Welshmen. Chrimes (1999), p. 4. Sir Geoffrey Elton suggests this affiliation was only felt by Henry's idolaters. The young man never overtly professed himself a Welshmen before or after the battle. Elton (2003), pp. 88–89. Henry was slender but strong, yet he was not much of a warrior, lacking a penchant for war; chroniclers, such as Polydore Vergil and Pedro de Ayala, found him to be more interested in commerce. Chrimes (1999), pp. 299, 301. He was decisive, capable of making decisions under stress without fear, Chrimes (1999), pp. 299, 318. but he had not fought in any battles before Bosworth Field. Saccio (2000), p. 183. Even so, aside from his uncle Jasper, Henry acquired several veterans of war, whom he could rely on for military advice and command of his armies. Ross (1999), p. 211. No contemporary source mentions Jasper Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Mediaeval historian Thomas Brynmor Pugh believes that instead of participating in the battle, Jasper stayed behind in Wales to secure an escape route for his nephew, in case the battle was lost. Pugh (1992), p. 50. John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford was Henry's principal commander for military matters. Chrimes (1999), p. 54. He was a veteran, acknowledged to be of good military capability. At the Battle of Barnet, he commanded the Lancastrian right wing and routed Hastings' force opposite him. However, due to a confusion of identities by the Lancastrian main force, Oxford and his men came under friendly fire and retreated from the field. He fled abroad and continued his fight against Yorkist rule, troubling Edward IV and eventually conquering the island fort of St Michael's Mount in 1473. He surrendered after receiving no aid or reinforcement, but in 1484, he escaped from prison, bringing along the captain of his prison, Sir James Blount, to join Henry at his court in France. Britnell (1997), p. 101. His escape raised morale in Henry's camp, and troubled Richard. Gravett (1999), p. 15. Stanleys Sir William Stanley staunchly supported the Yorkist cause in the beginning stages of the Wars of the Roses, despite his family's leaning to the Lancastrian cause. Carpenter (2002), p. 159. His first fight under the Yorkist flag was at the Battle of Blore Heath in 1459. Hicks (2002), p. 163. When uprisings sprung up against Edward in 1471, Stanley fought under Hastings' command to put them down. Ross (1997), p. 164. Stanley did not sway from his service to the Yorkist crown during the early stages of Richard III's reign; he was amply rewarded for not joining Buckingham's rebellion. Carpenter (2002), p. 212. Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, did not possess such strong loyalties as his younger brother William. By the time of the Battle of Bosworth Field, he had served three masters, namely Henry VI, Edward IV, and Richard III. In each service, he showed a tendency to avoid supporting his liege or close associates when the situation was unfavourable. As Henry VI's chamberlain, Stanley ignored his liege's summon to join the fight against the Earl of Salisbury at Blore Heath; aside from his brother's presence in Salisbury's forces, Stanley sympathised with the Yorkist cause. See Wolffe (2001), p. 318. Although Stanley was on friendly terms with his brother-in-law, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, he refused to help in any way when Warwick was exposed for plotting against Edward IV. See Hicks (2002), p. 252; Carpenter (2002), p. 177. However, Stanley was quick to switch loyalties when Warwick invaded England with an army in Henry VI's name, bolstering the Lancastrian forces with his large retinue of men. See Ross (1997), p. 152. When Edward returned and faced off against Warwick, Stanley refused to commit to either side, taking the chance to pursue his vendetta against the Harringtons in Lancashire. See Carpenter (2002), p. 179; Ross (1997), p. 164. Stanley threw in his support mainly at the most opportune of moments and earned high positions with his political manoeuvring; he was Henry's chamberlain and Edward's steward. Ross (1997), p. 334. His avoidance of joining disadvantaged factions earned him the loyalty of his men, who felt he would not send them to their deaths needlessly. He was not completely trusted by Richard. Before Richard was king, the two had conflicts with each other that broke out in bouts of violence around March 1470. Ross (1997), p. 134. Stanley's position as Henry's stepfather, having taken Margaret Beaufort as his second wife in June 1472, Jones (1993), p. 59. did not endear him to Richard as well. Stanley, however, participated in Richard's 1482 invasion of Scotland, Ross (1997), p. 288. and he did not join Buckingham's revolt. After putting down the rebellion, Richard had the plotters beheaded; however, Margaret was spared. Her titles were forfeited and her estates transferred to Stanley's name, held in trust for the Yorkist crown. Richard's act of mercy was a calculated plan to reconcile with Stanley and win his gratitude. The king remained wary of the baron and took his son, George, as hostage to discourage him from joining Henry's cause. Horrox (1991), p. 323. The Stanleys might have chosen to support Henry because of Richard's interventions in their feud with the Harringtons. Carpenter (2002), p. 216. The dispute arose in the early stages of the Wars of the Roses. Thomas Harrington had died and left his considerable estates to his young daughters. Edward, acting as guardian for his subject's orphaned children, planned to marry one of the girls to the Middletons. The girls' cousins, however, wanted the estates to remain within the family; they confined the girls against their will and occupied their inheritances. Matters came to a head in 1468 when Edward transferred custody of the heiresses to Baron Stanley, who married them to members of his family in a bid to gain control over the Harrington estates. Fights broke out between the Stanleys and the Harringtons from 1469 to 1473, as the Harringtons, aided by Richard, continued to occupy the disputed lands and hold out against Stanley's forces. However, in 1473, Edward held arbitration and ruled for the Harringtons to surrender the estates. The terms of the deal were enforced by Richard and the other lords, and the Harringtons accepted their eviction. Ross (1997), pp. 406, 408–409. After Richard became king, he indicated that he planned to reverse Edward's decision and rule in favour of the Harringtons, returning to them their family estates. Prelude Henry and his fleet landed at Mill Bay, a few kilometres west of Milford Haven, on 7 August 1485, and overwhelmed the local defence at Dale Castle. Chrimes (1999), pp. 40–41. Henry's army marched inland, slowly gathering followers as they moved through Wales. Local recruits included chieftains, such as Rhys ap Thomas and Rhys Fawr ap Maredudd. Gravett (1999), p. 40. Thomas was part of Richard's defence force for Wales, his son held as surety for his loyalty. Nonetheless Henry successfully enticed him to defect with the offer of the "lieutenancy" of Wales. Thomas' change of sides substantially increased Henry's army. Chrimes (1999), pp. 42–43. By 15 or 16 August, Henry and his men had crossed the English border, heading to the town of Shrewsbury. Richard had been aware of Henry's landing since 11 August, but the mustering of his forces took several days. Although he had ordered his lords to maintain a high level of readiness, it took three to four days for his messengers to notify them to mobilise their forces. On 16 August, the Yorkist army started to muster; Norfolk set off for Leicester, the assembly point, in the night. The city of York, a traditional stronghold of Richard's family, asked the king for instructions, and receiving a reply three days later, sent 80 men to join Richard. Northumberland, whose northern territory was the most distant from the capital, took the same time to gather his men and ride to Leicester. Ross (1999), pp. 212–215. Henry did not move straight towards London. After resting in Shrewsbury, his forces moved eastwards and picked up Gilbert Talbot and other English allies, including deserters from Richard's forces. Although its size had increased substantially since the landing, Henry's army was not yet large enough to be on par with the numbers Richard could muster. Henry's pace through Staffordshire was slow, delaying the confrontation with Richard so that he could gather more recruits to his cause. Ross (1999), p. 212. Before Henry set foot in England, he had been communicating on friendly terms with the Stanleys for some time. The Stanleys had mobilised their forces on hearing of Henry's landing and they constantly ranged themselves ahead of Henry's march through the English countryside. Gravett (1999), pp. 44–45. As Henry moved through Staffordshire he met the Stanleys twice in secret. Carpenter (2002), p. 217. On 21 August, the Stanleys were making camp on the slopes of a hill north of Dadlington, while Henry encamped his army at White Moors to the northwest of their camp. Gravett (1999), p. 45. On 20 August, Richard reached Leicester, joining Norfolk who had arrived earlier. Northumberland joined them the next day. The royal army proceeded westwards to intercept Henry's march on London. Passing Sutton Cheney, Richard moved his army towards Ambion Hill—which he thought would be of tactical value—and made camp on it. Richard's sleep was not peaceful and, according to the Croyland Chronicle, in the morning his face was "more livid and ghastly than usual." Gravett (1999), p. 46. Engagement The Yorkist army, comprising 10,000 men, deployed on the hilltop Ross (1999), p. 215. Mackie (1983), p. 52. along the ridgeline from west to east. Norfolk's group of spearmen stood on the right flank, protecting cannon and about 1,200 archers. Richard's group, comprising 3,000 infantry, formed the centre. Northumberland's men guarded the left flank; he had approximately 4,000 men, many of them mounted on horses. Ross (1999), pp. 217–218 Gravett (1999), pp. 54–55. Standing on the hill top, Richard had an unobstructed and wide view of the area. He could see the Stanleys and their 6,000 men, as they remained stationary at Dadlington Hill. To the southwest, he could observe Henry's army. Ross (1999), p. 217. Henry sent messengers to Stanley, asking him to declare his allegiance. The reply was evasive— the Stanleys would "naturally" come after Henry had given orders to his army and arranged them for battle. Henry had no choice but to advance his army across the plain and confront Richard's forces on their own. Chrimes (1999), p. 47. Henry had very few English men—less than a thousand—in his army. Between three and five hundred of them were exiles who had fled from Richard's rule, Chrimes (1999), p. 40. and the remainder were Talbot's men, and recent deserters from Richard's army. Historian John Mackie believes that 1,800 French mercenaries, led by Philibert de Chandée, formed the core of Henry's army. Mackie (1983), p. 51. Scottish legend has it that Scottish mercenaries also served Henry in this invasion. Gravett (1999), pp. 34–36. Mackie dismisses these stories, reasoning that if there were any Scottish troops among Henry's men, they were but a few competent captains. The French generally looked down on the military skills of the Scots, disdaining to employ them in large numbers. In total, Henry's army numbered 5,000, a substantial portion of it made up by the recruits picked up through his trek through Wales; Thomas' Welsh force was ascribed to be large enough to "annihilate" Henry's starting army. Ross (1999), p. 213. Henry was well aware of his military inexperience and after handing command of his army to Oxford, stood to the rear with his bodyguards. Oxford, seeing the vast line of Richard's army strung along the ridgeline, decided to keep his men together instead of splitting them into the traditional three groups: vanguard, centre, and rearguard. He expressly ordered them to stray no further than from their banners, fearing that they might be enveloped and attacked on all sides by their opponents' greater numbers. Individual groups clumped together, forming a single large force flanked by horsemen on its wings. Chrimes (1999), p. 48. Oxford's troops were harassed by Richard's cannon as they manoeuvred around a marsh at the southwestern foot of the hill, seeking firm ground to stage their stand. Ross (1999), pp. 220–221. Once Oxford and his men rounded the marsh, Norfolk's group and several contingents of Richard's group started to advance. Hails of arrows showered both sides as they closed in on each other. Oxford's men proved to be steadfast in the ensuing hand-to-hand combat; they held their ground, and several of Norfolk's men, recruits from southern England, fled from the battle. Adams (2002), p. 19. Recognising that his force was at a disadvantage, Richard signalled for Northumberland to move in; however, Northumberland's group showed no signs of movement. Historians, such as Pugh and Horrox, believe Northumberland chose not to aid his king for personal reasons. Pugh (1992), p. 49. Horrox (1991), pp. 319–320. Ross doubts the aspersions cast on Northumberland's loyalty and suggests that Ambion Hill's narrow ridge hindered Northumberland from joining the battle; the earl would have to go through their allies or execute a wide flanking move—near impossible to perform in those days—to engage Oxford's men. Ross (1999), pp. 221–223. At this juncture, Henry rode off towards the Stanleys. Richard, on seeing Henry's movement, decided to end the fight quickly by killing the enemy commander. He led a charge of 800 mounted men, rounding the main fight between his vanguard and Oxford's men, and tore into Henry's group. Ross (1999), p. 222. Gravett (1999), p. 69. Richard killed Henry's standard-bearer, Sir William Brandon, on his charge, and unhorsed burly John Cheyne, Edward IV's former standard-bearer, Horrox (1991), p. 325. with a blow to the head from his broken lance. Chrimes (1999), p. 49. Richard killed more of Henry's bodyguards, but they surrounded their master and kept him away from the Yorkist king. On seeing Richard mired in combat with Henry's men, separated from the main battle, William Stanley made his move. He led his men into the fight, coming in on Henry's side. Richard's group was surrounded and outnumbered. Gradually, they were pressed back against a marsh. Richard's banner man—Sir Percival Thirwell—lost his legs, but held the Yorkist banner aloft until he was hacked to death. Adams (2002), p. 20. Richard's horse got stuck in the soft ground and he had to continue the fight on foot. Gravett (1999), p. 73. His followers offered him their horses to escape, but Richard refused. Ross (1999), p. 224. All chroniclers agree that Richard fought bravely to the end; Ross (1999), p. 225. overwhelmed by the masses of Welshmen around him, the last Yorkist king died on the battlefield. Richard's forces disintegrated as news of his death spread across the field. Norfolk was killed, and Northumberland and his men had already fled north on seeing the king's fate. Post-battle After the battle, Richard's circlet was found and brought to Henry, who was crowned king on top of Crown Hill, near the town of Stoke Golding. According to Vergil, Henry's official historian, Baron Stanley found the circlet. Historian Stanley Chrimes and Professor Sydney Anglo dismiss the legend of the crown's finding in a hawthorn bush; none of the contemporary sources reported such an event. Ross, however, does not ignore the legend. He opines that the hawthorn bush would not be part of Henry's coat of arms if it did not have a strong relationship to his ascendance. Ross (1999), p. 52. In Vergil's chronicle, 100 of his king's men, compared to 1,000 of Richard's, died in this battle—a ratio Chrimes finds as a likely exaggeration. The bodies were brought to St James Church at Dadlington for burial. Battlefields Trust (2004), "Battlefield Monuments" Henry, however, denied such an immediate state of rest for Richard; instead the last Yorkist king's corpse was stripped naked and strapped across a horse. His body was brought to Leicester and openly exhibited in a church to show his death. After two days, the corpse was interred in a plain unmarked tomb. Ross (1999), pp. 225–226. Henry dismissed the mercenaries in his force, retaining only a small core of local soldiers that formed the "Yeomen of his Garde", Mackie (1983), p. 58. and proceeded to establish his rule of England. He convinced Parliament to reverse his attainder and record Richard's kingship as illegal, although the Yorkist king's reign remained officially in the annals of England history. The proclamation of Edward IV's children as illegitimate was also reversed, restoring Elizabeth's status to a royal princess. Baker (2003), pp. 58–59. The marriage of the heiress to the House of York, Elizabeth, to the master of the House of Lancaster, Henry, marked the end of the feud between the two houses and the start of the Tudor dynasty. The royal matrimony, however, was delayed until Henry was crowned king and had established his claim on the throne, strong enough to precede those of Elizabeth and her kin. Laynesmith (2005), p. 81. Aside from reversing his attainder, Henry also convinced Parliament to backdate his reign to the day before the battle, effectively declaring those who fought against him at Bosworth Field to be traitors. Baker (2003), p. 59. Northumberland, who had done nothing in the battle, was imprisoned, but later released and reinstated to pacify the north in Henry's name. Carpenter (2002), p. 222. The purge of those who fought for Richard occupied Henry's first two years of rule. Afterwards, Henry was prepared to accept those who submitted to him, regardless of their former allegiances. Carpenter (2002), pp. 224–225. Of his supporters, Henry rewarded the Stanleys the most. Aside from making William his chamberlain, he bestowed the earldom of Derby upon Baron Stanley, along with grants and offices in other estates. Carpenter (2002), p. 223. Henry rewarded Oxford by restoring the lands and titles confiscated by the Yorkists to him, and appointing him as Constable of the Tower and admiral of England, Ireland, and Aquitaine. For his kin, Henry created Jasper Tudor to be the Duke of Bedford. Chrimes (1999), pp. 54–55. He returned to his mother the lands and grants stripped from her by Richard. He proved to be a filial son, installing her as Queen Mother in the palace and faithfully attending to her throughout his reign. Parliament's declaration of Margaret as femme sole effectively empowered her; she no longer needed to attend to matters of her estates through Stanley. Jones (1993), pp. 98–99. Elton points out that the Henry's supporters were in his favour for the short term; in later years, he would promote those who would serve his interests best over those who had supported him at Bosworth. Elton (2003), pp. 78–80. Like the kings before him, Henry faced dissidents to his reign. The first open revolt against his rule occurred two years later. Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, who was Edward IV's nephew. The Earl of Lincoln backed him for the throne and led rebel forces in the name of the House of York. The rebel army fended off several attacks by Northumberland's forces before engaging Henry's army at the Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487. Oxford and Bedford led Henry's men, Mackie (1983), p. 73. including several former supporters of Richard III, on that day. Horrox (1991), p. 318. Henry won this battle easily, although he had to contend with a few other malcontents and conspiracies in his reign. Pugh (1992), pp. 52–56 A rebellion in 1489 started with Northumberland's murder; military historian Michael C C Adams says that a note left next to Northumberland's body blamed the earl for Richard's death. Richard effectively lost the Battle of Bosworth Field because of morale and loyalty issues; most of the common soldiers doubted him and found it difficult to fight for such a liege, and some lords believed that their situation might be better if Richard were removed. Faced with such perceptions, Richard's desperate charge at Henry was the only knightly behaviour on the field, according to Adams. As fellow historian Michael Bennet puts it, the charge was "the swan-song of [mediaeval] English chivalry." Adams believes this view is reflected at that time through the actions of printer William Caxton, who enjoyed sponsorship by Edward IV and Richard III. Nine days after the battle, Caxton published Sir Thomas Malory's story about chivalry and death by betrayal—Le Morte d'Arthur—seemingly as a response to the circumstances by which Richard had died. Legacy Contemporary accounts of the Battle of Bosworth Field can be found in four primary sources, one of which is the English Croyland Chronicle, written by a senior Yorkist chronicler who relied on second-hand information from nobles and soldiers. English Heritage (1995), p. 6. The other sources were written by foreigners; Vergil, Jean Molinet, and Diego de Valera. English Heritage (1995), p. 4. English Heritage (1995), p. 7. Whereas Molinet was sympathetic to Richard, Vergil was in Henry's service, drawing information from the king and his subjects to portray them in a good light. Diego de Valera compiled his information from letters of Spanish merchants,and is regarded by Ross to be unreliable. Ross (1999), p. 216. However other historians have used the hearsay gathered by the merchants to deduce possibly valuable information not readily evident in other sources. English Heritage (1995), p. 8. Ross regarded the poem, The Ballad of Bosworth Field, as a useful source to ascertain certain details of the battle. The multitude of different accounts, mostly based on second- or third-hand information, has proved to be an obstacle to historians as they try to reconstruct the battle. Their common complaint is that except for the outcome, very little details of the battle are found in the chronicles. According to historian Michael Hicks, the Battle of Bosworth Field is one of the worst chronicled clashes of the Wars of the Roses. Hicks (1995), p. 23. Henry tried to establish his victory as a new beginning for the country; Burrow (2000), p. 11. he hired chroniclers to portray his reign as a "modern age" that started from 1485. Carpenter (2002), p. 219. Hicks points out that the works of Vergil and the blind historian Bernard André, promoted by the Tudor governments, have become authoritative sources for writers of the next four hundred years. Hicks (1995), pp. 28, 39. As such, Tudor literature paints a flattering picture of Henry's reign, presenting the Battle of Bosworth Field as the final clash of the civil war and downplaying the subsequent uprisings. For England, the Middle Ages ended in 1485. Other than 1066, in which William the Conqueror conquered England in the Battle of Hastings, no other year holds more significance for the country in its history. By portraying Richard as a hunchbacked tyrant who usurped the throne by killing his nephews, the Tudor historians attached a sense of myth to the battle: it became an epic clash between good and evil, an outcome of moral victory to be expected by the people. English Heritage (1995), p. 11. According to Reader Colin Burrow, André was so overwhelmed by the historic significance of the Battle of Bosworth Field that he represented it with a blank page in his Henry VII (1502). Burrow (2000), p. 12. For Professor Peter Saccio, the battle was a unique clash in the annals of English history: "the victory was determined, not by those who fought, but by those who delayed fighting until they were sure of being on the winning side." The significance of this battle is not shared by Elton. He points out that in the 20th century the English public largely ignored the battle until its quincentennial celebration. In his view, the lack of an abundance of specific information—no one truly knows where the battle took place—indicates the battle's insignificance to English society. Elton considered the battle as a normal part of Henry's struggles to establish his reign; that the young king had to spend ten more years, pacifying factions and rebellions to secure his throne, underscores his point. Elton (2003), p. 78. Mackie's opinions are similar to an extent. He points out that contemporary historians, wary of the three changes of kings during the long Wars of the Roses, considered the battle of no significance; to them it was just another battle. It is Francis Bacon and later chroniclers (in the Tudor dynasty) who promoted the battle as the "fall of a tyrant", casting it in public eyes as a crucial battle that decided their lifestyle. Mackie (1983), p. 7. Mackie concludes that in hindsight, Bosworth Field was a decisive battle, whose significance lies in its establishment of a dynasty that was unchallenged in its hundred-year rule over England. Mackie (1983), p. 8 Mackie (1983), p. 8 Shakespearian dramatisation William Shakespeare gives prominence to the Battle of Bosworth Field in his play, Richard III. It is the "one big battle"; no other fighting scene distracts the audience from this action, Grene (2001), p. 92. represented by a one-on-one swordfight between Henry Tudor and Richard III. Edelman (1992), p. 80. Shakespeare uses their duel to bring a climactic end to the play and the Wars of the Roses; he also uses it to champion morality, portraying the "unequivocal triumph of good over evil". Grene (2001), p. 93. Richard, the villainous lead character, has been built up in the battles of Shakespeare's earlier play, Henry VI, Part 3, as a "formidable swordsman and a courageous military leader"—in contrast to the dastardly means by which he becomes king in Richard III. Edelman (1992), p. 79. Although the Battle of Bosworth Field has only five sentences to direct it on stage, three scenes and more than four hundred lines precede the action, developing the background and motivations for the characters in anticipation of the battle. Shakespeare's account of the battle was mostly based on chroniclers Edward Hall's and Raphael Holinshed's dramatic versions of history, which were sourced from Vergil's chronicle. However, Shakespeare's attitude towards Richard was shaped by scholar Thomas More, whose writings displayed extreme bias against the Yorkist king. Lull (1999), p. 1. The result of these influences is a script that vilifies the king, and Shakespeare had little qualms about departing from history to incite drama. Saccio (2000), p. 14. Margaret of Anjou died in 1482, but Shakespeare had her speak to Richard's mother before the battle to foreshadow Richard's fate and fulfil the prophecy she had cast in Henry VI. Lull (1999), p. 48. Shakespeare exaggerated the cause of Richard's restless night before the battle, elaborating it as a haunting by the ghosts of those whom the king had murdered, including Buckingham. Grene (2001), p. 154. Richard is portrayed as suffering a pang of conscience, but as he speaks, he regains his confidence and asserts that he will be evil if that is what is needed to retain his crown. Lull (1999), p. 18. The fight between the two armies is simulated by rowdy noises made off-stage (alarums or alarms) as actors walk on the stage, deliver their lines, and exit. To build the anticipation for the duel, Shakespeare requests for more alarums after Richard's councillor, William Catesby, announces that the king is "[enacting] more wonders than a man". Richard is instructed to punctuate his entrance with the classic line, "A horse, a horse! My kingdom for a horse!" Here, Richard refuses to withdraw, continuing to seek for a new horse to continue his slaying of Henry's doubles until he has killed his nemesis. There is no documentary evidence that Henry had five decoys at Bosworth Field; the idea was Shakespeare's invention. He drew inspiration from Henry IV's use of them at the Battle of Shrewsbury (1403) to amplify the perception of Richard's courage on the battlefield. Edelman (1999), p. 81. Similarly, the single combat between Henry and Richard is Shakespeare's creation. The True Tragedy of Richard III, a play earlier than Shakespeare's version, exhibited no signs of staging such an encounter: its stage directions gave not a hint of visible combat. Edelman (1999), pp. 16–17. Despite the dramatic licences taken, Shakespeare's version of the Battle of Bosworth Field was taken as the model of the event by English textbooks for many years during the 18th and 19th centuries. Mitchell (2000), p. 209. The glamorized version of national history, published in books and paintings and played out on stages across the country, perturbed humorist Gilbert Abbott à Beckett. Mitchell (2000), p. 208. He voiced his criticism in the form of a poem, equating the romantic view of national history to watching a "fifth-rate production of Richard III": shabbily costumed actors fight the Battle of Bosworth Field on-stage while those with lesser roles lounge at the back of the stage, showing no interest in the proceedings. Mitchell (2000), pp. 209–210. In Laurence Olivier's 1955 film adaptation of Richard III, the Battle of Bosworth Field is represented not by a single duel, but an open conflict that became the film's most recognised scene and a regular show at Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre. Davies (1990), p. 74. English Heritage (1995), p. 10. The movie portrays the clash between the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies on an open field. The camera focused on individual characters amidst the depicted savagery of hand-to-hand fighting, and the film received accolades for the realistic fight. Davies (1990), pp. 74–75, 135. A reviewer for The Manchester Guardian paper, however, was not as impressed, finding the number of combatants too sparse for the wide plains and a lack of subtlety in Richard's death scene. Davies (2000), p. 176. The method in which Richard is shown to prepare his army for the battle also earned acclaim. As Richard speaks to his men and draws his plans in the sand—using his sword as a pen—his units appear on-screen, arraying themselves in the lines that Richard had drawn. Intimately woven together, the combination of pictorial and narrative elements effectively turns Richard into a storyteller, who acts out the plot he has construed. Davies (1990), p. 75. Shakespearian critic Herbert Coursen extends that idea of the scene: Richard sets himself up as a creator of men but dies amongst the savagery of his creations' killing of each other. Coursen finds the depiction a contrast to that of Henry V and his "band of brothers". Coursen (2000), pp. 100–101. The adaptation of the settings for Richard III to a 1930s fascist England in Ian McKellen's 1995 film, however, did not sit well with historians. Adams posits that the original Shakespearian setting for Richard's fate at Bosworth teaches the moral of facing one's fate, no matter how unjust it is, "nobly and with dignity". Adams (2002), p. 28. By overshadowing the dramatic teaching with special effects, McKellen's film reduces its version of the battle to a pyrotechnic spectacle about the death of a one-dimensional villain. Adams (2002), pp. 28–29. Coursen agrees that the battle and Richard's end in this version are trite and underwhelming. Coursen (2000), pp. 102–103. Battlefield Officially the site of the battle is deemed by Leicestershire County Council to be in the vicinity of Market Bosworth. English Heritage (1995), p. 1. The council engaged historian Daniel Williams to research the battle, and his findings were used in 1974 to build Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and the presentation it houses. English Heritage (1995), p. 2. His version of history, however, has come under dispute. Sparked by the quincentenary celebration in 1985, historians argue over the exact location of battle, Dunn (2000), p. 2. and suspect the authenticity of Williams' version. Battlefields Trust (2004), "Visiting the Battlefield". In particular, geological surveys conducted by Battlefields Trust, a charity organisation to protect and study old English battlefields, show that the southern and eastern flanks of Ambion Hill were solid ground in the 15th century, contrary to William's claim of it as a large area of marshland. Foard (2004) p. 21 The battle, they argue, was named after Market Bosworth because that was the most notable town nearest to the battlefield in the 15th century. As suggested by Professor Philip Morgan, a battle might be treated by society as a normal event, deeming it of no memorable quality and therefore not requiring a name. As time passes, writers of administrative and historical records find it necessary to identify the battle, ascribing it a name that is usually toponymical in nature and sourced from combatants or observers. This official name gets accepted by society and future generations without question. Morgan (2000), p. 42. Early records associated the Battle of Bosworth Field with "Brownehethe", "bellum Miravallenses", "Sandeford" and "Dadlyngton field". Morgan (2000), p. 44. The earliest record, a municipal memorandum of 23 August 1485 from York, Foard (2004), p. 17 locates the battle "on the field of Redemore". English Heritage (1995), pp. 1–2. It is corroborated by a 1485–86 letter that mentions "Redesmore" as the location of the action. According to historian Peter Foss, records did not associate the battle with "Bosworth" until 1510. English Heritage names Foss as the principal advocate for "Redemore" as the location of the battle. Foss suggests the name is derived from "Hreod Mor", an Anglo-Saxon phrase that means "reedy marshland". Basing his opinion on 13th- and 16th-century church records, he believes "Redemore" was an area of wetland that lay between Ambion Hill and the village of Dadlington, and was close to the Fenn Lanes, a Roman road running east to west across the region. Glenn Foard, Project Officer for Battlefields Trust, believes this road to be the most probable route that both armies took to reach the battlefield. Foard (2004), p. 51 Williams dismisses the notion of "Redmore" as a specific location, calling the word a general term used to describe a large area of reddish soil. Foss argues that Williams' sources are local stories and flawed interpretations of records. English Heritage (1995), p. 3. Williams relied primarily on William Hutton's 1788 The Battle of Bosworth-Field, which Foss blames for introducing the notion that the battle was fought west of Ambion Hill on the north side of the River Sence. Hutton, as Foss suggests, misinterpreted a passage from his source, Raphael Holinshed's 1577 Chronicle. Holinshed wrote, "King Richard pitched his field on a hill called Anne Beame, refreshed his soldiers and took his rest." Foss says Hutton mistook "field" for "field of battle", seeding the idea that the fight took place on Anne Beame (Ambion Hill). To "[pitch] his field", as Foss clarifies, is to set up a camp. Foss brings further evidence for his "Redemore" theory by quoting Edward Hall's 1550 Chronicle. Hall stated that Richard's army stepped onto a plain after breaking camp the next day. Furthermore, historian William Burton, author of Description of Leicestershire (1622), wrote that the battle was "fought in a large, flat, plaine, and spacious ground, three miles [4.82 km] distant from [Bosworth], between the Towne of Shenton, Sutton [Cheney], Dadlington and Stoke [Golding]". The information from the two sources fits the flat ground north of Dadlington in Foss' opinion. English Heritage, responsible for managing England's historic sites, used both theories to designate the site for Bosworth Field. Without preference for either theory, they constructed a single continuous battlefield boundary that encompasses locations of the battle mentioned by Williams and Foss. English Heritage (1995), pp. 12–13. The region has experienced extensive changes over the years, starting after the battle. Holinshed stated in his chronicle that he found firm ground where he expected the marsh to be. Burton confirmed that by the end of the 16th century, areas of the battlefield were enclosed and improved to make them agriculturally productive. Trees were planted on the south side of Ambion Hill, forming Ambion Wood. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Ashby Canal carved through the land west and south-west of Ambion Hill. Winding alongside the canal at a distance, the Ashby and Nuneaton Railway crossed the area on an embankment. Gravett (1999), p. 83. The changes to the land were so extensive that when Hutton revisited the region in 1807, after visiting in 1788, he could not readily find his way around. Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on Ambion Hill, near where Richard's Well is located. According to legend, Richard III, supposedly drank from a spring on the day of the battle. There are several springs in the region. Gravett (1999), p. 72. In 1788, a local pointed out one of the springs to Hutton, claiming it was the one mentioned in the legend. A stone structure was later built over the location. The inscription on the well reads: Northwest of Ambion Hill, just across the northern tributary of the Sence in the area, a flag and a memorial stone mark Richard's Field. Erected in 1973, the site was selected on the basis of William's version of history. English Heritage (1995), p. 12. St James's Church at Dadlington is the only structure in the area that is reliably associated with the Battle of Bosworth Field; the bodies of those who died in the battle were buried there. References Bibliography Books Reports Online source External links Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and Country Park: website for the museum, contains information and photos about current state of the battlefield Richard III Society: history society, which contains photos and articles that present several competing theories about the location of the battle | Battle_of_Bosworth_Field |@lemmatized battle:91 bosworth:36 field:35 penultimate:1 war:13 rose:8 civil:2 house:15 lancaster:8 york:10 rag:1 across:12 england:26 century:9 fight:26 august:10 win:4 lancastrian:11 henry:118 tudor:23 earl:16 richmond:3 victory:5 subsequent:2 marriage:4 yorkist:25 princess:2 become:11 first:5 english:37 monarch:1 dynasty:6 opponent:2 richard:138 iii:22 last:3 king:46 kill:9 historian:21 consider:5 mark:4 end:10 plantagenet:2 make:11 one:14 define:1 moment:2 history:11 literature:2 glamorize:1 conflict:3 good:7 evil:5 form:7 finale:2 william:19 shakespeare:14 play:9 rise:1 fall:2 reign:11 begin:1 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1,826 | Juventus_F.C. | Juventus Football Club () (from Latin The name "Juventus" is a literal license in Piedmontese language of the Latin substantive iuventus (youth in English language). iuventus: youth, ), commonly referred to as Juventus and familiarly as Juve, is an Italian professional football club based in Turin, Piedmont. The club was founded in 1897 and have spent their entire history, with the exception of the 2006–07 season, in the top flight First Division (since 1929, called Serie A). Juventus is the most successful team in the history of Italian football. Overall, the club have won 51 official trophies, more than any other team in the country; 40 in Italy, which is also a record, Record for Italian football. The other Italian main clubs, Milan and Inter, have won a total of 45 titles (27 in Italian club competitions) and 32 (25) official titles, respectively. and 11 in European and world competitions. The Old Lady is the third most successful club in Europe Third most successful European club for most official international club competitions (continental and world -Intercontinental and/or World Club Cup- tournaments) won with 11 titles. Fourth most succesfull club in Europe for UEFA club competitions titles won with 9 titles. and the sixth in the world with the most international titles officially recognised by one of the six continental football confederations Which includes all official international competitions recognized by one of the six continental football confederations and the Intercontinental Cup / FIFA Club World Cup. See: and FIFA. Only Milan, Boca Juniors (both with 18 titles), Independiente, Real Madrid (both with 15) and Al-Ahly (14) have won more official international titles in the world. The club was the first Italian and Southern European side to win the UEFA Cup. . In 1985, Juventus, the only team in the world to have won all official international cups and championships became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA club competitions. The major UEFA club competitions are the European Champion Clubs' Cup (or simply European Cup), the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Cup. In the aggregate, the fact to win these three trophies is also known as the "Grand Slam", a feat achieved by only other two clubs since the triumph of the Old Lady in 1985: Ajax Amsterdam in 1992 and Bayern Munich in 1996. In Italy, Juventus is the club which has the biggest fan base, having also one of the largest numbers of supporters in the world, with a total of 170 million Juventus's supporters (it. tifosi) worldwide. The club is a founding member of the European Club Association, which was formed after the dissolution of the G-14, a collection of Europe's most elite clubs. The Torinese side is also recognized for its contribution to the Italian national team. At present, the bianconeri play their home games at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino. The stadium which the club owns, Stadio delle Alpi is undergoing long-term structural changes Stadio Olimpico di Torino is undergoing structural changes according to . and will not be completed for use until 2011. . History Historic first ever Juventus club shot in 1898. Juventus were founded as Sport Club Juventus in late 1897 by pupils from the Massimo D'Azeglio Lyceum school in Turin, but were renamed as Foot-Ball Club Juventus two years later. The club joined the Italian Football Championship during 1900, wearing their original pink and black kit. Juventus first won the league championship in 1905 while playing at their Velodromo Umberto I ground and wearing their famous black and white stripes inspired by English side Notts County. There was a split at the club in 1906, after some of the staff considered moving Juve out of Turin. President Alfredo Dick was unhappy with this and left with some prominent players to found FBC Torino which in turn spawned the Derby della Mole. Juventus spent much of this period steadily rebuilding after the split, surviving the First World War. League dominance Fiat owner Edoardo Agnelli gained control of the club in 1923, building a new stadium. This helped the club to their second league championship by the 1925–26 season beating Alba Roma with an aggregate score of 12–1, Antonio Vojak's goals were essential that season. The 1930s proved to be even more fruitful, the club won five consecutive league titles from 1930 through to 1935, most were under coach Carlo Carcano with star players such as Raimundo Orsi, Luigi Bertolini, Giovanni Ferrari and Luis Monti amongst others. Juventus had a new ground in the form of the Stadio Comunale, though for the rest of the 1930s and the majority of the 1940s they were unable to recapture championship dominance. Sivori, Charles and Boniperti. After the Second World War, Gianni Agnelli was put in place as honorary president. The club added two more scudetto championship's to their name in the 1949–50 and 1951–52 seasons, the latter of which was under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver. Two new strikers were signed during 1957–58, in the form of Welshman John Charles and Italo-Argentine Omar Sivori, playing alongside longtime member Giampiero Boniperti. That season saw Juventus awarded with the Golden Star for Sport Excellence to wear on their shirt after becoming the first Italian side to win ten league titles. In the same season, Omar Sivori became the first ever player at the club to win the European Footballer of the Year. The following season they beat Fiorentina to complete their first league and cup double, winning Serie A and Coppa Italia. Boniperti retired in 1961 as the all-time top scorer at the club, with 182 goals in all competitions; a club record which would last for 45 years. For the rest of the decade the club won the league just once more in 1966–67, However, the 1970s would see Juventus further solidify their strong position in Italian football. Under former player Čestmír Vycpálek they won the scudetto in 1971–72 and 1972–73, with players such as Roberto Bettega, Franco Causio and José Altafini breaking through. During the rest of the decade they won the league two more times, with defender Gaetano Scirea contributing significantly. The latter of which was won under Giovanni Trapattoni, the man who would help the club's domination continue on in the early part of the 1980s. European stage Michel Platini holding the Ballon d'Or in bianconeri colours. The Trapattoni-era was highly successful in the 1980s, the Old Lady started the decade off well, winning the league title three more times by 1984. This meant Juventus had won 20 Italian league titles and were allowed to add a second golden star to their shirt, thus becoming the only Italian club to achieve this. Around this time the club's players were garnering attention on a large scale; Paolo Rossi was made European Footballer of the Year and had led Italy to victory in the 1982 FIFA World Cup. Frenchman Michel Platini was also awarded the European Footballer of the Year title for three years in a row; 1983, 1984 and 1985, which is a record. Juventus are the only club to have players from their club winning the award in four consecutive years. Indeed it was Platini who scored the winning goal in the 1985 European Cup final against Liverpool, however this was marred by a tragedy which would change European football; the Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 people (mostly Juventus fans) were killed by the stadium wall collapsing when Liverpool supporters rioted, it has been named "the darkest hour in the history of the UEFA competitions" Quote from UEFA Chief Executive Lars-Christer Olsson in 2004, uefa.com and resulted in the banning of all English clubs from European competition. With the exception of winning the closely contested Italian Championship of 1985–86, the rest of the 1980s were not very successful for the club. As well as having to contend with Diego Maradona's Napoli, both of the Milanese clubs Milan and Internazionale won Italian championships. In 1990, Juventus moved into their new home; Stadio delle Alpi which was built for the 1990 World Cup. The Lippi era of success Juventus record breaker Alessandro Del Piero. Marcello Lippi took over as Juventus manager at the start of the 1994–95 campaign. His first season at the helm of the club was a successful one, as Juventus recorded their first Serie A championship title since the mid-1980s. The crop of players during this period featured Ciro Ferrara, Roberto Baggio, Gianluca Vialli and a young Alessandro Del Piero. Lippi lead Juventus to the Champions League the following season, beating Ajax on penalties after a 1–1 draw in which Fabrizio Ravanelli scored for Juve. The club did not rest long after winning the European Cup, more highly regarded players were brought into the fold in the form of Zinédine Zidane, Filippo Inzaghi and Edgar Davids. At home Juventus won Serie A in 1996–97 and 1997–98, as well as the 1996 European Super Cup. Juventus reached the 1997 and 1998 Champions League finals during this period, but lost out to Borussia Dortmund and Real Madrid respectively. After leaving for a brief season, Lippi returned, signing big name players such as Gianluigi Buffon, Gianluigi Buffon at UEFA David Trézéguet, Pavel Nedvěd and Lilian Thuram, helping the team to two more scudetto titles in the 2001–02 and 2002–03 seasons. Juventus were also part of an all Italian Champions League final in 2003 but lost out to Milan on penalties after the game ended in a 0–0 draw. The following year, Lippi was appointed as Italy's head coach, bringing an end to one of the most fruitful managerial spells in Juventus' history. Recent times Fabio Capello became manager of Juventus in 2004, and lead Juventus to two more Serie A titles. However, in May 2006, Juventus became one of the five clubs linked to a Serie A match fixing scandal, the result of the which saw the club relegated to Serie B for the first time in their history. The club was also stripped of the two titles won under Capello in 2005 and 2006. Many key players left following the demotion to Serie B, including Thuram, star striker Zlatan Ibrahimović and defensive stalwart Fabio Cannavaro. However, other big name players remained to help the club return to Serie A. The season was notable because Alessandro Del Piero broke a club record by becoming the first Juventus player to appear 500 times in all competitions for the club. The bianconeri were promoted straight back up as league winners after the 2006–07 season. Since their return to Serie A in the 2007-08 season former Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri is at the helm of the Old Lady.. They finished in 3rd place in their first return season and qualified for the third qualifying round of the 2008/2009 Champions League Preliminary stages.They qualified to the group stages,and did very well,beating Real Madrid home and away,but lost in the knockout round against Chelsea F.C.. Colours, badge and nicknames Juventus have played in black and white striped shirts, with white shorts, sometimes black shorts since 1903. Originally, they played in pink shirts with a black tie, which only occurred due to the wrong shirts being sent to them, the father of one of the players made the earliest shirts, but continual washing faded the color so much that in 1903 the club sought to replace them. Article Extracts taken from the Official History of Notts County and article kindly reproduced by the Daily Mail. Juventus asked one of their team members, Englishman John Savage, if he had any contacts in England who could supply new shirts in a color that would better withstand the elements. He had a friend who lived in Nottingham, who being a Notts County supporter, shipped out the black and white striped shirts to Turin. Juventus Football Club's official emblem has undergone different and small modifications since the second decade of the twentieth century. The last modification of the Old Ladys badge took place before 2004–05 season. At the present time, the emblem of the team is conformed to a black-and-white oval shield; a type of Italian shield specially used by ecclesiastics, it is divided in five vertical stripes: two white stripes and three black stripes, inside of this are the following elements; in its upper section, the name of the society superimposed on a white convex section, over golden curvature (gold for honour). The white silhouette of a charging bull is in the lower section of the oval shield, superimposed on a black old French shield; the charging bull is a symbol of the Comune di Torino. Juventus F.C. crest in 2004. There is also a black silhouette of a mural crown above the black spherical triangle's base is a reminiscence to "Augusta Tourinorum", the old city of the Roman era which the present capital of Piedmont region is its cultural heiress. In the past, the convex section of the emblem had a blue color (another symbol of Turin) and, furthermore, its shape was concave. The old French shield and the mural crown, also in the lower section of the emblem, had a considerably greater size with respect to the present. The two Golden Stars for Sport Excellence were located above the convex & concave section of Juventus' emblem. During the 1980s, the club emblem was the silhouette of a zebra, to both sides of the equide's head, the two golden stars and, above this badge, forming an arc, the clubs name. During its history, the club has acquired a number of nicknames, la Vecchia Signora Or Madama in Piedmontese language. (the Old Lady) being the best example. The "old" part of the nickname is a pun on Juventus which means "youth" in Latin. It was derived from the age of the Juventus' star players towards the middle of 1930s. The "lady" part of the nickname is what fans of the club referred to it as affectionately prior to the 1930s. The club is also nicknamed la Fidanzata d'Italia (the Girlfriend of Italy), because over the years they have received a high level of support from Southern Italian immigrant workers (particularly from Naples and Palermo), who arrived in Turin to work for Fiat since the 1930s. Other nicknames include; i bianconeri (the black-and-whites) and le zebre (the zebras The zebra is Juventus' official mascot because the black and white vertical stripes in its present home jersey and emblem remembered the zebra's stripes. ) in reference to Juventus' colors. Stadia Stadio Olimpico di Torino, home ground from 1933 to 1990. After the first two years (1897 and 1898) in which Juventus played the Parco del Valentino and Parco Cittadella, the matches took place internal Piazza d'Armi Stadium until 1908, except in 1905, the first year of the scudetto, and in 1906, years in which it played quickly Corso Re Umberto. Later, from 1909 to 1922, Juventus played its internal competitions at Corso Sebastopoli Camp, and then move from the following year until 1933 to Corso Marsiglia Camp, where he won four league titles. At the end of 1933 began to play the new stadium Benito Mussolini (former Stadio Comunale Vittorio Pozzo and finally Stadio Olimpico di Torino), inaugurated in view of the 1934 World Championships. In that stage played 890 league matches for 57 years until 1990. Even then continued to train at this stage, until the City of Turin, in 15 July 2003, gave him a royalty-free basis to Turin, giving the same "Delle Alpi" to the company. Stadio Delle Alpi, Juventus' home stadium since 1990. Beginning in 1990 and until the 2005-06 season, the Torinese side has contested all home matches at Stadio Delle Alpi, which was built during the World Cup Italy 1990, although in very rare circumstances, the club instead played some home games in other stadia such as Renzo Barbera at Palermo, Dino Manuzzi at Cesena and the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza at Milan. In August 2006, the bianconeri returned to play in the Stadio Comunale, now with the stage name of Stadio Olimpico, after the restructuring of Stadio Delle Alpi during the Winter Olympic Games. In November 2008 Juventus announced that they will invest around €100 million to build a new stadium on the site of the old Delle Alpi ground. Featuring a shopping complex, the facility will be ultra-modern, secure and open seven days a week. Unlike the Delle Alpi there won't be a running track, instead the pitch will only be 8.5 meters away from the stands. The new stadium will hold 40,700 fans and there will be 120 executive boxes. A shopping area as well as parking for 5,300 vehicles. A Juventus museum is also planned. Naming rights have been snapped up by sports marketing company Sportfive and they will be responsible for coming up with a title. Work is set to begin during Spring 2009 and everything completed for the start of the 2011/12 season. Supporters and rivalries Juventus supporters during a match. Juventus is the most well supported football club in Italy with over 12 million fans (32.5% of Italian football fans), according to an August 2008 research by Italian newspaper La Repubblica, as well as one of the most supported football clubs in the world, with approximately 170 million supporters (43 million of them in Europe alone), particularly in the Mediterranean countries, to which a large among of Italian diaspora have emigrated. The Old Lady has fan clubs all over the world outside the country, from places as far apart as Canada, United States, Malta, San Marino, England, Iran, Greece, Israel, Vietnam, Malaysia,India, Australia, Albania, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Macedonia, Uruguay and many more. Despite this strong support, attendances at Juventus home matches average about 22,000, much less than many other highly renowned European teams. Contrastingly, demand for Juventus tickets in occasional home games held away from Turin is high; suggesting that Juventus have stronger support in other parts of the country. Juve is widely and especially popular throughout mainland Southern Italy and Sicily, leading the team to have one of the largest followings in its away matches, more than in Turin itself. Juventus ultras have good relationships with Piacenza, Den Haag and Legia Warsaw fans and have several rivalries, three of which are highly significant. The first is with local club Torino, they compete in the Derby della Mole (Derby of Torino) together; this rivalry dates back to 1906 when Torino was founded by former Juve members. The other most significant rivalry is with Internazionale; matches between Juventus and Inter are referred to as the Derby d'Italia (Derby of Italy). Up until the 2006 Serie A match-fixing scandal, which saw Juventus relegated, the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A. Notably the two sides are the first and the second most supported clubs in Italy and the rivalry has intensified since the later part of the 1990s; reaching its highest levels ever post-Calciopoli, with the return of Juventus to Serie A. They also have rivalries with Roma and Fiorentina. Current squad First team squad, as of 9 April 2009 Confirmed 2009-10 season transfers -Fabio Cannavaro -Diego Ribas da Cunha Notable players Presidential history Juventus have had numerous presidents over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary presidents, here is a complete list of them: NameYears Eugenio Canfari1897–1898Enrico Canfari1898–1901Carlo Favale1901–1902 Giacomo Parvopassu1903–1904Alfred Dick1905–1906Carlo Vittorio Varetti1907–1910Attilio Ubertalli1911–1912Giuseppe Hess1913–1915Gioacchino ArmanoFernando NizzaSandro Zambelli1915–1918(cpg.)Corrado Corradini1919–1920Gino Olivetti1920–1923Edoardo Agnelli1923–1935 NameYears Giovanni Mazzonis1935–1936Emilio de la Forest de Divonne1936–1941Pietro Dusio1941–1947Giovanni Agnelli (Honorary president)1947–1954Enrico CraveriNino CravettoMarcello Giustiniani1954–1955(int.)Umberto Agnelli1955–1962Vittore Catella1962–1971 Giampiero Boniperti (Honorary president)1971–1990Vittorio Caissotti di Chiusano1990–2003Franzo Grande Stevens (Honorary president)2003–2006Giovanni Cobolli Gigli2006–present Legend: (cpg.) Presidential Committee of War. (int.) Presidents on interim charge. Managerial history Below is a list of Juventus managers from 1923 when the Agnelli family took over and the club become more structured and organized, until the present day. NameNationalityYears Jenő Károly1923–1926 József Viola1926(int.) József Viola1926–1928 George Aitken1928–1930 Carlo Carcano1930–1935 Carlo Bigatto IºBenedetto Gola1935(int.)Virginio Rosetta1935–1939 Umberto Caligaris1939–1941 Federico Munerati1941(int.)Giovanni Ferrari1941-1942Luis Monti / 1942(int.)Felice Placido Borel IIº1942–1946Renato Cesarini1946–1948William Chalmers1948–1949Jesse Carver1949–1951 Luigi Bertolini1951(int.)György Sárosi1951–1953 Aldo Olivieri1953–1955Sandro Puppo1955–1957 Ljubiša Broćić1957–1959 Teobaldo Depetrini1959(int.) Renato Cesarini1959–1961 Carlo Parola1961(int.) NameNationalityYears Gunnar GrenJúlius Korostelev1961(int.)Carlo Parola1961–1962 Paulo Lima Amaral1962–1964 Eraldo Monzeglio1964(int.)Heriberto Herrera1964–1969 Lùis Carniglia1969–1970 Ercole Rabitti1970(int.) Armando Picchi1970–1971 Čestmír Vycpálek1971–1974 Carlo Parola1974–1976Giovanni Trapattoni1976–1986Rino Marchesi1986–1988Dino Zoff1988–1990Luigi Maifredi1990–1991Giovanni Trapattoni1991–1994 Marcello Lippi1994–1999Carlo Ancelotti1999–2001Marcello Lippi2001–2004Fabio Capello2004–2006Didier Deschamps2006–2007 Giancarlo Corradini2007(int.) Claudio Ranieri2007–2009Ciro Ferrara2009(int.) <small>Legend: (int.) Managers on interim charge. Nationality is indicated by the corresponding FIFA country code(s).</small> Honours Historically, Juventus is Italy's most successful team, having won a total of 40 trophies, and one of the most prestigious football clubs in the world, . having won a total of 11 official international trophies -with a record of 9 UEFA competition titles and 2 World-wide titles won-, Up until 2004, the main FIFA football competition for clubs was the Intercontinental Cup (so called European / South American Cup); since then, it has been the FIFA Club World Cup. making them the third most winning team in Europe and sixth in the world for official international club competitions won, all recognized by Union of European Football Association, one of the six continental football confederations, and International Federation of Association Football. Juventus have won the Italian League Championship a record twenty-seven times. and have the record of consecutive triumphs in the football's premier club competition (5, since 1930–31 season to 1934–35 season). They have also won the Italian Cup nine times, holding the record number of wins -overall and consecutives- for the latter. The Old Lady has earned the distinction of being allowed to wear a two Golden Stars for Sport Excellence (it. Stelle d'Oro al Merito Sportivo) on its shirt representing the league's victories of the bianconeri: the tenth, achieved during the 1957–58 season and the twentieth, in 1981–82 season. Also, Juventus is the only Italian team has achieved two times the national double (winning the Italian top tier division and the national cup competition in the same season), in 1959–60 and 1994–95 seasons. Juventus, the only football club in the world to have won all official international cups and championships, has received, in recognition to win the three major European club competitions, The major European competitions are the European Champion Clubs' Cup (or simply European Cup), the (now-defunct) UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and the UEFA Cup, a feat achieved by only two other clubs since: Ajax Amsterdam in 1992 and Bayern Munich in 1996. as first case in the history of the European football, The UEFA Plaque by the Union of European Football Associations in 1987. They have won the UEFA Cup three times, which is a joint record they share with Liverpool and Internazionale. The Torinese side was placed 7th -and first between all Italian clubs- in the FIFA Clubs of the 20th Centurys selection on 23 December 2000. Juventus has been proclaimed World's Club Team of the Year twice (1993 and 1996) and was ranked in the 3th place -and first between all Italian clubs- in the All-Time Club World Ranking (1991-2008 period) by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics. Starting from the 1990–91 season, Juventus Football Club have won 15 official trophies: five Serie A titles, one Italian Cup, four Italian Super Cups, one Intercontinental Cup-FIFA World Club Cup, one European Cup-UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup, one UEFA Intertoto Cup and one UEFA Super Cup. See also National titles Serie A / Italian Football Championship: 27 (record) Winners: 1905; 1925–26; Up until 1929, the top division of Italian football was the Federal Football Championship; since then, it has been the Lega Calcio Serie A. 1930–31; 1931–32; 1932–33; 1933–34; 1934–35; 1949–50; 1951–52; 1957–58; 1959–60; 1960–61; 1966–67; 1971–72; 1972–73; 1974–75; 1976–77; 1977–78; 1980–81; 1981–82; 1983–84; 1985–86; 1994–95; 1996–97; 1997–98; 2001–02; 2002–03 Runners-up (20): 1903; 1904; 1906; 1937–38; 1945–46; 1946–47; 1952–53; 1953–54; 1962–63; 1973–74; 1975–76; 1979–80; 1982–83; 1986–87; 1991–92; 1993–94; 1995–96; 1999–00; 2000–01; 2008–09Coppa Italia: 9 (record) Winners: 1937–38; 1941–42; 1958–59; 1959–60; 1964–65; 1978–79; 1982–83; 1989–90; 1994–95 Runners-up (4): 1972–73; 1991–92; 2001–02; 2003–04Supercoppa Italiana: 4 Winners: 1995; 1997; 2002; 2003 Runners-up (3): 1990; 1998; 2005Serie B: 1 Winners: 2006–07 European titlesUEFA Champions League (former European Cup): 2 Up until 1992, the European football's premier club competition was the European Champion Clubs' Cup; since then, it has been the UEFA Champions League. Winners: 1984–85; 1995–96 Runners-up (5): 1972–73; 1982–83; 1996–97; 1997–98; 2002–03UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1 Winners: 1983–84UEFA Cup: 3 The European Inter-Cities Fairs Cup (1958–1971) was a football tournament organized by foreign trade fairs in European seven cities (London, Barcelona, Copenhagen, and others) played by professional and –in its first editions- amateur clubs. Along these lines, that's not recognized by the Union of European Football Associations. See: . (record).Winners: 1976–77; 1989–90; 1992–93 Runner-up (1): 1994–95UEFA Intertoto Cup: 1 . Winners: 1999European Super Cup: 2 The UEFA Super Cup 1985 final between the Old Lady and Everton, 1984–85 Cup Winners' Cup winners not played due to the Heysel Stadium disaster. See: . Winners: 1984; 1996 World-wide titlesIntercontinental Cup: 2 Up until 2004, the main FIFA football club competition was the Intercontinental Champions Club' Cup (so called European / South American Cup); since then, it has been the FIFA World Club Championship. Winners:''' 1985; 1996 Runners-up (1): 1973 Club statistics and records Alessandro Del Piero holds Juventus' official appearance record (600 as of 10 May 2009). He took over from Gaetano Scirea on 6 March 2008 against Palermo. Giampiero Boniperti holds the record for Lega Calcio Serie A appearances with 444. Including all official competitions, Alessandro Del Piero is the all-time leading goalscorer for Juventus, with 241 goals -as of 19 May 2008- since joining the club in 1993. Giampiero Boniperti, who was the all-time topscorer since 1961 comes in second in all competitions with 182, but is still the top league goalscorer for the Old Lady . In the 1933–34 season, Felice Placido Borel II° scored 31 goals in 34 appearances, setting the club record for Serie A goals in a single season. Ferenc Hirzer is the club's highest scorer in a single season with 35 goals in 26 appearances in the 1925–26 season (record of Italian football). The most goals scored by a player in a single match is 6, which is also an Italian record. This was achieved by Omar Enrique Sivori in a game against Internazionale in the 1960–61 season. The first ever official game participated in by Juventus was in the Third Federal Football Championship, the predecessor of Serie A, against Torinese; Juve lost 0–1. The biggest ever victory recorded by Juventus was 15–0 against Cento, in the second round of the Coppa Italia in the 1926–27 season. In terms of the league; Fiorentina and Fiumana were famously on the end of the Old Ladys biggest championship wins, both were beaten 11–0 and were recorded in the 1928–29 season. Juventus' heaviest championship defeats came during the 1911–12 and 1912–13 seasons; they were against Milan in 1912 (1–8) and Torino in 1913 (0–8). The Old Lady holds the record for the most goals in a single season, in the top flight of Italian football, this includes national league, national cup and European competition, with a total of 106 goals in the 1992–93 season. The sale of Zinédine Zidane to Real Madrid of Spain from Juventus in 2001, set the current world football transfer record for the most expensive deal, costing the Spanish club around £46 million. Contribution to the Italian national team Overall, Juventus is the club that has contributed the most players to the Italian national team in history, . they are the only Italian club that has contributed players to every Italian national teams since the 2nd FIFA World Cup. . Juventus have contributed numerous players to Italy's World Cup campaigns, these successful periods principally have coincided with two golden ages of the Turin club's history, referred as Il Quinquennio d'Oro (The Golden Quinquennium), from 1931 until 1935, and Il Ciclo Leggendario (The Legendary Cycle), from 1972 to 1986. Italy's set up, with eight Juventus players, before the match against France in 1978 FIFA World Cup at Estadio José María Minella (Mar del Plata, Argentina - June 2th, 1978). Below are a list of Juventus players who represented the Italian national team during World Cup winning tournaments; 1934 FIFA World Cup (9); Gianpiero Combi, Virginio Rosetta, Luigi Bertolini, Felice Borel IIº, Umberto Caligaris, Giovanni Ferrari, Luis Monti, Raimundo Orsi and Mario Varglien Iº 1938 FIFA World Cup (2); Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava 1982 FIFA World Cup (6); Dino Zoff, Antonio Cabrini, Claudio Gentile, Paolo Rossi, Gaetano Scirea and Marco Tardelli 2006 FIFA World Cup (5); Fabio Cannavaro, Gianluigi Buffon, Mauro Camoranesi, Alessandro Del Piero and Gianluca Zambrotta Two Juventus players have won the golden boot award at the World Cup with Italy; Paolo Rossi in 1982 and Salvatore Schillaci in 1990. As well as contributing to Italy's World Cup winning sides, two Juventus players Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava, represented Italy in the gold medal winning squad at the 1936 Summer Olympics. Three bianconeri players represented their nation during the 1968 European Football Championship win for Italy; Sandro Salvadore, Ernesto Càstano and Giancarlo Bercellino. Juventus have also contributed to a lesser degree to the national sides of other nations. Zinédine Zidane and captain Didier Deschamps were Juventus players when they won the 1998 World Cup with France, making the total number of Juventus World Cup winners 24, more than any other club around the world (three other players in the 1998 squad, Patrick Vieira, David Trézéguet and Lilian Thuram have all played for Juventus at one time or another). Three Juventus players have also won the European Football Championship with a nation other than Italy, Luis del Sol won it in 1964 with Spain, while the Frenchmen Michel Platini and Zidane won the competition in 1984 and 2000 respectively. Juventus Football Club as a company Since 27 June 1967 Juventus Football Club has been a joint stock company (Società per Azioni in Italian language) and since 3 December 2001 the torinese side is listed on the Borsa Italiana. Currently, the Juventus' shares are distributed between 60% to IFIL Investments S.p.A, the Agnelli family's holding (a company of the Giovanni Agnelli & C.S.a.p.a Group), 7.5% to Libyan Arab Foreign Investment Co. and 32.5% to other shareholders. Along with Lazio and Roma, the Old Lady'' is one of only three Italian clubs quotated in Borsa Italiana (Italian stock exchange). According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the season 2005–06, Juventus was the third highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €251.2 million. Shirt sponsors and manufacturers PeriodKit manufacturerShirt sponsor 1979–1989KappaAriston1989–1992 Upim1992–1995Danone1995–1998Sony / Sony Minidisc1998–1999 D+Libertà digitale / Tele+1999–2000CanalSatellite / D+Libertà digitale / Sony2000–2001Ciao Web / LottoSportal.com / Tele+2001–2002LottoFASTWEB / Tu Mobile2002–2003FASTWEB / Tamoil2003–2004Nike2004–2005Sky Sports / Tamoil2005–2007Tamoil2007–presentNew Holland FIAT Group See also Football in Italy Italian football champions FIFA Clubs of the 20th Century International club competition records UEFA club competition records List of UEFA club competition winners Timeline of football Richest football clubs References External links Juventus.com be-x-old:Ювэнтус Турын | Juventus_F.C. |@lemmatized juventus:85 football:46 club:109 latin:3 name:9 literal:1 license:1 piedmontese:2 language:4 substantive:1 iuventus:2 youth:3 english:3 commonly:1 refer:4 familiarly:1 juve:6 italian:43 professional:2 base:3 turin:11 piedmont:2 found:3 spend:2 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1,827 | Milwaukee_Brewers | The Milwaukee Brewers, commonly referred to as "The Brew Crew" or simply "The Crew" by sports writers and fans, are a Major League Baseball team based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which plays in the Central Division of the National League. The team is named for the city's association with the brewing industry and play their home games at Miller Park, which opened in and currently holds 41,900 spectators. The team originated in Seattle, Washington, as the Seattle Pilots, where they played for one season in before being acquired in bankruptcy court by current MLB Commissioner Bud Selig and then moved to Milwaukee. The Brewers were part of the American League from their creation as an expansion club in 1969 through the season, after which they moved to the National League Central Division. In , Milwaukee captured their sole Major League title. The team won the American League East Division and the American League Pennant, earning their only World Series appearance to date. In the Series, they lost to the St. Louis Cardinals, four games to three. In , the Brewers achieved their first postseason berth in the 26 years since their World Series appearance as the wildcard winners for the National League. They were eliminated in the NLDS by the eventual World Series champion Philadelphia Phillies. Franchise history 1966–69: The Search for a Milwaukee Franchise After 13 years in Milwaukee, the Braves baseball club moved to Atlanta following the 1965 season. The Braves brought a World Series title to Milwaukee in 1957 when the club defeated the New York Yankees for the championship of baseball. The next season, the Braves lost to the Yankees in the 1958 World Series. In an effort to prevent the relocation of the Milwaukee Braves to a larger television market, the Braves minority owner Bud Selig, a Milwaukee-area car dealer, formed an organization named "Teams Inc." The organization was devoted to promoting local control of the club. He successfully prevented the majority owners of the Braves from moving the club in 1964, but was unable to do more than delay the inevitable. The Braves relocated to Atlanta after the 1965 season, and Teams Inc. turned its focus to returning Major League Baseball to Milwaukee. Selig doggedly pursued this goal, attending owners meetings in the hopes of securing an expansion franchise. Selig changed the name of his group to "Milwaukee Brewers Baseball Club Inc." The "Brewers" name, honoring Milwaukee's beer-brewing tradition, was also historical and named after Milwaukee baseball teams going back into the 19th century. The city had hosted a major league team by that name in 1901, a charter member of the American League, which relocated at the end of that season to become the St. Louis Browns (now the Baltimore Orioles). From 1902 through 1952, a minor league Milwaukee Brewers club in the American Association had been so successful that it lured the Braves from Boston. Selig himself had grown up watching that minor league team at Borchert Field and intended his new franchise to follow in that tradition. To demonstrate there still was support for big-league ball in Milwaukee, Selig's group contracted with the Chicago White Sox to host nine White Sox home games at Milwaukee County Stadium in 1968. A 1967 exhibition game between the White Sox and Minnesota Twins had attracted more than 51,000 spectators, and Selig was convinced the strong Milwaukee fan base would demonstrate the city would provide a good home for a new club. The experiment was staggeringly successful—those nine games drew 264,297 fans. In Chicago that season, the Sox drew 539,478 fans to their remaining 58 home games. In just a handful of games, the Milwaukee crowds accounted for nearly one-third of the total attendance at White Sox games. In light of this success, Selig agreed County Stadium would host Sox home games again the next season. Selig went into the 1968 owners meetings with high hopes, believing this fan support lent legitimacy to his quest for a Milwaukee franchise, but these hopes were dashed when National League franchises were awarded to San Diego (the Padres) and Montreal (the Expos), and American League franchises were awarded to Kansas City (the Royals) and Seattle (the Pilots). That last franchise, however, would figure very prominently in Selig's future. Having failed to gain a major league franchise for Milwaukee through expansion, Selig turned his efforts to purchasing and relocating an existing club. His search began close to home, with the White Sox themselves. The 1969 White Sox schedule in Milwaukee was expanded to include 11 home games (one against every other franchise in the American League at the time). Although those games were attended by slightly fewer fans (198,211 fans, for an average of 18,019) than in 1968, they represented a greater percentage of the total White Sox attendance than the previous year—over one-third of the fans who went to Sox home games in 1969 did so at County Stadium (in the remaining 59 home dates in Chicago, the Sox drew 391,335 for an average of 6,632 per game). According to Selig, he had a handshake agreement with Chicago owner Arthur Allyn, Jr. to purchase the White Sox and move them north. The American League, unwilling to surrender Chicago to the National League, vetoed the sale, and Allyn sold the franchise to his brother John. Frustrated in these efforts, Selig shifted his focus to another American League team, the expansion Seattle Pilots. 1969–70: Roots in Seattle Pilots' logo. Seattle initially had much going for it when it joined the American League in 1969. Seattle had long been a hotbed for minor league baseball and was home to the Seattle Rainiers, one of the pillars of the Pacific Coast League (PCL). The Cleveland Indians had almost moved to Seattle in 1965. Many of the same things that attracted the Indians made Seattle a plum choice for an expansion team. Seattle was the third-biggest metropolitan area on the West Coast (behind Los Angeles and the Bay Area). Also, there was no real competition from other professional teams. While Seattle had just landed the National Basketball Association's SuperSonics, the NBA was not in the same class as baseball was in terms of popularity at the time. The front man for the franchise was Dewey Soriano, a former Rainiers pitcher and general manager and former president of the PCL. In an ominous sign of things to come, Soriano had to ask William R. Daley, who had owned the Indians at the time they flirted with Seattle, to furnish much of the expansion fee. In return, Daley bought 47 percent of the stock—the largest stake in the club. He became chairman of the board while Soriano served as president. However, a couple of factors were beyond the Pilots' control. They were originally not set to start play until 1971, but the date was moved up to 1969 under pressure from Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri. Professional baseball had been played in Kansas City in one form or another from 1883 until the A's left for Oakland after the 1967 season, and Symington would not accept the prospect of Kansas City having to wait three years for baseball to return. Also, the Pilots had to pay the PCL $1 million to compensate for the loss of one of its most successful franchises. After King County voters approved a bond for a domed stadium (what would become the Kingdome) in 1968, the Seattle Pilots were officially born. California Angels executive Marvin Milkes was hired as general manager, and Joe Schultz, coach of the National League Champion St. Louis Cardinals, became manager. To the surprise of no one outside Seattle (Schultz and Milkes actually thought they could finish third in the newly formed, six-team AL West), the Pilots were terrible. They won their very first game, and then their home opener three days later, but only won five more times in the first month and never recovered. They finished last in the West with a record of 64–98, 33 games out of first. However, the team's poor play was the least of its troubles. The most obvious problem was Sicks Stadium. The longtime home of the Rainiers, it had once been considered one of the best ballparks in minor league baseball. By the 1960s, however, it was considered far behind the times. While a condition of MLB awarding the Pilots to Seattle was that Sicks had to be expanded to 30,000 seats by the start of the 1969 season, only 17,000 seats were ready because of numerous delays. The scoreboard was not even ready until the night before opening day. While it was expanded to 25,000 by June, the added seats had obstructed views. Water pressure was almost nonexistent after the seventh inning, especially with crowds above 10,000. Attendance was so poor (678,000) that the Pilots were almost out of money by the end of the season. The team's new stadium was slated to be built at the Seattle Center, but a petition by stadium opponents ground the project to a halt. During the offseason, Soriano crossed paths with Selig. They met in secret for over a month after the end of the season, and during Game 1 of the World Series, Soriano agreed to sell the Pilots to Selig for $10 million to $13 million (depending on the source). Selig would then move the team to Milwaukee and rename it the Brewers. However, the owners turned it down in the face of pressure from Washington's two senators, Warren Magnuson and Henry (Scoop) Jackson, as well as state attorney general Slade Gorton. MLB asked Soriano and Daley to find a local buyer. Local theater chain owner Fred Danz came forward in October 1969 with a $10 million deal, but it fizzled when the Bank of California called in a $4 million loan it had made to Soriano and Daley for startup costs. In January 1970, Westin Hotels owner Eddie Carlson put together a nonprofit group to buy the team. However, the owners rejected the idea almost out of hand since it would have devalued the other clubs' worth. A more traditional deal came one vote short of approval. After a winter and spring full of court action, the Pilots reported for spring training under new manager Dave Bristol unsure of where they would play. The owners had given tentative approval to the Milwaukee group, but the state of Washington got an injunction on March 17 to stop the deal. Soriano immediately filed for bankruptcy—a move intended to forestall any post-sale legal action. At the bankruptcy hearing a week later, Milkes testified there was not enough money to pay the coaches, players and office staff. Had Milkes been more than 10 days late in paying the players, they would have all become free agents and left Seattle without a team for the 1970 season. With this in mind, Federal Bankruptcy Referee Sidney Volinn declared the Pilots bankrupt on April 1—six days before Opening Day—clearing the way for them to move to Milwaukee. The team's equipment had been sitting in Provo, Utah with the drivers awaiting word on whether to drive toward Seattle or Milwaukee. Much of the story of the Seattle Pilots' only year in existence is told in Jim Bouton's classic baseball book, Ball Four. 1970–77: Early years in Milwaukee With the season's opening day only six days away, there was not enough time to order completely new uniforms, so the club had to remove the Pilots logo from team uniforms and replace them with Brewers logos. In fact, the outline of the old Pilots logo could still be seen on the Brewers' uniforms. Selig's original intention had been to adopt navy and red as the team colors, hearkening back to the minor league club (souvenir buttons sold at White Sox games at County Stadium featured the major league club's logo in that color combination), but with no time to order new uniforms, the Brewers adopted the blue and gold of the Pilots as their own. That color combination, in various shades, is still used by the club. The short notice (along with their geographic location) also forced the Brewers to assume the Pilots' old place in the AL West. While this resulted in natural rivalries with the White Sox and Twins, it also meant the Brewers faced some of the longest road trips in baseball. Under the circumstances, the Brewers' 1970 season was over before it started, and they finished 65–97 (a one-game improvement over 1969). They would not have a winning season until 1978. Selig brought back former Milwaukee Braves catcher (and fan favorite) Del Crandall in 1972 to manage the club. Also that year the Brewers moved to the AL East when the Washington Senators moved to Arlington, Texas, became the Texas Rangers and switched divisions with the Brewers. It was during this period that the Brewers gained its reputation for fun as well as baseball. Then-team vice president Dick Hackett hired Frank Charles to play the Wurlitzer organ during the games, and Hackett introduced team mascots Bernie and Bonnie Brewer. The Brewers acquired many fan favorites during this time, including Robin Yount, Jim Gantner, Stormin' Gorman Thomas, Don Money, and Cecil Cooper. These players laid the ground work for the Brewers' success in the early 1980s. On November 2, 1974, the Brewers orchestrated a trade that brought one of the most beloved Braves back to Milwaukee, sending outfielder Dave May and a player to be named later (minor league pitcher Roger Alexander) to the Braves for Hank Aaron. Although not the player he was in his prime, Aaron brought prestige to the young club, and the opportunity to be a designated hitter allowed Aaron to extend his playing career two more seasons. 1978–83: The Glory Days The Brewers franchise reached its pinnacle in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Their first winning season took place in 1978 when the "Brew Crew" won 93 games and finished behind the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox. The next season, Milwaukee finished in second place on the strength of their home run power, led by Cecil Cooper, Ben Oglivie (who led the league in homers in 1980 along with Reggie Jackson), and Gorman Thomas (whose 45 home runs in 1979 was the Brewers' single season home run record, until Richie Sexson tied the mark in both 2001 and 2003; Prince Fielder surpassed the mark with 50 home runs in 2007). After finishing third in 1980, the Brewers won the second half of the 1981 season (divided because of a players' strike) and played the Yankees in a playoff mini-series they ultimately lost. It was the first playoff appearance for the franchise. In 1982, the Brewers won the American League pennant. The team's prolific offensive production that season (they lead the league in runs and home runs) earned them the nickname Harvey's Wallbangers (a play on the drink Harvey Wallbanger and the team's manager Harvey Kuenn). In the 1982 American League Championship Series the Brewers defeated the California Angels three games to two and became the first team to win a five-game playoff series after trailing two games to zero. The Brewers then played the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series where they started out strong, taking the first game of the series 10–0. Unfortunately, Hall-of-Famer Rollie Fingers had been injured before the postseason, and relief pitching became a problem for the Brewers. St. Louis eventually triumphed in the series, winning four games to three. During the 1980s the Brewers produced three league MVPs (Rollie Fingers in 1981 and Robin Yount in 1982 and 1989) and two Cy Young Award winners (Rollie Fingers in 1981 and Pete Vuckovich in 1982). Yount is one of only four players in the history of the game to win the MVP award at two positions (shortstop, then center field). 1984–93: Rollercoaster, riding the highs and lows Following their two playoff years, the club quickly retreated to the bottom of the standings, never finishing higher than fifth (out of seven) in their division from 1983 to 1986. Hope was restored in 1987 when, guided by rookie manager Tom Trebelhorn, the team began the year with a 13-game winning streak. Unfortunately, they followed that hot start with a 12-game skid in May. But "Team Streak" eventually posted a strong third-place finish. Highlights of the year included Paul Molitor's 39-game hitting streak and what is still the only no-hitter in team history, pitched by Juan Nieves on April 15. On that day, Nieves became the first (and so far, only) Brewer and first Puerto Rican-born Major Leaguer to pitch a no-hitter, defeating the Baltimore Orioles 7–0 at Memorial Stadium. The final out came on a climactic diving catch in right-center field by Robin Yount of a line drive hit by Eddie Murray. The game also was the first time the Orioles were no-hit at Memorial Stadium. Yount later recalled at a Brewers banquet that he didn't have to dive to catch the line drive hit by Murray but figured ending the game with a diving catch would be the icing on the cake for Nieves' no-hitter. In 1988 the team had another strong season, finishing only two games out of first (albeit with a lesser record than the previous year) in a close playoff race with four other clubs. Following this year, the team slipped, posting mediocre records from 1989 through 1991, after which Trebelhorn was fired. In 1992, reminiscent of the resurgence which greeted Trebelhorn's arrival in 1987, the Brewers rallied behind the leadership of rookie manager Phil Garner and posted their best record since their World Series year in 1982, finishing the season 92–70 and in second place, four games behind that year's eventual World Champion Toronto Blue Jays. Hope of additional pennant races was quickly dashed, however, as the club plummeted to the bottom of the standings the following year, finishing an abysmal 26 games out of first. Since 1992, highlights were few and far between as the franchise failed to produce a winning season, having not fielded a competitive team because of a combination of bad management and financial constraints that limit the team relative to the resources available to other, larger-market clubs. With new management, structural changes in the economics of baseball, and the advent of revenue sharing, the Brewers were able to become competitive once again. 1994-98: Realignment / "We're taking this thing National" In 1994, Major League Baseball adopted a new expanded playoff system. This change would necessitate a restructuring of each league from two divisions into three. The Brewers were transferred from the old AL East division to the newly created AL Central. Before the 1998 regular season began, two new teams—the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays—were added by Major League Baseball. This resulted in the American League and National League having fifteen teams. However, in order for MLB officials to continue primarily intraleague play, both leagues would need to carry an even number of teams, so the decision was made to move one club from the AL Central to the NL Central. This realignment was widely considered to have great financial benefit to the club moving. However, to avoid the appearance of a conflict of interest, Commissioner (then club owner) Bud Selig decided another team should have the first chance to switch leagues. The choice was offered to the Kansas City Royals, who ultimately decided to stay in the American League. The choice then fell to the Brewers, who, on November 6, 1997 elected to move to the National League. Had the Brewers elected not to move to the National League, the Minnesota Twins would have been offered the opportunity to switch leagues. Pappas, Doug, "News Briefs: Fall 1997", Outside the Lines, Fall 1997. Also, Milwaukee was not totally unfamiliar with the National League, having been the home of the NL Braves for 13 seasons (1953-65). 1999–2003: Building Miller Park Miller Park, the current home of the Milwaukee Brewers. Miller Park was opened in 2001, built to replace Milwaukee County Stadium. The stadium was built with $310 million of public funds, drawing some controversy, and is the only sporting facility to have a fan-shaped retractable roof. Miller Park has a seating capacity of seating 41,900 and with standing room 43,000. That is 10,000 fewer seats than County Stadium. The park was to have opened a year earlier, but an accident during its construction, which resulted in the deaths of three workers, forced a year's delay and $50 million to $75 million in damage. On July 14, 1999, the three men lost their lives when the Lampson "Big Blue" crane, one of the largest in the world, collapsed while trying to lift a 400 ton right field roof panel. A statue commemorating the men now stands between the home plate entrance to Miller Park and Helfaer Field. The Brewers made renovations to Miller Park before the 2006 campaign, adding both LED scoreboards in left field and on the second-tier of the stadium, as well as a picnic area in right field, shortening the distance of the right-field fence. The picnic area was an immediate hit and sold out for the season before the year began. 2004–present: Attanasio era 2004 On January 16, 2004, Selig announced that his ownership group was putting the team up for sale, to the great relief of many fans who were unhappy with the team's lackluster performance and poor management by his daughter, Wendy Selig-Prieb, over the previous decade. In September 2004, the Brewers announced they had reached a verbal agreement with Los Angeles investment banker Mark Attanasio to purchase the team for $180 million. The sale to Attanasio was completed on January 13, 2005, at Major League Baseball's quarterly owners meeting. Other members of Attanasio's ownership group include private equity investor John Canning Jr., David Uihlein, Harris Turer and Stephen Marcus, all of whom were involved with the previous ownership group led by Major League Baseball commissioner Bud Selig. Attanasio seeks more local owners. The Business Journal of Milwaukee, March 18, 2005 Since taking over the franchise, Attanasio has worked hard to build bridges with Milwaukee baseball fans, including giving away every seat to the final home game of 2005 free of charge and bringing back the classic "ball and glove" logo of the club's glory days on "Retro Friday" home games, during which they also wear versions of the team's old pinstriped uniforms. 2005 Prince Fielder and Rickie Weeks at Spring Training, 2005. In 2005, under Attanasio's ownership, the team finished 81–81 to secure its first non-losing record since 1992. With a solid base of young talent assembled over the past five years, including Prince Fielder, Rickie Weeks, J. J. Hardy and Corey Hart, the Brewers showed renewed competitiveness. Further encouraging this sentiment, the Brewers have hired former stars Yount (bench coach; resigned in November 2006) and Dale Sveum (third base coach), both very popular players for the Brewers in the '80s. 2006 In 2006 the Brewers' play disappointed fans, players, and management. They began the season 5–1 and had a 14–11 record at the end of April. On Mother's Day Bill Hall hit a walk off home run with his mother in the stands, a play that was shown on ESPN throughout the summer. However, soon starters JJ Hardy, Rickie Weeks, and Corey Koskie were lost to injuries, and the Brewers were forced to trade for veteran infielders David Bell and Tony Graffanino. They also suffered setbacks when losing starting pitchers Ben Sheets and Tomo Ohka for a substantial amount of time, forcing Triple A starters Ben Hendrickson, Dana Eveland, Carlos Villanueva, and Zach Jackson into starting roles at different points in the year. Shortly before the All Star break the Brewers climbed to one game above .500, but then lost their next three to the Chicago Cubs and would never return to .500. After the All Star break closer Derrick Turnbow blew four straight save opportunities. This led to the Brewers being far enough down in the standings that management decided to trade free agent-to-be Carlos Lee to the Texas Rangers for closer Francisco Cordero, outfielder Kevin Mench, and two minor league prospects. Cordero replaced Turnbow as the Brewers closer and had immediate success, successfully converting his first 13 save opportunities. On August 24 the Brewers completed a sweep of the Colorado Rockies to climb to less than five games out in both the NL Central Division and NL Wild Card races, but then Milwaukee went on a 10-game losing streak that ended any postseason hope. The Brewers did rebound and play well in September including a four-game sweep of San Francisco, but it was too little too late. The Brewers ended the season with a 75–87 record. At the end of the season, Attanasio stated that he and General Manager Doug Melvin would have to make some decisions about returning players for the 2007 season. With young players waiting in the minor leagues, during the off-season the key additions were starting pitcher and 2006 NLCS MVP Jeff Suppan, starter Claudio Vargas, reliever Greg Aquino, catcher Johnny Estrada, and returning Brewer Craig Counsell. The Brewers parted ways with 2006 starters Doug Davis and Tomo Ohka, as well as fan favorite Jeff Cirillo, who wanted more playing time with another team. 2007: The Return to Relevance Before the 2007 season, the buzz surrounding the Brewers greatly increased. They were dubbed a "sleeper team" and "contenders in the NL" by numerous sports analysts and magazines. ESPN's Peter Gammons and Dan Patrick both picked The Brewers to beat out the defending champion Cardinals and re-vamped Chicago Cubs to win the NL Central. To celebrate the successful 1982 Milwaukee Brewers team, the franchise decided to have the 2007 season be named as the "25th Anniversary of '82", with more fan giveaways than any other Major League Baseball team except the Pittsburgh Pirates, and more discounts and deals than any other time in Brewers' history. ESPN.com's lead story on August 29 stated: ".... Then there are the Brewers. The strange, impossible-to-figure-out Brewers. They once had the best record in the majors, were 14 games over .500 twice, and led the division by as many as 8½ games on June 23. Since then, and there's no nice way of saying it; they've reeked.". Wjciechowski, Gene, sitting in the driver's seat ESPN.com. The Brewers cast this negativity to the side, and rebounded in September. Despite poor performances from the usually steady Chris Capuano and more nagging injuries to Ben Sheets, the Brewers found themselves in a heated pennant race with Chicago's North Siders. The team's playoff drive took a hit late in the year, however, losing three of four games in a crucial series in Atlanta, dropping the Brewers to a season-high 3.5 games out of first. The Brewers won the first two games of their final homestand of the season to pull within two games of the Cubs, but faced a near impossible task with the club's elimination number down to only three and the wild card leading Padres coming to town. The club played well, but the Cubs clinched on the final Friday of the season. On September 29 the Brewers beat Padres 4–3 in extra innings to secure a winning season. The game was tied in the ninth inning by a triple by Tony Gwynn, Jr. in a highlight reel play that was repeated often during the 2007 post season. That win, and the win the next day, by the Brewers kept the Padres from advancing to the playoffs. The irony, of course, being that Gwynn's father was easily the most popular Padre of all-time. Milwaukee finished at a respectable 83–79, only two games behind Chicago, the club's best finish since 1992. First baseman Prince Fielder made history in 2007, becoming the first Brewer and the youngest player ever to reach the 50 home run mark in a single season. For his effort, he finished third in the 2007 National League Most Valuable Player voting, garnering 284 total points including 5 first place votes. Fielder was also awarded the Hank Aaron Award for reaching the amazing single year record. Third baseman Ryan Braun was also rewarded for his historic season by being named 2007 NL Rookie of the Year. 2008: The Return to the Postseason On September 28, the Brewers won the National League Wild Card, finishing the 2008 season one game ahead of the New York Mets with a final record of 90–72, and faced the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLDS. This was the first time the Brewers reached the playoffs since 1982. The playoff berth was clinched in dramatic fashion as the Brewers defeated the rival Chicago Cubs with a 2-run home run from Ryan Braun in the bottom of the 8th inning, which supported the pitching of CC Sabathia, who threw a complete game on 122 pitches, his third straight start on 3-days rest and his 7th complete game since joining the Brewers in mid-season. The Brewers played their first postseason game in 26 years on October 1. Pitcher Yovani Gallardo made his first postseason start and only his second start since coming off the disabled list in late September. The Brewers lost the first game of the NLDS 3–1 on a dominant performance by Phillies pitcher Cole Hamels. Hamels allowed only 2 hits and struck out 9 Brewers batters in 8 shutout innings. The Brewers mounted a comeback in the 9th inning as closer Brad Lidge allowed 2 hits, a walk, and a run to score. However, Brewers right fielder Corey Hart struck out with runners on second and third to end the game. The Brewers lost game 2 of the NLDS due to ace CC Sabathia giving up a grand slam early in the game, leaving after 3 and 2/3 innings (his shortest and last outing as a Brewer). The Brewers hosted their first playoff game in 26 years on Saturday, October 4, and won 4–1. However, the Brewers season would come to an end on Sunday as Jeff Suppan allowed three home runs to lose 6–2, eliminating them from the postseason in four games. The 2009 Brewers will be without CC Sabathia, Ben Sheets, Guillermo Mota, Gabe Kapler, Ray Durham, Russell Branyan, Salomon Torres, and Brian Shouse. However, the team will have all of its regular 2008 lineup return and added pitchers Jorge Julio, Braden Looper, and all-time saves leader Trevor Hoffman. Casey McGehee and Chris Duffy were also added. Logos and uniforms Logos 1970–77 1978–93 1994–99 2000–present 2006–present (Retro alternate) Uniforms 1970–1977 1970 uniforms. The original Brewers uniforms were "hand-me-downs" from the Seattle Pilots. There was no time before the 1970 season to order new uniforms, so the team simply removed the Seattle markings and sewed "BREWERS" on the front. The uniforms had unique striping on the sleeves left over from the Pilots days. The cap was an updated version of the Milwaukee Braves cap in blue and gold. The Brewers finally got their own flannel design in 1972. These were essentially the same as the 1970 uniforms but with blue and gold piping on the sleeves and collar. 1975–1976 uniforms. In 1973, the Brewers entered the doubleknit era with uniforms based upon their flannels—all white with "BREWERS" on the front, blue and gold trim on the sleeves, neck, waistband and down the side of the pants. This is the uniform that Hank Aaron would wear with the club in his final seasons, and that Robin Yount would wear in his first. During this period, the logo of the club was the Beer Barrel Man, which had been used by the American Association Milwaukee Brewers since at least the 1940s. 1978–1993 1982 uniforms. The Brewers unveiled new uniforms for the 1978 season—pinstripes with solid blue collar and waistband. The road uniforms continued to be powder blue, but for the first time the city name "MILWAUKEE" graced the chest in an upward slant. In addition, this season saw the introduction of the logo that was to define the club—"M" and "B" in the shape of a baseball glove. The logo was designed by Tom Meindel, an Art History student at the University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire. The home cap was solid blue, and the road cap was blue with a gold front panel. The club would wear these uniforms in their pennant-winning season of 1982. 1990 uniforms. The road uniform underwent minor changes in 1986: the road cap was eliminated, and gray replaced powder blue as the uniform color. Further modifications were made in 1990—button-up jerseys replaced the pullovers, and a script "Brewers" replaced the block letters. 1994–1999 1994 uniforms. On January 15, 1994, the Brewers unveiled their first new logo and team colors since the 1978 season in a ceremony at BrewersFest (what was then the winter fan festival). Navy, green and metallic gold replaced the old royal blue and athletic gold, and Germanic lettering replaced the standard block. The caps were navy (home) and navy with green bill (road), and bore an interlocking "MB" logo. This logo was never very popular with the fans, and was frequently derided as "Motre Bame" for its resemblance to the "ND" made famous by Notre Dame in a similar color scheme. The addition of green was most prominent in the road uniforms, which featured green piping, belt and stockings on a greenish-gray uniform. In addition, the 1994 re-design included the first alternate jersey in the club's history: a solid navy jersey with the nickname across the chest above the club's primary logo. 1996 saw a minor alteration to the uniform letters and caps. Green was de-emphasized on the road uniform, replaced by blue trim, belt and stockings. On the cap, a single "M" (white on the home caps, gold on the road caps) replaced the "MB". The uniform trim was thickened and made more pronounced, and the lettering across the chest was made uniform in size. For the 1997 and 1998 season, insignia commemorating the sesquicentennial of Wisconsin's statehood appeared on the sleeve. 2000–present In anticipation of the move to Miller Park, the Brewers unveiled completely new uniforms for the 2000 season—solid white with gold and navy trim on sleeves and side of pants, and script "Brewers" across the chest. The all-navy caps bear a script "M" underscored with a sprig of barley. The city name was taken off the chest of the road uniforms, replaced by the same script "Brewers" as found on the home uniforms. The city name "Milwaukee" appears on a patch on the left sleeve. Starting in 2008, the Brewers modified their logo on the left sleeve on their uniforms, showing a gold outline of the state of Wisconsin and the cap logo on top of it. For the 2006 season, as part of a "Retro Sundays" promotion, the Brewers unveiled a new alternate uniform for Sunday home games, with the return of the "ball and glove" logo, pinstripes, block letters and classic colors (however, the current jerseys are button-front, not pullover as they were in 1982). In 2007 "Retro Sundays" became "Retro Fridays" and a sleeve patch was added to the alternate uniforms honoring the Silver Anniversary of the 1982 pennant-winning season. It has been speculated on some fansites that the Retro Sundays and Retro Fridays promotions are the Brewers management's way of "testing the market" in anticipation to a full time switch back to the classic uniforms. One game of the 2006 season, July 29, was dubbed "Hispanic Appreciation Night". For this game the Brewers' uniforms replaced the "Brewers" script with a script bearing the word "Cerveceros" Spanish for makers of beer. The uniforms appeared again on September 6, 2008, to celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month. Since 2006, the Brewers have also participated in games honoring the Negro Leagues, wearing throwback uniforms styled after the one-year Milwaukee Bears. Also, the Brewers, in a series against the Atlanta Braves, will wear the uniforms and caps of the Milwaukee Braves. Season-by-season record Milwaukee Brewers 5-Year HistoryYear Regular Season Post-season Record Win % Finish GB Record Win % Result 2004 67–94 .416 6th 37½ — — — 2005 81–81 .500 3rd 19 — — — 2006 75–87 .463 4th 8½ — — — 2007 83–79 .525 2nd 2 — — — 2008 90–72 .556 2nd 7½ 1–3 .250 Clinched National League Wild CardLost NLDS vs Philadelphia Phillies, 3–1 5-Year Totals 396–413 .489 — — 1–3 .250 — Radio and television The Brewers' flagship radio station is WTMJ (620 AM). Bob Uecker, a winner of the Ford C. Frick Award from the Baseball Hall of Fame, joined the Brewers in 1970, when the team moved from Seattle, and has been there ever since. Alongside Uecker is Cory Provus, who joined the team's radio broadcast in 2009. Provus, formerly of WGN radio in Chicago, replaced Jim Powell, who left Milwaukee for the Atlanta Braves radio network. Most of the team's television broadcasts are aired on Fox Sports Wisconsin (FSBREWERS). Brian Anderson, who has worked on The Golf Channel, took over as the Brewers' play-by-play announcer for the 2007 season. He replaced Daron Sutton, who joined the Arizona Diamondbacks in place of Thom Brennaman, now of the Cincinnati Reds. The color commentator is Bill Schroeder, a former major league catcher who played six of his eight seasons for the Brewers. After the 2008 season, Schroeder will have completed his fourteenth season as the Brewers' color commentator. In February 2007, the Brewers, FSN Wisconsin, and Weigel Broadcasting came to an agreement to air 15 games and one spring training game over-the-air on WMLW (Channel 41) in Milwaukee in the 2007 season, with FSN Wisconsin producing the telecasts and Weigel selling air time for each of those games JS Online: HR for Brewers' viewers , with the same agreement in place in 2008. Several additional games were added through the 2007 season because of rain postponements and other factors. Weigel also airs a few broadcasts per year with Spanish language play-by-play on its Telemundo affiliate, WYTU (Channel 63). Before this, the last over-the-air non-Fox broadcast of a Brewers game was on WCGV in the 2004 season. Games also aired on WVTV, WISN and WTMJ in past years; WTMJ was the original TV broadcaster in 1970. Retired numbers (1999)<b>Paul Molitor3B-DH: 1978–1992(1994)<b>Robin YountSS-OF: 1973–1993Coach: 2006, 2008(1992)<b>Rollie FingersP: 1981–1985(1997)<b>Jackie RobinsonRetired byMajor League Baseball(1976)<b>Hank AaronDH: 1975–1976 The number #50, although it has not been retired, has been placed in the Brewers' Ring of Honor for Bob Uecker and his half-century in baseball. Baseball Hall of Famers Two players were enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame based primarily on service with the Brewers: Paul Molitor, 3B-DH, 1978–1992 Robin Yount, SS-OF, 1973–1993 Three other Hall of Famers were Brewers at some point in their careers: Hank Aaron, OF-DH, 1975–76 Rollie Fingers, P, 1981–1985 Don Sutton, P, 1982–1984 Other notable alumni Jim Abbott: 1999 Dante Bichette: 1991–1992 Ricky Bones: 1992–1996 Chris Bosio: 1986–1992 Jeromy Burnitz: 1996-2001 Mike Caldwell: 1977–1984 Jeff Cirillo: 1994-1999, 2005-2006 Jim Colborn: 1972–1976 Cecil Cooper: 1977–1987 Francisco Cordero: 2006–2007 Rob Deer: 1986–1990 Ray Durham: 2008 Tony Fernández: 2001 Julio Franco: 1997 Terry Francona: 1989-1990 Éric Gagné: 2008 Jim Gantner: 1976–1992 Moose Haas: 1976–1985 Tommy Harper: 1970-1971 Mike Hegan: 1974–1977 Jose Hernandez: 2000-2002 Teddy Higuera: 1985–1991 Larry Hisle: 1978–1982 Geoff Jenkins: 1998–2007 Doug Jones: 1982, 1996–1998 Brooks Kieschnick: 2003-2004 Dan Kolb: 2003-2004, 2006 Carlos Lee: 2005–2006 Pat Listach: 1992–1996 Mark Loretta: 1995-2002 Dave May: 1970-1974, 1978 Don Money: 1973–1983 Charlie Moore: 1973–1986 Juan Nieves: 1986–1990 Dave Nilsson: 1992–1999 Hideo Nomo: 1999 Ben Oglivie: 1978–1986 Dave Parker: 1990 Marty Pattin: 1970-1971 Dan Plesac: 1986–1992 Scott Podsednik: 2003-2004 Darrell Porter: 1971-1976 Willie Randolph: 1991 Ellie Rodriguez: 1971-1973 CC Sabathia: 2008 George Scott: 1972-1976 Kevin Seitzer: 1992, 1993-1996 Richie Sexson: 2001-2003 Ben Sheets: 2001–2008 Gary Sheffield: 1988–1991 Ted Simmons: 1981–1985 Jim Slaton: 1971–1977, 1979–1983 Jim Sundberg: 1984 B.J. Surhoff: 1987–1995 Gorman Thomas: 1973–1983, 1986 Bill Travers: 1974-1980 Derrick Turnbow: 2005-2008 John Vander Wal: 2003 Greg Vaughn: 1989–1996 Fernando Vina: 1995-1999 Pete Vuckovich: 1981–1986 Danny Walton: 1970–1971 David Weathers: 1998-2001 Devon White: 2001 Bob Wickman: 1996–2000 Eric Young: 2002-2003 Current roster Championships | colspan = 3 align = center | American League Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:New York Yankees (1981) | width = 40% align = center | 1982 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :Baltimore Orioles (1983) |- | colspan = 3 align = center | American League Eastern Division Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:New York Yankees (1981) | width = 40% align = center | 1982 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :Baltimore Orioles (1983) |- | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Wild Card Winners |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:Colorado Rockies (2007) | width = 40% align = center | 2008 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:current Minor league affiliations The Brewers have the following minor league affiliates. Triple-A: Nashville Sounds, Pacific Coast League Double-A: Huntsville Stars, Southern League Class A-Advanced: Brevard County Manatees, Florida State League Class A: Wisconsin Timber Rattlers, Midwest League Advanced Rookie: Helena Brewers, Pioneer League Rookie: Arizona League Brewers, Arizona League Rookie: Dominican Summer Orioles/Brewers, Dominican Summer League References External links Milwaukee Brewers on FoxSports.com Milwaukee Brewers Video on FoxSports Video Archive Milwaukee Brewers on ESPN.com Milwaukee Brewers Video on ESPN Video Archive Brewerfan.net Brewers Radio Network The Seattle Pilots Baseball Team (fan site) Detailed story of the Pilots and their move to Milwaukee The Seattle Pilots—Major League Baseball's First Venture in the Pacific Northwest Seattle Pilots Shrine site | Milwaukee_Brewers |@lemmatized milwaukee:51 brewer:118 commonly:1 refer:1 brew:2 crew:3 simply:2 sport:4 writer:1 fan:19 major:15 league:71 baseball:29 team:54 base:6 wisconsin:8 play:24 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1,828 | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_baseball | This is the complete list of Olympic medalists in baseball from 1992 to 2008. 1992 Barcelona Omar AjeteRolando ArrojoJosé Raúl Delgado DiezGiorge Diaz LorenJosé Estrada GonzálezOsvaldo FernándezLourdes Gourriel DelgadoOrlando HernándezAlberto HernándezOrestes KindelánOmar LinaresGermán MesaVíctor MesaAntonio Pacheco MassóJuan PadillaLuis Ulacia AlverezErmidelio Urrutia QuirogaJorge Luis Valdés BerrielLázaro Vargas Alverez Chang Cheng-HsienChang Wen-ChungChang Yaw-TeingChen Chi-HsinChen Wei-ChenChiang Tai-ChuanHuang Chung-YiHuang Wen-PoJong Yeu-JengKu Kuo-ChianKuo Lee Chien-FuLiao Ming-HsiungLin Chao-HuangLin Kun-HanLo Chen-JungLo Kuo-ChongPai Kun-HongTsai Ming-HungWang Kuang-ShihWu Shih-Hsih Tomohito ItoShinichiro KawabataMasahito KohiyamaHirotami KojimaHiroki KokuboTakashi MiwaHiroshi NakamotoMasafumi NishiKazutaka NishiyamaKoichi OshimaHiroyuki SakaguchiShinichi SatoYasuhiro SatoMasanori SugiuraKento SugiyamaYasunori TakamiAkihiro TogoKoji TokunagaShigeki WakabayashiKatsumi Watanabe1996 Atlanta Omar AjeteMiguel Caldes LuisJosé ContrerasJosé Estrada GonzálezJorge FumeroAlberto HernándezRey Isaac VaillantOrestes KindelánPedro Luis LazoOmar LinaresOmar Luis MartinezJuan Manrique GarciaEliecer Montes De OcaAntonio Pacheco MassóJuan PadillaEduardo ParetOrmari RomeroAntonio ScullLuis Ulacia AlverezLázaro Vargas Alverez Kosuke FukudomeTadahito IguchiMakoto ImaokaTakeo KawamuraJutaro KimuraTakashi KurosuTakao KuwamotoNobuhiko MatsunakaKoichi MisawaMasahiko MoriMasao MorinakaDaishin NakamuraMasahiro NojimaHideaki OkuboHitoshi OnoYasuyuki SaigoTomoaki SatoMasanori SugiuraTakayuki TakabayashiYoshitomo Tani Chad AllenKris BensonR. A. DickeyTroy GlausChad GreenSeth GreisingerKip HarkriderA. J. HinchJacque JonesBilly KochMark KotsayMatt LecroyTravis LeeBraden LooperBrian LoydWarren MorrisAugie OjedaJim ParqueJeff WeaverJason Williams2000 Sydney Brent AbernathyKurt AinsworthPat BordersSean BurroughsJohn CottonTravis DawkinsAdam EverettRyan FranklinChris GeorgeShane HeamsMarcus JensenMike KinkadeRick KrivdaDoug MientkiewiczMike NeillRoy OswaltJon RauchAnthony SandersBobby SeayBen SheetsBrad WilkersonTodd WilliamsErnie YoungTim Young Omar AjeteYovany AragonMiguel CaldésDanel CastroJosé ContrerasYobal DueñasYasser GómezJosé IbarOrestes KindelánPedro Luis LazoOmar LinaresOscar MacíasJuan ManriqueJavier MéndezRolando MeriñoGermán MesaAntonio Pacheco MassóAriel PestanoGabriel PierreMaels RodríguezAntonio ScullLuis UlaciaLázaro ValleNorge Luis Vera Chang Song-HoChong Tae-HyonChung Min-TaeChung Soo-KeunHong Sung-HeonJang Sung-HoJin Pil-jungKim Dong-JooKim Han-SooKim Ki-TaeKim Soo-KyungKim Tae-GyunKoo Dae-SungLee Byung-KyuLee Seung-HoLee Seung-YeopLim Chang-YongLim Sun-DongPark Jae-HongPark Jin-ManPark Jong-HoPark Kyung-OanPark Seok-JinSon Min-HanSong Jin-Woo2004 Athens Danny BetancourtLuis Borroto JiménezFrederich Cepeda CruzYorelvis Charles MartínezMichel Enríquez TamayoNorberto González MirandaYulieski Gourriel CastilloPedro Luis Lazo IglesiasRoger MachadoJonder Martínez MartínezFrank Andy Montieth HerreraVicyohandri Odelín SanaméAdiel Palma LópezEduardo Paret PérezAriel Pestano ValdésAlexei Ramírez RodríguezEriel Sánchez LeonAntonio Scull HernándezCarlos Alberto Tabares PadillaYoandri Urgelles CobasOsmani Urrutia RamírezManuel VegaNorge Luis Vera Peralta Craig AndersonThomas BriceAdrian BurnsideGavin FinglesonPaul GonzalezNick KimptonBrendan KingmanCraig LewisGraeme LloydDave NilssonTrent OeltjenWayne OughChris OxspringBrett RonebergRyan Rowland SmithJohn StephensPhil StockmanBrett TamburrinoRichard ThompsonAndrew UttingRodney Van BuizenBen WigmoreGlenn WilliamsJeff Williams Ryoji AikawaYuya AndoAtsushi FujimotoKosuke FukudomeHirotoshi IshiiHisashi 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1,829 | Konstantin_Chernenko | Konstantin Ustinovich Chernenko (, Konstantin Ustinovič Černenko; 24 September 1911 – 10 March 1985) was a Soviet politician and General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He led the Soviet Union from 13 February 1984, until his death just thirteen months later on 10 March 1985. Chernenko was also Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 11 April 1984, until his death. Early life Chernenko was born to a poor family in the village of Bolshaya Tes (now in Novosyolovsky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai). His father, Ustin Demidovich, worked in copper and gold mines while his mother took care of the farm work. Chernenko joined the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in 1926 and the Communist Party in 1931. From 1930 to 1933, he served in the Soviet frontier guards on the Soviet-Chinese border. In 1945, he acquired a diploma from a party training school in Moscow, and in 1953 he finished a correspondence course for schoolteachers. The turning point in Chernenko’s career was his assignment in 1948 to head the Communist Party’s propaganda department in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. There he met and won the confidence of Leonid Brezhnev, the first secretary of Moldova from 1950 to 1952 and future leader of the Soviet Union. Chernenko followed Brezhnev in 1956 to fill a similar propaganda post in the CPSU Central Committee in Moscow. In 1960, after Brezhnev was named chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (titular head of state of the Soviet Union), Chernenko became his chief of staff. Brezhnev's shadow In 1965, Chernenko became Director of Personnel in the party's General Department. He continued his work as a clerk, but he now held a powerful position. He had knowledge about all the top people in the party and monitored wiretapping and surveillance devices in offices, but his main job was to sign hundreds of documents every day. He did this for 20 years. Even when he became General Secretary, he continued to sign papers, although because of the structure of the Soviet bureaucracy, his signature meant little more than it did in his previous position. Eventually, when Chernenko became ill, he was no longer physically able to sign documents and a facsimile was used instead, further devaluing his signature. Following Brezhnev's death in 1982, Chernenko lost a power struggle to succeed him. Instead, Yuri Andropov, the former head of the KGB, was nominated as General Secretary. Leader of the Soviet Union Andropov died in February 1984, after just 15 months in office. Chernenko was then elected to replace Andropov, despite concerns over his own health and against Andropov's wishes (he stated he wanted Gorbachev to succeed him). Yegor Ligachev writes in his memoirs that Chernenko was elected general secretary without a hitch. At the Central Committee plenary session on 13 February 1984, four days after Andropov's death, Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers and Politburo member Nikolai Tikhonov moved that Chernenko be elected general secretary, and the Committee duly voted him in. Arkady Volsky, an aide to Andropov and other general secretaries, recounts an episode that occurred after a Politburo meeting on the day following Andropov's demise: As Politburo members filed out of the conference hall, either Andrei Gromyko or (in later accounts) Dmitriy Ustinov is said to have put his arm round Nikolai Tikhonov's shoulders and said: "It's okay, Kostya is an agreeable guy (pokladisty muzhik), one can do business with him...." Even more irksome was the Politburo's failure to pass the decision for him to run the meetings of the Politburo itself in the absence of Chernenko, who predictably began to miss those meetings with increasing frequency. As Nikolai Ryzhkov describes it in his memoirs, "every Thursday morning he (Mikhail Gorbachev) would sit in his office like a little orphan - I would often be present at this sad procedure - nervously awaiting a telephone call from the sick Chernenko: Would he come to the Politburo himself or would he ask Gorbachev to stand in for him this time again?" Chernenko in 1984, just months before his death. At Andropov's funeral, he could barely read the eulogy. Those present strained to catch the meaning of what he was trying to say in his eulogy. He spoke rapidly, swallowed his words, kept coughing and stopped repeatedly to wipe his lips and forehead. He ascended Lenin's Mausoleum by way of a newly installed escalator and descended with the help of two bodyguards. Chernenko represented a return to the policies of the late Brezhnev era. Nevertheless, he supported a greater role for the labour unions, and reform in education and propaganda. The one major personnel change that Chernenko made was the firing of the chief of the General Staff, Nikolay Ogarkov, who had advocated less spending on consumer goods in favor of greater expenditures on weapons research and development. In foreign policy, he negotiated a trade pact with the People's Republic of China. Despite calls for renewed détente, Chernenko did little to prevent the escalation of the Cold War with the United States. For example, in 1984, the Soviet Union prevented a visit to West Germany by East German leader Erich Honecker. However, in the late autumn of 1984, the U.S. and the Soviet Union did agree to resume arms control talks in early 1985. In November 1984 Chernenko met with Britain's Labour Party leader, Neil Kinnock. Because the U.S. had boycotted the 1980's Summer Olympics held in Moscow, the USSR, while under the Administration of Chairman Chernenko, boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. It caused 14 Eastern Bloc countries and allies including the Soviet Union, Cuba and East Germany (but not Romania) to boycott these Olympics. The USSR announced its intention not to participate on 8 May 1984, citing security concerns and stating, that "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria being whipped up in the United States"[1], but some saw it as revenge for the boycott of the Moscow Games. Among those subscribing to the revenge hypothesis was Peter Ueberroth, who was the chief organizer of the Games, in a press conference after the boycott was announced. Iran was the only country not to attend either Moscow or Los Angeles. The People's Republic of China competed in Los Angeles after boycotting Moscow. For differing reasons, Iran and Libya also boycotted. The boycott was announced on the same day that the Olympic Torch Relay through the United States began in New York City. The boycott influenced a large number of Olympic events that were normally dominated by the absent countries. Boycotting countries organized another major event in July-August 1984, called the Friendship Games. Death and legacy In the spring of 1984, Chernenko was hospitalized for over a month, but kept working by sending the Politburo notes and letters. During the summer, his doctors sent him to Kislovodsk for the mineral spas, but on the day of his arrival at the resort Chernenko's health deteriorated, and he contracted pneumonia. Chernenko did not return to the Kremlin until the late autumn of 1984. He awarded Orders to cosmonauts and writers in his office, but was unable to walk through the corridors of his office and was driven in a wheelchair. By the end of 1984, Chernenko could hardly leave the Central Clinical Hospital, a heavily guarded facility in west Moscow, and the Politburo was affixing a facsimile of his signature to all letters, as Chernenko had done with Andropov's when he was dying. In what was almost universally regarded, even by his opponents, as a cruel act against Chernenko, Politburo member Viktor Grishin dragged the terminally ill Chernenko from his hospital bed to a ballot box to vote in the elections in early 1985. Emphysema of the lungs and aggravated lung and heart insufficiency worsened significantly in the last three weeks of February 1985. Another, accompanying illness developed - chronic hepatitis, or liver failure, with its transformation into cirrhosis. This and the worsening dystrophic changes in the organs and tissues led to gradual deterioration of his health. On 10 March at 3:00 p.m. he fell into a coma, and at 7:20 p.m. he died as a result of heart failure. He became the third Soviet leader to die in just two years time, and, upon being informed in the middle of the night of his death, US President Ronald Reagan is reported to have remarked "how am I supposed to get anyplace with the Russians if they keep dying on me?" Maureen Dowd. Where's the Rest of Him? New York Times, November 18, 1990 He was honored with a state funeral and was buried in the Kremlin necropolis. The impact of Chernenko—or the lack of it—was evident in the way in which his death was reported in the Soviet press. Soviet newspapers carried stories about Chernenko's death and Gorbachev's selection on the same day. The papers had the same format: page 1 reported the party Central Committee session on 11 March that elected Gorbachev and printed the new leader's biography and a large photograph of him; page 2 announced the demise of Chernenko and printed his obituary. Cities with populations ranging from 250,000 to 600,000 had been named for Brezhnev, Andropov, and Ustinov at their deaths, but Chernenko's name was given to the Siberian town of Sharypovo, with 20,000 inhabitants. After the death of a Soviet leader it was customary for his successors to open his safe and look in it. When Gorbachev had Chernenko's safe opened, it was found to contain a small folder of personal papers and several large bundles of money; money was also found in his desk. Chernenko was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour; 1976, in 1981 and in 1984 he was awarded Hero of the Socialist Labor: on the latter occasion, Minister of Defence Ustinov underlined his rule as an "outstanding political figure, a loyal and unwavering continuer of the cause of the great Lenin"; in 1981 he was awarded with the highest Bulgarian honour and in 1982 he received the Lenin Prize for his "Human Rights in Soviet Society." His first marriage produced a son, Albert, who would become noted in the Soviet Union as a legal theorist. His second wife, Anna Dmitrevna Lyubimova (b. 1913), who married him in 1944, bore him two daughters, Yelena (who worked at the Institute of Party History) and Vera (who worked at the Soviet Embassy in Washington, DC) in the United States, and a son, Vladimir, who was a Goskino editorialist. He had a Gosdacha in Troitse-Lykovo named Sosnovka-3 by the Moskva River with a private beach, while Sosnovka-1 was used by Mikhail Suslov. See also Albert Chernenko References Brown, Archie. "The Soviet Succession: From Andropov to Chernenko," World Today, 40, April 1984, 134-41. Daniels, Robert V. "The Chernenko Comeback," New Leader, 67, 20 February 1984, 3-5. Halstead, John. "Chernenko in Office," International Perspectives, May-June 1984, 19-21. Meissner, Boris. "Soviet Policy: From Chernenko to Gorbachev," Aussenpolitik [Bonn], 36, No. 4, April 1985, 357-75. Urban, Michael E. "From Chernenko to Gorbachev: A Repolitization of Official Soviet Discourse," Soviet Union/Union Soviétique, 13, No. 2, 1986, 131-61. Pribytkov, Victor, "Soviet-U.S. Relations: The Selected Writings and Speeches of Konstantin U. 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1,830 | Affray | For the British submarine see HMS Affray (P421) Affray in English Law In English Law, Affray forms part of the Public Order Act 1986 under section 3. The Public Order Act 1986 s.3 states: A person is guilty of affray if a person uses or threatens unlawful violence towards another and the person's conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his personal safety. Where two or more persons use or threaten the unlawful violence, it is the conduct of them taken together that must be considered for the purpose of subsection (1) For the purposes of this section a threat can not be made by the use of words alone. No person of reasonable firmness need actually be, or be likely to be, present at the scene. Affray may be committed in private as well as in public places. Ramifications Statutory Power of Arrest Triable either way (Can be brought before a Magistrates' Court or Crown Court) Hundred and twenty three years imprisonment and/or a fine on indictment; six months imprisonment and/or a fine summarily Other Information Traditionally, in English and Welsh Common law, the affray consisted of the fighting of two or more persons in a public place to the terror (in French: à l'effroi) of the lieges. In England and Wales, affray may be committed in a public or a private place: section 3(5) Public Order Act 1986. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution for assault, Unlawful Assembly, or Riot, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may, and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an affray. In the United States the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. sec. 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the old English Common-Law definition of affray, with the substitution of actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the lieges. The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica. References Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4 General police duties, Fraser Simpson (2006). pp. 247. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928522-5 | Affray |@lemmatized british:1 submarine:1 see:1 hms:1 affray:13 english:6 law:7 form:1 part:3 public:9 order:3 act:3 section:3 state:3 person:8 guilty:1 use:3 threaten:2 unlawful:3 violence:2 towards:1 another:1 conduct:2 would:1 cause:2 reasonable:2 firmness:2 present:2 scene:2 fear:1 personal:1 safety:1 two:2 take:4 together:1 must:2 consider:1 purpose:2 subsection:1 threat:1 make:1 word:1 alone:1 need:1 actually:1 likely:1 may:3 commit:2 private:3 well:1 place:4 ramification:1 statutory:1 power:1 arrest:1 triable:1 either:1 way:1 bring:1 magistrate:1 court:2 crown:1 hundred:1 twenty:1 three:1 year:1 imprisonment:2 fine:2 indictment:1 six:1 month:1 summarily:1 information:1 traditionally:1 welsh:1 common:3 consist:1 fighting:1 terror:2 french:1 à:1 l:1 effroi:1 liege:2 england:1 wale:1 engage:1 render:1 also:1 liable:1 prosecution:1 assault:1 assembly:1 riot:1 one:1 offence:1 usually:1 charge:1 constable:1 justice:1 interfere:1 put:1 stop:1 united:1 applies:1 subject:1 certain:1 modification:1 statute:1 particular:1 bishop:1 amer:1 crim:1 ed:1 vol:1 sec:1 indian:1 penal:1 code:3 sect:2 adopt:1 old:1 definition:3 substitution:1 actual:1 disturbance:1 peace:1 queensland:1 criminal:2 defines:1 fight:2 highway:1 nature:1 alarm:1 access:1 bill:1 cl:1 roman:1 dutch:1 force:1 south:1 africa:1 fall:1 within:1 vi:1 publica:1 reference:1 blackstones:1 police:2 manual:1 volume:1 general:1 duty:1 fraser:1 simpson:1 pp:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 |@bigram penal_code:1 |
1,831 | Optics | Optics includes the study of prismatic light. Optics is the study of the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and its detection. The word optics comes from the ancient Greek word , meaning appearance or look. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible light as well as infrared and ultraviolet light, which are similar to visible light but are not detectable by the human eye. Other phenomena such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves can be described with optical principles because all of these, along with visible light, are types of electromagnetic waves. During the 19th century the physicist James Clerk Maxwell discovered that light is a type of electromagnetic radiation; as a result, optics has since been regarded largely as a subfield of electromagnetism within theoretical physics. Classical electromagnetism can be used to describe most everyday optical phenomena. Most can be adequately described by assuming that light is either simply a ray or a wave. Geometrical optics, developed during the 16th and 17th centuries, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines unless they are bent through refraction. Developed during the 19th century, physical optics accounts for diffraction and interference by modeling light as a wave. Together, geometrical and physical optics encompass classical optics, a system of models capable of describing and predicting many phenomena. However, in certain situations, more modern approaches must be used to ensure accurate predictions and explanations. In particular, observations that light behaves both as a particle and as a wave were first correctly explained in the early twentieth century when quantum mechanics replaced classical electromagnetism. Quantum optics deals with the best model of light scientists have developed to date: the photon. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including electrical engineering, photography, psychology, and medicine (particularly ophthalmology and optometry). Practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fiber optics. History Reproduction of a page of Ibn Sahl's manuscript showing his discovery of the law of refraction, now known as Snell's law. Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians. The earliest known lenses were made from polished crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard/Nimrud lens. BBC News, "World's oldest telescope?" The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses. These practical developments were followed by the development of theories of light and vision by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers, and the development of geometrical optics in the Greco-Roman world. Plato first articulated his emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays of light emitted by the eyes and commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus.. Some hundred years later, Euclid wrote a treatise entitled Optics wherein he describes the mathematical rules of perspective and describes the effects of refraction qualitatively. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, summarizes much of Euclid and goes on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, though he failed to notice the empirical relationship between it and the angle of incidence. Al-Kindi (c. 801–73) was one of the earliest important writers on optics in the Islamic world. In a work known in the West as De radiis stellarum, al-Kindi resurrected Plato's emission theory Cited in D. C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), p. 19. which had an influence on later Western scholars such as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. In 984, the Persian mathematician, Ibn Sahl wrote a treatise "On Burning Mirrors and Lenses", correctly describing a law of refraction mathematically equivalent to Snell's law. R. Rashed, "A Pioneer in Anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on Burning Mirrors and Lenses", Isis 81 (1990): 464–91. He used his law of refraction to compute the shapes of lenses and mirrors that focus light at a single point on the axis. In the early 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham wrote his Book of Optics, which extensively documented the then-current Islamic understanding of optics; it included the first descriptions of optical phenomena associated with pinholes and concave lenses, and greatly influenced the later development of the modern telescope. O. S. Marshall (1950). "Alhazen and the Telescope", Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets 6, p. 4. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon, inspired by Ibn al-Haytham, used parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses, and discovered that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them. In Italy, around 1284, Salvino D'Armate invented the first wearable eyeglasses. The first rudimentary telescopes were developed independently in the 1570s and 1580s by Leonard Digges, Galileo's Telescope - by: Albert Van Helden Taqi al-Din and Giambattista della Porta. Giambattista della Porta, (2005), Natural Magick, page 339. NuVision Publications, LLC. The earliest known working telescopes were refracting telescopes, a type which rely entirely on lenses for magnification. Their development in the Netherlands in 1608 was by three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, Holland, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. In Italy, Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year. Niccolò Zucchi constructed the first reflecting telescope in 1616, which incorporated a mirror to improve magnification. In 1668, Isaac Newton designed an improved reflecting telescope that bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. Stargazer By Fred Watson, Inc NetLibrary Page 109 The first microscope was made around 1595, also in Middelburg. Microscopes: Time Line, Nobel Foundation, retrieved April 3, 2009 Three different eyeglass makers have been given credit for the invention: Lippershey (who also developed the first real telescope); Janssen; and his father, Hans. The coining of the name "microscope" has been credited to Giovanni Faber, who gave that name to Galileo's compound microscope in 1625. Stephen Jay Gould(2000). The Lying Stones of Marrakech, ch.2 "The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature". London: Jonathon Cape. ISBN 0224050443 Optical theory progressed in the mid-17th century with treatises written by philosopher René Descartes, which explained a variety of optical phenomena including reflection and refraction by assuming that light was emitted by objects which produced it. This differed substantively from ancient Greek notions that light emanated from the eye. In the late 1660s and early 1670s, Newton expanded Descartes' ideas into a corpuscle theory of light, famously showing that white light, instead of being a unique color, was really a composite of different colors that can be separated into a spectrum with a prism. In 1690, Christian Huygens proposed a wave theory for light based on suggestions that had been made by Robert Hooke in 1664. Hooke himself publicly criticized Newton's theories of light and the feud between the two lasted until Hooke's death. In 1704, Newton published Opticks and, at the time, partly because of his success in other areas of physics, he was generally considered to be the victor in the debate over the nature of light. Newtonian optics and emission theory was generally accepted until the early 19th century when Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel conducted experiments on the interference of light that firmly established light's wave-nature. Young's famous double slit experiment showed that light followed the law of superposition, something normal particles do not follow. This work led to a theory of diffraction for light and opened an entire area of study in physical optics. p. 309 Wave optics was successfully unified with electromagnetic theory by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. James Clerk Maxwell, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459-512 (1865). The next development in optical theory came in 1899 when Max Planck correctly modeled blackbody radiation by assuming that the exchange of energy between light and matter only occurred in discrete amounts he called quanta. For a solid approach to the complexity of Planck's intellectual motivations for the quantum, for his reluctant acceptance of its implications, see Helge Kragh, Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary, Physics World. December 2000. In 1905, Albert Einstein published the theory of the photoelectric effect that firmly established the quantization of light itself. . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18 March. In 1913, Niels Bohr showed that atoms could only emit discrete amounts of energy, thus explaining the discrete lines seen in emission and absorption spectra. 1913. "On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules," Philosophical Magazine 26 (Series 6): 1-25. The landmark paper laying the Bohr model of the atom and molecular bonding. The understanding of the interaction between light and matter, which followed from these developments, not only formed the basis of quantum optics but also was crucial for the development of quantum mechanics as a whole. Quantum optics gained practical importance with the invention of the maser in 1953 and the laser in 1960. Following the work of Paul Dirac in quantum field theory, George Sudarshan, Roy J. Glauber, and Leonard Mandel applied quantum theory to the electromagnetic field in the 1950s and 1960s to gain a more detailed understanding of photodetection and the statistics of light. The ultimate culmination was the theory of quantum electrodynamics, which explains all optics and electromagnetic processes in general as being the result of the exchange of real and virtual photons. Classical optics Light propagates through space as a wave with amplitudes, wavelengths, frequencies, and speeds that are unique to how it was emitted and the particular conditions of the material through which it is propagating. In classical optics, light is modeled as an electromagnetic wave composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. These fields continually generate each other according to Maxwell's equations as the wave propagates through space and oscillates in time. Maxwell, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, 1864 5, page 499. The frequency of light waves is determined by the period of the oscillations of the emitter. While the frequency of a light wave does not normally change as light travels through different materials, called optical media, the wavelength of light is affected by the indices of refraction in different media. Since the speed () of any wave is given by the formula where is the wavelength and is the frequency of the wave, a changing speed of light results in a changing wavelength. This can be characterized by the index of refraction, , which is defined by where c is the speed of light in a vacuum—a constant value equal to 299,792,458 metres per second. Thus, a light ray with a wavelength of in a vacuum will have a wavelength of in a material with index of refraction n. The amplitude of the light wave is related to the intensity of the light which is related to the energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields of the light wave. Before quantum optics, optics consisted mainly of the application of classical electromagnetism and its high frequency approximations to light. Classical optics is divided into two main branches: geometrical optics and physical optics. Geometrical optics As light travels through space, it oscillates in amplitude. In this image, each maximum amplitude crest is marked with a plane to illustrate the wavefront. The ray is the arrow perpendicular to these parallel surfaces. Geometrical optics, or ray optics, describes light propagation in terms of "rays". The "ray" in geometric optics is an abstraction, or "instrument", that can be used to predict the path of light. A light ray is a ray that is perpendicular to the light's wavefronts (and therefore collinear with the wave vector). Light rays bend at the interface between two dissimilar media and may be curved in a medium in which the refractive index changes. Geometrical optics provides rules for propagating these rays through an optical system, which indicates how the actual wavefront will propagate. This is a significant simplification of optics that fails to account for optical effects such as diffraction and polarization. It is a good approximation, however, when the wavelength is very small compared with the size of structures with which the light interacts. Geometric optics can be used to describe the geometrical aspects of imaging, including optical aberrations. A slightly more rigorous definition of a light ray follows from Fermat's principle which states that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be traversed in the least time. Arthur Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory of Optics, London: Edward Arnold, 1904 online. Approximations Geometrical optics is often simplified by making the paraxial approximation, or "small angle approximation." The mathematical behavior then becomes linear, allowing optical components and systems to be described by simple matrices. This leads to the techniques of Gaussian optics and paraxial ray tracing, which are used to find basic properties of optical systems, such as approximate image and object positions and magnifications. Gaussian beam propagation is an expansion of paraxial optics that provides a more accurate model of coherent radiation such as laser beams. While still using the paraxial approximation, this technique partially accounts for diffraction, allowing accurate calculations of the rate at which a laser beam expands with distance, and the minimum size to which the beam can be focused. Gaussian beam propagation thus bridges the gap between geometric and physical optics. Chapter 16. Reflections Diagram of specular reflection Reflections can be divided into two types: specular reflection and diffuse reflection. Specular reflection describes glossy surfaces such as mirrors, which reflect light in a simple, predictable way. This allows for production of reflected images that can be associated with an actual (real) or extrapolated (virtual) location in space. Diffuse reflection describes matte surfaces, such as paper or rock. The reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the surface. Many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by Lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. In specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. The incident and reflected rays lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. Chapter 35 This is known as the Law of Reflection. For flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. The image size is the same as the object size. (The magnification of a flat mirror is unity.) The law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left-right inversion. Images formed from reflection in two (or any even number of) mirrors are not parity inverted. Corner reflectors retroreflect light, producing reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. Mirrors with curved surfaces can be modeled by ray-tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. For mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. Other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. In particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. Curved mirrors can form images with magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. An upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. Refractions Illustration of Snell's Law Refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction. The simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform medium with index of refraction and another medium with index of refraction . In such situations, Snell's Law describes the resulting deflection of the light ray: where and are the angles between the normal (to the interface) and the incident and refracted waves, respectively. This phenomenon is also associated with a changing speed of light as seen from the definition of index of refraction provided above which implies: where and are the wave velocities through the respective media. Various consequences of Snell's Law include the fact that for light rays traveling from a material with a high index of refraction to a material with a low index of refraction, it is possible for the interaction with the interface to result in zero transmission. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection and allows for fiber optics technology. As light signals travel down a fiber optic cable, it undergoes total internal reflection allowing for essentially no light lost over the length of the cable. It is also possible to produce polarized light rays using a combination of reflection and refraction: When a refracted ray and the reflected ray form a right angle, the reflected ray has the property of "plane polarization". The angle of incidence required for such a scenario is known as Brewster's angle. Snell's Law can be used to predict the deflection of light rays as they pass through "linear media" as long as the indexes of refraction and the geometry of the media are known. For example, the propagation of light through a prism results in the light ray being deflected depending on the shape and orientation of the prism. Additionally, since different frequencies of light have slightly different indexes of refraction in most materials, refraction can be used to produce dispersion spectra that appear as rainbows. The discovery of this phenomenon when passing light through a prism is famously attributed to Isaac Newton. Some media have an index of refraction which varies gradually with position and, thus, light rays curve through the medium rather than travel in straight lines. This effect is what is responsible for mirages seen on hot days where the changing index of refraction of the air causes the light rays to bend creating the appearance of specular reflections in the distance (as if on the surface of a pool of water). Material that has a varying index of refraction is called a gradient-index (GRIN) material and has many useful properties used in modern optical scanning technologies including photocopiers and scanners. The phenomenon is studied in the field of gradient-index optics. E. W. Marchand, Gradient Index Optics, New York, NY, Academic Press, 1978. A ray tracing diagram for a simple converging lens. A device which produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens. Thin lenses produce focal points on either side that can be modeled using the lensmaker's equation. Chapters 5 & 6. In general, two types of lenses exist: convex lenses, which cause parallel light rays to converge, and concave lenses, which cause parallel light rays to diverge. The detailed prediction of how images are produced by these lenses can be made using ray-tracing similar to curved mirrors. Similarly to curved mirrors, thin lenses follow a simple equation that determines the location of the images given a particular focal length () and object distance (): where is the distance associated with the image and is considered by convention to be negative if on the same side of the lens as the object and positive if on the opposite side of the lens. The focal length f is considered negative for concave lenses. Incoming parallel rays are focused by a convex lens into an inverted real image one focal length from the lens, on the far side of the lens. Rays from an object at finite distance are focused further from the lens than the focal distance; the closer the object is to the lens, the further the image is from the lens. With convex lenses, incoming parallel rays diverge after going through the lens, in such a way that they seem to have originated at an upright virtual image one focal length from the lens, on the same side of the lens that the parallel rays are approaching on. Rays from an object at finite distance are associated with a virtual image that is closer to the lens than the focal length, and on the same side of the lens as the object. The closer the object is to the lens, the closer the virtual image is to the lens. Likewise, the magnification of a lens is given by where the negative sign is given, by convention, to indicate an upright object for positive values and an inverted object for negative values. Similar to mirrors, upright images produced by single lenses are virtual while inverted images are real. Lenses suffer from aberrations that distort images and focal points. These are due to both to geometrical imperfections and due to the changing index of refraction for different wavelengths of light (chromatic aberration). Optical instruments Illustrations of various optical instruments from the 1728 Cyclopaedia Single lenses have a variety of applications including photographic lenses, corrective lenses, and magnifying glasses while single mirrors are used in parabolic reflectors and rear-view mirrors. Combining a number of mirrors, prisms, and lenses produces compound optical instruments which have practical uses. For example, a periscope is simply two plane mirrors aligned to allow for viewing around obstructions. The most famous compound optical instruments in science are the microscope and the telescope which were both invented by the Dutch in the late 16th century. Chapter 36 Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans. "Introduction to Stereomicroscopy" by Paul E. Nothnagle, William Chambers, and Michael W. Davidson, Nikon MicroscopyU. The first telescopes, called refracting telescopes were also developed with a single objective and eyepiece lens. In contrast to the microscope, the objective lens of the telescope was designed with a large focal length to avoid optical aberrations. The objective focuses an image of a distant object at its focal point which is adjusted to be at the focal point of an eyepiece of a much smaller focal length. The main goal of a telescope is not necessarily magnification, but rather collection of light which is determined by the physical size of the objective lens. Thus, telescopes are normally indicated by the diameters of their objectives rather than by the magnification which can be changed by switching eyepieces. Because the magnification of a telescope is equal to the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece, smaller focal-length eyepieces cause greater magnification. Since crafting large lenses is much more difficult than crafting large mirrors, most modern telescopes are reflecting telescopes, that is, telescopes that use a primary mirror rather than an objective lens. The same general optical considerations apply to reflecting telescopes that applied to refracting telescopes, namely, the larger the primary mirror, the more light collected, and the magnification is still equal to the focal length of the primary mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. Professional telescopes generally do not have eyepieces and instead place an instrument (often a charge-coupled device) at the focal point instead. Physical optics Physical optics or wave optics builds on Huygens's principle, which states that every point on an advancing wavefront is the center of a new disturbance. When combined with the superposition principle, this explains how optical phenomena are manifested when there are multiple sources or obstructions that are spaced at distances similar to the wavelength of the light. Longhurst RS, Geometrical and Physical Optics, 2nd Edition, 1968, Longmans [London] Complex models based on physical optics can account for the propagation of any wavefront through an optical system, including predicting the wavelength, amplitude, and phase of the wave. Additionally, all of the results from geometrical optics can be recovered using the techniques of Fourier optics which apply many of the same mathematical and analytical techniques used in acoustic engineering and signal processing. Using numerical modeling on a computer, optical scientists can account for most diffraction, interference, and polarization effects, as well as other complex interference patterns. Physical optics still relies on approximations, however, so this is not a full electromagnetic wave theory model of the propagation of light. Such a full model is computationally demanding and is normally only used to solve small-scale problems that require extraordinary accuracy. or online here Superposition and interference In the absence of nonlinear effects, the superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are in phase, both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in constructive interference and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice-versa. This results in destructive interference and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect. Chapter 37 combined waveform Image:Interference of two waves.png wave 1 wave 2 Two waves in phase Two waves 180° out of phase Since Huygens's principle states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable patterns. Interferometry is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or angular resolutions. The Michelson interferometer was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light. Earl R. Hoover, Cradle of Greatness: National and World Achievements of Ohio’s Western Reserve (Cleveland: Shaker Savings Association, 1977). When diesel fuel is spilled on top of a puddle, colorful patterns are formed by thin-film interference. The appearance of thin films and coatings is directly affected by interference effects. Antireflective coatings use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimize glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with thickness one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180 degrees out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the center of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength. Constructive interference in thin films can create strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make dielectric mirrors, interference filters, heat reflectors, and filters for color separation in color television cameras. This interference effect is also what causes the colorful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks. Diffraction and optical resolution Double slit diffraction due to two slits separated by distance . The bright fringes occur along lines where black lines intersect with black lines and white lines intersect with white lines. These fringes are separated by angle and are numbered as order . Diffraction is the process by which light interference is most commonly observed. The effect was first described in 1665 by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces'. Later that century, Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton also described phenomena now known to be diffraction in Newton's rings Robert Hooke. "Micrographia: or, Some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses". London: J. Martyn and J. Allestry, 1665. (first edition). while James Gregory recorded his observations of diffraction patterns from bird feathers. The first physical optics model of diffraction that relied on Huygens' Principle was developed in 1803 by Thomas Young in his accounts of the interference patterns of two closely spaced slits. Young showed that his results could only be explained if the two slits acted as two unique sources of waves rather than corpuscles. In 1815 and 1818, Augustin-Jean Fresnel firmly established the mathematics of how wave interference can account for diffraction. The simplest physical models of diffraction use equations that describe the angular separation of light and dark fringes due to light of a particular wavelength (). In general, the equation takes the form where is the separation between two wavefront sources (in the case of Young's experiments, it was two slits), is the angular separation between the central fringe and the th order fringe, where the central maximum is . Chapter 38 This equation is modified slightly to take into account a variety of situations such as diffraction through a single gap, diffraction through multiple slits, or diffraction through a diffraction grating that contains a large number of slits at equal spacing. More complicated models of diffraction require working with the mathematics of Fresnel or Fraunhofer diffraction. X-ray diffraction makes use of the fact that atoms in a crystal have regular spacing at distances that are on the order of one angstrom. To see diffraction patterns, x-rays with similar wavelengths to that spacing are passed through the crystal. Since crystals are three-dimensional objects rather than two-dimensional gratings, the associated diffraction pattern varies in two directions according to Bragg reflection, with the associated bright spots occurring in unique patterns and being twice the spacing between atoms. Diffraction effects limit the ability for an optical detector to optically resolve separate light sources. In general, light that is passing through an aperture will experience diffraction and the best images that can be created (as described in diffraction-limited optics) appear as a central spot with surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and the central bright lobe as an Airy disk. The size of such a disk is given by where θ is the angular resolution, λ is the wavelength of the light, and D is the diameter of the lens aperture. If the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images of the two points are formed and they can therefore be resolved. Rayleigh defined the somewhat arbitrary "Rayleigh criterion" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius (measured to first null, that is, to the first place where no light is seen) can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the finer the resolution. Inteferometry, with its ability to mimic extremely large baseline apertures, allows for the greatest angular resolution possible. For astronomical imaging, the atmosphere prevents optimal resolution from being achieved in the visible spectrum due to the atmospheric scattering and dispersion which cause stars to twinkle. Astronomers refer to this effect as the quality of astronomical seeing. Techniques known as adaptive optics have been utilized to eliminate the atmospheric disruption of images and achieve results that approach the diffraction limit.<ref>Lucky Exposures: Diffraction limited astronomical imaging through the atmosphere by Robert Nigel Tubbs</ref> Dispersion and scattering Conceptual animation of light dispersion through a prism. High frequency light is deflected the most, and low frequency the least. Refractive processes take place in the physical optics limit, where the wavelength of light is similar to other distances, as a kind of scattering. The simplest type of scattering is Thomson scattering which occurs when electromagnetic waves are deflected by single particles. In the limit of Thompson scattering, in which the wavelike nature of light is evident, light is dispersed independent of the frequency, in contrast to Compton scattering which is frequency-dependent and strictly a quantum mechanical process, involving the nature of light as particles. In a statistical sense, elastic scattering of light by numerous particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light is a process known as Rayleigh scattering while the similar process for scattering by particles that are similar or larger in wavelength is known as Mie scattering with the Tyndall effect being a commonly observed result. A small proportion of light scattering from atoms or molecules may undergo Raman scattering, wherein the frequency changes due to excitation of the atoms and molecules. Brillouin scattering occurs when the frequency of light changes due to local changes with time and movements of a dense material. Dispersion occurs when different frequencies of light have different phase velocities, due either to material properties (material dispersion) or to the geometry of an optical waveguide (waveguide dispersion). The most familiar form of dispersion is a decrease in index of refraction with increasing wavelength, which is seen in most transparent materials. This is called "normal dispersion". It occurs in all dielectric materials, in wavelength ranges where the material does not absorb light. In wavelength ranges where a medium has significant absorption, the index of refraction can increase with wavelength. This is called "anomalous dispersion". The separation of colors by a prism is an example of normal dispersion. At the surfaces of the prism, Snell's law predicts that light incident at an angle θ to the normal will be refracted at an angle arcsin(sin (θ) / n) . Thus, blue light, with its higher refractive index, is bent more strongly than red light, resulting in the well-known rainbow pattern. Frequency dispersion in bichromatic groups. The red dot moves with the phase velocity, and the green dots propagate with the group velocity. In this case, the phase velocity is twice the group velocity. The red dot overtakes two green dots, when moving from the left to the right of the figure. In effect, the individual waves (which travel with the phase velocity) escape from the wave packet (which travels with the group velocity). Material dispersion is often characterized by the Abbe number, which gives a simple measure of dispersion based on the index of refraction at three specific wavelengths. Waveguide dispersion is dependent on the propagation constant. Both kinds of dispersion cause changes in the group characteristics of the wave, the features of the wave packet that change with the same frequency as the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. "Group velocity dispersion" manifests as a spreading-out of the signal "envelope" of the radiation and can be quantified with a group dispersion delay parameter: where is the group velocity. Rajiv Ramaswami and Kumar N. Sivarajan, Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective (Academic Press: London 1998). For a uniform medium, the group velocity is where n is the index of refraction and c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Brillouin, Léon. Wave Propagation and Group Velocity. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960) This gives a simpler form for the dispersion delay parameter: If D is less than zero, the medium is said to have positive dispersion or normal dispersion. If D is greater than zero, the medium has negative dispersion. If a light pulse is propagated through a normally dispersive medium, the result is the higher frequency components slow down more than the lower frequency components. The pulse therefore becomes positively chirped, or up-chirped, increasing in frequency with time. This causes the spectrum coming out of a prism to appear with red light the least refracted and blue/violet light the most refracted. Conversely, if a pulse travels through an anomalously (negatively) dispersive medium, high frequency components travel faster than the lower ones, and the pulse becomes negatively chirped, or down-chirped, decreasing in frequency with time. The result of group velocity dispersion, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the pulse. This makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on optical fibers, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing information will each spread in time and merge together, making it impossible to extract the signal. Polarization Polarization is a general property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. For transverse waves such as many electromagnetic waves, it describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillations may be oriented in a single direction (linear polarization), or the oscillation direction may rotate as the wave travels (circular or elliptical polarization). Circularly polarized waves can rotate rightward or leftward in the direction of travel, and which of those two rotations is present in a wave is called the wave's chirality. Chapter 34 The typical way to consider polarization is to keep track of the orientation of the electric field vector as the electromagnetic wave propagates. The electric field vector of a plane wave may be arbitrarily divided into two perpendicular components labeled x and y (with z indicating the direction of travel). The shape traced out in the x-y plane by the electric field vector is a Lissajous figure that describes the polarization state. The following figures show some examples of the evolution of the electric field vector (blue), with time (the vertical axes), at a particular point in space, along with its x and y components (red/left and green/right), and the path traced by the vector in the plane (purple): The same evolution would occur when looking at the electric field at a particular time while evolving the point in space, along the direction opposite to propagation. Linear polarization diagram Linear Circular polarization diagram Circular Elliptical polarization diagram Elliptical In the leftmost figure above, the x and y components are in phase. In this case the ratio of the strengths of the two components is constant, so the direction of the electric vector (the vector sum of these two components) is constant. Since the tip of the vector traces out a single line in the plane, this special case is called linear polarization. The direction of this line depends on the relative amplitudes of the two components. In the middle figure, the two orthogonal components have exactly the same amplitude and are exactly ninety degrees out of phase. In this case one component is zero when the other component is at maximum or minimum amplitude. There are two possible phase relationships that satisfy this requirement: the x component can be ninety degrees ahead of the y component or it can be ninety degrees behind the y component. In this special case the electric vector traces out a circle in the plane, so this special case is called circular polarization. The direction the field rotates in depends on which of the two phase relationships exists. These cases are called right-hand circular polarization and left-hand circular polarization, depending on which way the electric vector rotates. In all other cases, where the two components are not in phase and either do not have the same amplitude and/or are not ninety degrees out of phase, the polarization is called elliptical polarization because the electric vector traces out an ellipse in the plane (the polarization ellipse). This is shown in the above figure on the right. Detailed mathematics of polarization is done using Jones calculus and is characterized by the Stokes parameters. Media that have different indexes of refraction for different polarization modes are called birefringent. Well known manifestations of this effect appear in optical wave plates/retarders (linear modes) and in Faraday rotation/optical rotation (circular modes). If the path length in the birefringent medium is sufficient, plane waves will exit the material with a significantly different propagation direction, due to refraction. For example, this is the case with macroscopic crystals of calcite, which present the viewer with two offset, orthogonally polarized images of whatever is viewed through them. It was this effect that provided the first discovery of polarization, by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669. In addition, the phase shift, and thus the change in polarization state, is usually frequency dependent, which, in combination with dichroism, often gives rise to bright colors and rainbow-like effects. In mineralogy, such properties, known as pleochroism, are frequently exploited for the purpose of identifying minerals using polarization microscopes. Additionally, many plastics that are not normally birefringent will become so when subject to mechanical stress, a phenomenon which is the basis of photoelasticity. A polarizer changing the orientation of linearly polarized light. In this picture, θ1 - θ0 = θi. Media that reduce the amplitude of certain polarization modes are called dichroic. with devices that block nearly all of the radiation in one mode known as polarizing filters or simply "polarizers". Malus' law, which is named after Etienne-Louis Malus, says that when a perfect polarizer is placed in a linear polarized beam of light, the intensity, I, of the light that passes through is given by whereI0 is the initial intensity, and θi is the angle between the light's initial polarization direction and the axis of the polarizer. A beam of unpolarized light can be thought of as containing a uniform mixture of linear polarizations at all possible angles. Since the average value of is 1/2, the transmission coefficient becomes In practice, some light is lost in the polarizer and the actual transmission of unpolarized light will be somewhat lower than this, around 38% for Polaroid-type polarizers but considerably higher (>49.9%) for some birefringent prism types. In addition to birefringence and dichroism in extended media, polarization effects can also occur at the (reflective) interface between two materials of different refractive index. These effects are treated by the Fresnel equations. Part of the wave is transmitted and part is reflected, with the ratio depending on angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. In this way, physical optics recovers Brewster's angle. The effects of a polarizing filter on the sky in a photograph. The picture on the right uses the filter optimally adjusted to eliminate certain polarizations of the scattered blue light from the sky. Most sources of electromagnetic radiation contain a large number of atoms or molecules that emit light. The orientation of the electric fields produced by these emitters may not be correlated, in which case the light is said to be unpolarized. If there is partial correlation between the emitters, the light is partially polarized. If the polarization is consistent across the spectrum of the source, partially polarized light can be described as a superposition of a completely unpolarized component, and a completely polarized one. One may then describe the light in terms of the degree of polarization, and the parameters of the polarization ellipse. Light reflected by shiny transparent materials is partly or fully polarized, except when the light is normal (perpendicular) to the surface. It was this effect that allowed the mathematician Etienne Louis Malus to make the measurements that allowed for his development of the first mathematical models for polarized light. Polarization occurs when light is scattered in the atmosphere. The scattered light produces the brightness and color in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be taken advantage of using polarizing filters to darken the sky in photographs. Optical polarization is principally of importance in chemistry due to circular dichroism and "optical rotation" (circular birefringence) exhibited by optically active (chiral) molecules. Modern optics Modern optics encompasses the areas of optical science and engineering that became popular in the 20th century. These areas of optical science typically relate to the electromagnetic or quantum properties of light but do include other topics. A major subfield of modern optics, quantum optics, deals with specifically quantum mechanical properties of light. Quantum optics is not just theoretical; some modern devices, such as lasers, have principles of operation that depend on quantum mechanics. Light detectors, such as photomultipliers and channeltrons, respond to individual photons. Electronic image sensors, such as CCDs, exhibit shot noise corresponding to the statistics of individual photon events. Light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic cells, too, cannot be understood without quantum mechanics. In the study of these devices, quantum optics often overlaps with quantum electronics. D. F. Walls and G. J. Milburn Quantum Optics (Springer 1994) Specialty areas of optics research include the study of how light interacts with specific materials as in crystal optics and metamaterials. Other research focuses on the phenomenology of electromagnetic waves as in singular optics, non-imaging optics, statistical optics, and radiometry. Additionally, computer engineers have taken an interest in integrated optics, machine vision, and photonic computing as possible components of the "next generation" of computers. Optical Computer Architectures: The Application of Optical Concepts to Next Generation Computers, Optical Computer Architectures: The Application of Optical Concepts to Next Generation Computers book by Alastair D. McAulay (1999) Today, the pure science of optics is called optical science or optical physics to distinguish it from applied optical sciences, which are referred to as optical engineering. Prominent subfields of optical engineering include illumination engineering, photonics, and optoelectronics with practical applications like lens design, fabrication and testing of optical components, and image processing. Some of these fields overlap, with nebulous boundaries between the subjects terms that mean slightly different things in different parts of the world and in different areas of industry. A professional community of researchers in nonlinear optics has developed in the last several decades due to advances in laser technology. Lasers Experiments such as this one with high-powered lasers are part of the cutting edge of modern optics. (U.S. Air Force). A laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process called stimulated emission. The term laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light is usually spatially coherent, which means that the light either is emitted in a narrow, low-divergence beam, or can be converted into one with the help of optical components such as lenses. Because the microwave equivalent of the laser, the maser, was developed first, devices that emit microwave and radio frequencies are usually called masers. Charles H. Townes - Nobel Lecture The first working laser was demonstrated on 16 May 1960 by Theodore Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories. When first invented, they were called "a solution looking for a problem". Since then, lasers have become a multi-billion dollar industry, finding utility in thousands of highly varied applications. The first application of lasers visible in the daily lives of the general population was the supermarket barcode scanner, introduced in 1974. The laserdisc player, introduced in 1978, was the first successful consumer product to include a laser, but the compact disc player was the first laser-equipped device to become truly common in consumers' homes, beginning in 1982. These optical storage devices use a semiconductor laser less than a millimeter wide to scan the surface of the disc for data retrieval. Fiber-optic communication relies on lasers to transmit large amounts of information at the speed of light. Other common applications of lasers include laser printers and laser pointers. Lasers are used in medicine in areas such as bloodless surgery, laser eye surgery, and laser capture microdissection and in military applications such as missile defense systems, electro-optical countermeasures (EOCM), and LIDAR. Lasers are also used in holograms, bubblegrams, laser light shows, and laser hair removal. Wilson, J. & Hawkes, J.F.B. (1987). Lasers: Principles and Applications, Prentice Hall International Series in Optoelectronics, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-523697-5 Everyday optics Optics is part of everyday life. Rainbows and mirages are examples of optical phenomena. Many people benefit from eyeglasses or contact lenses, and optics are integral to the functioning of many consumer goods including cameras. Languages based on optical signals are as old as spoken languages and the ubiquity of visual systems in biology indicate the central role optics plays as the science of one of the five senses. Human eye Anatomical features mentioned in this article 3:ciliary muscle 6:pupil 8:cornea 10:lens cortex 22:optic nerve 26:fovea 30:retina The human eye functions when light rays pass through its outer transparent membrane (cornea), through the pupil aperture, and are focused by the lens on an array of photoreceptor cells. These cells collectively make up the retina and completely cover the back of the eye with the exception of where the optic nerve exits, resulting in a blind spot. The two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, are sensitive to different aspects of light. Rod cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide frequency range, thus are responsible for black-and-white vision. Rod cells are not present on the fovea, the area of the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider distribution, rods are responsible for peripheral vision. In contrast, cone cells are less sensitive to the overall intensity of light, but come in three varieties that are sensitive to different frequency-ranges and thus are used in the perception of color and photopic vision. Cone cells are highly concentrated in the fovea and have a high visual acuity meaning that they are better at spatial resolution than rod cells. Since cone cells are not as sensitive to dim light as rod cells, most night vision is limited to rod cells. Likewise, since cone cells are in the fovea, central vision (including the vision needed to do most reading, fine detail work such as sewing, or careful examination of objects) is done by cone cells. Images are focused on the retina of the human eye by a lens whose focus can be adjusted by the ciliary muscles in a process known as accommodation. The range of distances from the eye within which a person is able to focus an image of an object is between a far point and a near point. For normal vision, the far point is located at infinity while the near point's location depends on how much the muscles can increase the curvature of the lens. Optometrists, ophthalmologists, and opticians usually consider an appropriate near point to be closer than normal reading distance (approximately 25 cm). Defects in vision can be explained using optical principles. As people age, the lens becomes less flexible and the near point recedes from the eye, a condition known as presbyopia. Similarly, people suffering from hyperopia cannot decrease the focal length of their lens enough to allow for nearby objects to be imaged on their retina. Conversely, people who cannot increase the focal length of their lens enough to allow for distant objects to be imaged on the retina suffer from myopia and have a far point that is considerably closer than infinity. A condition known as astigmatism results when the cornea is not spherical but instead is more curved in one direction. This causes horizontally extended objects to be focused on different parts of the retina than vertically extended objects, and results in distorted images. All of these conditions can be corrected using corrective lenses. For presbyopia and hyperopia, a converging lens provides the extra curvature necessary to bring the near point closer to the eye while for myopia a diverging lens provides the curvature necessary to send the far point to infinity. Astigmatism is corrected with a |cylindrical surface lens that curves more strongly in one direction than in another, compensating for the non-uniformity of the cornea. The optical power of corrective lenses is measured in diopters, a value equal to the reciprocal of the focal length, a positive focal length corresponding to a converging lens and a negative focal length corresponding to a diverging lens. For lenses that correct for astigmatism as well, three numbers are given: one for the spherical power, one for the cylindrical power, and one for the angle of orientation of the astigmatism. Visual effects The Ponzo Illusion takes advantage of the fact that parallel lines appear to converge as they approach infinity. Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that create images that are different from the objects that make them, the physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g. brightness, tilt, color, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make unconscious inferences. Key to All Optical Illusions Discovered, Jeanna Bryner, Senior Writer, LiveScience.com 6/2/08. Cognitive illusions include some which result from the unconscious misapplication of certain optical principles. For example, the Ames room, Hering, Müller-Lyer, Orbison, Ponzo, Sander, and Wundt illusions all rely on the suggestion of the appearance of distance by using converging and diverging lines, in the same way that parallel light rays (or indeed any set of parallel lines) appear to converge at a vanishing point at infinity in two-dimensionally rendered images with artistic perspective. Geometry of the Vanishing Point at Convergence This suggestion is also responsible for the famous moon illusion where the moon, despite having essentially the same angular size, appears much larger near the horizon than it does at zenith. "The Moon Illusion Explained", Don McCready, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater This illusion so confounded Ptolemy that he incorrectly attributed it to atmospheric refraction when he described it in his treatise, Optics. Another type of optical illusion exploits broken patterns to trick the mind into perceiving symmetries or asymmetries that are not present. Examples include the café wall, Ehrenstein, Fraser spiral, Poggendorff, and Zöllner illusions. Related, but not strictly illusions, are patterns that occur due to the superimposition of periodic structures. For example transparent tissues with a grid structure produce shapes known as moiré patterns, while the superimposition of periodic transparent patterns comprising parallel opaque lines or curves produces line moiré patterns. Photography Photograph taken with 32 Photograph taken with 5 The optics of photography involves both lenses and the medium in which the electromagnetic radiation is recorded, whether it be a plate, film, or charge-coupled device. Photographers must consider the reciprocity of the camera and the shot which is summarized by the relation Exposure ∝ ApertureArea × ExposureTime × SceneLuminance In other words, the smaller the aperture (giving better depth of focus), the less light coming in, so the length of time has to be increased (leading to possible blurriness if motion occurs). An example of the use of the law of reciprocity is the Sunny 16 rule which gives a rough estimate for the settings needed to estimate the proper exposure in daylight. A camera's aperture is measured by a unitless number called the f-number or f-stop, #, often notated as , and given by where is the focal length, and is the diameter of the entrance pupil. By convention, "#" is treated as a single symbol, and specific values of # are written by replacing the number sign with the value. The two ways to increase the f-stop are to either decrease the diameter of the entrance pupil or change to a longer focal length (in the case of a zoom lens, this can be done by simply adjusting the lens). Higher f-numbers also have a larger depth of field due to the lens approaching the limit of a pinhole camera which is able to focus all images perfectly, regardless of distance, but requires very long exposure times. When selecting the lens to use, photographers generally consider the field of view that the lens will provide given the specifications of their camera. For a given film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal across the image, a lens may be classified as Normal lens: angle of view of the diagonal about 50° and a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal produces this angle. Macro lens: angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length longer than normal. These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images of the same size as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well, which means that the subject plane is exactly parallel with the film plane. Photo.net how-to — Guide to macro photography Wide-angle lens: angle of view wider than 60° and focal length shorter than normal. Telephoto lens or long-focus lens: angle of view narrower and focal length longer than normal. A distinction is sometimes made between a long-focus lens and a true telephoto lens: the telephoto lens uses a telephoto group to be physically shorter than its focal length. The absolute value for the exposure time required depends on how sensitive to light the medium being used is (measured by the film speed, or, for digital media, by the quantum efficiency). Early photography used media that had very low light sensitivity, and so exposure times had to be long even for very bright shots. As technology has improved, so has the sensitivity through film cameras and digital cameras. Other results from physical and geometrical optics apply to camera optics. For example, the maximum resolution capability of a particular camera set-up is determined by the diffraction limit associated with the pupil size and given, roughly, by the Rayleigh criterion. John M. Cowley (1975) Diffraction physics (North-Holland, Amsterdam) ISBN 0 444 10791 6 Atmospheric optics A colorful sky is often due to scattering of light off of particulates and pollution, as in this photograph of a sunset during the October 2007 California wildfires. The unique optical properties of the atmosphere cause a wide range of spectacular optical phenomena. The blue color of the sky is a direct result of Rayleigh scattering which redirects higher frequency (blue) sunlight back into the field of view of the observer. Because blue light is scattered more easily than red light, the sun takes on a reddish hue when it is observed through a thick atmosphere, as during a sunrise or sunset. Additional particulate matter in the sky can scatter different colors at different angles creating colorful glowing skies at dusk and dawn. Scattering off of ice crystals and other particles in the atmosphere are responsible for halos, afterglows, coronas, rays of sunlight, and sun dogs. The variation in these kinds of phenomena is due to different particle sizes and geometries. Mirages are another sort of optical phenomena due to variations in the refraction of light through the atmosphere. Other dramatic optical phenomena associated with this include the Novaya Zemlya effect where the sun appears to rise earlier than predicted with a distorted shape. A spectacular form of refraction occurs with a temperature inversion called the Fata Morgana where objects on the horizon or even beyond the horizon, such as islands, cliffs, ships or icebergs, appear elongated and elevated, like "fairy tale castles". An Introduction to Mirages by Andy Young Rainbows are the result of a combination of optical effects: total internal reflection and dispersion of light in raindrops. A single reflection off the backs of an array of raindrops produces a coherent rainbow with an angular size on the sky that ranges from 40 to 42 degrees with red on the outside. Double rainbows are produced by two internal reflections with angular size of 50.5 to 54 degrees with violet on the outside. Because rainbows must be seen with the sun 180 degrees away from the center of the rainbow, rainbows are more prominent the closer the sun is to the horizon. References Textbooks See also List of optical topics Important publications in optics Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics Optics, a book by Euclid Optics, a book by Ptolemy Book of Optics, a book by Ibn al-Haytham Opticks'', a book by Newton External links Textbooks and tutorials Optics – an open-source optics textbook Optics2001 – Optics library and community Wikibooks modules Physics Study Guide/Optics Optics Societies Optical Society of America – link Optical Society of India – link Dutch Photonics Society – link European Optical Society – link European Photonics Industry Consortium – link SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering – link Periodicals Photonics Spectra Laser Focus World Optics & Photonics Focus Nature Photonics Photonics news | Optics |@lemmatized optic:100 include:22 study:8 prismatic:1 light:156 behavior:3 property:10 interaction:4 matter:4 detection:1 word:3 come:6 ancient:5 greek:4 mean:5 appearance:4 look:4 usually:7 describe:26 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1,832 | Polymer | Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an atomic force microscope on surface under liquid medium. Chain contour length for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is ~0.4 nm. Y. Roiter and S. Minko, AFM Single Molecule Experiments at the Solid-Liquid Interface: In Situ Conformation of Adsorbed Flexible Polyelectrolyte Chains, Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 127, iss. 45, pp. 15688-15689 (2005) A polymer (from Greek πολύ-ς /po΄li-s/ much, many and μέρος /΄meros/ part) is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. While polymer in popular usage suggests plastic, the term actually refers to a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a variety of properties. Due to the extraordinary range of properties accessible in polymeric materials Painter P. C., Coleman M. M., Fundamentals of Polymer Science: an Introductory Text, CRC Press, 1997, p1. , they have come to play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life McCrum N. G., Buckley C. P., Bucknall C. B., Principles of Polymer Engineering, Oxford University Press, 1997, p1. - from plastics and elastomers on the one hand to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are essential for life on the other. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene (IUPAC name ethene) monomer. Most commonly, as in this example, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer consists mainly of carbon atoms. However, other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being silly putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. The backbone of DNA is in fact based on a phosphodiester bond, and repeating units of polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose) are joined together by glycosidic bonds via oxygen atoms. Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been in use for centuries. Biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids play crucial roles in biological processes. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. Polymers are studied in the fields of polymer chemistry, polymer physics, and polymer science. Etymology The word polymer is derived from the Greek words πολυ (poly), meaning "many"; and μέρος (meros), meaning "part". The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius, although his definition of a polymer was quite different from the modern definition. (see Jöns Jakob Berzelius#New chemical terms) Historical development Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did pioneering work in derivative cellulose compounds, perhaps the earliest important work in polymer science. The development of vulcanization later in the nineteenth century improved the durability of the natural polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-synthetic polymer. In 1907, Leo Baekeland created the first completely synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by reacting phenol and formaldehyde at precisely controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite was then publicly introduced in 1909. Despite significant advances in synthesis and characterization of polymers, a correct understanding of polymer molecular structure did not emerge until the 1920s. Before then, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown force, a concept known as association theory. In 1922, Hermann Staudinger proposed that polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea which did not gain wide acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger was ultimately awarded the Nobel Prize. Work by Wallace Carothers in the 1920s also demonstrated that polymers could be synthesized rationally from their constituent monomers. An important contribution to synthetic polymer science was made by the Italian chemist Giulio Natta and the German chemist Karl Ziegler, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for the development of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst. Further recognition of the importance of polymers came with the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 to Paul Flory, whose extensive work on polymers included the kinetics of step-growth polymerization and of addition polymerization, chain transfer, excluded volume, the Flory-Huggins solution theory, and the Flory convention. Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone have formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry. These years have also shown significant developments in rational polymer synthesis. Most commercially important polymers today are entirely synthetic and produced in high volume on appropriately scaled organic synthetic techniques. Synthetic polymers today find application in nearly every industry and area of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives and lubricants, as well as structural components for products ranging from children's toys to aircraft. They have been employed in a variety of biomedical applications ranging from implantable devices to controlled drug delivery. Polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) find application as photoresist materials used in semiconductor manufacturing and low-k dielectrics for use in high-performance microprocessors. Recently, polymers have also been employed as flexible substrates in the development of organic light-emitting diodes for electronic displays. Polymer synthesis Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester. The monomers are terephthalic acid (HOOC-C6H4-COOH) and ethylene glycol (HO-CH2-CH2-OH) but the repeating unit is -OC-C6H4-COO-CH2-CH2-O-, which corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthesis Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization Sperling L. H., Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Wiley & Sons, 2006, p10. . The essential difference between the two is that in chain growth polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a time only Sperling L. H., Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Wiley & Sons, 2006, p11. , whereas in step-growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly Sperling L. H., Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Wiley & Sons, 2006, p15. . However, some newer methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Efforts towards rational synthesis of biopolymers via laboratory synthetic methods, especially artificial synthesis of proteins, is an area of intense research. Biological synthesis There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides. In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to transcribe genetic information from the DNA and subsequently translate that information to synthesize the specified protein from amino acids. The protein may be modified further following translation in order to provide appropriate structure and functioning. Modification of natural polymers Many commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of nitric acid and cellulose to form nitrocellulose and the formation of vulcanized rubber by heating natural rubber in the presence of sulphur. Polymer properties Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis. The most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describe the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural properties play a major role in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents. Monomers / Repeat Units The identity of the monomer residues (repeat units) comprising a polymer is its first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of monomer residues comprising the polymer. Polymers that contain only a single type of repeat unit are known as homopolymers, while polymers containing a mixture of repeat units are known as copolymers. Poly(styrene), for example, is composed only of styrene monomer residues, and is therefore classified as a homopolymer. Ethylene-vinyl acetate, on the other hand, contains more than one variety of repeat unit and is thus a copolymer. Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of different but structurally related monomer residues; for example, polynucleotides such as DNA are composed of a variety of nucleotide subunits. A polymer molecule containing ionizable subunits is known as a polyelectrolyte or ionomer. Microstructure The microstructural of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the chain<ref>Sperling L. H., Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Wiley & Sons, 2006, p30.</ref>. These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on the other properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even though their molecules comprise the same monomers. Polymer Architecture Branch point in a polymer An important microstructural feature determining polymer properties is the polymer architecture. Rubinstein, M. and Colby, R., Polymer Physics, Oxford University Press, 2006, p6. The simplest polymer architecture is a linear chain: a single backbone with not branches. A related unbranching architecture is a ring polymer. A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Special types of branched polymers include star polymers, comb polymers, brush polymers, ladders, and dendrimers. Branching of polymer chains affects the ability of chains to slide past one another by altering intermolecular forces, in turn affecting bulk physical polymer properties. Long chain branches may increase polymer strength, toughness, and the glass transition temperature due to an increase in the number of entanglements per chain. The effect of such long-chain branches on the size of the polymer in solution is characterized by the branching index. Random length and atactic short chains, on the other hand, may reduce polymer strength due to disruption of organization and may likewise reduce the crystallinity of the polymer. A good example of this effect is related to the range of physical attributes of polyethylene. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has a very low degree of branching, is quite stiff, and is used in applications such as milk jugs. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), on the other hand, has significant numbers of both long and short branches, is quite flexible, and is used in applications such as plastic films. Figure 1. Dendrimer and dendron Dendrimers are a special case of polymer where every monomer unit is branched. This tends to reduce intermolecular chain entanglement and crystallization. Alternatively, dendritic polymers are not perfectly branched but share similar properties to dendrimers due to their high degree of branching. The architecture of the polymer is often physically determined by the functionality of the monomers from which it is formed . This property of a monomer is defined as the number of reaction sites at which may form chemical covalent bonds. The basic functionality required for forming even a linear chain is two bonding sites. Higher functionality yields branched or even crosslinked or networked polymer chains. An effect related to branching is chemical crosslinking - the formation of covalent bonds between chains. Crosslinking tends to increase Tg and increase strength and toughness. Among other applications, this process is used to strengthen rubbers in a process known as vulcanization, which is based on crosslinking by sulphur. Car tires, for example, are highly crosslinked in order to reduce the leaking of air out of the tire and to toughen their durability. Eraser rubber, on the other hand, is not crosslinked to allow flaking of the rubber and prevent damage to the paper. A cross-link suggests a branch point from which four or more distinct chains emanate. A polymer molecule with a high degree of crosslinking is referred to as a polymer network. IUPAC. "Glossary of Basic Terms in Polymer Science". Pure Appl. Chem. 1996, 68, 2287-2311. Sufficiently high crosslink concentrations may lead to the formation of an infinite network, also known as a gel, in which networks of chains are of unlimited extent — essentially all chains have linked into one molecule. Painter, P and Coleman, M. "Fundamentals of Polymer Science". 1997, 96-100. Chain length The physical properties of a polymer are strongly dependent on the size or length of the polymer chain. Rubinstein, M. and Colby, R. Polymer Physics, Oxford University Press, 2003, p5. . For example, as chain length is increased, melting and boiling temperatures increase quickly. Impact resistance also tends to increase with chain length, as does the viscosity, or resistance to flow, of the polymer in its melt state McCrum, N. G., Buckley, C. P., and Bucknall, C. B., Principles of Polymer Engineering, Oxford Science Publications, 1997, p37. . Chain length is related to melt viscosity roughly as 1:103.2, so that a tenfold increase in polymer chain length results in a viscosity increase of over 1000 times. Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (Tg). This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals attractions and entanglements that come with increased chain length. These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures. A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the degree of polymerization, which quanitifies the number of monomers incorporated into the chain McCrum, N. G., Buckley, C. P., and Bucknall, C. B., Principles of Polymer Engineering, Oxford Science Publications, 1997, p30. Rubinstein, M. and Colby, R., Polymer Physics, Oxford University Press, 2006, p3. . As with other molecules, a polymer's size may also be expressed in terms of molecular weight. Since synthetic polymerization techiniques typically yields a polymer product including a range of molecular weights, the weight is often expressed statistically to describe the distribution of chain lengths present in the same. Common examples are the number average molecular weight and weight average molecular weight McCrum, N. G., Buckley, C. P., and Bucknall, C. B., Principles of Polymer Engineering, Oxford Science Publications, 1997, p33. Rubinstein, M. and Colby, R., Polymer Physics, Oxford University Press, 2006, pp 23-24. . The ratio of these two values is the polydispersity index, commonly used to express the "width" of the molecular weight distribution Painter P. C. and Coleman M. M., Fundamentals of Polymer Science, CRC Press, 1997, p 22. . A final measurement is contour length, which can be understood as the length of the chain backbone in its fully extended state Rubinstein, M. and Colby, R. Polymer Physics, Oxford University Press, 2003, p50. . The flexibility of an unbranched chain polymer is characterized by its persistence length. Monomer arrangement in copolymers Different types of copolymers Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the backbone in a variety of ways. Alternating copolymers possess regularly alternating monomer residues Painter P. C. and Coleman M. M., Fundamentals of Polymer Science, CRC Press, 1997, p 14. (2). Periodic copolymers have monomer residue types arranged in a repeating sequence. . Statistical copolymers have monomer residues arranged according to a known statistical rule. A statistical copolymer in which the probability of finding a particular type of monomer residue at an particular point in the chain is independent of the types of surrounding monomer residue may be referred to as a truly random copolymer Painter P. C. and Coleman M. M., Fundamentals of Polymer Science, CRC Press, 1997, p 15. Sperling L. H. Introduction to Physical Polymer Science, Wiley and Sons, 2006, p47./ (3). Block copolymers have two or more homopolymer subunits linked by covalent bonds (4). Polymers with two or three blocks of two distinct chemical species (e.g., A and B) are called diblock copolymers and triblock copolymers, respectively. Polymers with three blocks, each of a different chemical species (e.g., A, B, and C) are termed triblock terpolymers. Graft or grafted copolymers contain side chains that have a different composition or configuration than the main chain.(5) Tacticity Tacticity describes the relative stereochemistry of chiral centers in neighboring structural units within a macromolecule. There are three types: isotactic (all substituents on the same side), atactic (random placement of substituents), and syndiotactic (alternating placement of substituents). Polymer Morphology Polymer morphology generally describes the arrangement of chains in space and microscopic ordering of many polymer chains. Crystallinity When applied to polymers, the term crystalline has a somewhat ambiguous usage. In some cases, the term crystalline finds identical usage to that used in conventional crystallography. For example, the structure of a crystalline protein or polynucleotide, such as a sample prepared for x-ray crystallography, may be defined in terms of a conventional unit cell composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of hundreds of angstroms or more. A synthetic polymer may be lightly described as crystalline if it contains regions of three-dimensional ordering on atomic (rather than macromolecular) length scales, usually arising from intramolecular folding and/or stacking of adjacent chains. Synthetic polymers may consist of both crystalline and amorphous regions; the degree of crystallinity may be expressed in terms of a weight fraction or volume fraction of crystalline material. Few synthetic polymers are entirely crystalline. The crystallinity of polymers is characterized by their degree of crystallinity, ranging from zero for a completely noncrystalline polymer to one for a theoretical completely crystalline polymer. Increasing degree of crystallinity tends to make a polymer more rigid. It can also lead to greater brittleness. Polymers with a degree of crystallinity approaching zero or one will tend to be transparent, while polymers with intermediate degrees of crystallinity will tend to be opaque due to light scattering by crystalline or glassy regions. Thus for many polymers, reduced crystallinity may also be associated with increased transparency. Chain conformation The space occupied by a polymer molecule is generally expressed in terms of radius of gyration, which is an average distance from the center of mass of the chain to the chain itself. Alternatively, it may be expressed in terms of pervaded volume, which is the volume of solution spanned by the polymer chain and scales with the cube of the radius of gyration. Rubinstein, M and Colby, R. "Polymer Physics". 2003, 13. Mechanical Properties The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest. These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a macroscopic scale. Tensile strength The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material will endure before failing. Ashby, Michael and Jones, David. Engineering Materials. p. 191-195. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinermann, 1996. Ed. 2. Meyers and Chawla. Mechanical Behavior of Materials. pg. 41. Prentice Hall, Inc. 1999. This is very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In general tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and crosslinking of polymer chains. Young's modulus of elasticity Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature. Transport properties Transport properties such as diffusivity relate to how rapidly molecules move through the polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications of polymers for films and membranes. Phase behavior Melting point The term melting point, when applied to polymers, suggests not a solid-liquid phase transition but a transition from a crystalline or semi-crystalline phase to a solid amorphous phase. Though abbreviated as simply Tm, the property in question is more properly called the crystalline melting temperature. Among synthetic polymers, crystalline melting is only discussed with regards to thermoplastics, as thermosetting polymers will decompose at high temperatures rather than melt. Boiling point The boiling point of a polymeric material is strongly dependent on chain length. High polymers with a large degree of polymerization do not exhibit a boiling point because they decompose before reaching theoretical boiling temperatures. For shorter oligomers, a boiling transition may be observed and will generally increase rapidly as chain length is increased. Glass transition temperature A parameter of particular interest in synthetic polymer manufacturing is the glass transition temperature (Tg), which describes the temperature at which amorphous polymers undergo a second-order phase transition from a rubbery, viscous amorphous solid, or from a crystalline solid (depending on the degree of crystallization) to a brittle, glassy amorphous solid. The glass transition temperature may be engineered by altering the degree of branching or crosslinking in the polymer or by the addition of plasticizer. Brandrup, J.; Immergut, E.H.; Grulke, E.A.; eds Polymer Handbook 4th Ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1999. Mixing behavior In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small molecule materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for mixing is usually entropy, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible materials usually form a solution not because their interaction with each other is more favorable than their self-interaction, but because of an increase in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing the amount of volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with the number of particles (or moles) being mixed. Since polymeric molecules are much larger and hence generally have much higher specific volumes than small molecules, the number of molecules involved in a polymeric mixture are far less than the number in a small molecule mixture of equal volume. The energetics of mixing, on the other hand, are comparable on a per volume basis for polymeric and small molecule mixtures. This tends to increase the free energy of mixing for polymer solutions and thus make solvation less favorable. Thus, concentrated solutions of polymers are far rarer than those of small molecules. In dilute solution, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the interaction between the solvent and the polymer. In a good solvent, the polymer appears swollen and occupies a large volume. In this scenario, intermolecular forces between the solvent and monomer subunits dominate over intramolecular interactions. In a bad solvent or poor solvent, intramolecular forces dominate and the chain contracts. In the theta solvent, or the state of the polymer solution where the value of the second virial coefficient becomes 0, the intermolecular polymer-solvent repulsion balances exactly the intramolecular monomer-monomer attraction. Under the theta condition (also called the Flory condition), the polymer behaves like an ideal random coil. Inclusion of plasticizers Inclusion of plasticizers tends to lower Tg and increase polymer flexibility. Plasticizers are generally small molecules that are chemically similar to the polymer and create gaps between polymer chains for greater mobility and reduced interchain interactions. A good example of the action of plasticizers is related to polyvinylchlorides or PVCs. A uPVC, or unplasticized polyvinylchloride, is used for things such as pipes. A pipe has no plasticizers in it, because it needs to remain strong and heat-resistant. Plasticized PVC is used for clothing for a flexible quality. Plasticizers are also put in some types of cling film to make the polymer more flexible. Chemical properties The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining a polymer's properties. Because polymer chains are so long, these interchain forces are amplified far beyond the attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystaline melting points. The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units. Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding, so a polyester's melting point and strength are lower than Kevlar's (Twaron), but polyesters have greater flexibility. Ethene, however, has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between polyethylene chains arise from weak van der Waals forces. Molecules can be thought of as being surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two polymer chains approach, their electron clouds repel one another. This has the effect of lowering the electron density on one side of a polymer chain, creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract the second polymer chain. Van der Waals forces are quite weak, however, so polyethene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other polymers. Standardized polymer nomenclature There are multiple conventions for naming polymer substances. Many commonly used polymers, such as those found in consumer products, are referred to by a common or trivial name. The trivial name is assigned based on historical precedent or popular usage rather than a standardized naming convention. Both the American Chemical Society CAS: Index Guide, Appendix IV (© 1998). and IUPAC IUPAC. "Nomenclature of Regular Single-Strand Organic Polymers". Pure Appl. Chem. 1976, 48, 373-385. have proposed standardized naming conventions; the ACS and IUPAC conventions are similar but not identical. Examples of the differences between the various naming conventions are given in the table below: Common Name ACS Name IUPAC Name Poly (ethylene oxide) or (PEO) poly(oxyethylene) poly(oxyethene) Poly (ethylene terephthalate) or (PET) poly (oxy-1,2-ethanediyloxycarbonyl -1,4-phenylenecarbonyl) poly (oxyetheneoxyterephth= aloyl) Nylon poly[amino(1-oxo-1,6-hexanediyl)] poly[amino(1-oxohexan-1,6-diyl)] In both standardized conventions, the polymers' names are intended to reflect the monomer(s) from which they are synthesized rather than the precise nature of the repeating subunit. For example, the polymer synthesized from the simple alkene ethene is called polyethylene, retaining the -ene suffix even though the double bond is removed during the polymerization process: Image:Ethene polymerization.png Image:polyethene monomer.png Polymer characterization The characterization of a polymer requires several parameters which need to be specified. This is because a polymer actually consists of a statistical distribution of chains of varying lengths, and each chain consists of monomer residues which affect its properties. A variety of lab techniques are used to determine the properties of polymers. Techniques such as wide angle X-ray scattering, small angle X-ray scattering, and small angle neutron scattering are used to determine the crystalline structure of polymers. Gel permeation chromatography is used to determine the number average molecular weight, weight average molecular weight, and polydispersity. FTIR, Raman and NMR can be used to determine composition. Thermal properties such as the glass transition temperature and melting point can be determined by differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis. Pyrolysis followed by analysis of the fragments is one more technique for determining the possible structure of the polymer. Thermogravimetry is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal stability of the polymer. Detailed analyses of TG curves also allow us to know a bit of the phase segregation in polymers. Rheological properties are also commonly used to help determine molecular architecture (molecular weight, molecular weight distribution and branching)as well as to understand how the polymer will process, through measurements of the polymer in the melt phase. Another Polymer characterization technique is Automatic Continuous Online Monitoring of Polymerization Reactions (ACOMP) which provides real-time characterization of polymerization reactions. It can be used as an analytical method in R&D, as a tool for reaction optimization at the bench and pilot plant level and, eventually, for feedback control of full-scale reactors. ACOMP measures in a model-independent fashion the evolution of average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, monomer conversion kinetics and, in the case of copolymers, also the average composition drift and distribution. It is applicable in the areas of free radical and controlled radical homo- and copolymerization, polyelectrolyte synthesis,heterogeneous phase reactions, including emulsion polymerization, adaptation to batch and continuous reactors, and modifications of polymers. US patent 6052184 and US Patent 6653150, other patents pending F. H. Florenzano; R. Strelitzki; W. F. Reed, “Absolute, Online Monitoring of Polymerization Reactions”, Macromolecules 1998, 31(21), 7226-7238. A. M. Alb; M. F. Drenski; W. F. Reed, “ Implications to Industry: Perspective. Automatic continuous online monitoring of polymerization reactions (ACOMP)”, Polymer International 2008, 57, 390-396. Polymer degradation A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration, swollen dimensions, and tiny splits running through the material Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, colour, shape, etc.—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some cases, galvanic action. It is often due to the hydrolysis of the bonds connecting the polymer chain, which in turn leads to a decrease in the molecular mass of the polymer. These changes may be undesirable, such as changes during use, or desirable, as in biodegradation or deliberately lowering the molecular mass of a polymer. Such changes occur primarily because of the effect of these factors on the chemical composition of the polymer. Ozone cracking and UV degradation are specific failure modes for certain polymers. A recent finding is that polymer degradation may occur through galvanic action. In 1990, Michael Faudree discovered that imide-linked resins in CFRP (carbon fiber reinforced polymers) composites degrade when bare composite is coupled with an active metal in saline, i.e. salt water environments. M.C. Faudree, Relationship of Graphite/Polyimide Composites to Galvanic Processes, Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering (SAMPE) Journal, vol. 2, pp. 1288-1301 (1991) Polymers affected include bismaleimides (BMI), condensation polyimides, triazines, and blends thereof. Degradation occurs in the form of dissolved resin and loose fibers. Hydroxyl ions are generated at the graphite cathode attacking the O-C-N bond in the polyimide structure. This phenomenon, that polymers can undergo galvanic corrosion like metals do has been referred to as the “Faudree Effect”. Standard corrosion protection procedures were found to prevent polymer degradation under most conditions. The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may proceed by random scission or specific scission. The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scission—a random breakage of the linkages (bonds) that hold the atoms of the polymer together. When heated above 450 °C it degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. Other polymers—like polyalphamethylstyrene—undergo specific chain scission with breakage occurring only at the ends. They literally unzip or depolymerize to become the constituent monomer. However, the degradation process can be useful from the viewpoints of understanding the structure of a polymer or recycling/reusing the polymer waste to prevent or reduce environmental pollution. Polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid, for example, are two polymers that are useful for their ability to degrade under aqueous conditions. A copolymer of these polymers is used for biomedical applications, such as hydrolysable stitches that degrade over time after they are applied to a wound. These materials can also be used for plastics that will degrade over time after they are used and will therefore not remain as litter. Product failure Chlorine attack of acetal resin plumbing joint In a finished product, such a change is to be prevented or delayed. Failure of safety-critical polymer components can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case of cracked and degraded polymer fuel lines. Chlorine-induced cracking of acetal resin plumbing joints and polybutylene pipes has caused many serious floods in domestic properties, especially in the USA in the 1990s. Traces of chlorine in the water supply attacked vulnerable polymers in the plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if any of the parts have been poorly extruded or injection moulded. Attack of the acetal joint occurred because of faulty moulding leading to cracking along the threads of the fitting, which are serious stress concentrations. Ozone cracking in natural rubber tubing Polymer oxidation has caused accidents involving medical devices. One of the oldest known failure modes is ozone cracking caused by chain scission when ozone gas attacks susceptible elastomers such as natural rubber and nitrile rubber. They possess double bonds in their repeat units which are cleaved during ozonolysis. Cracks in fuel lines can penetrate the bore of the tube and cause fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine compartment, electric sparks can ignite the gasoline and can cause a serious fire. Fuel lines can also be attacked by another form of degradation: hydrolysis. Nylon 6,6 is susceptible to acid hydrolysis, and in one accident, a fractured fuel line led to a spillage of diesel into the road. If diesel fuel leaks onto the road, accidents to following cars can be caused by the slippery nature of the deposit, which is like black ice. References Bibliography Allcock, Harry R.; Lampe, Frederick W.; and Mark, James E. Contemporary Polymer Chemistry, Pearson Education, 3rd edition (2003). Cowie, J.M.G. Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials, Blackie (in USA: Chapman and Hall), 2nd edition (1991). Ezrin, Meyer. Plastics Failure Guide: Cause and Prevention, Hanser-SPE (1996). Lewis, Peter Rhys; Reynolds, K.; and Gagg, C. Forensic Materials Engineering: Case studies, CRC Press (2004). Wright, David C. Environmental Stress Cracking of Plastics'', RAPRA (2001). See also External links Polymer Chemistry Hypertext, Educational resource The Macrogalleria - a cyberwonderland of polymer fun! Application notes on the characterization of polymers Distance learning course in polymers Polymer Structures Glossary of Polymer Abbreviations Sigma-Aldrich Polymer Glossary | Polymer |@lemmatized appearance:1 real:2 linear:3 polymer:220 chain:75 record:1 use:24 atomic:2 force:14 microscope:1 surface:1 liquid:3 medium:1 contour:2 length:19 nm:2 thickness:1 roiter:1 minko:1 afm:1 single:5 molecule:24 experiment:1 solid:6 interface:1 situ:1 conformation:2 adsorbed:1 flexible:5 polyelectrolyte:3 journal:2 american:2 chemical:15 society:3 vol:2 pp:3 greek:2 πολύ:1 ς:1 po:1 li:1 much:4 many:10 μέρος:2 meros:2 part:4 large:6 macromolecule:3 compose:6 repeat:11 structural:4 unit:15 typically:3 connect:2 covalent:6 bond:17 popular:2 usage:4 suggest:3 plastic:8 term:13 actually:3 refer:5 class:3 natural:11 synthetic:19 material:20 variety:8 property:32 due:6 extraordinary:1 range:6 accessible:1 polymeric:7 painter:5 p:13 c:21 coleman:5 fundamental:5 science:17 introductory:1 text:1 crc:5 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1,833 | Karl_Ernst_von_Baer | Karl Ernst von Baer Karl Ernst von Baer ( – ) was a Baltic German biologist and a founding father of embryology. Statue of Karl Ernst von Baer on Toome Hill, Tartu. As a tradition, students wash the head of statue with champagne every Walpurgis Night Kõik algab munast . Life Karl Ernst von Baer was born in Piibe manor (), now in Rakke, Lääne-Viru, Estonia; many of his ancestors had come from Westphalia. A knight by birthright, his full name was Karl Ernst Ritter von Baer, Edler von Huthorn. He was educated at the Cathedral School in Reval (Tallinn) and the University of Dorpat (Tartu). He continued his education in Berlin, Vienna, and Würzburg where Döllinger introduced him to the new field of embryology. In 1812, Baer was a volunteer in the war against Napoleon's invasion, serving as doctor. In 1817, he became a professor at Königsberg University (Kaliningrad) and full professor of zoology in 1821, and of anatomy in 1826. In 1829 he taught briefly in St Petersburg, but returned to Königsberg. In 1834 Baer moved back to St Petersburg and joined the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, first in zoology (1834–46) and then in comparative anatomy and physiology (1846–62). His interests while there were anatomy, ichthyology, ethnography, anthropology and geography. The last years of his life (1867–76) were spent in Dorpat (Tartu), where he became one of the leading critics of the theories of Charles Darwin. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1850. A statue honouring him can be found on Toome Hill (Toomemägi) in Tartu. The two kroons (2 krooni) Estonian banknote bears his portrait. Contributions Embryology Karl Ernst von Baer. He studied the embryonal development of animals, discovering the blastula stage of development and the notochord. Together with Heinz Christian Pander and based on the work by Caspar Friedrich Wolff he described the germ layer theory of development (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) as a principle in a variety of species laying the foundation for comparative embryology in the book Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere (1828). In 1826 Baer discovered the mammalian ovum. The first human ovum was described by Allen in 1928.(1) In 1827 he completed research "Ovi Mammalium et Hominis genesi" for Saint-Petersburg's Academy of Science (published at Leipzig) and established that mammals develop from eggs. Baer's laws (embryology) He formulated what would later be called Baer's laws of embryology: General characteristics of the group to which an embryo belongs develop before special characteristics. General structural relations are likewise formed before the most specific appear. The form of any given embryo does not converge upon other definite forms but, on the contrary, separates itself from them. Fundamentally, the embryo of a higher animal form never resembles the adult of another animal form, such as one less evolved, but only its embryo. In old age further more questions i look and act like a dick mutherfuccer Baer's law (geology) The term Baer's law also refers to the proposition that in the northern hemisphere, erosion occurs mostly on the right banks of rivers, and in the southern hemisphere on the left banks. Explorer Baer was interested in the Northern part of Russia and explored Novaya Zemlya in 1837 collecting biologic specimen. Other travels led him to the Caspian Sea, the North Cape, and Lapland. He was a founder and the first president of the Russian Geographical Society. Entomology Baer contributed to studies in entomology and was a cofounder of the Russian Entomological Society. Meteorology Baer Island in the Kara Sea was named after Karl Ernst von Baer for his important contributions to the research of Arctic meteorology between 1830 and 1840. http://www.meteohistory.org/2004polling_preprints/docs/abstracts/tammiksaar_abstract.pdf Subjective biology Baer was a pioneer in studying biological time — the perception of time in different organisms. This approach was further developed by Jakob von Uexküll. References Wood C, Trounson A. Clinical In Vitro Fertilization. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1984, Page 6. Medical eponyms Baer, K E v. "Über ein allgemeines Gesetz in der Gestaltung der Flußbetten", Kaspische Studien, 1860, VIII, S. 1–6. External links Short biography, bibliography, and links on digitized sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Overview of Piibe (Piep) manor in Estonian Manors Portal (with a picture of a memorial stone) Short biography of K.E.v.Baer Estonian banknotes NNDB Profile of K.E.v.Baer Further reading Baer's works Karl Ernst von Baer, Grigoriĭ Petrovich Gelʹmersen. "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches und der angränzenden Länder Asiens". Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1839. 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1,834 | Anal_sex | Anal sex most often refers to the sex act involving insertion of the penis into the anus. WordNet Search - 3.0 The term anal sex can also sometimes include other sexual acts involving the anus, including but not limited to anilingus and fingering. It is a form of sexual behavior considered to be comparatively high in risk, due to the vulnerability of the tissues and the septic nature of the anus. "Most of the time, condoms work well. However, condoms are more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex. Thus, even with a condom, anal sex can be risky. A person should use generous amounts of water-based lubricant in addition to the condom to reduce the chances of the condom breaking." Center for Disease Control; "Can I get HIV from anal sex?" As the rectal mucosa provides little natural lubrication, a personal lubricant is most often required or preferred when penetrating the anus. Heterosexual Print, Paul Avril At the present time in Western countries anal sex is becoming an increasingly popular form of intercourse between men and women. One reason is that there is very low risk of unwanted pregnancy via unprotected anal intercourse. Also, anal sex is sometimes seen as preserving female virginity because it leaves the hymen intact. Another reason is that the anus is considered to yield more tactile pleasure for the penis, being tighter than the vagina. Anal Sex For Beginners The growing popularity of the practice, however, is claimed to be taking place in a climate of reduced sex education and fewer educational media outlets, leading to a lowered awareness of the health risks involved. For example, the risk of injury during intercourse is many times higher than that during vaginal sex. Deborah Dortzbach, W. Meredith Long, The AIDS Crisis; p.97 As a result, according to Judy Kuriansky, of Columbia University, "anal sex is a serious public problem." Susan Donaldson James, "Study Reports Anal Sex on Rise Among Teens - Lack of Sex Education, Virginity Pledges, Ignorance Contribute to Risky Behavior" ""We are more open, but there's less information," [Judy] Kuriansky said. "There are real myths and real efforts to be cool and people running around saying how great it is. But it's not just rubbing elbows," she said. "Anal sex is a serious public problem". Anal sex and female virginity Though more often applied to first penetration, the concept of "technical virginity" is sometimes conceived as resting solely on vaginal penetration. Pegging A woman using a strap-on dildo to anally penetrate a man is referred to as pegging. Savage Love Female-to-Male strap-on sex naming contest, origin of the word Pegging, retrieved May 4, 2007 Due to the proximity of the prostate gland to the rectum, it has been suggested that males may achieve greater satisfaction in this manner than females. askmen.com Prevalence The US Center for Disease Control determined, in a 2005 survey, that the incidence of anal relations in the US heterosexual population is on the increase. The survey showed that 40 percent of men and 35 percent of women between 25 and 44 had engaged in heterosexual anal sex; in 1992 a similar survey found that only 25.6 percent of men 18 to 59 and 20.4 percent of women 18 to 59 had. 2006 survey of sexual behavior from the CDC. By way of comparison, seven times as many women as gay men engage in anal intercourse, a figure reflecting the greater overall heterosexual population." Anne-Christine d'Adesky, Expanding Microbicide Research in amfAR Global Link - Treatment Insider; May 2004 Another survey in 2008 indicates that anal sex is on the rise amongst young people; the survey which focused on a much younger demographic of teens and young adults aged 15–21 found that 16 percent of 1350 surveyed had had anal sex in the previous 3 months, with condoms being used 29% of the time. However, given the subject matter the survey hypothesized that that figure was probably underestimated. Figures for prevalence can vary amongst different demographics, regions, and nationalities. A 2001 French survey of five hundred female respondents concluded that a total of 29% had practiced anal sex, though only one third of these claimed to have enjoyed the experience. Survey carried out by TNS/Sofres in a representative sample of 500 women from 18 to 65 years of age, in April and May, 2002. In contrast, in a 1999 South Korean survey of 586 women, only 3.5% of respondents reported having had anal sex. Figures for the prevalence of sexual behavior can also fluctuate over time. Edward O. Laumann's 1992 survey, reported in The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States found that about 20% of heterosexuals have engaged in anal sex. Sex researcher Alfred Kinsey, working in the 1940s, had found that number to be closer to 40% at the time. More recently, a researcher from the University of British Columbia in 2005 put the number of heterosexuals who have practiced anal sex at between 30% and 50%. According to Columbia University's health website, Go Ask Alice!: "Studies indicate that about 25 percent of heterosexual couples have had anal sex at least once, and 10 percent regularly have anal penetration." Not all gay men have anal sex Originally Published: May 10, 1996 ~ Last Updated / Reviewed on: October 14, 2005 Homosexual 19th-century erotic interpretation of Hadrian and Antinous, by Paul Avril Historically, anal sex has been popularly associated with male homosexuality and men who have sex with men (MSM). However, many MSM do not engage in anal sex, and some groups such as frot advocacy groups actively denounce anal sex as degrading toward the receptive partner and an unnecessary health risk The man2man allicance frot, an anus is not a vagina . This viewpoint cites the increased HIV risk and physiological differences of the anus from the vagina. Among MSM who do have anal sex, the insertive partner is referred to as the top or active partner. The man being penetrated is referred to as the bottom or passive partner. Preference for either is referred to as versatile. Prostate stimulation In the receiving partner, being penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. Penetration can be painful if the bottom partner's anus is not properly lubricated. The prostate gland (also known as the "male G-spot" or "A-spot") can be stimulated during anal intercourse. The A-Spot, Talk Sex with Sue Johansen, 2005, retrieved 2007-04-29 Stimulation of the prostate gland can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to a distinct type of orgasm in some cases. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed The G Spot: And Other Discoveries About Human Sexuality by Alice Kahn Ladas, Beverly Whipple, and John D. Perry, pg 57. male homologue to the Skene's glands, which are believed to be connected to the female "G-spot". Bigger is better when it comes to the G spot, Nicola Jones, NewScientist.com, July 2002, retrieved 2007-04-29 The Skene's glands are sometimes referred to as the "female prostate"; they are located around the urethra and can be felt through the wall of the vagina. Prevalence While at the present time it is reported more frequently among same-sex couples, according to Dr. John Dean and Dr. David Delvin, "in absolute numbers, it is hypothesized that more heterosexual couples have anal sex than homosexual couples". " There is a common misconception that anal sex is practised almost exclusively by gay men. This is certainly not the case. It is thought that an estimated one third of gay couples do not include anal intercourse in their lovemaking. About one third of heterosexual couples try it from time to time. It is thought that about 10 per cent of heterosexual couples have anal intercourse as a regular feature of their lovemaking. In absolute numbers, it is hypothesized that more heterosexual couples have anal sex than homosexual couples. The prevalence of anal sex among homosexual couples in the West has varied over time. Magnus Hirschfeld, in his 1914 magnum opus, The Homosexuality of Men and Women reports the rate of anal sex among homosexual men surveyed to be 8%, the least favored of all the practices documented. William A. Percy and John Lauritsen, Review in The Gay & Lesbian Review, November-December 2002 By the 1950s in the United Kingdom, it was thought that about fifteen percent of male homosexuals practiced the method. H. Montgomery Hyde, The Love That Dared not Speak its Name; pp.6-7 The Gay Urban Men's Study (P.I. Stall, UCSF) and the Young Men's Study (YMS, PI Osmond/Catania, UCSF), indicate that 50% of men surveyed engage in anal sex. The Laumann study claims that 80% of gay men practice it, while the remaining 20% never engage in it at all. A survey conducted from 1994 to 1997 in San Francisco by the Stop AIDS Project indicated that over the course of the study, among men who have sex with men, the proportion engaging in anal sex increased from 57.6% to 61.2%. Center for Disease Control, Increases in Unsafe Sex and Rectal Gonorrhea Among Men Who Have Sex With Men -- San Francisco, California, 1994-1997, retrieved 2007-04-29 Health risks Mucous membranes of the rectum Anal sex exposes participants to two principal dangers: infections, due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and the rectum due to their vulnerability. Recent reports have documented that risky behavior is on the rise among men who have sex with men. Likewise, among men who have sex with women, a 1992 study of socially and sexually active Puerto Rican men indicated that of the more than 40% who reported having anal sex with women, very few had used condoms. Crandon JE. Int Conf AIDS. 1992 Jul 19-24; 8: D527 (abstract no. PoD 5830) Hertford College, Oxford University, UK; "A study concerning HIV related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours in a sample of Puerto Rican men and its relevance to AIDS education, prevention and outreach in San Juan, Puerto Rico." Accessed 9/27/2007 Among gay men, anal sex without the use of a condom is referred to as barebacking. HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases Among the diseases with which anal sex is associated are HIV, What are the Dangers of Anal Sex?, SexInfo, University of California at Santa Barbara, retrieved 2007-04-29 human papilloma virus (HPV) (which can increase risk for anal cancer) Anal Cancer in Gay & Bisexual Men, LGBTHealthChannel, retrieved 2007-04-29 typhoid fever Sexual Transmission of Typhoid Fever: A Multistate Outbreak among Men Who Have Sex with Men, Reller, Megan E. et al., Clinical Infectious Diseases, volume 37 (2003), pages 141 – 144, retrieved 2007-04-29 and various diseases associated with the infectious nature of fecal matter or sexual intercourse in general. Among these are: amoebiasis; chlamydia; cryptosporidiosis; E. coli infections; giardiasis; gonorrhea; hepatitis A; hepatitis B; hepatitis C; herpes simplex; human papillomavirus; Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8) John Pauk, M.D., M.P.H., Meei-Li Huang, Ph.D., et al., "Mucosal Shedding of Human Herpesvirus 8 in Men" New England Journal of Medicine 343 19: 1369 - 1377 ; lymphogranuloma venereum; pubic lice; salmonellosis; shigella; syphilis; tuberculosis. Anal Health, Sexual Health Channel, retrieved 2007-04-29 Diseases From Anal Sex Harold Oster, MD, iVillage, retrieved 2007-04-29 Tuberculosis, The Mayo Clinic, retrieved 2007-04-29 The high concentration of white blood cells around the rectum, together with the risk of cuts to the rectum and that one of the functions of the rectum is to absorb fluid, increases the risk of HIV transmission because the HIV retrovirus reproduces within the immune system's T-cells/CD4 cells. Use of condoms and other precautions are a medically recommended way to lessen risk of infections. Unprotected receptive anal sex is the most risky sexual behavior in terms of HIV transmission. High-Risk Sexual Behavior by HIV-Positive Men Who Have Sex with Men --- 16 Sites, United States, 2000--2002, MMWR Weekly, October 1, 2004 / 53(38);891-894, retrieved 2007-04-29 "Am I at Risk for HIV Infection?" Mark Cichocki, About:HIV/AIDS, retrieved 2007-04-29 The truth about barebacking Dr. Jeffrey Klausner, PlanetOut, retrieved 2007-04-29 Increased risk of anal cancer due to HPV Most cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus. The incidence of the disease has jumped 160% in men and 78% in women in the last thirty years, according to a 2004 American study. The increase is attributed to changing trends in sexual behavior and tobacco use. Current use of tobacco increased the incidence of anal cancer fourfold, while a history of multiple sex partners (fifteen or more) or receptive anal sex increased the incidence sevenfold. Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Changing Trends in Sexual Behavior May Explain Rising Incidence of Anal Cancer Among American Men and Women, retrieved 2007-09-23 Physical damage Physical damage to the rectum and anus can manifest as generalized ano-rectal trauma, hemorrhoids, anal fissures, and rectal prolapse. An insufficient amount of lubricant can make it especially painful or injurious. Importance of Foreplay dudeman41465, The Sexuality Guide November 3, 2005, retrieved 2007-04-29 Damage is more likely if intercourse is forcible or aggressive, if alcohol or other drugs have dulled sensitivity, if communication is poor, or if technique is clumsy. Anal incontinence Loss of control over the bowels, though rare according to some, is thought to be a valid concern The Hot Guide to Safer Sex By Yvonne K. Fulbright p.208 and is reported to be caused by repeated injury, or by the insertion of large objects, " Although the threat of fecal incontinence from anal sex is small, it can occur from repeated injury to the internal sphincter." Duke University Student Health Center website or simply by regular anal sex, which "leads to internal sphincter dilation and soiling." The ASCRS Textbook of Colon and Rectal Surgery By Bruce G. Wolff, James W. Fleshman, J.M. Church, p.654; Springer, New York. 2007 A 1993 study published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine found that fourteen out of a sample of forty men receiving anal intercourse experienced episodes of frequent anal incontinence. Effect of anoreceptive intercourse on anorectal function AJ Miles, TG Allen-Mersh and C Wastell, Department of Surgery, Westminster Hospital, London; in Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine Vol 86, Issue 3 144-147; 1993, retrieved 2007-04-29 However, a 1997 study published in the American Journal of Gastroenterology found no difference in levels of incontinence between homosexual men who engaged in anal sex and heterosexual men who did not, and criticised the earlier study for its inclusion of flatulence in its definition of incontinence. Chun AB, Rose S, Mitrani C, Silvestre AJ, Wald A: Anal sphincter structure and function in homosexual males engaging in anal receptive intercourse. Amer J of Gastroenterology 92:465-468, 1997 Dr. Jack Morin recommended kegel exercises to prevent loss of muscle tone from anal fisting or insertion of large objects in a presentation of clinical aspects of anal sexuality, delivered at the 1998 joint conference of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality and the American Association of Sex Educators. He added, however, that he had never personally observed "loosening" in any of his patients Jack Morin Transcript . Cultural issues A shunga print depicting a man and a youth Historically, a number of cultures have recorded the practice of anal intercourse between men. The males who participated in such relationships often did not do so exclusively, as participation in these relationships between men did not preclude sex with women. Such relations have also been documented as taking place in houses of prostitution, which provided youths or young men. Ancient and non-Western cultures The term "Greek love" has long been used to refer to the practice, and in modern times, "doing it the Greek way" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. However, homosexual anal sex was far from a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece. It was the target of jokes in surviving comedies; Aristophanes mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming that "Most citizens are europroktoi (wide-arsed) now." The Eleven ComediesAristophanes et al., Part 7 out of 8, retrieved While pedagogic pederasty was an essential element in the education of male youths, these relationships, at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to steer clear of penetrative sex of any kind. There are very few works of pottery or other art that display anal sex between older men and boys, let alone with adult men. Most such works depict fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating and feminizing the boys. Other sources make it clear that the practice was criticized as shameful, Aesop, "Zeus and Shame" (Perry 109, Chambry 118, Gibbs 528), in Fables and seen as a form of hubris. David Cohen, "Sexuality, Violence, and the Athenian Law of Hubris" Greece and Rome; V.38.2 pp171-188 Two Roman males in a lupanar; Warren Cup, British Museum In later Roman age Greek poetry, anal sex became a common topos, represented as taking place with "eligible" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing children into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced heterosexual anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy. James E. Miller, "The Practices of Romans 1:26: Homosexual or Heterosexual?" Novum Testamentum 37 1 (1995): 9. "Heterosexual anal intercourse is best illustrated in Classical vase paintings of hetaerae with their clients, and some scholars interpret this as a form of contraception." The acceptability of anal sex thus varied with the time-period and the location, as Ancient Greece spanned a long time and stretched over three continents and two major seas. For a male citizen to take the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse was condemned in Rome as an act of impudicitia (immodesty or unchastity). Free men, however, frequently took the active role with a young slave, known as a catamite or puer delicatus. In fact the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically "Greek," although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others in this way. Quignard, Pascal (1996) Le Sexe et l'effroi In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that at least some men in relationships with other men did engage in penetrative anal intercourse. Man and woman having anal sex. Ceramic, Moche Culture. 300 A.D. Larco Museum Collection Evidence suggestive of widespread heterosexual anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey Rafael Larco Hoyle and Dr. Francisco Guerra, quoted in Tannahill, Reay (1992) Sex in History, p. 297-298 of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted heterosexual anal intercourse, more by far than any other sex act. Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Thus the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an Erotic Gallery in which this pottery is showcased. The 19th century anthropologist Richard Francis Burton has theorized that there is a geographical Sotadic zone wherein penetrative intercourse between men is particularly prevalent and accepted; moreover he was one of the first writers to advance the premise that such an orientation is biologically determined. Western cultures In many Western countries, anal sex has generally been taboo since the Middle Ages when heretical movements were sometimes attacked by accusations that their members practised anal sex among themselves. At that time the mainstream Christian clergy was not celibate, but the highest orders of some heretical sects were, leading to rumours that their celibacy was a sign of their attraction to members of the same sex. The term buggery originated in medieval Europe as an insult used to describe the rumoured same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from a sect originating in Bulgaria, where its followers were called bogomils; when they spread out of the country they were called buggres (from the ethnonym Bulgars). Another term for the practice, more archaic, is "pedicate" from the Latin pedicare, with the same meaning. "I have derived the word pedicate from the Latin paedicare or pedicare, meaning "to penetrate anally." in "The Warren Cup: homoerotic love and symposial rhetoric in silver," Note 6;The Art Bulletin, March, 1999 by John Pollini The Renaissance poet Pietro Aretino advocated the practice in his Sonetti Lussuriosi (Lust Sonnets). While men who engaged in homosexual relationships were generally suspected of engaging in anal sex, many such individuals did not. Among these, in recent times, have been André Gide, who found it repulsive Love's Litany By Kevin Kopelson p.62 ; and Noel Coward, who had a horror of disease, and asserted when young that "I'd never do anything - well the disgusting thing they do - because I know I could get something wrong with me." Philip Hoare, Noel Coward: A Biography p.18 In different religions François-Rolland Elluin, Sodomites provoking divine wrath, from Le pot-pourri (1781) This prohibition of the Abrahamic religions against anal sex has been promulgated under the rubric of "sodomy," which includes various other transgressions of a sexual nature, whether with men, women or animals. This idea is vividly brought to life in the popular interpretation of the story of Sodom, where the people were prone to sexual immorality, and as a result were destroyed. There are conflicting views as to why Sodom was destroyed. Judaism In Judaism heterosexual anal sex is permitted (though not necessarily desirable), provided it should not regularly involve ejaculation outside the vagina. http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/sex.htm Orthodox Judaism teaches that homosexual anal sex is a sin and an abomination. This teaching is from the Biblical passages of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. The injunction "Do not lie with a man the lyings of a woman; it is abhorrent" has led rabbinical scholars to conclude "these verses prohibit anal sex between men without any exception". The Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist branches of Judaism are accepting of homosexuality, but less so of sodomy. Christianity In Christian countries it has often been referred to euphemistically as the peccatum contra naturam (the sin against nature, after Thomas Aquinas) or Sodomitica luxuria (sodomitical lusts, in one of Charlemagne's ordinances), or peccatum illud horribile, inter christianos non nominandum (that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named). Christian religions disapprove of anal sex, although the degree of disapprobation varies greatly between denominations. Islam Liwat, or the sin of Lot's people, is officially prohibited by most Islamic sects. There are parts of the Qur'an which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to unnatural sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. Practitioners of anal relations are called luti and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal, meaning that they are giving in to a universal temptation. Liwat with a woman is known as lesser liwat and with a man as greater liwat. Anwar, Ghazala. 2001. "Islam, Homosexuality and Migration". Foundation Conference on Islam in the West and Homosexuality. "Some scholars refer back to the Shari’ah rules ... argue that anal sex between men, as considered equivalent to heterosexual intercourse, is punishable by one hundred whiplashes for an unmarried man and death by stoning for a married man. Other traditional scholars have ruled that “sodomy” between men is always punishable by death for both partners, whether married or not, based on a hadith. The punishment of toppling a wall on two men who practised “sodomy,” which is sometimes reported, particularly in Afghanistan, is based on another hadith." Buddhism There is no explicit prohibition against anal sex in Buddhist teachings. The Buddha left very few absolute prohibitions against specific human conduct and principally encouraged the repetition of right action as a way to enlightenment and the gaining of positive karma. See also Anal-oral contact Anal beads Anal fingering Anal fisting Anal masturbation Anal orgasm Ass to mouth, (ATM or A2M) Butt plug Coprophilia Erogenous zone Fifth base Klismaphilia List of anal sex positions Sodomy law References Further reading Bentley, Toni The Surrender: An Erotic Memoir, Regan Books, 2004. Brent, Bill Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Men, Cleis Press, 2002. Hite, Shere The Hite Report on Male Sexuality Houser, Ward Anal Sex. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48–50. Manning, Lee The Illustrated Book Of Anal Sex, Erotic Print Society, 2003. ISBN 9781898998594 Morin, Jack Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women, Down There Press, 1998. ISBN 9780940208209 Sanderson, Terry The Gay Man's Kama Sutra, Thomas Dunne Books, 2004. Strong, Bill with Lori E. Gammon Anal Sex for Couples: A Guaranteed Guide for Painless Pleasure Triad Press, Inc.; First edition, 2006. ISBN 9780965071628 Tristan Taormino The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women, Cleis Press, 1997, 2006. ISBN 9781573440288 Underwood, Steven G. Gay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles, Harrington Park Press, 2003 Webb, Charlotte Masterclass: Anal Sex, Erotic Print Society, 2007. 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1,835 | Harpsichord | A harpsichord is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard. It produces sound by plucking a string when each key is pressed. Also in the harpsichord family are the smaller virginals, the muselar (also muselaar) virginals and the spinet (but not the clavichord or piano which are hammered instruments). The harpsichord was widely used in baroque music. It became less popular following the invention of the piano, but its distinctive sound is still used in contemporary music. The heimishe harpsichord is used in the synagogue for Jewish madrigals. Mechanism Harpsichords vary in size and shape, but they all have the same basic functional arrangement. The player depresses a key pivoted in the middle of its length, which causes the far end of the key to rise. This lifts a jack, a long strip of wood, to which is attached a small plectrum (a wedge-shaped piece of quill or, nowadays plastic), which plucks the string. When the key is released by the player, the far end returns to its rest position and the jack falls back. The plectrum, mounted on a tongue that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again. As the key reaches its rest position, the string's vibrations are halted by the damper, a piece of felt attached to the top of the jack. These basic principles are explained in more detail below. Figure 1. Schematic view of a 2 × 8' single manual harpsichord The keylever is a simple pivot, which rocks on a balance pin passing through a hole drilled through it. The jack is a thin, rectangular piece of wood which sits upright on the end of the keylever, held in place by the registers (the upper movable, the lower fixed) which are two long strips of wood running in the gap from spine to cheek with rectangular mortises through which the jacks can move up and down.Figure 2. Upper part of a jack In the jack, a plectrum juts out almost horizontally (normally the plectrum is angled upwards a tiny amount) and passes just under the string. Historically, plectra were normally made of crow quill or leather; most modern harpsichords based on historic instruments have plastic (delrin or celcon) quills. When the front of the key is pressed, the back of the key rises, the jack is lifted, and the plectrum plucks the string.Figure 3. When the key is pressed, the jack is raised, and the plectrum touches the string and begins to bend. Then the plectrum plucks the string and causes it to sound. The jack hits the jack rail. When the player's hand is released from the key, the jack falls back down under its own weight, and the plectrum pivots backwards to allow it to pass the string. When the key is lowered, the jack falls back down under its own weight, and the plectrum pivots backwards to allow it to pass the string. This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue which is attached with a pivot and a spring to the body of the jack. At the top of the jack, the felt damper keeps the string from vibrating when the key is not depressed. The vertical rise of the jacks is stopped by the jackrail, which is covered with soft felt to muffle the impact of the jack. The key-dip, which is the maximum depth the key may be pressed down, is usually set at the length of the jack. If the key-dip is too deep, which hinders the quick repetition of notes and the execution of fast passages, the length of the corresponding jacks should be extended (by the use of a pilot screw or other means). Strings and soundboard Simply plucking strings produces a feeble sound: the sonority of the harpsichord arises from its design to amplify it. The strings pass over a bridge-like nut, a sharp edge supporting one end of their vibrating length, which is firmly attached to a soundboard, a thin panel of wood usually made of spruce or (in Italian harpsichords) cedar. The soundboard and case-construction efficiently transduces the vibrations of the strings into vibrations in the air. Also, in harpsichords with more than one choir of strings the vibrations of one string will invite its adjacent twin string to resonate in sympathy as long as the key is pressed. Some harpsichords have a 'damper off' position so that one choir of strings is undamped and may resonate freely in response to the tones played on the other choir(s). Each string is held at the proper tension to sound the correct note. At one end, generally closest to the keyboard, each string is wound around a tuning pin, so that its tension may be adjusted by rotating the pin with a wrench (or tuning hammer). The tuning pins are held tightly in holes drilled in the pinblock or wrestplank, an oblong hard-wood plank. The other ends of the strings are fitted with twisted loopholes that pass over the hitchpins which are driven into the liner. Multiple choirs of strings Many harpsichords have exactly one string per note. There are several reasons why it is sometimes an advantage to have more. When there are two choirs of strings at the same length, it is possible to arrange for them to give different tonal qualities, and thus to increase the variety of sound produced by the instrument. This is done by having one set of strings plucked closer to the nut (the bridge-like device that terminates the sounding length of the strings) than the other. Plucking close to the nut emphasizes the higher harmonics, and produces a "nasal" sound quality. When two strings tuned to be the same pitch, or to an octave apart, are plucked simultaneously by a single keystroke, the note is louder and richer than one produced by a single string. The qualitative distinction is particularly noticeable when the strings are tuned an octave apart. When describing a harpsichord it is customary to specify its choirs of strings, often called its disposition. Strings at eight foot pitch sound at the normal expected pitch, strings at four foot pitch sound an octave higher, and sometimes harpsichords have the rare 16-foot pitch (one octave lower than eight-foot) or two-foot pitch (two octaves higher); sometimes one even encounters a thirty-two foot pitch (two octaves lower). When there are multiple choirs of strings, the player is often able to control which choirs sound. This is usually done by having a set of jacks for each choir, and a mechanism for "turning off" each set, often by moving the upper register (through which the jacks slide) sideways a short distance, so that their plectra miss the strings. In simpler instruments this is done by manually moving the registers, but as the harpsichord evolved levers, knee levers and pedal mechanisms were invented that made it easier to change registration. More flexibility in selecting which strings play is available in harpsichords having more than one keyboard or manual, since each manual can control the plucking of a different set of strings. In addition, such harpsichords often have a mechanism to couple manuals together, so that two can be used while actually playing on only one. The most flexible system is the French shove coupler, in which the lower manual can slide forward and backward, so that in the backward position "dogs" attached to the upper surface of the lower manual engage the lower surface of the upper manual's keys. Depending on choice of keyboard and coupler position, the player can select any of the sets of jacks labeled in figure 4 as A, or B and C, or all three. There are even harpsichords with a pedal keyboard. While these were mostly intended as practice instruments for organists, there are some pieces composed specifically for such. Figure 4. French shove coupler. To the left: uncoupled keyboards. The depressed upper key lifts the jack A upwards. The depressed lower key lifts jacks B and C. To the right: The upper keyboard is coupled to the lower one by pulling the latter. The depressed upper key lifts the jack A upwards. The depressed lower key lifts jacks A, B and C. The English dogleg jack system is less flexible, in that the manuals are immobile. The dogleg shape of the set of jacks labeled A in Figure 5 permits A to be played by either keyboard, but the lower manual necessarily plays all three sets, and the player cannot select just B and C as in the French shove coupler. Figure 5. Dogleg jack, English coupler system. When depressed, the upper key lifts the "dogleg" jack (jack A) upwards. The lower key lifts all three jacks A, B, and C. The use of multiple manuals in a harpsichord was not originally provided for the flexibility in choosing which strings would sound, but rather for transposition; for discussion see History below. Harpsichords with pedal keyboards, to be played with the feet, were also manufactured, mostly as practice instruments for organists. Jan Vermeer's famous painting A Lady Standing at a Virginal shows the characteristic practice of his time, with the instrument mounted on a table and the player standing. The case Harpsichord by Alastair McAllister, Melbourne, 1999, and a rare pedal harpsichord, by Hubbard & Broekman, Boston, 1990The case holds in position all of the important structural members: pinblock, soundboard, hitchpins, keyboard, and the jack action. It usually includes a solid bottom, and also internal bracing to maintain its form without warping under the tension of the strings. Cases vary greatly in weight and sturdiness: Italian harpsichords are often of light construction; heavier construction is found in the later Flemish instruments and those derived from them (see History, below). The case also gives the harpsichord its external appearance and protects the instrument. A large harpsichord is, in a sense, a piece of furniture, as it stands alone on legs and may be styled in the manner of other furniture of its place and period. Early Italian instruments, on the other hand, were so light in construction that they were treated rather like a violin: kept for storage in a protective outer case, and played after taking it out of its case and placing it on a table. Hubbard 1967, 19 Such tables were often quite high - until the late 18th century people usually played standing up. Eventually, harpsichords came to be built with just a single case, though an intermediate stage also existed: the "false inner–outer", which for purely aesthetic reasons was built to look as if the outer case contained an inner one, in the old style. Hubbard 1967, 20 . Even after harpsichords became self-encased objects, they often were supported by separate stands, and some modern harpsichords have separate legs for improved portability. Many harpsichords have a lid that can be raised, a cover for the keyboard, and a stand for music. Harpsichords have been decorated in a great many different ways: with plain buff paint (e.g. some Flemish instruments), with paper printed with patterns, with leather or velvet coverings, with chinoiserie, or occasionally with highly elaborate painted artwork. Hubbard 1967, various locations Variants The terms used to denote the various members of the harpsichord family are now standardized. This was not so in the harpsichord's heyday. Harpsichord In modern usage, "harpsichord" can mean any member of the family of instruments. More often, though, it specifically denotes a grand-piano-shaped instrument with a roughly triangular case accommodating long bass strings at the left and short treble strings at the right. The characteristic profile of such a harpsichord is more elongated than a modern piano, with a sharper curve to the bentside. Virginals The virginals is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord having only one string per note; the strings run parallel to the keyboard which is on the long side of the case. Spinet A spinet is a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle (usually about 30 degrees) to the keyboard. The strings are too close together for the jacks to fit between them. Instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, and the jacks are in the larger gaps between the pairs. The two jacks in each gap face in opposite directions, and each plucks a string adjacent to a gap. Clavicytherium A clavicytherium is a harpsichord with the soundboard and strings mounted vertically facing the player, the same space-saving principle as an upright piano. Dearling 1996, 138 Since the strings run vertically, the jacks move horizontally, making the action of clavicytheria more involved than in a harpsichord. Some of the earliest harpsichords for which we have evidence are clavicytheria. One surviving example from the late 15th century is kept at the Royal College of Music in London. The clavicytherium may have been one branch of the early development of the harpsichord action (see below, History), that was almost entirely surpassed by the horizontal harpsichord which has the advantage of being able to rely on gravity to return the jacks to their rest position. Clavicytheria were occasionally made throughout the historical period. In the 18th century particularly fine clavicytheria were made by Albertus Delin, a Flemish builder. Hubbard 1967, 77 . Ottavino Ottavini are small spinets or virginals at 4' pitch. It is thought that harpsichords at octave pitch were more common in the late mediæval and early renaissance, but lessened in popularity in the later renaissance. However, ottavini remained very popular as domestic instruments in Italian states. In England, Samuel Pepys makes many mentions of his "tryangle" in his diary, which references the usual shape of these instruments. In the Low Countries, ottavini were commonly paired with 8' virginals. Encased in a small cubb under the soundboard. The ottavino could be removed and placed on top of the larger virginal, making an effect like unto a double manual instrument. These are usually called 'mother-and-child' or 'double' virginals. "Model IX is the famous double virginal. An ottavino of model VIII is inserted into the case of the virginal like a drawer slipping into a bureau." Other Several harpsichords with unusual keyboard layouts, such as the archicembalo, were built in the 16th century to accommodate variant tuning systems demanded by compositional practice and theoretical experimentation. Compass and pitch range On the whole, earlier harpsichords have smaller ranges and later ones larger, though there are many exceptions. The largest harpsichords have a range of just over five octaves and the smallest have under four. Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range in the bass with a "short octave". Tuning pitch is often taken to be a=415 Hz, roughly a semitone lower than the modern standard concert pitch of a=440 Hz. An accepted exception is for French baroque repertoire which is often performed with a=392 Hz, approximately a semitone lower again. Tuning an instrument nowadays usually starts with setting an A; historically it would commence from a C or an F. History Ruckers-Taskin harpsichord, (Paris, Musée de la Musique) The harpsichord was most probably invented in the late Middle Ages. By the 1500s, harpsichord makers in Italy were making lightweight instruments with low string tension. A different approach was taken in Flanders starting in the late 1500s, notably by the Ruckers family. Their harpsichords used a heavier construction and produced a more powerful and distinctive tone. They included the first harpsichords with two keyboards, used for transposition. The Flemish instruments served as the model for 18th century harpsichord construction in other nations. In France, the double keyboards were adapted to control different choirs of strings, making a musically more flexible instrument. Instruments from the peak of the French tradition, by makers such as the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin, are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used as models for the construction of modern instruments. In England, the Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority. German builders extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding sixteen foot and two foot choirs; these instruments have recently served as models for modern builders. In the late 18th century the harpsichord was supplanted by the piano and almost disappeared from view for most of the 19th century: an exception was its continued use in opera for accompanying recitative, but the piano sometimes displaced it even there. 20th century efforts to revive the harpsichord began with instruments that used piano technology, with heavy strings and metal frames. Starting in the middle of the 20th century, ideas about harpsichord making underwent a major change, when builders such as David Bergmark Ley, Frank Hubbard, William Dowd, and Martin Skowroneck sought to re-establish the building traditions of the Baroque period. Harpsichords of this type of historically informed building practice dominate the current scene. Music for the harpsichord From the 16th century to the baroque The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord was published around the early 16th century. Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole baroque era in European countries including Italy, Germany, England and France. Solo harpsichord compositions included dance suites, fantasias, and fugues. Besides solo works, the harpsichord was widely used for accompaniment in the basso continuo style (a function it maintained in operatic recitative even into the 19th century). Well into the 18th century, the harpsichord was considered to have some advantages over the piano. After the baroque Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was almost completely supplanted by the piano. In the 20th century, composers returned to the instrument, as they sought out variation in the sounds available to them. Under the influence of Arnold Dolmetsch, Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1951) and in France, Wanda Landowska (1879-1959), were at the forefront of the instrument's renaissance. Concertos for the instrument were written by Francis Poulenc (the Concert champêtre, 1927–28), Manuel de Falla, Bertold Hummel, Bertold Hummel list of works: Op. 15 is his Divertimento capriccioso for harpsichord and chamber orchestra. Henryk Mikołaj Górecki, Michael Nyman, Philip Glass, and Roberto Carnevale. Bohuslav Martinů wrote both a concerto and a sonata for the instrument, and Elliott Carter's Double Concerto is scored for harpsichord, piano and two chamber orchestras. In chamber music, György Ligeti wrote a small number of solo works for the instrument (including "Continuum"), and Henri Dutilleux's "Les Citations" (1991) is scored for harpsichord, oboe, double bass and percussions. Both Dmitri Shostakovich (Hamlet, 1964) and Alfred Schnittke (Symphony No.8, 1998) wrote works that use the harpsichord as part of the orchestral texture. Harpsichordist Hendrik Bouman has composed pieces in the 17th and 18th century style, including works for solo harpsichord, harpsichord concerti, and other works that call for harpsichord continuo. Other contemporary composers writing new harpsichord music in period styles include Grant Colburn, Miguel Robaina, Fernando de Luca and Gianluca Bersanetti. The instrument also appears occasionally in production music both period and otherwise; a regionally notable example is the composition 'Rondo a Go-Go' by Andrew Adorian, an uptempo, late 60s library piece used for some years as part of the sign-off of television station WGBH-TV in Boston, Massachusetts. Popular music Examples of the harpsichord's use in popular music include The Left Banke's "Walk Away Renee", The Stranglers' "Golden Brown", Van Morrison's "Everyone," Yes' "Siberian Khatru," Elton John's "I Need You to Turn To", The Rolling Stones' "Yesterday's Papers." Scaruffi 1999 , R.E.M.'s "Half a World Away". Puterbaugh 1991 , in Massive Attack's song Teardrop. In the television series "The Addams Family", Lurch the butler, a large, awkward, shambling figure, played the harpsichord, producing a comic contrast between his hulking persona and the delicate sound of the instrument. The 'clavinova', an electronic keyboard instrument, has a sound similar to the harpsichord. Nomenclature The type of instrument now usually called harpsichord in English is generally called a clavicembalo (sometimes in the corrupt form gravicembalo, both masculine) or simply cembalo in Italian, and this last word is generally used in German as well (Cembalo, neuter). The Dutch word is klavecimbel (neuter). The typical French word is clavecin (masculine), though in French historical sources the word épinette (feminine, cognate with English spinet) is sometimes used, in a global sense, meaning any instrument with a harpsichord-like action. The standard Spanish word is clavecín (masculine), with clavicémbalo as an alternative (along with the rarer forms clavicímbalo and clavicímbano; all masculine). The Portuguese words are espineta (feminine) and cravo (masculine, cognate with the element clav- in the Italian words for the instrument). And, finally, in Polish it is klawesyn (masculine), clearly a derivative of the French version. Multilingual harpsichord lexicon Français English Deutsch Italiano arc-boutant upper brace obere Gehäusestrebe barra superiore barre d’accroche hitchpinrail Anhängeleiste corniche di attacco 8´ barre d’adresse nameboard batten Namensleiste listello superiore tastiera barre de balancement balance rail Waagebalken barra di bilanciamento barre de fond lower frame untere Gehäusestreben traversa del fondo barre de table rib Rippe catena bec plectrum Kiel plettro béquille lid stick Deckelstock bacchetta coperchio boudin 4´ hitchpinrail Vierfuß-Anhängeleiste supporto attacco punte 4´ caisse case Gehäuse cassa chapiteau jackrail Prallleiste coperchio salterelli charnière hinge Scharnier cerniera chevalet bridge Steg ponticello cheville d’accord tuning pin Stimmwirbel caviglie clavecin harpsichord Cembalo clavicembalo clavier keyboard Klaviatur tastiera contre éclisse liner Resonanzboden-Auflageleisten controfascia contresommier upper bellyrail Oberdamm controsomiere corde string Saite corda couvercle lid Deckel coperchio diapason rack Kanzelle guida a rastrelliera échine spine Rückwand oder lange Wand fascia dorsale éclisse courbe bentside gebogene Wand fascia curva épinette spinet Spinett spinetta fond bottom Bodenteil fondo gorge nameboard Namenswand tavola frontale grande barre cutoff bar große Rippe grande catena diagonale joue cheek Wange fascia corta languette tongue Zunge bilancero levier de registration stop lever Registerhebel leve comando registri masse upper bellyrail Oberdamm controsomiere peigne rack Kanzelle guida a rastrelliera piétement stand Gestell cavalletto plectre plectrum Kiel plettro pointe tail Schwanzwand fascia caudale pointe d’accroche hitchpin Aufhängestift punta di attacco pointe de balancement balance pin Waagebalkenstift punta di bilanciamento pointe de chevalet bridge pin Stegstift punta ponticello pointe de sillet nut pin Stegstift punta capotasto portillon fallboard Verschlußbrett coperchio frontale pupitre music desk Notenpult leggío queue tail Schwanzwand fascia caudale rabat flap Deckelklappe coperchio a ribalta registre register Register registro sautereau jack Springer salterello sillet nut Stimmstocksteg capotasto sommier wrestplank Stimmstock somiere table d’harmonie soundboard Resonanzboden tavola armonica touche key Taste tasti virginal virginal Virginal virginale Notes References Boalch, Donald H. (1995) Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord, 1440-1840, 3rd ed., with updates by Andreas H. Roth and Charles Mould, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-318429-X. A catalogue, originating with work by Boalch in the 1950s, of all extant historical instruments. Dearling, Robert (ed.) (1996) The ultimate encyclopedia of musical instruments, London : Carlton, ISBN 1-858681-85-5 Hubbard, Frank (1967) Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making, 2nd ed., Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-88845-6. An authoritative survey by a leading builder of how early harpsichords were built and how the harpsichord evolved over time in different national traditions. Kottick, Edward (2003) A History of the Harpsichord, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-34166-3. An extensive survey by a leading contemporary scholar. O'Brien, Grant (1990) Ruckers, a harpsichord and virginal building tradition, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-36565-1. Covers the innovations of the Ruckers family, the founders of the Flemish tradition. Russell, Raymond (1973)The Harpsichord and Clavichord: an introductory study, 2nd ed., London : Faber and Faber, ISBN 0-571-04795-5 Skowroneck, Martin (2003) Cembalobau: Erfahrungen und Erkenntnisse aus der Werkstattpraxis = Harpsichord construction: a craftsman's workshop experience and insight, Fachbuchreihe Das Musikinstrument 83, Bergkirchen : Bochinsky, ISBN 3-932275-58-6. A study (written in English and German) of harpsichord building by a leading figure in the modern revival of historically authentic methods of building. Zuckermann, Wolfgang (1969) The Modern Harpsichord: twentieth century instruments and their makers, New York : October House, ISBN 0-80790-165-2 External links A brief history of the harpsichord Harpsichord maker Carey Beebe has a comprehensive website about harpsichords Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th Centuries by Shortridge A harpsichord site with images A harpsichord constructed from Lego Hear the sound of various harpsichords Extensive source of harpsichord information HPSCHD-L is a mailing list devoted to early stringed keyboard instruments HarpsichordPhoto is a site devoted to photographs of early stringed keyboard instruments Ernest Miller Harpsichords: Creations in the French and Flemish Traditions Interview with harpsichord builder Jack Peters A few historic harpsichords from the collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art Double virginal by Hans Ruckers, Antwerp, 1581 Harpsichord by Girolamo Zenti, Rome, 1666 Harpsichord by Jan Couchet, Antwerp, 1650 Octave virginal, Augsburg, ca. 1600 Spinnetta or Virginal, Venice, ca. 1540 Golden Harpsichord by Michele Todini, Rome, ca. 1675 Harpsichord, Italy, late 17th century Harpsichord by Pleyel et Cie, Paris, 1928 | Harpsichord |@lemmatized harpsichord:106 musical:2 instrument:42 play:10 mean:4 keyboard:21 produce:8 sound:17 pluck:10 string:56 key:23 press:9 also:8 family:7 small:8 virginal:18 muselar:1 muselaar:1 spinet:6 clavichord:3 piano:11 hammer:2 widely:3 use:18 baroque:6 music:13 become:2 less:2 popular:4 follow:1 invention:1 distinctive:2 still:1 contemporary:3 heimishe:1 synagogue:1 jewish:1 madrigal:1 mechanism:4 vary:2 size:1 shape:4 basic:2 functional:1 arrangement:1 player:8 depress:2 pivot:5 middle:3 length:6 cause:2 far:2 end:6 rise:3 lift:8 jack:40 long:5 strip:2 wood:5 attach:5 plectrum:12 wedge:1 shaped:1 piece:7 quill:3 nowadays:2 plastic:2 release:2 return:3 rest:3 position:7 fall:3 back:4 mount:3 tongue:3 swivel:1 backwards:3 away:3 pass:6 without:2 reach:1 vibration:4 halt:1 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1,836 | Northern_Ireland | Northern Ireland (, Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom The Countries of the UK statistics.gov.uk, accessed 10 October, 2008. The Northern Ireland Act 1998 describes Northern Ireland as "part of the United Kingdom". The term "constituent country" is sometimes applied to Northern Ireland by Unionists and British sources. . situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland. It shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west. At the time of the 2001 UK Census, its population was 1,685,000, constituting between a quarter and a third of the island's total population and about 3% of the population of the UK. Northern Ireland consists of six of the traditional nine counties of the historic Irish province of Ulster. It was created as a distinct subdivision of the UK on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Statutory Rules & Orders published by authority, 1921 (No. 533); Additional source for 3 May 1921 date: Alvin Jackson, Home Rule - An Irish History, Oxford University Press, 2004, p198. though its constitutional roots lie in the 1800 Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland. For over 50 years it had its own devolved government and parliament. These institutions were suspended in 1972 and abolished in 1973. Repeated attempts to restore self-government finally resulted in the establishment of the present-day Northern Ireland Executive and Northern Ireland Assembly. The Assembly operates on consociational democracy principles requiring cross-community support. Northern Ireland was for many years the site of a violent and bitter ethno-political conflict ("The Troubles") between those claiming to represent Nationalists, who are predominantly Roman Catholic, and those claiming to represent Unionists, who are predominantly Protestant. Northern Ireland LIFE & TIMES survey. Question: Generally speaking, do you think of yourself as a unionist, nationalist or neither?, ARK Research, 2005 Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom Standing up for Northern Ireland www.uup.org, accessed 2 August 2008 , while nationalists wish it to be politically united with the rest of Ireland. Strategy Framework Document: Reunification through Planned Integration: Sinn Féin’s All Ireland Agenda www.sinnfein.ie, accessed 2 August 2008 Policy Summaries: Constitutional Issues www.sdlp.ie, accessed, 2 August 2008 In general, Unionists consider themselves British (or "Ulstermen") and Nationalists see themselves as Irish, though these identities are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Since the signing of the Belfast Agreement (or "Good Friday Agreement") in 1998, most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have ceased their armed campaigns. History For events before 1922 see Ulster or History of Ireland. Signing of the Ulster Covenant in 1912 in opposition to Home Rule.The area that is now Northern Ireland has had a diverse history. From serving as the bedrock of Irish resistance in the era of the plantations of Queen Elizabeth and James I in other parts of Ireland, it became the subject of major planting of Scottish and English settlers after the Flight of the Earls in 1607 (when the Gaelic aristocracy fled to Catholic Europe). The all-island Kingdom of Ireland (1541—1801) merged into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801 under the terms of the Act of Union, under which the kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain merged under a government and monarchy based in London. In the early 20th century, Unionists led by Sir Edward Carson opposed the introduction of Home Rule in Ireland. Unionists were in a minority on the island of Ireland as a whole, but were a majority in the northern province of Ulster, a very large majority in the counties of Antrim and Down, small majorities in the counties of Armagh and Londonderry, with substantial numbers also concentrated in the nationalist-majority counties of Fermanagh and Tyrone. These six counties, containing an overall unionist majority, would later form Northern Ireland. The clash between the House of Commons and House of Lords over the controversial budget of Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd-George produced the Parliament Act 1911, which enabled the veto of the Lords to be overturned. Given that the Lords had been the unionists' main guarantee that a home rule act would not be enacted, because of the majority of pro-unionist peers in the House, the Parliament Act made Home Rule a more likely prospect. Opponents to Home Rule, from Conservative Party leaders like Andrew Bonar Law to militant unionists in Ireland, threatened the use of violence, producing the Larne Gun Running incident in 1914, when they smuggled thousands of rifles and rounds of ammunition from Imperial Germany for the Ulster Volunteers. The prospect of civil war in Ireland loomed. In 1914, the Third Home Rule Act, which contained provision for a temporary partition, received the Royal Assent. Its implementation was suspended for the duration of the intervening First World War, which was expected to last only a few weeks, but, in fact, lasted four years. By the end of the war, the Act was seen as dead in the water, with public opinion in the majority nationalist community having moved from a demand for home rule to something more substantial: independence. David Lloyd George proposed in 1919 a new bill which would divide Ireland into two Home Rule areas, twenty-six counties being ruled from Dublin, six being ruled from Belfast, with a shared Lord Lieutenant of Ireland appointing both executives and a Council of Ireland, which Lloyd George believed would evolve into an all-Ireland parliament. The island of Ireland was partitioned in 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Northern Ireland became a distinct region of the United Kingdom, by Order in Council on 3 May 1921 (Statutory Rules & Orders published by authority (SR&O) 1921, No. 533). Its constitutional roots remain the Act of Union, two complementary Acts, one passed by the Parliament of Great Britain, the other by the Parliament of Ireland. Six of the nine Ulster counties in the north-east formed Northern Ireland and the remaining three counties (including County Donegal, despite it having a large Protestant minority as well as it being the most northern county in all of Ireland) joined those of Leinster, Munster and Connacht to form Southern Ireland. Whilst Southern Ireland had only a brief existence between 1921 and 1922, a period dominated by the Anglo-Irish War and its aftermath, Northern Ireland was to continue on. Signature page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Northern Ireland provisionally became an autonomous part of the Irish Free State on 6 December 1922. However, as expected, the Parliament of Northern Ireland chose, under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, to opt out of the Irish Free State the following day. On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the Parliament resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State: ”MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". Source: Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922 and Anglo-Irish Treaty, sections 11, 12 Shortly after Northern Ireland had exercised its opt out of the Irish Free State, a Boundary Commission was established to decide on the territorial boundaries between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. Though leaders in Dublin expected a substantial reduction in the territory of Northern Ireland (with nationalist border areas moving to the Free State), the Boundary Commission decided against this; in fact the unpublished report had recommended that land should be ceded from Southern Ireland to Northern Ireland. To prevent argument, this report was suppressed, and the initial 6-county border was approved by the Dáil in Dublin on 10 December 1925 by a vote of 71 to 20. Dáil Éireann - Volume 13 - 10 December 1925. In June 1940, to encourage the Irish state to join with the Allies, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill indicated to the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera that the United Kingdom would push for Irish unity, but believing that Churchill could not deliver, de Valera declined the offer. "Anglo-Irish Relations, 1939—41: A Study in Multilateral Diplomacy and Military Restraint" in Twentieth Century British History (Oxford Journals, 2005). ISSN 1477-4674. (The British did not inform the Northern Ireland government that they had made the offer to the Dublin government, and De Valera's rejection was not publicised until 1970). The Ireland Act 1949 gave the first legal guarantee to the Parliament and Government that Northern Ireland would not cease to be part of the United Kingdom without consent of the majority of its citizens. The Troubles, starting in the late 1960s, consisted of about thirty years of recurring acts of intense violence between elements of Northern Ireland's nationalist community (principally Roman Catholic) and unionist community (principally Protestant) during which 3,254 people were killed. Malcolm Sutton’s book, “Bear in Mind These Dead: An Index of Deaths from the Conflict in Ireland 1969 - 1993 The conflict was caused by the disputed status of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom and the domination of the minority nationalist community, and discrimination against them, by the unionist majority. The violence was characterised by the armed campaigns of paramilitary groups, including the Provisional IRA campaign of 1969-1997 which was aimed at the end of British rule in Northern Ireland and the creation of a new "all-Ireland" or "thirty-two county", Irish Republic, and the Ulster Volunteer Force, formed in 1966 in response to the perceived erosion of both the British character and unionist domination of Northern Ireland. The state security forces--the British Army and the police (the Royal Ulster Constabulary)--were also involved in the violence. The British government's point of view is that its forces were neutral in the conflict, trying to uphold law and order in Northern Ireland and the right of the people of Northern Ireland to democratic self-determination. Irish republicans, however, regarded the state forces as "combatants" in the conflict, alleging collusion between the state forces and the loyalist paramilitaries as proof of this. The "Ballast" investigation by the Police Ombudsman has confirmed that British forces, and in particular the RUC, did collude with loyalist paramilitaries, were involved in murder, and did obstruct the course of justice when such claims had previously been investigated, The Ballast report: "...the Police Ombudsman has concluded that this was collusion by certain police officers with identified UVF informants." although the extent to which such collusion occurred is still hotly disputed. See also the section below on Collusion by Security Forces and loyalist paramilitaries. As a consequence of the worsening security situation, autonomous regional government for Northern Ireland was suspended in 1972. Alongside the violence, there was a political deadlock between the major political parties in Northern Ireland, including those who condemned violence, over the future status of Northern Ireland and the form of government there should be within Northern Ireland. A plebiscite within Northern Ireland on whether it should remain in the United Kingdom, or form part of a united Ireland, was held in 1973. The vote went heavily in favour (98.9%) of maintaining the status quo with approximately 57.5% of the total electorate voting in support, but only 1% of Catholics voted following a boycott organised by the SDLP. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/9/newsid_2516000/2516477.stm Recent history The Troubles were brought to an uneasy end by a peace process which included the declaration of ceasefires by most paramilitary organisations and the complete decommissioning of their weapons, the reform of the police, and the corresponding withdrawal of army troops from the streets and from sensitive border areas such as South Armagh and Fermanagh, as agreed by the signatories to the Belfast Agreement (commonly known as the "Good Friday Agreement"). This reiterated the long-held British position, which had never before been fully acknowledged by successive Irish governments, that Northern Ireland will remain within the United Kingdom until a majority votes otherwise. Bunreacht na hÉireann, the constitution of the Irish state, was amended in 1999 to remove a claim of the "Irish nation" to sovereignty over the whole of Ireland (in Article 2), a claim qualified by an acknowledgement that Ireland could only exercise legal control over the territory formerly known as the Irish Free State. The new Articles 2 and 3, added to the Constitution to replace the earlier articles, implicitly acknowledge that the status of Northern Ireland, and its relationships within the rest of the United Kingdom and with Ireland, would only be changed with the agreement of a majority of voters in both jurisdictions Ireland (voting separately). This aspect was also central to the Belfast Agreement which was signed in 1998 and ratified by referenda held simultaneously in both Northern Ireland and the Republic. At the same time, the British Government recognised for the first time, as part of the prospective, the so-called "Irish dimension": the principle that the people of the island of Ireland as a whole have the right, without any outside interference, to solve the issues between North and South by mutual consent. Parliamentary debate: "The British government agree that it is for the people of the island of Ireland alone, by agreement between the two parts respectively, to exercise their right of self-determination on the basis of consent, freely and concurrently given, North and South, to bring about a united Ireland, if that is their wish." The latter statement was key to winning support for the agreement from nationalists and republicans. It also established a devolved power-sharing government within Northern Ireland where the government must consist of both unionist and nationalist parties. These institutions were suspended by the British Government in 2002 after Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) allegations of spying by people working for Sinn Féin at the Assembly (Stormontgate). The resulting case against the accused Sinn Féin member collapsed. On 28 July 2005, the Provisional IRA declared an end to its campaign and has since decommissioned what is thought to be all of its arsenal. This final act of decommissioning was performed in accordance with the Belfast Agreement of 1998, and under the watch of the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning and two external church witnesses. Many unionists, however, remain sceptical. This IRA decommissioning is in contrast to Loyalist paramilitaries who have so far refused to decommission many weapons. It is not thought that this will have a major effect on further political progress as political parties linked to Loyalist paramilitaries do not attract significant support and will not be in a position to form part of a government in the near future. Sinn Féin, on the other hand, with their (real and perceived) links to militant republicanism, are the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland. Politicians elected to the Assembly at the 2003 Assembly Election were called together on 15 May 2006 under the Northern Ireland Act 2006 Northern Ireland Act 2006 (c. 17) for the purpose of electing a First Minister of Northern Ireland and a deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland and choosing the members of an Executive (before 25 November 2006) as a preliminary step to the restoration of devolved government in Northern Ireland. Following the election held on 7 March 2007, devolved government returned to Northern Ireland on 8 May 2007 with DUP leader Ian Paisley and Sinn Féin deputy leader Martin McGuinness taking office as First Minister and Deputy First Minister, respectively. (BBC) The current First Minister is Peter Robinson, having taken over as leader of the Democratic Unionist Party. Government and politics Parliament Buildings in Stormont, Belfast, seat of the assembly. Northern Ireland has devolved government within the United Kingdom. There is a Northern Ireland Executive together with the 108 member Northern Ireland Assembly to deal with devolved matters with the UK Government and UK Parliament responsible for reserved matters. Elections to the Assembly are by single transferable vote with 6 representatives elected for each of the 18 Westminster constituencies. Northern Ireland elects 18 Members of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons; only 13 take their seats, however, as the 5 Sinn Fein MPs refuse to take the oath to serve the Queen that is required of all MPs. The Northern Ireland Office represents the UK government in Northern Ireland on reserved matters and represents Northern Irish interests within the UK government. The Northern Ireland office is led by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland is a distinct legal jurisdiction, separate from England and Wales and Scotland. "For the purposes of the English conflict of laws, every country in the world which is not part of England and Wales is a foreign country and its foreign laws. This means that not only totally foreign independent countries such as France or Russia... are foreign countries but also British Colonies such as the Falkland Islands. Moreover, the other parts of the United Kingdom—Scotland and Northern Ireland—are foreign countries for present purposes, as are the other British Islands, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey." Conflict of Laws, JG Collier, Fellow of Trinity Hall and lecturer in Law, University of Cambridge Communities in Northern Ireland - 1991 census. The main political divide in Northern Ireland is between Unionists who wish to see Northern Ireland continue as part of the United Kingdom and Nationalists or Republicans who wish to see Northern Ireland join the rest of Ireland, independent from the United Kingdom. These two opposing views are linked to deeper cultural divisions. Unionists are overwhelmingly Protestant, descendants of mainly Scottish, English, Welsh and Huguenot settlers as well as indigenous Irishmen who had converted to one of the Protestant denominations. Nationalists are predominantly Catholic and descend from the population predating the settlement, with a minority from Scottish Highlanders as well as some converts from Protestantism. Discrimination against nationalists under the Stormont government (1921–1972) gave rise to the nationalist civil rights movement in the 1960s. Professor John H. Whyte paper on discrimination in Northern Ireland Some Unionists argue that any discrimination was not just because of religious or political bigotry, but also the result of more complex socio-economic, socio-political and geographical factors. CAIN website key issues discrimination summary Whatever the cause, the existence of discrimination, and the manner in which Nationalist anger at it was handled, was a major contributing factor which led to the long-running conflict known as the Troubles. The political unrest went through its most violent phase between 1968 and 1994. Lord Scarman, "Violence and Civil Disturbances in Northern Ireland in 1969: Report of Tribunal of Inquiry" Belfast: HMSO, Cmd 566. (known as the Scarman Report) The population of Northern Ireland was estimated as being 1,759,000 on 10 December 2008. In the 2001 census, 45.6% of the population identified as belonging to Protestant denominations (of which 20.7% Presbyterian, 15.3% Church of Ireland), 40.3% identified as Catholic, 0.3% identified with non-Christian religions and 13.9% identified with no religion. Northern Ireland Census 2001, Table KS07a: Religion In terms of community background, 53.1% of the Northern Irish population came from a Protestant background, 43.8% came from a Catholic background, 0.4% from non-Christian backgrounds and 2.7% non-religious backgrounds. Northern Ireland Census 2001, Table KS07b: Community background: religion or religion brought up in BBC News: Fascination of religion head count The population is forecast to pass the 1.8 million mark by 2011. Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency population projections 36% of the present-day population define themselves as Unionist, 24% as Nationalist and 40% define themselves as neither. Ark survey, 2007. Answer to the question "Generally speaking, do you think of yourself as a unionist, a nationalist or neither?" According to a 2007 opinion poll, 66% express long term preference of the maintenance of Northern Ireland's membership of the United Kingdom (either directly ruled or with devolved government), while 23% express a preference for membership of a united Ireland. Answers to the question "Do you think the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be for it [one of the following" This discrepancy can be explained by the overwhelming preference among Protestants to remain a part of the UK (89%), while Catholic preferences are spread across a number of solutions to the constitutional question including remaining a part of the UK (39%), a united Ireland (47%), Northern Ireland becoming an independent state (6%), and those who "don't know" (7%). Ark survey, 2007. Answers to the question "Do you think the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be for it to [one of the following" Official voting figures, which reflect views on the "national question" along with issues of candidate, geography, personal loyalty and historic voting patterns, show 54% of Northern Ireland voters vote for Pro-Unionist parties, 42% vote for Pro-Nationalist parties and 4% vote "other". Opinion polls consistently show that the election results are not necessarily an indication of the electorate's stance regarding the constitutional status of Northern Ireland. Most of the population of Northern Ireland are at least nominally Christian. The ethno-political loyalties are allied, though not absolutely, to the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations and these are the labels used to categorise the opposing views. This is, however, becoming increasingly irrelevant as the Irish Question is very complicated. Many voters (regardless of religious affiliation) are attracted to Unionism's conservative policies, while other voters are instead attracted to the traditionally leftist, nationalist Sinn Féin and Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and their respective party platforms for Democratic Socialism and Social Democracy. For the most part, Protestants feel a strong connection with Great Britain and wish for Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom. Catholics generally aspire to a United Ireland, or are less certain about how to solve the constitutional question. In the 2007 survey by Northern Ireland Life and Times, 39% of Northern Irish Catholics supported Northern Ireland remaining a part of the United Kingdom, either by direct rule (4%) or devolved government (35%). http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2007/Political_Attitudes/NIRELND2.html Protestants have a slight majority in Northern Ireland, according to the latest Northern Ireland Census. 2001 Census Cultural Profile for Northern Ireland The make-up of the Northern Ireland Assembly reflects the appeals of the various parties within the population. Of the 108 MLAs, 55 are Unionists and 44 are Nationalists (the remaining nine are classified as "other"). Citizenship and identity The 1998 Belfast Agreement between the British and Irish governments provides that: it is the birthright of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British, or both, as they may so choose, and accordingly [the two governments] confirm that their right to hold both British and Irish citizenship is accepted by both Governments and would not be affected by any future change in the status of Northern Ireland. As a result of the Agreement, the Constitution of Ireland Department Of the Taoiseach was amended so that people born in Northern Ireland are entitled to be Irish citizens on the same basis as people from any other part of the island of Ireland. Neither government, however, extends its citizenship to all persons born in Northern Ireland. Both governments exclude some people born in Northern Ireland (e.g. certain persons born in Northern Ireland neither of whose parents is a UK or Irish national). Several studies and surveys performed between 1971 and 2006 have indicated that, in general, Protestants in Northern Ireland see themselves primarily as 'British', whereas Roman Catholics regard themselves primarily as 'Irish'. Breen, R., Devine, P. and Dowds, L. (editors), 1996. "Social Attitudes in Northern Ireland: The Fifth Report" ISBN 0-86281-593-2. Chapter 2 retrieved from http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/othelem/research/nisas/rep5c2.htm on 24 August 2006. Summary: In 1989—1994, 79% Protestants replied "British" or "Ulster", 60% of Catholics replied "Irish." Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey, 1999. Module:Community Relations. Variable:NINATID. Summary:72% of Protestants replied "British". 68% of Catholics replied "Irish". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey. Module:Community Relations. Variable:BRITISH. Summary: 78% of Protestants replied "Strongly British." Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey, 1999. Module:Community Relations. Variable:IRISH. Summary: 77% of Catholics replied "Strongly Irish." Institute of Governance, 2006. "National identities in the UK: do they matter?" Briefing No. 16, January 2006. Retrieved from on 24 August 2006. Extract:"Three-quarters of Northern Ireland’s Protestants regard themselves as British, but only 12 per cent of Northern Ireland’s Catholics do so. Conversely, a majority of Catholics (65%) regard themselves as Irish, whilst very few Protestants (5%) do likewise. Very few Catholics (1%) compared to Protestants (19%) claim an Ulster identity but a Northern Irish identity is shared in broadly equal measure across religious traditions."Details from attitude surveys are in Demographics and politics of Northern Ireland. University of York Research Project 2002-2003 L219252024 - Public Attitudes to Devolution and National Identity in Northern Ireland Northern Ireland: Constitutional Proposals and the Problem of Identity, by J. R. Archer The Review of Politics, 1978 A changed Irish nationalism? The significance of the Belfast Agreement of 1998, by Joseph Ruane and Jennifer Todd This does not however, account for the complex identities within Northern Ireland, given that many of the population regard themselves as "Ulster" or "Northern Irish", either primarily, or as a secondary identity. A 1999 survey showed that 51% of Protestants felt "Not at all Irish" and 41% only "weakly Irish" where 77% of Catholics polled said they felt "strongly Irish". Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey, 1999. Module:Community Relations. Variable:IRISH. Symbols used in Northern Ireland The Union Flag (also known as the Union Jack) Flag of Executive Committee of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland (also known as the Ulster Banner; no official status in Northern Ireland since 1972). Flag of Ireland (also known as the Tricolour; no official status in Northern Ireland) Former Governmental Coat of Arms of Northern Ireland 1925-72 Northern Ireland comprises a patchwork of communities whose national loyalties are represented in some areas by flags flown from lamp posts. The Union Flag and the former Northern Ireland Flag are flown in some loyalist areas, and the Tricolour, adopted by republicans as the flag of Ireland in 1848, is flown in some republican areas. Even kerbstones in some areas are painted red-white-blue or green-white-orange (or gold), depending on whether local people express unionist/loyalist or nationalist/republican sympathies. Vandals curbed by plastic edging BBC News, 25 November 2008 The only official flag is the Union Flag. Statutory Rule 2000 No. 347 The Northern Ireland flag was officially the former Governmental Northern Ireland banner (also known as the "Ulster Banner" or "Red Hand Flag") and was based on the arms of the former Parliament of Northern Ireland, and was used by the Government of Northern Ireland and its agencies between 1953 and 1972. Since 1972, it has no official status. It remains, however used uniquely to represent Northern Ireland in certain sporting events. The arms from which the Ulster Banner derives were themselves based on the flag of Ulster. However it is interesting to note also that UK flags policy states that in Northern Ireland: The Ulster flag and the Cross of St. Patrick have no official status and under the Flags Regulations are not permitted to be flown from Government Buildings. The Union Flag and the Ulster Banner are mainly used by Unionists. Northern Irish flags from the World Flag Database Nationalists generally eschew symbols which uniquely represent Northern Ireland; some instead use the Tricolour, the Irish National Flag, particularly at sporting events. Many people, however, prefer to avoid flags altogether because of their divisive nature. Paramilitary groups on both sides have also developed their own flags. Some unionists also occasionally use the flags of secular and religious organisations to which they belong. The Irish Rugby Football Union and the Church of Ireland have used the Flag of St. Patrick. It was used to represent Ireland when the whole island was part of the UK and is used by some British army regiments. Foreign flags are also found, such as the Palestinian flags in some Nationalist areas and Israeli flags in some Unionist areas. This is also true during matches with Scottish teams. The United Kingdom national anthem God Save the Queen is often played at state events in Northern Ireland. At some cross-community events, however, the Londonderry Air (also known as Danny Boy) may be played as a neutral substitute. At the Commonwealth Games, the Northern Ireland team uses the Ulster Banner as its flag and Danny Boy / A Londonderry Air is used as its national anthem. The Northern Ireland football team also uses the Ulster Banner as its flag but uses God Save The Queen as its national anthem. FIFA.com: Northern Ireland, Latest News Major Gaelic Athletic Association matches are opened by the Ireland national anthem, Amhrán na bhFiann (The Soldier's Song), which is also used by some other all-Ireland sporting organisations. Since 1995, the Ireland rugby union team has used a specially commissioned song, Ireland's Call as the team's anthemn. The Ireland national anthem is also played at Dublin home matches as a courtesy to the host country. Northern Irish murals have become well-known features of Northern Ireland, depicting past and present divisions, both also documenting peace and cultural diversity. Almost 2,000 murals have been documented in Northern Ireland since the 1970s (see Conflict Archive on the Internet/Murals). Geography and climate Map of Northern Ireland Northern Ireland was covered by an ice sheet for most of the last ice age and on numerous previous occasions, the legacy of which can be seen in the extensive coverage of drumlins in Counties Fermanagh, Armagh, Antrim and particularly Down. The centrepiece of Northern Ireland's geography is Lough Neagh, at 151 square miles (392 km²) the largest freshwater lake both on the island of Ireland and in the British Isles. A second extensive lake system is centred on Lower and Upper Lough Erne in Fermanagh. The largest island of Northern Ireland is Rathlin, off the Antrim coast. Strangford Lough is the largest inlet in the British Isles, covering 150 km² (58 sq mi). There are substantial uplands in the Sperrin Mountains (an extension of the Caledonian fold mountains) with extensive gold deposits, granite Mourne Mountains and basalt Antrim Plateau, as well as smaller ranges in South Armagh and along the Fermanagh–Tyrone border. None of the hills are especially high, with Slieve Donard in the dramatic Mournes reaching , Northern Ireland's highest point. Belfast's most prominent peak is Cave Hill. The volcanic activity which created the Antrim Plateau also formed the eerily geometric pillars of the Giant's Causeway on the north Antrim coast. Also in north Antrim are the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge, Mussenden Temple and the Glens of Antrim. The Giant's Causeway, County Antrim. The Lower and Upper River Bann, River Foyle and River Blackwater form extensive fertile lowlands, with excellent arable land also found in North and East Down, although much of the hill country is marginal and suitable largely for animal husbandry. The valley of the River Lagan is dominated by Belfast, whose metropolitan area includes over a third of the population of Northern Ireland, with heavy urbanisation and industrialisation along the Lagan Valley and both shores of Belfast Lough. Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge. The whole of Northern Ireland has a temperate maritime climate, rather wetter in the west than the east, although cloud cover is persistent across the region. The weather is unpredictable at all times of the year, and although the seasons are distinct, they are considerably less pronounced than in interior Europe or the eastern seaboard of North America. Average daytime maximums in Belfast are 6.5 °C (43.7 °F) in January and 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in July. The damp climate and extensive deforestation in the 16th and 17th centuries resulted in much of the region being covered in rich green grassland. Highest maximum temperature: 30.8 °C (87.4 °F) at Knockarevan, near Garrison, County Fermanagh on 30 June 1976 and at Belfast on 12 July 1983. Lowest minimum temperature: -17.5 °C (0.5 °F) at Magherally, near Banbridge, County Down on 1 January 1979. British Meteorological Office figures Further reading Betts, N.L. in Hackney, P. 1992. Stewart & Corry's Flora of the North-east of Ireland. Third Edition. Institute of Irish Studies. The Queen's University of Belfast. ISBN 0 85389 446 9 (HB) Counties Northern Ireland consists of six historic counties: County Antrim, County Armagh, County Down, County Fermanagh, County Londonderry, Many Nationalists use the name County Derry. County Tyrone Silent Valley Reservoir, County Down. These counties are no longer used for local government purposes; instead there are twenty-six districts of Northern Ireland which have different geographical extents, even in the case of those named after the counties from which they derive their name. Fermanagh District Council most closely follows the borders of the county from which it takes its name. Coleraine Borough Council, on the other hand, derives its name from the town of Coleraine in County Londonderry. Lower Lough Erne, County FermanaghAlthough counties are no longer used for governmental purpose, they remain a popular means of describing where places are. They are officially used while applying for an Irish passport, which requires one to state one's county of birth. The name of county then appears in both Irish and English on the passport's information page, as opposed to the town or city of birth on the United Kingdom passport. The Gaelic Athletic Association still uses the counties as its primary means of organisation and fields representative teams of each GAA county. The county boundaries still appear on Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland Maps and the Phillips Street Atlases, among others. With their decline in official use, there is often confusion surrounding towns and cities which lie near county boundaries, such as Belfast and Lisburn, which are split between counties Down and Antrim (the majorities of both cities, however, are in Antrim). Belfast City Hall Cities There are 5 major settlements with city status in Northern Ireland: Armagh Belfast Derry Most Nationalists use the name Derry, while Unionists often use Londonderry, the name specified on the city's Royal Charter. Lisburn Newry Carrickfergus Castle - a Norman castle built in 1177 Towns and villages See also the list of places in Northern Ireland for all villages, towns and cities Donaghadee Harbour and lighthouse Ahoghill, Antrim, Annalong, Annaclone Ballycastle, Ballyclare, Ballykelly, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Ballynahinch, Banbridge, Bangor, Bushmills Carnmoney, Carrickfergus, Carryduff Castledawson, Castlerock, Coalisland, Comber, Coleraine, Cookstown, Craigavon, Crossmaglen, Crumlin,Corbet, Cushendall Donaghadee, Downpatrick, Dromore, Dundonald, Dungannon, Dungiven, Dromore, Donaghcloney Enniskillen Glengormley, Garvagh, Gilford Garrison Hillsborough, Holywood Kilkeel, Kilrea Larne, Limavady, Lurgan, Loughbrickland Magherafelt, Macosquin, Moira Newcastle, Newtownards, Newtownstewart Omagh Portrush, Portstewart, Portadown, Portaferry, Poyntzpass, Portballintrae Rasharkin, Rathfriland Strabane, Scarva Warrenpoint Variations in geographic nomenclature Many people inside and outside Northern Ireland use other names for Northern Ireland, depending on their point of view. These are grouped under sectarian headings below, however, most of these phrases are often also used as synonyms for Northern Ireland in non-sectarian contexts. Unionist/Loyalist Ulster (Ulaidh) is strictly the historic province of Ulster, six of its nine counties are in Northern Ireland. The term "Ulster" is widely used by the Unionist community and the British press as shorthand for Northern Ireland. Examples of usage of this term include Radio Ulster, Ulster Orchestra and RUC; political parties like the Ulster Unionist Party; paramilitary organisations like Ulster Defence Association and Ulster Volunteer Force. Ulster was also used political campaigns such as "Ulster Says No" and Save Ulster from Sodomy. In the past, calls were made for Northern Ireland's name to be changed to Ulster. This proposal was formally considered by the Government of Northern Ireland in 1937 and again in 1949 but no change was made. Parliamentary Reports of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, Volume 20 (1937) and The Times, January 6, 1949 – See also Alternative names for Northern Ireland The Province (An Chúige) refers literally the historic Irish province of Ulster but today is used widely, within this community, as shorthand for Northern Ireland. DUP Press Release "PAISLEY REACTS TO PRIME MINISTER’S STATEMENT". Date unknown. Extract "The DUP will be to the fore in representing the vast majority of unionists in the Province."—example of Ian Paisley referring to Northern Ireland as The Province. Retrieved from Google cache on 11 October 2006. The BBC, in its editorial guidance for Reporting the United Kingdom, states that "the province" is an appropriate secondary synonym for Northern Ireland, "Ulster" is not. It also deprecates the use of the term "British" in favour of "people of Northern Ireland", and the term "mainland" when referring to Great Britain in relation to Northern Ireland "The term “province” is often used synonymously with Northern Ireland and it is normally appropriate to make secondary references to “ the province”" Nationalist/Republican North of Ireland (Tuaisceart na hÉireann) - to link Northern Ireland to the rest of the island, by describing it as being in the 'north of Ireland' and so by implication playing down Northern Ireland's links with Great Britain. (The northernmost point in Ireland, in County Donegal, is in fact in the Republic.) Example of "North of Ireland" North-East Ireland (Oirthuaisceart Éireann) - used in the same way as the "North of Ireland" is used. The Six Counties (na Sé Chontae) - language used by republicans e.g. Republican Sinn Féin, which avoids using the name given by the British-enacted Government of Ireland Act 1920. (the Republic is similarly described as the Twenty-Six Counties.) Sinn Féin usage of "Six Counties" Some of the users of these terms contend that using the official name of the region would imply acceptance of the legitimacy of the Government of Ireland Act. The Occupied Six Counties. The state of Ireland, whose legitimacy is not recognised by republicans opposed to the Belfast Agreement, is described as "The Free State", referring to the Irish Free State, which gained independence (as a Dominion) in 1922. Examples of usage by the United States-based extreme republican "Irish Freedom Committee" British-Occupied Ireland. Similar in tone to the Occupied Six Counties this term is used by more dogmatic anti-Good Friday Agreement republicans who still hold that the First Dáil was the last legitimate government of Ireland and that all governments since have been foreign imposed usurpations of Irish national self-determination. Usage on "Gaelmail.com", a republican website Fourth Green Field (An Cheathrú Gort Glas). From the song Four Green Fields by Tommy Makem which describes Ireland as divided with one of the four green fields (the traditional provinces of Ireland) being In strangers hands, referring to the partition of Ireland. Other The North (An Tuaisceart) - used to describe Northern Ireland in the same way that "The South" is used to describe the Republic. Norn Iron (previously rendered "Norn Irn") - is an informal and affectionate local nickname used by both nationalists and unionists to refer to Northern Ireland, derived from the pronunciation of the words "Northern Ireland" in an exaggerated Ulster accent (particularly one from the Greater Belfast area). The phrase is seen as a light-hearted way to refer to the province, based as it is on regional pronunciation. Often refers to the Northern Ireland national football team. The Black North - pejorative, as a name used by people from the South. Use of language for geography Free Derry mural. Notwithstanding the ancient realm of Dál Riata which extended into Scotland, disagreement on names, and the reading of political symbolism into the use or non-use of a word, also attaches itself to some urban centres. The most famous example is whether Northern Ireland's second city should be called "Derry" or "Londonderry". Choice of language and nomenclature in Northern Ireland often reveals the cultural, ethnic and religious identity of the speaker. The first Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, Seamus Mallon, was criticised by unionist politicians for calling the region the "North of Ireland" while Sinn Féin has been criticised in some Irish newspapers for still referring to the "Six Counties". Sunday Independent article on Mallon and the use of "Six Counties". Those who do not belong to any group but lean towards one side often tend to use the language of that group. Supporters of unionism in the British media (notably the Daily Telegraph and the Daily Express) regularly call Northern Ireland "Ulster". Example of Daily Telegraph use of "Ulster" in text of an article, having used "Northern Ireland" in the opening paragraph. Some nationalist and republican-leaning media outlets in Ireland almost always use "North of Ireland" or the "Six Counties". Daily Ireland usage of "The North" and the "Six Counties". Government and cultural organisations in Northern Ireland, particularly those pre-dating the 1980s, often use the word "Ulster" in their title; for example, the University of Ulster, the Ulster Museum, the Ulster American Folk Park, the Ulster Orchestra, and BBC Radio Ulster. Many news bulletins since the 1990s have opted to avoid all contentious terms and use the official name, Northern Ireland. The North is still used by some news bulletins in the Republic, to the annoyance of some Unionists. Bertie Ahern, the previous Taoiseach, now almost always refers to Northern Ireland in public, having previously only used The North. For Northern Ireland's second largest city, broadcasting outlets which are unaligned to either community and broadcast to both use both names interchangeably, often starting a report with "Londonderry" and then using "Derry" in the rest of the report. However, within Northern Ireland, print media which are aligned to either community (the News Letter is aligned to the unionist community while the Irish News is aligned to the nationalist community) generally use their community's preferred term. British newspapers with unionist leanings, such as the Daily Telegraph, usually use the language of the unionist community. Daily Telegraph usage In its style guide, The Guardian recommends using "Derry" and "Co Derry", and "not Londonderry". The Guardian style guide The media in the Republic use the names preferred by nationalists. RTÉ News usage Whether this is all an official editorial policy or a personal preference by the writers is unknown. The division in nomenclature is seen particularly in sports and religions associated with one of the communities. Gaelic games use Derry, for example. Nor is there clear agreement on how to decide on a name. When the nationalist-controlled local council voted to re-name the city "Derry" unionists objected, stating that as it owed its city status to a Royal Charter, only a charter issued by the Queen could change the name. The Queen has not intervened on the matter and thus the council is now called "Derry City Council" while the city is still officially "Londonderry". Nevertheless, the council has printed two sets of stationery - one for each term - and their policy is to reply to correspondence using whichever term the original sender used. At times of high communal tension, each side regularly complains of the use of the nomenclature associated with the other community by a third party such as a media organisation, claiming such usage indicates evident "bias" against their community. Law Northern Ireland's legal and administrative systems have evolved from those in place in pre-partition United Kingdom, and were developed by its devolved government from 1921 until 1972. From 1972 until 1999 (except for a brief period in 1974), laws and administration relating to Northern Ireland were handled directly from Westminster. Between the years 1999 and 2002 (except during a brief suspension), and since May 2007, devolution has returned to Northern Ireland. Economy Cranes at Harland & Wolff shipyard, now diversified into heavy manufacturing for the renewable energy industry. The Northern Ireland economy is the smallest of the four economies making up the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland has traditionally had an industrial economy, most notably in shipbuilding, rope manufacture and textiles, but most heavy industry has since been replaced by services, primarily the public sector. Tourism also plays a big role in the local economy. More recently the economy has benefited from major investment by many large multi-national corporations into high tech industry. These large organisations are attracted by government subsidies and the skilled workforce in Northern Ireland. Despite the presence of many multi-national corporations, the largest employer in the country is the Government. Transport Larne Harbour Northern Ireland is served by three airports - Belfast International near Antrim, George Best Belfast City in East Belfast, and City of Derry in County Londonderry. Major sea ports at Larne and Belfast carry passengers and freight between Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Passenger railways are operated by Northern Ireland Railways. With Iarnrod Éireann (Irish Rail), Northern Ireland Railways co-operates in providing the joint Enterprise service between Dublin and Belfast. Main motorways are: M1 connecting Belfast to the south and west, ending in Dungannon M2 connecting Belfast to the north M3 is a motorway bridge connecting the M1 and M2 in Belfast with the A2 dual carriageway to Bangor M5 connecting Belfast to Carrickfergus The cross-border European Route E01 is a major -funded cross-border route that will eventually upgrade the road connecting the ports between Larne in Northern Ireland and Rosslare in the Republic of Ireland. Culture An Ulster fry, served in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The Twelfth is a Bank & Public Holiday and an annual Protestant event, involving Orange parades. With its improved international reputation, Northern Ireland has recently witnessed rising numbers of tourists. Attractions include cultural festivals, musical and artistic traditions, countryside and geographical sites of interest, public houses, welcoming hospitality and sports (especially golf and fishing). Since 1987 public houses have been allowed to open on Sundays, despite some opposition. The Ulster Cycle is a large body of prose and verse centring around the traditional heroes of the Ulaid in what is now eastern Ulster. This is one of the four major cycles of Irish Mythology. The cycle centres around the reign of Conchobar mac Nessa, who is said to have been king of Ulster around the time of Christ. He ruled from Emain Macha (now Navan Fort near Armagh), and had a fierce rivalry with queen Medb and king Ailill of Connacht and their ally, Fergus mac Róich, former king of Ulster. The foremost hero of the cycle is Conchobar's nephew Cúchulainn. Languages The Mid Ulster dialect of English spoken in Northern Ireland shows influence from Scotland, with the use of such Scots words as wee for 'little' and aye for 'yes'. Some jocularly call this dialect phonetically by the name Norn Iron. There are supposedly some minute differences in pronunciation between Protestants and Catholics, the best known of which is the name of the letter h, which Protestants tend to pronounce as "aitch", as in British English, and Catholics tend to pronounce as "haitch", as in Hiberno-English. However, geography is a much more important determinant of dialect than ethnic background. English is spoken as a first language by almost 100% of the Northern Irish population, though under the Good Friday Agreement, Irish and Ulster Scots (one of the dialects of the Scots language), sometimes known as Ullans, have recognition as "part of the cultural wealth of Northern Ireland". Multilingual sign in English, Irish Gaelic, and Ulster Scots. The Irish language is the native language of the whole island of Ireland. It was spoken predominantly throughout what is now Northern Ireland before the settlement of Protestants from Great Britain in the 17th century. Most placenames throughout Northern Ireland are anglicised versions of their Gaelic originals. These Gaelic placenames include thousands of lanes, roads, townlands, towns, villages and all of its modern cities. Examples include Belfast- derived from Béal Feirste, Shankill- derived from Sean Cill and Lough Neagh- derived from Loch nEathach. In Northern Ireland the Irish language has long been associated with Irish nationalism. The language was seen as a common heritage and indeed the object of affection by many prominent 19th century Protestant republicans and Protestant unionists. There are three main dialects in the island of Ireland—Ulster, Munster and Connaught. Speakers of each dialect often find others difficult to understand. Speakers in Northern Ireland speak the Ulster dialect. In the early years of the 20th century, the language became a political football throughout Ireland as Republican activists became increasingly linked with it. In the 20th century, the language became in Unionist eyes increasingly polarised for political ends and many in that community would blame Sinn Féin in this regard. After Ireland was partitioned, the language was largely rejected in the education system of the new Northern Ireland. It is argued Protestants and the Irish Language: Historical Heritage and Current Attitudes in Northern Ireland Rosalind M.O. Pritchard University of Ulster at Coleraine, UK that the predominant use of the English language may have served to exacerbate the Troubles. The erection by some Local District Councils of legal bilingual street names (English/Irish), The Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Northern Ireland) Order 1995 (No. 759 (N.I. 5)) invariably in predominantly Catholic/Nationalist/Republican districts, may be perceived as creating a 'chill factor' by Unionists and as such not conducive to fostering good cross community relationships. However other countries within the United Kingdom, such as Wales and Scotland, enjoy the use of Bilingual signs in Welsh and Scots Gaelic respectively. Because of this, nationalists in Northern Ireland argue for equality in this regard. In responses to the 2001 census in Northern Ireland 10% of the population claimed "some knowledge of Irish", Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency Census 2001 Output 4.7% to "speak, read, write and understand" Irish. It was not asked as part of the census but in a poll, 1% of respondents said they speak it as their main language at home. Northern Ireland LIFE & TIMES Survey: What is the main language spoken in your own home? Following a public consultation, the decision was taken not to introduce specific legislation for the Irish language at this time, despite 75% of the (self-selecting) respondents stating that they were in favour of such legislation. A Statement by Edwin Poots MLA, Minister of Culture, Arts and Leisure, to the Northern Ireland Assembly on the proposal to introduce Irish Language legislation. 16 October 2007 Ulster Gaelic/Ulster Irish or Donegal Gaelic/Irish, is the dialect which is nearest to Scots Gaelic. Some words and phrases of the dialect are shared with Scots Gaelic. The dialects of East Ulster - those of Rathlin Island and the Glens of Antrim - were very similar to the Scots Gaelic dialect formerly spoken in Argyll, the part of Scotland nearest to Rathlin Island. The Ulster Gaelic is the most central dialect of Gaelic, both geographically and linguistically, of the once vast Gaelic speaking world, stretching from the south of Ireland to the north of Scotland. At the beginning of the 20th century, Munster Irish was favoured by many revivalists, with a shift to Connaught Irish in the 1960s, which is now the preferred dialect by many in Ireland. Many younger speakers of Irish experience less confusion with dialects due to the expansion of Irish-language broadcasting (TG4) and the exposure to a variety of dialects. There are fewer problems regarding written Irish as there is a standardised spelling and grammar, created by the Irish Government, which was supposed to reflect a compromise between various dialect forms. However, Ulster Irish speakers find that Ulster forms are generally not favoured by the standard. The dialect is often stigmatised in the non Ulster counties of Ireland, although all learners of Irish in Northern Ireland use this form of the language. Self-instruction courses in Ulster Irish include Now You’re Talking and Tús maith. The writer Séamus Ó Searcaigh RIP, once warned about the Irish Government's attempts at producing a Caighdeán or Standard for the Gaelic language in Ireland in 1953, when he wrote that what will emerge will be "Gaedhilg nach mbéidh suim againn inntí mar nár fhás sí go nádúrtha as an teangaidh a thug Gaedhil go hÉirinn" (A Gaelic which is of no interest to us, for it has not developed naturally from the language brought to Ireland by the Gaels). The Ulster Irish dialect is spoken throughout the area of the historical nine county Ulster, in particular the Gaeltacht region of County Donegal and the Gaeltacht Quarter of West Belfast. Mayo Irish has strong ties with Donegal Irish. Ulster Scots comprises varieties of the Scots language spoken in Northern Ireland. Aodán Mac Poilín Aodan Mac Poilin, 1999, "Language, Identity and Politics in Northern Ireland" in Ulster Folk Life Vol. 45, 1999 states that "While most argue that Ulster-Scots is a dialect or variant of Scots, some have argued or implied that Ulster-Scots is a separate language from Scots. The case for Ulster-Scots being a distinct language, made at a time when the status of Scots itself was insecure, is so bizarre that it is unlikely to have been a linguistic argument." Approximately 2% of the population claim to speak Ulster Scots, Northern Ireland LIFE & TIMES Survey: Do you yourself speak Ulster-Scots? however the number speaking it as their main language in their home is negligible. Classes at colleges can now be taken but for a native English speaker "[the language] is comparatively accessible, and even at its most intense can be understood fairly easily with the help of a glossary." The St Andrews Agreement recognises the need to "enhance and develop the Ulster Scots language, heritage and culture". There are an increasing number of ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland. Chinese and Urdu are spoken by Northern Ireland's Asian communities; though the Chinese community is often referred to as the "third largest" community in Northern Ireland, it is tiny by international standards. Since the accession of new member states to the European Union in 2004, Central and Eastern European languages, particularly Polish, are becoming increasingly common. The most common sign language in Northern Ireland is British Sign Language (BSL), but as Catholics tended to send their deaf children to schools in Dublin (St Joseph's Institute for Deaf Boys and St. Mary's Institute for Deaf Girls), Irish Sign Language (ISL) is commonly used in the Nationalist community. The two languages are not related: BSL is in the British family (which also includes Auslan), and ISL is in the French family (which also includes American Sign Language). Sport In Northern Ireland, sport is popular and important in the lives of many people. Sports tend to be organised on an all-Ireland basis including both Northern Ireland and the Republic, as in the case of Gaelic football, rugby, hockey, basketball, cricket and hurling. How do other sports in the island cope with the situation? The Herald, April 3, 2008 The main exception is association football (soccer), which has separate governing bodies for each jurisdiction. How do other sports in the island cope with the situation? The Herald, April 3, 2008 Gaelic games Gaelic games include Gaelic football, hurling, Gaelic handball and rounders. Of the four, football is the most popular in Northern Ireland. Players play for local clubs with the best being selected for their county teams: Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh and Tyrone. The Ulster GAA is the branch of the Gaelic Athletic Association that is responsible for all nine counties of Ulster, including the six that are in Northern Ireland. All nine field teams in the Ulster Senior Football Championship, Ulster Senior Hurling Championship, All-Ireland Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship. Recent successes for Northern Ireland's teams include Armagh's 2002 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship win and Tyrone's wins in 2003, 2005 and 2008. Association football (soccer) The Irish Football Association (IFA) is the organising body for soccer in Northern Ireland. The highest level of competition within Northern Ireland is the IFA Premiership. There is also an all-island tournament, the Setanta Cup, which includes four IFA Premiership teams and four teams from the Republic's league. However, the best Northern Irish players tend to play for clubs in Great Britain in the English or Scottish leagues. Despite Northern Ireland's small population, its international team has had a number of notable successes including World Cup quarter-final appearances in 1958 and 1982. Rugby union Similar to Gaelic games, Northern Ireland's six counties are among the nine governed by the Ulster branch of the all-island governing body, the Irish Rugby Football Union. Ulster is one of the four professional provincial teams in the island of Ireland and competes in the Celtic League and European Cup. Ulster won the European Cup in 1999. In international competition, players from Northern Ireland represent the Ireland national rugby team, whose recent successes include four Triple Crowns between 2004 and 2009 and a Grand Slam in 2009. Education Queen's University Belfast Education in Northern Ireland differs slightly from systems used elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Unlike most areas of the United Kingdom, in the last year of Primary school children sit the eleven plus transfer test, and the results determine whether they attend grammar schools or secondary schools. This system was due to be changed in 2008 amidst some controversy, with the exception of North Armagh where the Dickson Plan is in effect. Northern Ireland's state (controlled) schools are open to all children in Northern Ireland, although in practice are mainly attended by those from Protestant or non-religious backgrounds. There is a separate publicly funded school system provided for Roman Catholics, although Roman Catholics are free to attend state schools (and some non-Roman Catholics attend Roman Catholic schools). Integrated schools, which attempt to ensure a balance in enrolment between pupils of Protestant, Roman Catholic and other faiths (or none) are becoming increasingly popular, although Northern Ireland still has a primarily de facto religiously segregated education system. In the Primary School Sector, forty schools (8.9% of the total number) are Integrated Schools and thirty two (7.2% of the total number) are Gaelscoileanna. See: List of Gaelic medium primary schools in Northern Ireland List of primary schools in Northern Ireland List of grammar schools in Northern Ireland List of secondary schools in Northern Ireland List of integrated schools in Northern Ireland There are two main universities in Northern Ireland - The Queen's University of Belfast, and the University of Ulster. See also Common Travel Area National parks of Northern Ireland National Trust Properties in Northern Ireland Northern Ireland national football team Republic of Ireland-United Kingdom border The Ireland Funds Lists List of cultural icons of Northern Ireland List of notable people from Northern Ireland Footnotes Further reading Jonathan Bardon, A History of Ulster (Blackstaff Press, Belfast, 1992), ISBN 0-85640-476-4 Brian E. Barton, The Government of Northern Ireland, 1920—1923 (Athol Books, 1980). Paul Bew, Peter Gibbon and Henry Patterson The State in Northern Ireland, 1921—72: Political Forces and Social Classes, Manchester (Manchester University Press, 1979) Robert Kee, The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism (Penguin, 1972–2000), ISBN 0-14-029165-2 Osborne Morton, 1994. Marine Algae of Northern Ireland Ulster Museum, Belfast. Henry Patterson, "Ireland Since 1939: The Persistence of Conflict" (Penguin, 2006), ISBN 978-1-844-88104-8 Hackney, P. (Ed).1992. Stewart's and Corry's Flora of the North-east of Ireland. Third edition. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast. 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1,837 | Galaxy | NGC 4414, a typical spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices, is about 17,000 parsecs in diameter and approximately 20 million parsecs distant. A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of stars and stellar remnants, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and an important but poorly understood component tentatively dubbed dark matter. The name is from the Greek root galaxias [γαλαξίας], meaning "milky," a reference to the Milky Way galaxy. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with one trillion (1012) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies can also contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun. Historically, galaxies have been categorized according to their apparent shape (usually referred to as their visual morphology). A common form is the elliptical galaxy, which has an ellipse-shaped light profile. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped assemblages with curving, dusty arms. Galaxies with irregular or unusual shapes are known as peculiar galaxies, and typically result from disruption by the gravitational pull of neighboring galaxies. Such interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in galaxies merging, may induce episodes of significantly increased star formation, producing what is called a starburst galaxy. Small galaxies that lack a coherent structure could also be referred to as irregular galaxies. There are probably more than 100 billion (1011) galaxies in the observable universe. Most galaxies are 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or megaparsecs). Intergalactic space (the space between galaxies) is filled with a tenuous gas of an average density less than one atom per cubic meter. The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which, in turn, can form larger groups called superclusters. These larger structures are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe. Although it is not yet well understood, dark matter appears to account for around 90% of the mass of most galaxies. Observational data suggests that supermassive black holes may exist at the center of many, if not all, galaxies. They are proposed to be the primary cause of active galactic nuclei found at the core of some galaxies. The Milky Way galaxy appears to harbor at least one such object within its nucleus. Etymology The word galaxy derives from the Greek term for our own galaxy, galaxias (γαλαξίας), or kyklos galaktikos, meaning "milky circle" for its appearance in the sky. In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son born by a mortal woman, the infant Heracles, on Hera's breast while she is asleep so that the baby will drink her divine milk and will thus become immortal. Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing an unknown baby: she pushes the baby away and a jet of her milk sprays the night sky, producing the faint band of light known as the Milky Way. In the astronomical literature, the capitalized word 'Galaxy' is used to refer to our (Milky Way) galaxy, to distinguish it from the billions of other galaxies. The term Milky Way first appeared in the English language in a poem by Chaucer. When William Herschel constructed his catalog of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for certain objects such as M31. These would later be recognized as immense conglomerations of stars, when the true distance to these objects began to be appreciated, and they would be termed island universes. However, the word universe was understood to mean the entirety of existence, so this expression fell into disuse and the objects instead became known as galaxies. Observation history The realization that we live in a galaxy, and that there were, in fact, many other galaxies, parallels discoveries that were made about the Milky Way and other nebulae in the night sky. The Milky Way Galactic Center of Milky Way and a meteor The Greek philosopher Democritus (450–370 B.C.) proposed that the bright band on the night sky known as the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), however, believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions." The Arabian astronomer, Alhazen (965-1037 A.D.), refuted this by making the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's parallax, and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the earth and did not belong to the atmosphere." The Persian astronomer, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048), proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of countless nebulous stars. Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace", d. 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in the Earth's atmosphere. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292-1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars" and that these stars are larger than planets. Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his An original theory or new hypothesis of the universe, speculated (correctly) that the Galaxy might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces, akin to the solar system but on a much larger scale. The resulting disk of stars can be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright's idea about the structure of the Milky Way. The shape of the Milky Way as deduced from star counts by William Herschel in 1785; the solar system was assumed to be near the center. The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun in it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the solar system close to the center. Using a refined approach, Kapteyn in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diameter about 15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center. A different method by Harlow Shapley based on the cataloguing of globular clusters led to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diameter approximately 70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center. Both analyses failed to take into account the absorption of light by interstellar dust present in the galactic plane, but after Robert Julius Trumpler quantified this effect in 1930 by studying open clusters, the present picture of our galaxy, the Milky Way, emerged. Distinction from other nebulae Sketch of the Whirlpool Galaxy by Lord Rosse in 1845 In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi), made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a "small cloud". Al-Sufi also identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is visible from Yemen, though not from Isfahan; it was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage in the 16th century. These were the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth. Al-Sufi published his findings in his Book of Fixed Stars in 964. In 1054, the creation of the Crab Nebula resulting from the SN 1054 supernova was observed by Chinese and Arab/Persian astronomers. The Crab Nebula itself was observed centuries later by John Bevis in 1731, followed by Charles Messier in 1758 and then by the Earl of Rosse in the 1840s. K. Glyn Jones (1976), "The Search for the Nebulae", Journal of the History of Astronomy 7: 67 In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his An original theory or new hypothesis of the universe, speculated (correctly) that Milky Way was a flattened disk of stars, and that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate Milky Ways. See text quoted from Wright's An original theory or new hypothesis of the universe by Freeman Dyson, Disturbing the Universe, 1979, pg 245, ISBN 0330263242 In 1755 Immanuel Kant introduced the term "island universe" for these distant nebulae. Toward the end of the 18th century, Charles Messier compiled a catalog containing the 109 brightest nebulae (celestial objects with a nebulous appearance), later followed by a larger catalog of 5,000 nebulae assembled by William Herschel. In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's earlier conjecture. In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed a nova S Andromedae within the "Great Andromeda Nebula" (Messier object M31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within our galaxy. As a result he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis, which holds that spiral nebulae are actually independent galaxies. Photograph of the "Great Andromeda Nebula" from 1899, later identified as the Andromeda Galaxy In 1920 the so-called Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula was an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift. The matter was conclusively settled in the early 1920s. In 1922, astronomer Ernst Öpik gave a distance determination which supported the theory that the Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra-galactic object. Using the new 100 inch Mt. Wilson telescope, Edwin Hubble was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some Cepheid variables, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way. In 1936 Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to this day, the Hubble sequence. Modern research Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy: predicted (A) and observed (B). The distance is from the galactic core. In 1944 Hendrik van de Hulst predicted microwave radiation at a wavelength of 21 cm resulting from interstellar atomic hydrogen gas; this radiation was observed in 1951. The radiation allowed for much improved study of the Milky Way Galaxy, since it is not affected by dust absorption and its Doppler shift can be used to map the motion of the gas in the Galaxy. These observations led to the postulation of a rotating bar structure in the center of the Galaxy. With improved radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. In the 1970s it was discovered in Vera Rubin's study of the rotation speed of gas in galaxies that the total visible mass (from the stars and gas) does not properly account for the speed of the rotating gas. This galaxy rotation problem is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter. Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observations. Among other things, it established that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars. The Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion (1.25×1011) galaxies in the universe. Improved technology in detecting the spectra invisible to humans (radio telescopes, infrared cameras, and x-ray telescopes) allow detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the zone of avoidance (the region of the sky blocked by the Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies. Types and morphology Types of galaxies according to the Hubble classification scheme. An E indicates a type of elliptical galaxy; an S is a spiral; and SB is a barred-spiral galaxy. Galaxies to the left side of the Hubble classification scheme are sometimes referred to as "early-type", while those to the right are "late-type". Galaxies come in three main types: ellipticals, spirals, and irregulars. A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the Hubble sequence. Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type, it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as star formation rate (in starburst galaxies) and activity in the core (in active galaxies). Ellipticals The Hubble classification system rates elliptical galaxies on the basis of their ellipticity, ranging from E0, being nearly spherical, up to E7, which is highly elongated. These galaxies have an ellipsoidal profile, giving them an elliptical appearance regardless of the viewing angle. Their appearance shows little structure and they typically have relatively little interstellar matter. Consequently these galaxies also have a low portion of open clusters and a reduced rate of new star formation. Instead the galaxy is dominated by generally older, more evolved stars that are orbiting the common center of gravity in random directions. In this sense they have some similarity to the much smaller globular clusters. The largest galaxies are giant ellipticals. Many elliptical galaxies are believed to form due to the interaction of galaxies, resulting in a collision and merger. They can grow to enormous sizes (compared to spiral galaxies, for example), and giant elliptical galaxies are often found near the core of large galaxy clusters. Starburst galaxies are the result of such a galactic collision that can result in the formation of an elliptical galaxy. Spirals The Sombrero Galaxy, an example of an unbarred spiral galaxy. Spiral galaxies consist of a rotating disk of stars and interstellar medium, along with a central bulge of generally older stars. Extending outward from the bulge are relatively bright arms. In the Hubble classification scheme, spiral galaxies are listed as type S, followed by a letter (a, b, or c) that indicates the degree of tightness of the spiral arms and the size of the central bulge. An Sa galaxy has tightly wound, poorly defined arms and possesses a relatively large core region. At the other extreme, an Sc galaxy has open, well-defined arms and a small core region. In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms do have the shape of approximate logarithmic spirals, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms also rotate around the center, but they do so with constant angular velocity. That means that stars pass in and out of spiral arms, with stars near the galactic core orbiting faster than the arms are moving while stars near the outer parts of the galaxy typically orbit more slowly than the arms. The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high density matter, or "density waves". As stars move through an arm, the space velocity of each stellar system is modified by the gravitational force of the higher density. (The velocity returns to normal after the stars depart on the other side of the arm.) This effect is akin to a "wave" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation, and therefore they harbor many bright and young stars. NGC 1300, an example of a barred spiral galaxy. A majority of spiral galaxies have a linear, bar-shaped band of stars that extends outward to either side of the core, then merges into the spiral arm structure. In the Hubble classification scheme, these are designated by an SB, followed by a lower-case letter (a, b or c) that indicates the form of the spiral arms (in the same manner as the categorization of normal spiral galaxies). Bars are thought to be temporary structures that can occur as a result of a density wave radiating outward from the core, or else due to a tidal interaction with another galaxy. Many barred spiral galaxies are active, possibly as a result of gas being channeled into the core along the arms. Our own galaxy is a large disk-shaped barred-spiral galaxy about 30 kiloparsecs in diameter and a kiloparsec in thickness. It contains about two hundred billion (2×1011) stars and has a total mass of about six hundred billion (6×1011) times the mass of the Sun. Other morphologies Hoag's Object, an example of a ring galaxy. Peculiar galaxies are galactic formations that develop unusual properties due to tidal interactions with other galaxies. An example of this is the ring galaxy, which possesses a ring-like structure of stars and interstellar medium surrounding a bare core. A ring galaxy is thought to occur when a smaller galaxy passes through the core of a spiral galaxy. Such an event may have affected the Andromeda Galaxy, as it displays a multi-ring-like structure when viewed in infrared radiation. A lenticular galaxy is an intermediate form that has properties of both elliptical and spiral galaxies. These are categorized as Hubble type S0, and they possess ill-defined spiral arms with an elliptical halo of stars. (Barred lenticular galaxies receive Hubble classification SB0.) In addition to the classifications mentioned above, there are a number of galaxies that can not be readily classified into an elliptical or spiral morphology. These are categorized as irregular galaxies. An Irr-I galaxy has some structure but does not align cleanly with the Hubble classification scheme. Irr-II galaxies do not possess any structure that resembles a Hubble classification, and may have been disrupted. Nearby examples of (dwarf) irregular galaxies include the Magellanic Clouds. Dwarfs Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies in the universe appear to be dwarf galaxies. These tiny galaxies are about one hundredth the size of the Milky Way, containing only a few billion stars. Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies have recently been discovered that are only 100 parsecs across. Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites, with an estimated 300–500 yet to be discovered. Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instead. A study of 27 Milky Way neighbors found that dwarf galaxies were all approximately 10 million solar masses, regardless of whether they have thousands or millions of stars. This has led to the suggestion that galaxies are largely formed by dark matter, and that the minimum size may indicate a form of warm dark matter incapable of gravitational coalescence on a smaller scale. Unusual dynamics and activities Interacting The average separation between galaxies within a cluster is a little over an order of magnitude larger than their diameter. Hence interactions between these galaxies are relatively frequent, and play an important role in their evolution. Near misses between galaxies result in warping distortions due to tidal interactions, and may cause some exchange of gas and dust. The Antennae Galaxies are undergoing a collision that will result in their eventual merger. Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly through each other and have sufficient relative momentum not to merge. The stars within these interacting galaxies will typically pass straight through without colliding. However, the gas and dust within the two forms will interact. This can trigger bursts of star formation as the interstellar medium becomes disrupted and compressed. A collision can severely distort the shape of one or both galaxies, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures. At the extreme of interactions are galactic mergers. In this case the relative momentum of the two galaxies is insufficient to allow the galaxies to pass through each other. Instead, they gradually merge together to form a single, larger galaxy. Mergers can result in significant changes to morphology, as compared to the original galaxies. In the case where one of the galaxies is much more massive, however, the result is known as cannibalism. In this case the larger galaxy will remain relatively undisturbed by the merger, while the smaller galaxy is torn apart. The Milky Way galaxy is currently in the process of cannibalizing the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy and the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy. Starburst M82, the archetype starburst galaxy, has experienced a 10-fold increase in star formation rate as compared to a "normal" galaxy. Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms into giant molecular clouds. Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate, known as a starburst. Should they continue to do so, however, they would consume their reserve of gas in a time frame lower than the lifespan of the galaxy. Hence starburst activity usually lasts for only about ten million years, a relatively brief period in the history of a galaxy. Starburst galaxies were more common during the early history of the universe, and, at present, still contribute an estimated 15% to the total star production rate. Starburst galaxies are characterized by dusty concentrations of gas and the appearance of newly formed stars, including massive stars that ionize the surrounding clouds to create H II regions. These massive stars also produce supernova explosions, resulting in expanding remnants that interact powerfully with the surrounding gas. These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of star building that spreads throughout the gaseous region. Only when the available gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the starburst activity come to an end. Starbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies. The prototype example of such a starburst-forming interaction is M82, which experienced a close encounter with the larger M81. Irregular galaxies often exhibit spaced knots of starburst activity. Active nucleus A portion of the galaxies we can observe are classified as active. That is, a significant portion of the total energy output from the galaxy is emitted by a source other than the stars, dust and interstellar medium. The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based upon an accretion disc that forms around a supermassive black hole (SMBH) at the core region. The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational energy of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc. In about 10% of these objects, a diametrically opposed pair of energetic jets ejects particles from the core at velocities close to the speed of light. The mechanism for producing these jets is still not well understood. A jet of particles is being emitted from the core of the elliptical radio galaxy M87. Active galaxies that emit high-energy radiation in the form of x-rays are classified as Seyfert galaxies or quasars, depending on the luminosity. Blazars are believed to be an active galaxy with a relativistic jet that is pointed in the direction of the Earth. A radio galaxy emits radio frequencies from relativistic jets. A unified model of these types of active galaxies explains their differences based on the viewing angle of the observer. Possibly related to active galactic nuclei (as well as starburst regions) are low-ionization nuclear emission-line regions (LINERs). The emission from LINER-type galaxies is dominated by weakly ionized elements. Approximately one-third of nearby galaxies are classified as containing LINER nuclei. Formation and evolution The study of galactic formation and evolution attempts to answer questions regarding how galaxies formed and their evolutionary path over the history of the universe. Some theories in this field have now become widely accepted, but it is still an active area in astrophysics. Formation Current cosmological models of the early Universe are based on the Big Bang theory. About 300,000 years after this event, atoms of hydrogen and helium began to form, in an event called recombination. Nearly all the hydrogen was neutral (non-ionized) and readily absorbed light, and no stars had yet formed. As a result this period has been called the "Dark Ages". It was from density fluctuations (or anisotropic irregularities) in this primordial matter that larger structures began to appear. As a result, masses of baryonic matter started to condense within cold dark matter halos. These primordial structures would eventually become the galaxies we see today. Evidence for the early appearance of galaxies was found in 2006, when it was discovered that the galaxy IOK-1 has an unusually high redshift of 6.96, corresponding to just 750 million years after the Big Bang and making it the most distant and primordial galaxy yet seen. While some scientists have claimed other objects (such as Abell 1835 IR1916) have higher redshifts (and therefore are seen in an earlier stage of the Universe's evolution), IOK-1's age and composition have been more reliably established. The existence of such early protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so-called "Dark Ages". The detailed process by which such early galaxy formation occurred is a major open question in astronomy. Theories could be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down theories (such as the Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage [ELS] model), protogalaxies form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about one hundred million years. In bottom-up theories (such as the Searle-Zinn [SZ] model), small structures such as globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy. Modern theories must be modified to account for the probable presence of large dark matter halos. Once protogalaxies began to form and contract, the first halo stars (called Population III stars) appeared within them. These were composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, and may have been massive. If so, these huge stars would have quickly consumed their supply of fuel and became supernovae, releasing heavy elements into the interstellar medium. This first generation of stars re-ionized the surrounding neutral hydrogen, creating expanding bubbles of space through which light could readily travel. Evolution I Zwicky 18 (lower left) resembles a newly formed galaxy. Within a billion years of a galaxy's formation, key structures begin to appear. Globular clusters, the central supermassive black hole, and a galactic bulge of metal-poor Population II stars form. The creation of a supermassive black hole appears to play a key role in actively regulating the growth of galaxies by limiting the total amount of additional matter added. During this early epoch, galaxies undergo a major burst of star formation. During the following two billion years, the accumulated matter settles into a galactic disc. A galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from high velocity clouds and dwarf galaxies throughout its life. This matter is mostly hydrogen and helium. The cycle of stellar birth and death slowly increases the abundance of heavy elements, eventually allowing the formation of planets. The evolution of galaxies can be significantly affected by interactions and collisions. Mergers of galaxies were common during the early epoch, and the majority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology. Given the distances between the stars, the great majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However, gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars known as tidal tails. Examples of these formations can be seen in NGC 4676 or the Antennae Galaxies. As an example of such an interaction, the Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are moving toward each other at about 130 km/s, and—depending upon the lateral movements—the two may collide in about five to six billion years. Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, evidence of past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller dwarf galaxies is increasing. Such large-scale interactions are rare. As time passes, mergers of two systems of equal size become less common. Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally unchanged for the last few billion years, and the net rate of star formation probably also peaked approximately ten billion years ago. Future trends At present, most star formation occurs in smaller galaxies where cool gas is not so depleted. Spiral galaxies, like the Milky Way, only produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms. Elliptical galaxies are already largely devoid of this gas, and so form no new stars. The supply of star-forming material is finite; once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end. The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (1013–1014 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our astrosphere, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold ("black dwarfs"), neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions. Larger-scale structures Deep sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in relatively close association with other galaxies. Solitary galaxies that have not significantly interacted with another galaxy of comparable mass during the past billion years are relatively scarce. Only about 5% of the galaxies surveyed have been found to be truly isolated; however, these isolated formations may have interacted and even merged with other galaxies in the past, and may still be orbited by smaller, satellite galaxies. Isolated galaxies The term "field galaxy" is sometimes used to mean an isolated galaxy, although the same term is also used to describe galaxies that do not belong to a cluster but may be a member of a group of galaxies. can produce stars at a higher rate than normal, as their gas is not being stripped by other, nearby galaxies. On the largest scale, the universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies (see Hubble's law). Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction. These associations formed early in the universe, as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together. Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters. This on-going merger process (as well as an influx of infalling gas) heats the inter-galactic gas within a cluster to very high temperatures, reaching 30–100 million K. About 70–80% of the mass in a cluster is in the form of dark matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent of the matter in the form of galaxies. Seyfert's Sextet is an example of a compact galaxy group. Most galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies. These form a fractal-like hierarchy of clustered structures, with the smallest such associations being termed groups. A group of galaxies is the most common type of galactic cluster, and these formations contain a majority of the galaxies (as well as most of the baryonic mass) in the universe. To remain gravitationally bound to such a group, each member galaxy must have a sufficiently low velocity to prevent it from escaping (see Virial theorem). If there is insufficient kinetic energy, however, the group may evolve into a smaller number of galaxies through mergers. Larger structures containing many thousands of galaxies packed into an area a few megaparsecs across are called clusters. Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, known as the brightest cluster galaxy, which, over time, tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own. Superclusters contain tens of thousands of galaxies, which are found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually. At the supercluster scale, galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids. Above this scale, the universe appears to be isotropic and homogeneous. The Milky Way galaxy is a member of an association named the Local Group, a relatively small group of galaxies that has a diameter of approximately one megaparsec. The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are the two brightest galaxies within the group; many of the other member galaxies are dwarf companions of these two galaxies. The Local Group itself is a part of a cloud-like structure within the Virgo Supercluster, a large, extended structure of groups and clusters of galaxies centered around the Virgo Cluster. Multi-wavelength observation After galaxies external to the Milky Way were found to exist, initial observations were made mostly using visible light. The peak radiation of most stars lies here, so the observation of the stars that form galaxies has been a major component of optical astronomy. It is also a favorable portion of the spectrum for observing ionized H II regions, and for examining the distribution of dusty arms. The dust present in the interstellar medium is opaque to visual light. It is more transparent to far-infrared, which can be used to observe the interior regions of giant molecular clouds and galactic cores in great detail. Infrared is also used to observe distant, red-shifted galaxies that were formed much earlier in the history of the universe. Water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb a number of useful portions of the infrared spectrum, so high-altitude or space-based telescopes are used for infrared astronomy. The first non-visual study of galaxies, particularly active galaxies, was made using radio frequencies. The atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 MHz and 30 GHz. (The ionosphere blocks signals below this range.) Large radio interferometers have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei. Radio telescopes can also be used to observe neutral hydrogen (via 21 centimetre radiation), including, potentially, the non-ionized matter in the early universe that later collapsed to form galaxies. Ultraviolet and X-ray telescopes can observe highly energetic galactic phenomena. An ultraviolet flare was observed when a star in a distant galaxy was torn apart from the tidal forces of a black hole. The distribution of hot gas in galactic clusters can be mapped by X-rays. The existence of super-massive black holes at the cores of galaxies was confirmed through X-ray astronomy. See also Galactic orientation List of galaxies List of nearest galaxies Luminous infrared galaxy Supermassive black hole Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure Notes References Bibliography External links Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages An Atlas of The Universe Galaxies — Information and amateur observations The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found Galaxies — discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain be-x-old:Галяктыка | Galaxy |@lemmatized ngc:3 typical:3 spiral:39 galaxy:242 constellation:1 coma:1 berenices:1 parsec:5 diameter:7 approximately:6 million:9 distant:8 massive:6 gravitationally:3 bound:1 system:11 consist:5 star:81 stellar:6 remnant:2 interstellar:13 medium:7 gas:24 dust:9 important:3 poorly:2 understood:4 component:2 tentatively:1 dub:1 dark:13 matter:21 name:3 greek:4 root:1 galaxias:2 γαλαξίας:2 mean:5 milky:43 reference:2 way:41 range:3 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1,838 | Aruba | Aruba () is a -long island of the Lesser Antilles in the southern Caribbean Sea, north of the Paraguaná Peninsula, Falcón State, Venezuela. Together with Bonaire and Curaçao it forms a group referred to as the ABC islands of the Leeward Antilles, the southern island chain of the Lesser Antilles. An autonomous region within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Aruba has no administrative subdivisions. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. It has a land area of and lies outside the hurricane belt. History Aruba's first inhabitants are thought to have been Caquetíos Amerinds from the Arawak tribe, who migrated there from Venezuela to escape attacks by the Caribs. Fragments of the earliest known Indian settlements date back from 1,000 AD. Sea currents made canoe travel to other Caribbean islands difficult, thus Caquetio culture remained closer to that of mainland South America. The capital Oranjestad Europeans first learned of Aruba when Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda happened upon it in August 1499. Aruba from the CIA World Factbook Vespucci, in one of his four letters to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, described his voyage to the islands along the coast of Venezuela. He wrote about an island where most trees are of brazil wood and, from this island, he went to one ten leagues away, where they had houses built as in Venice. In another letter he described a small island inhabited by very large people, which the expedition thought was not inhabited. Aruba was colonized by Spain for over a century. The Cacique or Indian Chief in Aruba, Simas, welcomed the first priests in Aruba and received from them a wooden cross as a gift. In 1508, Alonso de Ojeda was appointed as Spain's first Governor of Aruba, as part of "Nueva Andalucía." Another governor appointed by Spain was Juan Martinez de Ampíes. A "cédula real" decreed in November 1525 gave Ampíes, factor of Española, the right to repopulate the depopulated islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire. The natives under Spanish rule enjoyed more liberty than the average northern European farmer of the period. In 1528, Ampíes was replaced by a representative of the "House of Welser". Aruba has been under Dutch administration since 1636, initially under Peter Stuyvesant. Stuyvesant was on a special mission in Aruba in November and December 1642. Under the Dutch W.I.C. administration, as "New Netherland and Curaçao" from 1648 to 1664 and the Dutch government regulations of 1629, also applied in Aruba. The Dutch administration appointed an Irishman as "Commandeur" in Aruba in 1667. The United Kingdom occupied Aruba from the years 1799 to 1802 and from 1805 to 1816. In August 1806, General Francisco de Miranda and a group of 200 freedom fighters on their voyage to liberate Venezuela from Spain stayed in Aruba for several weeks. In 1933 Aruba sent its first petition for Aruba's separate status and autonomy to the Queen. During World War II, together with Curaçao the then world-class exporting oil refineries were the main suppliers of refined products to the Allies. Aruba became a British protectorate from 1940 to 1942 and a US protectorate from 1942 to 1945. On February 16, 1942, its oil processing refinery was attacked by a German submarine (U-156) under the command of Werner Hartenstein, but the mission failed. U-156 was later destroyed by a US plane as the crew was sunbathing; only one survived. In March 1944, Eleanor Roosevelt briefly visited American troops stationed in Aruba. In attendance were: His Excellency, Dr. P. Kasteel, the Governor of Curaçao, and his aide, Lieutenant Ivan Lansberg; Rear Admiral T. E. Chandler and his Aide, Lieutenant W. L. Edgington; Captain Jhr. W. Boreel and his aide, Lieutenant E. O. Holmberg; and the Netherlands aide to Mrs. Roosevelt, Lieutenant Commander v.d. Schatte Olivier. The island's economy has been dominated by five main industries: gold mining, phosphate mining (The Aruba Phosphaat Maatschappij), aloe export, petroleum refineries (The Lago Oil & Transport Company and the Arend Petroleum Maatschappij Shell Co.), and tourism. Politics Queen Beatrix is the head of state of Aruba Parliament of Aruba in Oranjestad. As a Constituent Country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Aruba's politics take place within a framework of a 21-member Parliament and an eight-member Cabinet. The governor of Aruba is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch, and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are elected by the Staten (or "Parlamento") for four-year terms. The Staten is made up of 21 members elected by direct, popular vote to serve a four-year term. Together, the State of the Netherlands, the State of the Netherlands Antilles, and the State of Aruba form a Commonwealth. As they share the same Dutch citizenship, these three countries still also share the Dutch passport as the Kingdom of the Netherlands passport. As Aruba and the Antilles have small populations, the two countries had to limit immigration. To protect their population, they have the right to control the admission of Netherlands nationals. There is the supervision of the admission and expulsion of Netherlands nationals and the setting of general conditions for the admission and expulsion of aliens. The move toward independence In August 1947, Aruba presented its first "Staatsreglement" (constitution), for Aruba's "status aparte" as the status of a completely separate and autonomous state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, under the authority of the Dutch crown. This is the same as in the UK's Statute of Westminster, an equal status of the Dominion Parliaments with the British Parliament, where the Dominions were under the authority of the crown and not of the government of the UK. In November 1955, J. Irausquin of Aruba's PPA political party spoke in front of the United Nations Trust Committee. He ended his speech saying that in the future there will be changes to come. In 1972, at a conference in Suriname, Betico Croes (MEP) proposed a "sui-generis" Dutch Commonwealth of four states: Aruba, the Netherlands, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles, each with its own nationality. Mr. C. Yarzagaray, a parliamentary member representing the AVP political party, proposed a referendum for the people of Aruba to determine Aruba's separate status or "Status Aparte" as a full autonomous state under the crown. He proclaimed: "Aruba shall never accept a federation and a second class nationality." Betico Croes worked in Aruba to inform and prepare the people of Aruba for independence. In 1976, a committee appointed by Croes introduced the national flag and anthem as the symbols of Aruba's sovereignty and independence, and he also set 1981 as a target for Aruba's independence. In March 1977, the first Referendum for Self Determination was held with the support of the United Nations and 82% of the participants voted for independence. The Island Government of Aruba assigned the Institute of Social Studies in The Hague to prepare a study of Aruba's independence, which was published in 1978, titled "Aruba en Onafhankelijkheid, achtergronden, modaliteiten en mogelijkheden; een rapport in eerste aanleg". At the conference in the Hague in 1981, Aruba's independence was then set for the year 1991. In March 1983, based on the Referendum, Aruba finally reached an official (de-colonization) agreement with the State of the Netherlands, the State of the Netherlands Antilles and the Island Governments, for Aruba's Independence, first becoming an autonomous country and member state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with its own constitution, unanimously approved and proclaimed in August 1985, and after an election held for Aruba's first parliament, Aruba officially became a member state of the Kingdom of the Netherlands on January 1, 1986, with full independence set for 1996, within a Dutch Commonwealth of sovereign states. This achievement is largely due to the late Betico Croes and the political support of other nations like the USA, Panama, Venezuela and various European countries. Croes was later proclaimed "Libertador di Aruba" after his tragic death in 1986. In 1990, movement toward independence was postponed upon the request of Aruba's Prime Minister, Nelson O. Oduber. The article scheduling Aruba’s complete independence was rescinded in 1995, although the process can begin again after a referendum. Since January 1, 1986, the Kingdom has consisted of three completely autonomous, constitutionally equal countries: the Netherlands, the Netherlands Antilles, and Aruba. Although the “equal status” of the countries is explicitly laid down in the preamble to the Charter, which states "..considering that they have expressed freely their will to establish a new constitutional order in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in which they will conduct their internal interests autonomously and their common interests on a basis of equality, and in which they will accord each other reciprocal assistance, have resolved by mutual consent", in practice, the Netherlands has considerably more power than either the Netherlands Antilles or Aruba. Law Legal jurisdiction lies with a Gerecht in Eerste Aanleg (Court of First Instance) on Aruba, a Gemeenschappelijk Hof van Justitie voor de Nederlandse Antillen en Aruba (Common Court of Justice of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba) and the Hoge Raad der Nederlanden (Supreme Court of Justice of the Netherlands). Education Aruba’s educational system, patterned after the Dutch system, provides for education at all levels. The Government finances the national education system, except for private schools, such as the International School of Aruba (ISA), which finance their own activities. The percentage of money earmarked for education is higher than the average for the Caribbean/Latin American region. Arubans benefit from a strong primary school education. A segmented secondary school program includes vocational training (VMBO), basic education (MAVO), college prep (HAVO) and advanced placement (VWO). Higher education goals can be pursued through the Professional Education program (EPI), the teachers college (IPA) as well as through the University of Aruba (UA) which offers bachelors and masters programs in law, finance and economics and hospitality and tourism management. Since the choice for higher education on the island itself is limited, many students choose to study abroad in countries in North America, South America as well as Europe. There are 68 schools for primary education, 12 schools for secondary education and 5 Universities. In 2007, there were 22.930 fulltime students registered. There are also two main private medical schools in Aruba, All Saints University of Medicine and Xavier University, School of Medicine (XUSOM) http://imed.ecfmg.org/ . All courses are presented in English http://www.asumaruba.org/ . Both school curricula are based on the United States medical school model and will lead to a Doctor of Medicine degree that is recognized in North America. Geography Map of Aruba Natural bridge in Aruba Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc of the Lesser Antilles. Aruba is renowned for its white, sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts of the island, relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents, and this is where most tourist development has taken place. The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans. The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills, the best known of which are called Hooiberg at 165 meters (541 ft) and Mount Jamanota, the highest on the island at 188 metres (617 ft) above sea level. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at . To the east of Aruba are Bonaire and Curaçao, two island territories which form the southwest part of the Netherlands Antilles; Aruba and these two Netherlands Antilles islands are sometimes called the ABC islands. The isothermal temperature of Aruba's pleasantly tropical marine climate attracts tourists to the island all year round. Temperature varies little from 28 °C (82 °F), moderated by constant trade winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Yearly precipitation barely reaches 500 mm (19.7 in), most of it falling in late autumn. Economy Aruba enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region; the low unemployment rate is also positive for Aruba. About three quarters of the Aruban gross national product is earned through tourism or related activities. Most of the tourists are from Venezuela and the United States (predominately from eastern and southern states), Aruba's largest trading partner. Before the "Status Aparte", (a separate completely autonomous country/state within the Kingdom), oil processing was the dominant industry in Aruba despite expansion of the tourism sector. Today, the influence of the oil processing business is minimal. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing sectors also remains minimal. The G.D.P. per capita for Aruba is calculated to be $23,831 in 2007; among the highest in the Caribbean and the Americas. Its main trading partners are Venezuela, The U.S and the Netherlands. Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. Recent efforts at tightening monetary policy are correcting this and will have its first balanced budget in 2009. Aruba receives some development aid from the Dutch government each year, which will cease in 2009 as part of a deal (signed as "Aruba's Financial Independence") in which the Netherlands gradually reduces its financial help to the island each successive year. The Aruban florin is pegged to the United States dollar, with a fixed exchange rate where 1.79 Florin equals 1 U.S. dollar. In most stores near Oranjestad, the exchange rate is 1.75 florin equals U.S 1 dollar In 2006 the Aruban government has also changed several tax laws in order to further reduce the deficit. Direct taxes have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the IMF. A 3% tax has been introduced on sales and services, while income taxes have been lowered and revenue taxes for business reduced with 20%. The government compensated workers with 3.1% for the effect that the B.B.O. would have on the inflation for 2007. The inflation on Aruba in 2007 was 8,7%. Demographics Population of Aruba according to the FAO in 2005; number of inhabitants given in thousands. Aruba is situated in the deep southern part of the Caribbean. Because of almost no rainfall, Aruba was saved from plantation and the economics of the slave trade. Aruba's population is estimated to be 80% mestizo and 20% other ethnicities. Arawaks spoke the "broken Spanish" which their ancestors had learned on Hispaniola. The Dutch took control 135 years after the Spanish, and left the Arawaks to farm and graze livestock, and used the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands. Although no full-blooded Aboriginals remain, the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic Arawak heritage . Most of the population is descended mostly from Arawak, and to a lesser extent Spanish, Italian and Dutch and a few French, British and African ancestors. Recently there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring American and Caribbean nations, possibly attracted by the higher paid jobs. In 2007, new immigration laws were introduced to help control the growth of the population by restricting foreign workers to a maximum of 3 years residency on the island. Culture Ornate buildings in Oranjestad, Aruba. On March 18 Aruba celebrates its National Day. In 1976, Aruba presented its National Anthem (Aruba Dushi Tera) and Flag. The origins of the population and location of the island give Aruba a mixed culture. Dutch influence can still be seen, as in the celebration of "Sinterklaas" on December 5 and 6 and other national holidays like April 30, when in Aruba and the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands the Queen's birthday or "Dia di La Reina" (Koninginnedag) is celebrated. Christmas and New Year are celebrated with the typical music and songs of gaitas for Christmas and the Dande for New Year, and the "ayaca", the "ponchi crema" and "ham", and other typical foods and drinks. Millions of dollars worth of fireworks are burnt at midnight on New Year's. On January 25, Betico's Croes birthday is celebrated. The holiday of Carnival is also an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries, and, like Mardi Gras, that goes on for weeks. Its celebration in Aruba started, around the 1950s, influenced by the inhabitants from the nearby islands (Venezuela, St Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados and Amquilla) who came to work for the Oil refinery. Over the years the Carnival Celebration has changed and now starts from the beginning of January till the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday with a large parade on the last Sunday of the festivities (Sunday before Ash Wednesday). In June there is the celebration of the "Dia di San Juan", with the song of "Dera Gai". Tourism from the United States has recently also increased the visibility of American culture on the island, with such celebrations as Halloween and Thanksgiving Day in November. Religion also has its influences; the days of Ascension and Good Friday are also two holidays on the island. According to the Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister (BBSB), as of 2005 there are ninety-two different nationalities living on the island. Language Language can be seen as an important part of island culture in Aruba. The cultural mixture has given rise to a linguistic mixture known as Papiamento, the predominant language on Aruba. The two official languages are the Dutch language and Papiamento. Papiamento is a language that has been evolving through the centuries and absorbed many words from other languages like Dutch, English, diverse African dialects, and most importantly, from Portuguese and Spanish. However, like many islands in the region, Spanish is also often spoken. English has historical connections (with the British Empire) and is known by many; English usage has also grown due to tourism. Other common languages spoken based on the size of their community are Portuguese, Chinese, German and French. The latter is offered in high school and college, since a high percentage of Aruban students continue their studies in Europe. In recent years, the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language. Although spoken Papiamento is fairly similar among the several Papiamento-speaking islands, there is a big difference in written Papiamento. The orthography differs per island and even per group of people. Some are more oriented towards the Portuguese roots and use the equivalent spelling (e.g. "y" instead of "j"), where others are more oriented towards the Dutch roots. In a book The Buccaneers of America, first published in 1678, it is stated by eyewitness account that the Indians on Aruba spoke "Spanish". The oldest government official statement written in Papiamento dates from 1803. Aruba has four newspapers published in Papiamento: Diario, Bon Dia, Solo di Pueblo and Awe Mainta and two in English : Aruba Today and The News. Amigoe is the newspaper published in Dutch. Aruba also has 18 Radio Stations (2 AM and 16 FM) and three local Television stations (Tele-Aruba, Aruba Broadcast Company and Star Television). Infrastructure Aruba's Queen Beatrix International Airport is located near Oranjestad. This airport has daily flights to various cities across the United States, to San Juan, Puerto Rico; Miami, Florida; Chicago, Illinois; Philadelphia and Pittsburgh Pennsylvania; Houston, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia; Charlotte, North Carolina; Washington DC; New York City; and Boston, Massachusetts. It also connects Aruba with Toronto, Ontario and South America, with daily flights to the international airports of Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, Germany, France, Spain, U.K and most of Europe through the Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands. Direct flight from Italy started in November 2008. According to the Aruba Airport Authority, in 2005 almost 1.7 million travelers used the airport, of which 61% were Americans. U.S. Immigration and Nat. Services (INS) full pre-clearance in Aruba has been in effect since February 1, 2001 at the Queen Beatrix Airport and since 2008, the only island to have this service for private flights. Since 1999, the US defense department established a Forward Operating Location at the airport. Utilities on the island Electricity is produced by the Water- en Energiebedrijf Aruba (WEB). WEB produces an average of 60 MW, which together with a contracted supply from the refining company, is sufficient to comply with the average demand of 77 MW. WEB delivers electricity to the distribution company Elmar. WEB also produces potable industrial water, at the world's third largest desalination plant http://www.aruba.com/news/general-news/aruba-hosts-international-desalination-conference-2007/ . Average daily consumption in 2005 was about 37,043 metric tons. Places of interest * Collapsed September 2, 2005 Coral bridge, natural Aruba tourist spot, collapses Notable Arubans Dave Benton, musician, won the 2001 Eurovision Song Contest representing Estonia Betico Croes, politician Bobby Farrell, musician, Boney M. Percy Irausquin, fashion designer Gene Kingsale. baseball Sidney Ponson, baseball pitcher Calvin Maduro, baseball Anthony Croes, mestizo artis etnia nativa See also List of Aruba-related topics References External links Government Government of Aruba Chief of State and Cabinet Members Central Bank of Aruba Central Bureau of Statistics Aruba Aruba Ports Authority Department of Economic Affairs, Commerce and Industry of Aruba Aruba Airport Authority Aruba Health Insurance (AZV) Aruba.com - Governmental Tourism Portal General information Aruba from UCB Libraries GovPubs Yellow Pages Aruba American Airlines Other University of Aruba Aruba Vacation Travel Guide Aruba Paper Money From daycare to university on Aruba Accounts of the early days of the multinational Lago Oil "colony" from employee-family members be-x-old:Аруба | Aruba |@lemmatized aruba:120 long:1 island:38 less:4 antilles:14 southern:5 caribbean:11 sea:4 north:4 paraguaná:1 peninsula:1 falcón:1 state:23 venezuela:9 together:4 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1,839 | Bluetooth_Special_Interest_Group | Bluetooth logo The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) is the body that oversees the development of Bluetooth standards and the licensing of the Bluetooth technologies and trademarks to manufacturers. Founded in 1998, it is a privately held trade association headquartered in Bellevue, Washington with Michael W. Foley (Mike) presently its executive director. Introduction Bluetooth provides a way to exchange information between wireless devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, laptops, computers, printers and digital cameras via a secure, low-cost, globally available short-range radio frequency band. Originally developed by Ericsson, Bluetooth is now used in many different products by many different manufacturers. These manufacturers must be members of some level (see below) in the Bluetooth SIG before they are granted access to the Bluetooth specifications. The SIG also specifies a qualification process that products must be tested in accordance with before they may be branded with the Bluetooth trademarks and sold to consumers. It also markets the Bluetooth brand and technology and owns the trademarks and standardization documents. Since its inception in 1998, the Bluetooth SIG is primarily run by a volunteer staff from its member companies. In 2001 Tom Siep served as the group's Managing Director and from 2002-2004 Mike McCamon led the group as its Executive Director. In 2004 he was replaced by Michael W. Foley (Mike). Beginning in 2002 a professional staff was hired, composed of operations, engineering and marketing specialists. From 2002-2004 the Bluetooth SIG was based in Overland Park, Kansas USA and is now based in Bellevue, Washington with additional offices in Malmö, Sweden and Hong Kong, China. In addition to its professional staff, the SIG still relies on many volunteers from member companies who participate in the various working groups that produce the standardization documents and oversee the qualification process for new products. Structure The SIG comprises Corporate Groups, Study Groups, Expert Groups and Working Groups, along with committees . The Corporate Groups are simply the Board of Directors and the professional staff of the SIG. Study groups The Study Groups carry out research into their various areas which informs the development of the Bluetooth specifications. They may eventually become Working Groups in their own right. The current study groups are: Attribute Study Group Global navigation satellite system (similar to the Global Positioning System) Study Group Message-push Study Group Ultra wideband (UWB) Study Group Expert groups The Expert Groups deal with issues of technical importance to all aspects of Bluetooth's development. As with the Study Groups their work informs the Working Groups as well as the corporate groups. At present there are two Expert Groups Audio/visual – hands-free profile (A/V-HFI) Expert Group Security Expert Group Usability Expert Group Participation in the Expert Groups is restricted to Promoter members and Associate members. Working Groups The Working Groups carry out the principal standardization and specification work of the SIG. They are responsible in large part for determining what these documents will say and are thus a core part of the development process. Audio/video Working Group Automation Working Group Car Working Group Host controller interface (HCI)) Working Group Human interface device (HID) Working Group ISDN Working Group Local positioning Working Group Personal area networks (PAN) Working Group Printing Working Group Radio improvements Working Group Still-image Working Group Unrestricted digital information (UDI) Working Group Participation in the Working Groups is restricted to Promoter members and Associate members. Committees The committees of the SIG deal with the other aspects of licensing, marketing and review. The current committees are the Bluetooth architectural review board (BARB) Bluetooth qualification review board (BQRB) Bluetooth technical review board (BTRB) Errata process group Ecosystem committee Evangelization committee Regulatory committee Roadmapping committee Test initiative committee UnPlugFest forum (UnPlugFest is an annual event at which manufacturers are invited to confidentially test their mutual interoperability) Probably most significant among them is the Qualification Review Board since this body specifies the manner in which manufacturers must go about complying with the Bluetooth specifications before they are allowed to Bluetooth-brand their products and sell them. Membership Membership of the SIG is a prerequisite for gaining access to the technical documents that define Bluetooth and thus is necessary for any manufacturer wishing to produce Bluetooth technology. There are three levels of corporate membership totalling more than 3400 members, and individuals may also participate. Promoter members These members are the most active in the SIG and have considerable influence over both the strategic and technological directions of Bluetooth as a whole. The current promoter members are Ericsson Technology Licensing (founder member) Lenovo (founder member as IBM) Intel (founder member) Microsoft (since 1999) Motorola (since 1999) Nokia (member) Toshiba (founder member) Sony (founder member) [ creator ] Philieps (member Each Promoter member has one seat (and one vote) o n the Board of Directors and the Qualification Review Board (the body responsible for overseeing the qualification process). They each have hundreds of staff in the various working groups and committees that comprise the work of the SIG. Associate members Any member may become an Associate member provided they pay an annual subscription fee. In 2005, this fee was $7 500 for companies with an annual revenue less than $100million and $35 000 for others . Associate members paying the full fee have early access to draft specifications and to work with other Associate and Promoter members on enchancing existing specifications. They are also able to review specifications before their publication and have voting rights in the working groups and committees as well as being able to make keynote speeches at industry conferences. Those Associate members who pay the discounted fee retain the document access rights but are not allowed to participate in the working groups and thus have considerably less influence on the standardization processes. The SIG's website carries a full list of Associate members. Adopter members Any company may become an Adopter member for free. These companies have access to the published specification documents and are able to use the trademarks but play no part in the standardization processes and have no access to draft documents. This is the largest category of membership. The SIG's website carries a full list of Adopter members. Individuals Anyone can contribute to the 'Ideas Lab' which discusses possible uses of Bluetooth. Qualification Next to the development of the technology itself, the qualification process is one of the most important aspects and interoperability requirements are specified in detail. The manufacturer must report the results of these tests to a Bluetooth Qualification Body (BQB). If they do not follow the specification of a particular test, the manufacturer must also report the detail of what they did instead. If these tests are all passed, the device progresses to the Category A tests. These must be carried out at recognised Bluetooth Qualification Test Facilities, of which there are currently only 20 in the world . As of 2005, this testing process costs $10 000 for Adopter members and $5 000 for Associate members and Promoter members. These test facilities use equipment developed specifically for the purpose, and are approved on behalf of the Qualifications Review Board by a Bluetooth Technical Assessor (BTA). These assessors are individuals who are experienced with such laboratory assessment procedures and who can demonstrate their understanding of the technical requirements of Bluetooth. The SIG currently contracts with accreditation organizations to carry out the process of selecting and training Assessors, with the Qualifications Review Board giving the eventual formal approval. Once a device has passed all the Category A, B and C tests to the satisfaction of a BQB, it is allowed to be marketed as a Bluetooth device using the Bluetooth trademarks. See also Bluetooth IEEE 802.15 TG1 References The Bluetooth Qualification Program Reference Document (.zip file) External links The Official Bluetooth Membership Site The Official Bluetooth Wireless Info Site | Bluetooth_Special_Interest_Group |@lemmatized bluetooth:33 logo:1 special:1 interest:1 group:46 sig:16 body:4 oversee:3 development:5 standard:1 licensing:3 technology:5 trademark:5 manufacturer:8 found:1 privately:1 hold:1 trade:1 association:1 headquarter:1 bellevue:2 washington:2 michael:2 w:2 foley:2 mike:3 presently:1 executive:2 director:5 introduction:1 provide:2 way:1 exchange:1 information:2 wireless:2 device:5 personal:2 digital:3 assistant:1 pdas:1 mobile:1 phone:1 laptop:1 computer:1 printer:1 camera:1 via:1 secure:1 low:1 cost:2 globally:1 available:1 short:1 range:1 radio:2 frequency:1 band:1 originally:1 develop:2 ericsson:2 use:4 many:3 different:2 product:4 must:6 member:32 level:2 see:2 granted:1 access:6 specification:9 also:6 specify:3 qualification:13 process:10 test:11 accordance:1 may:5 brand:3 sell:2 consumer:1 market:2 standardization:5 document:8 since:4 inception:1 primarily:1 run:1 volunteer:2 staff:5 company:5 tom:1 siep:1 serve:1 manage:1 mccamon:1 lead:1 replace:1 beginning:1 professional:3 hire:1 compose:1 operation:1 engineering:1 marketing:2 specialist:1 base:2 overland:1 park:1 kansas:1 usa:1 additional:1 office:1 malmö:1 sweden:1 hong:1 kong:1 china:1 addition:1 still:2 rely:1 participate:3 various:3 work:26 produce:2 new:1 structure:1 comprises:1 corporate:4 study:9 expert:8 along:1 committee:10 simply:1 board:9 carry:6 research:1 area:2 inform:2 eventually:1 become:3 right:3 current:3 attribute:1 global:2 navigation:1 satellite:1 system:2 similar:1 positioning:1 message:1 push:1 ultra:1 wideband:1 uwb:1 deal:2 issue:1 technical:5 importance:1 aspect:3 well:2 present:1 two:1 audio:2 visual:1 hand:1 free:2 profile:1 v:1 hfi:1 security:1 usability:1 participation:2 restrict:2 promoter:7 associate:9 principal:1 responsible:2 large:2 part:3 determine:1 say:1 thus:3 core:1 video:1 automation:1 car:1 host:1 controller:1 interface:2 hci:1 human:1 hid:1 isdn:1 local:1 position:1 network:1 pan:1 print:1 improvement:1 image:1 unrestricted:1 udi:1 committees:1 review:9 architectural:1 barb:1 bqrb:1 btrb:1 errata:1 ecosystem:1 evangelization:1 regulatory:1 roadmapping:1 initiative:1 unplugfest:2 forum:1 annual:3 event:1 invite:1 confidentially:1 mutual:1 interoperability:2 probably:1 significant:1 among:1 manner:1 go:1 comply:1 allow:3 membership:5 prerequisite:1 gain:1 define:1 necessary:1 wishing:1 three:1 total:1 individual:3 active:1 considerable:1 influence:2 strategic:1 technological:1 direction:1 whole:1 founder:5 lenovo:1 ibm:1 intel:1 microsoft:1 motorola:1 nokia:1 toshiba:1 sony:1 creator:1 philieps:1 one:3 seat:1 vote:2 n:1 hundred:1 comprise:1 pay:3 subscription:1 fee:4 revenue:1 less:2 others:1 full:3 early:1 draft:2 enchancing:1 exist:1 able:3 publication:1 make:1 keynote:1 speech:1 industry:1 conference:1 discount:1 retain:1 considerably:1 website:2 list:2 adopter:4 publish:1 play:1 category:3 anyone:1 contribute:1 idea:1 lab:1 discuss:1 possible:1 us:1 next:1 important:1 requirement:2 detail:2 report:2 result:1 bqb:2 follow:1 particular:1 instead:1 pass:2 progress:1 recognised:1 facility:2 currently:2 world:1 equipment:1 specifically:1 purpose:1 approve:1 behalf:1 assessor:3 bta:1 experience:1 laboratory:1 assessment:1 procedure:1 demonstrate:1 understanding:1 contract:1 accreditation:1 organization:1 select:1 train:1 give:1 eventual:1 formal:1 approval:1 b:1 c:1 satisfaction:1 ieee:1 reference:2 program:1 zip:1 file:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:2 info:1 |@bigram bellevue_washington:2 mobile_phone:1 bluetooth_sig:4 bluetooth_specification:3 malmö_sweden:1 hong_kong:1 global_positioning:1 ultra_wideband:1 bluetooth_qualification:5 subscription_fee:1 keynote_speech:1 external_link:1 |
1,840 | Calreticulin | Calreticulin is a multifunctional protein that binds Ca2+ ions (a second messenger molecule in signal transduction), rendering it inactive. The Ca2+ is bound with low affinity, but high capacity, and can be released on a signal (see inositol triphosphate). Calreticulin is located in storage compartments associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. Calreticulin is also known as calregulin, CRP55, CaBP3 and calsequestrin-like protein. The term "Mobilferrin" is considered to be the same as calreticulin by some sources. Functions Calreticulin binds to misfolded proteins and prevents them from being exported from the Endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus. A similar quality control chaperone, calnexin, performs the same service for soluble proteins as does calreticulin. Both proteins, Calnexin and calreticulin, have the function of binding to oligosaccharides containing terminal glucose residues thereby targeting them for degradation. In normal cellular function, trimming of glucose residues off the core oligosaccharide added during N-linked glycosylation is a part of protein processing. If "overseer" enzymes note that residues are misfolded, proteins within the RER will re-add glucose residues so that other Calreticulin/Calnexin can bind to these proteins and prevent them from proceeding to the Golgi. This leads these aberrantly folded proteins down a path whereby they are targeted for degradation. Transcription regulation Calreticulin is also found in the nucleus, suggesting that it may have a role in transcription regulation. Calreticulin binds to the synthetic peptide KLGFFKR, which is almost identical to an amino acid sequence in the DNA-binding domain of the superfamily of nuclear receptors. The amino terminus of calreticulin interacts with the DNA-binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor and prevents the receptor from binding to its specific glucocorticoid response element. Calreticulin can inhibit the binding of androgen receptor to its hormone-responsive DNA element and can inhibit androgen receptor and retinoic acid receptor transcriptional activities in vivo, as well as retinoic acid-induced neuronal differentiation. Thus, calreticulin can act as an important modulator of the regulation of gene transcription by nuclear hormone receptors. Disease Calreticulin binds to antibodies in certain sera of systemic lupus and Sjogren patients which contain anti-Ro/SSA antibodies. Systemic lupus erythematosus is associated with increased autoantibody titers against calreticulin but calreticulin is not a Ro/SS-A antigen. Earlier papers referred to calreticulin as an Ro/SS-A antigen, but this was later disproven. Increased autoantibody titer against human calreticulin is found in infants with complete congenital heart block of both the IgG and IgM classes. References Further reading External links | Calreticulin |@lemmatized calreticulin:18 multifunctional:1 protein:9 bind:8 ion:1 second:1 messenger:1 molecule:1 signal:2 transduction:1 render:1 inactive:1 low:1 affinity:1 high:1 capacity:1 release:1 see:1 inositol:1 triphosphate:1 locate:1 storage:1 compartment:1 associate:2 endoplasmic:2 reticulum:2 also:2 know:1 calregulin:1 calsequestrin:1 like:1 term:1 mobilferrin:1 consider:1 source:1 function:3 misfolded:2 prevents:1 export:1 golgi:2 apparatus:1 similar:1 quality:1 control:1 chaperone:1 calnexin:3 perform:1 service:1 soluble:1 oligosaccharide:2 contain:2 terminal:1 glucose:3 residue:4 thereby:1 target:2 degradation:2 normal:1 cellular:1 trim:1 core:1 add:2 n:1 link:2 glycosylation:1 part:1 processing:1 overseer:1 enzymes:1 note:1 within:1 rer:1 prevent:2 proceed:1 lead:1 aberrantly:1 fold:1 path:1 whereby:1 transcription:3 regulation:3 find:2 nucleus:1 suggest:1 may:1 role:1 synthetic:1 peptide:1 klgffkr:1 almost:1 identical:1 amino:2 acid:3 sequence:1 dna:3 binding:3 domain:2 superfamily:1 nuclear:2 receptor:7 terminus:1 interacts:1 glucocorticoid:2 specific:1 response:1 element:2 inhibit:2 androgen:2 hormone:2 responsive:1 retinoic:2 transcriptional:1 activity:1 vivo:1 well:1 induced:1 neuronal:1 differentiation:1 thus:1 act:1 important:1 modulator:1 gene:1 disease:1 antibody:2 certain:1 serum:1 systemic:2 lupus:2 sjogren:1 patient:1 anti:1 ro:3 ssa:1 erythematosus:1 increase:2 autoantibody:2 titer:2 antigen:2 early:1 paper:1 refer:1 later:1 disproven:1 human:1 infant:1 complete:1 congenital:1 heart:1 block:1 igg:1 igm:1 class:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 |@bigram signal_transduction:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:2 golgi_apparatus:1 glucose_residue:3 amino_acid:1 androgen_receptor:2 retinoic_acid:2 hormone_receptor:1 systemic_lupus:2 lupus_erythematosus:1 igg_igm:1 external_link:1 |
1,841 | Mineral | A mineral is a naturally occurring solid formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. A rock, by comparison, is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and need not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. free older version: 1912 edition The study of minerals is called mineralogy. An assortment of minerals. Mineral definition and classification To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must be a solid and have a crystalline structure. It must also be a naturally occurring, homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition. Traditional definitions excluded organically derived material. However, the International Mineralogical Association in 1995 adopted a new definition: a mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes. alt version The modern classifications include an organic class - in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes. http://www.mindat.org/dana.php?a=50 Dana Classification 8th edition - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS http://www.mindat.org/strunz.php?a=9 Strunz Classification - Organic Compounds The chemical composition may vary between end members of a mineral system. For example the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium and silicon-rich albite (NaAlSi3O8) to calcium and aluminium-rich anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) with four recognized intermediate compositions between. Mineral-like substances that don't strictly meet the definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids. Other natural-occurring substances are nonminerals. Industrial minerals is a market term and refers to commercially valuable mined materials (see also Minerals and Rocks section below). A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements of atoms in three dimensions, and these are referred to as the 14 "Bravais lattices". Each of these lattices can be classified into one of the seven crystal systems, and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in one Bravais lattice and one crystal system. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. In fact, two or more minerals may have the same chemical composition, but differ in crystal structure (these are known as polymorphs). For example, pyrite and marcasite are both iron sulfide, but their arrangement of atoms differs. Similarly, some minerals have different chemical compositions, but the same crystal structure: for example, halite (made from sodium and chlorine), galena (made from lead and sulfur) and periclase (made from magnesium and oxygen) all share the same cubic crystal structure. Crystal structure greatly influences a mineral's physical properties. For example, though diamond and graphite have the same composition (both are pure carbon), graphite is very soft, while diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. This happens because the carbon atoms in graphite are arranged into sheets which can slide easily past each other, while the carbon atoms in diamond form a strong, interlocking three-dimensional network. There are currently more than 4,000 known minerals, according to the International Mineralogical Association, which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral species found in nature. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called "common", 50 are "occasional", and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare". Differences between minerals and rocks A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and a specific crystalline structure. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. (A rock may also include organic remains and mineraloids.) Some rocks are predominantly composed of just one mineral. For example, limestone is a sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of the mineral calcite. Other rocks contain many minerals, and the specific minerals in a rock can vary widely. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only four or five locations worldwide. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz, feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Over half of the mineral species known are so rare that they have only been found in a handful of samples, and many are known from only one or two small grains. Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. Rocks from which minerals are mined for economic purposes are referred to as ores (the rocks and minerals that remain, after the desired mineral has been separated from the ore, are referred to as tailings). Mineral composition of rocks A main determining factor in the formation of minerals in a rock mass is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral can be formed only when the necessary elements are present in the rock. Calcite is most common in limestones, as these consist essentially of calcium carbonate; quartz is common in sandstones and in certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica. Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural association or paragenesis of rock-forming minerals, principally the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite arises by the consolidation of a molten magma at high temperatures and great pressures and its component minerals are those stable under such conditions. Exposed to moisture, carbonic acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures of the Earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as quartz and white mica are relatively stable and remain unaffected; others weather or decay and are replaced by new combinations. The feldspar passes into kaolinite, muscovite and quartz, and any mafic minerals such as pyroxenes, amphiboles or biotite have been present they are often altered to chlorite, epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accompanied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, incoherent, earthy mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil. The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited as sandstone or siltstone. The structure of the original rock is now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo metamorphism. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat and movement during mountain building, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different in mineralogical composition though radically different in structure to the granite which was its original state. Physical properties of minerals Classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical properties commonly used are: Crystal structure and habit: See the above discussion of crystal structure. A mineral may show good crystal habit or form, or it may be massive, granular or compact with only microscopically visible crystals. Talc Rough diamond. Hardness: the physical hardness of a mineral is usually measured according to the Mohs scale. This scale is relative and goes from 1 to 10. Minerals with a given Mohs hardness can scratch the surface of any mineral that has a lower hardness than itself. Mohs hardness scale: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/mineral.html USGS Photo glossary of volcano terms Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O Calcite CaCO3 Fluorite CaF2 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F) Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Quartz SiO2 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F)2 Corundum Al2O3 Diamond C (pure carbon) Luster indicates the way a mineral's surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy (vitreous). Metallic -high reflectivity like metal: galena and pyrite Sub-metallic -slightly less than metallic reflectivity: magnetite Non-metallic lusters: Adamantine - brilliant, the luster of diamond also cerussite and anglesite Vitreous -the luster of a broken glass: quartz Pearly - iridescent and pearl-like: talc and apophyllite Resinous - the luster of resin: sphalerite and sulfur Silky - a soft light shown by fibrous materials: gypsum and chrysotile Dull/earthy -shown by finely crystallized minerals: the kidney ore variety of hematite Color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for translucent minerals (i.e. what it looks like to the naked eye). Iridescence - the play of colors due to surface or internal interference. Labradorite exhibits internal iridescence whereas hematite and sphalerite often show the surface effect. Streak refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate. Note that this is not always the same color as the original mineral. Cleavage describes the way a mineral may split apart along various planes. In thin sections, cleavage is visible as thin parallel lines across a mineral. Fracture describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes. Chonchoidal fracture is a smooth curved fracture with concentric ridges of the type shown by glass. Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp edges. Fibrous Irregular Specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water, namely the density of the material. While most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5 - 3.5, a few are noticeably more or less dense, e.g. several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the common rock-forming minerals. Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids. Chemical properties of minerals Minerals may be classified according to chemical composition. They are here categorized by anion group. The list below is in approximate order of their abundance in the Earth's crust. The list follows the Dana classification system http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sort-met.hod/dana/dana.htm Dana classification - Minerals.net which closely parallels the Strunz classification. Silicate class The largest group of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas. Carbonate class The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion (CO3)2- and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals. Sulfate class Sulfates all contain the sulfate anion, SO42-. Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals. Halide class Halite The halides are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporitic settings such as playa lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide minerals. Oxide class Oxides are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide - a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals. Sulfide class Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide - commonly known as fools' gold), chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic). Phosphate class The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals. Element class The elemental group includes metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides (which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites). Organic class The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound. Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species. Examples include whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite. See also A list of minerals with associated Wikipedia articles A comprehensive list of minerals Tucson Gem & Mineral Show Industrial minerals Mineral water Mineral processing Mineral wool Mining Norman L. Bowen Quarry Dietary mineral Rocks Strunz classification References External links mindat.org Mindat database Webmineral.com Mineral atlas with properties, photos Ontogeny of minerals in drawings. Drawings of crystals, druses, and mineral aggregates. Every work here may illustrate genetic features of minerals (their history, or ontogenesis, and formative processes). | Mineral |@lemmatized mineral:104 naturally:4 occur:5 solid:3 form:13 geological:3 process:5 characteristic:1 chemical:13 composition:16 highly:2 ordered:1 atomic:2 structure:17 specific:7 physical:6 property:8 rock:31 comparison:1 aggregate:3 mineraloids:3 need:1 range:3 pure:3 element:5 simple:2 salt:4 complex:2 silicate:5 thousand:1 know:7 free:1 old:1 version:2 edition:2 study:1 call:2 mineralogy:1 assortment:1 definition:4 classification:9 classify:6 true:1 substance:6 must:2 crystalline:3 also:13 homogeneous:1 defined:1 traditional:1 exclude:1 organically:1 derive:1 material:5 however:2 international:2 mineralogical:4 association:3 adopt:1 new:5 compound:5 normally:1 result:1 alt:1 modern:1 include:21 organic:7 class:18 dana:7 strunz:5 scheme:1 http:4 www:3 mindat:4 org:3 php:2 may:15 vary:2 end:1 member:1 system:5 example:6 plagioclase:1 feldspars:1 comprise:1 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1,842 | Forever_Changes | Forever Changes is the third album released by the Los Angeles-based band Love. The album was released by Elektra Records in November 1967. In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Forever Changes 40th in its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Album information Dropping keyboardist Alban Pfisterer and flautist/saxophonist Tjay Cantrelli, the remaining five-piece performed on nine of the album's eleven tracks. The album was the first to be produced by Arthur Lee, with assistance from Bruce Botnick. Originally, the album was to be produced by Botnick and Neil Young, but Young bowed out due to his commitments to Buffalo Springfield. However, according to the liner notes of the 1995 compilation Love Story, Young did stick with the album project long enough to arrange the track "The Daily Planet". The sessions began in June 1967, with the group (except for Lee and Maclean) replaced by well-known Los Angeles session musicians Billy Strange (guitar), Don Randi (piano), Hal Blaine (drums) and, in most likelihood, Carol Kaye (bass). This studio line-up was put in place due to the regular line-up's alleged inability to function. The two tracks recorded during these sessions, "Andmoreagain" and "The Daily Planet", were later given sparing overdubs by the actual members of Love, who felt the tracks otherwise sufficed. Botnick recalls that the use of session musicians "sparked" the band, and they "realized they had blown it, got their act together and recorded the rest of the album". After much rehearsal, the group resumed work in August and continued through September, quickly laying down the remaining nine tracks, with a total estimated cost at $2,257. Rooted in acoustics, the album's lyrics were a perfect summation of the year 1967, at times joyous, at times contemplative, at times downright devastating. "When I did that album," commented Arthur Lee, "I thought I was going to die at that particular time, so those were my last words." This is borne out by perhaps the most famous lines from the album, on the song "The Red Telephone": "Sitting on a hillside Watching all the people die I'll feel much better on the other side." Musically, the album is very ambitious. Having extended itself on the lengthy jam "Revelation" from Da Capo, Love here composes a more focused mini-suite, the album-ending "You Set the Scene", which anticipated the extended rock operas that would dominate rock and roll in the following years. music-nerds.com A September recording session finished the album, sweetening the final mixes with horns and strings (arranged by David Angel with each song's respective songwriter), as well as some additional piano from Randi, who played all the keyboard parts on the album as the band now had no keyboard player. The album was released in November with cover art by Bob Pepper and sold poorly, rising only to #154 on the Billboard charts. It did however reach the Top 30 in Britain. Only well after the group's break-up would the album be recognized as a masterpiece by the rock journalism press. Forever Changes was included in its entirety on the 2-CD retrospective Love compilation Love Story 1966-1972, released by Rhino Records in 1995. The album was re-released in an expanded single-CD version by Rhino in 2001, featuring alternate mixes, outtakes and the group's 1968 single, "Your Mind and We Belong Together"/"Laughing Stock", the last tracks featuring Johnny Echols, Ken Forssi, Michael Stuart and, in most likelihood, Bryan MacLean. As for Arthur Lee, he would reform the group in late 1968 with all-new members and carry on the Love name for a few more years. A double-CD "Collector's Edition" of the album was issued by Rhino Records on April 22, 2008. The first disc consists of the original 1967 album, while the second disc is an alternate mix of it plus the 2001 release bonus songs. Reception The most notable retrospective praise came in 2003 from the British magazine, NME, who rated Forever Changes #6 on their list of greatest albums of all time. In 1998, Q magazine readers voted Forever Changes the 82nd greatest album of all time. Rolling Stone magazine ranked Forever Changes 40th in its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time in the December 11, 2003 issue. In a special issue of Mojo magazine, it was ranked the second greatest psychedelic album of all time, while in 1995 it made #11 in Mojo's list of the 100 Greatest Albums Ever Made. Mojo Lists Page 1 Forever Changes was ranked 83rd in a 2005 survey held by British television's Channel 4 to determine the 100 greatest albums of all time. CHANNEL 4 THE 100 GREATEST ALBUMS Forever Changes was praised by the British Parliament in 2002 as being one of the Greatest Albums of All Time. BBC NEWS Freed 1960s star meets MPs According to the New Musical Express, The Stone Roses' relationship with their future producer John Leckie was settled when they all agreed that Forever Changes was the "best record ever". http://www.nme.com/gallery/25_things_you_didn%27t_know_about_the_stone_roses/124337/23/1 Track listing November 1967 issue "Alone Again Or" (Maclean, – 3:16) "A House is Not a Motel" (Lee, – 3:31) "Andmoreagain" (Lee/Maclean, – 3:18) "The Daily Planet" (Lee, – 3:30) "Old Man" (Maclean, – 3:02) "The Red Telephone" (Lee, – 4:46) "Maybe the People Would Be the Times or Between Clark and Hilldale" (Lee, – 3:34) "Live and Let Live" (Lee, – 5:26) "The Good Humor Man He Sees Everything Like This" (Lee, – 3:08) "Bummer in the Summer" (Lee, – 2:24) "You Set the Scene" (Lee, – 6:56) February 2001 reissue Bonus Tracks "Hummingbirds [Demo]" (Lee, – 2:43) "Wonder People (I Do Wonder)" (Lee, – 3:27) "Alone Again Or [Alternate Mix]" (MacLean, – 2:55) You Set the Scene [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 7:01) "Your Mind And We Belong Together [Tracking Session Highlights]" (Lee, – 8:16) "Your Mind And We Belong Together" (Lee, – 4:28) "Laughing Stock" (Lee, – 2:33) April 2008 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition Disc 1 Same track listing as the original album. Disc 2 "Alone Again Or [Alternate Mix]" (Maclean, – 3:15) "A House is Not a Motel [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 3:35) "Andmoreagain" (Lee/Maclean, – 3:25) "The Daily Planet [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 3:25) "Old Man [Alternate Mix]" (Maclean, – 3:08) "The Red Telephone [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 5:23) "Maybe the People Would Be the Times or Between Clark and Hilldale [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 3:40) "Live and Let Live [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 5:37) "The Good Humor Man He Sees Everything Like This [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 3:11) "Bummer in the Summer [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 2:31) "You Set the Scene [Alternate Mix]" (Lee, – 7:03) "Wonder People (I Do Wonder)" (Lee, – 3:27) "Hummingbirds [Demo]" (Lee, – 2:43) "A House is Not a Motel [Backing Track]" (Lee, – 3:31) "Andmoreagain [Electric Backing Track]" (Lee/Maclean, – 3:08) "The Red Telephone [Tracking Session Highlights]" (Lee, – 2:07) "Wooly Bully" (W. Thomas/L. Smith, – 1:27) "Alone Again Or [Mono Single Remix]" (MacLean, – 2:54) "Your Mind And We Belong Together [Tracking Session Highlights]" (Lee, – 8:16) "Your Mind And We Belong Together" (Lee, – 4:27) "Laughing Stock" (Lee, – 2:31) Personnel Music Band members: Arthur Lee: lead vocals, guitar, arranger Johnny Echols: lead guitar Bryan MacLean: rhythm guitar, vocals, arranger (lead vocals on "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man") Ken Forssi: bass Michael Stuart: drums, percussion, vocals With: David Angel: arranger, orchestrations And uncredited contributions from: Hal Blaine: drums on "Andmoreagain" and "The Daily Planet" Carol Kaye: bass on "Andmoreagain" (unconfirmed) and acoustic guitar on "The Daily Planet" Don Randi: piano Billy Strange: guitar on "Andmoreagain" and "The Daily Planet" Neil Young: arranger on "The Daily Planet" Orchestra: Robert Barene, Arnold Belnick, James Getzoff, Marshall Sosson, Darrel Terwilliger (violins); Norman Botnick (viola); Jesse Ehrlich (cello); Chuck Berghofer (double bass); Bud Brisbois, Roy Caton, Ollie Mitchell (trumpets); Richard Leith (trombone) Production & design Bruce Botnick and Arthur Lee: Producers Bruce Botnick: Engineer Jac Holzman: Production Supervisor Zal Schreiber: Mastering William S. 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1,843 | Olympic_Games | Olympic Games Ancient Olympic GamesSummer Olympic GamesWinter Olympic GamesParalympic GamesYouth Olympic Games Charter IOC NOCs SymbolsSports CompetitorsMedal tables Medalists The Olympic Games are an international event of summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes compete in a wide variety of events. The Games are currently held every two years, with Summer and Winter Olympic Games alternating. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD. In the late 19th century, Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired by Olympic festivals to revive the Games. For this purpose, he founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, and two years later, the modern Olympic Games were established in Athens. The IOC has since become the governing body of the Olympic Movement, whose structure and actions are defined by the Olympic Charter. The evolution of the Olympic Movement during the 20th century forced the IOC to adapt the Games to the world's changing social circumstances. Some of these adjustments included the creation of the Winter Games for ice and snow sports, the Paralympic Games for athletes with physical disabilities, and the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. The IOC also had to accommodate the Games to the varying economical, political, and technological realities of the 20th century. As a result, the Olympics shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Coubertin, to allow participation of professional athletes. The growing importance of the mass media created the issue of corporate sponsorship and commercialization of the Games. The Olympic Movement currently comprises international sports federations (IFs), National Olympic Committees (NOCs), and organizing committees for each specific Olympic Games. As the decision-making body, the IOC is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The host city is responsible for organizing and funding a celebration of the Games consistent with the Olympic Charter. The Olympic program, consisting of the sports to be contested at each Olympic Games, is also determined by the IOC. The celebration of the Games encompasses many rituals and symbols, such as the Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. There are over 13,000 athletes that compete at the Summer and Winter Olympics in 33 different sports and nearly 400 events. The first, second, and third place finishers in each event receive gold, silver or bronze Olympic medals, respectively. The Games have grown in scale to the point that nearly every nation is represented. Such growth has created numerous challenges, including boycotts, doping, bribery of officials, and terrorism. Every two years, the Olympics and its media exposure provide unknown athletes with the chance to attain national, and in particular cases, international fame. The Games also constitute a major opportunity for the host city and country to promote and showcase themselves to the world. Ancient Olympics The origin of the Ancient Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend. Young (2004), p. 12 One of the most popular myths identifies Heracles and his father Zeus as the progenitors of the Games. Pausanias, "Elis 1", VII, p. 7, 9, 10; Pindar, "Olympian 10", pp. 24–77 Richardson (1997), p. 227 Young (2004), pp. 12–13 According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years. Pausanias, "Elis 1", VII, p. 9; Pindar, "Olympian 10", pp. 24–77 A legend persists that after Heracles completed his twelve labors, he built the Olympic stadium as an honor to Zeus. Following its completion, he walked in a straight line for 200 steps and called this distance a "stadion" (Greek: στάδιον, Latin: stadium, "stage"), which later became a unit of distance. Another myth associates the first Games with the ancient Greek concept of Olympic truce (ἐκεχειρία, ekecheiria). Spivey (2004), pp. 229–230 The most widely accepted date for the inception of the Ancient Olympics is 776 BC; this is based on inscriptions, found at Olympia, of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting in 776 BC. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events. Crowther (2007) pp. 59–61 Tradition has it that Coroebus, a cook from the city of Elis, was the first Olympic champion. Golden (2009), p. 24 The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, featuring sporting events alongside ritual sacrifices honoring both Zeus (whose famous statue by Phidias stood in his temple at Olympia) and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia. Pelops was famous for his chariot race with King Oenomaus of Pisatis. Burkert (1983), p. 95 The winners of the events were admired and immortalized in poems and statues. Swadling (1999), pp. 90–93 The Games were held every four years, and this period, known as an Olympiad, was used by Greeks as one of their units of time measurement. The Games were part of a cycle known as the Panhellenic Games, which included the Pythian Games, the Nemean Games, and the Isthmian Games. Olympic Museum, "The Olympic Games in Antiquity", p. 2 The Olympic Games reached their zenith in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, but then gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power and influence in Greece. There is no consensus on when the Games officially ended, the most common-held date is 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all pagan cults and practices be eliminated. However, Theodosius' decree contains no specific reference to Olympia (Crowther (2007), p. 54). Another date cited is 426 AD, when his successor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. Crowther (2007), p. 54 After the demise of the Olympics, they were not held again until the late 19th century. Modern Games Forerunners and revival The first significant attempt to emulate the ancient Olympic Games was the L'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France. The competition included several disciplines from the ancient Greek Olympics. The 1796 Games also marked the introduction of the metric system into sport. In 1850 an Olympian Class began at Much Wenlock, in Shropshire, England. It was renamed the Wenlock Olympian Games in 1859, and continues today as the Wenlock Olympian Society Annual Games. In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized by Dr. William Penny Brookes at London's Crystal Palace. Greek interest in reviving the Olympic Games began after the country's independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833. Evangelis Zappas, a wealthy Greek philanthropist, sponsored the first modern international Olympic Games in 1859 in an Athens city square. Athletes came from Greece and the Ottoman Empire. Later Zappas paid for the complete restoration of the ruins of the ancient Panathenian Stadium so that it could stage two further editions of the Games, one in 1870 and a second in 1875. Young (1996), pp. 2, 13–23, 81 In the search for a reason for the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), historian Baron Pierre de Coubertin theorized that the soldiers had not received proper physical education. Young (1996), p. 68 In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Coubertin decided that a large-scale revival of the Olympic Games was achievable. Coubertin built on the ideas of Brookes and Zappas with the aim to internationalize the Olympic Games. He presented these ideas during the first Olympic Congress of the newly created International Olympic Committee (IOC). This meeting was held from June 16 to June 23, 1894, at the Sorbonne University in Paris. On the last day of the Congress, it was decided that the first multinational Olympic Games would take place two years later in Athens. Coubertin, Philemon, Politis & Anninos (1897), Part 2, p. 8 The IOC was fully responsible for the Games' organization, and, for that purpose, elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president. Young (1996), pp. 100–105 1896 Games There were fewer than 250 athletes at the first Olympic Games of the modern times. The Panathenian Stadium, restored for Zappas's Games of 1870 and 1875, was refurbished a second time in preparation for this inaugural edition in 1896. Darling (2004), p. 135 These Olympics featured nine sporting disciplines: athletics, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, shooting, swimming, tennis, weightlifting, and wrestling; rowing events were scheduled for competition but had to be cancelled due to bad weather conditions. Coubertin, Philemon, Politis & Anninos (1897), Part 2, pp. 98–99, 108–109 The Greek officials and public were enthusiastic about the experience of hosting the inaugural Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the host of the Olympic Games on a permanent basis. The IOC had, however, envisaged these modern Olympics to be an itinerating and truly global event. As such they decided to hold the second Games in Paris. Changes and adaptations Following the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The celebrations in Paris in 1900 and St. Louis in 1904 were overshadowed by the World's Fair exhibitions, held at the same time and location. The St. Louis Games, for example, hosted 650 athletes, but 580 were originally from the United States. The homogeneous nature of this edition was a low point for the Olympic Movement. The Games rebounded when the 1906 Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within the third Olympiad) were held in Athens. These Games are not officially recognized and no further editions have been held since. These Games attracted a broad international field of participants, and generated great public interest. This marked the beginning of a rise in both the popularity and the size of the Olympics. Winter Games The Winter Olympics were created to feature snow and ice sports that were logistically impossible to hold during the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were featured as Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. The IOC desired to expand this list of sports to encompass other winter activities. At the 1921 Olympic Congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (it was actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France; this event became the first Winter Olympic Games. The IOC mandated that the Winter Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held on the third year of each Olympiad. Paralympics In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttman, determined to promote the rehabilitation of soldiers after World War II, organized a multi-sport event between several hospitals to coincide with the 1948 London Olympics. Guttman's event, known then as the Stoke Mandeville Games, became an annual sports festival. Over the next twelve years, Guttman and others continued their efforts to use sports as an avenue to healing. For the 1960 Olympic Games, in Rome, Guttman brought 400 athletes to compete in the "Parallel Olympics", which became known as the first Paralympics. Since then, the Paralympics have been held in every Olympic year. As of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the host city for the Olympics has also played host to the Paralympics. Youth Games Starting in 2010, the Olympic Games will be complemented by Youth Games, where athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 will compete. The Youth Olympic Games were conceived by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th Congress of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games will be in Singapore in 2010, while the inaugural Winter Games will be hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, two years later. These Games will be shorter than the senior Games; the summer version will last twelve days, while the winter version will last nine days. The IOC will allow 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to participate at the Summer Youth Games, and 970 athletes and 580 officials at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be contested will coincide with those scheduled for the traditional senior Games, however there will be a reduced number of disciplines and events. Recent Games From 241 participants representing 14 nations in 1896, the Games have grown to 10,500 competitors from 204 countries at the 2008 Summer Olympics. The scope and scale of the Winter Olympics is smaller. For example, Turin hosted 2,508 athletes from 80 countries competing in 84 events, during the 2006 Winter Olympics. During the Games most athletes and officials are housed in the Olympic village. This village is intended to be a self-contained home for all the Olympic participants. It is furnished with cafeterias, health clinics, and locations for religious expression. The number of participating countries is higher than the 193 that are current members of the United Nations. The IOC allows nations to compete that do not meet the strict requirements for political sovereignty that other international organizations demand. As a result, colonies and dependencies are permitted to set up their own National Olympic Committees. Examples of this include territories such as Puerto Rico, Bermuda, and Hong Kong, all of which compete as separate nations despite being legally a part of another country. International Olympic Committee The Olympic Movement encompasses a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations, recognized media partners, as well as athletes, officials, judges, and every other person and institution that agrees to abide by the rules of the Olympic Charter. As the umbrella organization of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city, overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games, updating and approving the sports program, and negotiating sponsorship and broadcasting rights. The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements: International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for football (soccer), and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for volleyball). There are currently 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each of the Olympic sports. National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC. Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) constitute the temporary committees responsible for the organization of a specific celebration of the Olympics. OCOGs are dissolved after each Games, once the final report is delivered to the IOC. French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country. Every proclamation (such as the announcement of each country during the parade of nations in the opening ceremony) is spoken in these three languages. Olympic Charter (2007), Rule 24, p. 53. Criticism The IOC has often been criticized for being an intractable organization, with several members on the committee for life. The leadership of IOC presidents Avery Brundage and Juan Antonio Samaranch was especially controversial. Brundage was president for over 20 years, and during his tenure he protected the Olympics from untoward political involvement. Maraniss (2008), pp. 52–60 He was accused of both racism, for his handling of the apartheid issue with the South African delegation, and anti-Semitism. Maraniss (2008), pp. 60–69 Under the Samaranch presidency, the office was accused of both nepotism and corruption. Samaranch's ties with the Franco regime in Spain was also a source of criticism. In 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics, to insure their votes were cast in favor of the American bid. The IOC pursued an investigation which led to the resignation of four members and expulsion of six others. The scandal set off further reforms that would the way host cities are selected, to avoid similar cases in the future. A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian Mayor Bertrand Delanoë specifically accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee (headed by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe) of breaking the bid rules. He cited French President Jacques Chirac as a witness; Chirac gave guarded interviews regarding his involvement. The issue was never fully explored. The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination. Commercialization The IOC originally resisted funding by corporate sponsors. It was not until the retirement of IOC president Avery Brundage, in 1972, that the IOC began to explore the potential of the television medium and the lucrative advertising markets available to them. Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 231 Under the leadership of Juan Antonio Samaranch the Games began to shift toward international sponsors who sought to link their products to the Olympic brand. Budget During the first half of the 20th century the IOC was run on a small budget. Buchanon & Mallon (2006), p. ci As president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, Avery Brundage rejected all attempts to link the Olympics with commercial interest. Brundage believed the lobby of corporate interests would unduly impact the IOC's decision-making. Brundage's resistance to this revenue stream meant the IOC left organizing committees to negotiate their own sponsorship contracts and use the Olympic symbols. When Brundage retired the IOC had US$2 million in assets; eight years later the IOC coffers had swelled to US$45 million. This was primarily due to a shift in ideology toward expansion of the Games through corporate sponsorship and the sale of television rights. When Juan Antonio Samaranch was elected IOC president in 1980 his desire was to make the IOC financially independent. The 1984 Summer Olympics became a watershed moment in Olympic history. The Los Angeles-based organizing committee, led by Peter Ueberroth, was able to generate a surplus of US$225 million, which was an unprecedented amount at that time. Findling & Pelle (2000), p. 209 The organizing committee had been able to create such a surplus in part by selling exclusive sponsorship rights to select companies. The IOC sought to gain control of these sponsorship rights. Samaranch helped to establish The Olympic Program (TOP) in 1985, in order to create an Olympic brand. Membership in TOP was, and is, very exclusive and expensive. Fees cost US$50 million for a four year membership. Members of TOP received exclusive global advertising rights for their product category, and use of the Olympic symbol, the interlocking rings, in their publications and advertisements. Slack (2004), p. 194 Impact of television The 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin were the first Games to be broadcast on television, though only to local audiences. The 1956 Winter Olympics were the first internationally televised Olympic Games, and the following Winter Games had their broadcasting rights sold for the first time to specialized television broadcasting networks—CBS payed US$394,000 for the American rights, Slack (2004), p. 192 and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) allocated US$660,000. In the following decades the Olympics became one of the ideological fronts of the Cold War. Superpowers jockeyed for political supremacy, and the IOC wanted to take advantage of this heightened interest via the broadcast medium. The sale of broadcast rights enabled the IOC to increase the exposure of the Olympic Games, thereby generating more interest, which in turn created more appeal to advertisers who purchased advertising time on television. This cycle allowed the IOC to charge ever-increasing fees for those rights. For example, CBS paid US$375 million for the rights of the 1998 Nagano Games, Gershon (2000), p. 17 while NBC spent US$3.5 billion for the broadcast rights of all the Olympic Games from 2000 to 2008 Viewership increased exponentially from the 1960s until the end of the century. Worldwide audience estimates for the 1968 Mexico City Games was 600 million, whereas at the Los Angeles Games of 1984, the audience numbers had increased to 900 million; that number swelled to 3.5 billion by the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. Tomlinson (2005), p. 14 However, at the 2000 Summer Games in Sydney, NBC drew the lowest ratings for any Summer or Winter Olympics since 1968. This was attributed to two factors: one was the increased competition from cable channels, the second was the internet, which was able to display results and video in real time. Television companies were still relying on tape-delayed content, which was becoming outdated in the information era. A drop in ratings meant that television studios had to give away free advertising time. With such high costs charged to broadcast the Games, the added pressure of the internet, and increased competition from cable, the television lobby demanded concessions from the IOC to boost ratings. Slack (2004), pp. 16–18 The IOC responded by making a number of changes to the Olympic program. At the Summer Games, the gymnastics competition was expanded from seven to nine nights, and a Champions Gala was added to draw greater interest. Slack (2004), p. 17 The IOC also expanded the swimming and diving programs, both popular sports with a broad base of television viewers. Finally, the American television lobby was able to dictate when certain events were held so that they could be broadcast live during prime time in the United States. Cooper-Chen (2005), p. 230 The result of these efforts was mixed: the ratings for the 2006 Winter Games, held in Europe, were significantly lower than those for the 2002 Games, while there was a sharp increase in viewership for the 2008 Summer Olympics, staged in Beijing. Woods (2007), p. 146 Controversy The sale of the Olympic brand has been controversial. The argument is that the Games have become indistinguishable from any other commercialized sporting spectacle. Specific criticism was levelled at the IOC for market saturation during the 1996 Atlanta and 2000 Sydney Games. The cities were awash in corporations and merchants attempting to sell Olympic-related wares. Buchanon & Mallon (2006), p. cii The IOC responded by indicating they would address this to prevent further spectacles of over-marketing at future Games. Another criticism is that the Games are funded by host cities and national governments; the IOC incurs none of this cost, yet controls all the rights and profits from the Olympic symbols. The IOC also takes a percentage of all sponsorship and broadcast income. Host cities continue to compete ardently for the right to host the Games, even though there is no certainty that they will earn back their investments. Slack (2004), p. 194–195 Symbols and ceremonies Symbols The Olympic Movement uses symbols to represent the ideals embodied in the Olympic Charter. The Olympic symbol, better known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (considering North and South America as a single continent). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. These colors were chosen because every nation had at least one of them on its national flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time only at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. It has since been hoisted during each celebration of the Games. The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger". Coubertin's ideals are further expressed in the Olympic creed: Months before each Games, the Olympic flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, ignites a torch by placing it inside a parabolic mirror which focuses the sun's rays; she then lights the torch of the first relay bearer, thus initiating the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium, where it plays an important role in the opening ceremony. Though the flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928, the torch relay was introduced at the 1936 Summer Games, as part of the German government's attempt to promote its National Socialist ideology. The Olympic mascot, an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country, was introduced in 1968. It has played an important part on the Games identity promotion since the 1980 Summer Olympics, when the Russian bear cub Misha reached international stardom. The mascots of the most recent Summer Olympics, in Beijing, were the Fuwa, five creatures that represent the five fengshui elements important in Chinese culture. Ceremonies Opening As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture. The artistic presentations have grown in scale and complexity as successive hosts attempt to provide a ceremony that outlasts its predecessor's in terms of memorability. The opening ceremony of the Beijing Games reportedly cost $100 million, with much of the cost incurred in the artistic segment. After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Speeches are given, formally opening the Games. Finally, the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier—often a well-known and successful Olympic athlete from the host nation—who lights the Olympic flame in the stadium's cauldron. Closing The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played: the flag of Greece, to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games; the flag of the current host country, and the flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games. The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches, the Games are officially closed, and the Olympic flame is extinguished. In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony, the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC, who then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games. After these compulsory elements, the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture. Medal presentation A medal ceremony during the 2008 Summer Olympics A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays. Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers. For every Olympic event, the respective medal ceremony is held, at most, one day after the event's final. A notable exception is the men's marathon: the competition is usually held early in the morning on the last day of Olympic competition and its medal ceremony is then held in the evening during the closing ceremony. Sports The Olympic Games program consists of 33 sports, 52 disciplines and nearly 400 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, it is comprised of two disciplines, Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is further broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women. These events are dileneated by weight classes. The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 7 sports. Athletics, swimming, fencing, and artistic gymnastics are the only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program. Cross-country skiing, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, ski jumping, and speed skating have been featured at every Winter Olympics program since its inception in 1924. Current Olympic sports, like badminton, basketball, and volleyball, first appeared on the program as demonstration sports, and were later promoted to full Olympic sports. Some sports that were featured in earlier Games were later dropped from the program. Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. Olympic Charter (2007), pp. 88–90. There are sports recognized by the IOC that are not included on the Olympic program. These sports are not considered Olympic sports, but they can be promoted to this status during a program revision that occurs in the first IOC session following a celebration of the Olympic Games. Olympic Charter (2007), p. 87 During such revisions, sports can be excluded or included in the program based on a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC. There are recognized sports that have never been on an Olympic program in any capacity. Some of these include tug of war, chess, golf, and surfing. In October and November 2004, the IOC established an Olympic Programme Commission, which was tasked with reviewing the sports on the Olympic program and all non-Olympic recognized sports. The goal was to apply a systematic approach to establishing the Olympic program for each celebration of the Games. The commission formulated seven criteria to judge whether a sport should be included on the Olympic program. These criteria are history and tradition of the sport, universality, popularity of the sport, image, athletes' health, development of the International Federation that governs the sport, and costs of holding the sport. From this study five recognized sports emerged as candidates for inclusion at the 2012 Summer Olympics: golf, karate, rugby, roller sports and squash. These sports were reviewed by the IOC Executive Board and then referred to the General Session in Singapore in July 2005. Of the five sports recommended for inclusion only two were selected as finalists: karate and squash. Neither sport attained the required two-thirds vote and consequently they were not promoted to the Olympic program. The 114th IOC Session, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major program revision was performed, which resulted in the exclusion of baseball and softball from the official program of the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program will feature just 26 sports. Amateurism and professionalism Professional NHL players were allowed to participate in ice hockey starting in 1998 (Gold medal game between Russia and the Czech Republic pictured). The ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools greatly influenced Pierre de Coubertin. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education, an attitude summed up in the saying mens sana in corpore sano, a sound mind in a sound body. In this ethos, a gentleman was one who became an all-rounder, not the best at one specific thing. There was also a prevailing concept of fairness, in which practicing or training was considered tantamount to cheating. Those who practiced a sport professionally were considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practiced it merely as a hobby. The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. Swiss and Austrian skiers boycotted the 1936 Winter Olympics in support of their skiing teachers, who were not allowed to compete because they earned money with their sport and were thus considered professionals. As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. Eventually the decisions on professional participation were left to the IFs. As of 2004, the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees. In men's football (soccer), only three players over the age of 23 are eligible to participate per team in the Olympic tournament. This is done in order to maintain a level of amateurism. Controversies Boycotts Map showing the countries that boycotted the 1976 (yellow), 1980 (blue) and 1984 (red) Summer Olympics. The 1956 Melbourne Olympics were the first Olympics to be boycotted. The Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland refused to attend because of the repression of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union. Cambodia, Egypt, Iraq and Lebanon boycotted the Games due to the Suez Crisis. In 1972 and 1976 a large number of African countries threatened the IOC with a boycott to force them to ban South Africa and Rhodesia, because of their segregationist regimes. New Zealand was also one of the African boycott targets, due to the "All Blacks" (national rugby team) having toured apartheid-ruled South Africa. The IOC conceded in the first two cases, but refused to ban New Zealand on the grounds that rugby was not an Olympic sport. Fulfilling their threat, twenty African countries were joined by Guyana and Iraq in a Tanzania-led withdrawal from the Montreal Games, after a few of their athletes had already competed. Taiwan also decided to boycott these Games because the People's Republic of China (PRC) exerted pressure on the Montreal organizing committee to keep the delegation from the Republic of China (ROC) from competing under that name. The ROC refused a proposed compromise that would have still allowed them to use the ROC flag and anthem as long as the name was changed. Taiwan did not participate again until 1984, when it returned under the name of Chinese Taipei and with a special flag and anthem. In 1980 and 1984, the Cold War opponents boycotted each other's Games. Sixty-five nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This boycott reduced the number of nations participating to 81, the lowest number since 1956. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania) countered by boycotting the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984, contending that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States". The boycotting nations of the Eastern Bloc staged their own alternate event, the Friendship Games, in July and August. There had been growing calls for boycotts of Chinese goods and the 2008 Olympics in Beijing in protest of China's human rights record, and in response to the recent disturbances in Tibet, Darfur, and Taiwan. U.S. President George W. Bush showcased these concerns in a highly publicized speech in Thailand just prior to the opening of the Games. Ultimately, no nation withdrew before the Games. Politics Jesse Owens on the podium after winning the long jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics Contrary to the founding principles, the Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies. Germany hosted the 1936 Games to demonstrate the Nationalist Socialist Party's benevolence and desire for peace. Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 107 The Games were also intended to show the superiority of the Aryan race; a goal that was not met due in part to the achievements of athletes such as Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals at this Olympics. Findling & Pelle (2004) p. 111–112 The Soviet Union, did not participate until the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki. Instead, in 1928, the Soviets organized an international sports event called Spartakiads. Other communist countries organized Workers Olympics during the inter-war period of the 1920s and 1930s. These events were held as an alternative to the Olympics, which were perceived as a capitalist and aristocratic event. Roche (2000), p. 106 It was not until the 1956 Summer Games that the Soviets emerged as a sporting superpower and, in doing so, took full advantage of the publicity that came with winning at the Olympics. Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200 meter sprint race, performed the Black Power salute on the victory stand. The second place finisher Peter Norman wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. In response to the protest, IOC President Avery Brundage told the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The USOC opted for the former. Currently, the government of Iran has taken steps to avoid any competition between its athletes and those from Israel. An Iranian judoka did not compete in a match against an Israeli during the 2004 Summer Olympics. Although he was officially disqualified for excessive weight, Arash Miresmaeli was awarded US$125,000 in prize money by the Iranian government, an amount paid to all Iranian gold medal winners. He was officially cleared of intentionally avoiding the bout, but his receipt of the prize money raised suspicion. Use of performance enhancing drugs Thomas Hicks running the marathon at the 1904 Summer Olympics In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to doping occurred at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance enhancing drugs; in 1967 the IOC followed suit. The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use. Porterfield (2008), p. 15 The most publicized doping-related disqualification was that of Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson, who won the 100 meter dash at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but tested positive for stanozolol. His gold medal was subsequently stripped and awarded to runner-up Carl Lewis, who himself had tested positive for banned substances prior to the Olympics. In the late 1990s, the IOC took the initiative in a more organized battle against doping, by forming the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in 1999. There was a sharp increase in positive drug tests at the 2000 Summer Olympics and 2002 Winter Olympics. Several medalists in weightlifting and cross-country skiing were disqualified due to doping offenses. During the 2006 Winter Olympics, only one athlete failed a drug test and had a medal revoked. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations around the world attempt to emulate. During the Beijing games, 3,667 athletes were tested by the IOC under the auspices of the World Anti-Doping Agency. Both urine and blood tests were used to detect banned substances. Several athletes were barred from competition by their National Olympic Committees prior to the Games; only three athletes failed drug tests while in competition in Beijing. Violence Despite what Coubertin had hoped for, the Olympics did not bring total peace to the world. In fact, three Olympiads had to pass without a celebration of the Games because of war: the 1916 Games were cancelled due to World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. The South Ossetia War between Georgia and Russia erupted on the opening day of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Both President Bush and Prime Minister Putin were attending the Olympics at that time and spoke together about the conflict at a luncheon hosted by Chinese President Hu Jintao. When Nino Salukvadze of Georgia won the bronze medal in the 10 meter air pistol competition, she stood on the medal podium with Natalia Paderina, a Russian shooter who had won the silver. In what became a much-publicized event from the Beijing Games, Salukvadze and Paderina embraced on the podium after the ceremony had ended. Terrorism has also threatened the Olympic Games. In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the terrorist group Black September in what is now known as the Munich massacre. A bungled liberation attempt led to the deaths of the nine abducted athletes who had not been killed prior to the rescue. Also killed were five of the terrorists and a German policeman. Another example of terrorism at the Olympics came during the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta. A bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed 2 and injured 111 others. The bomb was set by Eric Robert Rudolph, an American domestic terrorist, who is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing. Champions and medalists The athletes or teams who place first, second, or third in each event receive medals. The winners receive gold medals, which were solid gold until 1912, then made of gilded silver and now gold plated silver. Every gold medal must contain at least six grams of pure gold. The runners-up receive silver medals and the third-place athletes are awarded bronze medals. In events contested by a single-elimination tournament (most notably boxing), third place might not be determined and both semifinal losers receive bronze medals. At the 1896 Olympics only the first two received a medal; silver for first and bronze for second. At the 1904 Olympics silver trophies, rather than medals, were awarded for first place. The three medal format was first used at the Intercalated Games of 1906. Since the IOC no longer recognizes these as official Olympic Games, the first official awarding of the three medals came at the London Olympics of 1908. From 1948 onward athletes placing fourth, fifth, and sixth have received certificates, which became officially known as victory diplomas; in 1984 victory diplomas for seventh and eighth-place finishers were added. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, the gold, silver, and bronze medal winners were also given olive wreaths. National Olympic Committees and the media record medal statistics as a measure of success. All-time individual medal count The IOC does not keep an official record of individual medal counts, though unofficial medal tallies abound. These provide one method of determining the most successful Olympic athletes of the modern era. Below are the top ten individual medal winners of the modern Olympics (the gender of the athlete is denoted in the "Sport" column): Athlete Nation Sport Olympics Image:Gold medal icon.svg Gold Image:Silver medal icon.svg Silver Image:Bronze medal icon.svg Bronze Total Swimming (m) 2000–2008 14 0 2 16 Gymnastics (f) 1956–1964 9 5 4 18 Athletics (m) 1920–1928 9 3 0 12 Swimming (m) 1968–1972 9 1 1 11 Athletics (m) 1984–1996 9 1 0 10 Cross-country skiing (m) 1992–1998 8 4 0 12 Canoeing (flatwater) (f) 1980–2004 8 4 0 12 Gymnastics (m) 1968–1976 8 3 1 12 Swimming (f) 1992–2004 8 3 1 12 Swimming (m) 1984–1992 8 2 1 11 Host nations and cities Map of Summer Olympics locations. Countries that have hosted one Summer Olympics are shaded green, while countries that have hosted two or more are shaded blue. Map of Winter Olympics locations. Countries that have hosted one Winter Olympics are shaded green, while countries that have hosted two or more are shaded blue. The host city for an Olympic Games is usually chosen seven years ahead of their celebration. The process of selection is currently carried out in two phases that span over a two-year period. The prospective host city first applies to its country's Olympic Committee; if more than one city from the same country submits a proposal to its NOC, the national committee typically holds an internal selection, since only one city per NOC can be presented to the International Olympic Committee for consideration. Once the deadline for submission of proposals by the NOCs is reached, the first phase (Application) begins with the applicant cities asked to complete a questionnaire regarding several key criteria related to the organization of the Olympic Games. In this form, the applicants must give assurances that they will comply with the Olympic Charter and with any other regulations established by the IOC Executive Committee. The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a specialized group provides the IOC with an overview of each applicant's project and their potential to host the Games. Based on this technical evaluation, the IOC Excutive Board selects the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage. Once the candidate cities are selected, they must submit to the IOC a bigger and more detailed presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is thoroughly analyzed by an evaluation commission. This commission will also visit the candidate cities, interviewing local officials and inspecting prospective venue sites, and submits a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it will be able to fund the Games. After the work of the evaluation commission, a list of candidates is presented to the General Session of the IOC, which is assembled in a country that must not have a candidate city in the running. The IOC members gathered in the Session have the final vote on the host city. Once elected, the host city bid committee (together with the NOC of the respective country) signs a Host City Contract with the IOC, officially becoming an Olympic host nation and host city. By 2012, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 42 cities in 22 countries, but by cities outside Europe and North America on only seven occasions. Since the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, the Olympics have been held in Asia or Oceania four times, a sharp increase when compared to the three times in the previous 92 years of modern Olympic history. No bids from countries in South America and Africa have ever succeeded. The countries that sent the most athletes to the 2008 Summer Olympics are the United States with 663, China with 648, and Russia who broght 486 athletes. The United States has hosted four Summer and four Winter Olympics, more than any other nation. Among Summer Olympics host nations, the United Kingdom has been the host of two Games, and will host its third Olympics in 2012. Germany, Australia, Sweden, and Greece are the other nations to have hosted the Summer Olympics twice. Concerning the Winter Olympics, France took the hosting job for three times, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, and Italy have done it twice. The next Games, to be held in Vancouver, will be Canada's second Winter Olympics and third overall. +Olympic Games host cities Year Summer Olympic Games Winter Olympic Games Olympiad Host city No. Host city 1896 I Athens, Greece 1900 II Paris, France 1904 III St. Louis, United States Originally awarded to Chicago, but moved to St. Louis to coincide with the World's Fair 1906 III Not recognized by the IOC Athens, Greece 1908 IV London, United Kingdom 1912 V Stockholm, Sweden 1916 VI Cancelled due to World War I Berlin, Germany 1920 VII Antwerp, Belgium 1924 VIII Paris, France I Chamonix, France 1928 IX Amsterdam, Netherlands II St. Moritz, Switzerland1932 X Los Angeles, United States III Lake Placid, United States 1936 XI Berlin, Germany IV Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany1940 XII Cancelled due to World War II Tokyo, Japan→ Helsinki, Finland V Sapporo, Japan→ St. Moritz, Switzerland→ Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany1944 XIII London, United Kingdom V Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy1948 XIV London, United Kingdom V St. Moritz, Switzerland 1952 XV Helsinki, Finland VI Oslo, Norway 1956 XVI Melbourne, Australia + Stockholm, Sweden Equestrian events were held in Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm had to bid for the equestrian competition separately; it received its own Olympic flame and had its own formal invitations and opening and closing ceremonies, as with all its previous Games. VII Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy1960 XVII Rome, Italy VIII Squaw Valley, United States 1964 XVIII Tokyo, Japan IX Innsbruck, Austria 1968 XIX Mexico City, Mexico X Grenoble, France 1972 XX Munich, West Germany XI Sapporo, Japan1976 XXI Montreal, Canada XII Innsbruck, Austria 1980 XXII Moscow, Soviet Union XIII Lake Placid, United States 1984 XXIII Los Angeles, United States XIV Sarajevo, Yugoslavia1988 XXIV Seoul, South Korea XV Calgary, Canada 1992 XXV Barcelona, Spain XVI Albertville, France 1994 XVII Lillehammer, Norway 1996 XXVI Atlanta, United States 1998 XVIII Nagano, Japan 2000 XXVII Sydney, Australia 2002 XIX Salt Lake City, United States 2004 XXVIII Athens, Greece 2006 XX Turin, Italy 2008 XXIX Beijing, China Equestrian events were held in China's Hong Kong. Although Hong Kong has an independent National Olympic Committee from China, the equestrian competition was an integral part of the Beijing Games; it was not conducted under a separate bid, flame, etc., as was the 1956 Stockholm equestrian competition. The IOC website lists only Beijing as the host city. 2010 XXIX Singapore * XXI Vancouver, Canada 2012 XXX London, United Kingdom XXI Innsbruck *2014 XXII Sochi, Russia2016 XXXI To be announced 2018 XXIII To be announced * Youth Olympic Games See also Bids for Olympic Games (ballots) Olympic Cup and Order Olympic Day Run Pierre de Coubertin medal Special Olympics Notes References Further reading External links Official website of the Olympic Games Aerial and Satellite Photography of Olympic Stadiums All the daily program and the results of the Olympics ATR - Around the Rings - the Business Surrounding the Olympics Database Olympics Dicolympic - Dictionary about the Games from Olympia to Sochi 2014 Olympics Memories Reference book about all Olympic Medalists of all times be-x-old:Алімпійскія гульні | Olympic_Games |@lemmatized olympic:169 game:170 ancient:11 gamessummer:1 gameswinter:1 gamesparalympic:1 gamesyouth:1 charter:11 ioc:82 nocs:2 symbolssports:1 competitorsmedal:1 table:1 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1,844 | Frost | A fine coating of hoar-frost on grass. Frost is the solid deposition of water vapor from saturated air. It is formed when solid surfaces are cooled to below the dew point of the adjacent air. Frost crystals' size differ depending on time and water vapor available. Frost is also usually translucent in appearance. There are many types of frost, such as radiation and window frost. Frost causes economic damage when it destroys plants or hanging fruits. Road surfaces can also be damaged through a process known as frost heaving. Formation Frost on black pipes. If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding air and the surface itself is colder than freezing, frost will form on the surface. Frost consists of spicules of ice which grow out from the solid surface. The size of the crystals depends on time, temperature, and the amount of water vapor available. A thin layer of frost will evaporate quickly, when exposure to sunlight raises an underlying object's temperature above the freezing-point of water. In general, for frost to form the deposition surface must be colder than the surrounding air. For instance frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when moist air escapes from the ground below. Other objects on which frost tends to form are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals; hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails. The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. It is also affected by differences in absorptivity and specific heat of the ground which in the absence of wind greatly influences the temperature attained by the superincumbent air. Because cold air is denser than warm air, in calm weather cold air pools at ground level. This is known as surface temperature inversion. It explains why frost is more common and extensive in low-lying areas. Areas where frost forms due to cold air trapped against the ground or against a solid barrier such as a wall are known as "frost pockets". The formation of frost is an example of meteorological deposition. Types Hoar frost Radiation frost Hoar frost or soft rime on a cold winter day Interior Alaska Ice Iris Window frost on a skylight (contrast enhanced) Rime frost Frost on a grave, Netherlands Radiation frost (also called hoar frost or hoarfrost) refers to the white ice crystals, loosely deposited on the ground or exposed objects, that form on cold clear nights when heat losses into the open skies cause objects to become colder than the surrounding air. A related effect is flood frost which occurs when air cooled by ground-level radiation losses travels downhill to form pockets of very cold air in depressions, valleys, and hollows. Hoar frost can form in these areas even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing. Nonetheless the frost itself will be at or below the freezing temperature of water. Hoar frost may have different names depending on where it forms. For example, air hoar is a deposit of hoar frost on objects above the surface, such as tree branches, plant stems, wires; surface hoar is formed by fernlike ice crystals directly deposited on snow, ice or already frozen surfaces; crevasse hoar consists in crystals that form in glacial crevasses where water vapour can accumulate under calm weather conditions; depth hoar refers to cup shaped, faceted crystals formed within dry snow, beneath the surface. Surface hoar is a cause of avalanches when it forms on top of snow. Conditions that are ideal are cold clear nights, with a very light wind that is able to circulate more humidified air around the snow surface. Wind that is too abrupt will destroy the crystals. When buried by subsequent snows they may remain standing for easy identification, or become laid down, but still dangerous because of the weakness of the crystals Hoar frost also occurs around man-made environments such as freezers or industrial cold storage facilities. It occurs in adjacent rooms that are not well insulated against the cold or around entry locations where humidity and moisture will enter and freeze instantly depending on the freezer temperature. Advection frost Advection frost (also called wind frost) refers to tiny ice spikes forming when there is a very cold wind blowing over branches of trees, poles and other surfaces. It looks like rimming the edge of flowers and leaves and usually it forms against the direction of the wind. It can occur at any hour of day and night. Frost flowers Frost flowers occur when there is a freezing weather condition but the ground is not already frozen. The water contained in the plant stem expands and causes long cracks along the stem. Water, via capillary action, goes out from the cracks and freezes on contact with the air. Also the frost can literally look like a flower, even a dead flower from the previous summer. These are rare and wonderful to see as they are very delicate and last usually less than a day. Due to their fleeting nature, they are difficult to find to photograph and the locations of these Frost Flowers are elusive as terrain plays a big part in their formation as well. Window frost Window frost (also called fern frost) forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and moderately moist air on the inside. If the pane is not a good insulator (such as a single pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass forming patterns. With very cold temperatures outside frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double pane energy efficient windows, due to air convection between two panes of glass. Bottom part of the glazing unit is always colder than the top part. The glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches or dust can modify the way ice nucleates. If the indoor air is very humid, rather than moderately so, water would first condense in small droplets and then freeze into clear ice. Rime Rime is a type of frost that occurs quickly, often under conditions of heavily saturated air and windy conditions. Ships traveling through Arctic seas may accumulate rime on the rigging. Unlike hoar frost, which has a feathery appearance, rime generally has an icy solid appearance. In contrast to the formation of hoar frost, in which the water vapor condenses slowly and directly into icy feathers, Rime typically goes through a liquid phase where the surface is wet by condensation before freezing. Effect on plants Overview Frost on a nettle. Frost on lingon berry leaves. Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost. This will vary with the type of plant and tissue exposed to low temperatures. Tender plants, like tomatoes, die when they are exposed to frost. Hardy plants, like radish, tolerate lower temperatures. Perennials, such as the hosta plant, become dormant after first frosts and regrow when spring arrives. The entire visible plant may completely turn brown until the spring warmth, or will drop all of its leaves and flowers, leaving the stem and stalk only. Evergreen plants, such as pine trees, will withstand frost although all or most growth stops. Vegetation will not necessarily be damaged when leaf temperatures drop below the freezing point of their cell contents. In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a supercooled liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of −4°C to −12°C. However, once frost forms, the leaf cells may be damaged by sharp ice crystals. Certain bacteria, notably Pseudomonas syringae, are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about −2°C . Bacteria lacking ice nucleation-active proteins (ice-minus bacteria) result in greatly reduced frost damage . Protection methods The Selective Inverted Sink Selective Inverted Sink Rolex Awards site (won award in Technology and Innovation category) 1998. prevents frost by drawing cold air from the ground and blowing it up through a chimney. It was originally developed to prevent frost damage to citrus fruits in Uruguay. In New Zealand, helicopters are used in a similar function, especially in the vineyard regions like Marlborough. By dragging down warmer air from the inversion layers, and preventing the ponding of colder air on the ground, the low-flying helicopters prevent damage to the fruit buds. As the operations are conducted at night, and have in the past involved up to 130 aircraft per night in one region, safety rules are strict. Helicopters Fight Frost - Vector, Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, September / October 2008, Page 8-9 Personifications Frost is personified in Russian culture as Ded Moroz. Indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Mordvins have their own traditions of frost deities. English folklore tradition holds that Jack Frost, an elfish creature, is responsible for feathery patterns of frost found on windows on cold mornings. See also Air frost Frostbite Frost flower Frost line Icing (nautical) Needle ice Rime: soft/hard White frost References External links Clouds R Us - Frost Guide to Frost BBC Understanding Weather - Frost American Meteorological Society, Glossary of Meteorology - Hoarfrost The Weather Doctor - Weather Whys - Frost Free Frost Alert system | Frost |@lemmatized fine:1 coating:1 hoar:15 frost:74 grass:1 solid:6 deposition:3 water:11 vapor:4 saturate:2 air:26 form:17 surface:17 cool:2 dew:2 point:4 adjacent:3 crystal:11 size:2 differ:1 depend:4 time:2 available:2 also:9 usually:3 translucent:1 appearance:3 many:2 type:4 radiation:4 window:8 cause:4 economic:1 damage:8 destroy:2 plant:11 hang:1 fruit:3 road:1 process:1 know:3 heaving:1 formation:6 black:1 pipe:1 chill:1 surround:3 cold:18 freezing:2 consist:2 spicule:1 ice:13 grow:1 temperature:14 amount:1 thin:1 layer:2 evaporate:1 quickly:2 exposure:1 sunlight:1 raise:2 underlie:1 object:5 freeze:9 general:1 must:1 instance:1 may:6 observe:1 around:4 crack:3 wooden:1 sidewalk:1 moist:2 escape:1 ground:10 tend:1 low:6 specific:2 heat:3 high:1 thermal:1 emissivity:1 blackened:1 metal:1 hence:1 accumulation:1 head:1 rusty:1 nail:1 apparently:1 erratic:1 occurrence:1 locality:1 due:4 partly:1 difference:2 elevation:1 area:4 become:4 colder:3 calm:3 night:6 affect:1 absorptivity:1 absence:2 wind:6 greatly:2 influence:2 attain:1 superincumbent:1 dense:1 warm:1 weather:6 pool:1 level:2 inversion:2 explain:1 common:1 extensive:1 lie:1 trap:1 barrier:1 wall:1 pocket:2 example:2 meteorological:2 soft:2 rime:8 winter:1 day:3 interior:1 alaska:1 iris:1 skylight:1 contrast:2 enhance:1 grave:1 netherlands:1 call:3 hoarfrost:2 refers:3 white:2 loosely:1 deposit:3 expose:4 clear:3 loss:2 open:1 sky:1 related:1 effect:2 flood:1 occur:6 travel:2 downhill:1 depression:1 valley:1 hollow:1 even:3 foot:1 well:3 nonetheless:1 different:1 name:1 tree:3 branch:2 stem:4 wire:1 fernlike:1 directly:2 snow:5 already:2 frozen:2 crevasse:2 glacial:1 vapour:2 accumulate:2 condition:5 depth:1 cup:1 shaped:1 faceted:1 within:1 dry:1 beneath:1 avalanche:1 top:2 ideal:1 light:1 able:1 circulate:1 humidified:1 abrupt:1 bury:1 subsequent:1 remain:2 stand:1 easy:1 identification:1 laid:1 still:1 dangerous:1 weakness:1 man:1 make:1 environment:1 freezer:2 industrial:1 storage:1 facility:1 room:1 insulate:1 entry:1 location:2 humidity:1 moisture:1 enter:1 instantly:1 advection:2 tiny:1 spike:1 blowing:1 pole:1 look:2 like:5 rim:1 edge:1 flower:8 leaf:5 direction:1 hour:1 contain:1 expands:1 long:1 along:1 via:1 capillary:1 action:1 go:2 contact:1 literally:1 dead:1 previous:1 summer:1 rare:1 wonderful:1 see:2 delicate:1 last:1 less:1 fleeting:1 nature:1 difficult:1 find:2 photograph:1 elusive:1 terrain:1 play:1 big:1 part:3 fern:1 glass:4 pane:5 outside:2 moderately:2 inside:1 good:1 insulator:1 single:1 condenses:1 forming:1 pattern:2 appear:1 bottom:2 double:1 energy:1 efficient:1 convection:1 two:1 glaze:1 unit:1 always:1 shape:1 imperfection:1 scratch:1 dust:1 modify:1 way:1 nucleates:1 indoor:1 humid:1 rather:1 would:1 first:2 condense:2 small:1 droplet:1 often:1 heavily:1 windy:1 ship:1 arctic:1 sea:1 rigging:1 unlike:1 feathery:2 generally:1 icy:2 slowly:1 feather:1 typically:1 liquid:2 phase:1 wet:1 condensation:1 overview:1 nettle:1 lingon:1 berry:1 leave:2 kill:1 vary:1 tissue:1 tender:1 tomato:1 die:1 hardy:1 radish:1 tolerate:1 perennial:1 hosta:1 dormant:1 regrow:1 spring:2 arrive:1 entire:1 visible:1 completely:1 turn:1 brown:1 warmth:1 drop:2 stalk:1 evergreen:1 pine:1 withstand:1 although:1 growth:1 stop:1 vegetation:1 necessarily:1 cell:2 content:1 site:2 nucleate:1 supercooled:1 state:1 safely:1 reach:1 c:3 however:1 sharp:1 certain:1 bacteria:3 notably:1 pseudomonas:1 syringae:1 particularly:1 effective:1 trigger:1 nucleation:2 lack:1 active:1 protein:1 minus:1 result:1 reduce:1 protection:1 methods:1 selective:2 inverted:1 sink:2 invert:1 rolex:1 award:2 technology:1 innovation:1 category:1 prevents:1 draw:1 blow:1 chimney:1 originally:1 develop:1 prevent:3 citrus:1 uruguay:1 new:2 zealand:2 helicopter:3 use:1 similar:1 function:1 especially:1 vineyard:1 region:2 marlborough:1 drag:1 warmer:1 ponding:1 fly:1 bud:1 operation:1 conduct:1 past:1 involve:1 aircraft:1 per:1 one:1 safety:1 rule:1 strict:1 fight:1 vector:1 civil:1 aviation:1 authority:1 september:1 october:1 page:1 personification:1 personify:1 russian:1 culture:1 ded:1 moroz:1 indigenous:1 people:1 russia:1 mordvin:1 tradition:2 deity:1 english:1 folklore:1 hold:1 jack:1 elfish:1 creature:1 responsible:1 morning:1 frostbite:1 line:1 icing:1 nautical:1 needle:1 hard:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cloud:1 r:1 u:1 guide:1 bbc:1 understand:1 american:1 society:1 glossary:1 meteorology:1 doctor:1 free:1 alert:1 system:1 |@bigram hoar_frost:10 thin_layer:1 exposure_sunlight:1 wind_blowing:1 pane_glass:1 supercooled_liquid:1 citrus_fruit:1 external_link:1 glossary_meteorology:1 |
1,845 | Christian_Goldbach | Christian Goldbach (March 18, 1690 – November 20, 1764) was a Prussian mathematician who also studied law. He is remembered today for Goldbach's conjecture. Biography Born in the Duchy of Prussia's capital Königsberg, part of Brandenburg-Prussia, Goldbach was the son of a pastor. He studied at the University of Königsberg and went on to work at the newly opened St Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1725. Later on, he was a tutor to the later Tsar Peter II in 1728. In 1742 he entered the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Contributions Goldbach traveled widely throughout Europe and met with many famous mathematicians, such as Gottfried Leibniz, Leonhard Euler, and Nicholas I Bernoulli. He is most noted for his correspondence with these mathematicians, especially in his 1742 letter to Euler stating his Goldbach's Conjecture. He also studied and proved some theorems on perfect powers, such as the Goldbach-Euler theorem, and made several notable contributions to analysis. References External links Electronic copies of Euler's correspondence with Goldbach | Christian_Goldbach |@lemmatized christian:1 goldbach:7 march:1 november:1 prussian:1 mathematician:3 also:2 study:3 law:1 remember:1 today:1 conjecture:2 biography:1 bear:1 duchy:1 prussia:2 capital:1 königsberg:2 part:1 brandenburg:1 son:1 pastor:1 university:1 go:1 work:1 newly:1 open:1 st:1 petersburg:1 academy:1 science:1 later:1 tutor:1 late:1 tsar:1 peter:1 ii:1 enter:1 russian:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 contribution:2 travel:1 widely:1 throughout:1 europe:1 meet:1 many:1 famous:1 gottfried:1 leibniz:1 leonhard:1 euler:4 nicholas:1 bernoulli:1 noted:1 correspondence:2 especially:1 letter:1 state:1 prove:1 theorem:2 perfect:1 power:1 make:1 several:1 notable:1 analysis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 electronic:1 copy:1 |@bigram goldbach_conjecture:2 duchy_prussia:1 brandenburg_prussia:1 st_petersburg:1 foreign_affair:1 gottfried_leibniz:1 leonhard_euler:1 external_link:1 |
1,846 | Aelbert_Cuyp | Aelbert Jacobsz Cuyp (October 20, 1620 - November 15, 1691) was one of the leading Dutch landscape painters of the Dutch Golden Age in the 17th century. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp (1594–1651/52), he is especially known for his large views of the Dutch countryside in early morning or late afternoon light. Biography Aelbert Cuyp was born in Dordrecht on October 20, 1620, and also died there on November 15, 1691. Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, this landscape artist went on to inherit a considerable fortune. His family were all artists, with his uncle and grandfather being glass stainers. Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist. Paintings Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant's hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp's landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be. The Maas at Dordrecht (National Gallery of Art, Washington DC) Cuyp's drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of golden brown ink depict a distant view of the city of Dordrecht or Utrecht. A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be a finished work of art, but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures. Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as Abraham Calraet (1642–1722), whose initials A.C. may be mistaken for Cuyp's. However, not everyone appreciates his work and River Landscape (1660), despite being widely regarded as amongst his best work, has been described as having "chocolate box blandness". Later life After he married Cornelia Boschman in 1658, the number of works produced by him declined almost to nothing. This may have been because his wife was a very religious woman and a very big patron of the arts. It could also be that he became more active in the church under his wife's guidance. He was also active as deacon and elder of the Reformed Church, and a member of the high court of Holland. References External links Literature on Aelbert Cuyp | Aelbert_Cuyp |@lemmatized aelbert:3 jacobsz:1 cuyp:10 october:2 november:2 one:1 lead:1 dutch:4 landscape:6 painter:2 golden:4 age:1 century:1 famous:1 family:2 pupil:1 father:2 jacob:2 gerritsz:2 especially:1 know:2 large:2 view:2 countryside:2 early:1 morning:1 late:1 afternoon:1 light:5 biography:1 bear:1 dordrecht:3 also:3 die:1 equivalent:1 claude:1 lorrain:1 artist:2 go:1 inherit:1 considerable:1 fortune:1 uncle:1 grandfather:1 glass:1 stainer:1 portraitist:1 painting:4 sunlight:1 rake:1 across:1 panel:1 accentuate:1 small:1 bit:1 detail:1 atmospheric:1 panorama:1 highlight:1 blade:1 meadow:1 grass:1 mane:1 tranquil:1 horse:1 horn:1 dairy:1 cow:1 reclining:1 stream:1 tip:1 peasant:1 hat:1 catch:1 bath:1 yellow:1 ocher:1 richly:1 varnish:1 medium:1 refract:1 ray:1 like:2 jewel:1 dissolve:1 numerous:1 glazed:1 layer:1 base:1 reality:1 invention:1 enchant:1 maas:1 national:1 gallery:1 art:3 washington:1 dc:1 drawing:2 reveal:1 draftsman:1 superior:1 quality:1 drenched:1 wash:1 brown:1 ink:1 depict:1 distant:1 city:1 utrecht:1 may:3 look:1 intend:1 finished:1 work:5 likely:2 take:1 back:1 studio:1 use:1 reference:2 often:1 section:1 sketch:1 find:1 several:1 different:1 picture:1 sign:1 many:1 rarely:1 date:1 chronology:1 career:1 satisfactorily:1 reassemble:1 phenomenal:1 number:2 ascribe:1 master:1 abraham:1 calraet:1 whose:1 initial:1 c:1 mistake:1 however:1 everyone:1 appreciate:1 river:1 despite:1 widely:1 regard:1 amongst:1 best:1 describe:1 chocolate:1 box:1 blandness:1 later:1 life:1 marry:1 cornelia:1 boschman:1 produce:1 decline:1 almost:1 nothing:1 wife:2 religious:1 woman:1 big:1 patron:1 could:1 become:1 active:2 church:2 guidance:1 deacon:1 elder:1 reform:1 member:1 high:1 court:1 holland:1 external:1 link:1 literature:1 |@bigram dairy_cow:1 washington_dc:1 external_link:1 |
1,847 | Cauchy_distribution | The Cauchy–Lorentz distribution, named after Augustin Cauchy and Hendrik Lorentz, is a continuous probability distribution. As a probability distribution, it is known as the Cauchy distribution, while among physicists, it is known as a Lorentz distribution, or a Lorentz(ian) function or the Breit–Wigner distribution. Its importance in physics is due to it being the solution to the differential equation describing forced resonance. In spectroscopy, it is the description of the line shape of spectral lines which are subject to homogeneous broadening in which all atoms interact in the same way with the frequency range contained in the lineshape. Many mechanisms cause homogeneous broadening, most notably collision broadening. Characterization Probability density function The Cauchy distribution has the probability density function where x0 is the location parameter, specifying the location of the peak of the distribution, and γ is the scale parameter which specifies the half-width at half-maximum (HWHM). The amplitude of the above Lorentzian function is given by In physics, a three-parameter Lorentzian function is often used, as follows: where I is the height of the peak. The special case when x0 = 0 and γ = 1 is called the standard Cauchy distribution with the probability density function Cumulative distribution function The cumulative distribution function (cdf) is: and the inverse cumulative distribution function of the Cauchy distribution is Properties The Cauchy distribution is an example of a distribution which has no mean, variance or higher moments defined. Its mode and median are well defined and are both equal to x0. When U and V are two independent normally distributed random variables with expected value 0 and variance 1, then the ratio U/V has the standard Cauchy distribution. If X1, …, Xn are independent and identically distributed random variables, each with a standard Cauchy distribution, then the sample mean (X1 + … + Xn)/n has the same standard Cauchy distribution (the sample median, which is not affected by extreme values, can be used as a measure of central tendency). To see that this is true, compute the characteristic function of the sample mean: where is the sample mean. This example serves to show that the hypothesis of finite variance in the central limit theorem cannot be dropped. It is also an example of a more generalized version of the central limit theorem that is characteristic of all Lévy skew alpha-stable distributions, of which the Cauchy distribution is a special case. The Cauchy distribution is an infinitely divisible probability distribution. It is also a strictly stable distribution. The standard Cauchy distribution coincides with the Student's t-distribution with one degree of freedom. The location-scale family to which the Cauchy distribution belongs is closed under linear fractional transformations with real coefficients. In this connection, see also McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions. Characteristic function Let X denote a Cauchy distributed random variable. The characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution is given by Explanation of undefined moments Mean If a probability distribution has a density function f(x) then the mean is The question is now whether this is the same thing as If at most one of the two terms in (2) is infinite, then (1) is the same as (2). But in the case of the Cauchy distribution, both the positive and negative terms of (2) are infinite. This means (2) is undefined. Moreover, if (1) is construed as a Lebesgue integral, then (1) is also undefined, since (1) is then defined simply as the difference (2) between positive and negative parts. However, if (1) is construed as an improper integral rather than a Lebesgue integral, then (2) is undefined, and (1) is not necessarily well-defined. We may take (1) to mean and this is its Cauchy principal value, which is zero, but we could also take (1) to mean, for example, which is not zero, as can be seen easily by computing the integral. Various results in probability theory about expected values, such as the strong law of large numbers, will not work in such cases. Second moment Without a defined mean, it is impossible to consider the variance or standard deviation of a standard Cauchy distribution, as these are defined with respect to the mean. But the second moment about zero can be considered. It turns out to be infinite: Related distributions The ratio of two independent standard normal random variables is a standard Cauchy variable, a Cauchy(0,1). Thus the Cauchy distribution is a ratio distribution. The standard Cauchy(0,1) distribution arises as a special case of Student's t distribution with one degree of freedom. Relation to Lévy skew alpha-stable distribution: Relativistic Breit-Wigner distribution In nuclear and particle physics, the energy profile of a resonance is described by the relativistic Breit-Wigner distribution, while the Cauchy distribution is the (non-relativistic) Breit–Wigner distribution. See also McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions Lévy flight and Lévy process External links GNU Scientific Library - Reference Manual | Cauchy_distribution |@lemmatized cauchy:26 lorentz:4 distribution:42 name:1 augustin:1 hendrik:1 continuous:1 probability:8 know:2 among:1 physicist:1 ian:1 function:13 breit:4 wigner:4 importance:1 physic:3 due:1 solution:1 differential:1 equation:1 describe:2 force:1 resonance:2 spectroscopy:1 description:1 line:2 shape:1 spectral:1 subject:1 homogeneous:2 broadening:3 atom:1 interact:1 way:1 frequency:1 range:1 contain:1 lineshape:1 many:1 mechanism:1 cause:1 notably:1 collision:1 characterization:1 density:4 location:3 parameter:3 specify:2 peak:2 γ:2 scale:2 half:2 width:1 maximum:1 hwhm:1 amplitude:1 lorentzian:2 give:2 three:1 often:1 use:2 follow:1 height:1 special:3 case:5 call:1 standard:10 cumulative:3 cdf:1 inverse:1 property:1 example:4 mean:11 variance:4 high:1 moment:4 define:5 mode:1 median:2 well:2 equal:1 u:2 v:2 two:3 independent:3 normally:1 distributed:2 random:4 variable:5 expect:2 value:4 ratio:3 xn:2 identically:1 sample:4 n:1 affect:1 extreme:1 measure:1 central:3 tendency:1 see:4 true:1 compute:2 characteristic:4 serve:1 show:1 hypothesis:1 finite:1 limit:2 theorem:2 cannot:1 drop:1 also:6 generalized:1 version:1 lévy:4 skew:2 alpha:2 stable:3 infinitely:1 divisible:1 strictly:1 coincides:1 student:2 one:3 degree:2 freedom:2 family:1 belongs:1 close:1 linear:1 fractional:1 transformation:1 real:1 coefficient:1 connection:1 mccullagh:2 parametrization:2 let:1 x:2 denote:1 distribute:1 explanation:1 undefined:4 f:1 question:1 whether:1 thing:1 term:2 infinite:3 positive:2 negative:2 moreover:1 construe:2 lebesgue:2 integral:4 since:1 simply:1 difference:1 part:1 however:1 improper:1 rather:1 necessarily:1 may:1 take:2 principal:1 zero:3 could:1 easily:1 various:1 result:1 theory:1 strong:1 law:1 large:1 number:1 work:1 second:2 without:1 defined:1 impossible:1 consider:2 deviation:1 respect:1 turn:1 related:1 normal:1 thus:1 arise:1 relation:1 relativistic:3 nuclear:1 particle:1 energy:1 profile:1 non:1 flight:1 process:1 external:1 link:1 gnu:1 scientific:1 library:1 reference:1 manual:1 |@bigram augustin_cauchy:1 hendrik_lorentz:1 probability_distribution:4 differential_equation:1 resonance_spectroscopy:1 cumulative_distribution:3 distributed_random:2 random_variable:4 lebesgue_integral:2 improper_integral:1 external_link:1 |
1,848 | Virtual_Boy | Nintendo's (also known as the VR-32 during development) was the first portable game console capable of displaying "true 3D graphics" out of the box. Most video games are forced to use monocular cues to achieve the illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional screen, but the Virtual Boy was able to create a more accurate illusion of depth through the effect known as parallax. In a manner similar to using a head-mounted display, the user looks into an eyepiece made of neoprene on the front of the machine, and then an eyeglass-style projector allows viewing of the monochromatic (in this case, red) image. It was released on July 21, 1995 in Japan and August 14, 1995 in North America at a price of around US$180. It met with a lukewarm reception that was unaffected by continued price drops. Nintendo discontinued it the following year. The Virtual Boy is considered Nintendo's only major game console failure in the home video game market. Overview Technical information The Virtual Boy (VB) system uses a pair of 1×224 linear arrays (one per eye) and rapidly scans the array across the eye's field of view using flat oscillating mirrors. These mirrors vibrate back and forth at a very high speed, thus the mechanical humming noise from inside the unit. Each VB game cartridge has a yes/no option to automatically pause every 15–30 minutes so that the player may take a break. In addition to playing with the stand attached, one could also place the VB device on their forehead while lying down for an easier mode of game use. This screenshot from Mario's Tennis running on an emulator. The anaglyph red/blue format simulates the Virtual Boy's 3D display. Monochrome display The Virtual Boy is iconic for its monochromatic use of red LED lights. The use of the red LED lights was chosen for being the least expensive, the lowest drain on batteries, and for being the most striking color to see. The use of other LED colors proved to be too cost prohibitive and would have forced the system to retail for over US$500. It would not be until 1996 that high-efficiency indium gallium nitride (InGaN) blue and green LEDs would become available from Nichia Corporation, and even then, Nintendo chose not to make the Virtual Boy color, as they were too expensive and power inefficient. During development, a color LCD was experimented with but was found to just cause users to see double instead of creating the illusion of depth. In addition, LCDs at the time had lower refresh rates than they do today, and were often blurry. They also consumed more power than LEDs. The Virtual Boy, which uses an oscillating mirror to transform a single line of dots into a full field of dots, requires high-performance LEDs in order to function properly. Because each pixel is only in use for a tiny fraction of a second (384 pixels wide, 50.2 Hz scan rate = approximately 52 µs per scanline), high peak brightness is needed to make the virtual display bright and comfortable for the user to view. The two-screen system demanded a fast refresh rate, unlike the original Game Boy which had blurry motion, so using an LCD was not an option. Controller The Virtual Boy, being a system with heavy emphasis on three-dimensional movement, needed a controller that could operate along a Z axis. The Virtual Boy's controller was an attempt to implement dual digital "D-pads" to control elements in the aforementioned 3D environment. The controller itself is shaped like an "M" (similar to a Nintendo 64 controller and GameCube controller). One holds onto either side of the controller and the part that dips down in the middle contains the battery pack. There are six buttons on the controller (A, B, Start, Select, L and R), the two D-pads, and the system's 'on\off" switch. The two directional pads are located on either side of the controller at the top. The "A" and "B" buttons are located below the pad on the right side and the "Start" and "Select" buttons are located in the same spot on the left side. What would normally be called "shoulder buttons" ("L" and "R") are located behind the area where the pads are, on the back of the controller, functioning more as triggers. Despite how the two D-pads were supposed to control elements in the 3D environment, both D-pads are interchangeable in most games like Mario Clash; both do the same thing. For others with a more 3D environment, like Red Alarm, "3D Tetris" or Teleroboxer, each pad controls a different feature. For Red Alarm one directional pad controls pitch and direction of the protagonists' ship, while the other controls up, down, and strafe movement. For Teleroboxer, each control pad, in conjunction with the trigger\shoulder buttons, controls the position of the corresponding fist of the character. For 3D Tetris, The D-pads flip & move the blocks. The symmetry of the controller also allows games like Vertical Force to feature the option to reverse the controls for left-handed people (similar to the Atari Lynx). This kind of concession to left-handed people has been repeated with the Nintendo Wii console and to a lesser extent the Nintendo DS and some of its more touchscreen oriented games. One of the unique features of the controller is the extendable power supply that slides onto the back. It houses the six AA batteries required to power the system. This can be substituted with a wall adapter, though a "slide on" attachment is required for the switchout. Once the slide on adapter is installed, a power adapter can be attached to provide constant power. EXTension Port The system's EXT port, located on the underside of the system below the controller port, was never officially supported since no official multiplayer games were ever published, nor was an official link cable released. (Although Waterworld and Faceball were going to use the EXT port for multiplayer play, these were not released.) At Planet Virtual Boy there is a tutorial on how to make a multiplayer cable for the Virtual Boy by modifying a couple of standard Nintendo Composite cables. Currently, only one homebrew game, 3D Battlesnake, supports the link cable. Specifications +Hardware specificationsProcessorNEC V810 (P/N uPD70732)32-bit RISC Processor @ 20 MHz (18 MIPS)1 MB of DRAM and 512 KB of PSRAM (Pseudo-SRAM)1 KB CacheDisplay (× 2) RTI SLA (P4) 384 × 224 Resolution 50.2 Hz Horizontal Scan RatePower6 AA Batteries (1.5V each) or AC Adapter (6 to 13 V, DC)Sound16-bit StereoController6 buttons and 2 D pads uses NES controller protocolSerial Port8 pin cableHardwarePartNumbersVUE-001 Virtual Boy UnitVUE-003 StandVUE-005 ControllerVUE-006 Game PakVUE-007 Battery PackVUE-010 EyeshadeVUE-011 AC AdapterVUE-012 Eyeshade HolderVUE-014 Red & Black Stereo HeadphonesWeight750 gramsDimensions8.5"H × 10"W × 4.3"D +Cartridge specifications128 megabit addressable ROM space (4–16 megabit ROM used in released games)128 megabit addressable RAM space (0–8 kilobyte Battery Backed RAM in released games)128 megabit addressable expansion space (unused in any released games)Expansion interrupt available to the cartridgeLeft and right audio signals pass through cartridge60-pin connector Development The console was designed by Gunpei Yokoi, inventor of the Game & Watch and Game Boy handhelds, as well as the Metroid franchise. While compact and seemingly portable, Virtual Boy was not intended to replace the Game Boy in Nintendo's product line, as use of the system requires a steady surface, and completely blocks the player's peripheral vision. According to David Sheff's book Game Over, Yokoi never actually had intended for the console to be released in its present form. However, Nintendo had grown impatient with the amount of time that he had taken with the project. It wanted to focus on the Nintendo 64, and quickly rushed the Virtual Boy to market Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children by David Sheff, 1993, Random House. . Reception Hype surrounding the device included public musings by Nintendo that the device might resemble a gun set vertical, projecting a 3D image in the air. The actual device was considered a disappointment compared to this description by Nintendo of America: "Powered by a 32-bit processor, the Virtual Boy produced very impressive 3-D effects, although the monochromatic graphic style proved to limit the appeal of the visuals." Classic Systems ScrewAttack placed the entire console at number three on their list of Top 10 Worst 2-D to 3-D Transformations. The commercial demise of the Virtual Boy was considered to be the catalyst that led to Yokoi being driven from Nintendo , yet it was maintained that Yokoi kept a close relationship with Nintendo despite Yokoi having later created a rivalling handheld system for Bandai. According to Game Over, the company laid the blame for the machine's faults directly on the creator Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children by David Sheff, 1993, Random House. . In 2007 the system was listed as number five in PC World's "The Ugliest Products in Tech History" list. In Dubai, a crate containing 100 sealed Virtual Boys was discovered in a warehouse. Vijay Chandrabota, purchasing manager of Geekay Games, said that it was just left there, and that no one knew it was even in stock, also stating that the Virtual Boy was dead stock, and he wasn't aware of its existence until they discovered it. Because Nintendo only shipped 800,000 Virtual Boys worldwide, it is a hot collector's item. Marketing Voice-overs for some advertisements were done by Dylan Bruno. http://www.buchwald.com/media/commercial_vo/commercial_men/Bruno_dylan.mp3 There were several in-store promotional videos created for various games (as well as the Virtual Boy itself), and the system was actively marketed in magazines and on TV. The marketing slogan was "A 3D Game for a 3D World". Games Due to the short lifespan of the system, only 22 games were released. Of them 19 games were released in the Japanese market, while only 14 were released in North America. See also List of Virtual Boy demos References External links Virtual Boy at Nintendo.com (archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) Virtual Boy games list at Nintendo.com (archived from the original at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) | Virtual_Boy |@lemmatized nintendo:20 also:6 know:3 vr:1 development:3 first:1 portable:2 game:30 console:6 capable:1 display:5 true:1 graphic:2 box:1 video:3 force:3 use:15 monocular:1 cue:1 achieve:1 illusion:3 three:3 dimension:1 two:5 dimensional:2 screen:2 virtual:24 boy:26 able:1 create:4 accurate:1 depth:2 effect:2 parallax:1 manner:1 similar:3 head:1 mounted:1 user:3 look:1 eyepiece:1 make:4 neoprene:1 front:1 machine:4 eyeglass:1 style:2 projector:1 allow:2 viewing:1 monochromatic:3 case:1 red:7 image:2 release:8 july:1 japan:1 august:1 north:2 america:3 price:2 around:1 u:2 meet:1 lukewarm:1 reception:2 unaffected:1 continued:1 drop:1 discontinue:1 following:1 year:1 consider:3 major:1 failure:1 home:1 market:4 overview:1 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1,849 | Alexander_Graham_Bell | Alexander Graham Bell (3 March 1847 – 2 August 1922) was an eminent scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator who is credited with inventing the first practical telephone. Bell's father, grandfather, and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech, and both his mother and wife were deaf, profoundly influencing Bell's life's work. Bruce 1990, p. 419. His research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in Bell being awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone in 1876. Black 1997, p. 18. Quote: "He thought he could harness the new electronic technology by creating a machine with a transmitter and receiver that would send sounds telegraphically to help people hear." In retrospect, Bell considered his most famous invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study. MacLeod 1999, p. 19. Many other inventions marked Bell's later life, including groundbreaking work in hydrofoils and aeronautics. In 1888, Alexander Graham Bell became one of the founding members of the National Geographic Society. National Geographic Magazine Early years Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on 3 March 1847. Petrie 1975, p. 4. The family home was at 16 South Charlotte Street, Edinburgh, Scotland, and now has a commemorative marker at the doorstep, marking it as Alexander Graham Bell's birthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867). Both of his brothers died of tuberculosis. Time Line of Alexander Graham Bell His father was Professor Alexander Melville Bell, and his mother was Eliza Grace (née Symonds). "Alexander M. Bell Dead. Father of Prof. A.G. Bell Developed Sign Language for Mutes." New York Times Tuesday, 8 August 1905. Although he was born "Alexander", at age ten, he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers. Call me Alexander Graham Bell Note: Bell typically signed his name in full on his correspondence. For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the middle name "Graham", chosen out of admiration for Alexander Graham, a Canadian being treated by his father and boarder who had become a family friend. Groundwater 2005, p. 23. To close relatives and friends he remained "Aleck" which his father continued to call him into later life. Bruce 1990, pp. 17–19. First invention As a child, young Alexander Graham Bell displayed a natural curiosity about his world, resulting in gathering botanical specimens as well as experimenting even at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill, the scene of many forays. Young Aleck asked what needed to be done at the mill. He was told wheat had to be dehusked through a laborious process and at the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation and used steadily for a number of years. Bruce 1990, p. 16. In return, John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop within which to "invent". From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry and music that was encouraged by his mother. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family's pianist. Gray 2006, p. 8. Despite being normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and "voice tricks" akin to ventriloquism that constantly entertained family guests. Bell was also deeply affected by his mother's gradual deafness, (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12) and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour. Gray 2006, p. 9. He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother's forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Mackay 1997, p.25. Bell's preoccupation with his mother's deafness led him to study acoustics. His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especially his The Standard Elocutionist (1860) Mackay 1997, , which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the United States alone. In this treatise, his father explains his methods of how to instruct deaf-mutes (as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Aleck's father taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but also to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound. Petrie 1975, p. 7. Aleck became so proficient that he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities in deciphering Latin, Gaelic and even Sanskrit symbols. Education As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, received his early schooling at home from his father. At an early age, however, he was enrolled at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, Scotland, which he left at age 15, completing the first four forms only. Mackay 1997, p. 31. His school record was undistinguished, marked by absenteeism and lacklustre grades. His main interest remained in the sciences, especially biology, while he treated other school subjects with indifference, to the dismay of his demanding father. Gray 2006, p. 11. Upon leaving school, Bell travelled to London to live with his grandfather, Alexander Bell. During the year he spent with his grandfather, a love of learning was born, with long hours spent in serious discussion and study. The elder Bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction, the attributes that his pupil would need to become a teacher himself. Town 1988, p. 7. At age 16, Bell secured a position as a "pupil-teacher" of elocution and music, in Weston House Academy, at Elgin, Moray, Scotland. Although he was enrolled as a student in Latin and Greek, he instructed classes himself in return for board and £10 per session. Bruce 1990, p. 37. The following year, he attended the University of Edinburgh; joining his older brother Melville who had enrolled there the previous year. First experiments with sound Bell's father encouraged Aleck's interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a unique automaton, developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on the earlier work of Baron Wolfgang von Kempelen. Groundwater 2005, p. 25. The rudimentary "mechanical man" simulated a human voice. Aleck was fascinated by the machine and after he obtained a copy of von Kempelen's book, published in German, and had laboriously translated it, he and his older brother Melville built their own automaton head. Their father, highly interested in their project, offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a "big prize" if they were successful. While his brother constructed the throat and larynx, Aleck tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull. His efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could "speak", albeit only a few words. The boys would carefully adjust the "lips" and when a bellows forced air through the windpipe, a very recognizable "Mama" ensued, to the delight of neighbors who came to see the Bell invention. Petrie 1975, pp. 7–9. Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family's Skye terrier, "Trouve". Petrie 1975, p. 9. After he taught it to growl continuously, Aleck would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog's lips and vocal cords to produce a crude-sounding "Ow ah oo ga ma ma." With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate "How are you grandma?" More indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a "talking dog." Groundwater 2005, p. 30. However, these initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, using tuning forks to explore resonance. At the age of 19, he wrote a report on his work and sent it to Alexander Ellis, a colleague of his father. Groundwater 2005, p. 30. Ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in Germany. Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Hermann von Helmholtz who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork "contraption", he pored over the German scientist's book, Sensations of Tone. From his translation of the original German edition, Aleck then made a deduction that would be the underpinning of all his future work on transmitting sound, "Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means so could consonants, so could articulate speech." Groundwater 2005, p. 31. Family tragedy In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London, Micklos 2006, p. 8. Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend. Bruce 1990, p. 45. Throughout the fall and winter of 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His younger brother, Edward "Ted," was similarly bed-ridden, suffering from tuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as "A.G. Bell") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College, Bath, Somerset, England, his brother's condition deteriorated. Edward would never recover. Upon his brother's passing, Bell returned home in 1867. His older brother, "Melly" had married and moved out. With aspirations to obtain a degree at the University College London, Bell considered his next years as preparation for the degree examinations, devoting his spare time at his family's residence to studying. Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf in South Kensington, London. His first two pupils were "deaf mute" girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While his older brother seemed to achieve success on many fronts including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. However, in May 1870, Melville died from complications due to tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also suffered a debilitating illness earlier in life and had been restored to health by a convalescence in Newfoundland. Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly. Acting decisively, Alexander Melville Bell asked Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property, Bruce 1990, pp. 67–68. Note: The family pet was given to his brother's family. conclude all of his brother's affairs (Bell took over his last student, curing a pronounced lisp), Bruce 1990, p. 68. and join his father and mother in setting out for the "New World." Groundwater 2005, p. 33. Reluctantly, Bell also had to conclude a relationship with Marie Eccleston, who, he had surmised, was not prepared to leave England with him. Canada In 1870, at age 23, Bell, his brother's widow, Caroline (Margaret Ottaway), Mackay 1997, p. 50. and his parents travelled on the SS Nestorian to Canada. Petrie 1975, p. 10. After landing at Quebec City, the Bells boarded a train to Montreal and later to Paris, Ontario to stay with the Reverend Thomas Henderson, a family friend. After a brief stay with the Hendersons, the Bell family purchased a 10-and-a-half acre farm at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), near Brantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, larger farm house, stable, pigsty, hen-house and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River. Mackay 1997, p. 61. Note: The estate is today known as the "Bell Homestead". At the homestead, Bell set up his own workshop in the converted carriage house near to what he called his "dreaming place", a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river. Groundwater 2005, p. 34. Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking, and rapidly improved. Mackay 1997, p. 62. Note: Bell would later write that he had come to Canada a "dying man". He continued his interest in the study of the human voice and when he discovered the Six Nations Reserve across the river at Onondaga, he learned the Mohawk language and translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols. For his work, Bell was awarded the title of Honorary Chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned a Mohawk headdress and danced traditional dances. Groundwater 2005, p. 35. Note: Bell was thrilled at his recognition by the Six Nations Reserve and throughout his life would launch into a Mohawk war dance when he was excited. After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound. Wing 1980, p. 10. He designed a piano, which, by means of electricity, could transmit its music at a distance. Once the family was settled in, both Bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871, he accompanied his father to Montreal, where Melville was offered a position to teach his System of Visible Speech. Work with the deaf Subsequently, his father was invited by Sarah Fuller, principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes (which continues today as the public Horace Mann School for the Deaf), Bruce 1990, p. 74. in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, to introduce the Visible Speech System by providing training for Fuller's instructors, but he declined the post, in favor of his son. Traveling to Boston in April 1871, Bell provided a successful in servicing of the school's instructors. Town 1988, p. 12. He was subsequently asked to repeat the program at the American Asylum for Deaf-mutes in Hartford and the Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton. Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his "harmonic telegraph". Alexander Graham Bell 1979, p. 8. Note: In later years, Bell described the invention of the telephone and linked it to his "dreaming place". The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each message was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver as needed. Unsure of his future, he first contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher. Petrina 1975, p. 14. His father helped him set up his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father's system, in October 1872 Alexander Bell opened a school in Boston named the "Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech" which attracted a large number of deaf pupils. Petrel 1975, p. 15. His first class numbered 30 students. Town 1988, pp. 12–13. Working as a private tutor, one of his most famous pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child, unable to see, hear, or speak. She later was to say that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that "inhuman silence which separates and estranges." Petrie 1975, p. 17. Alexander Graham Bell had a sinister effect on the deaf world. He sent many people (a whole deaf community) from Maidstone, Kent (in England) to Martha's Vineyard, an island near Kent. 80% of the community could sign. At first he was convinced that by segregating the deaf community, he could prevent deafness (having viewed it as hereditary). His viewpoint was that "prevention is better than cure". He legalised castration and set up special schools and terrifying asylums for the deaf. He found that the number of deaf people marrying other deaf people was rising and claimed that this would lead to a 'deaf race' which would be a "would be a great calamity to the world." "Alexander Graham Bell - Friend or Foe?" Alexander Graham Bell - Friend or Foe? Several influential people at the time viewed deafness as something to be eradicated, thinking that they could just teach deaf to speak and not use sign language. In several schools, children were mistreated severely (e.g. having their hands tied behind their back so they could not communicate at all -by signing, the only language they knew- and were therefore forced to attempt to speak). In 1872 he then set up his school in Boston because his theory was being disproved. Deaf people were still having hearing children and hearing people were still having deaf children. Continuing experimentation In the following year, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was "swept up" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors residing in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. While days and evenings were occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping up "night owl" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover. Town 1988, p. 15. Worse still, his health deteriorated as he suffered severe headaches. Groundwater 2005, p. 39. Returning to Boston in fall 1873, Bell made a fateful decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Bell speaking into prototype model of the telephone Deciding to give up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell only retained two students, six-year old "Georgie" Sanders, deaf from birth and 15-year old Mabel Hubbard. Each pupil would serve to play an important role in the next developments. George's father, Thomas Sanders, a wealthy businessman, offered Bell a place to stay at nearby Salem with Georgie's grandmother, complete with a room to "experiment". Although the offer was made by George's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to Bell's boarding house, it was clear that Mr. Sanders was backing the proposal. The arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together with free room and board thrown in. Town 1988, p. 16. Mabel was a bright, attractive girl who was ten years his junior but became the object of Bell's affection. Losing her hearing after a bout of scarlet fever at age five, she had learned to read lips but her father, Gardiner Greene Hubbard, Bell's benefactor and personal friend, wanted her to work directly with her teacher. Dunn 1990, p. 20. Telephone By 1874, Bell's initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage with progress it made both at his new Boston "laboratory" (a rented facility) as well as at his family home in Canada a big success. Alexander Graham Bell 1979, p. 8. Quote: "Brantford is justified in calling herself 'The Telephone City' because the telephone originated there. It was invented in Brantford at Tutela Heights in the summer of 1874." While working that summer in Brantford, Bell experimented with a "phonautograph," a pen-like machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations. Bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves. Matthews 1999, pp. 19–21. Bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulatory currents back into sound. But he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas. Matthews 1999, p. 21. In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and in the words of Western Union President William Orton, had become "the nervous system of commerce". Orton had contracted with inventors Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines. A History of Electrical Engineering When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multi-reed device, the two wealthy patrons began to financially support Bell's experiments. Town 1988, p. 17. Patent matters would be handled by Hubbard's patent attorney, Anthony Pollok. Evenson 2000, pp. 18–25. In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the famous scientist Joseph Henry, who was then director of the Smithsonian Institution, and asked Henry's advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry replied that Bell had "the germ of a great invention". When Bell said that he did not have the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, "Get it!" That declaration greatly encouraged Bell to keep trying, even though he did not have the equipment needed to continue his experiments, nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas. However, a chance meeting in 1874 between Bell and Thomas A. Watson, an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of Charles Williams, changed all that. With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell was able to hire Thomas Watson as his assistant and the two of them experimented with acoustic telegraphy. On 2 June 1875, Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell, at the receiving end of the wire, heard the overtones of the reed; overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech. That demonstrated to Bell that only one reed or armature was necessary, not multiple reeds. This led to the "gallows" sound-powered telephone, which was able to transmit indistinct, voice-like sounds, but not clear speech. The race to the patent office In 1875, Bell developed an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application for it. Since he had agreed to share US profits with his investors, Gardiner Hubbard and Thomas Sanders, he had an associate attempt to patent it in Britain, instructing his lawyers to patent it in the US only after they received word from Britain. (Britain would only issue patents for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere.) Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On 14 February 1876, Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter. That same morning, Bell's lawyer filed Bell's application with the patent office. There is considerable debate about who arrived first and Gray later challenged the primacy of Bell's patent. Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell Controversy Bell was in Boston on 14 February 1876. Bell's patent 174,465, was issued to Bell on 7 March 1876 by the U.S. Patent Office. Bell's patent covered "the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically… by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound" MacLeod 1999, pp. 12–13. Note: A copy of a draft of the patent application is shown, described as "probably the most valuable patent ever." Bell returned to Boston the same day and the next day resumed work, drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in Gray's patent caveat. On 10 March 1876, three days after his patent was issued, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray's design . Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water which varied the electrical resistance in the circuit. When Bell spoke the famous sentence "Mr Watson — Come here —I want to see you" into the liquid transmitter, Bell's Lab notebook I, pp. 40–41 (image 22). Watson, listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room, heard the words clearly. MacLeod 1999, p. 12. Although Bell was accused, and is still accused, of stealing the telephone from Gray, Shulman 2008, p. 211. Bell used Gray's water transmitter design only after Bell's patent was granted and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment Evenson 2000, p. 99. to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible "articulate speech" (Bell's words) could be electrically transmitted. Evenson 2000, p. 98. After March 1876, Bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used Gray's liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use. Evenson 2000, p. 100. The patent examiner, Zenas Fisk Wilber, later stated in a sworn affidavit that he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to Bell's lawyer, Marcellus Bailey, with whom he had served in the Civil War. He claimed he showed Gray's patent caveat to Bailey. Wilber also claimed (after Bell arrived in Washington DC from Boston) that he showed Gray's caveat to Bell and that Bell paid him $100. Bell claimed they only discussed the patent in general terms, although in a letter to Gray, Bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details. Bell denied in a sworn affidavit that he ever gave Wilber any money. Later developments Continuing his experiments in Brantford, Bell brought home a working model of his telephone. On 3 August 1876, from the telegraph office in Mount Pleasant five miles (8 km) away from Brantford, Bell sent a tentative telegram indicating that he was ready. With curious onlookers packed into the office as witnesses, faint voices were heard replying. The following night, he amazed guests as well as his family when a message was received at the Bell home from Brantford, four miles (six km) distant along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines, fences, and laid through a tunnel. This time, guests at the household distinctly heard people in Brantford reading and singing. These experiments clearly proved that the telephone could work over long distances. MacLeod 1999, p. 14. Bell and his partners, Hubbard and Sanders, offered to sell the patent outright to Western Union for $100,000. The president of Western Union balked, countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy. Two years later, he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for $25 million he would consider it a bargain. By then, the Bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent. Fenster, Julie M. "Inventing the Telephone—And Triggering All-Out Patent War." American Heritage, 2006, AmericanHeritage.com. Bell's investors would become millionaires while he fared well from residuals and he, at one point, had assets nearly reaching one million dollars. Winfield 1987, p. 21. Bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures in order to introduce the new invention to the scientific community as well as the general public. Only one day after his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia made the telephone the featured headline worldwide. Webb 1991, p. 15. Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II of Brazil, and later Bell had the opportunity to personally demonstrate the invention to William Thomson, a renowned Scottish scientist and even Queen Victoria who had requested a private audience at Osborne House, her Isle of Wight home; she called the demonstration "most extraordinary". The enthusiasm surrounding Bell's public displays laid the groundwork for universal acceptance of the revolutionary device. Ross 1995, pp. 21–22. The Bell Telephone Company was created in 1877, and by 1886, over 150,000 people in the U.S. owned telephones. Bell company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone, which emerged as one of the most successful products ever. In 1879, the Bell company acquired Edison's patents for the carbon microphone from Western Union. This made the telephone practical for long distances and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone. On 25 January 1915, Bell made the first transcontinental telephone call. Calling from 15 Day Street in New York City, Bell was heard by Thomas Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco. The New York Times reported: Competitors As is sometimes common in scientific discoveries, simultaneous developments can occur, as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone. Over a period of 18 years, the Bell Telephone Company faced over 600 lawsuits posing legal challenges concerning the rights to the telephone, but none was successful in establishing priority over the original Bell patent Black 1997, p. 19. and the Bell Telephone Company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage. Bell's laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments. Groundwater 2005, p. 95. The Bell company lawyers successfully fought off a myriad of lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by Elisha Gray and Amos Dolbear. In personal correspondence to Bell, both Gray and Dolbear had acknowledged his prior work, which considerably weakened their later claims. Mackay 1997, p. 179. On 13 January 1887, the United States Government moved to annul the patent issued to Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. After a series of decisions and reversals, the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court, though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided. "U.S. Supreme Court: U S v. AMERICAN BELL TEL CO, 167 U.S. 224 (1897) United states V. American Bell Telephone Co., 128 U. S. 315 (1888) By the time that the trial wound its way through nine years of legal battles, the U.S. prosecuting attorney had died and the two Bell patents (No. 174,46 and dated 7 March 1876 and No. 186,787 dated 30 January 1877) were no longer in effect, although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the case's importance as a "precedent." With a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest (on both sides) arising from the original trial, the U.S. Attorney General dropped the law suit on 30 November 1897 leaving several issues undecided on the merits. Basilio Catania 2002 "The United States Government vs. Alexander Graham Bell. An important acknowledgment for Antonio Meucci" Bulletin of Science Technology Society. 2002; 22: pp. 426–442. During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial, Italian inventor Antonio Meucci also claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834. In 1886, in the first of three cases in which he was involved, Meucci took the stand as a witness in the hopes of establishing his invention's priority. Meucci's evidence in this case was disputed due to lack of material evidence of his inventions as his working models were reportedly lost at the Western Union laboratory. Meucci's work, like many other inventors of the period, was based on earlier acoustic principles and despite evidence of earlier experiments, the final case involving Meucci was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death. Bruce 1990, pp. 271–272. However, due to the efforts of Congressman Vito Fossella, the U.S. House of Representatives on 11 June 2002 stated that Meucci's "work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged", even though this did not put an end to a still contentious issue. Resolution 269 Congressional Record on Meucci Note: Meucci was not involved in the final trial. Italian Historical Society Some modern scholars do not agree with the claims that Bell's work on the telephone was influenced by Meucci's inventions. Antonio Meucci Note: Tomas Farley also writes that, "Nearly every scholar agrees that Bell and Watson were the first to transmit intelligible speech by electrical means. Others transmitted a sound or a click or a buzz but our boys [Bell and Watson] were the first to transmit speech one could understand." The value of the Bell patent was acknowledged throughout the world, and patent applications were made in most major countries, but when Bell had delayed the German patent application, the electrical firm of Siemens & Halske (S&H) managed to set up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under their own patent. The Siemens company produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone without having to pay royalties. Mackay 1997, p. 178. A series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation. The strain put on Bell by his constant appearances in court, necessitated by the legal battles, eventually resulted in his resignation from the company. Parker 1995, p. 23. Note: Many of the lawsuits became rancorous with Elisha Gray becoming particularly bitter over Bell's ascendancy in the telephone debate but Alec refused to launch counter actions for libel. Family life Alexander Graham Bell, his wife Mabel Gardiner Hubbard, and their daughters Elsie (left) and Marian On 11 July 1877, a few days after the Bell Telephone Company was established, Bell married Mabel Hubbard (1857–1923) at the Hubbard estate in Cambridge, and shortly thereafter, embarked on a year-long honeymoon in Europe. During that excursion, Alec took a handmade model of his telephone with him, making it a "working holiday". Although the courtship had begun years earlier, Alexander waited until he was financially secure before marrying. Although the telephone appeared to be an "instant" success, it was not initially a profitable venture and Bell's main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897. Dunn 1990, p. 28. One unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use "Alec" rather than the family's earlier familiar name of "Aleck." From 1876, he would sign his name "Alec Bell." Mackay 1997, p. 120. "Mrs. A.G. Bell Dies. Inspired Telephone. Deaf Girl's Romance With Distinguished Inventor Was Due to Her Affliction." New York Times, 4 January 1923. They had four children: Elsie May Bell (1878–1964) who married Gilbert Grosvenor of National Geographic fame, "Dr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor Dies; Head of National Geographic, 90; Editor of Magazine 55 Years Introduced Photos, Increased Circulation to 4.5 Million." New York Times, 5 February 1966. Quote: Baddeck, Nova Scotia, 4 February 1964 (Canadian Press): Dr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor, chairman of the board and former president of the National Geographic Society and editor of the National Geographic magazine from 1899 to 1954, died on the Cape Breton Island estate once owned by his father-in-law, the inventor Alexander Graham Bell. He was 90 years old. "Mrs. Gilbert Grosvenor Dead; Joined in Geographic's Treks; Married Professor's Son." New York Times, 27 December 1964. Quote: Washington, DC, 26 December 1964. Mrs. Elsie May Bell Grosvenor, wife of Dr. Gilbert Grosvenor, chairman of the board of the National Geographic Society, died this evening at her home in Bethesda, Maryland. She was 86 years old. Death was attributed to heart disease and old age. Marian Hubbard Bell (1880–1962) who was referred to as "Daisy", "Mrs. David Fairchild, 82, Dead; Daughter of Bell, Phone Inventor." New York Times, 25 September 1962. Quote: Baddeck, Nova Scotia, 24 September 1962 (The Canadian Press) Mrs. Marian Bell Fairchild of Miami, widow of David Fairchild, noted plant explorer, and daughter of the telephone pioneer Alexander Graham Bell, died tonight at her summer home. She was 82 years old. and two sons who died in infancy. The Bell family home was located in Cambridge, Massachusetts until 1880 when Bell's father-in-law bought a house in Washington, DC for the Bell family, so that Alec's family could be with him while he was involved in court cases. Gray 2006, pp. 202–205. Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882, when he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1915, he characterized his status as: "I am not one of those hyphenated Americans who claim allegiance to two countries." Bruce 1990, pp. 90. Despite this declaration, Bell has been claimed as a "native son" by Canada, Scotland and the United States. Bruce 1990, 471–472. By 1885, a new summer retreat was contemplated. That summer, the Bells had a vacation on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, spending time at the small village of Baddeck. Returning in 1886, Bell started building an estate on a point across from Baddeck, overlooking Bras d'Or Lake. By 1889, a large house, christened "The Lodge" was completed and two years later, a larger complex of buildings were begun that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic: beautiful mountain) after Alec's ancestral Scottish highlands. Tulloch 2006, pp. 25–27. Note: Under the direction of the Boston architects, Cabot, Everett and Mead, a Nova Scotia company, Rhodes, Curry and Company, carried out the actual construction. Bell would spend his final, and some of his most productive, years in residence in both Washington, D.C. where he and his family initially resided for most of the year and Beinn Bhreagh. MacLeod 1999, p. 22. Until the end of his life, Bell and his family would alternate between the two homes, but Beinn Bhreagh would, over the next 30 years, become more than a summer home as Bell became so absorbed in his experiments that annual stays lengthened. Both Mabel and Alec became immersed in the Baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as "their own". The Bells were still in residence at Beinn Bhreagh when the Halifax Explosion occurred on 6 December 1917. Mabel and Alec mobilized the community to help victims in Halifax. Tulloch 2006, p. 42. Later inventions Although Alexander Graham Bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone, his interests were extremely varied. According to his biographer, Charlotte Gray, Bell's work ranged "unfettered across the scientific landscape" and he often went to bed voraciously reading the Encyclopaedia Britannica, scouring it for new areas of interest. Gray 2006, p. 219. The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators. These included 14 for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aerial vehicles, four for "hydroairplanes" and two for selenium cells. Bell's inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing, the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems, a device to locate icebergs, investigations on how to separate salt from seawater, and work on finding alternative fuels. Bell worked extensively in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they were unable to develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the hard disc and floppy disc drive and other magnetic media. Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his Canadian estate in Nova Scotia, he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses. Metal detector Bell is also credited with the invention of the metal detector in 1881. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find the assassin's bullet partly because the metal bed frame the President was lying on disturbed the instrument, resulting in static. Grosvenor and Wesson 1997, p. 107. The president's surgeons, who were sceptical of the device, ignored Bell's requests to move the president to a bed not fitted with metal springs. Alternately, although Bell had detected a slight sound on his first test, the bullet may have lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus. Bell gave a full account of his experiments in a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in August 1882. Hydrofoils Bell HD-4 on a test run c. 1919 The March 1906 Scientific American article by American hydrofoil pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes. Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. Bell and assistant Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft. During his world tour of 1910–1911, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in France. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck, a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models, including the Dhonnas Beag, the first self-propelled Bell-Baldwin hydrofoil. Boileau 2004, p. 18. The experimental boats were essentially proof-of-concept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial HD-4, powered by Renault engines. A top speed of 54 miles per hour (87 km/h) was achieved, with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration, good stability and steering along with the ability to take waves without difficulty. Boileau 2004, pp. 28–30. In 1913, Dr. Bell hired Walter Pinaud, a Sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard in Westmount, Nova Scotia to work on the pontoons of the HD-4. Pinaud soon took over the boatyard at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh, Bell's estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia. Pinaud's experience in boat-building enabled him to make useful design changes to the HD-4. After the First World War, work began again on the HD-4. Bell's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two 350 horsepower (260 kW) engines in July 1919. On 9 September 1919, the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour (114.04 km/h), Boileau 2004, p. 30. a record which stood for ten years. Aeronautics AEA Silver Dart c. 1909 In 1891, Bell had begun experiments to develop motor-powered heavier-than-air aircraft. The AEA was first formed as Bell shared the vision to fly with his wife, who advised him to seek "young" help as Alexander was at the graceful age of 60. In 1898, Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in silk. The tetrahedral wings were named Cygnet I, II and III, and were flown both unmanned and manned (Cygnet I crashed during a flight carrying Selfridge) in the period from 1907–1912. Some of Bell's kites are on display at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site. Nova Scotia's Electric Scrapbook Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of Mrs. Mabel Bell and with her financial support. The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: American Glenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time termed the "world's fastest man" having had ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, later was awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere and became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. government and the ONLY person in the army who believed aviation was the future, Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York; and J.A.D. McCurdy; both engineering students at University of Toronto. The AEA's work progressed to heavier-than-air machines, applying their knowledge of kites to gliders. Moving to Hammondsport, the group then designed and built the Red Wing, framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small air-cooled engine. Phillips 1977, p. 95. On 12 March 1908, over Keuka Lake, the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in North America. "Selfridge Aerodrome Sails Steadily for ." Washington Post 13 May 1908. Quote: At 25 to 30 Miles an Hour. First Public Trip of Heavier-than-air Car in America. Professor Alexander Graham Bell's New Machine, Built After Plans by Lieutenant Selfridge, Shown to Be Practicable by Flight Over Keuka Lake. Portion of Tail Gives Way, Bringing the Test to an End. Views of an Expert. Hammondsport, New York, 12 March 1908. The innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder (later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control). One of the AEA project's inventions, the aileron, is a standard component of aircraft today. (The aileron was also invented independently by Robert Esnault-Pelterie.) The White Wing and June Bug were to follow and by the end of 1908, over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished. However, the AEA had depleted its initial reserves and only a $10,000 grant from Mrs. Bell allowed it to continue with experiments. Phillips 1977, p. 96. Their final aircraft design, the Silver Dart embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines. On 23 February 1909, Bell was present as the Silver Dart flown by J.A.D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of Bras d'Or, made the first aircraft flight in Canada. Bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand. With the successful flight, the AEA disbanded and the Silver Dart would revert to Baldwin and McCurdy who began the Canadian Aerodrome Company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the Canadian Army. Phillips 1977, pp. 96–97. Eugenics Along with many very prominent thinkers and scientists of the time, Bell was connected with the eugenics movement in the United States. In his lecture Memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race presented to the National Academy of Sciences on 13 November 1883 he noted that congenitally deaf parents were more likely to produce deaf children and tentatively suggested that couples where both parties were deaf should not marry. Bell, Alexander Graham. "Memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race." Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf, 1883. However, it was his hobby of livestock breeding which led to his appointment to biologist David Starr Jordan's Committee on Eugenics, under the auspices of the American Breeders Association. The committee unequivocally extended the principle to man. Bruce 1990, pp. 410–417. From 1912 until 1918 he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisers to the Eugenics Record Office associated with Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York, and regularly attended meetings. In 1921, he was the honorary president of the Second International Congress of Eugenics held under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Organisations such as these advocated passing laws (with success in some states) that established the compulsory sterilization of people deemed to be, as Bell called them, a "defective variety of the human race". By the late 1930s, about half the states in the U.S. had eugenics laws, and the California laws were used as a model for eugenics laws in Nazi Germany. Awards, honors and tributes In 1880, Bell received the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs ($10,000) for the invention of the telephone from L’Académie française, representing the French government, in Paris. Among the luminaries who judged were Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas, père. The Volta Prize was established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1803 to honor Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist noted for developing the battery. (The modern usage of the word "volt" is derived from his name.) Since he was reaching affluent circumstances himself, Bell used the money from the Prize to create a number of social structures in and around Washington, D.C. using the symbolic "Volta": the "Volta Fund," "Volta Laboratories" and "Volta Bureau." In partnership with Gardiner Hubbard, Bell established the publication Science in 1883. In 1888, Bell was one of the founding members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president (1897–1904) and Regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1898–1922). He was the recipient of many honours. The French government conferred on him the decoration of the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour); the Royal Society of Arts in London awarded him the Albert Medal in 1902; and the University of Würzburg, Bavaria, granted him a Ph.D. He was awarded the AIEE's Edison Medal in 1914 "For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone." The bel (B) is a unit of measurement invented by Bell Labs and named after Bell. The bel was too large for everyday use, so the decibel (dB), equal to 0.1 B, became more commonly used as a unit for measuring sound intensity. Decibel Note: The decibel is defined as one tenth of a bel. The IEEE's Alexander Graham Bell Medal has been presented since 1976 to an individual or team, honoring outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications. A number of historic sites and other marks commemorate Alexander Graham Bell, as well as the world's first telephone company: Parks Canada maintains the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site which incorporates the Alexander Graham Bell Museum, in Baddeck, Nova Scotia, close to the Bell estate Beinn Bhreagh. The National Historic Site in Baddeck is open to visitors, while Bell's descendant's still reside at Beinn Bhreagh; The world's first telephone company building, the Henderson Home, of the nascent Bell Telephone Company, originally built on Sheridan Street within the city of Brantford, Ontario, and then carefully relocated in 1969 to the historic Bell Homestead. Both the Bell Homestead and the Bell Telephone Company building, are maintained by the Bell Homestead Society and are open to visitors. A large number of Bell's writings, notebooks, papers and other documents rest at the United States Library of Congress Manuscript Devision, as the Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers; the collection is available for online viewing. Another large collection of Bell's documents resides at the Alexander Graham Bell Institute. The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative £1 banknotes from the Royal Bank of Scotland. The illustrations on the reverse of the note include Bell's face in profile, his signature, and objects from Bell's life and career: users of the telephone over the ages; an audio wave signal; a diagram of a telephone receiver; geometric shapes from engineering structures; representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet; the geese which helped him to understand flight; and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics. By coincidence, this banknote was issued in the week that the successful cloning of Dolly the sheep was announced by the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh. . Additionally, the Government of Canada honoured Bell in 1997 with a $100CAD gold coin, in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth Royal Candian Mint Numismatic Coins (20th Century) , and with a silver dollar coin in honour of the 100th anniversary of flight in Canada. That first flight was made by an airplane designed under the tutelage of Dr. Bell, named the Silver Dart Royal Canadian Mint website In 2002, Alexander Graham Bell was also ranked as the 57th Greatest Briton ever in an official BBC poll http://BBC News World Edition Beatlelinks: The Greatest Britons of All Times . Death Bell died of diabetes on 2 August 1922, at his private estate, Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia, at age 75. Gray 2006, p. 419. Bell had also been afflicted with pernicious anemia. Gray 2006, p. 418. While tending to her husband after a long illness, Mabel whispered, "Don't leave me." By way of reply, Bell traced the sign for "No" – and then he expired. Bruce 1990, p. 491. "Obituary: Dr. Bell, Inventor of Telephone, Dies: Sudden End, Due to Anemia, Comes in Seventy-Sixth Year at His Nova Scotia Home: Notables Pay Him Tribute." The New York Times, 3 August 1922. Retrieved: 3 March 2009. Upon Bell's death, during his funeral, "....every phone on the continent of North America was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance". Osborne, Harold S. "Biographical Memoir of Alexander Graham Bell, 1847-1922." National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Bibliographical Memoirs, Volume XXIII, First Memoir. Annual Meeting presentation, 1943, pp. 18–19. Upon learning of Bell's death, Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King cabled Mrs. Bell, saying: "[The Government expresses] to you our sense of the world's loss in the death of your distinguished husband. It will ever be a source of pride to our country that the great invention, with which his name is immortally associated, is a part of its history. On the behalf of the citizens of Canada, may I extend to you an expression of our combined gratitude and sympathy." Dr. Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain, on his estate where he had resided for the last 35 years of his life, overlooking Lake Bras d'Or. He was survived by his wife and his two daughters, Elisa May and Marion. "Dr. Bell, Inventor of Telephone, Dies." New York Times, 3 August 1922. Retrieved: 21 July 2007. Quote: Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, died at 2 o'clock this morning at Beinn Breagh, his estate near Baddeck. See also Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Invention of the telephone Emile Berliner Charles Bourseul Thomas Edison Elisha Gray Elisha Gray and Alexander Bell telephone controversy Innocenzo Manzetti Antonio Meucci Philipp Reis Graham Bell Island Oriental Telephone Company References Notes Bibliography Alexander Graham Bell (booklet). Halifax, Nova Scotia: Maritime Telegraph & Telephone Limited, 1979. Bruce, Robert V. Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-80149691-8. Black, Harry. Canadian Scientists and Inventors: Biographies of People who made a Difference. Markham, Ontario: Pembroke Publishers Limited, 1997. ISBN 1-55138-081-1. Boileau, John. Fastest in the World: The Saga of Canada's Revolutionary Hydrofoils. Halifax, Nova Soctia: Formac Publishing Company Limited, 2004. ISBN 0-88780-621-X. Dunn, Andrew. Alexander Graham Bell (Pioneers of Science series). East Sussex, UK: Wayland (Publishers) Limited, 1990. ISBN 1-8521-958-0. Eber, Dorothy Harley. Genius at Work: Images of Alexander Graham Bell. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1982. ISBN 0-7710-3036-3. Evenson, A. Edward. The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray - Alexander Bell Controversy. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7864-0138-9. Gray, Charlotte. Reluctant Genius: Alexander Graham Bell and the Passion for Invention. New York: Arcade Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-55970-809-3. Grosvenor, Edwin S. and Morgan Wesson. Alexander Graham Bell: The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone. New York: Harry N. Abrahms, Inc., 1997. ISBN 0-8109-4005-1. Groundwater, Jennifer. Alexander Graham Bell: The Spirit of Invention. Calgary: Altitude Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-55439-006-0. Mackay, James. Sounds Out of Silence: A life of Alexander Graham Bell. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 1-85158-833-7. MacLeod, Elizabeth. Alexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life. Toronto: Kids Can Press, 1999. ISBN 1-55074-456-9. Matthews, Tom L. Always Inventing: A Photobiography of Alexander Graham Bell. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1999. ISBN 0-7922-7391-5. Micklos, John Jr. Alexander Graham Bell: Inventor of the Telephone. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Ltd., 2006. ISBN 978-0-06-057618-9. Parker, Steve. Alexander Graham Bell and the Telephone(Science Discoveries series). New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1995. ISBN 0-7910-3004-0. Petrie, A. Roy. Alexander Graham Bell. Don Mills, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside Limited, 1975. ISBN 0-88902-209-7. Phillips, Allan. Into the 20th Century: 1900/1910 (Canada's Illustrated Heritage). Toronto: Natural Science of Canada Limited, 1977. ISBN 0-9196-4422-8. Ross, Stewart. Alexander Graham Bell (Scientists who Made History series). New York: Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, 2001. ISBN 0-7398-441-6. Shulman, Seth. The Telephone Gambit: Chasing Alexander Bell's Secret. New York: Norton & Company, 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06206-9. Town, Florida. Alexander Graham Bell. Toronto: Grolier Limited, 1988. ISBN 0-7172-1950-X. Tulloch, Judith. The Bell Family in Baddeck: Alexander Graham Bell and Mabel Bell in Cape Breton. Halifax: Formac Publishing Company Limited, 2006. ISBN 978-0-88780-713-8. Walters, Eric. The Hydrofoil Mystery. Toronto: Puffin Books, 1999. ISBN 0-14-130220-8. Webb, Michael, ed. Alexander Graham Bell: Inventor of the Telephone. Mississauga, Ontario, Canada: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd., 1991. ISBN 0-7730-5049-3. Winfield, Richard. Never the Twain Shall Meet: Bell, Gallaudet, and the Communications Debate. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-913580-99-6. Wing, Chris. Alexander Graham Bell at Baddeck. Baddeck, Nova Scotia: Christopher King, 1980. External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Alexander Graham Bell Institute (Italian) Timeline for Antonio Meucci Bell Homestead, National Historic Site Appleton's Biography edited by Stanley L. Klos Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site Museum located in Baddeck, Nova Scotia containing many of Bell's experiments and models Alexander Graham Bell family papers Online version at the Library of Congress comprises a selection of 4,695 items (totaling about 51,500 images) containing correspondence, scientific notebooks, journals, blueprints, articles, and photographs documenting Bell invention of the telephone and his involvement in the first telephone company, his family life, his interest in the education of the deaf and his aeronautical and other scientific work Bell's path to the invention of the telephone Bell's speech before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston on 27 August 1880, presenting the photophone, very clear description; published as "On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light" in the American Journal of Sciences, Third Series, vol. XX, #118, October 1880, pp. 305–324 and as "Selenium and the Photophone" in Nature, September 1880 AlexanderBell.com - Telecom pioneer Alexander Graham Bell Biographical information, science resources and information on 1912 Franklin Award for 'electrical transmission of articulate speech' at The Franklin Institute's Case Files online exhibit Alexander Graham Bell gravesite Alexander Graham Bell: Biography and Much More from Answers.com Excellent summary of Alexander Graham Bell's life, has many useful dates for important parts of his life Basilio Catania, 2003 The United States Government vs. Alexander Graham Bell. An important acknowledgment for Antonio Meucci Bell family tree American Treasures of the Library of Congress, Alexander Graham Bell - Lab notebook I, pp. 40–41 (image 22) Scientists' profile: Alexander Graham Bell Biography and photos at the Canada's Telecommunications Hall of Fame website Biographical video footage at the Canada's Telecommunications Hall of Fame website Movie biographies The Story of Alexander Graham Bell, 1939 film reformatted for VCR tape, Don Ameche playing Bell, (1966) ISBN 0-7939-1251-2 Biography - Alexander Graham Bell, A&E DVD biography based on historical footage and still pictures of Bell, (2005) The Sound and the Silence (1992) (TV) with John Bach as Alexander Graham Bell; Canada / New Zealand / Ireland Sound and the Silence Bell's patents Complete list of Bell patents U.S. patent images in TIFF format Improvement in Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraphs, filed March 1875, issued April 1875 (multiplexing signals on a single wire) Improvement in Telegraphy, filed 14 February 1876, issued 7 March 1876 (Bell's first telephone patent) Improvement in Telephonic Telegraph Receivers, filed April 1876, issued June 1876 Improvement in Generating Electric Currents (using rotating permanent magnets), filed August 1876, issued August 1876 Electric Telegraphy (permanent magnet receiver), filed 15 January 1877, issued 30 January 1877 Apparatus for Signalling and Communicating, called Photophone, filed August 1880, issued December 1880 Aerial Vehicle, filed June 1903, issued April 1904 be-x-old:Аляксандар Грэм Бэл | Alexander_Graham_Bell |@lemmatized alexander:78 graham:64 bell:304 march:13 august:11 eminent:1 scientist:10 inventor:16 engineer:2 innovator:1 credit:2 invent:9 first:32 practical:3 telephone:69 father:29 grandfather:4 brother:17 associate:7 work:44 elocution:5 speech:20 mother:8 wife:5 deaf:32 profoundly:1 influence:2 life:17 bruce:14 p:69 research:4 hearing:5 far:1 lead:7 experiment:34 device:9 eventually:4 culminate:2 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1,850 | Nitric_acid | Nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and toxic strong acid that can cause severe burns. Colorless when pure, older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen. If the solution contains more than 86% nitric acid, it is referred to as fuming nitric acid. Fuming nitric acid is characterized as white fuming nitric acid and red fuming nitric acid, depending on the amount of nitrogen dioxide present. Properties Pure anhydrous nitric acid (100%) is a colorless liquid with a density of 1522 kg/m³ which solidifies at -42 °C to form white crystals and boils at 83 °C. When boiling in light, even at room temperature, there is a partial decomposition with the formation of nitrogen dioxide following the reaction: 4 HNO3 → 2 H2O + 4 NO2 + O2 (72°C) which means that anhydrous nitric acid should be stored below 0 °C to avoid decomposition. The nitrogen dioxide (NO2) remains dissolved in the nitric acid coloring it yellow, or red at higher temperatures. While the pure acid tends to give off white fumes when exposed to air, acid with dissolved nitrogen dioxide gives off reddish-brown vapours, leading to the common name "red fuming acid" or "fuming nitric acid". Fuming nitric acid is also referred to as 16-molar nitric acid –– as the most concentrated form of nitric acid at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP). Nitric acid is miscible with water and distillation gives an azeotrope with a concentration of 68% HNO3 and a boiling temperature of 120.5 °C at 1 atm, which is the ordinary concentrated nitric acid of commerce. Two solid hydrates are known; the monohydrate (HNO3·H2O) and the trihydrate (HNO3·3H2O). It is isoelectronic with the bicarbonate ion. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are soluble in nitric acid and this property influences more or less all the physical characteristics depending on the concentration of the oxides. These mainly include the vapor pressure above the liquid and the boiling temperature, as well as the color mentioned above. Nitric acid is subject to thermal or light decomposition with increasing concentration and this may give rise to some non-negligible variations in the vapour pressure above the liquid because the nitrogen oxides produced dissolve partly or completely in the acid. Acidic properties Being a typical acid, nitric acid reacts with alkalis, basic oxides, and carbonates to form salts, such as ammonium nitrate. Due to its oxidizing nature, nitric acid generally does not donate its proton (that is, it does not liberate hydrogen) on reaction with metals and the resulting salts are usually in the higher oxidized states. For this reason, heavy corrosion can be expected and should be guarded against by the appropriate use of corrosion resistant metals or alloys. Nitric acid has an acid dissociation constant (pKa) of −1.4: in aqueous solution, it almost completely (93% at 0.1 mol/L) ionizes into the nitrate ion NO3− and a hydrated proton, known as a hydronium ion, H3O+. HNO3 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + NO3− Oxidizing properties Reactions with metals Being a powerful oxidizing agent, nitric acid reacts violently with many organic materials and the reactions may be explosive. Depending on the acid concentration, temperature and the reducing agent involved, the end products can be variable. Reaction takes place with all metals except the precious metal series and certain alloys. This characteristic has made it a common agent to be used in acid tests. As a general rule, oxidizing reactions occur primarily with the concentrated acid, favouring the formation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Cu + 4 H+ + 2 NO3− → Cu2+ + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O The acidic properties tend to dominate with dilute acid, coupled with the preferential formation of nitrogen oxide (NO). 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 → 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O Since nitric acid is an oxidizing agent, hydrogen (H2) is rarely formed. Only magnesium (Mg), Manganese (Mn) and calcium (Ca) react with cold, dilute nitric acid to give hydrogen: Mg (s) + 2 HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g) Nitric acid has the highest distinction (amongst all acids) of attacking and dissolving all metals on the periodic table except Gold and Platinum. Passivation Although chromium (Cr), iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) readily dissolve in dilute nitric acid, the concentrated acid forms a metal oxide layer that protects the metal from further oxidation, which is called passivation. Typical passivation concentrations range from 18% to 22% by weight. Reactions with non-metals Reaction with non-metallic elements, with the exceptions of nitrogen, oxygen, noble gases, silicon and halogens, usually oxidizes them to their highest oxidation states as acids with the formation of nitrogen dioxide for concentrated acid and nitric oxide for dilute acid. C + 4 HNO3 → CO2 + 4 NO2 + 2 H2O or 3 C + 4 HNO3 → 3 CO2 + 4 NO + 2 H2O Xanthoproteic test Nitric acid reacts with proteins to form yellow nitrated products. This reaction is known as the xanthoproteic reaction. This test is carried out by adding concentrated nitric acid to the substance being tested, and then heating the mixture. If proteins are present that contains amino acids with aromatic rings, the mixture turns yellow. Upon adding a strong base such as liquid ammonia, the color turns orange. These color changes are caused by nitrated aromatic rings in the protein. Grades White fuming nitric acid, also called 100% nitric acid or WFNA, is very close to the anhydrous nitric acid product. One specification for white fuming nitric acid is that it has a maximum of 2% water and a maximum of 0.5% dissolved NO2. Red fuming nitric acid, or RFNA, contains substantial quantities of dissolved nitrogen dioxide (NO2) leaving the solution with a reddish-brown color. One formulation of RFNA specifies a minimum of 17% NO2, another specifies 13% NO2. An inhibited fuming nitric acid (either IWFNA, or IRFNA) can be made by the addition of 0.6 to 0.7% hydrogen fluoride, HF. This fluoride is added for corrosion resistance in metal tanks (the fluoride creates a metal fluoride layer that protects the metal). Industrial production Nitric acid is made by reacting nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with water. 3 NO2 + H2O → 2 HNO3 + NO Normally, the nitric oxide produced by the reaction is reoxidized by the oxygen in air to produce additional nitrogen dioxide. Dilute nitric acid may be concentrated by distillation up to 68% acid, which is a maximum boiling azeotrope containing 32% water. In the laboratory, further concentration involves distillation with sulphuric acid which acts as a dehydrating agent. Such distillations must be done with all-glass apparatus at reduced pressure, to prevent decomposition of the acid. Industrially, strong nitric acid is produced by dissolving additional nitrogen dioxide in 68% nitric acid in an absorption tower. Dissolved nitrogen oxides are either stripped in the case of white fuming nitric acid, or remain in solution to form red fuming nitric acid. Commercial grade nitric acid solutions are usually between 52% and 68% nitric acid. Production of nitric acid is via the Ostwald process, named after German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald. In this process, anhydrous ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide, which is then reacted with oxygen in air to form nitrogen dioxide. This is subsequently absorbed in water to form nitric acid and nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is cycled back for reoxidation. By using ammonia derived from the Haber process, the final product can be produced from nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen which are derived from air and natural gas as the sole feedstocks. Laboratory synthesis In laboratory, nitric acid can be made from copper(II) nitrate or by reacting approximately equal masses of potassium nitrate (KNO3) with 96% sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and distilling this mixture at nitric acid's boiling point of 83 °C until only a white crystalline mass, potassium hydrogen sulfate (KHSO4), remains in the reaction vessel. The obtained red fuming nitric acid may be converted to the white nitric acid. H2SO4 + KNO3 → KHSO4 + HNO3 The dissolved NOx are readily removed using reduced pressure at room temperature (10-30 min at 200 mmHg or 27 kPa) to give white fuming nitric acid. This procedure can also be performed under reduced pressure and temperature in one step in order to produce less nitrogen dioxide gas. Uses Nitric acid in a laboratory. IWFNA may be used as the oxidizer in liquid fuel rockets. IRFNA was one of 3 liquid fuel components for the BOMARC missile. A solution of nitric acid and alcohol, Nital, is used for etching of metals to reveal the microstructure. Commercially available aqueous blends of 5-30% nitric acid and 15-40% phosphoric acid are commonly used for cleaning food and dairy equipment primarily to remove precipitated calcium and magnesium compounds (either deposited from the process stream or resulting from the use of hard water during production and cleaning). Nitric acid is also used in explosives, and is key to the manufacture of Nitroglycerin and RDX. Clog remover In a high medium concentration nitric acid is used as a cheap clog remover. Digestion In elemental analysis by ICP-MS, ICP-AES, GFAA, and Flame AA, dilute nitric acid (0.5 to 5.0 %) is used as a matrix compound for determining metal traces in solutions. Ultrapure acid is required for such determination, because small amounts of metal ions could affect the result of the analysis. Woodworking In a low concentration (approximately 10%), nitric acid is often used to artificially age pine and maple. The color produced is a grey-gold very much like very old wax or oil finished wood (wood finishing). Other uses Alone, it is useful in metallurgy and refining as it reacts with most metals, and in organic syntheses. When mixed with hydrochloric acid, nitric acid forms Aqua Regia, one of the few reagents capable of dissolving gold and platinum. The reason for Aqua Regia to be so active is the formation of free chlorine radicals in the statu nascendi when the two acids are mixed. Nitric Acid is also used to make improvised initiator for improvised blasting caps. Safety Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent, and the reactions of nitric acid with compounds such as cyanides, carbides, and metallic powders can be explosive. Reactions of nitric acid with many organic compounds, such as turpentine, are violent and hypergolic (i.e., self-igniting). Concentrated nitric acid dyes human skin yellow due to a reaction with the keratin. These yellow stains turn orange when neutralized. References External links International Chemical Safety Card 0183 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards National Pollutant Inventory - Nitric Acid Fact Sheet Properties and classification of nitric acid | Nitric_acid |@lemmatized nitric:68 acid:88 also:6 know:4 aqua:3 fortis:1 spirit:1 nitre:1 highly:1 corrosive:1 toxic:1 strong:3 cause:2 severe:1 burn:1 colorless:2 pure:3 old:2 sample:1 tend:3 acquire:1 yellow:6 cast:1 due:3 accumulation:1 oxide:13 nitrogen:19 solution:7 contain:4 refer:2 fume:11 characterize:1 white:9 red:6 fuming:5 depend:3 amount:2 dioxide:12 present:2 property:6 anhydrous:4 liquid:6 density:1 kg:1 solidify:1 c:8 form:10 crystal:1 boil:3 light:2 even:1 room:2 temperature:8 partial:1 decomposition:4 formation:5 follow:1 reaction:15 mean:1 store:1 avoid:1 remain:3 dissolve:9 color:6 high:5 give:6 expose:1 air:4 dissolved:2 reddish:2 brown:2 vapour:2 lead:1 common:2 name:2 molar:1 concentrated:5 standard:1 pressure:6 stp:1 miscible:1 water:6 distillation:4 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1,851 | Essential_tremor | Essential tremor (ET) is a progressive neurological disorder whose most recognizable feature is a tremor of the arms that is apparent during voluntary movements such as eating and writing. Benito-Leon J, Louis ED. Clinical update: Diagnosis and treatment of essential tremor. The Lancet 2007;369:1152-1153. This type of tremor is often referred to as "kinetic tremor." The tremor may also occur in the head (neck), jaw and voice as well as other body regions, with the general pattern being that the tremor begins in the arms and then spreads to these other regions in selected patients. Women are more likely to develop the head tremor than are men. Hubble JP, Busenbark KL, Pahwa R, Lyons K, Koller WC. Clinical expression of essential tremor: Effects of gender and age. Mov Disord 1997;12:969-972. Louis ED, Ford B, Frucht S. Factors associated with increased risk of head tremor in essential tremor: A community-based study in northern manhattan. Mov Disord 2003;18:432-436. Other types of tremor may also occur, including postural tremor of the outstretched arms, intentional tremor of the arms and rest tremor in the arms. Louis ED. Clinical Practice: Essential tremor. N Engl J Med 2001;345:887-891. Some patients may have unsteadiness and problems with gait and balance that are above and beyond that due to normal aging. Stolze H, Petersen G, Raethjen J, Wenzelburger R, Deuschl G. The gait disorder of advanced essential tremor. Brain. November 2001;124(Pt 11):2278-2286. Singer C, Sanchez-Ramos J, Weiner WJ. Gait abnormality in essential tremor. Mov Disord. March 1994;9(2):193-196. In addition to these motor problems, a variety of non-motor features have recently been linked with ET. These include anxiety and depressive symptoms as well as cognitive difficulty. Tan EK, Fook-Chong S, Lum SY, et al. Non-motor manifestations in essential tremor: use of a validated instrument to evaluate a wide spectrum of symptoms. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. September 2005;11(6):375-380. Recent studies have demonstrated that old-onset ET (onset > age 65) may be associated with an increased risk of developing dementia. Bermejo-Pareja F, Louis ED, Benito-Leon J. Risk of incident dementia in essential tremor: A population-based study. Mov Disord 2007;22:1573-1580. ET is one of the most common neurological diseases, with a prevalence of approximately 4% in persons age 40 and older and considerably higher among persons in their 60s, 70s, 80s, and 90s. Louis ED, Ottman R, Hauser WA. How common is the most common adult movement disorder?: Estimates of the prevalence of essential tremor throughout the world. Mov Disord 1998;13:5-10. Dogu O, Sevim S, Camdeviren H, Sasmaz T, Bugdayci R, Aral M, Kaleagasi H, Un S, Louis ED. Prevalence of essential tremor: Door-to-door neurological exams in Mersin Province, Turkey. Neurology 2003;61:1804-1807. Aside from enhanced physiological tremor, it is the most common type of tremor and one of the most commonly observed movement disorders. Benito-Leon J, Louis ED. Essential tremor: emerging views of a common disorder. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2006;2:666-678. Essential tremor was also previously known as "benign essential tremor", but the adjective "benign" has been removed in recognition of the sometimes disabling nature of the disorder. Although often mild, patients with severe tremor have difficulty performing many of their routine activities of daily living. Bain PG, Mally J, Gresty M, Findley LJ. Assessing the impact of essential tremor on upper limb function J Neurol 1993;241:54-61. Louis ED, Barnes LF, Albert SM, Cote L, Schneier F, Pullman SL, Yu Q. Correlates of functional disability in essential tremor. Mov Disord 2001;16:914-920. Cause The underlying etiology is not clear but many cases seem to be familial. Deng H, Le W, Jankovic J. Genetics of essential tremor. Brain. June 2007;130(Pt 6):1456-1464. It has been estimated that approximately one-half of the cases are due to a genetic mutation and the pattern of inheritance is most consistent with autosomal dominant transmission. As of yet, no genes have been identified but genetic linkage has been established with several chromosomal regions. Higgins JJ, Pho LT, Nee LE. A gene (ETM) for essential tremor maps to chromosome 2p22-p25. Mov Disord. 1997;12:859-864 Gulcher JR, Jonsson P, Kong A et al. Mapping of a familial essential tremor gene, FET1, to chromosome 3q13. Nature Genetics 1997;17:84-87. A number of environmental factors, including toxins, are also under active investigation and these may play a role in disease etiology. Louis ED. Etiology of essential tremor: Should we be searching for environmental causes? Mov Disord 2001;16:822-829. In terms of pathophysiology, clinical, physiological and imaging studies point to an involvement of the cerebellum and/or cerebellothalamocortical circuits. Louis ED, Vonsattel JP. The emerging neuropathology of essential tremor. Mov Disord 2007;23:174 - 182. Recent postmortem studies have demonstrated the presence of degenerative changes in the ET brain, with these changes including Purkinje cell axonal swellings and Purkinje cell loss in the majority of cases and brainstem Lewy bodies in the remainder. These studies suggest that the disease is both heterogeneous and degenerative. In other words, ET might be a family of degenerative diseases rather than a single disease. Louis ED, Faust PL, Vonsattel JPG, Honig LS, Rajput A, Robinson CA, Rajput A, Pahwa R, Lyons KE, Ross W, Borden S, Moskowitz CB, Lawton A, Hernandez N. Neuropathological changes in essential tremor: 33 cases compared with 21 controls. Brain 2007;130:3297-3307. Shill HA, Adler CH, Sabbagh MN, Connor DJ, Caviness JN, Hentz JG, Beach TG: Pathologic findings in prospectively ascertained essential tremor subjects. Neurology 2008;70:1452-1455. Diagnosis Usually the diagnosis is established on clinical grounds. Tremors can start at any age, from birth through advanced ages (senile tremor). Louis ED, Dure L, Pullman S. Essential tremor in childhood. Mov Disord 2001;16:921-923. Bain PG, Findley LJ, Thompson PD, et al. A study of hereditary essential tremor. Brain. August 1994;117 ( Pt 4):805-824. Any voluntary muscle in the body may be affected, although the tremor is most commonly seen in the hands and arms and slightly less commonly in the neck (causing the patient's head to shake), tongue, and legs. A resting tremor of the hands is sometimes present. Cohen O, Pullman S, Jurewicz E, Watner D, Louis ED. Rest tremor in essential tremor patients: Prevalence, clinical correlates, and electrophysiological characteristics. Arch Neurol 2003;60:405-410. Rajput AH, Rozdilsky B, Ang L, Rajput A. Significance of Parkinsonian manifestations in essential tremor. Can J Neurol Sci 1993;20:114-117. ET does sometimes occur in combination with other neurological disorders such as dystonia. In addition, there may be a link between ET and Parkinson's disease, with one study showing ET patients having an approximately 4 times greater likelihood of developing Parkinson's disease. Minen M, Louis ED. Emergence of Parkinson’s disease in essential tremor: A study of the clinical correlates in 53 patients. Mov Disord 2008 (In Press) Yahr MD, Orosz D, Purohit DP. Co-occurrence of essential tremor and Parkinson’s disease: a clinical study of a large kindred with autopsy findings. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2003; 9:225-231 Benito-Leon J, Louis ED, Permejo-Pareja F. Risk of incident Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism in essential tremor: a population-based study. J Neurology Neurosurgery Psychiatry 2008 (in press). Symptoms Essential tremor generally presents as a rhythmic tremor (4–12 Hz) that is present only when the affected muscle is exerting effort (in other words, it is not present at rest). Any sort of physical or mental stress will tend to make the tremor worse, often creating the false impression that the tremor is of psychosomatic origin. Tremor intensity can worsen in response to fatigue, strong emotions, low blood sugar, cold, caffeine, lithium salts, some antidepressants or other factors. It is typical for the tremor to worsen in "performance" situations, such as when making out a check at a checkout stand. ET-related tremors do not occur during sleep, but patients sometimes complain of an especially coarse tremor upon awakening that becomes noticeably less coarse within the first few minutes of wakefulness. In mild cases, ET can manifest as the inability to stop the tongue or hands from shaking, the ability to only sing in vibrato, and difficulty to do small precise tasks such as threading a needle. In disabling cases, ET can interfere with a person's ability to perform tasks of daily living, including feeding, dressing, and activities of personal hygiene. ET is generally progressive in most cases (sometimes rapidly, sometimes very slowly), and can be disabling in severe cases. Critchley M. Observations on essential (heredofamilial) tremor. Brain. 1949;72:113-139. Busenbark KL, Nash J, Nash S, Hubble JP, Koller WC. Is essential tremor benign? Neurology. December 1991;41(12):1982-1983. Louis ED, Ford B, Barnes LF. Clinical subtypes of essential tremor. Arch Neurol 2000;57:1194-1198. Treatment Drug treatment may include tranquilizers, beta-blockers, or antiepileptic drugs. Surgical treatments (which are generally reserved for the most severe cases) include thalamotomy and deep brain stimulation. Zesiewcz TA, Elble R, Louis ED, Hauser RA, Sullivan KL, Dewey RB, Ondo WG, Gronseth GS, Weiner WJ. Practice parameter: Therapies for essential tremor. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2005;64:2008-2020. Schuurman PR, Bosch DA, Bossuyt PM, et al. A comparison of continuous thalamic stimulation and thalamotomy for suppression of severe tremor. N Engl J Med. February 17 2000;342(7):461-468. A trial of the benzodiazepine-anticonvulsant Clonazepam (Klonopin, Rivotril) was found not to be an effective treatment ; however, it is still recommended in some cases http://www.aafp.org/afp/20051101/practice.html . The two medications that are prescribed most commonly for control of ET symptoms are the anticonvulsant Primidone (Mysoline) and the beta-blocker propranolol (Inderal). Self medication with small amounts of alcohol has been shown to give short term relief from tremor . Minor cases of ET can be treated with physical therapy and development of the muscles in the sections of the body that are severe in their shaking. Gabapentin may be helpful in the treatment of essential tremor. Support groups The International Essential Tremor Foundation (IETF) provides information, services and support to individuals and families affected by essential tremor (ET). The organization encourages and promotes research in an effort to determine the causes, treatment and ultimately the cure for ET. The IETF is a worldwide organization dedicated to meeting the needs of those whose daily lives are challenged by ET. IETF, an international non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that derives its support entirely from its membership and the general public, was founded in 1988 and is guided by a board of directors and a medical advisory council. The organization's membership consists of patients, physicians, educators, parents, relatives and volunteers who provide education, community services and funding to help support tremor research. The National Tremor Foundation(NTF), founded in 1992, is a British friendly organisation based in Essex, England, an affiliate of the International Tremor Foundation, which was founded in 1988. The organisation's primary work is production of a quarterly informational newsletter. The NTF also maintains a list of ITF medical advisors, and facilitates the formation of self-help groups. NTF was granted charitable status in 1994. Help with technology Tunic Software has released software to help people with essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, and other causes of hand tremor control their computer mouse. The software, MouseCage, automatically smooths mouse cursor motion to reduce the effects of unsteady or shaky hands. IBM created a peripheral device that filters out tremoring movements of the hand. The hardware adapter, termed AMA, is connected between the computer and the input device. It is switched on or off and adjusted on the device for tremor severity. IBM also offers a free smoothing mouse driver for Windows 2000 and XP which uses the same technology that helps steady the image in a handheld camcorder. Another option is SteadyMouse. Other tools have also been adapted for people with tremors; for example, eating utensils which are weighted to help damp out tremor. References External links International Essential Tremor Foundation (USA) Tremor Action Network (USA) National Tremor Foundation (UK) Association APTES (France) Info For Sufferers Of Essential Tremor | Essential_tremor |@lemmatized essential:41 tremor:79 et:22 progressive:2 neurological:4 disorder:7 whose:2 recognizable:1 feature:2 arm:6 apparent:1 voluntary:2 movement:4 eating:1 writing:1 benito:4 leon:4 j:14 louis:17 ed:17 clinical:9 update:1 diagnosis:3 treatment:7 lancet:1 type:3 often:3 refer:1 kinetic:1 may:9 also:7 occur:4 head:4 neck:2 jaw:1 voice:1 well:2 body:4 region:3 general:2 pattern:2 begin:1 spread:1 select:1 patient:9 woman:1 likely:1 develop:3 men:1 hubble:2 jp:3 busenbark:2 kl:3 pahwa:2 r:6 lyon:2 k:1 koller:2 wc:2 expression:1 effect:2 gender:1 age:6 mov:11 disord:13 ford:2 b:3 frucht:1 factor:3 associate:2 increase:2 risk:4 community:2 base:4 study:11 northern:1 manhattan:1 include:7 postural:1 outstretched:1 intentional:1 rest:4 practice:3 n:3 engl:2 med:2 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1,852 | Ole_Rømer | Ole Christensen Rømer ( in Danish; 25 September 1644, Århus – 19 September 1710, Copenhagen) was a Danish astronomer who in 1676 made the first quantitative measurements of the speed of light. In scientific literature alternative spellings, such as "Roemer", "Römer", and "Romer", are common. General biography The Rundetårn, or round tower, in Copenhagen, on top of which the university had its observatory from the mid 17th century until the mid 19th century, when it was moved to new premises. The current observatory there was built in the 20th century to serve amateurs. Rømer was born 25 September 1644 in Århus to a merchant and skipper Christen Pedersen and Anna Olufsdatter Storm, daughter of an alderman. Christen Pedersen had taken to using the name Rømer, which means that he was from Rømø, to disambiguate himself from a couple of other people named Christen Pedersen. There are few sources on Ole Rømer until his immatriculation in 1662 at the University of Copenhagen, at which his mentor was Rasmus Bartholin who published his discovery of the double refraction of a light ray by Iceland spar (calcite) in 1668 while Rømer was living in his home. Rømer was given every opportunity to learn mathematics and astronomy using Tycho Brahe's astronomical observations, as Bartholin had been given the task of preparing them for publication. Friedrichsen; Tortzen (2001), pp. 19-20. Rømer was employed by the French government: Louis XIV made him teacher for the Dauphin, and he also took part in the construction of the magnificent fountains at Versailles. In 1681, Rømer returned to Denmark and was appointed professor of astronomy at the University of Copenhagen, and the same year he married Anne Marie Bartholin, the daughter of Rasmus Bartholin. He was active also as an observer, both at the University Observatory at Rundetårn and in his home, using improved instruments of his own construction. Unfortunately, his observations have not survived: they were lost in the great Copenhagen Fire of 1728. However, a former assistant (and later an astronomer in his own right), Peder Horrebow, loyally described and wrote about Rømer's observations. In Rømer's position as royal mathematician, he introduced the first national system for weights and measures in Denmark on 1 May 1683. Initially based on the Rhine foot, a more accurate national standard was adopted in 1698. Later measurements of the standards fabricated for length and volume show an excellent degree of accuracy. His goal was to achieve a definition based on astronomical constants, using a pendulum. This would happen after his death, practicalities making it too inaccurate at the time. Notable is also his definition of the new Danish mile of 24,000 Danish feet (circa 7,532 m). In 1700, Rømer managed to get the king to introduce the Gregorian calendar in Denmark-Norway — something Tycho Brahe had argued for in vain a hundred years earlier, although to a different king. Rømer also developed one of the first temperature scales. Fahrenheit visited him in 1708 and improved on the Rømer scale, the result being the familiar Fahrenheit temperature scale still in use today in a few countries. Rømer also established several navigation schools in many Danish cities. In 1705, Rømer was made the second Chief of the Copenhagen Police, a position he kept until his death in 1710. As one of his first acts, he fired the entire force, being convinced that the morale was alarmingly low. He was the inventor of the first street lights (oil lamps) in Copenhagen, and worked hard to try to control the beggars, poor people, unemployed, and prostitutes of Copenhagen. This was the start of a social reform. In Copenhagen, Rømer made rules for building new houses, got the city's water supply and sewers back in order, ensured that the city's fire department got new and better equipment, and was the moving force behind the planning and making of new pavement in the streets and on the city squares. Rømer and the speed of light The determination of longitude is a significant practical problem in cartography and navigation. Philip III of Spain offered a prize for a method to determine the longitude of a ship out of sight of land, and Galileo proposed a method of establishing the time of day, and thus longitude, based on the times of the eclipses of the moons of Jupiter, in essence using the Jovian system as a cosmic clock; this method was not significantly improved until accurate mechanical clocks were developed in the eighteenth century. Galileo proposed this method to the Spanish crown (1616–1617) but it proved to be impractical, because of the inaccuracies of Galileo's timetables and the difficulty of observing the eclipses on a ship. However, with refinements the method could be made to work on land. After studies in Copenhagen, Rømer joined the observatory of Uraniborg on the island of Hven, near Copenhagen, in 1671. Over a period of several months, Jean Picard and Rømer observed about 140 eclipses of Jupiter's moon Io, while in Paris Giovanni Domenico Cassini observed the same eclipses. By comparing the times of the eclipses, the difference in longitude of Paris to Uranienborg was calculated. Cassini had observed the moons of Jupiter between 1666 and 1668, and discovered discrepancies in his measurements that, at first, he attributed to light having a finite speed. In 1672 Rømer went to Paris and continued observing the satellites of Jupiter as Cassini's assistant. Rømer added his own observations to Cassini's and observed that times between eclipses (particularly those of Io) got shorter as Earth approached Jupiter, and longer as Earth moved farther away. Cassini published a short paper in August 1675 where he states: This second inequality appears to be due to light taking some time to reach us from the satellite; light seems to take about ten to eleven minutes to cross a distance equal to the half-diameter of the terrestrial orbit. also found in Illustration from the 1676 article on Rømer's measurement of the speed of light. Rømer compared the duration of Io's orbits as Earth moved towards Jupiter (F to G) and as Earth moved away from Jupiter (L to K). Oddly, Cassini seems to have abandoned this reasoning, which Rømer adopted and set about buttressing in an irrefutable manner, using a selected number of observations performed by Picard and himself between 1671 and 1677. Rømer presented his results to the French Academy of Sciences, and it was summarised soon after by an anonymous reporter in a short paper, , published 7 December 1676 in the Journal des sçavans. Unfortunately the paper bears the stamp of the reporter failing to understand Rømer's presentation, and as the reporter resorted to cryptic phrasings to hide his lack of understanding, he obfuscated Rømer's reasoning in the process. Unfortunately Rømer himself never published his results. Assume the Earth is in L, at the second quadrature with Jupiter (i.e. ALB is 90°), and Io emerges from D. After one orbit of Io, 42.5 hours, the Earth is in K. Rømer reasoned that if light is not propagated instantaneously, the additional time it takes to reach K, that he reckoned about 3½ minutes, would explain the observed delay. Rømer observed immersions in C from the symmetric positions F and G, to avoid confusing eclipses (Io shadowed by Jupiter from C to D) and occultations (Io hidden behind Jupiter at various angles). In the table below, his observations in 1676, including the one on August 7, believed to be in opposition H Point H had occurred about one month earlier, according to , and the one observed at Paris Observatory to be 10 minutes late, on November 9 . + The eclipses of Io recorded by Rømer in 1676 Time is normalized (hours since midnight rather than since noon); values on even rows are calculated from the original data. Month Day Time Tide orbits average (hours) May 13 2:49:42 C2,750,789s 18 42.45 Jun 13 22:56:11 C4,747,719s 31 42.54 Aug 7 21:44:50 D612,065s 4 42.50 Aug 14 23:45:55 D764,718s 5 42.48 Aug 23 20:11:13 D6,906,272s 45 42.63 Nov 9 17:35:45 D By trial and error, during eight years of observations Rømer worked out how to account for the retardation of light when reckoning the ephemeris of Io. He calculated the delay as a proportion of the angle corresponding to a given Earth's position with respect to Jupiter, Δt=22*()[minutes]. When the angle α is 180° the delay becomes 22 minutes, which may be interpreted as the time necessary for the light to cross a distance equal to the diameter of the Earth's orbit, H to E. (Actually, Jupiter is not visible from the conjunction point E.) That interpretation makes it possible to calculate the strict result of Rømer's observations: The ratio of the speed of light to the speed with which Earth orbits the sun, which becomes ≈ 9,300. In comparison the modern value is circa ≈ 10,100. Rømer neither calculated this ratio, nor did he give a value for the speed of light. However, many others calculated a speed from his data, the first being Christiaan Huygens; after corresponding with Rømer and eliciting more data, Huygens deduced that light travelled Earth diameters per second, misinterpreting Rømer's value of 22 minutes as the time in which light traverses the diameter of the Earth's orbit. Huygens, Christian (8 January 1690) Treatise on Light. Translated into English by Silvanus P. Thompson, Project Gutenberg etext, p. 11. Retrieved on 2007-04-29. Rømer's view that the velocity of light was finite was not fully accepted until measurements of the so-called aberration of light were made by James Bradley in 1727. In 1809, again making use of observations of Io, but this time with the benefit of more than a century of increasingly precise observations, the astronomer Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre reported the time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometres per second. A plaque at the Observatory of Paris, where the Danish astronomer happened to be working, commemorates what was, in effect, the first measurement of a universal quantity made on this planet. Inventions In addition to inventing the first street lights in Copenhagen, Rømer also invented the Meridian circle, the Altazimuth and the Passage Instrument. The Ole Rømer Museum The Ole Rømer Museum is located in the municipality of Høje-Taastrup, Denmark, at the excavated site of Rømer's observatory Observatorium Tusculanum at Vridsløsemagle. The observatory operated until about 1716 when the remaining instruments were moved to Rundetårn in Copenhagen. There is a large collection of ancient and more recent astronomical instruments on display at the museum. Since 2002 this exhibition is a part of the museum Kroppedal at the same location. Notes and references General references R. J. MacKay and R. W. Oldford. "Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light", Statistical Science 15(3):254–278, 2000. (mostly about A.A. Michelson, but considers forerunners including Rømer. Also available on line: ) Axel V. Nielsen: Ole Rømer. En Skildring af hans Liv og Gerning. København, 1944. Notes External links Roemer, Ole Christensen (at the Galileo Project) ROEMER, Démonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumière (The 1676 paper on the speed of light, in old French, as ordinary text) Rømer and the Doppler Principle. (further details on Rømer's result) Fysikeren Ole Rømer (in Danish) Kroppedal Museum Ole Rømer on the 50 Danish Kroner banknote | Ole_Rømer |@lemmatized ole:8 christensen:2 rømer:47 danish:8 september:3 århus:2 copenhagen:13 astronomer:4 make:10 first:9 quantitative:1 measurement:6 speed:11 light:23 scientific:2 literature:1 alternative:1 spelling:1 roemer:3 römer:1 romer:1 common:1 general:2 biography:1 rundetårn:3 round:1 tower:1 top:1 university:4 observatory:8 mid:2 century:5 move:6 new:5 premise:1 current:1 build:2 serve:1 amateur:1 bear:2 merchant:1 skipper:1 christen:3 pedersen:3 anna:1 olufsdatter:1 storm:1 daughter:2 alderman:1 take:5 use:8 name:2 mean:1 rømø:1 disambiguate:1 couple:1 people:2 source:1 immatriculation:1 mentor:1 rasmus:2 bartholin:4 publish:4 discovery:1 double:1 refraction:1 ray:1 iceland:1 spar:1 calcite:1 live:1 home:2 give:4 every:1 opportunity:1 learn:1 mathematics:1 astronomy:2 tycho:2 brahe:2 astronomical:4 observation:10 task:1 prepare:1 publication:1 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circle:1 altazimuth:1 passage:1 museum:5 locate:1 municipality:1 høje:1 taastrup:1 excavated:1 site:1 observatorium:1 tusculanum:1 vridsløsemagle:1 operate:1 remain:1 large:1 collection:1 ancient:1 recent:1 display:1 exhibition:1 kroppedal:2 location:1 note:2 reference:2 r:2 j:1 mackay:1 w:1 oldford:1 statistical:2 mostly:1 michelson:1 considers:1 forerunner:1 available:1 line:1 axel:1 v:1 nielsen:1 en:1 skildring:1 af:1 han:1 liv:1 og:1 gerning:1 københavn:1 external:1 link:1 démonstration:1 touchant:1 le:1 mouvement:1 la:1 lumière:1 old:1 ordinary:1 text:1 doppler:1 principle:1 detail:1 fysikeren:1 krone:1 banknote:1 |@bigram ole_rømer:6 tycho_brahe:2 louis_xiv:1 gregorian_calendar:1 giovanni_domenico:1 domenico_cassini:1 aug_aug:2 christiaan_huygens:1 project_gutenberg:1 gutenberg_etext:1 jean_baptiste:1 external_link:1 le_mouvement:1 danish_krone:1 |
1,853 | Linear_prediction | Linear prediction is a mathematical operation where future values of a discrete-time signal are estimated as a linear function of previous samples. In digital signal processing, linear prediction is often called linear predictive coding (LPC) and can thus be viewed as a subset of filter theory. In system analysis (a subfield of mathematics), linear prediction can be viewed as a part of mathematical modelling or optimization. The prediction model The most common representation is where is the predicted signal value, the previous observed values, and the predictor coefficients. The error generated by this estimate is where is the true signal value. These equations are valid for all types of (one-dimensional) linear prediction. The differences are found in the way the parameters are chosen. For multi-dimensional signals the error metric is often defined as where is a suitable chosen vector norm. Estimating the parameters The most common choice in optimization of parameters is the root mean square criterion which is also called the autocorrelation criterion. In this method we minimize the expected value of the squared error E[e2(n)], which yields the equation for 1 ≤ j ≤ p, where R is the autocorrelation of signal xn, defined as where E is the expected value. In the multi-dimensional case this corresponds to minimizing the L2 norm. The above equations are called the normal equations or Yule-Walker equations. In matrix form the equations can be equivalently written as where the autocorrelation matrix R is a symmetric, Toeplitz matrix with elements ri,j = R(i − j), vector r is the autocorrelation vector rj = R(j), and vector a is the parameter vector. Another, more general, approach is to minimize where we usually constrain the parameters with to avoid the trivial solution. This constraint yields the same predictor as above but the normal equations are then where the index i ranges from 0 to p, and R is a (p + 1) × (p + 1) matrix. Optimization of the parameters is a wide topic and a large number of other approaches have been proposed. Still, the autocorrelation method is the most common and it is used, for example, for speech coding in the GSM standard. Solution of the matrix equation Ra = r is computationally a relatively expensive process. The Gauss algorithm for matrix inversion is probably the oldest solution but this approach does not efficiently use the symmetry of R and r. A faster algorithm is the Levinson recursion proposed by Norman Levinson in 1947, which recursively calculates the solution. Later, Delsarte et al. proposed an improvement to this algorithm called the split Levinson recursion which requires about half the number of multiplications and divisions. It uses a special symmetrical property of parameter vectors on subsequent recursion levels. References Original G. U. Yule. On a method of investigating periodicities in disturbed series, with special reference to wolfer’s sunspot numbers. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 226-A:267–298, 1927. Overview J. Makhoul. Linear prediction: A tutorial review. Proceedings of the IEEE, 63 (5):561–580, April 1975. M. H. Hayes. Statistical Digital Signal Processing and Modeling. J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1996. External links PLP and RASTA (and MFCC, and inversion) in Matlab See also Forecasting Prediction interval Deconvolution Linear predictive coding | Linear_prediction |@lemmatized linear:8 prediction:7 mathematical:2 operation:1 future:1 value:6 discrete:1 time:1 signal:7 estimate:3 function:1 previous:2 sample:1 digital:2 processing:2 often:2 call:4 predictive:2 coding:3 lpc:1 thus:1 view:2 subset:1 filter:1 theory:1 system:1 analysis:1 subfield:1 mathematics:1 part:1 modelling:1 optimization:3 model:1 common:3 representation:1 predicted:1 observed:1 predictor:2 coefficient:1 error:3 generate:1 true:1 equation:8 valid:1 type:1 one:1 dimensional:3 difference:1 find:1 way:1 parameter:7 choose:1 multi:2 metric:1 define:2 suitable:1 chosen:1 vector:6 norm:2 choice:1 root:1 mean:1 square:1 criterion:2 also:2 autocorrelation:5 method:3 minimize:3 expected:2 squared:1 e:2 n:1 yield:2 j:6 p:4 r:9 xn:1 case:1 correspond:1 normal:2 yule:2 walker:1 matrix:6 form:1 equivalently:1 write:1 symmetric:1 toeplitz:1 element:1 ri:1 rj:1 another:1 general:1 approach:3 usually:1 constrain:1 avoid:1 trivial:1 solution:4 constraint:1 index:1 range:1 wide:1 topic:1 large:1 number:3 propose:3 still:1 use:3 example:1 speech:1 gsm:1 standard:1 ra:1 computationally:1 relatively:1 expensive:1 process:1 gauss:1 algorithm:3 inversion:2 probably:1 old:1 efficiently:1 symmetry:1 fast:1 levinson:3 recursion:3 norman:1 recursively:1 calculate:1 later:1 delsarte:1 et:1 al:1 improvement:1 split:1 require:1 half:1 multiplication:1 division:1 special:2 symmetrical:1 property:1 subsequent:1 level:1 reference:2 original:1 g:1 u:1 investigate:1 periodicity:1 disturbed:1 series:1 wolfer:1 sunspot:1 phil:1 trans:1 roy:1 soc:1 overview:1 makhoul:1 tutorial:1 review:1 proceeding:1 ieee:1 april:1 h:1 hayes:1 statistical:1 modeling:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 new:1 york:1 external:1 link:1 plp:1 rasta:1 mfcc:1 matlab:1 see:1 forecast:1 interval:1 deconvolution:1 |@bigram signal_processing:2 linear_predictive:2 predictive_coding:2 mathematical_modelling:1 expected_value:2 et_al:1 roy_soc:1 wiley_son:1 external_link:1 |
1,854 | Lombok | Lombok (population 2,950,105 in 2005) is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It is part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east. It is roughly circular, with a "tail" to the southwest, about 70 km across and a total area of about 4,725 km² (1,825 sq mi). The provincial capital and largest city on the island is Mataram. History The Dutch first visited Lombok in 1674 and settled the eastern most part of the island, leaving the western half to be ruled by a Hindu dynasty from Bali. The Sasaks chafed under Balinese rule, and a revolt in 1891 ended in 1894 with the annexation of the entire island to the Netherlands East Indies. Geography and demographics Gunung Rinjani The Lombok Strait marks the passage of the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia that is known as the Wallace Line, for Alfred Russel Wallace, who first remarked upon the distinction between these two major biomes. The island's topography is dominated by the centrally-located stratovolcano Mount Rinjani, which rises to 3,726 m (12,224 ft), making it the third-highest in Indonesia. The most recent eruption of Rinjani was in June-July, 1994. The volcano, and its crater lake, 'Segara Anak' (child of the sea), are protected by a National Park established in 1997. The southern part of the island is a fertile plain where corn, rice, coffee, tobacco, and cotton are grown. The island's inhabitants are 85% Sasak whose origins are thought to have migrated from Java in the first millennium BC. Other residents include 10-15% Balinese, with the small remainder being Chinese, Arab, Javanese, and Sumbawanese. Since the Sasak population typically practice Islam, the landscape is punctuated with mosques and minarets. Islamic traditions and holidays influence the Island's daily activities. Economy and politics Proximity to Bali is Lombok’s blessing, and its curse. While only 25 miles separate the two islands, they are in fact worlds apart. "Indeed, overzealous tourism officials notwithstanding, Lombok is not “an unspoiled Bali,” or “Bali’s sister island.” Lombok is not Bali at all, and that is precisely its charm." Lombok has retained a more natural, uncrowded and undeveloped environment, which attract travelers who come to enjoy its relaxed pace and the opportunity to explore the island's unspoiled but spectacular natural beauty. The most-developed center of tourism is Senggigi, spread in a 30-kilometer strip along the coastal road north of Mataram, while backpackers congregate in the Gili Islands off the west coast. Other popular tourist destinations include Kuta http://wikitravel.org/en/Kuta_(Lombok) (distinctly different from Kuta, Bali) where surfing is considered some of the best in the world by leading surfing magazines. The Kuta area is also famous for its beautiful, untouched beaches. Local Sasak children While the area may be considered economically depressed by First World standards, the island is fertile, has sufficient rainfall in most areas for agriculture, and possesses a variety of climate zones. Consequently, food in abundant quantity and variety is available inexpensively at local farmer's markets. A family of 4 can eat rice, vegetables, and fruit for as little as US$0.50. Even though a family income may be as small as US$1.00 per day from fishing or farming, many families are able to live a happy and productive live on astonishingly small incomes. Tourism Following the fall of Suharto regime in 1998, Indonesia experienced a period of domestic unrest. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/special_report/270462.stm At the same time terrorism in Indonesia further aggravated domestic unrest across the archipelago. In early 2000, religious and ethnic violence (ostensibly provoked by Jemaah Islamiyah Islamist agitators) flared up in the Ampenan area of Mataram and the southern area of Senggigi. Many foreign embassies issued Travel Warnings advising of the potential danger of traveling to Indonesia. This period of unrest dramatically impacted tourism to Lombok. Tourism has been slow to return to Lombok, provoked in part by a worldwide reluctance to travel because of global tensions. Only since 2008, when most countries lifted their Travel Warnings http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-05-25-indonesia-travel_N.htm has tourism recovered to the pre-2000 levels. Both the local government and many residents recognize that tourism and services related to tourism can potentially be a major source of income to the Island. The island's natural beauty and the customary hospitality of its residents make it an obvious tourist destination. Emaar, Emirati property company planned to build a new town sprawled in 1,200 hectares in Central Lombok. It costs estimated at US$600 million. It will have a 7 km natural waterfront, which will support a marina, apart from luxury residences and five-star resorts by Ritz-Carlton Tempo Interaktif . The Ritz-Carlton will also have a world class golf course and retail amenities. The homes will employ tropical designs and low-rise architecture in tune with the surroundings. Emaar Lombok now appears to be on the verge of a tourist boom. With the commercialization of Bali over the past few years, and with it the accompanying traffic and reduction in open, natural spaces, many tourists are discovering the charm of 'Undiscovered' Lombok. With this new interest comes the development of a number of posh boutique resorts on the island serving quality food and drinks, but just a stones throw away from rural, unspoiled countryside - much as Bali was decades ago. References External links Lombok history, with detailed map Space Shuttle images of volcanic Lombok Lombok Furniture NY Times on Lombok The Australian reports on Lombok: The New Bali | Lombok |@lemmatized lombok:19 population:2 island:16 west:3 nusa:1 tenggara:1 province:1 indonesia:7 part:4 chain:1 less:1 sunda:1 strait:3 separate:2 bali:10 alas:1 sumbawa:1 east:2 roughly:1 circular:1 tail:1 southwest:1 km:2 across:2 total:1 area:6 sq:1 mi:1 provincial:1 capital:1 large:1 city:1 mataram:3 history:2 dutch:1 first:4 visit:1 settle:1 eastern:1 leave:1 western:1 half:1 rule:2 hindu:1 dynasty:1 sasaks:1 chafed:1 balinese:2 revolt:1 end:1 annexation:1 entire:1 netherlands:1 indie:1 geography:1 demographic:1 gunung:1 rinjani:3 mark:1 passage:1 biogeographical:1 division:1 fauna:2 indomalayan:1 ecozone:1 distinctly:2 different:2 australasia:1 know:1 wallace:2 line:1 alfred:1 russel:1 remark:1 upon:1 distinction:1 two:2 major:2 biome:1 topography:1 dominate:1 centrally:1 located:1 stratovolcano:1 mount:1 rise:2 ft:1 make:2 third:1 high:1 recent:1 eruption:1 june:1 july:1 volcano:1 crater:1 lake:1 segara:1 anak:1 child:2 sea:1 protect:1 national:1 park:1 establish:1 southern:2 fertile:2 plain:1 corn:1 rice:2 coffee:1 tobacco:1 cotton:1 grow:1 inhabitant:1 sasak:3 whose:1 origin:1 think:1 migrate:1 java:1 millennium:1 bc:1 resident:3 include:2 small:3 remainder:1 chinese:1 arab:1 javanese:1 sumbawanese:1 since:2 typically:1 practice:1 islam:1 landscape:1 punctuate:1 mosque:1 minaret:1 islamic:1 tradition:1 holiday:1 influence:1 daily:1 activity:1 economy:1 politics:1 proximity:1 blessing:1 curse:1 mile:1 fact:1 world:4 apart:2 indeed:1 overzealous:1 tourism:8 official:1 notwithstanding:1 unspoiled:3 sister:1 precisely:1 charm:2 retain:1 natural:5 uncrowded:1 undeveloped:1 environment:1 attract:1 traveler:1 come:2 enjoy:1 relaxed:1 pace:1 opportunity:1 explore:1 spectacular:1 beauty:2 develop:1 center:1 senggigi:2 spread:1 kilometer:1 strip:1 along:1 coastal:1 road:1 north:1 backpacker:1 congregate:1 gili:1 islands:1 coast:1 popular:1 tourist:4 destination:2 kuta:3 http:3 wikitravel:1 org:1 en:1 surfing:1 consider:2 best:1 lead:1 surf:1 magazine:1 also:2 famous:1 beautiful:1 untouched:1 beach:1 local:3 may:2 economically:1 depress:1 standard:1 sufficient:1 rainfall:1 agriculture:1 possess:1 variety:2 climate:1 zone:1 consequently:1 food:2 abundant:1 quantity:1 available:1 inexpensively:1 farmer:1 market:1 family:3 eat:1 vegetable:1 fruit:1 little:1 u:3 even:1 though:1 income:3 per:1 day:1 fish:1 farm:1 many:4 able:1 live:2 happy:1 productive:1 astonishingly:1 follow:1 fall:1 suharto:1 regime:1 experience:1 period:2 domestic:2 unrest:3 news:2 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 event:1 stm:1 time:2 terrorism:1 far:1 aggravate:1 archipelago:1 early:1 religious:1 ethnic:1 violence:1 ostensibly:1 provoke:2 jemaah:1 islamiyah:1 islamist:1 agitator:1 flare:1 ampenan:1 foreign:1 embassy:1 issue:1 travel:4 warning:2 advise:1 potential:1 danger:1 dramatically:1 impacted:1 slow:1 return:1 worldwide:1 reluctance:1 global:1 tension:1 country:1 lift:1 www:1 usatoday:1 com:1 washington:1 htm:1 recover:1 pre:1 level:1 government:1 recognize:1 service:1 relate:1 potentially:1 source:1 customary:1 hospitality:1 obvious:1 emaar:2 emirati:1 property:1 company:1 plan:1 build:1 new:3 town:1 sprawl:1 hectare:1 central:1 cost:1 estimate:1 million:1 waterfront:1 support:1 marina:1 luxury:1 residence:1 five:1 star:1 resort:2 ritz:2 carlton:2 tempo:1 interaktif:1 class:1 golf:1 course:1 retail:1 amenity:1 home:1 employ:1 tropical:1 design:1 low:1 architecture:1 tune:1 surroundings:1 appear:1 verge:1 boom:1 commercialization:1 past:1 year:1 accompany:1 traffic:1 reduction:1 open:1 space:2 discover:1 undiscovered:1 interest:1 development:1 number:1 posh:1 boutique:1 serve:1 quality:1 drink:1 stone:1 throw:1 away:1 rural:1 countryside:1 much:1 decade:1 ago:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 detailed:1 map:1 shuttle:1 image:1 volcanic:1 furniture:1 ny:1 australian:1 report:1 |@bigram nusa_tenggara:1 lombok_strait:2 sq_mi:1 alfred_russel:1 russel_wallace:1 millennium_bc:1 mosque_minaret:1 blessing_curse:1 tourist_destination:2 vegetable_fruit:1 uk_hi:1 jemaah_islamiyah:1 http_www:1 usatoday_com:1 ritz_carlton:2 golf_course:1 external_link:1 space_shuttle:1 |
1,855 | Prince-elector | Illustration of electors in deliberation (left to right: Archbishop of Cologne, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia). The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire (German: Kurfürst ({{Audio|De-Kurfürst-pronunciation.ogg|listen}}), pl. Kurfürsten, ) were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Holy Roman Emperors. The heir-apparent to a prince-elector was known as an electoral prince (). The dignity of Elector was extremely prestigious and second only to King or Emperor, far exceeding such offices as count, duke and archduke. Overview The Holy Roman Empire was in theory an elective monarchy, but from the 15th century onwards the electors often merely formalised what was a dynastic succession within the Austrian House of Habsburg, with the title usually passing to the eldest surviving son of the deceased Emperor. Despite this, the office was not legally hereditary, and the heir could not title himself "Emperor" without having been personally elected. Formally they elected a King of the Romans, who was elected in Germany but became Holy Roman Emperor only when crowned by the pope. Charles V was the last to be a crowned Emperor; his successors were all Emperors by election (; ) only. Electors were among the princes of the Empire, but they had privileges in addition to their electoral ones which were not allowed their non-electoral brethren. Though in principle not a title of nobility (and thus held in addition to such feudal titles as Duke, Margrave, or Count Palatine), the dignity of Elector was extremely prestigious. At least from the thirteenth century, there were seven electors, three spiritual (the Archbishop of Mainz, the Archbishop of Trier, and the Archbishop of Cologne) and four, lay (the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg; these last three were also known as the Elector Palatine, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector of Brandenburg, respectively). Only six of the electors, however, had the right to sit at ordinary meetings: "The King of Bohemia, who was in fact not a prince of the Empire but a neighbouring and independent monarch, might vote at an imperial election, but was allowed on no other occasion to meddle in the affairs of the Empire." C.V. Wedgwood, The Thirty Years War (Anchor Books, 1961), p. 39. Other electors were added in the seventeenth century and include the Duke of Bavaria (referred to as the Elector of Bavaria -- replacing the Count Palatine of the Rhine, who was of the same family but had lost his title temporarily during the Thirty Years' War), and the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (the Elector of Hanover - an office in time held by three Hanoverian kings of Great Britain, George I, George II, and George III) until the institution was abolished in 1806 under Napoleon Bonaparte and the Elector became the King of Hanover after regaining his lands following Napoleon's defeat in 1814. Several new electors were created during the reorganization of the Empire in 1803, but these never participated in an election. On August 6, 1806, pressed both by Napoleon and by several German princes (including some Electors), the last Holy Roman emperor, Emperor Francis II, by edict dissolved the Empire. After or just before the dissolution, the Electors of Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, and, eventually, of Hanover each took the title of "king" of his former electorate, while the King of Prussia extended his royal title to cover his erstwhile Electorate of Brandenburg as well as the lands he held as king outside the imperial border. The Electors of Regensburg (who had succeeded to the Mainz vote), Würzburg (who had succeeded to the Salzburg vote), and Baden (a new electorate) became grand dukes. The Elector of Hesse and Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel chose to retain the defunct electoral title until the state was annexed by Prussia, 60 years later. Etymology of Kurfürst The German word Kur- is related etymologically to the English word choose (cf. Old English ceosan [tʃeozan], participle coren 'having been chosen' and Gothic kiusan). The s/r interchange of the Germanic verb conjugation has been regularized in English, though German retains the r in Kur-. There is also a modern German verb küren which means 'to choose' in a ceremonial sense. Fürst is German for 'prince,' but while German distinguishes between the head of a principality (der Fürst) and the son of a monarch (der Prinz), English uses prince for both concepts. Fürst itself is related to English first and is therefore the 'foremost' person in his realm. Note that 'prince' (from Latin 'princeps') carries the same meaning. Composition The German practice of electing monarchs began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ad hoc coalitions and elected the leaders thereof. Elections were irregularly held by the Franks, whose successor states include France and Germany. The French monarchy eventually became hereditary, but the German monarchy remained elective. While all free men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm. In the election of Lothar II in 1125, a small number of eminent nobles chose the monarch and then submitted him to the remaining magnates for their approbation. Soon, the right to choose the monarch was settled on an exclusive group of princes, and the procedure of seeking the approval of the remaining nobles was abandoned. The college of electors was mentioned in 1152 and again in 1198. A letter of Pope Urban IV suggests that by "immemorial custom", seven princes had the right to elect the King and future Emperor. These were: Three ecclesiastic the Archbishop of Mainz the Archbishop of Trier the Archbishop of Cologne Four secular the King of Bohemia (král český, König von Böhmen) the Margrave of Brandenburg (Markgraf von Brandenburg) the Count Palatine of the Rhine (Pfalzgraf bei Rhein) the Duke of Saxony (Herzog von Sachsen) The three Archbishops oversaw some of the richest and most powerful sees in Europe, while the four Dukes controlled ancient Frankish territory and held important hereditary offices. The seven (Palatinate, Brandenburg, Saxe-Wittenberg, Bohemia, Mainz, Trier, Cologne) have been mentioned as the vote-caster setting in the election of 1257 that resulted in two kings becoming elected. The Palatinate and Bavaria were originally held by the same individual, but in 1253, they were divided between two members of the Wittelsbach dynasty. The other electors refused to allow two princes from the same dynasty to have electoral rights, so a heated rivalry between the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria arose. Meanwhile, the King of Bohemia, who held the ancient imperial office of Arch-Cupbearer, asserted his right to participate in elections, but was challenged on the grounds that his kingdom was not German, though usually he was recognized, instead of Bavaria which after all was just a younger line of Wittelsbachs. Already the declaration at Rhense in 1338 by six electors had the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. The Golden Bull of 1356 finally resolved the disputes among the electors; under it, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, as well as the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg held the right to elect the King. The college's composition remained unchanged until the 17th century. In 1621, the Elector Palatine, Frederick V, came under the imperial ban after participating in the Bohemian Revolt (a part of the Thirty Years' War). The Elector Palatine's seat was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria, the head of a junior branch of his family. Originally, the Duke held the electorate personally, but it was later made hereditary along with the duchy. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the Treaty of Münster (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in 1648, a new electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. Since the Elector of Bavaria retained his seat, the number of electors increased to eight; the two Wittelsbach lines now sufficiently estranged so as not to pose a combined potential threat. In 1692, as a result of the inheritance of the Palatinate by a Catholic branch of the Wittelsbach family, which threatened to upset the religious balance of the College of Electors, the number of electors was increased to nine, with a seat being granted to the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who became known as the Elector of Hanover (the Reichstag officially confirmed the creation in 1708). In 1706, the Elector of Bavaria and Archbishop of Cologne were banned during the War of the Spanish Succession, but both were restored in 1714 after the Peace of Baden. In 1777, the number of electors was reduced to eight when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria. Many changes to the composition of the college were necessitated by Napoleon's aggression during the early 19th century. The Treaty of Lunéville (1801), which ceded territory on the Rhine's left bank to France, led to the abolition of the archbishoprics of Trier and Cologne, and the transfer of the remaining spiritual Elector from Mainz to Regensburg. In 1803, electorates were created for the Duke of Württemberg, the Margrave of Baden, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), and the Duke of Salzburg, bringing the total number of electors to ten. When Austria annexed Salzburg under the Treaty of Pressburg (1805), the Duke of Salzburg moved to the Grand Duchy of Würzburg and retained his electorate. None of the new electors, however, had an opportunity to cast votes, as the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in 1806, and the new electorates were never confirmed by the Emperor. Rights and privileges Electors were among the rulers of the States of the Empire, but enjoyed precedence over the other princes. They were, until the 18th century, exclusively entitled to the style Durchlaucht (Serene Highness). In 1742, the electors became entitled to the superlative Durchläuchtigste (Most Serene Highness), while other princes were promoted to Durchlaucht. As rulers of States of the Empire, the electors enjoyed all the privileges of the other princes, including the right to enter into alliances, autonomy in relation to dynastic affairs and precedence over other subjects. The Golden Bull recognised certain additional rights belonging to the electors. For instance, electors were granted a monopoly over all mines of gold, silver, and other metals within their territories, to tax Jews, to collect tolls, and to mint money; these powers belonged to the Emperor in the other territories, and princes who wrongly assumed them could be deprived of their status. Thus, the electors were among the most powerful princes in the Empire. Electors also enjoyed several judicial powers within their territories. Their subjects could be not be tried in the imperial courts, and appeal from their courts lay only in cases where denial of justice was claimed. After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806, the electors continued to reign over their territories, many of them taking higher titles. The Dukes of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony made themselves Kings, as did the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who was already King of Great Britain; meanwhile, the Margrave of Baden elevated himself to the Grand-Ducal dignity. The Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, however, retained the meaningless title "Elector of Hesse", thus distinguishing himself from other Hessian princes (the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg). In 1866, however, the Elector of Hesse was dethroned under Otto von Bismarck's plan for German Unification. Reichstag The electors, like the other princes ruling States of the Empire, were members of the Reichstag, which was divided into three collegia: the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. In addition to being members of the Council of Electors, several lay electors were therefore members of the Council of Princes as well by virtue of other territories they possessed. In many cases, the lay electors ruled numerous States of the Empire, and therefore held several votes in the Council of Princes. In 1792, the King of Bohemia held three votes, the Elector of Bavaria six votes, the Elector of Brandenburg eight votes, and the Elector of Hanover six votes. Thus, of the hundred votes in the Council of Princes in 1792, twenty-three belonged to electors. The lay electors therefore exercised considerable influence, being members of the small Council of Electors and holding a significant number of votes in the Council of Princes. The assent of both bodies was required for important decisions affecting the structure of the Empire, such as the creation of new electorates or States of the Empire. In addition to voting by colleges or councils, the Reichstag also voted on religious lines, as provided for by the Peace of Westphalia. The Archbishop of Mainz presided over the Catholic body, or corpus catholicorum, while the Elector of Saxony presided over the Protestant body, or corpus evangelicorum. The division into religious bodies was on the basis of the official religion of the state, and not of its rulers. Thus, even when the Electors of Saxony were Catholics during the eighteenth century, they continued to preside over the corpus evangelicorum, since the state of Saxony was officially Protestant. Elections The individual chosen by the electors assumed the title "King of the Romans", though he actually reigned in Germany. The King of the Romans became Holy Roman Emperor only when crowned by the Pope. On many occasions, a Pope refused to crown a king with whom he was engaged in a dispute, but a lack of a papal coronation deprived a king of only the title Emperor and not of the power to govern (cf Declaration at Rhense). The Habsburg dynasty stopped the practice of papal coronations. After Charles V, all individuals chosen by the electors were merely "Emperors-Elect". The electors were originally summoned by the Archbishop of Mainz within one month of an Emperor's death, and met within three months of being summoned. During the interregnum, imperial power was exercised by two imperial vicars. Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was "the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in the name of the holy empire". The Elector of Saxony was vicar in areas operating under Saxon law (Saxony, Westphalia, Hanover, and northern Germany), while the Elector Palatine was vicar in the remainder of the Empire (Franconia, Swabia, the Rhine, and southern Germany). The Elector of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, but when the latter was granted a new electorate in 1648, there was a dispute between the two as to which was vicar. In 1659, both purported to act as vicar, but the other vicar recognised the Elector of Bavaria. Later, the two electors made a pact to act as joint vicars, but the Reichstag rejected the agreement. In 1711, while the Elector of Bavaria was under the ban of the Empire, the Elector Palatine again acted as vicar, but his cousin was restored to his position upon his restoration three years later. Finally, in 1745, the two agreed to alternate as vicars, with Bavaria starting first. This arrangement was upheld by the Reichstag in 1752. In 1777 the question became moot when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria. On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of the previous Emperor. Frankfurt regularly served as the site of the election from the fifteenth century on, but elections were also held at Cologne (1531), Regensburg (1575 and 1636), and Augsburg (1653 and 1690). An elector could appear in person or could appoint another elector as his proxy. More often, an electoral suite or embassy was sent to cast the vote; the credentials of such representatives were verified by the Archbishop of Mainz, who presided over the ceremony. The deliberations were held at the city hall, but voting occurred in the cathedral. In Frankfurt, a special electoral chapel, or Wahlkapelle, was used for elections. Under the Golden Bull, a majority of electors sufficed to elect a king, and each elector could cast only one vote. Electors were free to vote for whomsoever they pleased (including themselves), but dynastic considerations played a great part in the choice. Electors drafted a Wahlkapitulation, or electoral capitulation, which was presented to the king-elect. The capitulation may be described as a contract between the princes and the king, the latter conceding rights and powers to the electors and other princes. Once an individual swore to abide by the electoral capitulation, he assumed the office of King of the Romans. In the 10th and 11th centuries, princes often acted merely to confirm hereditary succession in the Saxon (Ottonian) and Franconian (Salian) dynasties, whereas beginning from the actual forming of the prince-elector class, elections became less secure (wit the election of 1125), though the Staufen dynasty managed to get its sons formally elected in their fathers' lifetimes almost as a formality. After these lines ended in extinction, the electors began to elect kings from different families so that the throne would not once again settle within a single dynasty. For some two centuries, the monarchy was elective both in theory and in practice; the arrangement, however, did not last, since the powerful House of Habsburg managed to secure succession within their dynasty during the fifteenth century. All kings elected from 1438 onwards were from among the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria (and later Kings of Hungary and Bohemia) until 1740, when the archduchy was inherited by a woman, Maria Theresa. A representative of the House of Wittelsbach became elected for a short period of time, but in 1745, Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, became King; all of his successors were also from the same family. Hence, for the greater part of the Empire's history, the role of the electors was largely ceremonial. High offices The Arms of Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, Arch-Steward and Prince-Elector. Each elector held a "High Office of the Empire" and was a member of the (ceremonial) Imperial Household. The three spiritual electors were all Arch-Chancellors (, ): the Archbishop of Mainz was Arch-Chancellor of Germany, the Archbishop of Trier was Arch-Chancellor of Burgundy, and the Archbishop of Cologne was Arch-Chancellor of Italy. The other offices were as follows: Augmentation Imperial office German Latin Elector Arch-Butler or Arch-Cupbearer Erzmundschenk Archipincerna King of Bohemia Arch-Seneschal or Arch-Steward Erztruchseß Archidapifer Elector Palatine to 1623Elector of Bavaria, 1623–1706Elector Palatine, 1706–14Elector of Bavaria, 1714–1806 Arch-Marshal Erzmarschall Archimarescallus Elector of Saxony Arch-Chamberlain Erzkämmerer Archicamerarius Elector of Brandenburg Arch-Treasurer Erzschatzmeister Archithesaurarius Elector Palatine, 1648–1706Elector of Hanover, 1710–14Elector Palatine, 1714–77Elector of Hanover, 1777–1814 Arch-Bannerbearer Erzbannerträger Archivexillarius Elector of Hanover, 1708–10 and 1714–77 When the Duke of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in 1623, he assumed the latter's office of Arch-Steward. When the Count Palatine was granted a new electorate, he assumed the position of Arch-Treasurer of the Empire. When the Duke of Bavaria was banned in 1706, the Elector Palatine returned to the office of Arch-Steward, and in 1710 the Elector of Hanover was promoted to the post of Arch-Treasurer. Matters were complicated by the Duke of Bavaria's restoration in 1714; the Elector of Bavaria resumed the office of Arch-Steward, while the Elector Palatine returned to the post of Arch-Treasurer, and the Elector of Hanover was given the new office of Archbannerbearer. The Electors of Hanover, however, continued to be styled Arch-Treasurers, though the Elector Palatine was the one who actually exercised the office until 1777, when he inherited Bavaria and the Arch-Stewardship. After 1777, no further changes were made to the Imperial Household; new offices were planned for the Electors admitted in 1803, but the Empire was abolished before they could be created. Many High Officers were entitled to use augmentations on their coats of arms; these augmentations, which were special marks of honour, appeared in the centre of the electors' shields (as shown in the image above) above the other charges (in heraldic terms, the augmentations appeared in the form of inescutcheons). The Arch-Steward used gules an orb Or (a gold orb on a red field). The Arch-Marshal utilised the more complicated per fess sable and argent, two swords in saltire gules (two red swords arranged in the form of a saltire, on a black and white field). The Arch-Chamberlain's augmentation was azure a sceptre palewise Or (a gold sceptre on a blue field), while the Arch-Treasurer's was gules the crown of Charlemagne Or (a gold crown on a red field). As noted above, the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Hanover styled themselves Arch-Treasurer from 1714 until 1777; during this time, both electors used the corresponding augmentations. The three Arch-Chancellors and the Arch-Cupbearer did not use any augmentations. The electors discharged the ceremonial duties associated with their offices only during coronations, where they bore the crown and regalia of the Empire. Otherwise, they were represented by holders of corresponding "Hereditary Offices of the Household". The Arch-Butler was represented by the Butler (Cupbearer) (the Count of Althann), the Arch-Seneschal by the Steward (the Count of Waldburg), the Arch-Chamberlain by the Chamberlain (the Count of Hohenzollern), the Arch-Marshal by the Marshal (the Count of Pappenheim), and the Arch-Treasurer by the Treasurer (the Count of Sinzendorf). See also Imperial election Electress Elective monarchy References Sources Bryce, J. (1887). The Holy Roman Empire, 8th ed. New York: Macmillan. "Germany." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. External links The Avalon Project. (2003). "The Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV 1356 A.D." Oestreich, G. and Holzer, E. (1973). "Übersicht über die Reichsstände." In Gebhardt, Bruno. Handbuch der Deutschen Geschichte, 9th ed. (Vol. 2, pp. 769-784). Stuttgart: Ernst Ketler Verlag. Velde, F. R. (2003). "Royal Styles." Velde, F. R. (2004). 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1,856 | Game_Boy_Advance | The is a 32-bit handheld video game console developed, manufactured and marketed by Nintendo. It is the successor to the Game Boy Color. It was released in Japan on March 21, 2001; in North America on June 11, 2001; in Australia and Europe on June 22, 2001; and in the People's Republic of China on June 8, 2004 (excluding Hong Kong). In 1996, magazines including issues 53 and 54 of Total! and the July 1996 issue of Game Informer featured reports of a new Game Boy, codenamed Project Atlantis. Although the expected release date of "early 1997" would make that machine seem to be the Game Boy Color, it was described as having "a 32-bit RISC processor" and "allowing similar to Super Nintendo Entertainment System standard games-playing to be played in the palm of your hand"—a description that more closely matches the Game Boy Advance. It is also may have referred to the unnamed, unreleased Game Boy Color successor prototype that was revealed at 2009's Game Developer's Conference. GDC 2009 Nintendo Reveals Unreleased Nintendo Handhelds Retrieved 2009-03-25 Technical specifications The technical specifications of the original Game Boy Advance are, as provided by Nintendo: Size: Approximately x x . Weight: Approximately 140 grams (5 ounces). Screen: 2.9 inches reflective thin-film transistor (TFT) color LCD. Power: 2 AA batteries. Battery life: The average battery life is approximately 15 hours while playing Game Boy Advance games (also dependent on the Game Pak being played and the volume setting). CPU: 16.8 MHz 32-bit ARM7TDMI with embedded memory. Memory: 32 kilobyte + 96 kilobyte VRAM (internal to the CPU), 256 kilobyte WRAM (external to the CPU). Resolution: 240 x 160 pixels. Color support: 15-bit RGB (16-bit color space using 5 bits depth per channel), capable of displaying 512 simultaneous colors in "character mode" and 32,768 (2^15) simultaneous colors in "bitmap mode". Backward compatibility for Game Boy and Game Boy Color games is provided by an 4/8 MHz Z80 co-processor, while a link port at the top of the unit allows it to be connected to other devices via use of a Nintendo Game Link cable or GameCube cable. When playing Game Boy or Game Boy color games on the Game Boy Advance, the L and R buttons can be used to toggle between a stretched widescreen format (240x144) and the original screen ratio of the Game Boy (160x144). All Nintendo handheld systems that have been released since (the SP and Micro versions of the Game Boy Advance, as well as the Nintendo DS, DS Lite and DSi) have included a built-in light and rechargeable battery. Other models Game Boy Advance SP Game Boy Advance SP In early 2003, Nintendo introduced a new Game Boy Advance (model AGS-001) that looks like a pocket-size laptop, with an internal front-light that can be turned on or off, a rechargeable lithium ion battery, as well as a folding case approximately half the original size. It was designed to address some common issues with the original Game Boy Advance which was criticized for being somewhat uncomfortable, especially due to an overly dark screen. The Game Boy Advance SP also came with a new and much brighter LCD screen for improved playability. Around the same time as the release of the Game Boy Micro, Nintendo released a new backlit version of the SP (model AGS-101) in North America (commonly referred to as the "GBA SP+"). The switch that controls the light now toggles between "normal" (which itself is already brighter than the original Game Boy Advance SP's screen), and "bright," an intense brightness level similar to an LCD television set. Game Boy Micro Game Boy Micro In September 2005, Nintendo released a second redesign of the Game Boy Advance. This model, dubbed the Game Boy Micro, is similar in style to the original Game Boy Advance's horizontal orientation, but is much smaller and sleeker. The Game Boy Micro also allows the user to switch between several colored faceplates to allow customization, a feature which Nintendo advertised heavily around the Game Boy Micro's launch. Nintendo also hoped that this "fashion" feature would help target audiences outside of typical video game players, much like its Wii. Unlike the previous Game Boy Advance models, Game Boy Micro is unable to support Game Boy and Game Boy Color titles. The Game Boy Micro did not make much of an impact in the video game market, as it was overshadowed by Nintendo's other portable, the Nintendo DS, as well as Sony's portable gaming system, the PSP. Sales On December 1, 2006, Nintendo of America released launch-to-date information indicating that the Game Boy Advance series had sold 33.6 million units in the United States. In a Kotaku article published on January 18, 2008, Nintendo revealed that the Game Boy Advance series has sold 36.2 million units in the United States, as of January 1, 2008. As of December 31, 2008, the Game Boy Advance series has sold 81.44 million units worldwide, of which 43.52 million are Game Boy Advance SP units and 2.42 million are Game Boy Micro units. After the Game Boy Advance's support lessened, the most popular software became mostly games oriented to younger gamers. Games The Game Boy Advance became the modern flagship of sprite-based games. With hardware comparable to the Super NES it had proven that sprite-based technology could improve and live side by side with the 3D games of the day's consoles. The Game Boy Advance not only has typical platformers, but also a huge collection of SNES-style RPGs. It has also become a popular system for old-school gamers due to the increasing number of games ported from various 8-bit and 16-bit systems of the previous era, including the popular Super Mario Advance series, as well as its compatibility with all earlier Game Boy titles. The last Game Boy Advance game released was Samurai Deeper Kyo, in February 2008. Accessories Official Nintendo released many add-ons for the Game Boy Advance. These include: Wireless Adapter: Released in 2004, this adapter hooks up to the back of the Game Boy Advance. It replaces link cables and allows many people to link up to each other. It markets for US$20 and came included with Pokémon FireRed and Pokémon LeafGreen. Because it was released so late in the Game Boy Advance's life, fewer than 20 games support this hardware. The adapter's usefulness is most evident in Pokémon; FireRed/LeafGreen and Emerald feature a "Union Room" where up to forty people can enter to battle or trade Pokémon. A Game Boy Micro version has also been released – it can interact fully with both models of the Wireless Adapter. Game Boy Advance Infra-Red Adapter: This adapter was included with the game Cyberdrive Zoids, as it is only compatible with this game and the latest GBA Pokémon games. The adaptor was not sold separately. This is also currently the only Game Boy Advance accessory that has not been remade for the Game Boy Micro. Nintendo GameCube Game Boy Advance Cable: The link cable was used to connect the Game Boy advance to the GameCube and Wii gaming console. It was intended for interoperability between games for the Game Boy and corresponding games for the GameCube. There were not many games that supported the hardware, notable titles are Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles and The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures, allowing up to 4 players to use their advance or sp handheld as a controller that had additional information on the screen, as well as The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker, allowing additional content to be unlocked through one of the characters in the game. Play-Yan: The Play-Yan is an MP3/MPEG4 player for the Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS. The cartridge is slightly bigger than a normal Game Boy Advance cartridge and includes a built-in headphone port as well as an SD Card slot. Music or videos that users have downloaded from the Internet can be transferred onto an SD Card and slotted into the Play-Yan device. Nintendo has released several mini games for the Play-Yan that can be downloaded from their website, although Nintendo later removed all mini-game functionality through a firmware update. The Play-Yan was initially available in Japan only, but was released in Europe as the Nintendo MP3 Player on December 8, 2006, with the MPEG4 functionality removed. The Play-Yan was never released in North America. e-Reader: The e-Reader is a rather bulky scanning device that plugs into the game cartridge slot of the Game Boy Advance. Specialized cards with codes along the side and bottom are slid through the slot, scanning the card into the Game Boy Advance. Many ideas for the e-Reader include cards that scan classic games like Donkey Kong and Excitebike onto the handheld ready to play, as well as a collaboration with Super Mario Advance 4 and Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire to have cards that unlock content. Nintendo GameCube games like Animal Crossing have cards with unlockable content as well, and the Pokémon Trading Card Game playing cards also adopt the e-Reader codes. The e-Reader works with the Game Boy Player and Game Boy Advance SP, but cannot fit into the Nintendo DS's Game Boy slot (however it can fit into the Nintendo DS Lite's Game Boy slot). Nintendo continues to manufacture the accessory and sell it at its Online Store. It is still quite popular in Japan. It was not released in Europe. Game Boy Advance Video: These cartridges contain two episodes of thirty minute cartoon programs. First released in North America in May 2004, these cartridges included cartoons such as Pokémon, SpongeBob SquarePants, Sonic X, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and Yu-Gi-Oh!. The movies Shrek, Shrek 2, and Shark Tale are also available for Game Boy Advance Video and all three movies are full. Due to the Game Boy Advance screen ratio, the three movies are in their widescreen format. These cartridges display an error when inserted into a GameCube via a Game Boy Player. The Game Boy Advance Videos are no longer available at most major retailers. Cleaning cartridge — A white cartridge that has a soft cloth inside so that it cleans the connectors of the Game Boy Advance when inserted. It can also be used to clean Slot 2 of the Nintendo DS or DS Lite. Unofficial Other accessories for the Game Boy Advance are: Afterburner: The Afterburner was an internal front-lighting system. The installation consisted of disassembling the system, removing some plastic from the interior of the case, attaching the lighting mechanism to the screen, and soldering two wires to the motherboard for power. Optionally, a potentiometer or an integrated circuit could be added to allow adjusting the brightness of the light. When the Game Boy Advance SP was released, it included a very similar lighting system. Halo Light: The Halo light was an external front-lighting system that replaced the screen protector / lens of the GBA. The Halo had an external power adapter that connected to the link port, it featured on/off functions with a dimmer and a pass-through connector so other devices could be connected to the link port. GBA Movie Player: The GBA Movie Player is a versatile gaming cartridge that allows users to play NES/Famicom games, watch movies, read .txt files, listen to sound clips, etc. The GBA Movie Player does not actually play MPEGS or MP3s directly, a freeware conversion software is needed, that converts an array of formats into GBM and GBS formats that are compatible with the GBA Movie Player. There are two forms of the GBA Movie Player with one using a CF (CompactFlash) card and one using an SD (SecureDigital) card, though different companies have made their own devices similar to the GBA Movie Player. GBA TV Tuner: It makes the portable system into a portable television. There are several versions (made by different companies) available. The most popular TV Tuner requires a cartridge inserted in the Tuner to start up. The TV Tuners can store up to 99 channels. GameShark: The Game Boy Advance version of the GameShark. Programmed only to work with Game Boy Advance games as making the device accept Game Boy Color cartridges too would have made it expensive. This cheat device allowed users to hack their games. Codes could be entered by hand or uploaded to the device itself with the provided USB cable and software. Action Replay: A cheating device like the GameShark, sold mainly in Europe. Had a few extra features as well as an updated interface. Action Replay MAX Duo: This was an update to the Action Replay for Game Boy Advance. Not only did it function as an Action Replay, but for DS users, it could hold premade game saves or "powersaves" that could be downloaded from the Action Replay site as well as user made saves. It did not, however function as a cheat device for Nintendo DS games, it was only for data backup. Worm Cam: this device by Nyko attached to the top of the Game Boy Advance and connected into the link port of the GBA. This device functioned as a digital camera which allowed digital pictures to be taken. The snapshots could then be uploaded to a PC with the USB cable and software provided. This camera's strange shape prevented it from being used with the GBA SP. DigiCam SP: This camera attachment was also made by Nyko and was essentially the Worm Cam for the Game Boy Advance SP. This add-on would slide on to the top half of the GBA SP (behind the screen) and a small plug would be connected into the link port. DataBoy: This cartridge plugs into the GBA game slot and converts the Game Boy into an RS-232 data scope (also known as serial line monitor or protocol analyzer). Users can play GB games, GBC games and GBA games on it. Game Boy Advance flash cartridges: These devices are commonly used for homebrew and for piracy. Unit colors The Game Boy Advance, SP, and Micro had numerous colors and limited editions. Game Boy Advance Arctic Fuchsia Glacier Indigo Hello Kitty Red Platinum Game Boy Advance SP Cobalt Blue Flame Red Onyx Black Pearl Blue Famicom 20th Anniversary Edition Green Venesaur Gold (with Zelda triforce) Graphite Lime Mario NES Pearl Pink Platinum Red Groudon Snow White SpongeBob Torchic Orange Tribal "Who Are You" (Black with "Who Are You" printed on the top) Game Boy Micro Final Fantasy IV Mother 3 (Red) Black (included silver, green camo, and fire faceplates) Silver (included black, flower, and blue energy faceplates) Famicom 20th Anniversary Edition Japanese colors included silver, black, Famicom 20th Anniversary Edition, lite blue, and pink (faceplate and Game Boy are same color, with exception of Famicom 20th Anniversary Edition) Competitors Nintendo's competitors in the handheld market were the Neo Geo Pocket Color, Bandai Swan Crystal, Game Park 32, Tapwave Zodiac and the Nokia N-Gage. Despite the competitors' best efforts, Nintendo maintained its majority market share with the Game Boy Advance. Homebrew software development Many people have developed their own software to run on the Game Boy Advance. This is typically tested using emulators, and later written to flash cartridges to run on real consoles. Most such developers use a version of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and program in either C or C++, though recently some developers have started using either Visual HAM (which is just a editor that calls gcc/g++, similar to an IDE) or Free Pascal. Due to the simplicity of the system, and availability of homebrew libraries, it is very conceivable for a single developer to write a small commercial quality game. There is an entire community built around programming for the GBA and the more recent NDS systems (e.g. http://gbadev.org). It is a still a relatively active community, in spite of the age of the Game Boy Advance console. Emulation See also: VisualBoyAdvance and NO$GBA References External links Official website Game Boy Advance at Nintendo.com (archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) | Game_Boy_Advance |@lemmatized bit:8 handheld:5 video:7 game:128 console:5 develop:2 manufacture:2 market:5 nintendo:32 successor:2 boy:86 color:18 release:18 japan:3 march:1 north:4 america:5 june:3 australia:1 europe:4 people:4 republic:1 china:1 exclude:1 hong:1 kong:2 magazine:1 include:11 issue:3 total:1 july:1 informer:1 feature:6 report:1 new:4 codenamed:1 project:1 atlantis:1 although:2 expected:1 date:2 early:3 would:5 make:9 machine:2 seem:1 describe:1 risc:1 processor:2 allow:11 similar:6 super:4 entertainment:1 system:12 standard:1 playing:2 play:14 palm:1 hand:2 description:1 closely:1 match:1 advance:57 also:15 may:2 refer:2 unnamed:1 unreleased:2 prototype:1 reveal:2 developer:4 conference:1 gdc:1 reveals:1 handhelds:1 retrieve:1 technical:2 specification:2 original:6 provide:4 size:3 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1,857 | Ancient_Egypt | The pyramids are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC). Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern nation of Egypt. The civilization began around 3150 BC Only after 664 BC are dates secure. See Egyptian chronology for details. with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. Dodson (2004) p. 46 Its history occurred in a series of stable periods, known as kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. After the end of the last kingdom, known as the New Kingdom, the civilization of ancient Egypt entered a period of slow, steady decline, during which Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers. The rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province. Clayton (1994) p. 217 The civilization of ancient Egypt thrived from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. Controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military that defeated foreign enemies and asserted Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people through an elaborate system of religious beliefs. James (2005) p. 8 Manuelian (1998) pp. 6–7 The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians included a system of mathematics, quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, obelisks, faience and glass technology, a practical and effective system of medicine, new forms of literature, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, and the earliest known peace treaty. Clayton (1994) p. 153 Egypt left a lasting legacy: art and architecture were copied and antiquities paraded around the world, and monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of tourists and writers for centuries. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy for Egypt and the world. James (2005) p. 84 History By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the Nile valley, and since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living in the region during the Pleistocene some 1.8 million years ago, the Nile has been the lifeline of Egypt. Shaw (2002) p. 17 The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. Shaw (2002) pp. 17, 67–69 A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period) Predynastic Period In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians and this is also the period during which many animals would have been first domesticated. By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of unique cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their unique pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper Egypt, the Badari, was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper. Hayes (1964) p. 220 In southern Egypt, the Naqada culture, similar to the Badari, began to expand along the Nile by about 4000 BC. Over a period of about 1000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile and engaged in trade with Nubia, the oases of the western desert, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean. Shaw (2002) p. 61 The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse array of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, which included painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last phase of the predynastic, the Naqada culture began using written symbols which would eventually evolve into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. Allen (2000) p. 1 Early Dynastic Period The Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands. Robins (1997) p. 32 The ancient Egyptians chose to begin their official history with a king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek) who they believed had united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Shaw (2002) pp. 78–80 The transition to a unified state actually happened more gradually than the ancient Egyptian writers would have us believe, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have actually been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette in a symbolic act of unification. Clayton (1994) pp. 12–13 The third century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs following Menes into 30 dynasties, a system still in use today. Clayton (1994) p. 6 In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC, the first pharaohs solidified their control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. Shaw (2002) p. 70 The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization. Old Kingdom Colossal alabaster statue of Menkaura at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts Stunning advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity made possible by a well developed central administration. James (2005) p. 40 Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. Shaw (2002) p. 102 With the surplus resources made available by a productive and stable economy, the state was able to sponsor construction of colossal monuments and to commission exceptional works of art from the royal workshops. The pyramids built by Djoser, Khufu, and their descendants are the most memorable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization, and the power of the pharaohs that controlled it. Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples to ensure that these institutions would have the necessary resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five centuries of these feudal practices had slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, who could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. Shaw (2002) pp. 116–7 As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, ultimately caused the country to enter a 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period. Clayton (1994) p. 69 First Intermediate Period After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their newfound independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—a fact demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. Shaw (2002) p. 120 In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period. Shaw (2002) p. 146 Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands and inaugurating a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom. Clayton (1994) p. 29 Middle Kingdom Amenemhat III, the last ruler of the Middle Kingdom The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Shaw (2002) p. 148 Mentuhotep II and his 11th Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the 12th Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation's capital to the city of Itjtawy located in Faiyum. Clayton (1994) p. 79 From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-the-Ruler", to defend against foreign attack. Shaw (2002) p. 158 Having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Shaw (2002) pp. 179–82 Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style, and the relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection. Robins (1997) p. 90 The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Asiatic settlers into the delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with inadequate Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later 13th and 14th dynasties. During this decline, the foreign Asiatic settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos. Shaw (2002) p. 188 Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos Around 1650 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, Asiatic immigrants living in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris seized control of the region and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes, where the pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. Ryholt (1997) p. 310 The Hyksos ("foreign rulers") imitated Egyptian models of government and portrayed themselves as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their Middle Bronze Age culture. Shaw (2002) p. 189 After their retreat, the Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Hyksos to the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south. Nearly 100 years of tenuous inaction followed, and it was not until 1555 BC that the Theban forces gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that would last more than 30 years. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians, but it was Kamose's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt’s borders and secure her complete dominance of the Near East. Shaw (2002) p. 224 The maximum territorial extent of Ancient Egypt (15th century BC) New Kingdom The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbors. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs into Syria and Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood. James (2005) p. 48 The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The female pharaoh Hatshepsut used such propaganda to legitimize her claim to the throne. Her successful reign was marked by trading expeditions to Punt, an elegant mortuary temple, a colossal pair of obelisks and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Hatshepsut's nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III sought to erase her legacy near the end of his reign, possibly in retaliation for usurping his throne. Clayton (1994) p. 108 Four colossal statues of Ramesses II flank the entrance of his temple Abu Simbel. Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun god Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of other deities, and attacked the power of the priestly establishment. Aldred (1988) p. 259 Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to foreign affairs and absorbed himself in his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, and the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, , and Horemheb erased all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period. Cline (2001) p. 273 The 18th Dynasty ended when its last three kings—Tutankhamun, Aye, and Horemheb—each died without an heir. Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne around 1279 BC at the age of 18 and built more temples, erected more statues and obelisks, and sired more children than any other pharaoh in history. From his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. Clayton (1994) p. 146 A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty around 1258 BC. Tyldesley (2001) pp. 76–7 Egypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine. The impact of external threats was exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery and civil unrest. The high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their growing power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period. James (2005) p. 54 Around 730 BC Libyans from the west fractured the political unity of the country. Third Intermediate Period Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. Cerny (1975) p. 645 During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Sheshonq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in Leontopolis, and Kushites threatened from the south. Around 727 BC the Kushite king Piye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta. Shaw (2002) p. 345 Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the Assyrian sphere of influence, and by 700 BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667 BC the Assyrians began their attack on Egypt. The reigns of both Taharqa and his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes. Shaw (2002) p. 358 Late Period With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians. Shaw (2002) p. 383 Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-Seventh dynasty, ended in 402 BC, and from 380–343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight. Shaw (2002) p. 385 Ptolemaic Dynasty In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Ptolemies, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city was to showcase the power and prestige of Greek rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. Shaw (2002) p. 405 The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships which kept trade flowing through the city, as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority. Shaw (2002) p. 411 Greek culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria which had formed following the death of Ptolemy IV. Shaw (2002) p. 418 In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syrian opponents made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire. James (2005) p. 62 Roman domination The Fayum mummy portraits epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. James (2005) p. 63 Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome. Shaw (2002) p. 426 Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. Shaw (2002) p. 422 The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some of the Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians. From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Alexandria and spread. Incompatible with paganism, Christianity sought to win converts and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 AD, but eventually Christianity won out. Shaw (2002) p. 441 As a consequence, Egypt's pagan culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert. Shaw (2002) p. 445 Government and economy Administration and commerce The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty and power. The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. Manuelian (1998) p. 358 At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods. Manuelian (1998) p. 363 Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money-barter system, Meskell (2004) p. 23 with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Manuelian (1998) p. 372 Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 5½ sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 7½ sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the 5th century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage. Walbank (1984) p. 125 Social status Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Manuelian (1998) p. 383 Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. James (2005) p. 136 Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, the so-called "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. Billard (1978) p. 109 The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear. The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men. Scribes were elite and well educated. They assessed taxes, kept records, and were responsible for administration. Legal system The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference. Oakes (2003) p. 472 Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon. McDowell (1999) p. 168 Agriculture A tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the crops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer. A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile river. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned. Manuelian (1998) p. 361 Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. Nicholson (2000) p. 514 From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use. Nicholson (2000) p. 506 The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Nicholson (2000) p. 510 Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine. Nicholson (2000) pp. 577 and 630 Sennedjem plows his fields with a pair of oxen, used as beasts of burden and a source of food. Animals The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Strouhal (1989) p. 117 Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry such as ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. Manuelian (1998) p. 381 The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and they provided both honey and wax. Nicholson (2000) p. 409 The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, and the camel, although known from the New Kingdom, was not used as a beast of burden until the Late Period. Dogs, cats and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as lions, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Predynastic and Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice. Oakes (2003) p. 229 Natural resources Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Greaves (1929) p. 123 Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster. Lucas (1962) p. 413 Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose. Nicholson (2000) p. 28 The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Scheel (1989) p. 14 Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. Nicholson (2000) p. 166 High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi. Nicholson (2000) p. 51 Trade The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. Shaw (2002) p. 72 An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Naomi Porat and Edwin van den Brink (editor), "An Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic," in The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th to 3rd Millennium BC (1992), pp. 433-440. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt. Naomi Porat, "Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period," in Bulletin of the Egyptological, Seminar 8 (1986/1987), pp. 109-129. See also University College London web post, 2000. By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Shaw (2002) p. 322 Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil. Manuelian (1998) p. 145 In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects. Harris (1990) p. 13 Language Historical development The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages. Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137 It has the longest history of any language, having been written from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of Ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Loprieno (2004) p. 161 Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes. Loprieno (2004) p. 162 Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replace the older inflectional suffixes. There is a change from the older Verb Subject Object word order to Subject Verb Object. Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137-38 The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic. Vittman (1991) pp. 197–227 Sounds and grammar Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine. Loprieno (1995a) p. 46 The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton S--M is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is sm=f 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: Loprieno (1995a) p. 74 'the woman hears'. Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic. Loprieno (2004) p. 175 The word order is PREDICATE-SUBJECT in verbal and adjectival sentences, and SUBJECT-PREDICATE in nominal and adverbial sentences. Allen (2000) pp. 67, 70, 109 The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Loprieno (2005) p. 2147 Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC). Loprieno (2004) p. 173 Writing The Rosetta stone enabled linguists to begin the process of hieroglyph decipherment. Allen (2000) p. 13 Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone. Around the 1st century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs. Allen (2000) p. 7 Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the 4th century AD, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine Loprieno (2004) p. 166 and Islamic periods in Egypt, El-Daly (2005) p. 164 but only in 1822, after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered. Allen (2000) p. 8 The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus describes anatomy and medical treatments and is written in hieratic. Literature Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Strouhal (1989) p. 235 Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt (Instructions) was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example. The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Lichtheim (1975) p. 11 Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. Lichtheim (1975) p. 215 Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Graeco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II. Lichtheim (1980) p. 159 Culture Daily life Statues depicting lower-class Ancient Egyptian occupations. The ancient Egyptians maintained a rich cultural heritage complete with feasts and festivals accompanied by music and dance. Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling flour and a small oven for baking bread. Manuelian (1998) p. 401 Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture. Manuelian (1998) p. 403 The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness, and aromatic perfumes and ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Manuelian (1998) p. 405 Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's income. Manuelian (1998) pp. 406–7 The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill. Manuelian (1998) pp. 399–400 Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, and drums and imported lutes and lyres from Asia. The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. Manuelian (1998) p. 126 The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well. Karnak temple's hypostyle halls are constructed with rows of thick columns supporting the roof beams. Architecture The well preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is an exemplar of Egyptian architecture. The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision. Clarke (1990) pp. 94–7 The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Badawy (1968) p. 50 Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of bricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, Djoser's mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif. The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Graeco-Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs. Dodson (1991) p. 23 Art The Bust of Nefertiti, by the sculptor Thutmose, is one of the most famous masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art. The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. Robins (1997) p. 29 These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures which may also be read as hieroglyphs. Robins (1997) p. 21 Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity. Robins (2001) p. 12 Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed. Nicholson (2000) p. 105 Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. James (2005) p. 122 During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife. Robins (1998) p. 74 Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris. Shaw (2002) p. 216 The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. Robins (1998) p. 149 This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms. Robins (1998) p. 158 Religious beliefs The Book of the Dead was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife. Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting creation myths and stories into a coherent system. James (2005) p. 102 The Ka statue provided a physical place for the Ka to manifest. Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. James (2005) p. 117 After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people. Shaw (2002) p. 313 An oracle could be a statue of a god that could be asked a yes or no question, to which it would "respond" by hidden manipulations of a priest, who could also pose questions behind closed doors. Oracles became very popular for appealing legal verdicts or for justifying military actions and political decisions. The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life-force), and a name. Allen (2000) pp. 79, 94–5 The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an akh, or "effective one". In order for this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form. Wasserman, et al. (1994) pp. 150–3 Pharaohs' tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as this golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun. Burial customs The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring, along with the body, goods to be used by the deceased in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions continued to be a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for the burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and, as a result, they made use of artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars. Anubis was the ancient Egyptian god associated with mummification and burial rituals; here, he attends to a mummy. By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated. Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased. James (2005) p. 124 Military The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant. Shaw (2002) p. 245 Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. Manuelian (1998) pp. 366–7 The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army, and there is evidence that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so. Clayton (1994) p. 96 Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt. Shaw (2002) p. 400 Technology, medicine, and mathematics Technology In technology, medicine and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt, and the roots of the scientific method can also be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system. Glassmaking was a highly developed art. Faience and glass Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. Nicholson (2000) p. 177 The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment. Nicholson (2000) p. 109 The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. Nicholson (2000) p. 195 It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque. Nicholson (2000) p. 215 Medicine Ancient Egyptian medical instruments depicted in a Ptolemaic period inscription on the temple at Kom Ombo. The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The life-long labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare). Filer (1995) p. 94 The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Filer (1995) pp. 78–80 Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Filer (1995) p. 21 Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy. Figures are given for adult life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy at birth. Filer (1995) p. 25 Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, like Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths. Filer (1995) p. 39 Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. Strouhal (1989) p. 243 Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or "House of Life" institution, most notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments. Stroual (1989) pp. 244–46 Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, Stroual (1989) p. 250 while opium was used to relieve pain. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until he died. Filer (1995) p. 38 Shipbuilding Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats", in Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America. that the oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in Abydos, were constructed of wooden planks which were "sewn" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat", December 11, 2000. Archaeological Institute of America. woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-meter vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. Mathematics The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed number system. Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 13 The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor and grain. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 11 Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, circles and even spheres. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations. Clarke (1990) p. 222 Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Clarke (1990) p. 217 Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, ancient Egyptian fractions had to be written as the sum of several fractions. For example, the fraction two-fifths was resolved into the sum of one-third + one-fifteenth; this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Clarke (1990) p. 218 Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph; the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. Gardiner (1957) p. 197 Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. Strouhal (1989) p. 241 They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: Area ≈ [()D]2 = ()r2 ≈ 3.16r2, a reasonable approximation of the formula r2. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 31 The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony. Kemp (1989) p. 138 Legacy Dr. Zahi Hawass is the current secretary general of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. Siliotti (1998) p. 8 The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect structures in Egyptian style. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land which became viewed as a place of mystery. Siliotti (1998) p. 10 During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi. El-Daly (2005) p. 112 In the 17th and 18th centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities. Siliotti (1998) p. 13 Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country's historical legacy, some foreigners had more positive results. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's natural history, which was published in the Description de l'Ėgypte. Siliotti (1998) p. 100 In the 19th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt. Notes and references Notes References Further reading See also Ancient Egyptian race controversy External links Ancient Egypt – maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents BBC History: Egyptians – provides a reliable general overview and further links Texts from the Pyramid Age Door Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic Publishers Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989 Digital Egypt for Universities. Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and excellent cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics. Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy A site that shows the history of Egyptian metalworking Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt, Art History. be-x-old:Старажытны Эгіпет | Ancient_Egypt |@lemmatized pyramid:12 among:4 recognizable:1 symbol:7 civilization:11 ancient:81 egypt:85 map:2 show:11 major:3 city:9 site:3 dynastic:7 period:50 c:5 bc:44 eastern:7 north:2 africa:3 concentrate:2 along:11 low:6 reach:5 nile:22 river:6 modern:6 nation:5 begin:19 around:14 date:8 secure:6 see:3 egyptian:125 chronology:1 detail:2 political:9 unification:3 upper:10 first:21 pharaoh:52 develop:14 next:1 three:5 millennium:2 dodson:2 p:139 history:11 occur:1 series:7 stable:2 know:24 kingdom:47 separate:2 relative:2 instability:1 intermediate:11 end:12 last:10 new:33 enter:2 slow:2 steady:1 decline:7 conquer:3 succession:1 foreign:10 power:19 rule:13 officially:2 early:24 roman:17 empire:5 make:33 province:5 clayton:10 thrive:1 ability:2 adapt:2 condition:2 valley:8 control:30 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1,858 | Gloria_Gaynor | Gloria Gaynor (born Gloria Fowles, September 7, 1949, Newark, New Jersey, United States) is an American singer, best-known for the disco era hits; "I Will Survive" (Hot 100 #1, 1979), "Never Can Say Goodbye" (Hot 100 #4, 1974), "Let Me Know (I Have A Right)" (Hot 100 #42, 1980) and "I Am What I Am" (Hot 100 #82, 1983). Early career Gaynor was a singer with the Soul Satisfiers, a jazz/pop band, in the 1960s. Her first solo single was "She'll Be Sorry/Let Me Go Baby" (1965). Her first real success came in 1975 with the release of her album Never Can Say Goodbye, which established her as a disco artist. The first side of this album consisted of three disco songs ("Honey Bee", "Never Can Say Goodbye" and "Reach Out, I'll Be There"), with no breaks in between the songs. This 19-minute dance marathon proved to be enormously popular, especially at dance clubs. All three songs were released as singles via radio edits, and all of them became hits. This album was so instrumental in introducing disco music to the public, that many later believed that Gloria Gaynor had been the first artist to record disco music. "Never Can Say Goodbye" became the first song to top Billboard magazine's dance chart. So, in that sense, she was the first. Capitalizing on the success of her first album, Gloria Gaynor quickly released her second album Experience Gloria Gaynor later that same year. While this album was also successful, it was not quite as popular as her previous album in the mainstream. Some of her lesser-known singles, due to lack of recurrent airplay - including "Honey Bee" (1974), "Casanova Brown" (1975), and "Let's Make A Deal" (1976) - became hits in the clubs and reached the Top 5 on Billboards disco charts. After her 1976 album, I've Got You, Gaynor shifted from her hit production team, to work with other productions. While it seemed like a good move, her subsequent producers did not seem to match Gaynor's vocal approach and style as well. This caused the albums that followed such as 1977's Glorious and 1978's Park Avenue Sound to be regarded as merely good albums instead of excellent albums. Major mainstream breakthrough For the next few years, Gloria Gaynor would only enjoy a few moderate hits. However, in late 1978, with the release of her album Love Tracks, she climbed the pop charts again because of her song "I Will Survive". The lyrics of this song are written from the point of view of a woman, recently dumped, telling her former lover that she can cope without him and does not want anything more to do with him. The song has become something of an anthem of female emancipation, and is still a staple of office parties and karaoke nights. The song was awarded the only Grammy Award for Best Disco Recording''' in 1980. Interestingly, "I Will Survive" was originally the B-side when Polydor Records released it in late 1978. The A-side, a song called "Substitute", then a recent worldwide hit for South African girl-group Clout, was considered more "radio friendly." Boston Radio DJ Jack King turned the record over and recalls being stunned by what he heard. "I couldn't believe they were burying this monster hit on the B-side", says King. "I played it and played it and my listeners went nuts." This audience response forced the record company to flip the songs, so that subsequent copies of the single listed the more popular song on the A-side. King was honored at New York’s “Disco Masters Awards Show” for 3 consecutive years (1979-1981) in recognition of his relentless push of the song. In 1999, Pixar animator Victor Navoneused this song to create an alien music video which for a time was a minor Internet phenomenon. In late 1979, she released the album I Have A Right which contained her next disco hit, "Let Me Know (I Have The Right)", which featured Doc Severinsen of The Tonight Show fame, on trumpet solo. Gaynor also recorded a disco song called "Love Is Just A Heartbeat Away" in 1979 for the vampire movie "Nocturna" which featured a number of disco songs. Stateside career decline In 1980 and again in 1981, Gaynor released two disco albums which were virtually ignored in the US due to the backlash against disco, which began late in 1979. Surprisingly, the albums' singles barely registered on Urban contemporary radio, where disco music remained popular. In 1982, she became a Christian and began to distance herself from a past she considered to be sinful. She would not release an album in 1982. In 1983, she released an album entitled Gloria Gaynor, in which she rejected disco for mid-tempo R&B and Pop style songs. The album contained a patriotic song called "America" as well as a new version of "I Will Survive". In this new version of "I Will Survive", she changed the lyrics of the song in order to advertise her new conversion to Christianity. The words "It took all the strength I had not to fall apart" were changed to "Only the Lord could give me strength not to fall apart". The album was not a success in the Pop, Dance or Urban markets. This move proved to be a turn off to all other than her devoted fans. Gaynor would achieve her final success in the '80s with the release of her album I Am Gloria Gaynor in 1984. This was mainly due to the song "I Am What I Am", which became a hit at dance clubs, and then on the Club Play chart in late 1983/early 1984. "I Am What I Am" made Gaynor a gay icon. However, her career went into sharp decline following this hit. She mainly made her living outside of the US where there was never any disco backlash. Her 1986 album, The Power of Gloria Gaynor, which was almost entirely composed of cover versions of other songs that were popular at the time. The album was ignored, becoming commercial failure. Career revival Gloria began to revive her career worldwide with the aggressive revival of disco beginning in the early to mid 1990's. During the late 1990s, she dabbled in acting for a while, guest starring on The Wayans Bros, That '70s Show, and Ally McBeal before doing a limited engagement performance in Broadway's Smokey Joe's Cafe. She returned to the recording studio in 2002, releasing her first album in over 15 years, entitled, I Wish You Love. The two singles released from the album, "Just Keep Thinking About You" and "I Never Knew", both topped Billboard's Hot Dance Music/Club Play. Both singles also secured moderate to heavy Dance format radio airplay. The latter song also charted #30 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart. After almost 30 years of its release, Gaynor continues to ride the success of "I Will Survive", touring the country and the world over and performing her signature song on dozens of TV shows. A few successful remixes of the song during the 1990s and 2000s along with new versions of the song by Lonnie Gordon, Diana Ross, Chantay Savage, rock group Cake and others as well as constant recurrent airplay on nearly all Soft AC and Rhythmic format radio stations have helped to keep the song in the mainstream. On September 19, 2005, Gaynor was honored twice when she and her music were inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame. She was inducted in the Artist Inductees category along with fellow disco legends Chic and the late Sylvester. Her classic anthem, "I Will Survive" was inducted under the Records Inductees category. In 2004, Gaynor re-released her 1998 album What a Life under the name The Answer as a follow up to her successful hit album, I Wish You Love. The album includes her popular club hit, "Oh, What A Life." In January 2008, The American Diabetes Association named Gloria Gaynor the Honorary Spokesperson of the 2008 NYC Step Out To Fight Diabetes Walk. Stepout.diabetes.org Discography Albums 1975: Never Can Say Goodbye (MGM - US Pop #25, US R&B #21 1975: Experience Gloria Gaynor (MGM) - US Pop #64, US R&B #32 1976: I've Got You (Polydor) - US Pop #107, US R&B #40 1977: Glorious (Polydor) - US Pop #183 1978: Park Avenue Sound (Polydor) 1978: Love Tracks (Polydor) - US Pop #4, US R&B #4 1979: I Have a Right (Polydor) - US Pop #58, US R&B #56 1980: Stories - US Pop #178 1981: I Kinda Like Me (Polydor) 1983: Gloria Gaynor (Ecstacy) 1984: I Am Gloria Gaynor (Chrysalis) 1986: The Power of Gloria Gaynor (Stylus) 1990: Gloria Gaynor '901992: Love Affair1995: I'll Be There (Radikal) 1997: The Answer (Florical) 2002: I Wish You Love (Bell) 2005: Live! At John J. Burns Town Park (Instant Live) 2007: Christmas Presence (Glolo) Compilations 1977 - The Best of Gloria Gaynor1982 - Greatest Hits1995 - I'll Be There1994 - Reach Out1998 - I Will Survive: The Anthology1998 - The Gloria Gaynor Album2000 - 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection: The Best of Gloria Gaynor2001 - Ten Best: The Millennium Versions2002 - I Will Survive2006 - All The Hits Remixed Universal Masters Collection'' Singles 1974: "Honey Bee" - US R&B #55 1974: "Never Can Say Goodbye" - US Pop #9, US R&B #34, US Dance #1, UK #2 1975: "Reach Out I'll Be There" - US Pop #60, UK #14 1975: "Real Good People" - US Dance #6 1975: "Walk on By" - US Pop #98, US Dance # 8 1975: "All I Need Is Your Sweet Lovin'" - UK #44 1975: "Casanova Brown/(If You Want It) Do It Yourself/How High the Moon" - US Dance #1 1975: "(If You Want It) Do It Yourself" - US Pop #98, US R&B #24 1975: "How High the Moon" - US Pop #75, US R&B #73, UK #33 1976: "Let's Make a Deal" - US R&B #95 1978: "I Will Survive/Substitute/Anybody Want to Party?/I Said Yes" - US Dance #1 1978: "I Will Survive" - US Pop #1, US R&B #4, UK #1 1978: "Substitute" - US R&B #78 1979: "Anybody Want to Party?" - US R&B #16 1979: "Let Me Know (I Have a Right)" - US Pop #42, UK #32 1981: "Let's Mend What's Been Broken" - US R&B #76 1983: "I Am What I Am" - US R&B #82, UK #13 1984: "Strive" - UK #86 1985: "My Love Is Music" 1987: "Be Soft with Me Tonight" - UK #80 1993: "I Will Survive" (remix) Made popular by Hermes House Band - UK #5 1997: "Mighty High" (featuring The Trammps) - US Dance #12 2000: "Last Night" UK #67 2000: "Just Keep Thinking About You" - US Dance #1, UK #99 2002: "I Never Knew" - US Dance #1, US AC #30 2006: "The Power of a Woman In Love" - Released in Austria as a promotional single for the musical "Rebecca" 2008: "Hacer Por Hacer" (with Miguel Bosé) - Spain #17* #Tofu Rocks* See also List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart List of number-one dance hits (United States) List of number-one hits (United States) References External links Official website 2008 Interview with Brett Cohen on World Talk LIVE! Gloria Gaynor interview Interview with Gloria Gaynor "Beyond Surviving", another interview | Gloria_Gaynor |@lemmatized gloria:21 gaynor:27 born:1 fowles:1 september:2 newark:1 new:6 jersey:1 united:3 state:3 american:2 singer:2 best:5 know:6 disco:18 era:1 hit:15 survive:12 hot:6 never:9 say:8 goodbye:6 let:7 right:5 early:3 career:5 soul:1 satisfier:1 jazz:1 pop:18 band:2 first:8 solo:2 single:9 sorry:1 go:3 baby:1 real:2 success:5 come:1 release:15 album:28 establish:1 artist:5 side:5 consist:1 three:2 song:25 honey:3 bee:3 reach:6 break:2 minute:1 dance:18 marathon:1 prove:2 enormously:1 popular:7 especially:1 club:6 via:1 radio:6 edits:1 become:7 instrumental:1 introduce:1 music:8 public:1 many:1 later:2 believe:2 record:7 top:3 billboard:4 magazine:1 chart:7 sense:1 capitalize:1 quickly:1 second:1 experience:2 year:5 also:5 successful:3 quite:1 previous:1 mainstream:3 less:1 known:1 due:3 lack:1 recurrent:2 airplay:3 include:2 casanova:2 brown:2 make:5 deal:2 get:2 shift:1 production:2 team:1 work:1 seem:2 like:2 good:3 move:2 subsequent:2 producer:1 match:1 vocal:1 approach:1 style:2 well:3 cause:1 follow:3 glorious:2 park:3 avenue:2 sound:2 regard:1 merely:1 instead:1 excellent:1 major:1 breakthrough:1 next:2 would:3 enjoy:1 moderate:2 however:2 late:7 love:9 track:2 climb:1 lyric:2 write:1 point:1 view:1 woman:2 recently:1 dump:1 tell:1 former:1 lover:1 cope:1 without:1 want:5 anything:1 something:1 anthem:2 female:1 emancipation:1 still:1 staple:1 office:1 party:3 karaoke:1 night:2 award:3 grammy:1 interestingly:1 originally:1 b:18 polydor:7 call:3 substitute:3 recent:1 worldwide:2 south:1 african:1 girl:1 group:2 clout:1 consider:2 friendly:1 boston:1 dj:1 jack:1 king:3 turn:2 recall:1 stun:1 hear:1 bury:1 monster:1 play:4 listener:1 nuts:1 audience:1 response:1 force:1 company:1 flip:1 copy:1 list:5 honor:2 york:1 master:3 show:4 consecutive:1 recognition:1 relentless:1 push:1 pixar:1 animator:1 victor:1 navoneused:1 create:1 alien:1 video:1 time:2 minor:1 internet:1 phenomenon:1 contain:2 feature:3 doc:1 severinsen:1 tonight:2 fame:2 trumpet:1 heartbeat:1 away:1 vampire:1 movie:1 nocturna:1 number:5 stateside:1 decline:2 two:2 virtually:1 ignore:2 u:42 backlash:2 begin:3 surprisingly:1 barely:1 register:1 urban:2 contemporary:2 remain:1 christian:1 distance:1 past:1 sinful:1 entitle:2 reject:1 mid:2 tempo:1 r:16 patriotic:1 america:1 version:4 change:2 order:1 advertise:1 conversion:1 christianity:1 word:1 take:1 strength:2 fall:2 apart:2 lord:1 could:1 give:1 market:1 devoted:1 fan:1 achieve:1 final:1 mainly:2 gay:1 icon:1 sharp:1 live:4 outside:1 power:3 almost:2 entirely:1 compose:1 cover:1 commercial:1 failure:1 revival:2 revive:1 aggressive:1 beginning:1 dabble:1 act:1 guest:1 star:1 wayans:1 bros:1 ally:1 mcbeal:1 limited:1 engagement:1 performance:1 broadway:1 smokey:1 joe:1 cafe:1 return:1 recording:1 studio:1 wish:3 keep:3 think:2 secure:1 heavy:1 format:2 latter:1 adult:1 continue:1 ride:1 tour:1 country:1 world:2 perform:1 signature:1 dozen:1 tv:1 remixes:1 along:2 lonnie:1 gordon:1 diana:1 ross:1 chantay:1 savage:1 rock:2 cake:1 others:1 constant:1 nearly:1 soft:2 ac:2 rhythmic:1 station:1 help:1 twice:1 induct:3 hall:1 inductees:2 category:2 fellow:1 legends:1 chic:1 sylvester:1 classic:1 life:2 name:2 answer:2 oh:1 january:1 diabetes:3 association:1 honorary:1 spokesperson:1 nyc:1 step:1 fight:1 walk:2 stepout:1 org:1 discography:1 mgm:2 story:1 kinda:1 ecstacy:1 chrysalis:1 stylus:1 radikal:1 florical:1 bell:1 john:1 j:1 burn:1 town:1 instant:1 christmas:1 presence:1 glolo:1 compilation:1 great:1 century:1 millennium:2 collection:2 ten:1 remixed:1 universal:1 uk:12 people:1 need:1 sweet:1 lovin:1 high:3 moon:2 anybody:2 yes:1 mend:1 strive:1 remix:1 hermes:1 house:1 mighty:1 trammps:1 last:1 austria:1 promotional:1 musical:1 rebecca:1 hacer:2 por:1 miguel:1 bosé:1 spain:1 tofu:1 see:1 one:4 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 interview:4 brett:1 cohen:1 talk:1 beyond:1 another:1 |@bigram gloria_gaynor:17 honey_bee:3 grammy_award:1 devoted_fan:1 ally_mcbeal:1 billboard_hot:1 radio_airplay:1 diana_ross:1 hall_fame:1 external_link:1 |
1,859 | Eskimo | Eskimos or Esquimaux are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia (Russia), across Alaska (United States) and Canada, and all of Greenland (Denmark). Derivation There are two main groups referred to as Eskimo: Yupik and Inuit. A third group, the Aleut, is related. The Yupik language dialects and cultures in Alaska and eastern Siberia have evolved in place beginning with the original (pre-Dorset) Eskimo culture that developed in Alaska. Approximately 4,000 years ago the Unangam (also known as Aleut) culture became distinctly separate, and evolved into a non-Eskimo culture. Approximately 1,500-2,000 years ago, apparently in Northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. The Inuit language branch became distinct and in only several hundred years spread across northern Alaska, Canada and into Greenland. At about the same time, the Thule Technology also developed in northwestern Alaska and very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo people, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them. The earliest known Eskimo cultures were Pre-Dorset Technology, which appear to have been a fully developed Eskimo culture that dates to 5,000 years ago. They appear to have evolved in Alaska from people using the Archaic Small Tools Technology, who probably had migrated to Alaska from Siberia at least 2 to 3 thousand years earlier; though they might have been in Alaska as far back as 10 to 12 thousand years or more. There are similar artifacts found in Siberia going back to perhaps 18,000 years ago. It is believed that the Mongols, Eskimos, and probably the Korean people too all share a common ancestor in northern Asia. Today the two main groups of Eskimos are the Inuit of northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland, and the Yupik, comprising speakers of four distinct Yupik languages and originating in western Alaska, in South Central Alaska along the Gulf of Alaska coast, and in the Russian Far East. Languages The Eskimo-Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches: the Aleut (Unangam) branch and the Eskimo branch. The Eskimo sub-family consists of the Inuit language and Yupik language sub-groups. The Sirenikski language, which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch. Kaplan, Lawrence. (2001-12-10). "Comparative Yupik and Inuit". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects can easily understand one another, but speakers of dialects at the extreme distant ends of the range have significant difficulty. Seward Peninsula dialects in Western Alaska, where much of the Inupiat culture has only been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages. Eastern Greenlandic, at the opposite end of the Inuit range has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance. The four Yupik languages have existed in place, which probably includes the locations where Eskimo culture and language began, for much longer than the Inuit language. Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik, are distinct languages with limited mutual intelligibility. Even the dialectic differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically. While grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages. Nomenclature In Canada and Greenland usage note, Inuit, American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 Historical Dictionary of the Inuit By Pamela R. Stern Ostgroenland-Hilfe Project the term Eskimo is widely held to be pejorative and has fallen out of favor, largely supplanted by the term Inuit. However, while Inuit describes all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska the term Eskimo is commonly used, because it includes both Yupik and Inupiat, while Inuit is not accepted as a collective term or even specifically used for Inupiat (which technically is Inuit). No universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples. The primary reason that Eskimo is considered derogatory is the arguable "Eskimo" by Mark Israel Cree Mailing List Digest November 1997 perception that it means "eaters of raw meat". Setting the Record Straight About Native Languages: What Does "Eskimo" Mean In Cree? Eskimo, American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 There are two different etymologies in scientific literature for the term Eskimo. The most well-known comes from Ives Goddard at the Smithsonian Institution , who says it means "Snowshoe netters". Quebec linguist Jose Mailhot, who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais) (which Mailhot and Goddard agree is the language from which the word originated), published a definitive study in 1978 stating that it means "people who speak a different language". Since the 1970s in Canada and Greenland Eskimo has widely been considered offensive, owing to folklore and derogatory usage. In 1977 The Inuit Circumpolar Conference meeting in Barrow, Alaska, officially adopted Inuit as a designation for all circompolar native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. As a result the Canadian government usage has replaced the (locally) defunct term Eskimo with Inuit. The preferred term in Canada's Central Arctic is Inuinnaq, and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit. The language is often called Inuktitut, though other local designations are also used. The Inuit of Greenland refer to themselves as Greenlanders or, in their own language, Kalaallit, and to their language as Greenlandic or Kalaallisut. Kaplan, Lawrence. (2002). "Inuit or Eskimo: Which names to use?". Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Because of the linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences between Yupik and Inuit peoples there is uncertainty as to the acceptance of any term encompassing all Yupik and Inuit people. There has been some movement to use Inuit, and the Inuit Circumpolar Council, representing a circumpolar population of 150,000 Inuit and Yupik people of Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, in its charter defines Inuit for use within the ICC as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)." Inuit Circumpolar Council. (2006). "Charter." Retrieved on 2007-04-06. However, even the Inuit people in Alaska refer themselves as Inupiat (the language is Inupiaq) and do not typically use the term Inuit. Thus, in Alaska, Eskimo is in common usage, and is the preferred term when speaking collectively of all Inupiat and Yupik people, or of all Inuit and Yupik people of the world. Alaskans also use the term Alaska Native, which is inclusive of all Eskimo, Aleut and Indian people of Alaska, and is exclusive of Inuit or Yupik people originating outside the state. The term Alaska Native has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971. The term "Eskimo" is also used world wide in linguistic or ethnographic works to denote the larger branch of Eskimo-Aleut languages, the smaller branch being Aleut. Inuit An Inuit family, c.1917 The Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska and Arctic coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, Labrador, and Greenland. Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, sea mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing and tools. They maintain a unique Inuit culture. Alaska's Inupiat The Inupiat people are the Inuit people of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Slope boroughs and the Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Barrow, the northernmost city in the United States, is in the Inupiaq region. Their language is known as Inupiaq. Canada's Inuit Canadian Inuit live primarily in Nunavut (a territory of Canada), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec) and in Nunatsiavut (the Inuit settlement region in Labrador). Inuvialuit The Inuvialuit live in the western Canadian Arctic region. Their homeland - the Inuvialuit Settlement Region - covers the Arctic Ocean coastline area from the Alaskan border east to Amundsen Gulf and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands. The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement. Kalaallit The Kalaallit live in Greenland, which is called Kalaallit Nunaat in Kalaallisut. Yupik The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and along the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik), in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq) and along the eastern coast of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik). The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of marine mammals, especially seals, walrus, and whales. Yupik. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 13, 2008, from: Encyclopædia Britannica Online Alutiiq The Alutiiq also called Pacific Yupik or Sugpiaq, are a southern, coastal branch of Yupik. They are not to be confused with the Aleuts, who live further to the southwest, including along the Aleutian Islands. They traditionally lived a coastal lifestyle, subsisting primarily on ocean resources such as salmon, halibut, and whales, as well as rich land resources such as berries and land mammals. Alutiiq people today live in coastal fishing communities, where they work in all aspects of the modern economy, while also maintaining the cultural value of subsistence. The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area, but is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, is spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound. Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq and are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the mere hundreds, Alutiiq communities are currently in the process of revitalizing their language. Central Alaskan Yup'ik Yup'ik, with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language, who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to the north side of Bristol Bay, on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and on Nelson Island. The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik denotes a longer pronunciation of the p sound than found in Siberian Yupik. Of all the Alaska Native languages, Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language. There are five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, including General Central Yup'ik and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, Nunivak, dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik. Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). "Central Alaskan Yup'ik." Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Siberian Yupik Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far East and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska. Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). "Siberian Yupik." Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska still speak the language, and it is still the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children. Naukan About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak the Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in Siberia. Sireniki Eskimos Some speakers of Siberian Yupik languages used to speak an Eskimo variant in the past, before they underwent a language shift. These former speakers of Sireniki Eskimo language inhabited settlements Sireniki, Imtuk, and some small villages stretching to the west from Sireniki along south-eastern coasts of Chukchi Peninsula, Vakhtin 1998: 162 they lived in neighborhood with Siberian Yupik and Chukchi peoples. As early as in 1895, Imtuk was already a settlement with mixed population, Sireniki Eskimos and Ungazigmit Меновщиков 1964: 7 (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik). Sireniki Eskimo culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi (witnessed also by folktale motifs Меновщиков 1964: 132 ), also the language shows Chukchi language influences. Menovshchikov 1990: 70 The above mentioned peculiarities of this (already extinct) Eskimo language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives: Меновщиков 1964: 6–7 in the past, Sireniki Eskimos even had to use the unrelated Chukchi language as a lingua franca for communicating with Siberian Yupik. Many words are formed from entirely different roots than in Siberian Yupik, Меновщиков 1964: 42 but even the grammar has several peculiarities not only among Eskimo languages, but even compared to Aleut. For example, dual number is not known in Sireniki Eskimo, while most Eskimo-Aleut languages have dual, Меновщиков 1964: 38 including its neighboring Siberian Yupik relatives. Меновщиков 1964: 81 Little is known about the origin of this diversity. According to a supposition, the peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Eskimo groups, Меновщиков 1962: 11 Меновщиков 1964: 9 being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. Influence by Chukchi language is clear. Because of all these, the mere classification of Sireniki Eskimo language is not settled yet: Vakhtin 1998: 161 Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Eskimo (at least, its possibility is mentioned), Vakhtin 1998: 161 Linguist List's description about Nikolai Vakhtin's book: The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes. The author's untransliterated (original) name is “Н.Б. Вахтин”. but sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch. Ethnologue Report for Eskimo-Aleut Kaplan 1990: 136 Dialects Inuit languages comprise a dialect continuum, or dialect chain, that stretches from Unalaska and Norton Sound in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Changes from western (Inupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., kumlu, meaning "thumb," changes to kuvlu, changes to kublu, changes to kulluk, changes to kulluq ), and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another. The four Yupik languages, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences, and demonstrating limited mutual intelligibility. Additionally, both Alutiiq Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages — Siberian Yupik and Naukanski Yupik — are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically, and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages. The Sirenikski language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch. An overview of the Eskimo-Aleut languages family is given below: Aleut Aleut language Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60-80 speakers) Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers) Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit) Yupik Central Alaskan Yup'ik (10,000 speakers) Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers) Central Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1400 speakers) Naukan (70 speakers) Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers) Iñupiaq (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers) Inuvialuktun (western Canada; together with Siglitun, Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun and Uummarmiutun 765 speakers) Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers) Kalaallisut (Greenland, 47,000 speakers) Sireniki Eskimo language (Sirenikskiy) (extinct) See also Athabaskan languages Saqqaq culture Eskimo kinship Shamanism among Eskimo peoples Inuit mythology Eskimo words for snow Paleo-Eskimo Canadian Eskimo Dog Notes References Cyrillic The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English: Further reading Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western arctic community. Conservation Ecology 5(2) Canadian Council on Learning, State of Inuit Learning in Canada Contemporary Food Sharing: A Case Study from Akulivik, PQ. Canada. Internet Sacred Text Archive: Inuit Religion Inuit Culture Inuit Exposure to Organochlorines through the Aquatic Food Chain. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(7) Inuit Women and Graphic Arts: Female Creativity and Its Cultural Context. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9(2) Pauktuuit Inuit Women of Canada, The Inuit Way: A Guide to Inuit Culture We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States. Census 2000 Special Reports February 2006 External links Alaska Native Knowledge Network Alaskool American Indians: First People of America and Canada - Turtle Island Anchorage Museum Association, Eskimo History and Culture Arctic Circle Arctic Cultures Arctic Journal, Arctic Institute of North America Arctic Studies Center The Asiatic (Siberian) Eskimos The British Museum, Lance with a blade made from meteoric iron Canadian Museum of Civilization, Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage Elliot Avedon Museum and Archive of Games, Inuit (Eskimo) Games Eskimo Music Historica Foundation of Canada, The Canadian Encyclopedia Inuit Culture in Transition: From the Arctic to Timbuktu. The Iowa Source March 2008 Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami: 5000 years of Inuit History and Heritage Quebec History Encyclopedia National Film Board of Canada, Aboriginal Perspectives Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Nunavut '99: Changing the Map of Canada Nunavut Bilingual Education Society (NBES), Inuit Myths and Legends Project naming: Always on our minds | Eskimo |@lemmatized eskimo:54 esquimaux:1 indigenous:2 people:29 traditionally:4 inhabit:4 circumpolar:5 region:6 eastern:9 siberia:9 russia:2 across:5 alaska:57 united:4 state:7 canada:22 greenland:14 denmark:1 derivation:1 two:11 main:2 group:8 refer:3 yupik:60 inuit:66 third:4 aleut:14 relate:1 language:69 dialect:22 culture:17 evolve:3 place:3 begin:2 original:2 pre:2 dorset:2 develop:3 approximately:3 year:9 ago:4 unangam:2 also:10 know:6 become:2 distinctly:1 separate:1 non:1 apparently:1 northwestern:2 distinct:6 variation:1 appear:3 branch:13 several:2 hundred:2 spread:2 northern:8 time:2 thule:1 technology:3 quickly:1 entire:1 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1,860 | Ani_DiFranco | Ani DiFranco () (born Angela Maria DiFranco on September 23, 1970) is a Grammy Award-winning http://www.righteousbabe.com/ani/evolve/grammy.asp Evolve Wins the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Recording Package singer, guitarist, and songwriter. She is a prolific artist, having released over twenty albums and is widely celebrated as a feminist icon. Biography DiFranco was born in Buffalo, New York, to mother Elizabeth and father Dante, both graduates of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Ani DiFranco Ani DiFranco Biography - Discography, Music, Lyrics, Album, CD, Career, Famous Works, and Awards She started playing Beatles covers at local bars and busking with her guitar teacher, Michael Meldrum, Notes on the album Open Ended Question at the age of nine. In 1989, DiFranco started her own record company, Righteous Records (renamed Righteous Babe Records in 1994). Prior to the renaming of Righteous Records to Righteous Babe Records, DiFranco worked with manager Dale Anderson, a writer for the Buffalo News, who later started another record label called Hot Wings Records when the two parted ways. Hot Wings released the work of Buffalo area female musical performers with styles similar to that of DiFranco. Early releases of her CDs produced prior to 1994 are labeled with the original Righteous Records label. Her self-titled debut album was issued on the label in the winter of 1990. Later, she relocated to New York City, where she took poetry classes at The New School and toured vigorously. DiFranco identifies herself as bisexual, Ani DiFranco, Folksinger and Entrepreneur by Kris Scott Marti, November 28, 2004 by Achy Obejas, The Advocate, December 9, 1997 and has written songs about love and sex with both genders. She addressed the controversy about her sexuality with the song "In or Out". In 1998, she married sound engineer Andrew Gilchrist in a Unitarian Universalist service in Canada, overseen by U.U. minister Utah Phillips. Numerous media sources reported that her fans felt betrayed by her union with a man. Biography of Ani DiFranco on gotpoetry.com DiFranco and Gilchrist divorced five years later. In 1998, DiFranco's drummer, Andy Stochansky, left the band to pursue a solo career as a singer-songwriter. Their rapport during live shows is showcased on the 1997 album Living In Clip. DiFranco's father died early in the summer of 2004. "Still Fighting" Review in Paste. September 2006. In July 2005, DiFranco developed tendinitis and took a hiatus from touring. DiFranco had toured almost continuously in the preceding fifteen years, only taking brief breaks to record studio albums. Her 2005 tour concluded with an appearance at the FloydFest World Music and Genre Crossover festival in Floyd, Virginia. DiFranco returned to touring in late April 2006, including a performance at the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival on April 28 and a performance at the renowned Calgary Folk Music Festival on July 30, 2006. DiFranco gave birth to a daughter, Petah Lucia DiFranco Napolitano, "Introducing Petah Lucia DiFranco Napolitano" Celebrity Baby Blog. July 3, 2007. at her Buffalo home on January 20, 2007. The child's father is DiFranco's new husband, Mike Napolitano, Dowd, Kathy Ehrich. "Singer Ani DiFranco Welcomes a Daughter." People. January 23, 2007. the co-producer of DiFranco's 2006 release Reprieve. Essentially a full-time resident of New Orleans, DiFranco is heavily influenced by the city's post-Katrina plight. Huff, Quentin B. Ani DiFranco: Red Letter Year. Accessed 18 December 2008. Farley, Christopher, John. A life in Song. Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2008. Accessed 18 December 2008. She has continued touring into 2008 with a backing band consisting of Todd Sickafoose on upright bass, Allison Miller on drums, and Mike Dillon on percussion and vibes. DiFranco returned to the Calgary Folk Music Festival in July 2008. Napolitano and DiFranco wed in January 2009 in Hawaii. Ani DiFranco, RZA, and Steve Albini at The New Yorker festival in September 2005. Recognition On July 21, 2006, DiFranco received the "Woman of Courage Award" Rolling Stone news at the National Organization for Women (NOW) Conference and Young Feminist Summit in Albany, New York. Past winners have included singer and actress Barbra Streisand and Sen. Barbara Boxer, D-Calif. DiFranco is one of the first musicians to receive the award, given each year to a woman who has set herself apart by her contributions to the feminist movement. DiFranco has been toasted by the Buffalo News as the "Buffalo's leading lady of rock music." The News further said: "Through the Righteous Babe Foundation, DiFranco has backed various grassroots cultural and political organizations, supporting causes ranging from abortion rights to gay visibility." Since 2003, DiFranco has been nominated four consecutive times for Best Recording Package at the Grammy Awards, one of which she won, in 2004, for Evolve. Musical style and the "folk" label DiFranco's guitar playing is often characterized by a signature staccato style, Facts about Ani Ani DiFranco, Living in Clip by Jon Steltenpohl rapid fingerpicking and many alternate tunings. She delivers many of her lines in a speaking style notable for its rhythmic variation. Her lyrics, which often include alliteration, metaphor, word play and a more or less gentle irony, have also received praise for their sophistication. Although DiFranco's music has been classified as both folk rock and alternative rock, she has reached across genres since her earliest albums. DiFranco has collaborated with a wide range of artists including pop musician Prince, folk musician and social activist Utah Phillips (on The Past Didn't Go Anywhere in 1996 and Fellow Workers in 1999), funk and soul jazz musician Maceo Parker and rapper Corey Parker. She has used a variety of instruments and styles: brass instrumentation was prevalent in 1998's Little Plastic Castle, a simple walking bass in her 1997 cover of Hal David and Burt Bacharach's "Wishin' and Hopin'", strings on the 1997 live album Living in Clip and 2004's Knuckle Down, and electronics and synthesisers in 1999's To the Teeth and in 2006's Reprieve. DiFranco herself noted that "folk music is not an acoustic guitar — that's not where the heart of it is. I use the word 'folk' in reference to punk music and rap music. It's an attitude, it's an awareness of one's heritage, and it's a community. It's subcorporate music that gives voice to different communities and their struggle against authority." Rock Troubadours by Jeffrey Pepper Rodgers Lyrics, politics and religion Although much of DiFranco's material is autobiographical, it is often also strongly political. Many of her songs are concerned with contemporary social issues such as racism, sexism, sexual abuse, homophobia, reproductive rights, poverty, and . The combination of personal and political is partially responsible for DiFranco's early popularity among politically active college students, some of whom set up fan pages on the web to document DiFranco's career as early as 1994. DiFranco's rapid rise in popularity in the mid-1990s was fuelled mostly by personal contact and word of mouth rather than mainstream media. DiFranco has expressed political views outside of her music. During the 2000 U.S. presidential election, she actively supported and voted for Green Party candidate Ralph Nader. HackWriters.com article: "Ani DiFranco interview". Rolling Stone magazine article: "Eddie Vedder, Patti Smith Go Green at NYC Nader Rally - Nader rally draws Vedder, DiFranco to Madison Square Garden" Salon.com article: "The Nader Letters". She supported Dennis Kucinich in the 2004 and 2008 Democratic primaries. Kucinich appeared with her at a number of concerts across the country during both primary seasons. DiFranco went on to perform at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. On the subject of religion, DiFranco has stated: "Well, I'm not a religious person myself. I'm an atheist. I think religion serves a lot of different purposes in people's lives, and I can recognize the value of that, you know, the value of ceremony, the value of community, or even just having a forum to get together and talk about ideas, about morals — that's a cool concept. But then, of course, institutional religions are so problematic." Label independence Ownership of Righteous Babe Records allows DiFranco a great deal of artistic freedom. For example, on her 2004 album Educated Guess, DiFranco played all of the instruments, provided all of the vocals, and recorded the album by herself at her home on an analog 8-track reel to reel. She was also involved in much of the artwork and design for the packaging. The only other person involved in the record's musical production was Greg Calbi, who mastered it. Educated guess article References to her independence from major labels appear occasionally in DiFranco's songs, including "The Million You Never Made" (Not A Pretty Girl), which discusses the act of turning down a lucrative contract, "The Next Big Thing" (Not So Soft), which describes an imagined meeting with a label head-hunter who evaluates the singer based on her looks, and "Napoleon" (Dilate), which sympathizes sarcastically with an unnamed friend who did sign with a label. DiFranco has occasionally joined with Prince in discussing publicly the problems associated with major record companies. Righteous Babe Records employs a number of people in her hometown of Buffalo. In a 1997 open letter to Ms. magazine Interview with Ms. Magazine she expressed displeasure that what she considers a way to ensure her own artistic freedom was seen by others solely in terms of its financial success. Recent work DiFranco contributed vocals and vibes to "Girl on a Road" on Ferron's CD Boulder 2008. On September 11, 2007, she released the first retrospective of her career, titled Canon and for the first time, a collection of poetry in a book titled Verses. DiFranco's album Reprieve was released on August 8, 2006. It was previously leaked on iTunes for several hours around July 1, 2006, due to an error saying it was released in 2002. I-tunes Mislabeled Release Date as 2002 DiFranco performed with Cyndi Lauper on "Sisters of Avalon", a track from Lauper's 2005 collection The Body Acoustic. She also collaborated with fellow folk singer Dar Williams on "Comfortably Numb", a Pink Floyd cover song from Williams' 2005 album, My Better Self. In 2002 her rendition of Greg Brown's "The Poet Game" appeared on Going Driftless: An Artists' Tribute to Greg Brown. In April 2008, DiFranco commented on the status of her new album, Red Letter Year stating: I’m really excited. I have a new band I’m working with, and they’re all over it. Actually, there are a lot of people. I have more guests and friends and other artists involved this time around than I have in a long time. It’s fuckin’ sprawling, this record. I’ve been working on it for a while now, taking a little bit more time because I’m on baby time now. My pace is a little bit slower, which I think is great in terms of making records. I think it will benefit the end result. The Santa Barbara Independent Ani DiFranco Talks Past, Present, and Future Projects Discography Studio albums 1990 - Ani DiFranco 1991 - Not So Soft 1992 - Imperfectly 1993 - Puddle Dive 1994 - Like I Said: Songs 1990-91 MMguide.musicmatch.com Retrieved on 06-06-07 1994 - Out of Range 1995 - Not a Pretty Girl 1996 - Dilate 1998 - Little Plastic Castle 1999 - Up Up Up Up Up Up 1999 - To the Teeth 2001 - Revelling/Reckoning 2003 - Evolve 2004 - Educated Guess 2005 - Knuckle Down 2006 - Reprieve 2007 - Canon (compilation) 2008 - Red Letter Year Live albums 1994 - An Acoustic Evening With 1994 - Women in (E)motion (German Import) 1997 - Living in Clip 2002 - So Much Shouting, So Much Laughter 2004 - Atlanta - 10.9.03 (Official Bootleg series) 2004 - Sacramento - 10.25.03 (Official Bootleg series) 2004 - Portland - 4.7.04 (Official Bootleg series) 2005 - Boston - 11.16.03 (Official Bootleg series) 2005 - Chicago - 1.17.04 (Official Bootleg series) 2005 - Madison - 1.25.04 (Official Bootleg series) 2005 - Rome - 11.15.04 (Official Bootleg series) 2006 - Carnegie Hall - 4.6.02 (Official Bootleg series - available in stores) 2007 - Boston - 11.10.06 (Official Bootleg series) 2008 - Hamburg - 10.18.07 (Official Bootleg series) 2009 - Saratoga, CA - 9.18.06 (Official Bootleg series) EPs 1996 - More Joy, Less Shame 1999 - Little Plastic Remixes (limited distribution) 2000 - Swing Set Demos 1989 - Demo tape (unreleased) Videos 2002 - Render: Spanning Time with Ani DiFranco 2004 - Trust 2008 - Live at Babeville Poetry 2004 - "Self-evident: poesie e disegni" 2007 - Verses Other contributions 2004 – WFUV: City Folk Live VII – "Bliss Like This" See also Righteous Babe Records :Category:Righteous Babe artists References External links The Stolen Ani DeFranco Anti Nuclear Indian Point Concert The Righteous Babe homepage A streaming Ani radio station Ani at FloydFest 2005 Ani DiFranco on NPR's All Songs Considered Ani DiFranco on NPR's World Cafe BBC review of Evolve Review of Knuckle Down Ani DiFranco at Rolling Stone Ani DiFranco on Whole Wheat Radio | Ani_DiFranco |@lemmatized ani:22 difranco:62 bear:2 angela:1 maria:1 september:4 grammy:4 award:6 win:3 http:1 www:1 righteousbabe:1 com:5 evolve:5 asp:1 best:2 record:18 package:2 singer:6 guitarist:1 songwriter:2 prolific:1 artist:5 release:8 twenty:1 album:15 widely:1 celebrate:1 feminist:3 icon:1 biography:3 buffalo:7 new:10 york:3 mother:1 elizabeth:1 father:3 dante:1 graduate:1 massachusetts:1 institute:1 technology:1 discography:2 music:11 lyric:3 cd:3 career:4 famous:1 work:6 start:3 play:3 beatles:1 cover:3 local:1 bar:1 busk:1 guitar:3 teacher:1 michael:1 meldrum:1 note:2 open:2 end:2 question:1 age:1 nine:1 company:2 righteous:11 rename:1 babe:8 prior:2 renaming:1 manager:1 dale:1 anderson:1 writer:1 news:4 later:3 another:1 label:9 call:1 hot:2 wing:2 two:1 part:1 way:2 area:1 female:1 musical:3 performer:1 style:5 similar:1 early:5 produce:1 original:1 self:3 title:3 debut:1 issue:2 winter:1 relocate:1 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1,861 | Angles | The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117-38), showing the location of the Anglii then inhabiting the neck of the Jutland peninsula (Denmark) The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles were one of the main groups that settled in Britain in the post-Roman period, founding several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the word England. Etymology The ethnic name "Angle" has had various forms and spellings, the earliest attested being Anglii, the Latinized name of a Germanic tribe mentioned in the Germania of Tacitus. It is adjectival in form. An individual of this tribe would have been called "Anglius" if male and "Anglia" if female, (the plural forms being "Anglii" and "Angliae", respectively). The masculine is used for the generic form. The original noun from which this adjective was produced has not been determined with confidence. The stem is theorized to have had the form *Ang?l/r-. The more prominent etymological theories concerning the name's origin have included: Derivation from the Latin word angulus, translating as "Angle" The Old English word for the Baltic district of Angeln (where the Angles are believed to have emigrated from) is Angel. This is the preferred etymological theory amongst historians, and may connect to Angle, (the peninsula is marked for its "angular" shape). It may mean "the people who dwell by the Narrow Water," (i.e. the Schlei), from the Proto-Indo-European language root ang- meaning "narrow". Derivation from the Germanic god Ingwaz or the Ingvaeones federation of which the Angles were part, (the initial vowel could as well be "a" or "e"). "The English (from Old English: Englisc) are a nation and ethnic group native to England who speak English. The English identity as a people is of early medieval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. The largest single English population reside in England, a constituent country of the United Kingdom. They are often believed to be a mixture of several closely related groups that have settled in what became England, such as the Angles, Saxons, Norse Vikings, Britons and Normans." Pope Gregory the Great is the first known to have simplified Anglii to Angli, which he did in an epistle, the latter form developing into the preferred form of the word in Britain and throughout the continent, (the generic form becoming Anglus in answer). The country remained Anglia in Latin. Meanwhile, there are several likenesses of form and meaning attested in Old English literature: King Alfred's (Alfred the Great) translation of Orosius uses Angelcynn (-kin) to describe England and the English people; Bede, Angelfolc (-folk); there are also such forms as Engel, Englan (the people), Englaland and Englisc, all showing signs of vocalic mutation and later developing into the dominant forms. Angle is used as the root of the French and Anglo-Norman words Angleterre (Angleland, i.e. England) and anglais (English). Early history Angles under other names Two important geographers, Strabo and Pliny, are silent concerning the Angles. Their reasons for this exclusion was their consideration of the south shore of the Baltic to be terra incognita, "unknown land." They both go on to describe that shore, however. Since the Angles took a geographic name, they likely had other names not based on geography. Strabo's mention of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest places his knowledge in the final years of Augustus' reign and after, which is the early first century. Strabo (7.2.1, 4 and 7.3.1) states that the Cimbri still live on the peninsula (Jutland) where they always did, even though some of them liked to wander. Beyond the Elbe the coastal people are unknown, but south of them are the Suebi from the Elbe to the Getae (Goths). Strabo worked eastward from the Rhine. Pliny on the other hand worked from east to west (4.13.94). His description leaves the Black Sea, crosses the Ripaei mountains to the shore of the northern ocean, and follows it westward to Cadiz. In the first direction is Scythia, where the Sarmati, Venedi, Sciri and Hirri are located, as far as the Vistula. Then the Inguaeones begin. Baunonia (Bornholm) is an island opposite Scythia. Cylipenus, probably the Bay of Kiel, is described, and from there a gulf called Lagnus, which is on the frontier of the Cimbri. Its location is not known, but it was likely in the Angeln region. In Pliny, the Inguaeones consisted of the Cimbri and the Teutones (the Chauci as well, but they were not in this region). If Lagnus was situated on the Cimbrian frontier and after Kiel, then Angeln must have been in the territory of the Teutones. They were perhaps not named Angles at that time; however, the territory of the Teutones probably included the Vorpommern and the region south to the Elbe (mainly Holstein), accounting for the implied larger range of the people called Angles in later sources. Tacitus The map shows both the Angeln peninsula (to the east of Flensburg and Schleswig) and the Schwansen peninsula (south of the Schlei). Possibly the first instance of the Angles in recorded history is in Tacitus' Germania, chapter 40, in which the Anglii are mentioned in passing in a list of Germanic tribes. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position but states that, together with six other tribes, they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on "an island in the Ocean." The other tribes are the Reudigni, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones Tacitus, Germania, 40, Medieval Source Book. Code and format by Northvegr. , which are together described as being behind ramparts of rivers and woods Tacitus (1877), Germania, 40; translation from The Agricola and Germania, A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, trans., London: Macmillan, pp. 87-110(?), as recorded in the Medieval Sourcebook ; that is, inaccessible to attack. As the Eudoses are the Jutes, these names probably refer to localities in Jutland or the Baltic coast; i.e., they are all Cimbri or Teutones. The coast contains sufficient estuaries, inlets, rivers, islands, swamps and marshes to have been then inaccessible to those not familiar with the terrain, such as the Romans, who labelled it unknown and inaccessible country. The majority of scholars believe that the Anglii had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula. The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the 4th century, and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjælland (Zealand), and the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain Scyld, who is clearly to be identified with Skiöldr, the mythical founder of the Danish royal family (Skiöldungar). In English tradition this person is connected with "Scedeland" (pl.), i.e. Scandinavia, while in Scandinavian tradition he is associated with the ancient royal residence at Lejre in Sjælland. The account in Germania is contradictory to that of Strabo and Pliny in at least one major point. Tacitus viewed the Baltic as the Suebian Sea and lists the seven tribes as being in Suebian territory. The Suebi were among the Herminones of central Germany; yet Pliny accounts for the Teutones as being Inguaeones, the Ingaevones of Tacitus. In Strabo, the Suebi are to the south of the coast. The Suebian language went on to become Old High German, while the Angles and Jutes were among the speakers of Old Saxon. Suevi Angili Ptolemy in his Geography (2.10), half a century later, presents a somewhat more complex view. The Saxons are placed around the lower Elbe, which area they could have reached merely by an extension of the Saxon alliance. East of them are the Teutones and also a dissimilation of them, the Teutonoari, which denotes "men" (wer); i.e., "the Teuton men." These Teutons or Teuton men appear to have been in Angeln and the land around it. The Angles, as such, are not listed at all. Instead there are Syeboi Angeilloi , Latinized to Suevi Angili, located south of the middle Elbe. Owing to the uncertainty of this passage, there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory is that they dwelt in the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which region the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. A second possible solution is that these Angles of Ptolemy are not those of Schleswig at all. According to Julius Pokorny the Angri- in Angrivarii, the -angr in Hardanger and the Angl- in Anglii all come from the same root meaning "bend", but in different senses. In other words, the similarity of the names is strictly coincidental and does not reflect any ethnic unity beyond Germanic. The Suevi Angeli would have been in Lower Saxony or near it and, like Ptolemy's Suevi Semnones, were among the Suebi at the time. Bede Manuscript of Bede. Bede states that the Angli, before they came to Great Britain, dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the Historia Brittonum. King Alfred the Great and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this place with the district that is now called Angeln, in the province of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees with the indications given by Bede. Confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund and Offa, from whom the Mercian royal family were descended and whose exploits are connected with Angeln, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century the Angli invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of Suevi Angili. The province of Schleswig has proved rich in prehistoric antiquities that date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. A large cremation cemetery has been found at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsberg moor (in Angeln) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, etc., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries, Angle civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Great Britain can be pieced together. Angle Kingdoms in England Angles and Saxons throughout England According to sources such as the History of Bede, after the invasion of Great Britain, the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of the Nord Angelnen (Northumbria), Ost Angelnen (East Anglia), and the Mittlere Angelnen (Mercia). In early times there were two northern kingdoms (Bernicia and Deira) and two midland ones (Middle Anglia and Mercia). As a result of influence from the West Saxons, the tribes were collectively called Anglo-Saxons by the Normans, the West Saxon kingdom having conquered, united and founded the Kingdom of England by the 10th century. The regions of East Anglia and Northumbria are still known by their original titles to this day. Northumbria once stretched as far north as what is now southeast Scotland, including Edinburgh and as far south as the Humber Estuary. The rest of that people stayed at the centre of the Angle homeland in the northeastern portion of the modern German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Jutland Peninsula. There, a small peninsular area is still called "Angeln" today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern Flensburg on the Flensburger Fjord to the City of Schleswig and then to Maasholm, on the Schlei inlet. St. Gregory The Angles are the subject of a legend about Pope Gregory I which apparently has roots in history. Gregory happened to see a group of Angle children from Deira for sale as slaves in the Roman market.Gregory inquired about their background. When told they were called "Angli" (Angles), he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: “Bene, nam et angelicam habent faciem, et tales angelorum in caelis decet esse coheredes” ("It is well, for they have an angelic face, and such people ought to be co-heirs of the Angels in heaven"). Supposedly, he thereafter resolved to convert their pagan homeland to Christianity. Ecclesiastical History of the English People, book 2 by Bede See also Germanic peoples List of Germanic peoples For the rulers of the Angles prior to their migration to Great Britain, see List of kings of the Angles Thorsberg moor References Notes External links English and Welsh are races apart; BBC; 30 June 2002. 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1,862 | Nirvana_(British_band) | Nirvana are a UK-based progressive rock band formed in 1967, primarily active in the late 1960s and early 1970s - and still sporadically active to the present day. The band was formed around the composing and performing talents of three musicians - Irish-born Patrick Campbell-Lyons, Greek-born Alex Spyropoulos and Londoner Ray Singer whom Alex met at film school. They were signed by Island Records' founder Chris Blackwell in the era when he also signed the bands Traffic and Free. Blackwell considered Nirvana one of his prize signings in his early forays into progressive rock and he showcased the band by presenting them at prestigious concerts in venues such as London's Saville Theatre. For their first album and a handful of live performances in 1967, the duo temporarily added four musicians to the band lineup. A cellist (Sylvia A. Schuster), violist and horn player (Michael Coe), guitarist (Ray Singer) and bassist (Brian Henderson). This arrangement lasted just a few months after which the band returned to consisting of just its two founding members - augmented by leading session players and orchestral musicians. Spyropoulos cited Schuster's departure due to pregnancy as the instigator for the band returning to its core membership. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z14bxIJuGIc Schuster eventually became principal cellist of the BBC Symphony Orchestra. "Dali" spoken word track on Secret Theatre Keith Smart (guitar and sitar) was credited as a full band member on the 1996 album, consisting primarily of unreleased demos, Orange and Blue. In October 1967, the band released its first album: a concept album produced by Blackwell titled The Story of Simon Simopath. The album was probably the first narrative concept album ever released, predating story-driven concept albums such as The Pretty Things' S.F. Sorrow (December 1968), The Who's Tommy (April 1969) and The Kinks' Arthur (September 1969). Musically, the group blended myriad musical styles including rock, pop, folk, jazz, Latin rhythms and classical music, primarily augmented by baroque chamber-style arrangements to create a unique entity. The next year, 1968, the duo recorded their second album, All Of Us, featured a similar broad range of musical styles. In 1969, the band appeared on French television with Salvador Dalí, who splashed black paint on them during a performance of "Rainbow Chaser." Campbell-Lyons kept the jacket, but regrets that Dalí did not sign any of their paint-splashed gear. Island sent the artist an invoice for the cleaning of Schuster's cello. Their third album, Black Flower, was rejected by Blackwell, comparing it disparagingly to Michel Legrand's A Man and a Woman. Under the title, To Markos III (named for a supposed "rich uncle" of Spyropoulos), it was released on the Pye label in May 1970, though only 250 copies were pressed it was withdrawn almost immediately due to the failure of Metromedia and not seen or heard again until 1987. One track, "Christopher Lucifer," was intended as a parody of Blackwell. "Melanie Blue" (attr.)liner notes, To Markos III In 1971 the duo amicably separated for a while, with Campbell-Lyons the primary contributor to the next two Nirvana albums, Local Anaesthetic 1971, and Songs Of Love And Praise 1972. Campbell-Lyons subsequently worked as a solo artist and issued further albums: Me And My Friend, 1973, Electric Plough, 1981, and The Hero I Might Have Been, 1983, though these did not enjoy commercial success. Though the band have not achieved commercial success, from their inception they were acclaimed both by music industry professionals and critics. Musical styles The group were in the school of baroque-flavoured, melodic pop-rock music typified by the Beatles of "Rubber Soul" and "Revolver", the Beach Boys of Pet Sounds and God Only Knows, the Zombies of Odyssey and Oracle and Time Of The Season, the Procol Harum of A Whiter Shade of Pale, the Moody Blues of Days of Future Passed and Nights in White Satin and the Kinks of Waterloo Sunset and Love (band) Forever Changes. The majority of the tracks on Nirvana's albums fell into that broad genre of contemporary popular music, not easily categorized but perhaps best described as the baroque or chamber strand of "progressive rock, soft rock or "orchestral pop" and " Chamber Pop". Notable collaborators A who's-who of behind-the-scenes craftsmen - who went on to become Britain’s top producers, arrangers, engineers and mixers of the 1970s - chose to work with Nirvana in the late 1960s and in essence cut their studio teeth working with Nirvana. Two of these arranger/producers actually worked with Nirvana before working with the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. Nirvana’s producers, arrangers, engineers and mixers included: Chris Blackwell, Island Records' founder who produced the band before hitting his production stride in the 1970s with Bob Marley Tony Visconti, Arranger/producer, before he worked with David Bowie, Marc Bolan, the Moody Blues and U2, among others Mike Vickers, former Manfred Mann multi-instrumentalist, who undertook arrangement work for Nirvana in 1967 and 1968 before his work with the Beatles in 1969 arranging and programming the extensive Moog synthesizer contributions on their Abbey Road album. Jimmy Miller, the US-born producer, who worked with them immediately before starting his five-album streak producing the Rolling Stones, including the Beggars Banquet, Exile On Main Street and It's Only Rock 'n Roll albums.[[Ray Singer (producer), whose credits include "Where Do You Go To, My Lovely"by Peter Sarstedt Chris Thomas, the producer, whose credits include The Beatles, Procol Harum, Roxy Music, Pink Floyd (mixed The Dark Side of the Moon), the Sex Pistols and INXS. Guy Stevens, A&R executive and producer, before his production work with Mott the Hoople. Brian Humphries, the recording engineer, who started engineering Nirvana before going on to work with Traffic, Black Sabbath, McDonald and Giles and Pink Floyd (eventually engineering their acclaimed Wish You Were Here and Animals albums). Others who worked on production with Nirvana include Muff Winwood (formerly of the Spencer Davis Group and arranger/producer Mike Hurst who worked with Jimmy Page, Cat Stevens, Manfred Mann, Spencer Davis Group and Colin Blunstone; arranger Johnny Scott who arranged for the Hollies and subsequently scored films such as The Shooting Party and Greystoke. Top musicians who played on Nirvana sessions include: Lesley Duncan, Herbie Flowers,((Pete Kelly)),[(|Billy Bremner]] (later of Rockpile/Dave Edmunds fame), Luther Grosvenor, Wynder K. Frogg, Clem Cattini and the full lineup of rock band Spooky Tooth. Phasing The Nirvana song "Rainbow Chaser" is thought to be the first-ever British recording to feature the audio effect known as phasing or flanging throughout an entire track, as distinct from occasionally within a song such as The Beatles' usage in "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and the Small Faces in "Itchycoo Park". Phasing was, by 1967, heavily identified with the musical style known from 1967 onwards as psychedelia, and as "Rainbow Chaser" was the only Nirvana single to achieve commercial success, peaking at number 34 in UK Singles Chart during May 1968, they were invariably tagged as a "psychedelic" band. However, despite their name, promotional photographs on the cover of their first album wearing "flower power" style clothes that implied associations with "druggy" music and distorted acid rock-style guitars, the band actually had no associations with that style of music. "Rainbow Chaser" was one of the few Nirvana recordings that had any connection with "psychedelic" music. "Orange and Blue" was acknowledged to have been written under the influence of LSD according to the liner notes of the eponymous album. Reunion The band reunited in 1985, touring Europe and releasing a compilation album Black Flower (Bam-Caruso, 1987) which contained some new material. (Black Flower had been the working title of their third album). In the 1990s two further albums were released. Secret Theatre 1994 compiled rare tracks and demos, while Orange and Blue 1996 contained previously unreleased material including a flower-power cover of Kurt Cobain's song "Lithium" originally recorded by Cobain's grunge band of the same name, Nirvana. The original band had filed a lawsuit in California against the Seattle grunge band in 1992. The matter was settled out of court on undisclosed terms that apparently allowed both bands to continue using the Nirvana name and issuing new recordings without any packaging disclaimers or caveats to distinguish one Nirvana from the other. Cobain's label was forced to pay $100,000 for continued use of the name. Everett True. Nirvana: The Biography In 1999, the band released a three-disc CD anthology titled "Chemistry," including several previously unreleased tracks and some new material. Their first three albums were reissued on CD by Universal Records in 2003 and received critical acclaim. In 2005, Universal (Japan) reissued Local Anaesthetic and Songs Of Love And Praise. As of 2006, the two members Alex Spyropoulos and Patrick Campbell-Lyons are still sporadically writing and recording together. Discography Albums The Story Of Simon Simopath 1967 All Of Us 1968 To Markos III 1970/Black Flower (reissued in 1987 under original title) Local Anaesthetic 1972 Songs Of Love And Praise 1973 Me And My Friend 1974 Travelling On A Cloud 1992 (compilation) Secret Theatre 1994 (rarities and outtakes) Orange And Blue 1996 Chemistry 1997 (3-disc retrospective ) Forever Changing 2000 (compilation) Singles "Tiny Goddess" (July 1967) "Pentecost Hotel" (OCtober 1967) "Rainbow Chaser" (March 1968) - UK Singles Chart #34 "Girl in the Park" (July 1968) "All of Us" (November 1968) "Wings of Love" (January 1969) "Oh! What a Performance" (May 1969) References External links Electric Roulette review of Markos III Marmalade Skies: Nirvana | Nirvana_(British_band) |@lemmatized nirvana:20 uk:3 base:1 progressive:3 rock:9 band:22 form:2 primarily:3 active:2 late:2 early:2 still:2 sporadically:2 present:2 day:2 around:1 composing:1 perform:1 talent:1 three:3 musician:4 irish:1 bear:2 patrick:2 campbell:5 lyon:5 greek:1 alex:3 spyropoulos:4 londoner:1 ray:3 singer:3 meet:1 film:2 school:2 sign:3 island:3 record:7 founder:2 chris:3 blackwell:6 era:1 also:1 traffic:2 free:1 consider:1 one:4 prize:1 signing:1 foray:1 showcased:1 prestigious:1 concert:1 venue:1 london:1 saville:1 theatre:4 first:6 album:23 handful:1 live:1 performance:3 duo:3 temporarily:1 add:1 four:1 lineup:2 cellist:2 sylvia:1 schuster:4 violist:1 horn:1 player:2 michael:1 coe:1 guitarist:1 bassist:1 brian:2 henderson:1 arrangement:3 last:1 month:1 return:2 consist:2 two:5 found:1 member:3 augment:2 lead:1 session:2 orchestral:2 cite:1 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chemistry:2 several:1 reissue:3 universal:2 receive:1 critical:1 japan:1 together:1 discography:1 travel:1 cloud:1 rarity:1 outtake:1 retrospective:1 tiny:1 goddess:1 july:2 pentecost:1 hotel:1 march:1 girl:1 november:1 wing:1 january:1 oh:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 roulette:1 review:1 marmalade:1 |@bigram http_www:1 symphony_orchestra:1 salvador_dalí:1 rainbow_chaser:5 liner_note:2 procol_harum:2 whiter_shade:1 shade_pale:1 arranger_producer:3 beatles_rolling:1 rolling_stone:2 bob_marley:1 tony_visconti:1 david_bowie:1 marc_bolan:1 multi_instrumentalist:1 roxy_music:1 pink_floyd:2 black_sabbath:1 previously_unreleased:2 kurt_cobain:1 grunge_band:2 seattle_grunge:1 critical_acclaim:1 external_link:1 |
1,863 | General_aviation | A general aviation scene at Kemble Airfield, England. The aircraft in the foreground is a homebuilt Vans RV-4 Aircraft at general aviation airport Helsinki-Malmi, Finland. General aviation (GA) is one of two categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other than military and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights. As a result, the majority of the world's air traffic falls into this category, and most of the world's airports serve general aviation exclusively. In the United States, there are almost 20,000 airports and heliports, of which around 5,300 are available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft. In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 600 airports in the U.S. http://www.gaservingamerica.org/Serving_Your_Community/airport_near_you.htm . According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States' GDP, accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing AOPA USA's General Aviation website. . General aviation covers a huge range of activities, both commercial and non-commercial, including private flying, flight training, air ambulance, police aircraft, aerial firefighting, air charter, bush flying, gliding, and many others. Experimental aircraft, light-sport aircraft and very light jet have emerged in recent years as new trends in general aviation. Regulation and safety The General Aviation Terminal at Raleigh Durham International Airport. Terminal A is in the background. Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation, adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Examples include the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) in Great Britain, the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA) in Germany, Transport Canada in Canada, and Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) in India. Since it includes both non-scheduled commercial operations and private operations, with aircraft of many different types and sizes, and pilots with a variety of different training and experience levels, it is not possible to make blanket statements about the regulation or safety record of general aviation. At one extreme, in most countries business jets and large cargo jets face most of the same regulations as scheduled air transport and fly mostly to the same airports. Commercial bush flying and air ambulance operations normally do not operate under as heavy a regulatory burden, and often only use small airports or off-airport strips, where there is less governmental oversight. Nonetheless they must obey the same regulations as any other type of flying. Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. According to the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board, in 2005 general aviation in the United States (excluding charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in that country, compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights. "NTSB accident rates by flying category" In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours, while air taxi accounted for 1.0 fatal accident for every 100,000 hours. "Transport Canada accident rates by flying category" See also General aviation in the United Kingdom General aviation in Europe General aviation in Asia Light aircraft References External links International Aircraft Owners and Pilots Associations European General Aviation Safety Team (EGAST) | General_aviation |@lemmatized general:19 aviation:25 scene:1 kemble:1 airfield:1 england:1 aircraft:10 foreground:1 homebuilt:1 van:1 rv:1 airport:8 helsinki:1 malmi:1 finland:1 ga:1 one:3 two:1 category:4 civil:5 refer:1 flight:7 military:1 scheduled:2 airline:2 private:3 commercial:5 range:2 glider:1 power:1 parachute:1 large:2 non:3 schedule:4 cargo:2 jet:4 result:1 majority:1 world:2 air:6 traffic:1 fall:1 serve:1 exclusively:1 united:5 state:4 almost:1 heliport:1 around:2 available:1 public:1 use:2 pilot:4 comparison:1 operate:2 u:3 http:1 www:1 gaservingamerica:1 org:1 htm:1 accord:2 owner:2 association:2 provide:1 percent:1 gdp:1 account:3 million:1 job:1 professional:1 service:1 manufacture:1 aopa:1 usa:1 website:1 cover:1 huge:1 activity:1 include:4 flying:2 training:2 ambulance:2 police:1 aerial:1 firefighting:1 charter:2 bush:2 fly:7 glide:1 many:2 others:1 experimental:1 light:3 sport:1 emerge:1 recent:1 year:1 new:1 trend:1 regulation:4 safety:4 terminal:2 raleigh:1 durham:1 international:3 background:1 country:3 authority:2 oversee:1 adhere:1 standardized:1 code:1 organization:1 icao:1 example:1 federal:1 administration:1 faa:1 caa:1 great:1 britain:1 luftfahrt:1 bundesamt:1 lba:1 germany:1 transport:3 canada:4 director:1 dgca:1 india:1 since:1 operation:3 different:2 type:2 size:1 variety:1 experience:1 level:1 possible:1 make:1 blanket:1 statement:1 record:1 extreme:1 business:1 face:1 mostly:1 normally:1 heavy:1 regulatory:1 burden:1 often:1 small:1 strip:1 less:1 governmental:1 oversight:1 nonetheless:1 must:1 obey:1 accident:6 rate:3 statistic:1 necessarily:1 estimate:1 national:1 transportation:1 board:1 exclude:1 suffer:1 fatal:3 every:3 hour:3 compare:1 ntsb:1 recreational:1 taxi:1 see:1 also:1 kingdom:1 europe:1 asia:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 european:1 team:1 egast:1 |@bigram airport_heliport:1 http_www:1 raleigh_durham:1 fatal_accident:3 external_link:1 |
1,864 | Magnetosphere | A magnetosphere is a highly magnetized region around and possessed by an astronomical object. Earth is surrounded by a magnetosphere, as are the magnetized planets Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Jupiter's moon Ganymede is magnetized, but too weak to trap solar wind plasma. Mars has patchy surface magnetization. The term magnetosphere has also been used to describe regions dominated by the magnetic fields of celestial objects, e.g. pulsar magnetospheres. History of magnetospheric physics The Earth's magnetosphere was discovered in 1958 by Explorer 1 during the research performed for the International Geophysical Year. Before this, scientists knew that electric currents existed in space, because solar eruptions sometimes led to "magnetic storm" disturbances. No one knew, however, where those currents were and why, or that the solar wind existed. In August and September of 1958, Project Argus was performed to test a theory about the formation of radiation belts that may have tactical use in war. In 1959 Thomas Gold proposed the name "magnetosphere", when he wrote: "The region above the ionosphere in which the magnetic field of the earth has a dominant control over the motions of gas and fast charged particles is known to extend out to a distance of the order of 10 earth radii; it may appropriately be called the magnetosphere [Gold, Journal of Geophysical Research, volume 64, page 1219, 1959]. Earth's magnetosphere The magnetosphere of Earth is a region in space whose shape is determined by the extent of Earth's internal magnetic field, the solar wind plasma, and the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). In the magnetosphere, a mix of free ions and electrons from both the solar wind and the Earth's ionosphere is confined by magnetic and electric forces that are much stronger than gravity and collisions. In spite of its name, the magnetosphere is distinctly non-spherical. On the side facing the Sun, the distance to its boundary (which varies with solar wind intensity) is about 70,000 km (10-12 Earth radii or RE, where 1 RE=6371 km; unless otherwise noted, all distances here are from the Earth's center). The boundary of the magnetosphere ("magnetopause") is roughly bullet shaped, about 15 RE abreast of Earth and on the night side (in the "magnetotail" or "geotail") approaching a cylinder with a radius 20-25 RE. The tail region stretches well past 200 RE, and the way it ends is not well-known. The outer neutral gas envelope of Earth, or geocorona, consists mostly of the lightest atoms, hydrogen and helium, and continues beyond 4-5 RE, with diminishing density. The hot plasma ions of the magnetosphere acquire electrons during collisions with these atoms and create an escaping "glow" of fast atoms that have been used to image the hot plasma clouds by the IMAGE mission. The upward extension of the ionosphere, known as the plasmasphere, also extends beyond 4-5 RE with diminishing density, beyond which it becomes a flow of light ions called the polar wind that escapes out of the magnetosphere into the solar wind. Energy deposited in the ionosphere by auroras strongly heats the heavier atmospheric components such as oxygen and molecules of oxygen and nitrogen, which would not otherwise escape from Earth's gravity. Owing to this highly variable heating, however, a heavy atmospheric or ionospheric outflow of plasma flows during disturbed periods from the auroral zones into the magnetosphere, extending the region dominated by terrestrial material, known as the fourth or plasma geosphere, at times out to the magnetopause. General properties Two factors determine the structure and behavior of the magnetosphere: (1) The internal field of the Earth, and (2) The solar wind. The internal field of the Earth (its "main field") appears to be generated in the Earth's core by a dynamo process, associated with the circulation of liquid metal in the core, driven by internal heat sources. Its major part resembles the field of a bar magnet ("dipole field") inclined by about 10° to the rotation axis of Earth, but more complex parts ("higher harmonics") also exist, as first shown by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The dipole field has an intensity of about 30,000-60,000 nanoteslas (nT) at the Earth's surface, and its intensity diminishes like the inverse of the cube of the distance, i.e. at a distance of R Earth radii it only amounts to 1/R³ of the surface field in the same direction. Higher harmonics diminish faster, like higher powers of 1/R, making the dipole field the only important internal source in most of the magnetosphere. The solar wind is a fast outflow of hot plasma from the sun in all directions. Above the sun's equator it typically attains 400 km/s; above the sun's poles, up to twice as much. The flow is powered by the million-degree temperature of the sun's corona, for which no generally accepted explanation exists as yet. Its composition resembles that of the Sun—about 95% of the ions are protons, about 4% helium nuclei, with 1% of heavier matter (C, N, O, Ne, Si, Mg... up to Fe) and enough electrons to keep charge neutrality. At Earth's orbit its typical density is 6 ions/cm3 (variable, as is the velocity), and it contains a variable interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) of (typically) 2–5 nT. The IMF is produced by stretched-out magnetic field lines originating on the Sun, a process described in the article Geomagnetic storm. Physical reasons make it difficult for solar wind plasma with its embedded IMF to mix with terrestrial plasma whose magnetic field has a different source. The two plasmas end up separated by a boundary, the magnetopause, and the Earth's plasma is confined to a cavity inside the flowing solar wind, the magnetosphere. The isolation is not complete, thanks to secondary processes such as magnetic reconnection —otherwise it would be hard for the solar wind to transmit much energy to the magnetosphere—but it still determines the overall configuration. An additional feature is a collision-free bow shock which forms in the solar wind ahead of Earth, typically at 13.5 RE on the sunward side. It forms because the solar velocity of the wind exceeds (typically 2–3 times) that of Alfvén waves, a family of characteristic waves with which disturbances propagate in a magnetized fluid. In the region behind the shock ("magnetosheath") the velocity drops briefly to the Alfvén velocity (and the temperature rises, absorbing lost kinetic energy), but the velocity soon rises back as plasma is dragged forward by the surrounding solar wind flow. To understand the magnetosphere, one needs to visualize its magnetic field lines, that everywhere point in the direction of the magnetic field—e.g., diverging out near the magnetic north pole (or geographic southpole), and converging again around the magnetic south pole (or the geographic northpole), where they enter the Earth. They can be visualized like wires which tie the magnetosphere together—wires that also guide the motions of trapped particles, which slide along them like beads (though other motions may also occur). Radiation belts When the first scientific satellites were launched in the first half of 1958--Explorers 1 and 3 by the US, Sputnik 3 by the Soviet Union--they observed an intense (and unexpected) radiation belt around Earth, held by its magnetic field. "My God, Space is Radioactive!" exclaimed one of Van Allen's colleagues, when the meaning of those observations was realized. That was the "inner radiation belt" of protons with energies in the range 10-100 MeV (megaelectronvolts), attributed later to "albedo neutron decay," a secondary effect of the interaction of cosmic radiation with the upper atmosphere. It is centered on field lines crossing the equator about 1.5 RE from the Earth's center. Later a population of trapped ions and electrons was observed on field lines crossing the equator at 2.5–8 RE. The high-energy part of that population (about 1 MeV) became known as the "outer radiation belt", but its bulk is at lower energies (peak about 65 keV) and is identified as the ring current plasma. The trapping of charged particles in a magnetic field can be quite stable. This is particularly true in the inner belt, because the build-up of trapped protons from albedo neutrons is quite slow, requiring years to reach observed intensities. In July 1962, the United States tested an H-bomb high over the South Pacific at around 400 km in the upper atmosphere, in this region, creating an artificial belt of high-energy electrons, and some of them were still around 4–5 years later (such tests are now banned by treaty). The outer belt and ring current are less persistent, because charge-exchange collisions with atoms of the geocorona (see above) tends to remove their particles. That suggests the existence of an effective source mechanism, continually supplying this region with fresh plasma. It turns out that the magnetic barrier can be broken down by electric forces, as discussed in Magnetic Storms and Plasma Flows (MSPF). If plasma is pushed hard enough, it generates electric fields which allow it to move in response to the push, often (not always) deforming the magnetic field in the process. Magnetic tails A magnetic tail or magnetotail is formed by pressure from the solar wind on a planet's magnetosphere. The magnetotail can extend great distances away from its originating planet. Earth's magnetic tail extends at least 200 Earth radii in the anti-sunward direction well beyond the orbit of the Moon at about 60 Earth radii, while Jupiter's magnetic tail extends beyond the orbit of Saturn. On occasion Saturn is immersed inside the Jovian magnetosphere. The extended magnetotail results from energy stored in the planet's magnetic field. At times this energy is released and the magnetic field becomes temporarily more dipole-like. As it does so that stored energy goes to energize plasma trapped on the involved magnetic field lines. Some of that plasma is driven tailward and into the distant solar wind. The rest is injected into the inner magnetosphere where it results in the aurora and the ring current plasma population. The resulting energetic plasma and electric currents can disrupt spacecraft operations, communication and navigation. Electric currents in space Magnetic fields in the magnetosphere arise from the Earth's internal magnetic field as well as from electric currents that flow in the magnetospheric plasma: the plasma acts as a kind of electromagnet. Magnetic fields from currents that circulate in the magnetospheric plasma extend the Earth's magnetism much further in space than would be predicted from the Earth's internal field alone. Such currents also determine the field's structure far from Earth, creating the regions described in the introduction above. Unlike in a conventional resistive electric circuit, where currents are best thought of as arising as a response to an applied voltage, currents in the magnetosphere are better seen as being caused by the structure and motion of the plasma in its associated magnetic field. For instance, electrons and positive ions trapped in the dipole-like field near the Earth tend to circulate around the magnetic axis of the dipole (the line connecting the magnetic poles) in a ring around the Earth, without gaining or losing energy (this is known as Guiding center motion). Viewed from above the magnetic north pole (geographic south), ions circulate clockwise, electrons counterclockwise, producing a net circulating clockwise current, known (from its shape) as the ring current. No voltage is needed--the current arises naturally from the motion of the ions and electrons in the magnetic field. Any such current will modify the magnetic field. The ring current, for instance, strengthens the field on its outside, helping expand the size of the magnetosphere. At the same time, it weakens the magnetic field in its interior. In a magnetic storm, plasma is added to the ring current, making it temporarily stronger, and the field at Earth is observed to weaken by up to 1-2%. The deformation of the magnetic field, and the flow of electric currents in it, are intimately linked, making it often hard to label one as cause and the other as effect. Frequently (as in the magnetopause and the magnetotail) it is intuitively more useful to regard the distribution and flow of plasma as the primary effect, producing the observed magnetic structure, with the associated electric currents just one feature of those structures, more of a consistency requirement of the magnetic structure. As noted, one exception (at least) exists, a case where voltages do drive currents. That happens with Birkeland currents, which flow from distant space into the near-polar ionosphere, continue at least some distance in the ionosphere, and then return to space. (Part of the current then detours and leaves Earth again along field lines on the morning side, flows across midnight as part of the ring current, then comes back to the ionosphere along field lines on the evening side and rejoins the pattern.) The full circuit of those currents, under various conditions, is still under debate. Because the ionosphere is an ohmic conductor of sorts, such flow will heat it up. It will also give rise to secondary Hall currents, and accelerate magnetospheric particles--electrons in the arcs of the polar aurora, and singly-ionized oxygen ions (O+) which contribute to the ring current. Classification of magnetic fields Regardless of whether they are viewed as sources or consequences of the magnetospheric field structure, electric currents flow in closed circuits. That makes them useful for classifying different parts of the magnetic field of the magnetosphere, each associated with a distinct type of circuit. In this way the field of the magnetosphere is often resolved into 5 distinct parts, as follows. The internal field of the Earth ("main field") arising from electric currents in the core. It is dipole-like, modified by higher harmonic contributions. The ring current field, carried by plasma trapped in the dipole-like field around Earth, typically at distances 3–8 RE (less during large storms). Its current flows (approximately) around the magnetic equator, mainly clockwise when viewed from north. (A small counterclockwise ring current flows at the inner edge of the ring, caused by the fall-off in plasma density as Earth is approached). The field confining the Earth's plasma and magnetic field inside the magnetospheric cavity. The currents responsible for it flow on the magnetopause, the interface between the magnetosphere and the solar wind, described in the introduction. Their flow, again, may be viewed as arising from the geometry of the magnetic field (rather than from any driving voltage), a consequence of "Ampére's law" (embodied in Maxwell's equations) which in this case requires an electric current to flow along any interface between magnetic fields of different directions and/or intensities. The system of tail currents. The magnetotail consists of twin bundles of oppositely directed magnetic field (the "tail lobes"), directed earthwards in the northern half of the tail and away from Earth in the southern half. In between the two exists a layer ("plasma sheet") of denser plasma (0.3-0.5 ions/cm3 vs. 0.01-0.02 in the lobes), and because of the difference between the adjoining magnetic fields, by Ampére's law an electric current flows there too, directed from dawn to dusk. The flow closes (as it must) by following the tail magnetopause--part over the northern lobe, part over the southern one. The Birkeland current field (and its branches in the ionosphere and ring current), a circuit is associated with the polar aurora. Unlike the 3 preceding current systems, it does require a constant input of energy, to provide the heating of its ionospheric path and the acceleration of auroral electrons and of positive ions. The energy probably comes from a dynamo process, meaning that part of the circuit threads a plasma moving relative to Earth, either in the solar wind and in "boundary layer" flows which it drives just inside the magnetopause, or by plasma moving earthward in the magnetotail, as observed during substorms (below). Magnetic substorms and storms Earlier it was stated that "if plasma is pushed hard enough, it generates electric fields which allow it to move in response to the push, often (not always) deforming the magnetic field in the process." Two examples of such "pushing" are particularly important in the magnetosphere. The THEMIS mission is a NASA program to study in detail the physical processes involved in substorms. The more common one occurs when the north-south component Bz of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) is appreciable and points southward. In this state field lines of the magnetosphere are relatively strongly linked to the IMF, allowing energy and plasma to enter it at relatively high rates. This swells up the magnetotail and makes it unstable. Ultimately the tail's structure changes abruptly and violently, a process known as a magnetic substorm. One possible scenario (the subject is still being debated) is as follows. As the magnetotail swells, it creates a wider obstacle to the solar wind flow, causing its widening portion to be squeezed more by the solar wind. In the end, this squeezing breaks apart field lines in the plasma sheet ("magnetic reconnection"), and the distant part of the sheet, no longer attached to the Earth, is swept away as an independent magnetic structure ("plasmoid"). The near-Earth part snaps back earthwards, energizing its particles and producing Birkeland currents and bright auroras. As observed in the 1970s by the ATS satellites at 6.6 RE, when conditions are favorable that can happen up to several times a day. Substorms generally do not substantially add to the ring current. That happens in magnetic storms, when following an eruption on the sun (a "coronal mass ejection" or a "solar flare"—details are still being debated, see MSPF) a fast-moving plasma cloud hits the Earth. If the IMF has a southward component, this not only pushes the magnetopause boundary closer to Earth (at times to about half its usual distance), but it also produces an injection of plasma from the tail, much more vigorous than the one associated with substorms. The plasma population of the ring current may now grow substantially, and a notable part of the addition consists of O+ oxygen ions extracted from the ionosphere as a by-product of the polar aurora. In addition, the ring current is driven earthward (which energizes its particles further), temporarily modifying the field around the Earth and thus shifting the aurora (and its current system) closer to the equator. The magnetic disturbance may decay within 1–3 days as many ions are removed by charge exchange, but the higher energies of the ring current can persist much longer. See also Magnetic sail for applications in spacecraft propulsion Plasma physics References Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation by Martin Walt (1994) Storms from the Sun by M. Carlowicz and R. Lopez"(2002)" External links USGS Geomagnetism Program Aurora borealis Storms from the Sun - The Emerging Science of Space Weather Magnetosphere: Earth's Magnetic Shield Against the Solar Wind Physics of the Aurora "3D Earth Magnetic Field Charged-Particle Simulator" Tool dedicated to the 3d simulation of charged particles in the magnetosphere.. 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1,865 | Brigitte_Bardot | Brigitte Anne-Marie Bardot http://rateyourmusic.com/artist/brigitte_bardot Daily Celebrations ~ Brigitte Bardot, Cat Transformed ~ 25 August ~ Ideas to motivate, educate, and inspire () (born 28 September 1934) is a French actress, former fashion model, singer and animal welfare/rights activist Jonathan Benthall Animal liberation and rights Anthropology Today Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007 . In her early life Bardot was an aspiring ballet dancer. She started her acting career in 1952 and after appearing in 16 films became world-famous due to her role in the controversial film And God Created Woman. During her career in show business Bardot starred in 48 films, performed in numerous musical shows, recorded 80 songs. After her retirement from the entertainment industry in 1973, Bardot established herself as an animal rights activist. During the 1990s she became outspoken in her criticism of immigration, interracial relationships and Islam in France, and has been convicted five times for "inciting racial hatred". Early life Brigitte Bardot was born in Paris to Anne-Marie 'Toty' Mucel (1912-1978) and Louis 'Pilou' Bardot (1896-1975). Her father had an engineering degree and worked with her grandfather in the family business. Toty was sixteen years younger and they married in 1933. Brigitte's mother enrolled her and her younger sister Marie-Jeanne ('Mijanou', born 5 May 1938) in dance. Mijanou eventually gave up on dancing lessons to complete her education, whereas Brigitte decided to concentrate on a ballet career. In 1947, Bardot was accepted to The National Superior Conservatory of Paris for Music and Dance and for three years attended the ballet classes of Russian choreographer Boris Knyazev. (One of her classmates was Leslie Caron). By the invitation of her mother's acquaintance, she modeled in a fashion show in 1949. In the same year she modeled for a fashion magazine "Jardin des Modes" managed by another friend of her mother, journalist Hélène Lazareff. She appeared on a 8 March 1950 cover of ELLE. The Biography Channel - Brigitte Bardot Biography and was noticed by a young film director Roger Vadim. He showed an issue of the magazine to director and screenwriter Marc Allégret, who offered Bardot the opportunity to audition for "Les lauriers sont coupés" thereafter. Although Bardot got the role, the shooting of the film was canceled, but it made her consider becoming an actress. Moreover, her acquaintance with Vadim, who attended the audition, influenced her further life and career. Career Although the European film industry was then in its ascendancy, Bardot was one of the few European actresses to receive mass media attention in the United States. She and Marilyn Monroe were perhaps the foremost examples of female sexuality in films of the 1950s and 1960s, and whenever she made public appearances in the United States the media hordes covered her every move. Brigitte Bardot debuted in a 1952 comedy film Le Trou Normand (English title: Crazy for Love). In the same year she married Roger Vadim. From 1952 to 1956 she appeared in seventeen films; in 1953 playing a part in Jean Anouilh's stageplay "L'Invitation au château" ("The Invitation to the Castle"). She received media attention when she attended the Cannes Film Festival in April 1953. "She is every man's idea of the girl he'd like to meet in Paris," wrote the film-critic Ivon Addams in 1955. Her films of the early and mid 1950s were generally lightweight romantic dramas, some of them historical, in which she was cast as ingénue or siren, and often with an element of undress. She played bit parts in three English-language films, the British comedy Doctor at Sea (1955), Helen of Troy (1954), in which she was understudy for the title role but only appears as Helen's handmaid, and Act of Love (1954) with Kirk Douglas. Her French-language films were dubbed for international release. Roger Vadim was not content with this light fare. The New Wave of French and Italian art directors and their stars were riding high internationally, and he felt Bardot was being undersold. Looking for something more like an art film to push her as a serious actress, he showcased her in And God Created Woman (1956) with Jean-Louis Trintignant. The film, about an immoral teenager in a respectable small-town setting, was a big international success. It is often (wrongly) described as her first film (it was her seventeenth) and said that it launched her to overnight stardom, but it did help move her towards the cinematic mainstream. In hindsight, light comedies suited Brigitte Bardot's acting skills best. A fine example is her 'Une Parisienne' from 1957, one of the few of her films of which she has said she feels proud. In Hollywood, Bardot was considered too risqué to handle — erotica like Bardot's Cette sacrée gamine (That Crazy Kid, 1955) was not typical of the American cinema of the time, and it was considered acceptable at the box office so long as it was clearly labeled "European." The Doris Day era was in full swing, and Jane Russell in The French Line (1953) was thought to have been going too far by showing her midriff. Furthermore, Bardot's limited English and strong accent, while beguiling to the ears of men, did not suit rapid-fire Hollywood scripts. In any event, staying in Europe benefited her image when the 1960s began to swing and Hollywood slipped into the background for a while, and Bardot was voted honorary sex-goddess of the decade. In fact, there was a widely popular claim that Brigitte Bardot, as an actress, did more for the French international trade balance than the entire French car industry. In Bardot's early career professional photographer Sam Levin's photos contributed considerably to her image of sensuality and slight immorality. One of Levin's pictures show Brigitte from behind, dressed in a white corset. It is said that around 1960 postcards with this photograph outsold in Paris those of the Eiffel Tower. She divorced Vadim in 1957 and in 1959 married actor Jacques Charrier, with whom she starred in Babette Goes to War in 1959. The paparazzi preyed upon her marriage, while she and her husband clashed over the direction of her career. Her films became more substantial, but this brought a heavy pressure of dual celebrity as she sought critical acclaim while remaining a glamour model for most of the world. Vie privée (1960), directed by Louis Malle has more than an element of autobiography in it. The scene in which, returning to her apartment, Bardot's character is harangued in the elevator by a middle-aged cleaning lady calling her offensive names, was based on an actual incident, and is a resonant image of celebrity in the mid-20th century. Soon afterwards Bardot withdrew to the seclusion of Southern France where she had bought the house La Madrague in Saint-Tropez in May 1958. In 1963, she starred in Jean-Luc Godard's critically acclaimed film Contempt. Brigitte Bardot was featured in many other films along with notable actors such as Alain Delon (Famous Love Affairs, Spirits of the Dead), Jean Gabin (In Case of Adversity), Sean Connery (Shalako), Jean Marais (Royal Affairs in Versailles, School for Love), Lino Ventura (Rum Runners), Annie Girardot (The Novices), Claudia Cardinale (The Legend of Frenchie King), Jeanne Moreau (Viva Maria!), Jane Birkin (Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman). She participated in various musical shows and recorded many popular songs in the 1960s and 1970s, mostly in collaboration with Serge Gainsbourg, Bob Zagury and Sacha Distel, including "Harley Davidson", "Je Me Donne A Qui Me Plait", "Bubble gum", "Contact", "Je Reviendrais Toujours Vers Toi", "L'Appareil A Sous", "La Madrague", "On Demenage", "Sidonie", "Tu Veux, Ou Tu Veux Pas?", "Le Soleil De Ma Vie" (the cover of Stevie Wonder's "You Are the Sunshine of My Life") and the notorious "Je t'aime... moi non plus". Bardot pleaded with Gainsbourg not to release this duet and he complied with her wishes; the following year he re-recorded a version with British-born model and actress Jane Birkin which became a massive hit all over Europe. Personal life On 21 December 1952, at the age of 18, Bardot married director Roger Vadim. In order to receive permission from Bardot's parents to marry her, Vadim, originally an Orthodox Christian, was urged to convert to Catholicism. They divorced five years later, but remained friends and collaborated in later work. Bardot had an affair with her And God Created Woman co-star Jean-Louis Trintignant (married at the time to French actress Stephane Audran) followed by her divorce from Vadim. The two lived together for about two years. Their relationship was complicated by Trintignant's frequent absence due to military service and Bardot's affair with musician Gilbert Bécaud, and they eventually separated. The 9 February 1958 edition of the Los Angeles Times reported on the front page that Bardot was recovering in Italy from a reported nervous breakdown. A suicide attempt with sleeping pills two days earlier was denied by her public relations manager. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/thedailymirror/files/1958_0209_cover.jpg On 18 June 1959 she married actor Jacques Charrier, by whom she had her only child, a son, Nicolas-Jacques Charrier (born 11 January 1960). To Bardot this was an undesirable pregnancy which she once compared to having a tumor growing within her. After she and Charrier divorced in 1962, Nicolas was raised in the Charrier family and did not maintain close contact with Bardot until his adulthood. Bardot's other husbands were German millionaire playboy Gunter Sachs (14 July 1966 - 1 October 1969), and Bernard d'Ormale (16 August 1992 - present). She is reputed to have had relationships with many other men including her La Vérité co-star Sami Frey, musicians Serge Gainsbourg and Sacha Distel. In the late 1950s she shared an exchange she considered croiser de deux sillages ("the crossing of two wakes") with actor and true crime author John Gilmore, then an actor in France who was working on a New Wave film with Jean Seberg. Gilmore told Paris Match: 'I felt a beautiful warmth with Bardot but found it difficult to discuss things in any depth whatsoever.' In the 1970s, she lived with the sculptor Miroslav Brozek and posed for some of his sculptures. In 1974 Bardot appeared in a nude photo shoot in the American magazine Playboy, which celebrated her 40th birthday. Activism In 1973 just before her fortieth birthday, Bardot announced her retirement. After appearing in more than fifty motion pictures and recording several music albums, most notably with Serge Gainsbourg, she chose to use her fame to promote animal rights. In 1986 she established the Brigitte Bardot Foundation for the Welfare and Protection of Animals. She became a vegetarian Follain, John (2006-04-09). Brigitte Bardot. The Times Online, Life & Style. Retrieved 2 April 2009. and raised three million French francs to fund the foundation by auctioning off jewelry and many personal belongings. Today she is a strong animal rights activist and a major opponent of the consumption of horse meat. In support of animal protection, she condemned seal hunting in Canada during a visit to that country. She sought to discuss the issue with Stephen Harper, prime minister of Canada, though her request for a meeting was denied. BRIGITTE BARDOT FOUNDATION for the welfare and protection of animals She once had a neighbor's donkey castrated while looking after it, on the grounds of its "sexual harassment" of her own donkey and mare, for which she was taken to court by the donkey's owner in 1989 PHOTOICON ONLINE FEATURES: Andy Martin: Brigitte Bardot Mr Pop History . In 1999 Bardot wrote a letter to Chinese President Jiang Zemin, published in French magazine VSD, in which she accused the Chinese of "torturing bears and killing the world's last tigers and rhinos to make aphrodisiacs". BBC News Bardot savages Chirac and China She has donated more than $140,000 over two years for a mass sterilization and adoption program for Bucharest's stray dogs, estimated to number 300,000. BBC News Bardot 'saves' Bucharest's dogs She is planning to house many of these stray animals in a new animal rescue facility that she is having built on her property. Politics, controversy and legal issues Bardot expressed support for President Charles de Gaulle in the 1960s. Her husband Bernard d'Ormal is a former adviser of the far right "Front National" party. Bardot has been convicted five times for "inciting racial hatred". In 1997 she was fined for her comments published in Le Figaro newspaper. In 1998 she was convicted for making a statement about the growing number of mosques in France. In a book she wrote in 1999, called "Le Carre de Pluton" (Pluto's Square), she criticizes the procedure used in the ritual slaughter of sheep during the Muslim festival of Eid al-Adha. For the comments, a French court fined her 30,000 francs in June 2000. BBC News Bardot fined for racist remarks In a 2001 article named, Open Letter to My Lost France, she said: "...my country, France, my homeland, my land is again invaded by an overpopulation of foreigners, especially Muslims." In her 2003 book, A Scream in the Silence, she warned of the “Islamicization of France”, and said of Muslim immigration: "Over the last twenty years, we have given in to a subterranean, dangerous, and uncontrolled infiltration, which not only resists adjusting to our laws and customs but which will, as the years pass, attempt to impose its own." In the book, she talks about her close homosexual friends, comparing them to today's homosexuals who, "jiggle their bottoms, put their little fingers in the air and with their little castrato voices moan about what those ghastly heteros put them through". She says French politicians are, "weather vanes who turn left or right as the fancy takes them... Not even French prostitutes are what they used to be". She says modern art has become "shit—literally as well as figuratively." Brigitte Bardot unleashes colourful diatribe against Muslims and modern France : Indybay In her defense, Bardot wrote a letter to a French gay magazine, saying, "Apart from my husband—who maybe will cross over one day as well—I am entirely surrounded by homos. For years, they have been my support, my friends, my adopted children, my confidants." In May 2003 the Movement Against Racism and for Friendship between Peoples announced they were going to sue Bardot. The "Ligue des Droits de l'Homme" (The Human Rights League) announced they were considering similar legal proceedings. On 10 June 2004 Bardot was convicted by a French court of "inciting racial hatred" and fined €5,000, the fourth such conviction/fine she has received from French courts. The courts cited passages where Bardot referred to the "Islamisation of France" and the "underground and dangerous infiltration of Islam". Bardot's book also attacked "the mixing of genes" and compared her beliefs with previous generations who had "given their lives to push out invaders". Bardot denied the "racial hatred" charge and apologized in court, saying: "I never knowingly wanted to hurt anybody. It is not in my character." In 2008, she was convicted of inciting racial/religious hatred in relation to a letter she wrote, a copy of which she sent to Nicolas Sarkozy when he was Interior Minister of France. The letter stated her objections to Muslims in France ritually slaughtering sheep by slitting their throats without stunning them first. She also objected to France's rapidly growing Muslim community "trying to take over France and impose their culture, values, lifestyles" etc. on France and its native people. The trial Brigitte Bardot: Heroine of Free Speech concluded on 3 June 2008, with a conviction and fine of fifteen thousand Euros, the largest of her fines to date. The prosecutor stated that she was tired of charging Bardot with offences related to racial hatred. Bardot's influence In fashion the Bardot neckline (a wide open neck that exposes both shoulders) is named after her. Bardot popularized this style which is especially used for knitted sweaters or jumpers although it is also used for other tops and dresses. Bardot is recognised for popularizing bikini swimwear in early films such as Manina (Woman without a Veil, 1952), in her appearances at Cannes and in many photo shoots. Bardot also brought into fashion the choucroute ("Sauerkraut") hairstyle (a sort of beehive hair style) and gingham clothes after wearing a checkered pink dress, designed by Jacques Esterel, at her wedding to Charrier. Style Icon : Brigitte Bardot Sixties Central The fashions of the 1960s looked effortlessly right and spontaneous on her, and she joined Marilyn Monroe and Jackie Kennedy in becoming a subject for Andy Warhol paintings. In addition to popularizing the bikini swimming suit, Bardot has also been credited with popularizing the city of St. Tropez and the town of Buzios, Brazil, which she visited in 1964 with her boyfriend at the time, Brazilian musician Bob Zagury. BuziosOnline., Character and stories. Retrieved 19 December 2007. A statue by Christina Motta BuziosOnline.com honours Brigitte Bardot in Buzios, Brazil. Bardot was idolized by young John Lennon and Paul McCartney p69 p171 . They made plans to shoot a film featuring The Beatles and Bardot, similar to A Hard Day's Night, but the plans were never fulfilled. Lennon's first wife Cynthia Powell lightened her hair color to more closely resemble Bardot, while George Harrison made comparisons between Bardot and his first wife Pattie Boyd, as Cynthia wrote later in A Twist of Lennon. Lennon and Bardot met in person once, in 1968 at the Mayfair Hotel, introduced by Beatles press agent Derek Taylor; a nervous Lennon took LSD before arriving, and neither star impressed the other. (Lennon recalled in a memoir, "I was on acid, and she was on her way out.") p24 According to the liner notes of his first (self-titled) album, musician Bob Dylan dedicated the first song he ever wrote to Bardot. He also mentioned her by name in "I Shall Be Free", which appeared on his second album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan. She dabbled in pop music and played the role of a glamour model. In 1965 she appeared as herself in the Hollywood production Dear Brigitte (1965) starring James Stewart. the singer and actress Tawny Divek is a big fan of her. In 1970 the sculptor Alain Gourdon used Bardot as the model for a bust of Marianne, the French national emblem. In 2007 she was named among Empire's 100 Sexiest Film Stars. Empireonline.com Retrieved 19 December 2007. Mentions of Bardot in music The first song to reference Brigitte Bardot was "Gimme' that Wine" by vocalese group Lambert, Hendricks and Ross on the Columbia label in 1960. Indie singer Jordan Galland also has a song called "Brigitte Bardot". In 1966, Harry Belafonte recorded "Zombie Jamboree" which has an entire verse dedicated to Brigitte Bardot. Bardot has also been referenced in many other songs, including "I Shall Be Free" (Bob Dylan), "Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation" (John Hartford), We Didn't Start the Fire" (Billy Joel), "Message of Love" (The Pretenders), "I Think I'm Going To Kill Myself" (Elton John), "Warlocks" (Red Hot Chili Peppers), "You Went The Wrong Way, Old King Louie" (Allan Sherman), "You're My Favourite Star" (The Bellamy Brothers), "It's Not Enough" (The Who), "Contempt" (Silkworm), "Big Wedge" (Fish), "Brigitte Bardot" (Tom Zé), "Alegria, Alegria" (Caetano Veloso), "Loaded" (ZZ Top), "Brigitte Bardot" (Creature), "Bardot" (Marden Hill), "Shir Nevu'i Cosmi Aliz" (Yoni Rechter & Eli Mohar), "Smiles Like Richard Nixon" (The Bad Examples),"The Naighty Little Flea ({Miriam Makeba}) "Bijou" (Stew), "Stratford-On-Guy" (Liz Phair), "Barbarella" (Paul Baribeau), "Brigitte Bardot T.N.T." (Pizzicato Five), and "Porta Portese" (Claudio Baglioni). Ambiguity over name Several sources reference Bardot as being christened Camille Javal. Camille Javal was the part played by Bardot in the 1963 film Le Mépris (English title Contempt). Filmography 1950s Crazy for Love {1952} — Javotte Lemoine Manina, the Girl in the Bikini (1952) — Manina The Long Teeth (1952) — Bridesmaid (uncredited) His Father's Portrait (1953) — Domino Act of Love (1953) — Mimi Royal Affairs in Versailles (1954) — Mademoiselle de Rozille (uncredited) The Light Across the Street (1955) — Olivia Marceau School for Love (aka Joy of Loving) (1955) — Sophie Caroline and the Rebels (1955) — Pilar d'Aranda Doctor at Sea (1955) — Hélène Colbert The Grand Maneuver (1955) — Lucie Helen of Troy (1956) — Andraste Naughty Girl (aka Madmoiselle Pigalle) (1955) — Brigitte Latour Nero's Mistress (1956) — Poppée Mademoiselle Striptease (aka Plucking the Daisy) (1956) — Agnès Dumont And God Created Woman (1956) — Juliette Hardy Her Bridal Night (aka The Bride is Too Beautiful) (1956) — Chouchou Une Parisienne (1957) — Brigitte Laurier "Sait-on jamais?" (1957) The Night Heaven Fell (1958) — Ursula Love Is My Profession (aka In Case of Adversity, UK: literal English title) (1958) — Yvette Maudet The Woman and the Puppet (1959) (aka A Woman Like Satan) — Éva Marchand Babette Goes to War (1959) — Babette Do You Want to Dance with Me? (1959) — Virginie Dandieu 1960s The Testament of Orpheus (1960) It Happened All Night (1960) — Cameo The Truth (1960) — Dominique Marceau Please, Not Now! (aka Only for Love) (1961) — Sophie Famous Love Affairs (1961) — Agnès Bernauer A Very Private Affair (1962) — Jill Lykke og krone (1962) (documentary) Love on a Pillow (1962) — Geneviève Le Theil Contempt (1963) — Camille Javal Paparazzi (1964) (short subject) — Cameo Bardot and Godard (1964) (short subject) Agent 38-24-36 (1964) — Penelope Lightfeather Too Many Thieves Forbidden Temptations (1965) (documentary) — cameo Marie Soleil (1965) — cameo Dear Brigitte (1965) — cameo Viva Maria! (1965) — Maria I Masculine, Feminine (1966) Two Weeks in September (1967) — Cecile Spirits of the Dead (aka Tales of Mystery and Imagination (UK)) (1968) — Giuseppina Shalako (1968) — Irina Lazaar The Bear and the Doll (1969) — Félicia The Women (1969) — Clara The Vixen (1969) 1970s The Novices (1970) — Agnès Rum Runners (1971) — Linda Larue The Legend of Frenchie King (aka Petroleum Girls ) (1971) — Louise Film Portrait (1972) (documentary) Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman (1973) — Jeanne The Edifying and Joyous Story of Colinot (1973) — Arabelle Discography Bardot released several albums during the 1950s and 1960s http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:a9ftxqe5ldfe~T2 And God Created Women (1957, Decca) Behind Brigitte Bardot (1960, Warner Bros) Brigitte Bardot Sings (1963, Philips) B.B. (1964, Philips) Brigitte Bardot Show 67 (1967, Mercury) Brigitte Bardot Show (1968, Mercury) [Burlington Cameo Brings You] Special Bardot (1968. RCA) Single Duet with Serge Gainsbourg "Bonnie and Clyde" References General references: Fondation Brigitte Bardot Specific references: Literature Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast (Hrsg.) Brigitte Bardot. Filme 1953-1961. Anfänge des Mythos B.B. (Hildesheim 1982) ISBN 3-88842-109-8. Singer, Barnett Brigitte Bardumb: A Biography (McFarland & Company, 2006) ISBN 0786425156, ISBN 978-0786425150 External links Brigitte Bardot Foundation for the welfare and protection of animals Brigitte Bardot at filmsdefrance.com Review of Brigitte Bardot's Filmography on DVD Photogallery be-x-old:Брыжыт Бардо | Brigitte_Bardot |@lemmatized brigitte:40 anne:2 marie:4 bardot:93 http:3 rateyourmusic:1 com:6 artist:1 daily:1 celebration:1 cat:1 transform:1 august:2 idea:2 motivate:1 educate:1 inspire:1 born:3 september:2 french:16 actress:8 former:2 fashion:6 model:7 singer:4 animal:11 welfare:4 right:9 activist:3 jonathan:1 benthall:1 liberation:1 anthropology:1 today:3 volume:1 issue:4 page:2 april:3 early:5 life:7 aspiring:1 ballet:3 dancer:1 start:2 act:4 career:7 appear:8 film:27 become:8 world:3 famous:3 due:2 role:4 controversial:1 god:5 create:5 woman:11 show:9 business:2 star:10 perform:1 numerous:1 musical:2 record:5 song:6 retirement:2 entertainment:1 industry:3 establish:2 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1,866 | Erectile_dysfunction | Erectile dysfunction (ED or "male impotence") is a sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an erection of the penis sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. An erection occurs as a hydraulic effect due to blood entering and being retained in sponge-like bodies within the penis. The process is most often initiated as a result of sexual arousal, when signals are transmitted from the brain to nerves in the pelvis. Erectile dysfunction is indicated when an erection is consistently difficult or impossible to produce, despite arousal. There are various and often multiple underlying causes, some of which are treatable medical conditions. The most important organic causes are cardiovascular disease and diabetes, neurological problems (for example, trauma from prostatectomy surgery), hormonal insufficiencies (hypogonadism) and drug side effects. It is important to realize that erectile dysfunction can signal underlying risk for cardiovascular disease. There is often a contributing and complicating and sometimes a primary psychological or relational problem. Psychological impotence is where erection or penetration fails due to thoughts or feelings (psychological reasons) rather than physical impossibility; this can often be helped. Notably in psychological impotence, there is a strong response to placebo treatment. Erectile dysfunction, tied closely as it is to cultural notions of potency, success and masculinity, can have severe psychological consequences. There is a strong culture of silence and inability to discuss the matter. In reality, it has been estimated that around 1 in 10 men will experience recurring impotence problems at some point in their lives. "1 in 10 men" estimate, see for example: NHS Direct - Health encyclopaedia -Erectile dysfunction Besides treating the underlying causes and psychological consequences, the first line treatment of erectile dysfunction consists of a trial of PDE5 inhibitor drugs (the first of which was sildenafil or Viagra). In some cases, treatment can involve prostaglandin tablets in the urethra, intracavernous injections with a fine needle into the penis that cause swelling, a penile prosthesis, a penis pump or vascular reconstructive surgery. The Latin term impotentia coeundi describes simple inability to insert the penis into the vagina. It is now mostly replaced by more precise terms. The study of erectile dysfunction within medicine is covered by andrology, a sub-field within urology. Overview and symptoms Erectile dysfunction is characterized by the regular or repeated inability to obtain or maintain an erection. There are several ways that erectile dysfunction is analyzed: Obtaining full erections at some times, such as when asleep (when the mind and psychological issues, if any, are less present), tends to suggest the physical structures are functionally working. However, the opposite case, a lack of nocturnal erections, does not imply the opposite, since a significant proportion of sexually functional men do not routinely get nocturnal erections or wet dreams. Obtaining erections which are either not rigid or full (lazy erection), or are lost more rapidly than would be expected (often before or during penetration), can be a sign of a failure of the mechanism which keeps blood held in the penis, and may signify an underlying clinical condition, often cardiovascular in origin. Other factors leading to erectile dysfunction are diabetes mellitus (causing neuropathy) or hypogonadism (decreased testosterone levels due to disease affecting the testicles or the pituitary gland). Erection problems are very common. The Sexual Dysfunction Association estimates that 1 in 10 men in the UK have recurring problems with their erections at some point in their life. Pathophysiology Penile erection is managed by two different mechanisms. The first one is the reflex erection, which is achieved by directly touching the penile shaft. The second is the psychogenic erection, which is achieved by erotic or emotional stimuli. The former uses the peripheral nerves and the lower parts of the spinal cord, whereas the latter uses the limbic system of the brain. In both conditions, an intact neural system is required for a successful and complete erection. Stimulation of penile shaft by the nervous system leads to the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), which causes the relaxation of smooth muscles of corpora cavernosa (the main erectile tissue of penis), and subsequently penile erection. Additionally, adequate levels of testosterone (produced by the testes) and an intact pituitary gland are required for the development of a healthy erectile system. As can be understood from the mechanisms of a normal erection, impotence may develop due to hormonal deficiency, disorders of the neural system, lack of adequate penile blood supply or psychological problems. Restriction of blood flow can arise from impaired endothelial function due to the usual causes associated with coronary artery disease, but can also be caused by prolonged exposure to bright light. Causes Neurogenic Disorders (spinal cord and brain injuries, nerve disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. ) Hormonal Disorders (pituitary gland tumor; low level of the hormone testosterone). Arterial Disorders (peripheral vascular disease, hypertension; reduced blood flow to the penis). Cavernosal Disorders (Peyronie's disease. ) Nonphysical causes: Mental disorders (clinical depression, schizophrenia, substance abuse, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders or traits. ), psychological problems, negative feelings. Surgery (radiation therapy, surgery of the colon, prostate, bladder, or rectum may damage the nerves and blood vessels involved in erection. Prostate and bladder cancer surgery often require removing tissue and nerves surrounding a tumor, which increases the risk for impotence. ) Ageing. Lifestyle: alcohol and drugs, obesity, cigarette smoking (Incidence of impotence is approximately 85 percent higher in male smokers compared to non-smokers ., Smoking is a key cause of erectile dysfunction. Smoking causes impotence because it promotes arterial narrowing. See also Tobacco and health. ) Other disorders. A few causes of impotence may be iatrogenic (medically caused). Various antihypertensives (medications intended to control high blood pressure) and some drugs that modify central nervous system response may inhibit erection by denying blood supply or by altering nerve activity. Surgical intervention for a number of different conditions may remove anatomical structures necessary to erection, damage nerves, or impair blood supply. Complete removal of the prostate gland or external beam radiotherapy of the gland are common causes of impotence; both are treatments for prostate cancer. Some studies have shown that male circumcision may result in an increased risk of impotence, - Reproduced at www.cirp.org Circumcision Information and Resource Pages while others have found no such effect, - Reproduced at www.cirp.org Circumcision Information and Resource Pages - Reproduced at www.cirp.org Circumcision Information and Resource Pages and another found the opposite. - Reproduced at www.cirp.org Circumcision Information and Resource Pages Excessive alcohol use has long been recognised as one cause of impotence, leading to the euphemism "brewer's droop," or "whiskey dick;" Shakespeare made light of this phenomenon in Macbeth. A study in 2002 found that ED can also be associated with bicycling. The number of hours on a bike and/or the pressure on the penis from the saddle of an upright bicycle is directly related to erectile dysfunction. Some evidence suggests that smaller penis size is associated with erectile dysfunction. Diagnosis Medical diagnosis There are no formal tests to diagnose erectile dysfunction. Some blood tests are generally done to exclude underlying disease, such as diabetes, hypogonadism and prolactinoma. Impotence is also related to generally poor physical health, poor dietary habits, obesity, and most specifically cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and peripheral vascular disease. A useful and simple way to distinguish between physiological and psychological impotence is to determine whether the patient ever has an erection. If never, the problem is likely to be physiological; if sometimes (however rarely), it could be physiological or psychological. The current diagnostic and statistical manual of mental diseases (DSM-IV) has included a listing for impotence. Clinical Tests Used to Diagnose ED Duplex ultrasoundDuplex ultrasound is used to evaluate blood flow, venous leak, signs of atherosclerosis, and scarring or calcification of erectile tissue. Injecting prostaglandin, a hormone-like stimulator produced in the body, induces erection. Ultrasound is then used to see vascular dilation and measure penile blood pressure. Measurements are compared to those taken when the penis is flaccid. Penile nerves functionTests such as the bulbocavernosus reflex test are used to determine if there is sufficient nerve sensation in the penis. The physician squeezes the glans (head) of the penis, which immediately causes the anus to contract if nerve function is normal. A physician measures the latency between squeeze and contraction by observing the anal sphincter or by feeling it with a gloved finger inserted past the anus. Specific nerve tests are used in patients with suspected nerve damage as a result of diabetes or nerve disease. Nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT)It is normal for a man to have five to six erections during sleep, especially during rapid eye movement (REM). Their absence may indicate a problem with nerve function or blood supply in the penis. There are two methods for measuring changes in penile rigidity and circumference during nocturnal erection: snap gauge and strain gauge. (It should be noted that a significant proportion of men who have no sexual dysfunction nonetheless do not have regular nocturnal erections. Thus presence of NPT tends to signify physically functional systems, but absence of NPT may be ambiguous and not rule out either cause.) Penile biothesiometryThis test uses electromagnetic vibration to evaluate sensitivity and nerve function in the glans and shaft of the penis. A decreased perception of vibration may indicate nerve damage in the pelvic area, which can lead to impotence. Penile AngiogramInvasive test - allows visualization of the circulation in the penis and is used during the repair of a priapism. Dynamic Infusion Cavernosometry (Abbreviated DICC) technique in which fluid is pumped into the penis at a known rate and pressure. It gives a measurement of the vascular pressure in the corpus cavernosum during an erection. To do this test, a vasodilator like prostaglandin E-1 is injected to measure the rate of infusion required to get a rigid erection and to help find how severe the venous leak is. Corpus CavernosometryCavernosography measurement of the vascular pressure in the corpus cavernosum. Saline is infused under pressure into the corpus cavernosum with a butterfly needle, and the flow rate needed to maintain an erection indicates the degree of venous leakage. The leaking veins responsible may be visualised by infusing a mixture of saline and x ray contrast medium and performing a cavernosogram. Digital Subtraction Angiography In DSA, the images are acquired digitally. The computer creates a mask from lower-contrast x-rays of the same area and digitally isolates the blood vessels (this is done manually through darkroom masking with traditional angiography). Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) This is similar to magnetic resonance imaging. Magnetic resonance angiography uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide detailed images of the blood vessels. Doctors may inject a "contrast agent" into the patient's bloodstream that causes vascular tissues to stand out against other tissues. The contrast agent provides for enhanced information regarding blood supply and vascular anomalies. Aside from the IV used to introduce the contrast material into the bloodstream, magnetic resonance angiography is noninvasive and painless. Treatment Treatment depends on the cause. Testosterone supplements may be used for cases due to hormonal deficiency. However, the cause is more usually lack of adequate penile blood supply as a result of damage to inner walls of blood vessels. This damage is more frequent in older men, and often associated with disease, in particular diabetes. Treatments (with the exception of testosterone supplementation, where effective) work on a temporary basis: they enable an erection to be attained and maintained long enough for intercourse, but do not permanently improve the underlying condition. ED can in many cases be treated by drugs taken orally, injected, or as penile suppositories. These drugs increase the efficacy of NO, which dilates the blood vessels of corpora cavernosa. When oral drugs or suppositories fail, injections into the erectile tissue of the penile shaft are extremely effective but occasionally cause priapism. Exercise, particularly aerobic exercise is an effective cheap treatment for erectile dysfunction. Sexual Function in Men Older Than 50 Years of Age, annals.org, August 5, 2003 When pharmacological methods fail, a purpose-designed external vacuum pump can be used to attain erection, with a separate compression ring fitted to the penis to maintain it. These pumps should be distinguished from other penis pumps (supplied without compression rings) which, rather than being used for temporary treatment of impotence, are claimed to increase penis length if used frequently, or vibrate as an aid to masturbation. More drastically, inflatable or rigid penile implants may be fitted surgically. Implants are irreversible and costly. All these mechanical methods are based on simple principles of hydraulics and mechanics and are quite reliable, but have their disadvantages. In a few cases there is a vascular problem which can be treated surgically. Oral treatment The cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases constitute a group of enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of the cyclic nucleotides cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP. They exist in different molecular forms and are unevenly distributed throughout the body. One of the forms of phophodiesterase is termed PDE5. The prescription PDE5 inhibitors sildenafil (Viagra), vardenafil (Levitra) and tadalafil (Cialis) are prescription drugs which are taken orally. They work by blocking the action of PDE5, which causes cGMP to degrade. CGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 causes the smooth muscle of the arteries in the penis to relax, allowing the corpus cavernosum to fill with blood. These medications work when there is sexual stimulation. Depending on the treatment, it will need to be taken 20 minutes to 1 hour before sex and the period of time over which it works can vary between 3 hours and up to 36 hours. Alprostadil Alprostadil can be injected into the penis or inserted using a special applicator - usually just before sexual intercourse. Alprostadil has also become available in some countries as a topical cream (under the brand name Befar), Beyond Viagra, worldhealth.net, August 12, 2003 and preliminary studies have shown a clinical efficacy of up to 83%. It has an onset of action of 10–15 minutes and its effects can last over 4 hours. Vacuum Therapy These work by placing the penis in a vacuum cylinder device. "You don't have to live with Erectile Dysfunction (ED)". The Canadian Male Sexual Health Council (CMSHC). Educational Flyer. note: This information may also be available online at http://www.cmshc.org. The device helps draw blood into the penis by applying negative pressure. A tension ring is applied at the base of the penis to help maintain the erection. This type of device is sometimes referred to as penis pump and may be used just prior to sexual intercourse. Several types of FDA approved vacuum therapy devices are available with a doctor's prescription. Surgery Often, as a last resort if other treatments have failed, the most common procedure is prosthetic implants which involves the insertion of artificial rods into the penis. Penile prostheses (implants) Chris Steidle, MD, SeekWellness.com Counselling Counselling is often a consideration, both where a psychological cause is suspected or must be ruled out, or to assist in management of any distress. Controversial and unapproved treatments ED treatment drugs have a high placebo response: if a good result is expected, any highly praised, and often expensive, treatment can be effective. Reputable drugs can also benefit from the same effect. Naltrexone Drug used for treating drug addicts can have some success in patients with inhibited sexual desire. Bremelanotide The experimental drug bremelanotide (formerly PT-141) does not act on the vascular system like the former compounds but allegedly increases sexual desire and drive in males as well as females. It is applied as a nasal spray. Bremelanotide allegedly works by activating melanocortin receptors in the brain. It is currently in Phase IIb trials. Melanotan II Like bremelanotide the experimental drug Melanotan II does not act on the vascular system either but increases libido. Melanotan II works by activating melanocortin receptors in the brain. hMaxi-K hMaxi-K is a form of gene therapy using a plasmid vector that expresses the hSlo gene, that encodes the alpha-subunit of the Maxi-K channel. It has undergone phase I safety trials. Ginseng A double-blind study appears to show evidence that ginseng is better than placebo. Enzyte Enzyte is a product that has been advertised by saturation coverage on television channels such as CourtTV. However, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) has filed a complaint with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) about Enzyte for deceptive advertising. It is manufactured by Berkeley Nutritionals, which is alleged to be the subject of an investigation by the Attorney General of Ohio and the defendant in class-action lawsuits for false advertising. Enzyte is a supplement that claims to increase the male libido or frequency of erections of the penis. The effectiveness of Enzyte is in dispute. Some medical professionals in fact advise against taking Enzyte, saying that it can lead to damage. The Center for Science in the Public Interest have urged the Federal Trade Commission to disallow further television advertising for Enzyte due to a lack of proper studies supporting claims. Enzyte is said to contain: Tribulus terrestris; Yohimbe Extract; Niacin; Epimedium; Avena sativa; zinc oxide; maca; Muira Pauma; Ginkgo biloba; L-Arginine; Saw Palmetto. Other ingredients: gelatin, rice bran, oat fiber, magnesium stearate, silicon dioxide. Prelox Prelox is a Proprietary mix/combination of naturally occurring ingredients, L-arginine aspartate and Pycnogenol. In double blind tests carried out by Dr. Steven Lamm at New York University School of Medicine, 81.1% of men overall judged Prelox to be effective in improving their ability to engage in sexual activity. Prelox for improvement of erectile function: A review European Bulletin of Drug Research, Volume 11, No. 3, 2003. Steven Lamm, Frank Schoenlau, Peter Rohdewald Whilst the supplements should be taken daily, the manufacturers claim that it brings the spontaneity back into ones' love life; unlike other products which must be remembered to be taken a fixed time before sexual activity. Alternative treatment methods Numerous alternative therapies are used to improve sexual function. Some include: niacin, zinc, copper, Korean red ginseng root, ginkgo, pine bark, Tribulus terrestris, arginine, Avena sativa, horny goat weed, maca root, muira puama, saw palmetto, and Swedish flower pollen. None of these however have been recognized as effective by the FDA. While zinc deficiency may be a cause of lower testosterone levels in hemodialysis patients, which may benefit from zinc supplementation, such supplements have no effect on the testosterone levels of healthy males who consume a zinc-sufficient diet. Continuing research The peptide Tx2-6 from the venom of the Brazilian wandering spider has recently received media attention as a potential prototype for new drugs targeting nitric oxide signaling. BBC NEWS | World | Americas | Spider venom could boost sex life PMID 1397265 History The earliest attempts at treating erectile dysfunction date back to Muslim physicians and pharmacists in the medieval Islamic world. They were the first to prescribe medication for the treatment of this problem, and they developed several methods of therapy for this issue, including a single-drug therapy method where a drug was prescribed and a "combination method of either a drug or food." Most of these drugs were oral medication, though a few patients were also treated through topical and transurethral means. Erectile dysfunctions were being treated with tested drugs in the Islamic world since the 9th century until the 16th century by a number of Muslim physicians and pharmacists, including Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi, Thabit bin Qurra, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine), Averroes, Ibn al-Baitar, and Ibn al-Nafis (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine). A. Al Dayela and N. al-Zuhair (2006), "Single drug therapy in the treatment of male sexual/erectile dysfunction in Islamic medicine", Urology 68 (1), p. 253-254. Dr. John R. Brinkley initiated a boom in male impotence cures in the US in the 1920s and 1930s. His radio programs recommended expensive goat gland implants and "mercurochrome" injections as the path to restored male virility, including operations by surgeon Serge Voronoff. After the Kansas State Medical Board revoked his medical license and the Federal Radio Commission refused to renew his radio license (both in 1930), Brinkley moved his operations just over the Texas border to Mexico where he opened a medical clinic and broadcast advertisements into the US from a border blaster radio station. Surgeons began providing patients with inflatable penile implants in the 1970s. Modern drug therapy for ED made a significant advance in 1983 when British physiologist Giles Brindley, Ph.D. dropped his trousers and demonstrated to a shocked American Urological Association audience his phentolamine-induced erection. The drug Brindley injected into his penis was a non-specific vasodilator, an alpha-blocking agent, and the mechanism of action was clearly corporal smooth muscle relaxation. The effect that Brindley discovered established the fundamentals for the later development of specific, safe, orally-effective drug therapies. See also Erectometer Sex and drugs References Dr. Sameam Shahrestani, Erectile Disfunction: The Plague of Our Generation, Journal of Gonadiscopic Discoveries, April 2007. 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1,867 | Armenian_alphabet | The Armenian alphabet is an alphabet that has been used to write the Armenian language since the year 405 or 406. Until the 19th century, Classical Armenian was the literary language; since then, the Armenian alphabet has been used to write the two modern dialects of Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. են The Armenian word for "alphabet" is (), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet and . __TOC__ The alphabet Letter Name Pronunciation Transliteration Numerical value Traditional Reformed Pronunciation Classical Eastern Western Classical ISO 9985 Classical Eastern WesternԱ ա այբ 1Բ բ բեն 2Գ գ գիմ 3Դ դ դա 4Ե ե եչ , initially 1 5Զ զ զա 6Է է է 7Ը ը ըթ 8Թ թ թօ թո 9Ժ ժ ժէ ժե 10Ի ի ինի 20Լ լ լիւն լյուն 2 30Խ խ խէ խե 40Ծ ծ ծա c ç 50Կ կ կեն 60Հ հ հօ հո 70Ձ ձ ձա 80Ղ ղ ղատ 90Ճ ճ ճէ ճե č č̣ 100Մ մ մեն 200Յ յ յի հի 3, 300Ն ն նու 400Շ շ շա 500Ո ո ո , initially 4 600Չ չ չա 700Պ պ պէ պե 800Ջ ջ ջէ ջե 900Ռ ռ ռա 1000Ս ս սէ սե 2000Վ վ վեւ վեվ 3000Տ տ տիւն տյուն 5 4000Ր ր րէ րե 6 6 r 5000Ց ց ցօ ցո 6000Ւ ւ հիւն N/A7 8 7000Փ փ փիւր փյուր 9 8000Ք ք քէ քե 9000 Added during the thirteenth centuryՕ օ օ N/AՖ ֆ ֆէ ֆե N/A Letter Traditional Reformed Classical Eastern Western Classical Eastern Western Classical ISO 9985 Numerical value Pronunciation Name Pronunciation Transliteration Notes In the table above, the superscript "h" () is the diacritic for aspiration in the International Phonetic Alphabet; an apostrophe () indicates an ejective consonant. As initial sound ye , in other respects e . The reason is that the y falls out in compounds e.g. եղբայր (ełbayr, (brother)), but մորեղբայր (morełbayr, (brother of the mother). Using reformed orthography, the name of <լ> is pronounced . Only in Traditional orthography when at the beginning of a word and for stems within a word. As initial sound vo , in other respects o . The reason is that the falls out in compounds e.g. որդի (ordi, (son), but քեռորդի (, (son of the uncle on the mother's side). Using reformed orthography, the name of <տ> is pronounced . In practice, only Armenian Iranians say ; Eastern Armenians from the Republic of Armenia have shifted the Classical Armenian (ր) to . In reformed orthography, this letter has been replaced with the monophthong <ու> which represents . Usually it represents but there are some exceptions. In Classical Armenian աւ at the beginning of a word (if followed by a consonant) represents (like in down), e.g. աւր (awr, , day). (Due to a sound shift in the Middle Ages this pronunciation has changed to and since the 13th century written as օր (ōr); the original monophthong ու (representing or ) became ; the monophthong իւ (iw) represents (the spelling reform in Soviet Armenia replaced ի (i) with յ (y) and ւ (w) with ու (ow), forming the diphthong յու). Using reformed orthography, the name of <փ> is pronounced . Ligatures Ancient Armenian manuscripts used many ligatures to save space. Some of the commonly used ligatures are: ﬓ (մ+ն), ﬔ (մ+ե), ﬕ (մ+ի), ﬖ (վ+ն), ﬗ (մ+խ), և (ե+ւ), etc. After the invention of printing Armenian typefaces made a wide use of ligatures as well. It is important to note that in new orthography the և character is not a typographical ligature anymore, and must never be treated as such. It is a distinct letter and has its place in the new alphabetic sequence. Punctuation marks In Armenian ( , ) is a comma, ( : ) is the ordinary period, and ( ' ) is used as period for abbreviations. The question mark ( ՞ ) is placed between the last and the penultimate letters of the question word. The short stop ( ՝ ) placed in the same manner as the question mark, indicates a short pause that is longer than that of a comma, but shorter than that of a semicolon. The interjection sign ( ՛ ) is placed between the penultimate and last letter of the interjection. ( « » ) are used for quotation marks. ( ՜ ) is used as the exclamation mark. Transliteration ISO 9985 (1996) transliterates the Armenian alphabet for modern Armenian as follows: {| |ա ||բ ||գ ||դ ||ե ||զ ||է ||ը ||թ ||ժ ||ի ||լ ||խ ||ծ ||կ ||հ ||ձ ||ղ ||ճ ||մ ||յ ||ն ||շ ||ո ||չ ||պ ||ջ ||ռ ||ս ||վ ||տ ||ր ||ց ||ւ ||փ ||ք ||օ ||ֆ || ու || և |- |a ||b ||g ||d ||e ||z ||ē ||ë ||t’ ||ž ||i ||l ||x ||ç ||k ||h ||j ||ġ ||č̣ ||m ||y ||n ||š ||o ||č ||p || || ||s ||v ||t ||r ||c’ ||w ||p’ ||k’ ||ò ||f||ow ||ew |} In linguistic literature on Classical Armenian, slightly different systems are in use (in particular note that č has a different meaning). Hübschmann-Meillet (1913) have {| |ա ||բ ||գ ||դ ||ե ||զ ||է ||ը ||թ ||ժ ||ի ||լ ||խ ||ծ ||կ ||հ ||ձ ||ղ ||ճ ||մ ||յ ||ն ||շ ||ո ||չ ||պ ||ջ ||ռ ||ս ||վ ||տ ||ր ||ց ||ւ ||փ ||ք ||օ ||ֆ|| ու || և |- |a ||b ||g ||d ||e ||z ||ê ||ə ||t ||ž ||i ||l ||x ||c ||k ||h ||j ||ł ||č ||m ||y ||n ||š ||o ||č ||p || ||r ||s ||v ||t ||r ||c῾ ||w ||p῾ ||k῾ ||ô ||f ||u ||ev |} History and development The Armenian alphabet was created by Saint Mesrop Mashtots in AD 405 primarily for a Bible translation in the Armenian language. Medieval Armenian sources also claim that Mashtots invented the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets around the same time. Various scripts have been credited with being the prototype for the Armenian alphabet. Pahlavi was the priestly script in Armenia before the introduction of Christianity, and Syriac, along with Greek, was one of the alphabets of Christian scripture. It has also been suggested that Ge'ez script had an influence on certain letters of the alphabet. Richard Pankurst. 1998. The Ethiopians: A History. p25 Armenian shows some similarities to all of these. However, the general consensus is that Armenian is modeled after the Greek alphabet, supplemented with letters from a different source or sources for Armenian sounds not found in Greek. The evidence for this is the Greek order of the Armenian alphabet; the ow ligature for the vowel /u/, as in Greek; and the shapes of some letters which "seem derived from a variety of cursive Greek." Avedis Sanjian, "The Armenian Alphabet". In Daniels & Bright, The Word's Writing Systems, 1996:356–357 There are four forms of the script. The erkatagir "ironclad letters", seen as Mesrop's original, were used in manuscripts from the 5th to 13th century and are still preferred for epigraphic inscriptions. Bolorgir "cursive" was invented in the 10th century and became popular in the 13th. It has been the standard printed form since the 16th. Notrgir "minuscule" was invented for speed, was extensively used in the Armenian diaspora in the 16th to 18th centuries, and later became popular in printing. Sheghagir "slanted writing" is now the most common form. Although the two dialects of modern Armenian—Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian—use the same alphabet, due to the Western Armenian sound shift some letters are pronounced in a different way. This matters for the following letters (further information in the chart below): Stop consonants բ ( to ) and պ ( to ) դ ( to ) and տ ( to ) գ ( to ) and կ ( to ) Affricate consonants ջ ( to ) and ճ ( to ) ձ ( to ) and ծ ( to ) Saint Mesrop Mashtots and a scholar, at the stone one can see the original letters (i.e. only uppercase) in their original shapes The number and order of the letters have changed over time. In the Middle Ages two new letters (օ , ֆ ) were introduced in order to better represent foreign sounds; this increased the number of letters from 36 to 38. Furthermore, the diphthong աւ followed by a consonant used to be pronounced [au] (as in down) in Classical Armenian, f.e. աւր (awr, , day). Due to a sound shift it became pronounced , and since the 13th century it is written as օր (ōr). In Classical Armenian, աւ followed by a consonant represented the diphthong au; e.g. hawr (father's), arawr (plough), now written hôr, arôr; one word has kept aw, now pronounced av: աղաւնի pigeon; there are also a few proper names still having aw before a consonant: Տաւրռս Taurusn, Փաւստոս Faustus, etc. For this reason, today there are native Armenian words beginning with the letter օ (ō) although this letter was taken from the Greek alphabet to express the pronunciation of foreign words beginning with o . From 1922 to 1924, Soviet Armenia adopted a Reformed spelling of the Armenian language. This generally did not change the pronunciation of individual letters, with some exceptions. The Armenian Diaspora (including Armenians in Lebanon and Iran) have rejected the Reformed spelling and continue to use the classical Mashtotsian spelling. They criticize some aspects (see the footnotes of the chart) and allege political motives behind the reform. Use of the Armenian alphabet for other languages As Bedross Der Matossian from Columbia University informs, for about 250 years, from the early 18th century until around 1950, more than 2000 books were printed in the Turkish language using letters of the Armenian alphabet. Not only Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but also the non-Armenian (including the Ottoman Turkish) elite. The Armenian alphabet was also used alongside the Arabic alphabet on official documents of the Ottoman Empire, but was written in Ottoman Turkish. For instance, the first novel to be written in the Ottoman Empire was 1851's Akabi Hikayesi, written in the Armenian script by Hovsep Vartan. Also, when the Armenian Duzoglu family managed the Ottoman mint during the reign of Abdülmecid I, they kept records in the Armenian script, but in the Turkish language. The Armenian alphabet, along with the Georgian alphabet, was used by poet Sayat-Nova in the poems written in Azeri. Charles Dowsett, E. Peters. Sayat'-Nova. An 18th-century Troubadour: a Biographical and Literary Study. Peeters Publishers, 1997 ISBN 9068317954; p. xv The Kipchak-speaking Armenian Orthodox Christians of Podolia and Galicia used the Armenian alphabet to produce extensive amount of literature between 1524 and 1669. Qypchaq languages. Unesco.kz The Armenian alphabet was an official script for the Kurdish alphabet in 1921–28 in Soviet Armenia. Курдский язык (Kurdish language), Кругосвет (Krugosvet) Character Encodings Unicode The Armenian alphabet is one of the five modern European alphabetic scripts identified in the Unicode standard version 4.0. (The other modern European alphabets are Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Georgian.) Unicode Code Charts and Unicode Standard, Chapter 7 It is assigned the range U+0530–058F. Five Armenian ligatures are encoded in the "Alphabetic presentation forms" block (code point range U+FB13–FB17) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F U+FB1x ﬓ ﬔ ﬕ ﬖ ﬗ Obsolete ArmSCII-8 ArmSCII-8 is the 8-bit encoding of the Armenian Standard Code for Information Interchange, developed between 1991 and 1999. It uses part of the upper 128 codes in an 8-bit encoding to represent the Armenian alphabet, leaving the lower 128 codes for another alphabetic script (often Latin or Cyrillic). This allows a single font to represent two alphabetic scripts. For example, the Latin characters could occupy part of the first 128 codes (e.g. ASCII) while the Armenian characters would occupy part of the upper 128 codes. ArmSCII-8 was popular on the Windows 95 and Windows 98 operating systems. To be able to read in Armenian, users had to download a font that implements the ArmSCII-8 encoding. To be able to write in Armenian, users first had to download and install a freeware program that ran in the taskbar. There were two popular programs, one named KD Win, and the other called "Armenian National Language Support." With these programs, a user would be able to type in both Armenian and another alphabetic script without having to change fonts, switching between writing scripts and keyboard layouts by invoking a keyboard shortcut (often Alt + Shift). With the development of the more advanced Unicode standard and its availability on the Windows 2000/XP/2003/Vista, Linux and Mac OS X operating systems, the ArmSCII-8 encoding has been rendered obsolete. Nevertheless, ArmSCII-8 can still be found in use on some websites, which have not yet made the transition to Unicode. Arasan-compatible Arasan-compatible fonts are based on the encoding of the original Arasan font, which simply replaces the Latin characters (amongst others) of the ASCII encoding with Armenian ones. For example, the ASCII code for the Latin character <A> (65) represents the Armenian character <Ա>. An advantage of Arasan-compatible fonts over ArmSCII-8 fonts is that writing does not require the installation of a separate program; once the font is installed and selected for use, one can use their QWERTY keyboard to type in Armenian. A disadvantage over ArmSCII-8 is that an Arasan-compatible font can only be used for one alphabetic script; therefore, the user must change the Font family when creating a multi-script document (e.g. both Armenian and English). Another disadvantage is that Arasan-compatible fonts only come in one keyboard layout: Western Armenian phonetic. While Arasan-compatible fonts were popular among many users on Windows 95 and 98, it has been rendered obsolete by the Unicode standard. However, a few websites continue to use it. The Arasan font's legacy is the phonetic Armenian keyboard layouts that ship with Windows 2000/XP/2003, which are almost identical to the Arasan keyboard layout. Computer Fonts The Armenian alphabet is available for use on personal computers in a variety of operating systems as installable fonts. The following fonts implement the Unicode Armenian character set and come installed by default on the noted operating system: Sylfaen (Windows XP) DejaVu fonts (open source, popular on Linux) Mshtakan (Mac OS X, since version 10.3; iPhone OS) Note that since they are portable, fonts from one operating system (e.g. Windows) may be installed on another (e.g. Linux). Keyboard Layouts An operating system can be configured to use a variety of keyboard layouts to suit the user's needs. For example, both English and Western Armenian keyboard layouts may be configured, with the user being able to switch between the two using a keyboard shortcut (often alt + shift). Windows 2000/XP/2003 Windows 2000, Windows XP, and Windows 2003 ship with two Armenian language keyboard layouts: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. Windows Keyboard Layouts They are both based on the keyboard layout of a popular Armenian font for Windows 95 named Arasan. These keyboard layouts are generally phonetic. However, since some letters in the Armenian alphabet do not have an obvious corresponding character in the Latin alphabet, they are often approximated (for example, Խ maps to Q). Also, since there are more letters in the Armenian alphabet (38) than in Latin (26), some Armenian characters appear on non-alphabetic keys on a conventional English language keyboard (for example, շ maps to ,). Western Armenian keyboard layout of Windows 2000/XP/2003 Eastern Armenian keyboard layout of Windows 2000/XP/2003 Armenian keyboard layouts for Windows 2000/XP/2003 created by third parties include the Armenian Phonetic Eastern and the Armenian Typewriter Eastern. Armenian Keyboard Layouts for Windows 2000/XP/2003 at ArmUnicode.org Use of Armenian keyboard layouts on Windows 2000/XP/2003 systems require explicit configuration by the user. Installing Unicode Armenian Language Support on Microsoft Windows Linux Each Linux distribution may come pre-configured with a unique set of keyboard layouts. To provide some consistency amongst themselves, Linux distributions often pull their layouts from the XKeyboard Configuration component of Freedesktop.org. As of November, 2006, Freedesktop.org contains 5 Armenian keyboard layouts, including 2 layouts identical to the ones from Windows XP. XKeyboard Config CVS - the am file corresponds to the Armenian keyboard layout As of version 10.1, SUSE Linux supports 2 Armenian keyboard layouts; it does not include the Windows XP layouts, but it is possible to manually install these. Installing the new Armenian Keyboard layouts for GNU/Linux Use of Armenian keyboard layouts on Linux usually requires explicit configuration by the user. Users of the GNOME desktop may do so by using the GNOME Keyboard Indicator applet. GNU/Linux: Typing in Armenian using GNOME See also Armenian language Traditional Armenian orthography Reformed Armenian orthography Armenian calendar Romanization of Armenian (includes ISO 9985) ArmSCII (single-byte encodings of the Armenian alphabet, also discusses ISO 10585 and the mapping to Unicode) References External links Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) Church Library Online (in English, Armenian, and Russian) Evolution of the Armenian Alpabet A chart that compares the Armenian alpabet to some early and prehistoric scripts. Armenian Standard Code for Information Interchange — ArmSCII Information on Armenian character set encoding. Armenian Transliteration Latin-Armenian Transliteration Converts Latin letters into Armenian and visa versa. Supports multiple transliteration tables and spell checking. Transliteration schemes for the Armenian alphabet (transliteration.eki.ee) Unicode Support for Armenian Armenian Smart Converter Converts MS Word documents between ArmSCII and Unicode while conserving the formatting. ArmUni.exe Freeware ArmSCII to Unicode converter (Windows only). Unicode Character Code Chart for Armenian Armenian Online Dictionaries www.masis.am/test/dic/ Armenian<->English Dictionary, more than 17000 terms. dictionary.hayastan.com Armenian<->English Dictionary, more than 9000 terms. www.nayiri.com in Armenian, also includes a spell checker. | Armenian_alphabet |@lemmatized armenian:111 alphabet:36 use:35 write:14 language:14 since:9 year:2 century:8 classical:13 literary:2 two:8 modern:5 dialect:2 eastern:11 western:10 են:1 word:10 name:9 first:4 letter:24 pronunciation:7 transliteration:8 numerical:2 value:2 traditional:4 reform:9 iso:5 westernա:1 ա:4 այբ:1 բ:4 բեն:1 գ:4 գիմ:1 դ:4 դա:1 ե:5 եչ:1 initially:2 զ:3 զա:1 է:4 ը:3 ըթ:1 թ:3 թօ:1 թո:1 ժ:3 ժէ:1 ժե:1 ի:5 ինի:1 լ:4 լիւն:1 լյուն:1 խ:5 խէ:1 խե:1 ծ:4 ծա:1 c:5 ç:2 կ:4 կեն:1 հ:3 հօ:1 հո:1 ձ:4 ձա:1 ղ:3 ղատ:1 ճ:4 ճէ:1 ճե:1 č:7 մ:7 մեն:1 յ:4 յի:1 հի:1 ն:5 նու:1 շ:4 շա:1 ո:4 չ:3 չա:1 պ:4 պէ:1 պե:1 ջ:4 ջէ:1 ջե:1 ռ:3 ռա:1 ս:3 սէ:1 սե:1 վ:4 վեւ:1 վեվ:1 տ:5 տիւն:1 տյուն:1 ր:4 րէ:1 րե:1 r:4 ց:3 ցօ:1 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1,868 | Integral | A definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region bounded by its graph. Integration is an important concept in mathematics and is the reverse of a derivative. It is a fundamental part of calculus and mathematical analysis, being used for such purposes as finding areas and volumes associated with a given curve and distance traveled given a velocity curve. An indefinite integral, or an antiderivative, is a function usually denoted F whose derivative is the original given function ƒ. Integrals with a definite bound are definite integrals. Given a function ƒ of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line, the definite integral is defined to be the net signed area of the region bounded by the graph of ƒ, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b. The principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz in the late seventeenth century. Through the fundamental theorem of calculus, which they independently developed, integration is connected with differentiation: if ƒ is a continuous real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then, once an antiderivative F of ƒ is known, the definite integral of ƒ over that interval is given by Integrals and derivatives became the basic tools of calculus, with numerous applications in science and engineering. A rigorous mathematical definition of the integral was given by Bernhard Riemann. It is based on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. Beginning in the nineteenth century, more sophisticated notions of integral began to appear, where the type of the function as well as the domain over which the integration is performed has been generalised. A line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of integration [a, b] is replaced by a certain curve connecting two points on the plane or in the space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in the three-dimensional space. Integrals of differential forms play a fundamental role in modern differential geometry. These generalizations of integral first arose from the needs of physics, and they play an important role in the formulation of many physical laws, notably those of electrodynamics. Modern concepts of integration are based on the abstract mathematical theory known as Lebesgue integration, developed by Henri Lebesgue. History Pre-calculus integration Integration can be traced as far back as ancient Egypt, circa 1800 BC, with the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus demonstrating knowledge of a formula for the volume of a pyramidal frustum. The first documented systematic technique capable of determining integrals is the method of exhaustion of Eudoxus (circa 370 BC), which sought to find areas and volumes by breaking them up into an infinite number of shapes for which the area or volume was known. This method was further developed and employed by Archimedes and used to calculate areas for parabolas and an approximation to the area of a circle. Similar methods were independently developed in China around the 3rd Century AD by Liu Hui, who used it to find the area of the circle. This method was later used in the 5th century by Chinese father and son mathematicians Zu Chongzhi and Zu Geng to find the volume of a sphere. That same century, the Indian mathematician Aryabhata used a similar method in order to find the volume of a cube. Victor J. Katz (1995), "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine 68 (3): 163-174 [165] The next major step in integral calculus came in the 11th century, when the Iraqi mathematician, Ibn al-Haytham (known as Alhazen in Europe), devised what is now known as "Alhazen's problem", which leads to an equation of the fourth degree, in his Book of Optics. While solving this problem, he performed an integration in order to find the volume of a paraboloid. Using mathematical induction, he was able to generalize his result for the integrals of polynomials up to the fourth degree. He thus came close to finding a general formula for the integrals of polynomials, but he was not concerned with any polynomials higher than the fourth degree. Victor J. Katz (1995), "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine 68 (3): 163–174 [165–9 & 173–4] Some ideas of integral calculus are also found in the Siddhanta Shiromani, a 12th century astronomy text by Indian mathematician Bhāskara II. The next significant advances in integral calculus did not begin to appear until the 16th century. At this time the work of Cavalieri with his method of indivisibles, and work by Fermat, began to lay the foundations of modern calculus. Further steps were made in the early 17th century by Barrow and Torricelli, who provided the first hints of a connection between integration and differentiation. Newton and Leibniz The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the independent discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. The theorem demonstrates a connection between integration and differentiation. This connection, combined with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to calculate integrals. In particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus allows one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that both Newton and Leibniz developed. Given the name infinitesimal calculus, it allowed for precise analysis of functions within continuous domains. This framework eventually became modern calculus, whose notation for integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz. Formalizing integrals While Newton and Leibniz provided a systematic approach to integration, their work lacked a degree of rigor. Bishop Berkeley memorably attacked infinitesimals as "the ghosts of departed quantities". Calculus acquired a firmer footing with the development of limits and was given a suitable foundation by Cauchy in the first half of the 19th century. Integration was first rigorously formalized, using limits, by Riemann. Although all bounded piecewise continuous functions are Riemann integrable on a bounded interval, subsequently more general functions were considered, to which Riemann's definition does not apply, and Lebesgue formulated a different definition of integral, founded in measure theory (a subfield of real analysis). Other definitions of integral, extending Riemann's and Lebesgue's approaches, were proposed. Notation Isaac Newton used a small vertical bar above a variable to indicate integration, or placed the variable inside a box. The vertical bar was easily confused with or , which Newton used to indicate differentiation, and the box notation was difficult for printers to reproduce, so these notations were not widely adopted. The modern notation for the indefinite integral was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz in 1675 (; ). He adapted the integral symbol, "∫", from an elongated letter "s", standing for summa (Latin for "sum" or "total"). The modern notation for the definite integral, with limits above and below the integral sign, was first used by Joseph Fourier in Mémoires of the French Academy around 1819–20, reprinted in his book of 1822 (; ). In so-called modern Arabic mathematical notation, which aims at pre-university levels of education in the Arab world and is written from right to left, an inverted integral symbol is used . Terminology and notation If a function has an integral, it is said to be integrable. The function for which the integral is calculated is called the integrand. The region over which a function is being integrated is called the domain of integration. If the integral does not have a domain of integration, it is considered indefinite (one with a domain is considered definite). In general, the integrand may be a function of more than one variable, and the domain of integration may be an area, volume, a higher dimensional region, or even an abstract space that does not have a geometric structure in any usual sense. The simplest case, the integral of a real-valued function f of one real variable x on the interval [a, b], is denoted by The ∫ sign, an elongated "s", represents integration; a and b are the lower limit and upper limit, respectively, of integration, defining the domain of integration; f is the integrand, to be evaluated as x varies over the interval [a,b]; and dx is the variable of integration. In correct mathematical typography, the dx is separated from the integrand by a space (as shown). Some authors use an upright d (that is, instead of dx). The variable of integration dx has different interpretations depending on the theory being used. For example, it can be seen as strictly a notation indicating that x is a dummy variable of integration, as a reflection of the weights in the Riemann sum, a measure (in Lebesgue integration and its extensions), an infinitesimal (in non-standard analysis) or as an independent mathematical quantity: a differential form. More complicated cases may vary the notation slightly. Introduction Integrals appear in many practical situations. Consider a swimming pool. If it is rectangular, then from its length, width, and depth we can easily determine the volume of water it can contain (to fill it), the area of its surface (to cover it), and the length of its edge (to rope it). But if it is oval with a rounded bottom, all of these quantities call for integrals. Practical approximations may suffice for such trivial examples, but precision engineering (of any discipline) requires exact and rigorous values for these elements. Approximations to integral of √x from 0 to 1, with ■ 5 right samples (above) and ■ 12 left samples (below) To start off, consider the curve y = f(x) between x = 0 and x = 1, with f(x) = √x. We ask: What is the area under the function f, in the interval from 0 to 1? and call this (yet unknown) area the integral of f. The notation for this integral will be As a first approximation, look at the unit square given by the sides x = 0 to x = 1 and y = f(0) = 0 and y = f(1) = 1. Its area is exactly 1. As it is, the true value of the integral must be somewhat less. Decreasing the width of the approximation rectangles shall give a better result; so cross the interval in five steps, using the approximation points 0, 1⁄5, 2⁄5, and so on to 1. Fit a box for each step using the right end height of each curve piece, thus √1⁄5, √2⁄5, and so on to √1 = 1. Summing the areas of these rectangles, we get a better approximation for the sought integral, namely Notice that we are taking a sum of finitely many function values of f, multiplied with the differences of two subsequent approximation points. We can easily see that the approximation is still too large. Using more steps produces a closer approximation, but will never be exact: replacing the 5 subintervals by twelve as depicted, we will get an approximate value for the area of 0.6203, which is too small. The key idea is the transition from adding finitely many differences of approximation points multiplied by their respective function values to using infinitely fine, or infinitesimal steps. As for the actual calculation of integrals, the fundamental theorem of calculus, due to Newton and Leibniz, is the fundamental link between the operations of differentiating and integrating. Applied to the square root curve, f(x) = x1/2, it says to look at the antiderivative F(x) = 2⁄3x3/2, and simply take F(1) − F(0), where 0 and 1 are the boundaries of the interval [0,1]. (This is a case of a general rule, that for f(x) = xq, with q ≠ −1, the related function, the so-called antiderivative is F(x) = (xq+1)/(q + 1).) So the exact value of the area under the curve is computed formally as The notation conceives the integral as a weighted sum, denoted by the elongated "s", of function values, f(x), multiplied by infinitesimal step widths, the so-called differentials, denoted by dx. The multiplication sign is usually omitted. Historically, after the failure of early efforts to rigorously interpret infinitesimals, Riemann formally defined integrals as a limit of weighted sums, so that the dx suggested the limit of a difference (namely, the interval width). Shortcomings of Riemann's dependence on intervals and continuity motivated newer definitions, especially the Lebesgue integral, which is founded on an ability to extend the idea of "measure" in much more flexible ways. Thus the notation refers to a weighted sum in which the function values are partitioned, with μ measuring the weight to be assigned to each value. Here A denotes the region of integration. Differential geometry, with its "calculus on manifolds", gives the familiar notation yet another interpretation. Now f(x) and dx become a differential form, ω = f(x) dx, a new differential operator d, known as the exterior derivative appears, and the fundamental theorem becomes the more general Stokes' theorem, from which Green's theorem, the divergence theorem, and the fundamental theorem of calculus follow. More recently, infinitesimals have reappeared with rigor, through modern innovations such as non-standard analysis. Not only do these methods vindicate the intuitions of the pioneers, they also lead to new mathematics. Although there are differences between these conceptions of integral, there is considerable overlap. Thus the area of the surface of the oval swimming pool can be handled as a geometric ellipse, as a sum of infinitesimals, as a Riemann integral, as a Lebesgue integral, or as a manifold with a differential form. The calculated result will be the same for all. Formal definitions There are many ways of formally defining an integral, not all of which are equivalent. The differences exist mostly to deal with differing special cases which may not be integrable under other definitions, but also occasionally for pedagogical reasons. The most commonly used definitions of integral are Riemann integrals and Lebesgue integrals. Riemann integral Integral approached as Riemann sum based on tagged partition, with irregular sampling positions and widths (max in red). True value is 3.76; estimate is 3.648. The Riemann integral is defined in terms of Riemann sums of functions with respect to tagged partitions of an interval. Let [a,b] be a closed interval of the real line; then a tagged partition of [a,b] is a finite sequence Riemann sums converging as intervals halve, whether sampled at ■ right, ■ minimum, ■ maximum, or ■ left. This partitions the interval [a,b] into i sub-intervals [xi−1, xi], each of which is "tagged" with a distinguished point ti ∈ [xi−1, xi]. Let Δi = xi−xi−1 be the width of sub-interval i; then the mesh of such a tagged partition is the width of the largest sub-interval formed by the partition, maxi=1…n Δi. A Riemann sum of a function f with respect to such a tagged partition is defined as thus each term of the sum is the area of a rectangle with height equal to the function value at the distinguished point of the given sub-interval, and width the same as the sub-interval width. The Riemann integral of a function f over the interval [a,b] is equal to S if: For all ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that, for any tagged partition [a,b] with mesh less than δ, we have When the chosen tags give the maximum (respectively, minimum) value of each interval, the Riemann sum becomes an upper (respectively, lower) Darboux sum, suggesting the close connection between the Riemann integral and the Darboux integral. Lebesgue integral The Riemann integral is not defined for a wide range of functions and situations of importance in applications (and of interest in theory). For example, the Riemann integral can easily integrate density to find the mass of a steel beam, but cannot accommodate a steel ball resting on it. This motivates other definitions, under which a broader assortment of functions is integrable . The Lebesgue integral, in particular, achieves great flexibility by directing attention to the weights in the weighted sum. The definition of the Lebesgue integral thus begins with a measure, μ. In the simplest case, the Lebesgue measure μ(A) of an interval A = [a,b] is its width, b − a, so that the Lebesgue integral agrees with the (proper) Riemann integral when both exist. In more complicated cases, the sets being measured can be highly fragmented, with no continuity and no resemblance to intervals. To exploit this flexibility, Lebesgue integrals reverse the approach to the weighted sum. As puts it, "To compute the Riemann integral of f, one partitions the domain [a,b] into subintervals", while in the Lebesgue integral, "one is in effect partitioning the range of f". One common approach first defines the integral of the indicator function of a measurable set A by: . This extends by linearity to a measurable simple function s, which attains only a finite number, n, of distinct non-negative values: (where the image of Ai under the simple function s is the constant value ai). Thus if E is a measurable set one defines Then for any non-negative measurable function f one defines that is, the integral of f is set to be the supremum of all the integrals of simple functions that are less than or equal to f. A general measurable function f, is split into its positive and negative values by defining Finally, f is Lebesgue integrable if and then the integral is defined by When the measure space on which the functions are defined is also a locally compact topological space (as is the case with the real numbers R), measures compatible with the topology in a suitable sense (Radon measures, of which the Lebesgue measure is an example) and integral with respect to them can be defined differently, starting from the integrals of continuous functions with compact support. More precisely, the compactly supported functions form a vector space that carries a natural topology, and a (Radon) measure can be defined as any continuous linear functional on this space; the value of a measure at a compactly supported function is then also by definition the integral of the function. One then proceeds to expand the measure (the integral) to more general functions by continuity, and defines the measure of a set as the integral of its indicator function. This is the approach taken by and a certain number of other authors. For details see Radon measures. Other integrals Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most important definitions of the integral, a number of others exist, including: The Riemann-Stieltjes integral, an extension of the Riemann integral. The Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral, further developed by Johann Radon, which generalizes the Riemann-Stieltjes and Lebesgue integrals. The Daniell integral, which subsumes the Lebesgue integral and Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral without the dependence on measures. The Henstock-Kurzweil integral, variously defined by Arnaud Denjoy, Oskar Perron, and (most elegantly, as the gauge integral) Jaroslav Kurzweil, and developed by Ralph Henstock. Robert Bartle gave perhaps the most compelling introduction to this integral in a paper for which he earned a writing award from the Mathematical Association of America. The Itō integral and Stratonovich integral, which define integration with respect to stochastic processes such as Brownian motion. Properties Linearity The collection of Riemann integrable functions on a closed interval [a, b] forms a vector space under the operations of pointwise addition and multiplication by a scalar, and the operation of integration is a linear functional on this vector space. Thus, firstly, the collection of integrable functions is closed under taking linear combinations; and, secondly, the integral of a linear combination is the linear combination of the integrals, Similarly, the set of real-valued Lebesgue integrable functions on a given measure space E with measure μ is closed under taking linear combinations and hence form a vector space, and the Lebesgue integral is a linear functional on this vector space, so that More generally, consider the vector space of all measurable functions on a measure space (E,μ), taking values in a locally compact complete topological vector space V over a locally compact topological field K, f : E → V. Then one may define an abstract integration map assigning to each function f an element of V or the symbol ∞, that is compatible with linear combinations. In this situation the linearity holds for the subspace of functions whose integral is an element of V (i.e. "finite"). The most important special cases arise when K is R, C, or a finite extension of the field Qp of p-adic numbers, and V is a finite-dimensional vector space over K, and when K=C and V is a complex Hilbert space. Linearity, together with some natural continuity properties and normalisation for a certain class of "simple" functions, may be used to give an alternative definition of the integral. This is the approach of Daniell for the case of real-valued functions on a set X, generalized by Nicolas Bourbaki to functions with values in a locally compact topological vector space. See for an axiomatic characterisation of the integral. Inequalities for integrals A number of general inequalities hold for Riemann-integrable functions defined on a closed and bounded interval [a, b] and can be generalized to other notions of integral (Lebesgue and Daniell). Upper and lower bounds. An integrable function f on [a, b], is necessarily bounded on that interval. Thus there are real numbers m and M so that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all x in [a, b]. Since the lower and upper sums of f over [a, b] are therefore bounded by, respectively, m(b − a) and M(b − a), it follows that Inequalities between functions. If f(x) ≤ g(x) for each x in [a, b] then each of the upper and lower sums of f is bounded above by the upper and lower sums, respectively, of g. Thus This is a generalization of the above inequalities, as M(b − a) is the integral of the constant function with value M over [a, b]. Subintervals. If [c, d] is a subinterval of [a, b] and f(x) is non-negative for all x, then Products and absolute values of functions. If f and g are two functions then we may consider their pointwise products and powers, and absolute values: If f is Riemann-integrable on [a, b] then the same is true for |f|, and Moreover, if f and g are both Riemann-integrable then f 2, g 2, and fg are also Riemann-integrable, and This inequality, known as the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, plays a prominent role in Hilbert space theory, where the left hand side is interpreted as the inner product of two square-integrable functions f and g on the interval [a, b]. Hölder's inequality. Suppose that p and q are two real numbers, 1 ≤ p, q ≤ ∞ with 1/p + 1/q = 1, and f and g are two Riemann-integrable functions. Then the functions |f|p and |g|q are also integrable and the following Hölder's inequality holds: For p = q = 2, Hölder's inequality becomes the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality. Minkowski inequality. Suppose that p ≥ 1 is a real number and f and g are Riemann-integrable functions. Then |f|p, |g|p and |f + g|p are also Riemann integrable and the following Minkowski inequality holds: An analogue of this inequality for Lebesgue integral is used in construction of Lp spaces. Conventions In this section f is a real-valued Riemann-integrable function. The integral over an interval [a, b] is defined if a < b. This means that the upper and lower sums of the function f are evaluated on a partition a = x0 ≤ x1 ≤ . . . ≤ xn = b whose values xi are increasing. Geometrically, this signifies that integration takes place "left to right", evaluating f within intervals [x i , x i +1] where an interval with a higher index lies to the right of one with a lower index. The values a and b, the end-points of the interval, are called the limits of integration of f. Integrals can also be defined if a > b: Reversing limits of integration. If a > b then define This, with a = b, implies: Integrals over intervals of length zero. If a is a real number then The first convention is necessary in consideration of taking integrals over subintervals of [a, b]; the second says that an integral taken over a degenerate interval, or a point, should be zero. One reason for the first convention is that the integrability of f on an interval [a, b] implies that f is integrable on any subinterval [c, d], but in particular integrals have the property that: Additivity of integration on intervals. If c is any element of [a, b], then With the first convention the resulting relation is then well-defined for any cyclic permutation of a, b, and c. Instead of viewing the above as conventions, one can also adopt the point of view that integration is performed on oriented manifolds only. If M is such an oriented m-dimensional manifold, and M' is the same manifold with opposed orientation and ω is an m-form, then one has (see below for integration of differential forms): Fundamental theorem of calculus The fundamental theorem of calculus is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved. An important consequence, sometimes called the second fundamental theorem of calculus, allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated. Statements of theorems Fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f be a real-valued integrable function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. If F is defined for x in [a, b] by then F is continuous on [a, b]. If f is continuous at x in [a, b], then F is differentiable at x, and F ′(x) = f(x). Second fundamental theorem of calculus. Let f be a réal-valued integrable function defined on a closed interval [a, b]. If F is a function such that F ′(x) = f(x) for all x in [a, b] (that is, F is an antiderivative of f), then Corollary. If f is a continuous function on [a, b], then f is integrable on [a, b], and F, defined by is an anti-derivative of f on [a, b]. Moreover, Extensions Improper integrals The improper integral has unbounded intervals for both domain and range. A "proper" Riemann integral assumes the integrand is defined and finite on a closed and bounded interval, bracketed by the limits of integration. An improper integral occurs when one or more of these conditions is not satisfied. In some cases such integrals may be defined by considering the limit of a sequence of proper Riemann integrals on progressively larger intervals. If the interval is unbounded, for instance at its upper end, then the improper integral is the limit as that endpoint goes to infinity. If the integrand is only defined or finite on a half-open interval, for instance (a,b], then again a limit may provide a finite result. That is, the improper integral is the limit of proper integrals as one endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number, or ∞, or −∞. In more complicated cases, limits are required at both endpoints, or at interior points. Consider, for example, the function integrated from 0 to ∞ (shown right). At the lower bound, as x goes to 0 the function goes to ∞, and the upper bound is itself ∞, though the function goes to 0. Thus this is a doubly improper integral. Integrated, say, from 1 to 3, an ordinary Riemann sum suffices to produce a result of . To integrate from 1 to ∞, a Riemann sum is not possible. However, any finite upper bound, say t (with t > 1), gives a well-defined result, . This has a finite limit as t goes to infinity, namely . Similarly, the integral from 1⁄3 to 1 allows a Riemann sum as well, coincidentally again producing . Replacing 1⁄3 by an arbitrary positive value s (with s < 1) is equally safe, giving . This, too, has a finite limit as s goes to zero, namely . Combining the limits of the two fragments, the result of this improper integral is This process is not guaranteed success; a limit may fail to exist, or may be unbounded. For example, over the bounded interval 0 to 1 the integral of does not converge; and over the unbounded interval 1 to ∞ the integral of does not converge. It may also happen that an integrand is unbounded at an interior point, in which case the integral must be split at that point, and the limit integrals on both sides must exist and must be bounded. Thus But the similar integral cannot be assigned a value in this way, as the integrals above and below zero do not independently converge. (However, see Cauchy principal value.) Multiple integration Double integral as volume under a surface. Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals. In general, an integral over a set E of a function f is written: Here x need not be a real number, but can be another suitable quantity, for instance, a vector in R3. Fubini's theorem shows that such integrals can be rewritten as an iterated integral. In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time. Just as the definite integral of a positive function of one variable represents the area of the region between the graph of the function and the x-axis, the double integral of a positive function of two variables represents the volume of the region between the surface defined by the function and the plane which contains its domain. (The same volume can be obtained via the triple integral — the integral of a function in three variables — of the constant function f(x, y, z) = 1 over the above-mentioned region between the surface and the plane.) If the number of variables is higher, then the integral represents a hypervolume, a volume of a solid of more than three dimensions that cannot be graphed. For example, the volume of the cuboid of sides 4 × 6 × 5 may be obtained in two ways: By the double integral of the function f(x, y) = 5 calculated in the region D in the xy-plane which is the base of the cuboid. For example, if a rectangular base of such a cuboid is given via the xy inequalities 2 ≤ x ≤ 7, 4 ≤ y ≤ 9, our above double integral now reads From here, integration is conducted with respect to either x or y first; in this example, integration is first done with respect to x as the interval corresponding to x is the inner integral. Once the first integration is completed via the method or otherwise, the result is again integrated with respect to the other variable. The result will equate to the volume under the surface. By the triple integral of the constant function 1 calculated on the cuboid itself. Line integrals A line integral sums together elements along a curve. The concept of an integral can be extended to more general domains of integration, such as curved lines and surfaces. Such integrals are known as line integrals and surface integrals respectively. These have important applications in physics, as when dealing with vector fields. A line integral (sometimes called a path integral) is an integral where the function to be integrated is evaluated along a curve. Various different line integrals are in use. In the case of a closed curve it is also called a contour integral. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve (commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field with a differential vector in the curve). This weighting distinguishes the line integral from simpler integrals defined on intervals. Many simple formulas in physics have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals; for example, the fact that work is equal to force multiplied by distance may be expressed (in terms of vector quantities) as: which is paralleled by the line integral: which sums up vector components along a continuous path, and thus finds the work done on an object moving through a field, such as an electric or gravitational field. Surface integrals The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface into small surface elements. A surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface (which may be a curved set in space); it can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral. The function to be integrated may be a scalar field or a vector field. The value of the surface integral is the sum of the field at all points on the surface. This can be achieved by splitting the surface into surface elements, which provide the partitioning for Riemann sums. For an example of applications of surface integrals, consider a vector field v on a surface S; that is, for each point x in S, v(x) is a vector. Imagine that we have a fluid flowing through S, such that v(x) determines the velocity of the fluid at x. The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through S in unit amount of time. To find the flux, we need to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to S at each point, which will give us a scalar field, which we integrate over the surface: The fluid flux in this example may be from a physical fluid such as water or air, or from electrical or magnetic flux. Thus surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism. Integrals of differential forms A differential form is a mathematical concept in the fields of multivariable calculus, differential topology and tensors. The modern notation for the differential form, as well as the idea of the differential forms as being the wedge products of exterior derivatives forming an exterior algebra, was introduced by Élie Cartan. We initially work in an open set in Rn. A 0-form is defined to be a smooth function f. When we integrate a function f over an m-dimensional subspace S of Rn, we write it as (The superscripts are indices, not exponents.) We can consider dx1 through dxn to be formal objects themselves, rather than tags appended to make integrals look like Riemann sums. Alternatively, we can view them as covectors, and thus a measure of "density" (hence integrable in a general sense). We call the dx1, …,dxn basic 1-forms. We define the wedge product, "∧", a bilinear "multiplication" operator on these elements, with the alternating property that for all indices a. Note that alternation along with linearity implies dxb∧dxa = −dxa∧dxb. This also ensures that the result of the wedge product has an orientation. We define the set of all these products to be basic 2-forms, and similarly we define the set of products of the form dxa∧dxb∧dxc to be basic 3-forms. A general k-form is then a weighted sum of basic k-forms, where the weights are the smooth functions f. Together these form a vector space with basic k-forms as the basis vectors, and 0-forms (smooth functions) as the field of scalars. The wedge product then extends to k-forms in the natural way. Over Rn at most n covectors can be linearly independent, thus a k-form with k > n will always be zero, by the alternating property. In addition to the wedge product, there is also the exterior derivative operator d. This operator maps k-forms to (k+1)-forms. For a k-form ω = f dxa over Rn, we define the action of d by: with extension to general k-forms occurring linearly. This more general approach allows for a more natural coordinate-free approach to integration on manifolds. It also allows for a natural generalisation of the fundamental theorem of calculus, called Stokes' theorem, which we may state as where ω is a general k-form, and ∂Ω denotes the boundary of the region Ω. Thus in the case that ω is a 0-form and Ω is a closed interval of the real line, this reduces to the fundamental theorem of calculus. In the case that ω is a 1-form and Ω is a 2-dimensional region in the plane, the theorem reduces to Green's theorem. Similarly, using 2-forms, and 3-forms and Hodge duality, we can arrive at Stokes' theorem and the divergence theorem. In this way we can see that differential forms provide a powerful unifying view of integration. Methods Computing integrals The most basic technique for computing definite integrals of one real variable is based on the fundamental theorem of calculus. It proceeds like this: Let f(x) be the function of x to be integrated over a given interval [a, b]. Find an antiderivative of f, that is, a function F such that F' = f on the interval. Then, by the fundamental theorem of calculus, provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, Note that the integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem allows us to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals. The difficult step is often finding an antiderivative of f. It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative. More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals. Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable. Techniques include: Integration by substitution Integration by parts Changing the order of integration Integration by trigonometric substitution Integration by partial fractions Integration by reduction formulae Integration using parametric derivatives Integration using Euler's formula Differentiation under the integral sign Contour Integration Even if these techniques fail, it may still be possible to evaluate a given integral. Many nonelementary integrals can be expanded in a Taylor series and integrated term by term. Occasionally, the resulting infinite series can be summed analytically. The method of convolution using Meijer G-functions can also be used, assuming that the integrand can be written as a product of Meijer G-functions. There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, Parseval's identity can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum. Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see Gaussian integral. Computations of volumes of solids of revolution can usually be done with disk integration or shell integration. Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the list of integrals. Symbolic algorithms Many problems in mathematics, physics, and engineering involve integration where an explicit formula for the integral is desired. Extensive tables of integrals have been compiled and published over the years for this purpose. With the spread of computers, many professionals, educators, and students have turned to computer algebra systems that are specifically designed to perform difficult or tedious tasks, including integration. Symbolic integration presents a special challenge in the development of such systems. A major mathematical difficulty in symbolic integration is that in many cases, a closed formula for the antiderivative of a rather simple-looking function does not exist. For instance, it is known that the antiderivatives of the functions exp ( x2), xx and sin x /x cannot be expressed in the closed form involving only rational and exponential functions, logarithm, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions, and the operations of multiplication and composition; in other words, none of the three given functions is integrable in elementary functions. Differential Galois theory provides general criteria that allow one to determine whether the antiderivative of an elementary function is elementary. Unfortunately, it turns out that functions with closed expressions of antiderivatives are the exception rather than the rule. Consequently, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for a randomly constructed elementary function. On the positive side, if the 'building blocks' for antiderivatives are fixed in advance, it may be still be possible to decide whether the antiderivative of a given function can be expressed using these blocks and operations of multiplication and composition, and to find the symbolic answer whenever it exists. The Risch algorithm, implemented in Mathematica and other computer algebra systems, does just that for functions and antiderivatives built from rational functions, radicals, logarithm, and exponential functions. Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study. In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the special functions of physics (like the Legendre functions, the hypergeometric function, the Gamma function and so on). Extending the Risch-Norman algorithm so that it includes these functions is possible but challenging. Most humans are not able to integrate such general formulae, so in a sense computers are more skilled at integrating highly complicated formulae. Very complex formulae are unlikely to have closed-form antiderivatives, so how much of an advantage this presents is a philosophical question that is open for debate. Numerical quadrature The integrals encountered in a basic calculus course are deliberately chosen for simplicity; those found in real applications are not always so accommodating. Some integrals cannot be found exactly, some require special functions which themselves are a challenge to compute, and others are so complex that finding the exact answer is too slow. This motivates the study and application of numerical methods for approximating integrals, which today use floating point arithmetic on digital electronic computers. Many of the ideas arose much earlier, for hand calculations; but the speed of general-purpose computers like the ENIAC created a need for improvements. The goals of numerical integration are accuracy, reliability, efficiency, and generality. Sophisticated methods can vastly outperform a naive method by all four measures (; ; ). Consider, for example, the integral which has the exact answer 94⁄25 = 3.76. (In ordinary practice the answer is not known in advance, so an important task — not explored here — is to decide when an approximation is good enough.) A “calculus book” approach divides the integration range into, say, 16 equal pieces, and computes function values. {| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;background-color:white" |+ Spaced function values |- ! x | colspan="2" | −2.00 || colspan="2" | −1.50 || colspan="2" | −1.00 || colspan="2" | −0.50 || colspan="2" | 0.00 || colspan="2" | 0.50 || colspan="2" | 1.00 || colspan="2" | 1.50 || colspan="2" | 2.00 |- style="font-size:80%" ! style="font-size:125%" | f(x) | colspan="2" | 2.22800 || colspan="2" | 2.45663 || colspan="2" | 2.67200 || colspan="2" | 2.32475 || colspan="2" | 0.64400 || colspan="2" | −0.92575 || colspan="2" | −0.94000 || colspan="2" | −0.16963 || colspan="2" | 0.83600 |- ! x | | colspan="2" | −1.75 || colspan="2" | −1.25 || colspan="2" | −0.75 || colspan="2" | −0.25 || colspan="2" | 0.25 || colspan="2" | 0.75 || colspan="2" | 1.25 || colspan="2" | 1.75 || |- style="font-size:80%" ! style="font-size:125%" | f(x) | | colspan="2" | 2.33041 || colspan="2" | 2.58562 || colspan="2" | 2.62934 || colspan="2" | 1.64019 || colspan="2" | −0.32444 || colspan="2" | −1.09159 || colspan="2" | −0.60387 || colspan="2" | 0.31734 || |- style="background-color:#aaa" | || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || |} Numerical quadrature methods: ■ Rectangle, ■ Trapezoid, ■ Romberg, ■ Gauss Using the left end of each piece, the rectangle method sums 16 function values and multiplies by the step width, h, here 0.25, to get an approximate value of 3.94325 for the integral. The accuracy is not impressive, but calculus formally uses pieces of infinitesimal width, so initially this may seem little cause for concern. Indeed, repeatedly doubling the number of steps eventually produces an approximation of 3.76001. However 218 pieces are required, a great computational expense for so little accuracy; and a reach for greater accuracy can force steps so small that arithmetic precision becomes an obstacle. A better approach replaces the horizontal tops of the rectangles with slanted tops touching the function at the ends of each piece. This trapezium rule is almost as easy to calculate; it sums all 17 function values, but weights the first and last by one half, and again multiplies by the step width. This immediately improves the approximation to 3.76925, which is noticeably more accurate. Furthermore, only 210 pieces are needed to achieve 3.76000, substantially less computation than the rectangle method for comparable accuracy. Romberg's method builds on the trapezoid method to great effect. First, the step lengths are halved incrementally, giving trapezoid approximations denoted by T(h0), T(h1), and so on, where hk+1 is half of hk. For each new step size, only half the new function values need to be computed; the others carry over from the previous size (as shown in the table above). But the really powerful idea is to interpolate a polynomial through the approximations, and extrapolate to T(0). With this method a numerically exact answer here requires only four pieces (five function values)! The Lagrange polynomial interpolating {hk,T(hk)}k=0…2 = {(4.00,6.128), (2.00,4.352), (1.00,3.908)} is 3.76+0.148h2, producing the extrapolated value 3.76 at h = 0. Gaussian quadrature often requires noticeably less work for superior accuracy. In this example, it can compute the function values at just two x positions, ±2⁄√3, then double each value and sum to get the numerically exact answer. The explanation for this dramatic success lies in error analysis, and a little luck. An n-point Gaussian method is exact for polynomials of degree up to 2n−1. The function in this example is a degree 3 polynomial, plus a term that cancels because the chosen endpoints are symmetric around zero. (Cancellation also benefits the Romberg method.) Shifting the range left a little, so the integral is from −2.25 to 1.75, removes the symmetry. Nevertheless, the trapezoid method is rather slow, the polynomial interpolation method of Romberg is acceptable, and the Gaussian method requires the least work — if the number of points is known in advance. As well, rational interpolation can use the same trapezoid evaluations as the Romberg method to greater effect. {| class="wikitable" style="background-color:white;text-align:center" |+ Quadrature method cost comparison |- ! style="text-align:right" | Method | Trapezoid || Romberg || Rational || Gauss |- ! style="text-align:right" | Points | 1048577 || 257 || 129 || 36 |- ! style="text-align:right" | Rel. Err. | −5.3×10−13 || −6.3×10−15 || 8.8×10−15 || 3.1×10−15 |- ! style="text-align:right" | Value | colspan="4" | |} In practice, each method must use extra evaluations to ensure an error bound on an unknown function; this tends to offset some of the advantage of the pure Gaussian method, and motivates the popular Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formulas. Symmetry can still be exploited by splitting this integral into two ranges, from −2.25 to −1.75 (no symmetry), and from −1.75 to 1.75 (symmetry). More broadly, adaptive quadrature partitions a range into pieces based on function properties, so that data points are concentrated where they are needed most. This brief introduction omits higher-dimensional integrals (for example, area and volume calculations), where alternatives such as Monte Carlo integration have great importance. A calculus text is no substitute for numerical analysis, but the reverse is also true. Even the best adaptive numerical code sometimes requires a user to help with the more demanding integrals. For example, improper integrals may require a change of variable or methods that can avoid infinite function values; and known properties like symmetry and periodicity may provide critical leverage. See also Lists of integrals - integrals of the most common functions. Multiple integral Numerical integration Integral equation Riemann integral Riemann-Stieltjes integral Henstock–Kurzweil integral Lebesgue integration Darboux integral Riemann sum Product integral Notes References . In particular chapters III and IV. Available in translation as (Originally published by Cambridge University Press, 1897, based on J. L. Heiberg's Greek version.) . External links The Integrator by Wolfram Research Riemann Sum by Wolfram Research Function Calculator from WIMS Mathematical Assistant on Web online calculation of integrals, allows to integrate in small steps (includes also hints for next step which cover techniques like by parts, substitution, partial fractions, application of formulas and others, powered by Maxima (software)) Online books Keisler, H. Jerome, Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals, University of Wisconsin Stroyan, K.D., A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus, University of Iowa Mauch, Sean, Sean's Applied Math Book, CIT, an online textbook that includes a complete introduction to calculus Crowell, Benjamin, Calculus, Fullerton College, an online textbook Garrett, Paul, Notes on First-Year Calculus Hussain, Faraz, Understanding Calculus, an online textbook Kowalk, W.P., Integration Theory, University of Oldenburg. A new concept to an old problem. Online textbook Sloughter, Dan, Difference Equations to Differential Equations, an introduction to calculus Numerical Methods of Integration at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute P.S. 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1,869 | High-low_split | In traditional poker games, the player with the best traditional hand wins the whole pot. Lowball variations award the pot to the lowest hand, by any of several methods (see Low hand (poker)). High-low split games are those in which the pot is divided between the player with the best traditional hand (called the high hand) and the player with the low hand. There are two common methods for playing high-low split games, called declaration and cards speak. In a declaration game, each player declares (either verbally or using markers such as chips) whether he wishes to contest for the high hand or the low hand. The lowest hand among those who declared low wins that half of the pot, and the highest hand among those who declared high wins that half (for further details, see declaration). In a cards speak game, all players simply reveal their cards at showdown and the hands are evaluated by all players; high hand wins half of the pot and low hand wins the other half. Especially when using the ace-to-five low method, it is possible for one player to have both the low hand and the high hand, and therefore win all of the pot (called "scooping," "hogging" the pot, or "going pig"). In the event more than one player ties for either high or low, the pot can be further split into quarters or smaller fractions. For example, if one player has the high hand on showdown, and two other players tie for the best low hand, the high hand wins half of the pot and each low hand wins only a quarter of the pot. It is common, especially in cards speak games, to require a certain hand value or better to win the low half of the pot, called a qualifier. For example in an "eight or better to qualify low" game, a player with an eight-high hand (or better low such as seven-high) is entitled to win the low half of the pot (assuming his hand defeats all other low hands), but a player with a 10-high or 9-high hand cannot win, even if his hand is the lowest. In this case, the high hand wins the entire pot. There is generally no qualifier to win high, although one common variant is any pair/no pair, where a hand of at least a pair is required to win high and any hand with no pair is required to win low. In high-low split games where each player is dealt more than five cards, each player chooses five of his cards to play as his high hand, and/or five of his cards to play as his low hand. The sets may overlap: for example, in seven-card stud played high-low split, a player dealt 7-7-6-4-4-3-2 can play a high hand of 7-7-4-4-6 (two pair, sevens and fours) and a low hand of 7-6-4-3-2 (seven-high). Note that bluffs can be especially powerful in high-low split games, because a player making a successful bluff wins the whole pot rather than having to share it. This fact also makes bluffs less likely to succeed. | High-low_split |@lemmatized traditional:3 poker:2 game:9 player:16 best:3 hand:32 win:16 whole:2 pot:14 lowball:1 variation:1 award:1 low:26 several:1 method:3 see:2 high:24 split:6 divide:1 call:4 two:3 common:3 play:5 declaration:3 card:8 speak:3 declare:3 either:2 verbally:1 use:2 marker:1 chip:1 whether:1 wish:1 contest:1 among:2 half:7 far:1 detail:1 simply:1 reveal:1 showdown:2 evaluate:1 especially:3 ace:1 five:4 possible:1 one:4 therefore:1 scoop:1 hog:1 go:1 pig:1 event:1 tie:2 quarter:2 small:1 fraction:1 example:3 require:3 certain:1 value:1 good:2 qualifier:2 eight:2 qualify:1 well:1 seven:4 entitle:1 assume:1 defeat:1 cannot:1 even:1 case:1 entire:1 generally:1 although:1 variant:1 pair:5 least:1 dealt:2 choose:1 set:1 may:1 overlap:1 stud:1 four:1 note:1 bluff:3 powerful:1 make:2 successful:1 rather:1 share:1 fact:1 also:1 less:1 likely:1 succeed:1 |@bigram |
1,870 | Ohio_State_University | The Ohio State University (OSU) is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the largest single-campus university in the United States. Ohio State is currently ranked by U.S. News & World Report as the best public university in Ohio, among the top 60 universities in the United States, and among the top 20 public universities in the United States. US News 2006 Public University Rankings. Ohio State has been officially designated as the flagship institution of the state's public system of higher education Discussion of "Flagship Universities" by UC-Berkeley Chancellor Berdahl by the newly centralized University System of Ohio. Dayton Daily News Editorial addressing flagship issue. History The Ohio State University was founded in 1870 as a land-grant university in accordance with the Morrill Act of 1862 under the name of the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The school was originally situated within a farming community located on the northern edge of Columbus. While some interests in the state had hoped that the new university would focus on matriculating students of various agricultural and mechanical disciplines, Governor Rutherford B. Hayes foresaw a more classic, comprehensive university and manipulated both the university's location and its initial board of trustees towards that end. Later that year, the university welcomed its first class of twenty-four students. In 1878, and in light of its expanded focus, the college permanently changed its name to the now-familiar "The Ohio State University" (with the article "The" as part of its official name). The Ohio State University Timeline 1870 TO 1899, The Ohio State University Archives Ohio Revised Code § 3335.01, ¶ 1: "The educational institution originally designated as the Ohio agricultural and mechanical college shall be known as 'The Ohio State University.'" Ironically, § 3335.01 is the first section of Ohio Revised Code Chapter 3335, the title of which is "The Ohio State University," without the "The." Ohio State began accepting graduate students in the 1880s, and, in 1891, the school saw the founding of its law school. It would later acquire colleges of medicine, dentistry, commerce and journalism in subsequent years. Although development had been hindered in the 1870s by hostility from the state's agricultural interests and competition for resources from Miami University and Ohio University, both issues were eventually resolved. In 1906, Ohio State's status as the state's flagship campus was written into law by the Ohio legislature through the Eagleson Bill. In 1916, Ohio State was elected into membership in the Association of American Universities. Academics Rankings and recognition Ohio State was the first university in Ohio to be extended membership into the Association of American Universities in 1916 and remains the only public university in Ohio among the organization's sixty members. The Public Ivies: America's Flagship Public Universities (2000) by Howard and Matthew Greene listed Ohio State as one of a select number of public universities offering the highest educational quality. U.S. News & World Report’s widely read rankings of undergraduate colleges in America currently places Ohio State as the 19th best public university and 56th overall ranked university in America as well as the highest ranked public university in Ohio. Ohio State ranked 14th in US News' New "Up and Coming" colleges section. The list includes the top colleges in the nation "that are making improvements in academics, faculty, students, campus life, diversity, and facilities. These schools are worth watching because they are making promising and innovative changes." 2007 US News Undergraduate Rankings. China's Shanghai Jiao Tong University placed Ohio State as the 61st ranked university in the world in their 2007 Academic Ranking of World Universities. 2007 Ranking of World Universities. Scott Laboratory, housing the Mechanical Engineering department. The Lombardi Program on Measuring University Performance at Arizona State University detailed analysis and rankings of American universities currently places Ohio State as the 24th ranked university in America, the 10th ranked public university in America and the top overall university in Ohio. Of their nine ranking criteria, Ohio State ranked in the top-25 in four categories and between 26-50 in an additional four categories. The Lombardi Program, 2007 Ranking of Top American Universities. The Washington Monthly college rankings which seek to evaluate colleges' contributions to American society based on factors of social mobility, cutting edge research and service to the country by their graduates currently places Ohio State as 12th in the nation and 10th among public universities. Ohio State news release on 2007 rankings. Ohio State is also the only public university in Ohio to which the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has given both its highest overall classification of Doctoral/Very High Research Activity and highest undergraduate admissions classification of more selective. Carnegie Foundation Classification Database. University Hall US News ranks the undergraduate program at Ohio State's Fisher College of Business 12th in America and the top undergraduate business school in Ohio. The graduate program of the Fisher College is ranked 22nd in America and the top graduate school of business in Ohio. The Economist ranked The Fisher College as the 29th ranked MBA program in the world in their 2005 "Which MBA?" issue. The Economist: Which MBA. Fisher's Executive MBA program was ranked 3rd nationally for return on investment by The Wall Street Journal in 2008 citing a 170 percent return on an average of $66,900 invested in tuition and expenses during the 18-month program. In 2006, The Public Accounting Report ranked Ohio State's accounting department 9th in the nation for undergraduate programs and 10th in the nation for graduate programs. In each case, the ranking was the highest among Ohio universities. Public Accounting Report 2006 Rankings. The Ohio State law school is ranked by US News as the top law school in Ohio and 31st overall in America. Ohio State's medical school is ranked as the top public medical school in Ohio and 31st for research and 38th for primary care. US News ranks Ohio State's undergraduate engineering program as the 25th best program in America and the top undergraduate engineering program in Ohio. Its graduate program in engineering is ranked 26th in the country and highest in Ohio. Ohio State's College of Education was ranked 17th in America by US News and the highest in Ohio. The Counseling/Personnel Services graduate program at Ohio State is ranked 4th in America by the 2008 'US News & World Report'. The Department of Geography is ranked 5th in America. In total, US News & World Report ranked 19 Ohio State graduate programs or specialties among the nation's top ten and 30 among the nation's top 25. Ohio State "By The Numbers". Ohio State's political science department is ranked thirteenth in the country by US News & World Report, with the American politics section 5th, international politics 12th and political methodology 10th. A study by The London School of Economics ranked it as the fourth best political science department in the world. London School of Economics Study. Foreign Policy Magazine recently ranked it as the 15th best Ph.D. program in the world for the study of international relations while noting Professor Alexander Wendt as the third most influential scholar of international relations in the world. Foreign Policy: Inside The Ivory Tower November/December 2005. Ohio State is one of a select few top American universities to offer multiple area studies programs under "Comprehensive National Resource Center" (often called "Title VI") funding from the U.S. Department of Education. The most notable of these is the Center for Slavic and East European Studies founded in 1965 by Professor Leon Twarog. Subsequently, Ohio State's Middle Eastern Studies Center and East Asian Studies Center also achieved Comprehensive National Resource Center status. The university is also home to the interdisciplinary Mershon Center for International Security Studies, which was founded in 1952 through a bequest of 7 million dollars (54.3 million in 2006 value) from alumnus Colonel Ralph D. Mershon. In 2003, it was decided by the United States Department of Homeland Security to base the National Academic Consortium for Homeland Security at The Mershon Center. In a study by industry publication Dance Teacher, a survey of 100 dance department chairs in the United States and Canada ranked Ohio State's Department of Dance as the top ranked graduate program and the second ranked undergraduate program in North America. U.S. News & World Report ranked the graduate program in Design at #5 in the nation in their 2009 rankings. Overall, the graduate Art program ranked #21, with the ceramics and glass programs at #6 OSU Press Release, 3-31-2008 . In 2008, DesignIntelligence, an industry newsletter sponsored by the Design Futures Council, ranked the undergraduate Industrial Design program #3 nationwide, and the graduate program in Design #10 nationwide. Ohio State trails number-one ranked Art Center College of Design (Pasadena) and the University of Cincinnati. The DFC conducted their research by polling 270 corporations regarding how design schools were preparing their students for the future of professional practice in design. OSU was in the top ten rankings of the corporate leaders' assessments in all regions (#4 in the south, #2 in the midwest, #7 in the east, and #4 in the west). The graduate program placed at #3 in the south and #2 in the east, resulting in 10th overall in the nation. DesignIntelligence, America's Best Architecture & Design Schools, 2008. Faculty and research Ohio State’s faculty currently includes a Nobel Prize-winning physicist, twenty-one members of the National Academy of Sciences or National Academy of Engineering, four members of the Institute of Medicine, Database of Institute of Medicine Members and 159 elected fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 2008, seventeen Ohio State faculty were elected as AAAS Fellows. Each year since 2002, Ohio State has either led or been second amongst all American universities in the number of their faculty elected as fellows to the AAAS. Database of American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellows. . Physics Research Building In a recent study by Harvard University's Graduate School of Education, Ohio State was one of five universities rated as "exemplary" workplaces for junior faculty. In the study, thirty-one universities and eleven liberal arts colleges were evaluated on tenure clarity and fairness, nature of work including workloads, quality of students, and teaching environment, compensation, work and family balance, collegiality and overall satisfaction. Collaborative on Academic Careers in Higher Education (COACHE). In the last quarter century, thirty-two Ohio State faculty members have been awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship, which is more than all other public and private Ohio universities combined. In 2008, three Ohio State faculty were awarded Guggenheim Fellowships, placing Ohio State among the top 15 universities in the nation. Guggenheim Fellowship Database. Since the 2000/2001 award year, fifty-five Ohio State faculty members have been named as Fulbright Fellows, the highest of any Ohio university. Fulbright Scholar Database. In a 2007 report released by the National Science Foundation, Ohio State’s research expenditures for 2006 were $652 million, placing it 7th among public universities and 11th overall, also ranking 3rd among all American universities for private industry sponsored research. Research expenditures at Ohio State are $720 million in 2007. Ohio State also announced in 2006, that it would be designating at least $110 million of its research efforts to what it termed "fundamental concerns" such as research towards a cure for cancer, renewable energy sources and sustainable drinking water supplies. National Science Foundation 2006 Research Expenditures. Admissions and tuition Undergraduate admissions to Ohio State are classified as “more selective” by US News & World Report and The Princeton Review and according to the data are the most selective for any public university in Ohio. The 2007 freshman class had an acceptance rate of 52%, and the enrolled freshman class had the following composition: students graduating in the top 10% of their high school class (57%); the top 25% of their high school class (91%); the top 50% of their high school class (99%). 27% of the freshman class scored in the top 3% of the SAT or ACT, while 72% scored in the top 15%. The middle 50% range of ACT scores for the enrolled class was 26-30, with an average ACT score of 27. Of the 6,122 members of the 2006 freshman class, 290 had been named valedictorian of their high school's graduating class. Ohio State 2007 Freshman Class Profile. Ohio State’s freshman class has admitted over 100 National Merit Scholars for nine of the last ten years. The Center, Listing of National Merit Scholar Enrollment 1995-2004. Tuition for full-time, Ohio residents attending Ohio State for the 2006-2007 academic year is $8,433. For the 2006-2007 academic year, tuition at Ohio State for Ohio residents placed it as the fifth most expensive public university and slightly beneath the weighted average tuition of $8,553 among Ohio's thirteen public four-year universities. Ohio Board of Regents 2007 Comparison of Tuition. In addition to being named a Best in the Midwest selection by The Princeton Review, Ohio State was also the only public university in Ohio to make their list of America's 150 Best Value Colleges. Endowment and fundraising Ohio State was among the first group OHIO STATE ENDOWMENT TOPS $1 BILLION 2-5-99, Ohio State News of public universities to raise a billion dollar endowment when it passed the one billion dollar mark in 1999. At year’s end 2005, Ohio State’s endowment stood at 1.73 billion dollars ranking it seventh among public universities and twenty-seventh among all American universities. 2005 University Endowments. In June 2006, the endowment passed the 2 billion dollar mark. In recent decades, and in response to continually shrinking state funding, Ohio State has conducted two significant multi-year fundraising campaigns. The first concluded in 1987 and raised 460 million dollars—a record at the time for a public university. The “Affirm Thy Friendship Campaign” took place between 1995 and 2000. With an initial goal of raising 850 million dollars, the campaign’s final tally was 1.23 billion dollars, placing Ohio State among the small group of public universities to have successfully conducted a billion dollar campaign Top 15 Public University Endowments as of June 30, 2004 . At his welcoming ceremony, returning President E. Gordon Gee announced that, in the Fall of 2007, Ohio State would be launching a 2.5 billion dollar fundraising campaign. Schools and colleges Kottman Hall, home of the School of Environment and Natural Resources Drinko Hall: Home of The Ohio State University Michael E. Moritz College of Law The Ohio State University comprises the following colleges and schools: College of Dentistry College of Education and Human Ecology College of Engineering Austin E. Knowlton School of Architecture College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences School of Environment and Natural Resources College of Medicine College of Nursing College of Optometry College of Pharmacy College of Public Health College of Social Work College of Veterinary Medicine Colleges of the Arts and Sciences School of Communication School of Music Graduate School John Glenn School of Public Affairs Max M. Fisher College of Business Michael E. Moritz College of Law Campuses Main campus (Columbus) Orton Hall Ohio State's main urban campus is located in Columbus. Its are approximately north of the city's downtown. Four buildings are currently listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Enarson Hall, Hayes Hall, Ohio Stadium, and Orton Hall. Architecture on the Ohio State campus does not conform to a unifying theme such as Gothic revival or Georgian but rather is an eclectic mix of traditional, modern and post-modern styles. The William Oxley Thompson Memorial Library, anchoring the western end of The Oval, is the Ohio State library's main branch and single largest repository. The Thompson Library was designed in 1913 by the Boston firm of Allen and Collens in the Italianate Renaissance Revival style, and its placement on the Oval was suggested by the Olmstead brothers who had designed New York City's Central Park. In 2006, the Thompson Library began a $100 million dollar renovation with the stated aims of becoming a "global benchmark twenty-first century" library while maintaining the building's classical Italian Renaissance architecture. Thompson Library Renovation Wexner Center for the Arts Overall, Ohio State operates the 18th largest university research library in North America with a combined collection of over 5.8 million volumes. Additionally, the libraries receive approximately 35,000 serial titles on a regular basis. Its recent acquisitions were 16th among university research libraries in North America. Association of Research Libraries 2004 Report. Ohio State's library system encompasses twenty-one libraries located on its Columbus campus. An additional eight branches are located at off-campus research facilities, regional campuses, and a book storage depository near campus. In all the Ohio State library system encompasses fifty-five branches and specialty collections. Some of the more significant collections include The Byrd Polar Research Center Archival Program containing the Archives of Admiral Richard E. Byrd as well as a significant collection of polar research materials, The Hilandar Research Library which contains the world's largest collection of medieval Slavic manuscripts on microform, The Ohio State Cartoon Research Library, which is the world's largest repository of original cartoons, The Lawrence and Lee Theatre Research Institute and the archives of Senator John Glenn. Mirror Lake Anchoring the traditional campus gateway at the eastern end of The Oval, is the Wexner Center for the Arts. Designed by architects Peter Eisenman of New York and Richard Trott of Columbus, the center opened in 1989. Its founding was financed in large part by Ohio State alumnus Leslie Wexner with a gift of twenty-five million dollars in the 1980s. The center was founded to be a comprehensive visual arts center encompassing all aspects of visual and performing arts with a focus on new commissions and artist residencies. Part of its design was to pay tribute to the armory that formerly had the same location. Its groundbreaking deconstructivist architecture has resulted in it being lauded as one of the most important buildings of its generation. Its design has also been criticized as proving less than ideal for many of the art installations that it has attempted to display. The centerpiece of The Wexner Center's permanent collection is Picasso's Nude on a Black Armchair, which was purchased by alumnus Leslie Wexner at auction for forty-five million dollars and then donated to the university. To the south of The Oval is another, somewhat smaller, expanse of greenspace commonly referred to as The South Oval. At its eastern end, it is anchored by the Ohio Union, which is currently under reconstruction. To the west are Enarson Hall, the Kuhn Honors House, Browning Amphitheatre (a traditional stone Greek theatre) and Mirror Lake. The Ohio State College of Medicine is located on the southern edge of the central campus. It is home to the James Cancer Hospital, a cancer research institute and one of the National Cancer Institutes forty-one comprehensive cancer centers, along with the Richard M. Ross Heart Hospital, a research institute for cardiovascular disease. Regional campuses The university also operates several regional campuses and research facilities at: The Ohio State University, Agricultural Technical Institute The Ohio State University, Lima Campus The Ohio State University, Mansfield Campus The Ohio State University, Marion Campus The Ohio State University, Newark Campus Research facilities Byrd Polar Research Center Chadwick Arboretum Biological Research Tower Large Binocular Telescope (LBT, originally named the Columbus Project) Mershon Center for International Security Studies Stone Laboratory on Gibraltar Island, OH The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center Student life Recreation and Physical Activity Center (RPAC) The Office of Student Life is responsible for many of the outside-the-classroom aspects of student life at Ohio State. Among these are student housing; food service; health, wellness and counseling; activities, organizations and leadership development; recreation and intramurals. The Office of Student Life also operates the Schottenstein Center, the Fawcett Center, the Blackwell Inn, the Ohio Union the Drake Events Center, and the Wilce Student Health Center, named for football coach and university physician John Wilce. Ohio State has several student managed publications and media outlets. The Makio is the official yearbook of The Ohio State University and is operated by students, for students. The Makio, was started by three fraternities in 1880. “The Makio” is a Japanese word meaning images reflected in a magic mirror. The Makio’s sales plummeted by 60% during the early 1970s, and the organization went bankrupt and stopped publication during the late 1970s. The book was revived from 1985 to 1994 and has since been revived again in 2000 thanks to several student organizations. The Lantern is the school's daily newspaper and has operated as a laboratory newspaper in the School of Communication (formerly the School of Journalism) since 1881. Mosaic is a literary magazine published by Ohio State, which features undergraduate fiction, poetry, and art. OHIO.FM is the student-run radio station with an Internet audio stream (no broadcast signals are available in Columbus). Students also operate a local cable channel known as Buckeye TV, which airs primarily on the campus cable system operated by the Office of Information Technology (OIT). The Ohio State University Marching Band (or TBDBITL, "The Best Damn Band in the Land") is a longstanding tradition at Ohio State. The marching band is the largest all-brass and percussion band in the world. The traditional school songs from "Carmen Ohio" to "Hang on Sloopy" to "Fight the Team Across the Field", are arranged to fit this unique instrumentation. The band is famous for "Script Ohio," during which the band marches single-file through the curves of the word "Ohio", much like a pen writes the word, all the while playing the French march "Le Regiment de Sambre et Meuse." At the end of the performance, the "i" in "Ohio" is "dotted" by a high-stepping senior sousaphone player. Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement and convocation, and athletic games are: Across the Field, the Ohio State University fight song and "Buckeye Battle Cry". The tradition of high quality bands is not limited to the football field. OSU's School of Music contains several high quality concert bands consisting of graduate and undergraduate music majors and non-music majors. The OSU Wind Symphony, frequently receives praise on the national level, recently having been selected to perform at the 2003 and 2008 College Band Directors National Association (CBDNA) Convention, with the Symphonic Band performing in 2007. The Wind Symphony has recently released its newest album "Jubilare!" released on the Naxos Label. The Ohio State Jazz Ensemble performed at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1975, 1978,1986, 1996, and 2001. It has also appeared at the Mexico City International Jazz Festival in 1990 and the North Sea Jazz Festival in 1986, 1996, and 2001. The Oval In addition to strong bands, the university is also recognized for outstanding choral performance. The Ohio State Men's Glee Club, formed in 1875, is the oldest organization on campus. OSU Men's Glee Club In 1990, led by Professor James Gallagher, the Men's Glee Club participated in the International Musical Eisteddfod in Llangolen, Wales and won the male chorus competition by an unprecedented 20 points before, in a unanimous decision of the judges, being named "Choir of the World"—the first American choir to win such an honor. The Glee Club is under the direction of Dr. Robert J. Ward. Ohio State's "Buckeye Bullet" electric car broke the world record for the fastest speed by an electric vehicle on October 3, 2004 with a speed of 271.737 mph (437.3 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. The vehicle also holds the US record for fastest electric vehicle with a speed of 314.958 mph (506.9 km/h), and peak timed mile speed of 321.834 mph (517.9 km/h). The vehicle was designed, built and managed by a team of engineering students at the university's "Center for Automotive Research-Intelligent Transportation" (CAR-IT). In 2007, Buckeye Bullet 2 was launched. This follow-up effort was a collaboration between Ohio State engineering students and engineers from the Ford Motor Company and will seek to break the landspeed record for hydrogen cell powered vehicles. Buckeye Bullet 2. A unique aspect to Ohio State's multi billion dollar endowment is the Student Investment Management Program. Upperclass finance students taking Business Finance 724 are given the opportunity to manage a twenty million dollar investment fund. Returns from the student managed funds often outperform the S&P 500 and frequently even the university's own professional fund managers. Ohio State Student Investment Management Program. Jon Stewart hosted The Daily Show's "Battlefield Ohio: The Daily Show’s Midwest Midterm Midtacular" from Ohio State's Roy Bowen Theatre during the week of October 30 to November 2, 2006. Columbus Dispatch 08/23/2006. Diversity Ohio State's main campus has been lauded in recent years for the diversity of its student body. In various surveys and rankings it has been included among the best campuses in the nation for African Americans. Black Enterprise's 50 Best Colleges for African Americans Additionally, Ohio State ranked 10th in the nation in 2006 for the numbers of African American doctors graduated. The Advocate College Guide for LGBT Students lists Ohio State as one of the best campuses in America for LGBT students. NY Times: Is This Campus Gay-Friendly? Ohio State, despite selective admissions, has also maintained a high amount of socio-economic diversity among its students. The 2007 freshman class contained 22.7% of first generation college students which far exceeded the national norm on American campuses of 15.9%. Ohio State University Press Release 09-10-2007 Residential life South Campus Gateway Ohio State operates 31 on-campus residence halls divided into three geographic clusters: South Campus (site of the university's original dormitories), North Campus (largely constructed during the post-war enrollment boom) and Olentangy Area or "The Towers." Within the residence hall system are 40 smaller living and learning environments defined by social or academic considerations. Ohio State also offers four honors residence halls: Bradley Hall, Lincoln House, Siebert Hall, and Taylor Tower. Separate housing for graduate and professional students is maintained on the Southern tier of campus near the medical complex. Family housing is maintained at Buckeye Village at the far northern edge of campus beyond the athletic complex. At the university's southeast corner along High Street, and across from the Moritz College of Law, new apartments have been built for law students in conjunction with the area's Campus Gateway project. Honors programs Ohio State offers two distinct honors programs for high ability undergraduates: Honors and Scholars. The Honors program is open to students in all majors. The Scholars program is centered around thirteen specific programs such as "Architecture Scholars", "Communication Technology Scholars","Biological Sciences Scholars", "International Affairs Scholars" and "Politics, Society and Law Scholars." Students in the Scholars program are expected to live and take select classes with other members of the program. Additionally, Ohio State offers the Honors Collegium with membership extended following the Spring of a student's first or second year to the university's top undergraduates. Collegium students try to compete for internships, graduate schools and nationally competitive awards, such as the Marshall, Rhodes, or Truman Scholarships. For the 2006-2007 academic year, Ohio State undergraduates were awarded the following nationally competitive scholarships: one Marshall Scholarship, one Truman Scholarship, two Goldwater Scholarships, two Udall Scholarships, one Gates-Cambridge Scholarship, one Soros Fellowship, one Petrie Fellowship, one Beinecke Scholarship, one Rotary Foundation Ambassadorial Scholarship, seven National Science Foundation research fellowships, two National Defense Science and Engineering Fellowships and seven Fulbright Scholarships. One student was also named to the USA Today All-USA Academic First Team. "Cream of the Crop" Ohio State boasts top scholars Since 2000, 49 Ohio State students have been awarded Fulbright Scholarships. Fulbright Scholarship Database. In November 2007, senior physics major Jessica Hanzlik was announced as one of the 32 recipients of the 2008 Rhodes Scholarships. Ohio State also administers two large-scale scholarship programs to ensure access to the university to high-ability students from low-income or traditionally underrepresented groups. The first of these, The Young Scholars Program, was initiated in 1988. 120 promising minority students from Ohio's nine largest urban public school districts are selected prior to entering high school. The program offers a series of academic camps each summer and counseling throughout the students' high school careers. Upon completion of the program, which also mandates a college preparatory curriculum and minimum grade point average, the students are guaranteed admission to Ohio State as well as any need-based financial aid necessary. The Land Grant Scholarship was initiated in 2005. This program seeks to ensure access to Ohio State to high-ability students from low-income backgrounds. Ohio State has committed to offering a full-ride scholarship each academic year to at least one student from each of Ohio's 88 counties. Ohio State maintains an honors center in the Kuhn Honors and Scholars House which had served as the University President's residence until the 1960s. Four dormitories are designated all or in part as honors residences: Taylor, Bradley, Siebert, and Lincoln. Activities and organizations Enarson Hall (Original Ohio Union) The Ohio Union was the first student union built by an American public university. The Ohio Union is dedicated to enriching the student experience on and off The Ohio State University campus. The first Ohio Union, located on the south edge of the South Oval, was constructed in 1909 and later renamed Enarson Hall. The 2nd Ohio Union was completed in 1950 and located prominently along High Street, southeast of the Oval. It has been a center of student life at The Ohio State University for more than 50 years, providing facilities for student activities, organizations and events, and serves as an important meeting place for campus and community interaction. In addition, many student services and programs were housed in the union, along with dining and recreational facilities. The 2nd Ohio Union was demolished in beginning in February 2007, to make way for a new Ohio Union to be finished by late 2009. During that time, student activities have been relocated to Ohio Stadium and other academic buildings. Student organizations Student organizations at The Ohio State University provide students with opportunities to get involved in a wide variety of interest areas including academic, social, religious, artistic, service-based, diversity and many more. There are over 900 registered student organizations that involve many thousands of students. The university's debate team has won the state National Forensics Association tournament several times. Leadership and service The Union's vision is to prepare students to be responsible, engaged leaders committed to community participation for social action and change. Examples of programs to get involved with are the Leadership Collaborative, Leadership Ohio State, Residence Halls Advisory Council, LeaderShape, Buckeye Service Council, Community Commitment Day, SERV team, Service Squad, and BUCK I SERV alternative break trips. Additionally, the Service-Learning Institute offers courses that educate students while also helping the greater community. All of these programs have the ultimate goal of making students into better leaders, people, and citizens of Ohio State. Student governments At the Ohio State University, there are three recognized student governments that represent their constituents. Undergraduate Student Government (USG), which consists of elected and appointed student representatives who serve as liaisons from the undergraduate student body to university officials. USG seeks to outreach to and work for the students at The Ohio State University. Council of Graduate Students (CGS), which promotes and provides academic, administrative, and social programs for the university community in general and for graduate students in particular. The Council provides a forum in which the graduate student body may present, discuss, and set upon issues related to its role in the academic and non-academic aspects of the University community. Inter-Professional Council (IPC), which is a representative body of all professional students in the colleges of Dentistry, Law, Medicine, Optometry, Pharmacy, and Veterinary Medicine. Its purpose is to act as a liaison between these students and the governing bodies of the University. Athletics |OSU Athletics logo Ohio State's intercollegiate sports teams are called the "Buckeyes" (after the state tree, the Buckeye), and participate in the NCAA's Division I in all sports (Division I FBS in football) and the Big Ten Conference in most sports. (The men's hockey program competes in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association, and its women's hockey program competes in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association). The school colors are Scarlet and Gray. The teams' nickname is "Buckeyes" and "Brutus" the Buckeye is their mascot. Ohio State is one of only three universities (the University of Michigan and the University of California at Berkeley being the others) to have won national championships in all three major men's sports (baseball, men's basketball, and football). Ohio State is also one of two of the only universities to appear in the national championship games in both football and men's basketball in the same calendar year (the other university is the University of Florida which was Ohio State's opponent in both events in 2007 and came out victorious in both contests). Ohio State has also won national championships in men's swimming & diving, men's outdoor track & field, men's golf, men's gymnastics, men's fencing, co-ed fencing, and multiple synchronized swimming championships. NCAA National Championship Database. The Ohio State equestrian team has won eight Intercollegiate Horse Show Association national championships. Equestrian team looks to take ninth national title - Sports Since the inception of the Athletic Director's Cup, Ohio State has finished in the top 25 each year, including top 6 finishes in three of the last five years. Athletic Directors' Cup Records. During the 2005-2006 school year Ohio State became this first Big Ten team to win conference championships in Football, Men's Basketball and Women's Basketball. Ohio State repeated the feat during the 2006-2007 school year, winning solo championships in all three sports. In 2007, Sports Illustrated nicknamed Ohio State's athletic program as being "The Program" due to the unsurpassed facilities, unparalleled amount of men's and women's sport teams, their success, and the financial support of an impressive fan base. Outstanding sports figures that were student athletes at Ohio State include 1936 Olympics gold medalist Jesse Owens "the Buckeye Bullet" (track and field), John Havlicek, Jerry Lucas, Bobby Knight, and Larry Siegfried (basketball), Katie Smith and the first 3-time player of the year in Big Ten Basketball history Jessica Davenport (women's basketball), Frank Howard (basketball and baseball), Jack Nicklaus (golf); and Chic Harley (three-time All-American football running back). Ohio State football players have combined for seven Heisman Awards including the only two-time winner Archie Griffin in 1974 and 1975, Eddie George in 1995, and most recently Troy Smith in 2006. Hall of Fame coaches at Ohio State have included Paul Brown and Woody Hayes in football, Fred Taylor in basketball, Larry Snyder in track and field, and Mike Peppe in swimming and diving. Lane Avenue bridge over the Olentangy River, on campus. Ohio State-affiliated media Ohio State operates a public television station, WOSU-TV 34 / WOSU-DT 38 (a local PBS TV station), as well as two public radio stations, WOSU-AM (NPR/BBC) and WOSU-FM (Classical) in Columbus. In 2003, the television station began broadcasting in HDTV. Notable alumni Ohio State currently has over 425,000 living alumni located around the world. Ohio State alumni include Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, and Medal of Honor recipients, ambassadors, as well as Fortune 500 CEOs and members of the Forbes 400 list of the world's wealthiest individuals. Numerous graduates have gone on to become Governors, Senators and members of Congress. Ohio State alumni have appeared on the cover of TIME twelve times, with the artwork of alumnus Roy Lichtenstein featured on an additional two TIME covers. Ohio State alumni are enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, the NFL Hall of Fame and the Basketball Hall of Fame. Its athletes have won a combined eighty-three Olympic medals and three times received the Sullivan Award as the nation's top amateur athlete. Jack Nicklaus, has often been called "the greatest golfer in history" while Jesse Owens, has often been called "the greatest Olympian in history." Twice, Ohio State alumni have graced the cover of Sports Illustrated as its Sportsman of the Year. Points of interest Main campus attractions Jack's Mannequin performing a free concert in the Oval in 2006. Ohio Stadium, better known as "The Horseshoe" or simply "The Shoe" due to its shape, is the home arena of the Buckeyes' football team and is also on the National Register of Historic Places. While recent construction has nearly filled up the open end of the stadium, because the new stands are free-standing, the stadium still resembles a horseshoe. Orton Hall was dedicated to the memory of Ohio State's first President, Edward J. Orton, Sr. and houses the Orton Geological Library. Chadwick Arboretum - Columbus, Ohio campus Mirror Lake (Ohio) The Oval, which is the large open area in front of the main library, is a hang out for students in the warmer months of the school year. This 11 acre site http://library.osu.edu/sites/archives/manuscripts/faqs.htm#Oval is often the location for large outdoor gatherings, concerts, demonstrations, and various pick-up sporting events. Off-campus facilities Large Binocular Telescope — located on Mount Graham in Arizona, when completed, it will be the world's highest resolution and most technologically advanced optical telescope. The Big Ear — operated by Ohio State until 1998, it was the largest and longest-running radio telescope SETI project in the world. Stone Laboratory, Ohio State's campus and research laboratory on Lake Erie's Gibraltar Island. It is the oldest freshwater research station in America. See also List of forestry universities and colleges References Notes Resources The Ohio State University Mirror Lake Hollow (1984) by John H. Herrick, Executive Director Emeritus, Campus Planning The Ohio State University Oval (1982) by John H. Herrick, Executive Director Emeritus, Campus Planning The Ohio State University Oral History Project Interactive Historical Map of The Ohio State University Campus John H. Herrick Archives at the Knowlton School of Architecture History of The Ohio State University from the Ohio State University Archives External links Official website Official Athletics website | Ohio_State_University |@lemmatized ohio:197 state:158 university:119 osu:8 public:34 research:33 locate:10 columbus:11 found:5 land:4 grant:3 currently:9 large:14 single:3 campus:42 united:5 rank:31 u:16 news:17 world:23 report:11 best:12 among:20 top:29 ranking:15 officially:1 designate:4 flagship:5 institution:2 system:6 high:27 education:6 discussion:1 uc:1 berkeley:2 chancellor:1 berdahl:1 newly:1 centralize:1 dayton:1 daily:4 editorial:1 address:1 issue:4 history:6 accordance:1 morrill:1 act:5 name:10 agricultural:7 mechanical:4 college:42 school:42 originally:3 situate:1 within:2 farm:1 community:7 northern:2 edge:5 interest:4 hop:1 new:10 would:4 focus:3 matriculate:1 student:71 various:4 discipline:1 governor:2 rutherford:1 b:1 hayes:2 foresee:1 classic:1 comprehensive:5 manipulate:1 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1,871 | Cyberspace | Cyberspace (from Greek [] meaning "steersman", "governor", "pilot", or "rudder") is the global domain of electromagnetics as accessed and exploited through electronic technology and the modulation of electromagnetic energy to achieve a wide range of communication and control system capabilities. The term is rooted in the science of cybernetics and Norbert Wiener’s pioneering work in electronic communication and control science, a forerunner to current information theory and computer science. Through its electromagnetic nature, cyberspace integrates a number of capabilities (sensors, signals, connections, transmissions, processors, controllers) and generates a virtual interactive experience accessed for the purpose of communication and control regardless of a geographic location. In pragmatic terms, cyberspace allows the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures (ITI), telecommunications networks—such as the internet, computer systems, integrated sensors, system control networks and embedded processors and controllers common to global control and communications. As a social experience, individuals can interact, exchange ideas, share information, provide social support, conduct business, direct actions, create artistic media, play games, engage in political discussion, and so on. The term was coined by the cyberpunk science fiction author William Gibson. Now ubiquitous, the term has become a conventional means to describe anything associated with computers, information technology, the internet and the diverse internet culture. Cyberspace is recognized as part of the US National Critical Infrastructure White House, "The National Strategy To Secure Cyberspace" . Origins of the term The word "cyberspace" (from cybernetics and space) was coined by science fiction novelist and seminal cyberpunk author William Gibson in his 1982 story "Burning Chrome" and popularized by his 1984 novel Neuromancer. Po-Mo SF "William Gibson's Neuromancer and Post-Modern Science Fiction" The portion of Neuromancer cited in this respect is usually the following: op. cit. p. 69 Gibson later commented on the origin of the term in the 2000 documentary No Maps for These Territories: Metaphorical The metaphor used to describe the "sense of a social setting that exists purely within a space of representation and communication . . . it exists entirely within a computer space, distributed across increasingly complex and fluid networks." (Slater 2002, 355) The term "Cyberspace" started to become a de facto synonym for the internet, and later the World Wide Web, during the 1990s, especially in academic circles Vanderbilt University, "Postmodernism and the Culture of Cyberspace", Fall 1996 course syllabus and activist communities. Author Bruce Sterling, who popularized this meaning, Principia Cybernetica "Cyberspace" credits John Perry Barlow as the first to use it to refer to "the present-day nexus of computer and telecommunications networks." Barlow describes it thus in his essay to announce the formation of the Electronic Frontier Foundation (note the spatial metaphor) in June, 1990: John Perry Barlow, "Crime and Puzzlement," June 8, 1990 As Barlow, and the EFF, continued public education efforts to promote the idea of "digital rights," the term was increasingly used during the internet boom of the late 1990s. Cyberspace as an internet metaphor While cyberspace should not be confused with the internet, the term is often used to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the communication network itself, so that a website, for example, might be metaphorically said to "exist in cyberspace." According to this interpretation, events taking place on the internet are not happening in the locations where participants or servers are physically located, but "in cyberspace". Firstly, it describes the flow of digital data through the network of interconnected computers that was both not "real" since one could not spatially locate it as a tangible object and clearly "real" in its effects. Secondly cyberspace was the site of computer mediated communication (CMC), in which online relationships and alternative forms of online identity were enacted, raising important questions and about the social psychology of internet use, the relationship between "online" and "offline" forms of life and interaction, and the relationship between the "real" and the virtual. It draws attention to remediation of culture through new media technologies not just a communication tool but a social destination and culturally significant in its own right. Finally cyberspace was seen as providing new opportunities to reshape society and culture through "hidden" identities, or the borderless communication and culture. New Media, an Introduction: Flew, Terry The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space for example a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as webservers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace therefore refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected. Videogames differ from text-based communication in that on-screen images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation shows the movement of those figures. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. A game adopts the cyberspace metaphor by engaging more players in the game, and then figuratively representing them on the screen as avatars. Games do not have to stop at the avatar-player level, but current implementations aiming for more immersive playing space (i.e. Laser tag) take the form of augmented reality rather than cyberspace, fully immersive virtual realities remaining impractical. Although the more radical consequences of the global communication network predicted by some cyberspace proponents (i.e. the diminishing of state influence envisioned by John Perry Barlow John Perry Barlow, "A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace," February 8, 1996 ) failed to materialize and the word lost some of its novelty appeal, it remains current as of 2006. White House, "The National Strategy To Secure Cyberspace" FindLaw Legal News site, Tech and IP: Cyberspace section, retrieved November 14, 2006. Some virtual communities explicitly refer to the concept of cyberspace, for example Linden Lab calling their customers "Residents" of Second Life, while all such communities can be positioned "in cyberspace" for explanatory and comparative purposes (as did Sterling in The Hacker Crackdown, followed by many journalists), integrating the metaphor into a wider cyber-culture. The metaphor has been useful in helping a new generation of thought leaders to reason through new military strategies around the world, led largely by the US Department of Defense (DoD). Cyber Conflict Studies Association, CCSA The use of cyberspace as a metaphor has had its limits, however, especially in areas where the metaphor becomes confused with physical infrastructure. Alternate realities in philosophy and art Predating computers Before cyberspace became a technological possibility, many philosophers suggested the possibility of a virtual reality similar to cyberspace. In The Republic, Plato sets out his allegory of the cave, widely cited as one of the first conceptual realities. He suggests that we are already in a form of virtual reality which we are deceived into thinking is true. True reality for Plato is accessible only through mental training and is the reality of the forms. These ideas are central to Platonism and neoplatonism. Another forerunner of the modern ideas of cyberspace is the Cartesian notion that people might be deceived by an evil demon that feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predecessor of modern ideas of a brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes's ideas as their starting point. Visual arts have a tradition, stretching back to antiquity, of artifacts meant to fool the eye and be mistaken for reality. This questioning of reality occasionally led some philosophers and especially theologians to distrust art as deceiving people into entering a world which was not real (see Aniconism). The artistic challenge was resurrected with increasing ambition as art became more and more realistic with the invention of photography, film (see Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat), and immersive computer simulations. Influenced by computers Philosophy American counterculture exponents like William S. Burroughs (whose literary influence on Gibson and cyberpunk in general is widely acknowledged Alexander Laurence, An Interview with John Shirley, 1994 "Burroughs/Gysin/Throbbing Gristle", retrieved December 31, 2006 ) and Timothy Leary "Internet will be the LSD of the 90s", quoted by an on-line biography were among the first to extoll the potential of computers and computer networks for individual empowerment. Douglas Rushkoff, "Godfathers of Cyberspace" Some contemporary philosophers and scientists (i.e. David Deutsch in The Fabric of Reality) employ virtual reality in various thought experiments. For example Philip Zhai in Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality connects cyberspace to the platonic tradition: Note that this brain-in-a-vat argument conflates cyberspace with reality, while the more common descriptions of cyberspace contrast it with the "real world". Art Main article: New media art Having originated among writers, the concept of cyberspace remains most popular in literature and film. Although artists working with other media have expressed interest in the concept, such as Roy Ascott, "cyberspace" in digital art is mostly used as a synonym for immersive virtual reality and remains more discussed than enacted. Eduardo Kac, "Telepresence Art" Indian epic Mahabaratha written by sage Vyasar talks about concepts what is called today Virtual reality,Transportaion in to matrix and web conferencing. Computer Crime Main article: Computer Crime Cyberspace also brings together every service and facility imaginable to expedite money laundering. One can purchase anonymous credit cards, bank accounts, encrypted global mobile telephones, and false passports. From there one can pay professional advisors to set up IBCs (International Business Corporations, or corporations with anonymous ownership) or similar structures in OFCs (Offshore Financial Centers). Such advisors are loath to ask any penetrating questions about the wealth and activities of their clients, since the average fees criminals pay them to launder their money can be as much as 20 percent. Johanna Granville “Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions,” Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 49, no. 1. (Winter 2003), pp. 102-109. Popular culture examples In the math mystery cartoon Cyberchase, the action takes place in Cyberspace, managed by the benevolent ruler, Motherboard. It is used as a conceit to allow storylines to take place in virtual worlds—"Cybersites"—on any theme and where specific math concepts can be best explored. The anime Digimon is set in a variant of the cyberspace concept called the "Digital World". The Digital World is a parallel universe made up of data from the internet. Similar to cyberspace, except that people could physically enter this world instead of merely using a computer. The CGI show, ReBoot, takes place entirely inside cyberspace, which is composed of two worlds: the Net and the Web. In the computer game System Shock, the player can use a neural implant to "jack in" to cyberspace terminals, where they can collect data, fight security programs and trigger certain events in the real world, such as unlocking doors. In the movie Tron, a programmer was physically transferred to the program world, where programs were personalities, resembling the forms of their creators. The idea of "the matrix" in the movie The Matrix resembles a complex form of cyberspace where people are "jacked in" from birth and do not know that the reality they experience is virtual. See Matrix (cyberpunk). In the EXE series of MegaMan, there is a place where A.I. programs called NetNavis can "jack in" to Cyberspace from about any electrical appliance. Also, in the MegaMan Zero series, particularly MegaMan Zero 3, the player can occasionally transitate from the real world to the cyberspace during missions. In the Japanese anime series Lain, the main character begins to learn of a new dimension of reality taking place in cyberspace. Irregular Webcomic!'s Space theme frequently involves the characters going into Cyberspace. In the Xenosaga video game series on the PlayStation 2, there is virtual reality called the U.M.N. ("Unus mundus network") that uses the human collective unconscious as an interstellar, cyberspace network. It is similar to the matrix mentioned above, but also facilitates hyperspace travel for spacecraft and can create a virtual reality representation of human memories. In the Ghost in the Shell fictional universe, there is an extrapolation of the internet (called "The Net") which a large section of society seems to be able to access. The interface can range from simply visual (through conventional displays or implants) to full-sensory immersion via neural jacks, where (as in William Gibson's Cyberspace) data is shown as visual constructs such as objects that present servers or databases, with graphical depictions of security mechanisms and information stores. Entering and/or traveling The Net is referred to as "net diving", which is an activity with the potential to be physically dangerous. In the video game Shadow the Hedgehog, two cyberspace levels were made: Digital Circuit and Mad Matrix. In the Game Boy Advance game Sonic Advance 3, the sixth zone "Cyber Track" is set in cyberspace. The Air Force Cyber Command (Provisional) (AFCYBER) is the newest United States Air Force major command whose development was announced by the Secretary of the Air Force on November 2, 2006 In the video game Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII a character could use a "synthetic net dive" to enter cyberspace and obtain information. See also Cybernetics Cybercrime Cyber law Cybersecurity Cyber-warfare Cybersex Cyberzine Cipherspace Crypto-anarchism Digital pet Electronic sports Information highway Infosphere Internet art Meatspace, the opposite of cyberspace Metaverse Noosphere Simulation Social software Telepresence Virtual world Proactive Cyber Defence 24 Hours in Cyberspace Notes References William Gibson. Neuromancer:20th Anniversary Edition. New York:Ace Books, 2004. Irvine, Martin. "Postmodern Science Fiction and Cyberpunk", retrieved 2006-07-19. Oliver Grau : Virtual Art. From Illusion to Immersion, MIT-Press, Cambridge 2003. (4 Auflagen). Sterling, Bruce. The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder On the Electronic Frontier. Spectra Books, 1992. Zhai, Philip. Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1998. David Koepsell, The Ontology of Cyberspace, Chicago: Open Court, 2000. Christine Buci-Glucksmann, "L’art à l’époque virtuel", in Frontières esthétiques de l’art, Arts 8, Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004 Cyberculture, The key Concepts, edited by David Bell, Brian D.Loader, Nicholas Pleace and Douglas Schuler Slater, Don 2002, 'Social Relationships and Identity Online and Offline', in L.Lievrouw and S.Livingston (eds), The Handbook of New Media, Sage, London, pp533–46. External links A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace by John Perry Barlow Virtual Reality Photos, Austria by Johann Steininger Peculiarities of Cyberspace by Albert Benschop Sex, Religion and Cyberspace by Richard Thieme Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality by Philip Zhai Brains in a vat philosophical argument against the idea that we could be in cyberspace and not know it by Hilary Putnam Cyberspace as a Domain In which the Air Force Flies and Fights, Speech by Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne DOD - Cyberspace DHS - National Cybersecurity Division Virtual Humans Forum | Cyberspace |@lemmatized cyberspace:61 greek:1 meaning:4 steersman:1 governor:1 pilot:1 rudder:1 global:4 domain:2 electromagnetics:1 accessed:1 exploit:1 electronic:5 technology:4 modulation:1 electromagnetic:2 energy:1 achieve:1 wide:2 range:2 communication:11 control:5 system:5 capability:2 term:10 root:1 science:7 cybernetics:3 norbert:1 wiener:1 pioneer:1 work:2 forerunner:2 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1,872 | Son_of_Godzilla | Son of Godzilla, released in Japan as , is a 1967 film. The eighth part of the Toho studio's Godzilla series, it was directed by Jun Fukuda with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya and Sadamasa Arikawa. Plot A team of scientists attempts to perfect a weather control system. Their efforts are hampered by the presence of giant praying mantises and by the arrival of a nosy reporter. The first test of the weather control system goes awry when the remote control for a radioactive balloon is jammed by an unexplained signal coming from the center of the island. The balloon detonates prematurely, creating a radioactive storm that causes the giant mantises to grow to enormous sizes. Investigating the mantises, which are named Kamacuras, the scientists find the monstrous insects digging an egg out from under a pile of earth. The egg hatches, revealing a baby Godzilla. The scientists realize that the baby's cries for help were the cause of the interference that ruined their experiment. Soon Godzilla himself arrives on the island, incidentally stomping the scientist's base as he rushes to defend the baby. Godzilla kills two Kamacuras during the battle, while one manages to fly away to safety. Godzilla then adopts the baby. The baby Godzilla, named Minilla, quickly grows to about half the size of his father, and Godzilla instructs him on the important monster skills of roaring and using his atomic ray. At first, Minilla has difficulty producing anything more than atomic smoke rings, but Godzilla discovers that stressful conditions, such as stomping on his tail, produces a true radioactive blast. Minilla comes to the aid of Riko when she is attacked by a Kamacuras, but inadvertently awakens Kumonga, a giant spider. Kumonga attacks the caves where the scientists are hiding, and Minilla stumbles into the fray. Kumonga traps Minilla and the final Kamacuras with his webbing, but as Kumonga begins to feed on the deceased Kamacuras, Godzilla arrives to save the day. Godzilla saves his son and they both defeat Kumonga by using their atomic rays on the giant spider. The scientists finally use their perfected weather altering device on the island and the once tropical island turns into an Arctic wasteland. Godzilla and Minilla begin to hibernate as they wait for the island to become tropical again. Godzilla's act of compassion for Minilla shows that the king of the monsters is more than a monster-on-the-loose and has a beautiful heart and soul. The scientists are then saved by an American submarine. Cast Akira Kubo - Gorou Maki Tadao Takashima - Dr. Tsunezou Kusumi Akihiko Hirata - Dr. Hujisaki Bibari Maeda - Saeko Matsumiya Yoshio Tsuchiya - Hurukawa Kenji Sahara - Morio Ken'ichirou Maruyama - Ozawa Seishirou Kuno Tashiro Yasuhiko Saijou - Suzuki Susumu Kurobe - Weather observation airplane captain Kazuo Suzuki - Weather observation aeronaut Wataru Oomae - Weather observation airplane radio operator Tyoutarou Tougin - Weather observation airplane crewman Ousmane Yusef - Submarine captain Godzilla - Yū Sekida Minilla - Little Man Machan Box office In Japan, the film sold approximately 2,480,000 tickets. English version Like the previous Godzilla film, Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster, Son of Godzilla was distributed directly to television by the Walter Reade Organization (in 1969). There were several small alterations in this version: Dialogue was dubbed to English Seiko's name was changed to Reiko, Kumonga's name was changed to Speega, and Kamacuras' name was changed to Gimantis. Deleted: the pre-credits sequence, where Godzilla is sighted at sea. This was cut down to Godzilla simply walking to the camera. The American version runs 84 minutes, slightly shorter than the 86-minute Japanese version. Sony's DVD features the uncut Japanese version, and the optional English dub track is from Toho's 'International Version.' DVD Release Sony Pictures Released: December 14, 2004 Aspect Ratio: Anamorphic widescreen (2.35:1) Sound: Japanese (2.0), English (2.0) Supplements: Trailers for Godzilla: Tokyo SOS, Steamboy, and Kaena: The Prophecy. Region 1 Note: English dub track is Toho's International Version Rated PG for some sci-fi monster violence. External links Godzilla on the web(Japan) Son of Godzilla film review Special Effects Director Sadamasa Arikiawa Interview | Son_of_Godzilla |@lemmatized son:4 godzilla:22 release:3 japan:3 film:4 eighth:1 part:1 toho:3 studio:1 series:1 direct:1 jun:1 fukuda:1 special:2 effect:2 eiji:1 tsuburaya:1 sadamasa:2 arikawa:1 plot:1 team:1 scientist:7 attempt:1 perfect:1 weather:7 control:3 system:2 effort:1 hamper:1 presence:1 giant:4 praying:1 mantis:3 arrival:1 nosy:1 reporter:1 first:2 test:1 go:1 awry:1 remote:1 radioactive:3 balloon:2 jam:1 unexplained:1 signal:1 come:2 center:1 island:5 detonate:1 prematurely:1 create:1 storm:1 cause:2 grow:2 enormous:1 size:2 investigate:1 name:5 kamacuras:6 find:1 monstrous:1 insect:1 dig:1 egg:2 pile:1 earth:1 hatch:1 reveal:1 baby:5 realize:1 cry:1 help:1 interference:1 ruin:1 experiment:1 soon:1 arrive:1 incidentally:1 stomp:2 base:1 rush:1 defend:1 kill:1 two:1 battle:1 one:1 manage:1 fly:1 away:1 safety:1 adopt:1 minilla:8 quickly:1 half:1 father:1 instructs:1 important:1 monster:5 skill:1 roaring:1 use:3 atomic:3 ray:2 difficulty:1 produce:2 anything:1 smoke:1 ring:1 discovers:1 stressful:1 condition:1 tail:1 true:1 blast:1 aid:1 riko:1 attack:2 inadvertently:1 awaken:1 kumonga:6 spider:2 cave:1 hide:1 stumble:1 fray:1 traps:1 final:1 webbing:1 begin:2 fee:1 deceased:1 arrives:1 save:3 day:1 defeat:1 finally:1 perfected:1 alter:1 device:1 tropical:2 turn:1 arctic:1 wasteland:1 hibernate:1 wait:1 become:1 act:1 compassion:1 show:1 king:1 loose:1 beautiful:1 heart:1 soul:1 american:2 submarine:2 cast:1 akira:1 kubo:1 gorou:1 maki:1 tadao:1 takashima:1 dr:2 tsunezou:1 kusumi:1 akihiko:1 hirata:1 hujisaki:1 bibari:1 maeda:1 saeko:1 matsumiya:1 yoshio:1 tsuchiya:1 hurukawa:1 kenji:1 sahara:1 morio:1 ken:1 ichirou:1 maruyama:1 ozawa:1 seishirou:1 kuno:1 tashiro:1 yasuhiko:1 saijou:1 suzuki:2 susumu:1 kurobe:1 observation:4 airplane:3 captain:2 kazuo:1 aeronaut:1 wataru:1 oomae:1 radio:1 operator:1 tyoutarou:1 tougin:1 crewman:1 ousmane:1 yusef:1 yū:1 sekida:1 little:1 man:1 machan:1 box:1 office:1 sell:1 approximately:1 ticket:1 english:5 version:7 like:1 previous:1 v:1 sea:2 distribute:1 directly:1 television:1 walter:1 reade:1 organization:1 several:1 small:1 alteration:1 dialogue:1 dub:3 seiko:1 change:3 reiko:1 speega:1 gimantis:1 delete:1 pre:1 credit:1 sequence:1 sight:1 cut:1 simply:1 walk:1 camera:1 run:1 minute:2 slightly:1 short:1 japanese:3 sony:2 dvd:2 feature:1 uncut:1 optional:1 track:2 international:2 picture:1 december:1 aspect:1 ratio:1 anamorphic:1 widescreen:1 sound:1 supplement:1 trailer:1 tokyo:1 steamboy:1 kaena:1 prophecy:1 region:1 note:1 rat:1 pg:1 sci:1 fi:1 violence:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 review:1 director:1 arikiawa:1 interview:1 |@bigram jun_fukuda:1 eiji_tsuburaya:1 go_awry:1 egg_hatch:1 akihiko_hirata:1 anamorphic_widescreen:1 sci_fi:1 external_link:1 |
1,873 | Latin_hip_hop | Latin rap is not a homogeneous musical style but rather a term that covers all Hip-Hop music recorded by artists of Latino origin. Early Latinos in hip hop music According to B.Boy Omega, a writer for The Source, the first Latino in hip hop music was DJ Disco Wiz, a product of a Puerto Rican father and a Cuban mother who was born in The Bronx. DJ Disco Wiz, along with Casanova Fly (Grandmaster Caz), formed the pioneering Mighty Force Crew from 183rd Street and Valentine Avenue in the mid-1970s. Later on they both were joined by the first Latino MC, Prince Whipper Whip, a Puerto Rican. Whip, unlike Wiz was exclusively an MC; Wiz was a DJ too. Casanova Fly (Grandmaster Caz) would rap and DJ at the same time. Since hip hop was experienced primarily via audio and not by video, most people never knew that DJ Disco Wiz was Puerto Rican and Cuban until they saw him. As explained by Kevie Kev in the book Yes Yes Yall, Prince Whipper Whip felt it necessary to keep his Afro-Puerto Rican background a secret in order to gain more positive acceptance. The audience perception of Whip as a Black-American made Rubie Dee the first public Puerto Rican MC according to the book. After DJ Disco Wiz, the second Puerto Rican DJ was an ex-salsa bassist turned DJ named Charlie Chase, who became the DJ along with DJ Tony Tone) for the Cold Crush Brothers. In 1981 a group called The Mean Machine released a 12" single on Sugar Hill Records called "Disco Dream" which was the first rap record to emphasize Spanglish. In the same year The Sugar Hill Gang featured a solo by Tito Puente on “The Sugar Hill Groove”. DJ and producer Tony Touch also mentions (in an interview on blackmagazine.it) the track "Spanglish" by Spanish Fly & The Terrible 2, came out in the same year on Enjoy Records but was not as well known. In the early to mid-1980s quite a few Latin-Caribbean rappers and DJ’s hit the scene. Producer and DJ Master OC and The Devastating Tito were both a part of The Fearless Four. The Master OC was also the producer of another crew named The Fantasy 3 which featured another Puerto Rican MC named Charlie Rock. Both of these crews were from Harlem. Out of the East New York section of Brooklyn came Prince Markie Dee of The Fat Boys, who later went on to produce Mary J Blige; and Wise, the beat box from Stetsasonic. Both were Puerto Rican; as was Super Lover Cee from the Astoria Projects in Queens. Like Whipper Whip; Markie, Wise and Super Lover Cee's ethnic heritage was not that well known. Other lesser known MCs and DJs included Johnny Rock, DJ Candido, DJ Muscle and DJ Shiz who were all Puerto Ricans from The Bronx, while Mr. L of the TDR crew was half Puerto Rican and half Dominican. DJ Dr. Dust along with his DJ partner and cousin DJ Duran from the Bronx are considered to be the first Dominican DJs in Hip-Hop (documented in The BX Factor magazine in 1996). Of Brazilian heritage, Breez Evahflowin from the Hell's Kitchen section of Manhattan, and is most famous as a member of The Stronghold Crew is the first MC in hip hop with parents from Brazil. Latin rap on the West Coast In the late 1980s and early 1990s, most Latin rap came from the West Coast of the United States. Cuban-American artist Mellow Man Ace was the first Latino artist to have a major bilingual single attached to his 1989 debut. Mellow Man, referred to as the "Godfather of Latin rap" and a Hip Hop Hall of Fame inductee, brought mainstream attention to Spanglish rhyming with his 1989 platinum single "Mentirosa". In 1990, fellow West Coast artist Kid Frost further brought Latinos to the rap forefront with his single "La Raza." In 1991, Kid Frost, Mellow Man, A.L.T. and several other Latin rappers formed the rap super group Latin Alliance and released a self titled album which featured the hit "Lowrider (On the Boulevard)". A.L.T. also scored a hit later that year with his remake of the song Tequila. Cypress Hill, of which Mellow Man Ace was a member before going solo, would become the first Latino rap group to reach platinum status in 1991. The group has since continued to release other gold and platinum albums. Ecuadorian born rapper Gerardo received heavy rotation on video and radio for his single "Rico, Suave". While commercially watered-down, his album enjoyed a status of being one of the first mainstream Spanglish CDs on the market.Johnny J was a multi-platinum songwriter, music producer & rapper who was perhaps best known for his production on Tupac Shakur's albums All Eyez on Me and Me Against the World allmusic Credits . He also produced the 1990 single "Knockin' Boots" for his classmate Candyman's album Ain't No Shame in My Game, which eventually went platinum thanks to the single RIAA Databse Latin rap in the East Coast and Miami On the East Coast, Latin artists such as the Beatnuts emerged in the early 1990s, with New Jersey native Chino XL earning recognition for his lyricism and equal controversy for his subject matter. In the late 1990s, Puerto Rican rapper Big Punisher became the first Latino solo artist to reach platinum sales for an LP with his debut album Capital Punishment, which included hit song Still Not a Player. Other Latin artists on the East Coast would follow and receive a great deal of support from Latino consumers including rappers such as Cuban Link and Immortal Technique. In Miami artists such as Don Dinero and Pitbull have been successful with rhymes in Spanish and English as well. Southwest and Chicano rap Latin rap (as well as its subgenre of Chicano rap) has thrived along the West Coast, Southwest and Midwestern states with little promotion due to the large Latino populations of those regions. During the '90s Southern California Chicano artists, such as Kid Frost, A.L.T., A Lighter Shade of Brown, B-Real, Psycho Realm, and Delinquent Habits received mainstream success. More recently, Texas artists such as Chingo Bling, Juan Gotti and South Park Mexican have enjoyed steady sales, and have headlined a number of successful Southwest tours. San Diego artist Lil Rob opened doors for Chicano Rap by receiving mainstream attention for his singles "Summer Nights", and "Bring Out the Freak in You". Baby Bash also had a huge impact with his single "Suga Suga". Artists Sinful of Tha Mexicanz, and Kemo the Blaxican have continued to improve the popularity of Spanglish rap on the West Coast. Urban Regional In recent years the term "Urban Regional" was coined to refer to Spanish rap performed over beats infused with the sounds and melodies from popular Mexican music styles such as Banda, Cumbia, Norteno and others. Akwid, Jae-P, Crooked Stilo, Mexiclan and David Rolas are among the most popular Urban Regional Artists. Reggaeton movement In Panama and Puerto Rico a new style was created, inspired by hip hop: Reggaeton. While Puerto Rican rappers from the US like Big Pun made their mark in the U.S., Hip-Hop was merged with Latin, electronica and Reggae into a new style. Popular Reggaeton artists include Tego Calderon, Don Omar, Wisin Y Yandel and Daddy Yankee. Panamanian performers include El General and Nando Boom. Latin rap around the world The constant migration of people from one country to another has greatly influenced the dispersion of cultures and music across the globe. In the music realm, this can be heard with many different genres, like reggae, (which later led to dancehall), rap/hip-hop, reggaeton, and Latin rap. The latter form of music has been a hit especially in countries with a large number of migrators to the United States. For example, Mexico has a growing hip hop scene with groups such as Control Machete, Cartel De Santa, and Molotov. Similarly, the movement has spread to Puerto Rico, a country where many of its residents have moved to New York, Miami and Chicago over the years. Latin rap was jumpstarted by a wave of rappers that included Ruben DJ and Vico C. Ruben DJ's hit, La Escuela, (The School) and Vico C's hit, La Recta Final, (The End of the Road) received considerable radio time during the late 1980s. In addition to Latin rap in Puerto Rico developing around the same time as early American hip-hop, and rap and reggae simultaneously having a substantial impact on each other, all three genres (rap, Latin rap, and reggae/dancehall) relate a certain message to their respective audiences. Puerto Rican rap emerged as a form of cultural and social protest within the Puerto Rican context. Giovannetti, Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols." In "Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas", ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Candida F Jaquez, 89. New York: Palgrave, 2003 This is similar to the way American and Jamaican youth used rap and reggae/dancehall as a means to communicate their feelings on social, cultural, and political issues. In essence, Puerto Rican rap became the voice of Puerto Rican youth like dancehall and rap music are methods of expression for their Jamaican and lower-class U.S. youth counterparts. Giovannetti, Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols." In "Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas", ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Candida F Jaquez, 89. New York: Palgrave, 2003 Latin rap has also surfaced in the UK with a group called Cultura Londres who list Eric Bobo of Cypress Hill as one of their members. It should also be noted that a number of East Coast rappers that have been usually identified as African American have parentage from a country that speaks Spanish or Portuguese, usually Puerto Rico, The Dominican Republic, and Panama. This list includes N.O.R.E., Lloyd Banks, Kane & Abel, Joe Budden, J. R. Writer, Peedi Peedi, AZ, Juelz Santana, and Fabolous See also Chicano rap Reggaeton Freestyle music References External links LatinRapper.com - Source for Latin rap news and interviews. BrownPride.com at BrownPride.com - A collection of texts and links about Latin rap. | Latin_hip_hop |@lemmatized latin:20 rap:34 homogeneous:1 musical:3 style:4 rather:1 term:2 cover:1 hip:12 hop:12 music:14 record:4 artist:13 latino:10 origin:1 early:5 accord:2 b:2 boy:2 omega:1 writer:2 source:2 first:10 dj:23 disco:5 wiz:6 product:1 puerto:22 rican:15 father:1 cuban:4 mother:1 bear:1 bronx:3 along:4 casanova:2 fly:3 grandmaster:2 caz:2 form:4 pioneering:1 mighty:1 force:1 crew:5 street:1 valentine:1 avenue:1 mid:2 later:4 join:1 mc:6 prince:3 whipper:3 whip:5 unlike:1 exclusively:1 would:3 time:3 since:2 experience:1 primarily:1 via:1 audio:1 video:2 people:2 never:1 know:5 saw:1 explain:1 kevie:1 kev:1 book:2 yes:2 yall:1 felt:1 necessary:1 keep:1 afro:1 background:1 secret:1 order:1 gain:1 positive:1 acceptance:1 audience:2 perception:1 black:1 american:5 make:2 rubie:1 dee:2 public:1 second:1 ex:1 salsa:1 bassist:1 turn:1 name:3 charlie:2 chase:1 become:4 tony:2 tone:1 cold:1 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1,874 | Lockheed_F-117_Nighthawk | The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk is a stealth ground attack aircraft formerly operated by the United States Air Force. The F-117A's first flight was in 1981, and it achieved Initial Operational Capability status in October 1983. The F-117A was "acknowledged" and revealed to the world in November 1988. Cunningham, Jim. "Cracks in the Black Dike, Secrecy, the Media and the F-117A." Air & Space Power Journal, Fall 1991. Retrieved: 19 March 2008. A product of the Skunk Works and a development of the Have Blue prototype, it became the first operational aircraft initially designed around stealth technology. The F-117A was widely publicized during the Gulf War of 1991. The Air Force retired the F-117 on 22 April 2008, primarily due to the acquisition and eventual deployment of the more effective F-22 Raptor "F-117: A long, storied history that is about to end", Air Force Print News, 28 October 2006. Shea, Christopher. "Now you see it..." Boston Globe, 4 February 2007. Retrieved: 11 March 2009. and F-35 Lightning II. Development The F-117 was born after combat experience in the Vietnam War when increasingly sophisticated Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) downed heavy bomber flights. F-117A Nighthawk. Air-Attack.com. In 1964, Pyotr Ya. Ufimtsev, a Russian mathematician, published a seminal paper, "Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction", in the Journal of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering, in which he showed that the strength of a radar return is related to the edge configuration of an object, not its size. "Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction" Ufimtsev was extending theoretical work published by the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Stealth article on Centennial of Flight web site UCI Ufimtsev, Pyotr Ya. "Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction." Journal of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering, 1964. Ireton, Major Colin T. "Filling the Stealth Gap." Air and Space Power Journal Fall 2006. Ufimtsev demonstrated that he could calculate the radar cross-section across a wing's surface and along its edge. The obvious conclusion was that even a large airplane could be made stealthy by exploiting this principle. However, the airplane's design would make it aerodynamically unstable, and the state of computer science in the early 1960s could not provide the kinds of flight computers which allow aircraft such as the F-117, and B-2 Spirit to stay airborne. However, by the 1970s, when a Lockheed analyst reviewing foreign literature found Ufimtsev's paper, computers and software had advanced significantly, and the stage was set for the development of a stealthy airplane. The Advent, Evolution, and New Horizons of United States Stealth Aircraft Senior Trend F-117A painted in "Gray Dragon" experimental camouflage scheme. The F-117 was a black project, an ultra-secret program for much of its life, until the late 1980s. Top Gun - the F-117 Stealth Fighter The project began with a model called "The Hopeless Diamond" (a wordplay on the Hope Diamond) in 1975 due to its bizarre appearance. In 1977 Lockheed produced two 60% scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that lasted from 1976 to 1979. The success of Have Blue lead the Air Force to create the Senior Trend F-117A Senior Trend "Senior Trend". Vectorsite.net, 1 April 2008. program which developed the F-117. The decision to produce the F-117A was made on 1 November 1978, and a contract awarded to Lockheed Advanced Development Projects, popularly known as the Skunk Works, in Burbank, California. Rich 1994, p. 71. The program was led by Ben Rich. Rich called on Bill Schroeder, a Lockheed mathematician, and Denys Overholser, a computer scientist, to exploit Ufimtsev's work. They designed a computer program called Echo, which made it possible to design an airplane with flat panels, called facets, which were arranged so as to scatter over 99% of a radar's signal energy "painting" the airplane. "The Secrets of Stealth" on Discovery Military Channel "F-117A Nighthawk." AirAttack.com. The F-117 first flew in June 1981, only 31 months after the full-scale development decision. The first production F-117A was delivered in 1982, operational capability was achieved in October 1983, and the last of 59 airplanes was delivered in the summer of 1990. The Air Force denied the existence of the aircraft until 1988, when a grainy photograph was released to the public. In April 1990 two were flown into Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, arriving during daylight and visible to a crowd of tens of thousands. F-117 taxiing. As the Air Force has stated, "Streamlined management by Aeronautical Systems Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, combined breakthrough stealth technology with concurrent development and production to rapidly field the aircraft... The F-117A program demonstrates that a stealth aircraft can be designed for reliability and maintainability." The aircraft maintenance statistics are comparable to other tactical fighters of similar complexity. Logistically supported by Sacramento Air Logistics Center, McClellan AFB, California, the F-117A is kept at the forefront of technology through a planned weapon system improvement program located at USAF Plant 42 at Palmdale, California. Several of the F-117s were painted with a grey camouflage pattern in an experiment to determine the effectiveness of the F-117's stealth during daylight conditions. 2004 and 2005 saw several mid-life improvement programs implemented on the F-117, including an avionics upgrade. Designation An F-117A parked at Langley AFB, Virginia. The 59 operational aircraft had an official designation of "F-117A". "DOD 4120.15-L: Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles", United States Department of Defense, 12 May 2004, p. 38. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. The five Full Scale Development (FSD) aircraft are designated "YF-117A". "DOD 4120.15-L - Addendum", United States Department of Defense December 2007. Most modern U.S. military aircraft use post-1962 designations in which the designation "F" is usually an air-to-air fighter, "B" is usually a bomber, "A" is usually a ground-attack aircraft, etc. (Examples include the F-15, the B-2, and the A-6.) The Stealth Fighter is primarily a ground-attack aircraft so its "F" designation is inaccurate. F-117 flight demonstration The designation "F-117" would seem to indicate that it was given an official designation prior to the 1962 U.S. Tri-Service Aircraft Designation System and could be considered numerically to be a part of the earlier "Century series" of fighters. The assumption prior to the revealing of the aircraft to the public was that it would likely receive the designation F-19 as that number had not been used. However there were no other aircraft to receive a "100" series number following the F-111. Captured Soviet fighters were given F-series numbers for their evaluation by U.S. test pilots, and with the advent of the Teen Series fighters, most often Century Series designations. As with other exotic military aircraft types flying in the southern Nevada area, such as captured fighters, an arbitrary radio call of "117" was assigned. This same radio call had been used by the enigmatic 4477th "Red Hats/Red Eagles" unit that often had flown expatriated MiGs in the area, but there was no relationship to the call and the formal F-19 designation then being considered by the Air Force. Apparently, use of the "117" radio call became commonplace and when Lockheed released its first flight manual ("dash one"), F-117A was the designation printed on the cover. Miller 1990 A recent televised documentary quoted a senior member of the F-117A development team as saying that the top-notch fighter pilots required to fly the new aircraft were more easily attracted to an "F" plane, as opposed to a "B" or "A" aircraft. "Stealth and Beyond: Air Stealth (TV-series)". The History Channel, 2006. Retrieved: 19 March 2008. Nicknames The aircraft's official name is "Night Hawk", "DOD 4120.15-L: Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles", p. 18. United States Department of Defense, 12 May 2004. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. however the alternative form "Nighthawk" is frequently used. Before it was given an official name, the engineers and test pilots referred to the aircraft, which was hidden during daylight to avoid detection by Soviet satellites, as "Cockroach", a name that is still sometimes used. As it prioritized stealth over aerodynamics, the first model was nicknamed "The Hopeless Diamond". "F-117 History", F-117 Stealth Fighter Association. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. Similarly, it earned the nickname "Wobbly-Goblin" due to its alleged instability at low speeds; according to F-117 pilots, the nickname is undeserved. Rhodes, Jeffrey P. "The Black Jet." Air Force Magazine, Air Force Association, Volume 73, Issue 7, July 1990. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. "Wobbly (or wobblin') Goblin" is likely a holdover from the early Have Blue / Senior Trend (FSD) days of the project when instability was a problem. In the USAF, "Goblin" (without wobbly) persists as a nickname because of the aircraft's appearance. Locals around Holloman Air Force Base call it the "Stealth", while the band of Air Force members, Dos Gringos, refer to it as the "Stinkbug". Dos Gringos, "Dos Gringos - Fighter Pilot Songs for Our Generation." Retrieved: 11 March 2009. F-117 pilots call themselves "Bandits". Each of the 558 Air Force pilots who have flown the F-117 have a Bandit number, such as "Bandit 123", that indicates the sequential order of their first flight in the F-117. Topolsky, Joshua. "Air Force's stealth fighters making final flights." CNN.com, 11 March 2008. Retrieved: 11 March 2009. Design The front side of an F-117 About the size of an F-15C Eagle, the single-seat F-117A is powered by two non-afterburning General Electric F404 turbofan engines, and has quadruple-redundant fly-by-wire flight controls. It is air refuelable. To lower development costs, the avionics, fly-by-wire systems, and other parts are derived from the F-16 Fighting Falcon, F/A-18 Hornet and F-15E Strike Eagle. Among the penalties for stealth are lower engine power thrust, due to losses in the inlet and outlet, a very low wing aspect ratio, and a high sweep angle (50°) needed to deflect incoming radar waves to the sides. Sweetman, Bill. "Unconventional Weapon." Air & Space, December 2007/January 2008. Retrieved: 19 March 2008. With these design considerations and no afterburner, the F-117 is limited to subsonic speeds. The F-117A is equipped with sophisticated navigation and attack systems integrated into a digital avionics suite. It carries no radar, which lowers emissions and cross-section. It navigates primarily by GPS and high-accuracy inertial navigation. Missions are coordinated by an automated planning system that can automatically perform all aspects of a strike mission, including weapons release. Targets are acquired by a thermal imaging infrared system, slaved to a laser that finds the range and designates targets for laser-guided bombs. The F-117A's split internal bay can carry 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of ordnance. Typical weapons are a pair of GBU-10, GBU-12, or GBU-27 laser-guided bombs, two BLU-109 penetration bombs, or two Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAMs), a GPS/INS guided stand-off bomb. Operational history An F-117A during landing employing a drag-chute. During the program's early years, from 1984 to mid-1992, the F-117A fleet was based at Tonopah Test Range Airport, Nevada where it served under the 4450th Tactical Group. Because the F-117 was classified during this time, the 4450th Tactical Group was "officially" located at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada and equipped with A-7 Corsair II aircraft. The 4450th was absorbed by the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing in 1989. In 1992, the entire fleet was transferred to Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, where it was placed under the command of the 49th Fighter Wing. The move eliminated Key Air flights, which flew 22,000 passenger trips on 300 flights from Nellis to Tonopah per month. The F-117 has been used several times in war. Its first mission was during the United States invasion of Panama in 1989. Crocker 2006, p. 382. During that invasion two F-117A Nighthawks dropped two bombs on Rio Hato airfield. F-117s in formation During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, the F-117A flew approximately 1,300 sorties and scored direct hits on 1,600 high-value targets in Iraq while flying 6,905 combat flying hours. Weapons: F-117A Stealth, PBS Frontline The F-117 comprised only 2.5% of the American aircraft in Iraq yet struck more than 40% of the strategic targets. "Navy Looks On with Envy at Air Force Stealth Display." New York Times. "During their mission, the F-117A pilots delivered over 2,000 tons of precision-guided ordnance with a hit rate of better than 80 percent. Although the 37th Tactical Fighter Wing Provisional and its 42 stealth fighters represented just 2 1/2 percent of all allied fighter and attack aircraft in the Gulf, the F-117As were assigned against more than 31 percent of the strategic Iraqi military targets attacked during the first 24 hours of the air campaign." During the war, it performed poorly dropping smart bombs on military targets, achieving a success rate of only 40%. Fisk 2006, p. 650. It was among the only U.S. or coalition aircraft to strike targets in downtown Baghdad. Among the aircraft with which the Nighthawk shared this distinction were the F-16s which attacked Baghdad during daylight on 19 January 1991 during the "Package Q" mission—the largest single strike flown during the war. The Lucky Devils Since moving to Holloman AFB in 1992, the F-117A and the men and women of the 49th Fighter Wing have deployed to Southwest Asia more than once. On their first trip, the F-117s flew non-stop from Holloman to Kuwait, a flight of approximately 18.5 hours – a record for single-seat fighters that stands today. It has since been used in Operation Allied Force in 1999, Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 and in Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003. Combat losses Canopy of F-117 shot down on 27 March 1999, near the village of Buđanovci, Serbia (Museum of Aviation in Belgrade) One F-117 has been lost in combat, to the Yugoslav Army. On 27 March 1999, during the Kosovo War, the 3rd Battalion of the 250th Air Defence Missile Brigade under the command of Colonel Zoltán Dani "Who shot down F-117?" Defence Aviation, 8 February 2007. Retrieved: 11 March 2009. , equipped with the Isayev S-125 'Neva' (NATO designation SA-3 'Goa') anti-aircraft missile system, downed a F-117A callsign "Vega 31," AF Serial Number 82-0806, with a Serbian improved Neva-M missile. How to Take Down an F-117, Strategy Page, 21 November 2005. "Serb discusses 1999 downing of stealth", USA Today, 26 October 2005. Retrieved: 4 November 2006. According to NATO Commander Wesley Clark and other NATO generals, Yugoslav air defences detected F-117s by operating their radars on unusually long wavelengths, making them visible to radar for brief periods. Reportedly, several SA-3s were launched from approximately 8 miles out, one of which detonated near the F-117A, forcing the pilot to eject. Though still classified, it is believed that the F-117 has no radar warning indicator, so the pilot's first indication of an incoming missile was likely seeing its flame. At this distance and combined speed the pilot had about six seconds to react before impact. According to an interview, Zoltán Dani kept most of his missile sites intact by frequently moving them, and had spotters looking for F-117s and other NATO aircraft. He personally supervised the modification of his targeting radar to increase its wavelength. The commanders and crews of the SAMs guessed the flight paths of earlier F-117A strikes from rare radar spotting and positioned their SAM launchers and spotters accordingly. It is believed that the SA-3 crews and spotters were able to locate and track F-117A 82-806 visually, probably with infra-red and night vision systems. He claimed that his battery shot down an F-16 as well. The F-117 pilot survived and was later rescued by U.S. Air Force Pararescue personnel. The wreckage of the F-117 was not promptly bombed, due to possible media fallout from news footage of civilians around the wreckage. The Serbs are believed to have invited Russian personnel to inspect the remains, compromising the then 25-year old U.S. stealth technology. Smith, Charles R. "Russia Offers India $8 Billion Weapons Deal", NewsMax.com 12 December 2001. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. The remains are displayed at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade close to Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport. An error was made by many about the pilot's identity. While the name "Capt Ken 'Wiz' Dwelle" was painted on the canopy, it was revealed in 2007 that the pilot was Lt Col Dale Zelko, USAF. Dorr, Robert F. "USAF Fighter Force at 60". AirForces Monthly magazine, October 2007. Kosovo Some American sources acknowledge that a second F-117A was damaged during the same campaign, allegedly on 30 April. F-117 damage said attributed to full moon Although the aircraft returned to base, it supposedly never flew again. Riccioni, Colonel Everest E. "Description of our Failing Defence Acquisition System." Project on government oversight, 8 March 2005. Note: "This event, which occurred during the Kosovo conflict on 27 March, was a major blow to the US Air Force. The aircraft was special: an F-117 Nighthawk stealth bomber that should have been all but invisible to the Serbian air defences. And this certainly wasn't a fluke—a few nights later, Serb missiles damaged a second F-117." Nixon, Mark. "Gallant Knights, MiG-29 in Action during Allied Force." AirForces Monthly magazine, January 2002. Retirement Despite its productive combat service, the F-117 was designed with late 1970s technologies. Its stealth technology, while more advanced than that of any other aircraft except the B-2 Spirit, F-22 and F-35, is maintenance intensive. Furthermore, the facet-based stealth design has been surpassed by newer technology. Program Budget Decision 720 (PBD 720), dated 28 December 2005, proposed retiring the entire fleet by October 2008 to permit buying more F-22As. PBD 720 called for 10 aircraft to be retired in FY 2007 and the remaining 42 aircraft in FY 2008 and stated there were more capable Air Force assets that could provide low observable, precision penetrating weapons capability including the B-2, F-22 and JASSM. "Program Budget Decision 720." Department of Defense. The Air Force originally planned to retire the F-117 in 2011. The Air Force later decided to retire the F-117 sooner to shift funds to modernizing the rest of the fleet. This would save an estimated $1.07 billion. Tiron, Roxana. "New Mexico Air Force base at crossroads." The Hill, 22 February 2006. Retrieved: 11 March 2009. A pair of specially painted F-117 Nighthawks fly off from their last refueling by the Ohio Air National Guard's 121st Air Refueling Wing In late 2006, the Air Force closed the F-117 pilot school, "F-117 pilot school closes." Air Force Times. Retrieved: 20 January 2007. and announced the retirement of the F-117. Bates, Staff Sergeant Matthew. "F-117: A long, storied history that is about to end." US Air Force, 28 October 2006. The first six aircraft to be retired made the last flight on 12 March 2007 after a ceremony at Holloman AFB to commemorate the aircraft's career. Brigadier General David Goldfein, commander of the 49th Fighter Wing, said at the ceremony, "With the launch of these great aircraft today, the circle comes to a close — their service to our nation's defense fulfilled, their mission accomplished and a job well done. We send them today to their final resting place — a home they are intimately familiar with — their first, and only, home outside of Holloman." Barrier, Terri. "F-117A retirement bittersweet occasion." Aerotech News and Review, 16 March 2007. Unlike most other Air Force aircraft which are retired to Davis-Monthan AFB, the F-117s are being retired to the Tonopah Test Range Airport. At Tonopah, their wings will be removed and the aircraft will be stored in their original hangars. On 11 March 2008, it was reported that the last F-117s in service would touch down on 22 April 2008 in Tonopah Test Range Airfield in Nevada, the site of the F-117's first flight. The F-117 was retired during ceremonies at Palmdale and Tonopah on 22 April 2008. Four aircraft were kept flying beyond April by the 410th Flight Test Squadron at Palmdale for flight test. By the beginning of August, two were remaining, and the last F-117 left Palmdale to fly to Tonopah on 11 August 2008. Radecki, Alan. "F-117’s final formation fling". Flight International, 8 August 2008. Retrieved: 11 March 20009. With the last aircraft leaving for retirement, the 410th was inactivated in a ceremony on 1 August 2008. "410th FLTS 'Baja Scorpions' closes historic chapter." US Air Force, Edwards AFB, 5 August 2008. Aircraft on display The first YF-117A is currently on pedestal display at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada () and is visible from outside the base on Nellis Blvd. The second YF-117A is currently on static display at the National Museum of the Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The third YF-117A built is on static display at Holloman Air Force Base, repainted to resemble the first F-117A used to drop weapons in combat. The fourth YF-117A built is currently on static display in the Blackbird Airpark at Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California. Parts of a downed F-117A are also on display at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade. Daly, M. "Tape Reveals Stealth of Our Ukrainian Pal." Daily News. Retrieved: 2 January 2008. Specifications An orthographically projected diagram of the F-117A Nighthawk An F-117 conducts a live exercise bombing run using GBU-27 laser-guided bombs. Popular culture In the 1996 film Executive Decision a modified F-117 known as the "Remora" is used to transfer an assault team onto another aircraft in midflight using a docking system. In the film Philadelphia Experiment II a teleportation experiment sent an F-117 back in time to Nazi Germany. See also References Notes Bibliography Aronstein David C. and Albert C. Piccirillo. HAVE BLUE and the F-117A. Reston, VA: AIAA, 1997. ISBN 1-56347-245-7. Crickmore, Paul F. and Alison J. Nighthawk F-117 Stealth Fighter. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks, 2003. ISBN 0-7603-1512-4. Crocker, H.W. III. Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum, 2006. ISBN 978-1400053636. Donald, David, ed. Black Jets: The Development and Operation of America's Most Secret Warplanes. Norwalk, Connecticut: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-880588-67-6. Fisk, Robert. The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East. New York: Alfred Knopf, 2006. ISBN 1-84115-007-X. Miller, Jay. Lockheed F-117 Stealth Fighter. Arlington, Texas: Aerofax Extra, 1990. ISBN 0-94254-848-5. Rich, Ben R. Skunk Works. New York: Back Bay Books, 1994. ISBN 0-316-74330-5. Sun, Andt. F-117A Stealth Fighter. Hong Kong: Concord Publications Co., 1990. ISBN 962-361-017-3. Winchester, Jim, ed. "Lockheed F-117". Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5. The World's Great Stealth and Reconnaissance Aircraft. New York: Smithmark, 1991. ISBN 0-8317-9558-1. External links F-117A Nighthawk U.S Air Force Fact Sheet The 49th Fighter Wing at Holloman Air Force Base F-117A.com - The "Black Jet" website (a comprehensive site) F-117 article and Stealth article on Centennial of Flight web site F-117A Nighthawk page on AirAttack.com F-117A Nighthawk page on FAS.org Lockheed F-117 Stealth Fighter on Vectorsite.net "Filling the Stealth Gap," in Air and Space Power Journal Fall 2006 The Advent, Evolution, and New Horizons of United States Stealth Aircraft "The Secrets of Stealth" on Discovery Military Channel Austrian Radar Plots on acig.org CNN - U.S. plane shot down, pilot rescued - March 27, 1999 F-117 Crash at Air Show in Baltimore, 1997 Austrian article about interception of F-117 | Lockheed_F-117_Nighthawk |@lemmatized lockheed:9 f:128 nighthawk:13 stealth:37 ground:3 attack:9 aircraft:46 formerly:1 operate:2 united:7 state:10 air:54 force:39 first:16 flight:19 achieve:3 initial:1 operational:5 capability:3 status:1 october:7 acknowledged:1 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1,875 | Chuck_Yeager | Charles Elwood "Chuck" Yeager (born February 13, 1923) is a former brigadier general in the United States Air Force and noted test pilot. In 1947, he became the first pilot (at age 24) to travel faster than sound. Originally retiring as a brigadier general, Yeager was promoted to major general on the Air Force's retired list 20 years later for his military achievements. His career began in World War II as a private in the U.S. Army Air Forces. After serving as an aircraft mechanic, in September, 1942 he entered enlisted pilot training and upon graduation was promoted to the rank of Flight Officer (WW 2 U.S. Army Air Forces rank equivalent to Warrant Officer) and became a P-51 Mustang fighter pilot. After the war he became a test pilot of many kinds of aircraft and rocket planes. Yeager was the first man to break the sound barrier on October 14, 1947, flying the experimental Bell X-1 at Mach 1 at an altitude of 13,700 m (45,000 ft). Although Scott Crossfield was the first man to fly faster than Mach 2 in 1953, Yeager shortly thereafter exceeded Mach 2.4. Yeager, Chuck and Janos, Leo. Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 252 (paperback). New York: Bantam Books, 1986. ISBN 0-553-25674-2. He later commanded fighter squadrons and wings in Germany and in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War, and in recognition of the outstanding performance ratings of those units he then was promoted to brigadier general. Yeager's flying career spans more than sixty years and has taken him to every corner of the globe, even into the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War. Biography Yeager was born to farming-parents Susie Mae and Albert Hal Yeager in Myra, West Virginia and graduated from high school in Hamlin, West Virginia. Yeager had two brothers, Roy and Hal, Jr., and two sisters, Doris Ann (accidentally killed by Roy with a shotgun while still an infant) Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 6 (paperback). and Pansy Lee. His first association with the military was as a participant in the Citizens Military Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indianapolis, Indiana, during both the summers of 1939 and 1940. On February 26, 1945, Yeager married Glennis Dickhouse, and the couple had four children. Glennis Yeager died in 1990. Chuck Yeager is not related to Jeana Yeager, one of the two pilots of the Rutan Voyager aircraft, which circled the world without landing or refueling. The name "Yeager" is an Anglicized form of the German and Dutch name, Jäger (German: "hunter") , and so is common among immigrants of those communities. He is the uncle of former baseball catcher Steve Yeager. World War II Yeager enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) on September 12, 1941, and became an aircraft mechanic at George Air Force Base, Victorville, California. When he enlisted Yeager was not eligible for flight training due to his age and educational background, but the entry of the U.S. into World War II less than two months later prompted the USAAF to alter its recruiting standards. Blessed with remarkable 20/10 vision, Yeager displayed natural talent as a pilot and was accepted for flight training. He received his wings and a promotion to Flight Officer at Luke Field, Arizona, where he graduated from class 43C on March 10, 1943. Assigned to the 357th Fighter Group at Tonopah, Nevada, he initially trained as a fighter pilot flying P-39 Airacobras and went overseas with the group on November 23, 1943. Stationed in the United Kingdom at RAF Leiston, Yeager flew P-51 Mustangs in combat (he named his aircraft Glamorous Glennis 357th Fighter Group Profile after his girlfriend, Glennis Faye Dickhouse, who became his wife in February 1945) with the 363rd Fighter Squadron. He had gained one victory before he was shot down over France on his eighth mission, on March 5, 1944. Escape and Evasion Case File for Flight Officer Charles (Chuck) E. Yeager He escaped to Spain on March 30 with the help of the Maquis (French Resistance) and returned to England on May 15, 1944. During his stay with the Maquis, Yeager assisted the guerrillas in duties that did not involve direct combat, though he did help to construct bombs for the group, a skill that he had learned from his father. Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 45 (paperback). He was awarded the Bronze Star for helping another airman, who lost part of his leg during the escape attempt, to cross the Pyrenees. Despite a regulation that "evaders" (escaped pilots) could not fly over enemy territory again to avoid compromising Resistance allies, Yeager was reinstated to flying combat. Yeager had joined a bomber pilot evader, Capt. Fred Glover, in speaking directly to the Allied Supreme Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, on June 12, 1944. With Glover pleading their case, arguing that because the Allies had invaded France, the Maquis resistance movement was by then openly fighting the Nazis alongside Allied troops, so there was little or nothing they could reveal if shot down again to expose those who had helped them evade capture. Eisenhower, after gaining permission from the War Department to decide the requests, concurred with Yeager and Glover. Yeager later credited his postwar success in the Air Force to this decision, saying that his test pilot career followed naturally from being a decorated combat ace with a good kill record, along with being an airplane maintenance man prior to attending pilot school. In part because of his maintenance background, Yeager also frequently served as a maintenance officer in his flying units. Yeager possessed outstanding eyesight (rated as 20/10, once enabling him to shoot a deer at Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 297 (paperback). ), flying skills, and combat leadership; he distinguished himself by becoming the first pilot in his group to make "ace in a day": he shot down five enemy aircraft in one mission, finishing the war with 11.5 official victories, including one of the first air-to-air victories over a jet fighter (a German Messerschmitt Me 262). Two of his "ace in a day" kills were scored without firing a single shot; he flew into firing position against a Messerschmitt Bf 109 and the pilot of the aircraft panicked, breaking to starboard and colliding with his wingman; Yeager later reported both pilots bailed out. An additional victory that was not officially counted for him came during the period before his combat status was reinstated: during a training flight in his P-51 over the North Sea, he happened on a German Junkers Ju 88 heavy fighter attacking a downed B-17 Flying Fortress crew. Yeager's quick thinking and reflexes saved the B-17 crew, but because he was not yet cleared for flying combat again, his gun camera film and credit for the kill were given to his wingman, Eddie Simpson. (Yeager later mistakenly recalled that the credit had given Simpson his fifth kill). Yeager was commissioned a second lieutenant while at Leiston and was promoted to captain before the end of his tour. He flew his sixty-first and final mission on January 15, 1945, and returned to the United States in early February. As an evader, he received his choice of assignments and because his new wife was pregnant, chose Wright Field to be near his home in West Virginia. His high flight hours and maintenance experience qualified him to become a functional test pilot of repaired aircraft, which brought him under the command of Colonel Albert Boyd, head of the Aeronautical Systems Flight Test Division. Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 60 (paperback). Post-War Yeager remained in the Air Force after the war, becoming a test pilot at Muroc Army Air Field (now Edwards Air Force Base) and eventually being selected to fly the rocket-powered Bell X-1 in a NACA program to research high-speed flight, after Bell Aircraft test pilot "Slick" Goodlin demanded $150,000 to break the sound "barrier." Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 121 (paperback). Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. Pages 52-53 (hardcover). Farrar-Straus-Giroux, New York. 1979. ISBN 0-374-25033-2. Such was the difficulty in this task that the answer to many of the inherent challenges were along the lines of "Yeager better have paid-up insurance." Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 157 (paperback). Yeager broke the sound barrier on October 14, 1947, flying the experimental X-1 at Mach 1 at an altitude of 45,000 feet (13,700 m). Two nights before the scheduled date for the flight, he broke two ribs while riding a horse. He was so afraid of being removed from the mission that he went to a veterinarian in a nearby town for treatment and told only his wife, as well as friend and fellow project pilot Jack Ridley about it. Yeager in front of the Bell X-1, which, as with all of the aircraft assigned to him, he named Glamorous Glennis (or some variation thereof), after his wife. On the day of the flight, Yeager was in such pain that he could not seal the airplane's hatch by himself. Ridley rigged up a device, using the end of a broom handle as an extra lever, to allow Yeager to seal the hatch of the airplane. Yeager's flight recorded Mach 1.07, however, he was quick to point out that the public paid attention to whole numbers and that the next milestone would be exceeding Mach 2. Yeager's X-1 is on display at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum. Yeager was awarded the MacKay and Collier Trophies in 1948 for his mach-transcending flight, and the Harmon International Trophy in 1954. Some aviation historians contend that American pilot George Welch broke the sound barrier before Yeager, once while diving an XP-86 Sabre on October 1, 1947, and again just 30 minutes before Yeager's X-1 flight. There was also a disputed claim by German pilot Hans Guido Mutke that he was the first person to break the sound barrier, on April 9, 1945, in a Messerschmitt Me 262. Postwar testing, however, determined that the Me-262 would go out of control and break apart well short of Mach 1. Yeager went on to break many other speed and altitude records. He also was one of the first American pilots to fly a MiG-15 after its pilot defected to South Korea with it. During the latter half of 1953, Yeager was involved with the USAF team that was working on the X-1A, an aircraft designed to surpass Mach 2 in level flight. That year, he flew a chase plane for the female civilian pilot Jackie Cochran, a close friend, as she became the first woman to fly faster than sound. However, on November 20, 1953, the NACA's D-558-II Skyrocket and its pilot, Scott Crossfield, became the first team to reach twice the speed of sound. After they were bested, Ridley and Yeager decided to beat rival Crossfield's speed record in a flight series that they dubbed "Operation NACA Weep." Not only did they beat Crossfield, but they did it in time to spoil a celebration planned for the 50th anniversary of flight in which Crossfield was to be called "the fastest man alive." The Ridley/Yeager USAF team achieved Mach 2.44 on December 12, 1953. Shortly after reaching Mach 2.44, he experienced a loss of aerodynamic control due to inertial coupling at approximately ., Yeager lost control of the X-1A. With the aircraft out of control, simultaneously rolling, pitching and yawing out of the sky, Yeager dropped in 51 seconds until regaining control of the aircraft at approximately . He was able to land the aircraft without further incident. Yeager was foremost a fighter pilot and held several squadron and wing commands. From May 1955 to July 1957 he commanded the F-86H Sabre-equipped 417th Fighter-Bomber Squadron (50th Fighter-Bomber Wing) at Hahn AB, Germany, and Toul-Rosieres Air Base, France; and from 1957 to 1960 the F-100D-equipped 1st Fighter Day Squadron (later, while still under Yeager's command, re-designated the 306th Tactical Fighter Squadron) at George Air Force Base, California, and Morón Air Base, Spain. In 1962, after completion of a year's studies at the Air War College, he was the first commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School, which produced astronauts for NASA and the USAF, after its redesignation from the USAF Flight Test Pilot School. An accident during a test flight in one of the school's NF-104s put an end to his record attempts. Between December 1963 and January 1964, The Crash of Chuck Yeager's NF-104A, December 10, 1963 Yeager completed five flights in the NASA M2-F1 lifting body. In 1966 he took command of the 405th Tactical Fighter Wing at Clark Air Base, the Philippines, whose squadrons were deployed on rotational temporary duty (TDY) in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. There he accrued another 414 hours of combat time in 127 missions, mostly in a Martin B-57 light bomber. In February 1968, he was assigned command of the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina, and led the F-4 Phantom wing in South Korea during the Pueblo crisis. On June 22, 1969, he was promoted to brigadier general, and was assigned in July as the vice-commander of the Seventeenth Air Force. In 1971, Yeager was assigned to Pakistan to advise the Pakistan Air Force at the behest of then-Ambassador Joe Farland. Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 391 (paperback). Prior to the start of hostilities of the Bangladesh War he is reported to have said that the Pakistani army would be in New Delhi within a week. The right stuff in the wrong place - Chuck Yeager's crash landing in Pakistan Washington Monthly, Oct, 1985 by Edward C. Ingraham During the war, his twin-engined Beechcraft was destroyed in an Indian air raid on the Chaklala air base - he was reportedly incensed and demanded US retaliation. Despite Pakistan's surrender to India in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Yeager stayed in Pakistan until March 1973, and recalled his stay in Pakistan as one of the most enjoyable times of his life. During his stay he spent most of his time flying in an F-86 Sabre with the Pakistan Air Force and making several expeditions to the K2 mountain, vactioning in Swat, Pakistan, trekking and hunting in the Northern Areas and learning the Urdu language. http://www.defence.pk/forums/military-history/18071-who-won-air-war-1971-a.html Merits Command pilot Air Force Distinguished Service MedalSilver Star, for shooting down five Bf 109s in one day, Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 73 (paperback). with one oak leaf clusterLegion of Merit with one oak leaf clusterDistinguished Flying Cross, for an Me 262 kill, Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 76 (paperback). with two oak leaf clusters, including first to break the sound barrierBronze Star , for helping rescue a fellow airman from Occupied France, with “V” devicePurple HeartAir Medal with 10 oak leaf clustersAir Force Commendation MedalDistinguished Unit Citation Emblem with oak leaf clusterAir Force Outstanding Unit AwardAmerican Defense Service MedalAmerican Campaign MedalEuropean-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal (8 battle stars)World War II Victory MedalPresidential Medal of Freedom Congressional Silver Medal (1976), for breaking the sound barrier for the first time. Yeager: An Autobiography. Pages 413-414 (paperback). "Presentation of a Special Congressional Silver Medal to Brigadier-General Charles E. Yeager, United States Air Force (Retired)", National Museum of the United States Air Force. Collier Trophy and Mackay Trophy, for breaking the sound barrier for the first time. Post-retirement history On March 1, 1975, following assignments in Germany and Pakistan, he retired from the Air Force at Norton Air Force Base, but still occasionally flew for the USAF and NASA as a consulting test pilot at Edwards AFB. For his consultant work to the Test Pilot School Commander at Edwards Air Force Base, Yeager is paid one dollar annually, along with all the flying time he wants. The $1 allows him to be covered by workers compensation. For several years, Yeager was the public face of AC Delco, the automotive parts division of General Motors. Because of this, AC Delco experienced a sales surge. Yeager: An Autobiography. Page 418 (paperback). Through the years, Yeager delivered a number of aviation and test pilot related speeches to a variety of groups ranging from test pilots, Air Force Association banquets, Civil Air Patrol, Experimental Aircraft Association, and even the Chartered Property and Casualty Underwriters (CPCU) National Meeting entitled "Breaking Barriers" in Honolulu in October 1995. Yeager easily adapted his talk to a given audience on the importance of stabilators and their role in giving America air combat supremacy. Yeager was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1973, and in 1990, included with the first class of inductees into the Aerospace Walk of Honor. In the late 80s and early 90s, Yeager set a number of light, general aircraft performance records for speed, range, and endurance. Most notable were flights conducted on behalf of Piper Aircraft. On one such flight, Yeager did an emergency landing as a result of fuel exhaustion. On October 14, 1997, on the 50th anniversary of his historic flight past Mach 1, he flew a new Glamorous Glennis III, an F-15D Eagle, past Mach 1, with Lt. Col. Troy Fontaine as co-pilot. The chase plane for the flight was an F-16 Fighting Falcon piloted by Bob Hoover, a famous air-show pilot, and his wingman for the first supersonic flight. Had Yeager gone to the flight surgeon with his broken ribs before the X-1 flight, he would have been grounded and Hoover would have flown the supersonic flight test, with Bud Anderson flying chase. This was Yeager's last official flight with the Air Force. At the end of his speech to the crowd he concluded, "All that I am... I owe to the Air Force." Later that month, Yeager was the recipient of the Tony Jannus Award for his achievements. In 2004, Congress voted to authorize the President to promote Brig. Gen Yeager to the rank of major general on the retired list. In 2005, President George W. Bush granted the promotion of both Yeager and (posthumously) air-power pioneer Billy Mitchell to major general. Few Presidents have authorized retirement promotions: Mitchell was first posthumously reinstated as a brigadier general by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Academy Award winning actor/Air Force Reservist Jimmy Stewart was promoted in retirement from brigadier general to major general by President Ronald Reagan. Brigadier General Yeager Yeager, who never attended college and was often modest about his background, is considered by some to be one of the greatest pilots of all time. Despite his lack of higher education, he has been honored in his home state. Marshall University has named its highest academic scholarship, the Society of Yeager Scholars, in his honor. Additionally, Yeager Airport in Charleston, West Virginia, is named after him. The Interstate 64/Interstate 77 bridge over the Kanawha River in Charleston is named for Yeager. He was the chairman of Experimental Aircraft Association's Young Eagle Program. The state of West Virginia honored Yeager with a marker along Corridor G (part of U.S. 119) in his home Lincoln County on October 19, 2006, as well as renamed part of the highway the Yeager Highway. Yeager Comes Home, WOWK-TV, August 19, 2006 Yeager is now fully retired from military test flight, after having maintained that status for three decades after his official retirement from the Air Force. Yeager served on the Rogers Commission that investigated the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger on STS-51-L. The Sacramento ABC affiliate sent a crew to Yeager's home, a few miles northeast of the city, following the Challenger disaster that was aired on Nightline. Yeager provided a voice of calm, confidence, and understanding during the interview. Most notable was his quote: "They (NASA) have all the telemetry data available to understand what happened, and it will be just a matter of time to analyze it". Yeager did admit that there is a risk in any aeronautical flight test, a category in which the Space Shuttle fits, that crews accept that risk, and that these same crews understand the consequences of that risk better than anyone else. Regardless, they believe in what they are doing and would not do any other type of work. In 2000, Yeager met actress Victoria Scott D'Angelo on a hiking trail in Nevada County. Despite their 36 year age difference, they started dating shortly thereafter. Victoria D'Angelo listing at IMDB The pair married in August 2003. The Right Stuff at war, The Age, August 31, 2004 Three of Yeager's children are currently suing for control of his holdings, claiming that D'Angelo married him for his fortune. Yeager contends they simply want more money. Record-Setting Pilot Chuck Yeager Sues His Children, New York Times, June 7, 2006 Bob Baker's Newsthinking On November 20, 2006, Yeager endorsed Representative Duncan Hunter as a candidate for President of the United States and served as honorary chairman of Hunter's presidential campaign. References Hallion, Richard P. Designers and Test Pilots. New York: Time-Life Books, 1982. ISBN 0-8094-3316-8. Pisano, Dominick A., van der Linden, R. Robert and Winter, Frank H. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: Breaking the Soiund Barrier. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (in association with Abrams, New York): 2006. ISBN 0-8109-5535-0. Yeager, Chuck, Cardenas, Bob, Hoover, Bob, Russell, Jack and Young, James. The Quest for Mach One: A First-Person Account of Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Penguin Studio, 1997. ISBN 0-670-87460-4. Yeager, Chuck and Leerhsen, Charles. Press on! Further Adventures in the Good Life. New York: Bantam Books, 1988. ISBN 0-553-05333-7. External links Official Website General Yeager's MySpace Page Academy of Achievement Profile "Chuck Yeager & the Sound Barrier" Fan website and original Yeager Website Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager on the NASA web site. Edwards AFB Bio on BG Yeager Archive.org The Crash of Yeager's NF-104 AcesWild: The Race to Mach 1 by Al Blackburn, SR Books 1999 How I crossed swords with Chuck Yeager, Indian Navy Chief of Staff, Adm. Arun Prakash's article on strafing Yeager's aircraft during the '71 war. 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1,876 | Albert_Brooks | Albert Brooks (born July 22, 1947) is an American actor, writer, comedian and director. He received an Academy Award nomination in 1987 http://www.filmsite.org/aa87.html for his role in Broadcast News. His voice acting credits include as Marlin, the clownfish father in Finding Nemo and as a recurring guest voice actor for The Simpsons on TV, and in The Simpsons Movie. Early life Brooks was born Albert Lawrence Einstein in Beverly Hills, California, the son of Thelma Leeds (née Goodman), a singer and actress, and Harry Parke (né Einstein), a radio comedian who performed on Eddie Cantor's radio program and was known as Parkyarkarkus. Albert Brooks Biography (1947-) His brothers are comedic actor Bob Einstein, better known by his stage name "Super Dave Osborne" and Cliff Einstein, a partner and longtime chief creative officer at the Los Angeles ad agency Dailey & Associates and his half-brother was Charles Einstein (1926-2007), a writer who wrote for such shows as Playhouse 90 and Lou Grant. Brooks is Jewish EGO Magazine: Comedy in The Muslim World and attended Beverly Hills High School. Kaufman, Peter of The Washington Post, "The background on Albert Brooks", The Buffalo News, January 22, 2006. Accessed April 24, 2008. "Albert Brooks, who grew up in a showbiz family and attended Beverly Hills High School, has never been interested in being an outsider." Brooks grew up among show business royalty in southern California, attending high school with Richard Dreyfuss and Rob Reiner. Early career Brooks attended Carnegie Tech in Pittsburgh, but dropped out after one year to focus on his comedy career. He changed his surname from Einstein (to avoid confusion with the famous physicist) and began a stand-up comedy career that quickly made him a regular on variety and talk shows during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Brooks led a new generation of self-reflective baby-boomer comics appearing on the NBC network Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson. His onstage persona, that of an egotistical, narcissistic, nervous comic, an ironic showbiz insider who punctured himself before an audience by disassembling his mastery of comedic stagecraft, influenced other '70s post-modern comedians, including Steve Martin, Martin Mull and Andy Kaufman. After two successful comedy albums, Comedy Minus One (1974) and the Grammy Award-nominated A Star is Bought (1975), Brooks left the stand-up circuit to try his hand as a filmmaker; his first film, The Famous Comedians School, was a satiric short that appeared on PBS and was an early example of the mockumentary sub-genre. In 1975, he directed six short films for the first season of NBC's Saturday Night Live: ad:10/11/75 h:George Carlin - unlikely news items ad:10/18/75 h:Paul Simon - failed Candid Camera stunts & home movies ad:10/25/75 h:Rob Reiner - heart surgery ad:11/8/75 h:Candice Bergen - upcoming season ad:12/13/75 h:Richard Pryor / Gil Scott-Heron - sick ad:1/9/76 h:Elliott Gould / Anne Murray - audience test screening In 1976, he appeared in his first mainstream film role, in Martin Scorsese's landmark Taxi Driver (Scorsese allowed Brooks to improvise much of his dialogue). The role reflected Brooks's decision to move to Los Angeles to get into the film business. In an interview, Brooks mentioned a conversation he had had with Taxi Driver screenwriter Paul Schrader, in which Schrader said that Brooks' character was the only one in the movie that he could not "understand" — a remark that Brooks found amusing, as the movie's anti-hero was a psychotic loner. Brooks directed his first feature film, Real Life, in 1979. The film, in which Brooks obnoxiously films a typical suburban family in an effort to win both an Oscar and a Nobel Prize, was a sendup of PBS's An American Family documentary. Brooks also made a cameo appearance in the film Private Benjamin (1980), starring Goldie Hawn. 1980s–1990s Through the 1980s and 1990s, Brooks co-wrote (with longtime collaborator Monica Johnson), directed and starred in a series of well-received (by the critics, at least) comedies, playing variants on his standard neurotic and self-obsessed character. These include 1981's Modern Romance, where Brooks played a film editor desperate to win back his ex-girlfriend (Kathryn Harrold). The film received a limited release and ultimately grossed under $3 million domestically, but was well received by critics, with one reviewer commenting that the film was "not Brooks at his best, but still amusing". His best-received film, Lost in America (1985), featured Brooks and Julie Hagerty as a couple who leave their yuppie lifestyle and drop out of society to live in a motor home as they have always dreamed of doing. They meet comic disappointment. Brooks's Defending Your Life (1991) placed his lead character in the afterlife, put on trial to justify his human fears and thus determine his cosmic fate. Critics responded to the offbeat premise and the surprising chemistry between Brooks and Meryl Streep as his post-death love interest. His later efforts did not find large audiences, but still retained Brooks's touch as a filmmaker. He garnered positive reviews for Mother (1996), which starred Brooks as a middle-aged writer moving back home to resolve tensions between himself and his mother (Debbie Reynolds). 1999's The Muse featured Brooks as a down-and-out Hollywood screenwriter using the services of an authentic muse (Sharon Stone) for inspiration. Brooks also acted in other writers' and directors' films during the 1980s and 1990s. He moved into the horror genre in one of the stories in Twilight Zone: The Movie, playing a driver whose passenger (Dan Aykroyd) has a shocking secret. In James L. Brooks's hit Broadcast News (1987), Albert Brooks was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor as an insecure, supremely ethical network TV reporter, who offers the rhetorical question, "Wouldn't this be a great world if insecurity and desperation made us more attractive?" He also won positive notices for his role in 1998's Out of Sight, playing an untrustworthy banker and ex-convict. 2000s Brooks received positive reviews for his portrayal of a dying retail store owner who befriends disillusioned teen Leelee Sobieski in My First Mister (2001). Brooks has appeared as a guest voice on The Simpsons five times during its run (always under the name A. Brooks), and is described as the best guest star in the show's history by IGN, particularly for his role as supervillain Hank Scorpio in the episode "You Only Move Twice". Brooks continued his voiceover work in Disney and Pixar's Finding Nemo (2003), as the voice of "Marlin", one of the film's protagonists; Nemo is Brooks's largest grossing film to date. In 2005, his film Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World drew controversy for its title. Sony Pictures eventually dropped the film altogether because of their desire to change the title. Subsequently, Warner Independent Pictures purchased the film and gave it a limited release in January 2006; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross. The movie goes back to the days of Brooks's Real Life, as Brooks once again plays himself, a filmmaker commissioned by the U.S. government to see what makes the Muslim people laugh, thus sending him on a tour of India and Pakistan. In 2006 he appeared in a documentary Wanderlust as David Howard from "Lost in America". The documentary included many other well known people. In 2007, he continued his long term collaboration with The Simpsons by voicing Russ Cargill, the main antagonist of The Simpsons Movie. He has played Lenny Botwin, Nancy Botwin's estranged father-in-law, on Showtime's television series Weeds. Weeds Scoop: Albert Brooks Is Nancy's "Dad" Personal life Brooks was romantically linked to singer Linda Ronstadt and actresses Carrie Fisher, Julie Hagerty and Kathryn Harrold. He married Kimberly Shlain, an artist he met through a mutual friend. The couple has two children, Jacob Eli (born 1998) and Claire Elizabeth (born 2000). Brooks resides in Los Angeles. Filmography Films Year Film Role Notes 1976 Taxi Driver Tom 1979 Real Life Albert Brooks Writer and director 1980 Private Benjamin Yale Goodman 1981 Modern Romance Robert Cole Writer and director1983 Twilight Zone: The Movie Car driver Terms of Endearment Voice of Rudyard Greenway Credited as "A. Brooks" 1984 Unfaithfully Yours Norman Robbins 1985 Lost in America David Howard Writer and director 1987 Broadcast News Aaron Altman Nominated - Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor 1991 Defending Your Life Daniel Miller Writer and director1994 I'll Do Anything Burke Adler The Scout Al Percolo Writer 1996 Mother John Henderson Writer and director 1997 Critical Care Dr. Butz1998 Dr. Dolittle Jacob the Tiger Out of Sight Richard Ripley 1999 The Muse Steven Phillips Writer and director 2001 My First Mister Randall 'R' Harris2003 The In-Laws Jerry Peyser Finding Nemo Marlin 2006 Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World Albert Brooks Writer and director 2007 The Simpsons Movie Russ Cargill Credited as "A. Brooks" Television Year Series Role Notes 1969 Hot Wheels Kip ChogiAdditional voices 1970 The Odd Couple Rudy Episode 1.8: "Oscar, the Model" and Episode 1.11: "Felix Is Missing" 1971 Love, American Style Christopher Leacock Episode 2.16: "Love and Operation Model/Love and the Sack" 1972 The New Dick Van Dyke Show Dr. Norman Episode 2.2: "The Needle" 1975-1976 Saturday Night Live Additional characters Writer and director of several segments 1976 The Famous Comedians School N/A TV film; writer, editor and director 1990-2005 The Simpsons Various characters Appeared in five episodesCredited as "A. Brooks" 2008 Weeds Lenny Botwin Appeared in six episodes References External links Official website | Albert_Brooks |@lemmatized albert:9 brook:45 bear:2 july:1 american:3 actor:5 writer:14 comedian:5 director:9 receive:7 academy:3 award:4 nomination:1 http:1 www:1 filmsite:1 org:1 html:1 role:7 broadcast:3 news:5 voice:7 act:2 credit:3 include:4 marlin:3 clownfish:1 father:2 find:5 nemo:4 recur:1 guest:3 simpson:7 tv:3 movie:9 early:4 life:7 lawrence:1 einstein:6 beverly:3 hill:3 california:2 son:1 thelma:1 leeds:1 née:1 goodman:2 singer:2 actress:1 harry:1 parke:1 né:1 radio:2 perform:1 eddie:1 cantor:1 program:1 know:3 parkyarkarkus:1 biography:1 brother:2 comedic:2 bob:1 good:1 stage:1 name:2 super:1 dave:1 osborne:1 cliff:1 partner:1 longtime:2 chief:1 creative:1 officer:1 los:3 angeles:3 ad:7 agency:1 dailey:1 associate:1 half:1 charles:1 write:2 show:6 playhouse:1 lou:1 grant:1 jewish:1 ego:1 magazine:1 comedy:8 muslim:4 world:4 attend:4 high:3 school:5 kaufman:2 peter:1 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1,877 | Vorkosigan_Saga | The Vorkosigan Saga is a series of science fiction novels and short stories by American author Lois McMaster Bujold, most of which concern Miles Vorkosigan, a physically disabled aristocrat from the planet Barrayar whose life (from before birth), military career, and post-military career is a challenge to his native planet's prejudices against "mutants." The novels The Vor Game, Barrayar, and Mirror Dance each won the Hugo Award for Best Novel, while Falling Free, Memory, and A Civil Campaign were nominated but did not win. The stories are listed in order of chronology, rather than publication date. Shards of Honor and Barrayar concern Miles' parents, while Dreamweaver's Dilemma and Falling Free and Ethan of Athos are set in the same universe as the other books but do not involve Miles or any of his family. Lois Bujold wrote two books (Shards of Honor and The Warrior's Apprentice) and was working on a third (Ethan of Athos) before The Warrior's Apprentice was accepted (after four rejections). On the strength of The Warrior's Apprentice, Baen Books agreed to a three-book deal to include the two other novels. It was the second novel written in the series, after Shards of Honor. Background The Wormhole Nexus Travel between star systems is by wormholes, spatial anomalies that exist in five spatial dimensions, that allow instantaneous travel from one star to another. Most trips between inhabited systems require more than one jump. The spaceships employ artificial gravity and can sustain huge accelerations, allowing them to cross from one wormhole to another in a matter of hours or days. The inhabited systems are known collectively as the Wormhole Nexus, reflecting their interconnectedness. Life in the Nexus is tremendously varied. Some people live in space habitats with artificial gravity and never set foot on a planet. Aside from space industry, habitats are positioned near wormhole jump-points to manage interstellar traffic. The jump-points are also guarded by military stations, which also serve as customs enforcers. It is possible to invade a system through a wormhole, though there are also ways to temporarily block access by sending a ship to destroy itself in transit on a suicide mission. Wormhole jump pilots are hard to replace, so this kind of tactic is rarely used even by cultures which, like Barrayar's, hold life relatively cheap. As Miles Vorkosigan notes at one point, the best way to capture a wormhole is from both sides simultaneously. This creates room for plots involving trickery and skulduggery. The inhabitable planets of the Nexus are home to all kinds of sub-groups of humanity, from the all-male culture on Athos to the liberal, technologically advanced Beta Colony, to the hegemonistic Cetagandan Empire, from the cut-throat, capitalistic Jackson's Whole, to the moderate and scientific Escobar, with plenty of industrial, agricultural and even pirate planets in between. Some aspects of the Nexus are quite terrifying. Apart from the usual kinds of death by impact, explosion, fire etc., there are weapons which target the nervous system, such as the nerve disruptor pistol, which can kill or merely cripple for life with a single blast. The drug fast-penta, which removes all inhibitions in talking, renders lying to interrogators effectively impossible. Cetagandan agents employ chemical and biological agents when necessary, such as the one which reduces its victims to biological goo in the novel Diplomatic Immunity. Gangsters on the criminal planet Jackson's Whole will make genetic monstrosities for cash, provide any form of perversion for entertainment, and even raise clones of rich clients who then have their physical brains transplanted into a younger version of themselves, as an expensive and risky form of immortality. Beta Colony, in contrast, offers ethical genetic treatments and psychotherapy, but even their medical experts may wrongly think they have the right to intervene if they believe someone to have been subjected to mind-altering treatments. Beta also has draconian population control, requiring contraceptive implants for all, even as their sexual mores are among the most tolerant in the Nexus. History of Barrayar The planet Barrayar is a terrestrial world with no large indigenous animals. It has some small animals which nonspecialists call "bugs"; and it has a wide variety of plants. Barrayaran life is not edible for terrestrial animals; indeed, there are many plant species to which many humans are violently allergic. Barrayar was colonized by humans principally of Russian, English-speaking, French, and Greek ancestry about three hundred years prior to most of the novels set on the planet. Shortly after colonization, the 50,000 settlers were isolated by a failure of the wormhole which connected Barrayar to civilized planets. During the following centuries, referred to as "The Time of Isolation", the planet evolved a rigorous feudal form of government, in which the Emperor was supported by sixty regional counts and other minor aristocrats, identified by the prefix Vor- in their names. The Vor caste is a military one, and Barrayaran culture is highly militaristic and patriarchal. Barrayar was eventually rediscovered by a different wormhole route connecting to the rich merchant planet Komarr. The Komarrans took advantage of this discovery by allowing the neighboring expansionist Cetagandan empire to invade Barrayar in return for commercial rights. Despite a significant technological advantage, the Cetagandan invasion was finally driven back at a cost of over 5 million Barrayaran dead, and in large part due to the actions of General Count Piotr Vorkosigan. After the interregnum of the Mad Emperor Yuri Vorbarra, who was deposed by Vorkosigan and their mutual cousin Ezar Vorbarra, the principal surviving heirs to the throne, and the subsequent maturing of Vorkosigan's surviving son Aral Vorkosigan as the youngest admiral in Barrayaran history, the decision was made to invade Komarr, both for Barrayar's protection and as payback for the Komarran collaboration in the Cetagandan invasion. An unsavory incident in which 200 Komarran leaders were executed during a truce, without Admiral Vorkosigan's knowledge or consent, earned him the nickname the "Butcher of Komarr" and caused significant problems administering the captured planet – and for Barrayar's reputation. "Dreamweaver's Dilemma" (Short story) "Dreamweaver's Dilemma" is a short story set in the Vorkosigan universe at the beginning of the age of space colonization and genetic manipulation. It is published in the book also entitled Dreamweaver's Dilemma which is a collection of short stories and essays by Bujold. Falling Free Falling Free (1988) is set about 200 years before Miles' birth. It relates the creation of the "Quaddies", genetically modified people who have four arms, the second pair appearing where unmodified humans would have legs. They were intended to be used as a space labor force, not only superbly adapted to zero-gravity but unable to function "downside" in any but the lightest gravitational field. From the point of view of the commercial interests responsible for their creation, they would be highly profitable, requiring none of the special facilities or mandatory time off needed by downsiders, whose bodies tend to deteriorate over the long term in weightlessness. They would also be completely beholden to the company for life support, and would have no rights as human beings. Legally, the Quaddies are not classed as human but as "post-fetal experimental tissue cultures". The company treats them as slaves. Their access to information is tightly controlled. Even their children's stories are about working in space. They can be ordered to have babies, or to have a pregnancy terminated. They are the subject of breeding programs, the company compelling the females to mate with a designated male even when they have formed couples. When a new artificial gravity technology renders them both obsolete and a potential political embarrassment to the executives, there are discussions about killing them or sterilizing them. Engineer Leo Graf, who is assigned to help train them, helps them break free. They eventually settle in an initially out-of-the-way system which gradually becomes a major part of the Nexus. Diplomatic Immunity, last book in the series as of 2007, further explores the Quaddies society after some 240 years. It takes place on Graf Station, named for Leo Graf, who is hero and father-figure to the Quaddies. Bujold has stated in the notes of her reprints that Falling Free was the first half of the intended story. The unwritten, second story was to tell how the Quaddies settled into what would be known as "Quaddiespace". Shards of Honor Cordelia Naismith, captain of an Astronomical Survey ship from the extremely liberal and technologically advanced Beta Colony, is exploring a newly-discovered planet when her base camp is attacked. While investigating, she is surprised by a soldier, hits her head on a rock, and awakens to find that, while most of her crew has escaped, she is marooned with an injured crewman and Captain Lord Aral Vorkosigan of Barrayar, notorious throughout human space as the "Butcher of Komarr". He had been left behind for dead by a treacherous rival. During their five-day hike to a secret Barrayaran base, she finds Vorkosigan not at all the monster his reputation suggested, and is strongly attracted to him. She helps him defeat a mutiny, despite some well-intentioned interference from her crew, and she is "rescued" and returns to Beta Colony. It turns out that the secret base was a staging point for an invasion of Beta Colony's ally Escobar, to be led by Crown Prince Serg, the demented son and heir of Emperor Ezar. Cordelia goes to Escobar in command of a decoy ship and successfully distracts the Barrayaran ships on picket duty at the wormhole exit so the transport ships following her can deliver a devastating new Betan weapon to the Escobaran defenders. She is captured, briefly tortured by the sadistic Admiral Vorrutyer, then unexpectedly rescued by Vorrutyer's henchman, Sergeant Bothari, who kills his master. Afterwards, Commodore Vorkosigan hides the pair in his cabin. The new weapons give the Escobarans an overwhelming advantage and the Barrayaran invasion is driven back with heavy losses, including Crown Prince Serg, his flagship, and all hands aboard. As Vorkosigan takes charge and organizes his fleet's retreat, Cordelia overhears one critical fact and deduces, step by step, a political secret that would plunge Barrayar into a generation of civil war if it ever got out. When Vorkosigan can no longer hide her in his cabin, she is placed in the ship's brig. The ship is attacked and loses power, including internal gravity; Cordelia braces herself in a corner of her cell, but when lights and gravity are restored she discovers that it is a ceiling corner, falls and breaks her arm. She endures a considerable wait while medics treat the more seriously injured, as the ship escapes from Escobar space and returns to the secret base. On her way back to Beta Colony after a prisoner exchange, she is assigned a cabin mate who turns out to be a Betan psychiatrist convinced that her injuries are evidence that she was tortured by Vorkosigan, and the fact that she denies being tortured means that her memories have been suppressed. Desperate to keep her terrible secret, Cordelia refuses to let herself sleep, developing insomnia, stuttering, and a nervous tic, which further leads the psychiatrist and doctors to conclude that she has also been brainwashed and is being sent back to Beta Colony as a spy. At home on Beta, the authorities are determined to "cure" her, forcing her to flee. She manages to reach Barrayar, where she marries Aral Vorkosigan. The dying Emperor Ezar Vorbarra appoints Aral as Regent-Elect for his grandson and heir, the four-year-old Prince Gregor. Aral, who is next in line of succession after the Prince, at first refuses, but Cordelia convinces him to take the job. Barrayar As Barrayar begins, the Vorkosigans are expecting their first child. When the crafty old Emperor dies, Aral takes over as Regent. An unsuccessful plot to assassinate Aral with poison gas seriously threatens the lives of him and his pregnant wife Cordelia. The antidote to the poison, while quite effective, is a powerful teratogen which attacks the bones of their unborn son, Miles. In a radical procedure for Barrayar, the fetus is transferred to a uterine replicator – an artificial womb to undergo an experimental recalcification treatment that may repair some of the damage to his bones. While Cordelia and Aral are recuperating at the Vorkosigan country estate, Count Vidal Vordarian attempts a coup. Gregor is rescued by his loyal security chief Captain Negri and reunited with the Vorkosigans. Cordelia, Gregor, and various retainers escape into the hills on horseback and hide amongst the rural peasant population while Aral and his father organize the resistance. After Cordelia rejoins Aral at a military base, they learn that the replicator containing Miles has been captured. Without proper maintenance, the fetus will succumb within two weeks, but Aral cannot bring himself to mount a rescue when there are greater concerns. However, Cordelia convinces her bodyguard, Ludmilla Droushnakovi, and one of Aral's officers, Clement Koudelka, to help her rescue Miles and Gregor's mother, Princess Kareen. Once in the palace, Cordelia and her party are caught. They overpower their captors, execute Vordarian after his bodyguards accidentally kill Princess Kareen, and escape with the replicator. Returning to the military base, Cordelia barges in on her husband Aral and father-in-law Piotr as they are bargaining with a couple of Vordarian's senior officers about the latter switching sides, and interrupts these delicate negotiations by dumping Vordarian's severed head onto the conference table. The coup falls apart without its leader and peace returns to the planet. The enlightened Betan Cordelia is given charge of Prince Gregor's early education, with far-reaching consequences for Barrayar. Because of his exposure to the antidote, Miles Naismith Vorkosigan is born with extremely fragile bones that tend to break under any stress, and his growth is stunted. On Barrayar, babies with birth defects are common, due to poisoning from native Barrayarian plant life and to lingering radiation from the earlier war between Barrayar and Cetaganda. Such babies were traditionally subject to infanticide, though this practice is illegal by the time of Miles' birth. So-called "muties" are still reviled and shunned, and Miles, though genetically healthy, must deal with prejudice throughout his life, starting with his grandfather Piotr. The Warrior's Apprentice Seventeen-year-old Miles fails to qualify for the Barrayaran Service Academy, breaking both legs during a run over an obstacle course. On a visit to Beta Colony, in quick succession, he obtains a ship, a pilot, and a smuggling mission, running guns to a beleaguered government. He captures another ship from the blockading Oseran Mercenaries, somewhat unintentionally, and representing himself as "Admiral Naismith", commander of the non-existent Dendarii Mercenaries, co-opts the crew through improvisation, sheer audacity and luck. Under Naismith's brilliant leadership, the Dendarii eventually take over the rest of the Oseran fleet and win the war. The unexpected arrival of Miles’ cousin Ivan Vorpatril brings the realization that a political faction in the Council of Counts is attacking his father back on Barrayar by charging Miles with maintaining a private army—an act of capital treason. He returns home posthaste, uncovers the real plot behind the charges, and escapes trial by gaining the Emperor's approval to recast the Dendarii as (secretly) Imperial forces. He is rewarded with admission to the Academy, which all in the know agree might help keep him out of trouble for a while. "Mountains of Mourning" (novella) Miles has just graduated from the Imperial Academy, and is at home at Vorkosigan Surleau with his parents. A woman from the isolated village of Silvy Vale walks three days to Vorkosigan Surleau to report the suspected murder of her baby, who was born with a hare lip and cleft palate. Miles' father sends him to investigate as his Voice to gain experience. Miles solves the mystery and exercises justice and mercy in appropriate measure. The story is available for free download in multiple formats from the Baen Free Library. The Vor Game Miles graduates from the Academy, and is upset to learn he is being sent to replace the weather officer at the Empire's winter infantry training base on remote Kyril Island, to see if he can handle the discipline and military routine. Miles refuses to obey what he deems a criminal order by the base commander, who has him arrested for mutiny, and as he is Vor, treason. He is quickly returned to the capital and sequestered in the bowels of Imperial Security (ImpSec) by Simon Illyan, who, along with his father, conclude that Miles had behaved correctly, but has larger problems than insubordinate Vorlings. Young Emperor Gregor has disappeared while on a diplomatic mission to Komarr. Miles, traveling to the Hegen Hub on an unrelated mission for ImpSec, is framed for murder and arrested. While in custody, he is startled to find Gregor, who tells him that he had run away from the embassy on Komarr and then was shanghaied for work as a tech by an unscrupulous ship owner. Miles muddies the waters in an attempt to extricate Gregor, and is soon up to his neck in a mysterious plot involving an amoral femme fatale, his murderous former Kyril Island commanding officer, and Hub power politics. Miles encounters his mercenary friends and, after some problems with the former leaders who have regained power, resumes his Admiral Naismith persona. He is able to rescue Gregor, stop the fiendish plot, and as a bonus, unify the Hub systems to repel a Cetagandan invasion, with a little help from a Barrayaran fleet co-commanded by his father and Emperor Gregor. Gregor and ImpSec decide to put the Dendarii on permanent retainer for covert missions, with Miles officially enthroned as liaison and admiral. Thus begins the portion of Miles' career that ends with his temporary disgrace in Memory. The first several chapters of The Vor Game (Chapter 1 through part of Chapter 6) were originally published in a slightly different form as a novella entitled "The Weatherman" in the February 1990 issue of Analog magazine. The story covers Miles's assignment to Kyril Island through his arrest and the beginning of his detention at ImpSec. Cetaganda Miles and Ivan are sent to the homeworld of the Cetagandan Empire to represent Barrayar at the Imperial funeral of the dowager Empress. They soon become entangled in a tangled plot. In Cetaganda, Miles forms an unusual alliance with Rian Degtiar, the "Hand-Maiden of the Star Creche", who is charged with the duties of Empress until the new one is chosen. Miles solves the complex mystery, derails a planned war with Barrayar, and prevents the Cetagandan Empire from fragmenting into nine dangerously expansion-minded parts. Miles himself, much to his chagrin, is publicly awarded the Cetagandan "Order of Merit", the highest Cetagandan award, personally presented by the Emperor. He also picks up clues to a Cetagandan genetic experiment, which becomes the object of much skulduggery in Ethan of Athos. Ethan of Athos This novel does not feature Miles except indirectly; his eventual girlfriend, Commander Elli Quinn of the Dendarii Free Mercenary Fleet, plays a leading role. "Labyrinth" (novella) Miles takes the Dendarii cruiser Ariel on a mission to Jackson's Whole ostensibly to buy weapons, but also to smuggle geneticist Dr. Hugh Canaba away from his current employer (almost certainly House Bharaputra) and into Barrayaran hands. Canaba throws a wrench into the works when he refuses to leave without certain experimental samples which he has injected into one of his earlier projects, a prototype "super-soldier" created from human, wolf and horse DNA. Even worse, it has been sold to the paranoid and sadistic Baron Ryoval whom Miles has recently offended. Miles breaks into Ryoval's laboratory, but is caught and imprisoned in a utility sublevel where they are also keeping Canaba's dangerous specimen, "Nine". This turns out to be an eight-foot-tall werewolf complete with fangs, claws, superhuman strength and speed, and a ravenous appetite. Miles is shocked to find that the creature is female, and, despite her fearsome appearance, she is an intelligent and emotionally vulnerable young woman. She challenges him to prove that he believes she is human - by making love to her. Miles gets to indulge his weakness for tall strong women... He offers her a new life with the Dendarii, and a name: Taura. They spend several hours trying to escape and commit one supreme act of sabotage and revenge before Dendarii Captain Bel Thorne manages to negotiate a ransom. Miles finds several aspects of the Deal unacceptable and the exchange turns into a minor battle with Ryoval's security. Despite her lack of combat training, Taura demonstrates spectacular raw ability and contributes mightily to her own rescue. They escape and are pursued, but manage to reach the Ariel and depart the Jackson system. Miles creates confusion and avoids pursuit by telling different lies (and a couple of vital truths) to Ryoval and his rival half-brother, weapons dealer Baron Fell. "Borders of Infinity" (novella) Miles goes undercover as a Marilacan soldier, allows himself to be captured by the Cetagandans, who have invaded and occupied Marilac, and is deposited in a maximum-security POW camp on Dagoola IV. His mission is to get a single man out of the camp, but he has to improvise when his target proves to be comatose. With a little help from Suegar, an apparent religious fanatic, and Tris, the leader of the female prisoners, he reinstitutes order and civilisation in the camp, gets the POWs to rehearse quick transport embarkation disguised as food ration bar distribution, and stages a mass breakout. As a result, the Cetagandans put a price on Naismith's head. At this point, they (along with nearly everyone else) are unaware that Naismith and Vorkosigan are one and the same. Brothers in Arms Miles and the Dendarii arrive on Earth, fleeing Cetagandan retribution and desperate to repair the damage suffered by their ships. Miles visits the Barrayaran Embassy so the Dendarii can be paid for their last mission. There he finds his cousin Ivan Vorpatril working for the distinctly hostile Captain Duv Galeni, who turns out to be a Komarran related to one of the alleged victims of Miles' father. Miles is reassigned as Third Military Attache, once more a mere lieutenant, and worse, technically under Galeni's command. As if this weren't enough, Miles discovers he has a clone brother, who is trying to kill him at the behest of Komarran terrorists, who want to send the clone to Barrayar in Miles' place. The assassination plot is foiled, but instead of disposing of the clone or handing him over to the Barrayarans, Miles sets him free. He declares that, by Betan law, the clone is his brother, and furthermore by Barrayaran tradition, his brother would have the name Mark Pierre Vorkosigan. In exchange for "Mark" helping Miles to fool the Cetagandans, who are beginning to suspect that Naismith and Vorkosigan are the same person, Mark is let go with a considerable sum of money, and the invitation to claim his Barrayaran heritage, if he wants to - or dares. Borders of Infinity (book) The three short stories "Mountains of Mourning", "Labyrinth", and "Borders of Infinity" were reprinted with an untitled framing story in which Miles reports to Simon Illyan, head of ImpSec. The framing story emphasizes an audit – both financial and political – of ImpSec which questions Miles' activities and expenditures during the previous adventures. Mirror Dance Mark masquerades as Miles and dupes the Dendarii Free Mercenaries into a mission to free clones held "prisoner" on the freebooter's planet of Jackson's Whole. When Miles finds out, he attempts to rescue his troops and his brother from the mess Mark creates, but is killed by a needle-grenade. Although he is put into a cryonic chamber, it is lost when the assault team is forced to withdraw. The medic in charge of it hides the chamber in a freight-forwarding system. When the medic is killed, nobody has any idea where he had sent it. The Dendarii take Mark to Miles' parents on Barrayar. Cordelia accepts him as another son and has him acknowledged as a legitimate family member. After a while, Mark concludes that Miles is still on Jackson's Whole, and decides to go there himself to look for him, since ImpSec does not believe him. Cordelia helps him by buying him a ship. Meanwhile, Miles has been resuscitated by the Duronas, a research group cloned from a medical genius, employees of a planetary overlord, Baron Fell. His memory takes some time to return, and the doctors treating him do not know whether he is Mark, Admiral Naismith or Miles Vorkosigan (they are unaware of Miles' dual identity). Mark finds Miles, but is captured by Miles' old nemesis, Baron Ryoval, held prisoner and tortured for five days. The stress and trauma cause his personality to fragment into four sub-personalities: Gorge the glutton, Grunt the sexual pervert, Howl the masochist, and Killer the assassin. Together, the first three protect the fragile Mark persona, while Killer bides his time. When Ryoval's assistant informs him that Mark has gone round the bend and is actually enjoying the torture, a frustrated Ryoval decides to study his victim alone. Killer takes the opportunity to emerge and kill Ryoval, allowing Mark to resurface and escape. He sells Ryoval's secrets, accessible only through a code-ring to Baron Fell for two million Betan dollars on condition that the Durona Group be permitted to leave Jackson's Whole and go where they will. Between them, the two brothers manage to upset the balance of power on Jackson's Whole. However, the side effects of Miles' death and revivification have serious repercussions. Mark has his own problems, thanks to his original vicious programming, complicated by the torture. He goes to his mother with one request: "Help me!" She decides to send him to Beta Colony for psychiatric treatment and therapy. By necessity, this novel was told from two viewpoints, those of Miles and Mark. This was the first novel in the Vorkosigan series to be written this way, though not the first time Bujold wrote such a novel, the first being Falling Free. Memory During a routine combat mission, Miles suffers an epileptic-like seizure, a lingering side effect of his recent death and cryo-revival. During the fit, his plasma arc is activated and he accidentally severs the legs of the Barrayaran courier he was sent to rescue. Terrified of the possible consequences if he lets his condition reach the all-hearing ears of Simon Illyan, he falsifies the mission report to cover it up. However, Illyan has spies in place among his crew, Miles is caught out in his lies, and forced to resign from ImpSec. He is plunged into a state of deep depression, and hides in his home, contemplating suicide. Meanwhile, Emperor Gregor, after years of refusing to marry any of the tall, skinny, eligible Barrayaran ladies paraded in front of him by Alys Vorpatril, Ivan's mother, unexpectedly falls in love with a short, plump Komarran, Laisa Toscane, a wealthy heiress and member of a Komarran economic delegation. Unfortunately, she was already in the sights of Duv Galeni, now an ImpSec commodore and friend of Miles. Being from Komarr brings Galeni under suspicion during later events. After Illyan suffers a sudden, crippling mental impairment, Miles suspects that a plot to destroy Illyan and subvert ImpSec is in the making. His attempts to investigate are blocked by ImpSec's acting chief, so he asks Emperor Gregor Vorbarra to assign an Imperial Auditor (a special high-level troubleshooter with the authority to requisition anything, serving as the Voice of the Emperor; one of the more bizarre outgrowths of the Time of Isolation) to the case to clear the way for him. In a (possibly over the top) Imperial decision, Gregor makes Miles himself a temporary Auditor. After Miles unravels the devious crime in remarkably quick time, his appointment is made permanent. Duv Galeni is cleared, becoming ImpSec's new Head of Komarran Affairs, and discovers love in the form of Delia Koudelka. Komarr Miles has asked to observe Auditor Professor Vorthys's investigation of a serious accident on Komarr. Once there, he manages to defeat plotters who seek to seal off the only wormhole to Barrayar, and falls in love with his hostess, Ekaterin Vorsoisson, who is trapped in an unhappy marriage. Her husband is emotionally abusive and has a genetic condition called Vorzohn's Dystrophy. He is so intent on keeping this secret that, although it is curable, he has not had treatment nor allowed their son to be tested for it. After she discovers that he has been taking bribes, she tells him that she is leaving, but before she can, he is killed in such a way as to point a finger of suspicion at Miles. The apparent accident and Ekaterin's late husband's acceptance of bribes prove to be related. A group of Komarrans working in the same terraforming facility as Ekaterin's husband have developed a revolutionary weapon with potentially devastating consequences for Barrayar. A test of the weapon led to the original accident. Miles and Ekaterin are caught up in the plot, but she proves to be just as effective as Miles in derailing their enemies' plans, much to his rapidly growing admiration. Once the Komarrans are defeated, the plot and the new weapon are classified at the highest levels possible – including any information about Ekaterin's husband's death which might exonerate Miles in a subsequent inquiry. Ekaterin decides to return to Barrayar to stay with her aunt and uncle (Auditor Vorthys) and hopes to complete her education. This novel was notable for switching viewpoints between its two protagonists as part of the structure of a given scene. For instance, the scene of Ekaterin's questioning with fast-penta begins from her viewpoint, but as the drug takes hold (and the novel begins a new chapter) it continues from Miles's viewpoint. This technique expanded in the next novel where multiple viewpoints were used. A Civil Campaign An Imperial wedding is afoot, and love (or at least, attempted love) is in the air; Gregor and Laisa are finally to be married. The tough and resourceful Lady Alys Vorpatril, in charge of all the arrangements, demonstrates the power of the Vor ladies social network in making sure that nothing is allowed to spoil the proceedings. Miles tackles the task of wooing Ekaterin in his typically deranged fashion: he does everything he can to avoid letting her know that he might just like her a tiny bit. He is fearful that her previous experience has put her off marriage for life. To let him see her frequently, and knowing of her ambition to become a gardener, he hires her to design a garden for Vorkosigan House. His brother Mark also has relationship problems: he is in love with the warm, empathetic Kareen Koudelka, but her parents disapprove of him, and while this did not seem to bother her on Beta Colony, the sexual mores of Barrayar are much stricter, and she feels that she has to keep their relationship a secret from her family. An important subplot involves Mark's profit-inspired theft from a laboratory on Escobar of an engineered insect called the "butter bug," capable of converting any biological material into sanitary, nutritious, and edible... vomit. Everything goes horribly wrong when Miles hosts a dinner party. Butter bugs and "bug butter" plague both aesthetics and digestion. A still recovering Simon Illyan inadvertently blurts out Miles' secret courting of Ekaterin. She walks out after he panics and asks her to marry him. Meanwhile, Kareen's parents forbid her to have anything to do with Mark after they find out that he took her to the Orb of Unearthly Delights, a notorious pleasure palace on Beta Colony. The debacle has wider consequences. Two seats in the Council of Counts are up for grabs, one because the incumbent died, the other because the current Count Vorbretten has been found to be part-Cetagandan, dating back to the days of the occupation. The seat (and Countship) of the late Pierre Vorrutyer is being contested by a distant cousin, Richars, and the previous Count's sister Donna, who has undergone gender reassignment surgery on Beta Colony, becoming a fully functional (and fertile) man, Lord Dono, in order to qualify as a potential Count. As his father's Deputy, Miles's vote is courted and the suspicion cast on him relating to Ekaterin's late husband is used by Richars in an attempt to blackmail him. For security reasons, Miles is unable to defend himself with regard to the Komarran incident. Lord Dono, who as Donna taught Ivan Vorpatril "everything he knew", uses Ivan to recruit his own support among the counts, gaining Miles's vote after Richars's blunder. When Ekaterin finds out about the rumors, she is forced to confront Miles. Miles offers to take the blame, to spare Ekaterin and her son, but she refuses to let him. Somewhat reconciled, they set out to solve their problems, defeat their enemies and determine her true feelings. Mark's and Kareen's problems are solved after Cordelia talks to Kareen's parents and persuades them that the relationship is good for Kareen, even though it does not follow traditional Barrayaran rules. Cordelia plays dirty - for the conference she makes the parents sit on the very couch where they had first made love before their marriage. Miles's troubles culminate in a tumultuous Council session where dirty tricks, innuendo, and a bizarre exchange between Ekaterin, sitting in the gallery, and the upstart Richars Vorrutyer on the Council floor, result in defeat for the enemy and the very public betrothal of Miles and Ekaterin. Finally, at the Imperial wedding reception, Miles and Ekaterin meet the Cetagandan delegation, including ghem-General Dag Benin. Benin passes along a message from the Cetagandan Emperor, offering condolences on the death of Miles "close friend" Admiral Naismith and the hope that he will stay dead this time. Miles reads the real message loud and clear, and responds that he hopes that the Admiral's resurrection will not prove necessary. Like its predecessor, this novel tells its story from the viewpoints of both Miles and Ekaterin, on occasion smoothly switching from one to the other during a given scene. There are also the viewpoints of Mark, Kareen Koudelka, and even Ivan Vorpatril, whose interior life has not been described at all before this. We learn that, much as Ivan fears involvement (and blame) from what happens around him, he still feels that "the hyperactive little git" (Miles) still needs him to "pull his nuts out of the fire". "Winterfair Gifts" A novella, published in February 2004, as part of the anthology Irresistible Forces (Catherine Asaro, editor). Bujold wrote this after completing Diplomatic Immunity, making this is the most recent work in the series. The story relates the wedding of Miles and Ekaterin from the viewpoint of Miles' Armsman, Roic, including Taura's first visit to Barrayar and the attempted murder of Ekaterin as an indirect attack on Miles. The wedding of Ekaterin and Miles is fast approaching, but Armsman Roic is still in disgrace after his behaviour during the infamous Butter Bug Incident (see A Civil Campaign. However, he is perked up a little when he meets the terrifyingly beautiful, fanged, furred and seven-foot tall bio-engineered super-soldier Sergeant Taura, comrade and old flame of Miles's. They get along well, and Roic witnesses her transformation (aided by Lady Vorpatril) from the aforesaid bio-engineered super-soldier into a beautiful, elegant lady. However their blossoming relationship is shattered when he makes an inadvertent remark about "hideous, bioengineered mutants"—referring to the butter bugs. Taura is hurt and insulted, and withdraws, leaving Roic penitent and lonely. They are thrown together again, however, when Ekaterin is taken ill, and Taura traces it to a string of pearls, apparently sent by Elli Quinn, which (to her infra-red detecting vision) appear to be strangely dirty. When they are sent for analysis, they are discovered to be coated in enough poison to kill a horse. They are traced to an old enemy of Miles's; Ekaterin recovers, and the wedding goes smoothly. That night, Roic is on guard when Taura joins him. She tells him that she probably only has a year or two left to live, and therefore takes everything as it comes. Roic, realising that he loves her, replies, "Can you teach me to do that?" Diplomatic Immunity Miles and Ekaterin are enjoying a much-delayed honeymoon while their first two children are approaching birth in their uterine replicators back on Barrayar. They have just left Earth to begin the journey home when Miles is dispatched by Gregor to Quaddiespace to untangle a diplomatic incident in his capacity as the nearest Imperial Auditor. There, he is unexpectedly reunited with Bel Thorne, a former Dendarii captain and his good friend. While there, he uncovers a plot by a highly placed Cetagandan to steal a cargo of extreme importance to the Cetagandans and hide its tracks by putting the blame on Barrayar. By the time Miles figures out what is going on, he and Bel have been infected by a highly lethal Cetagandan bioweapon. Miles almost dies (again) and barely averts an interstellar war between Cetaganda and Barrayar. New Vorkosigan book On July 20, 2006, Baen Books announced on its website that it will publish a new Vorkosigan book within the next few years. This has been confirmed by Lois McMaster Bujold. No details are known about the content of the forthcoming book; however, Bujold has stated in interviews quoted on her web site that the logical next step in Miles Vorkosigan's development would be the death of his father and the return of his mother to Beta Colony. This new Vorkosigan book is presently (Mid-2008) being written. It is as yet unnamed, and is scheduled for publication in 2010. Bujold read the first two chapters at Denvention 3 in August 2008. It starts with Miles and Roic having been kidnapped and, separately, imprisoned on a planet that Miles has visited for a conference. Miles escapes and is aided by a small boy living alone (with chickens and other livestock) in a disused building. Books in print The earlier novels and the short stories have been repackaged in omnibus editions. Cordelia's Honor (June 1, 2000) Shards of Honor Barrayar Young Miles (June 1, 1997) The Warrior's Apprentice "The Mountains of Mourning" This short story is also available from the Baen Free Library The Vor Game Miles, Mystery and Mayhem (August 1, 2003) Cetaganda Ethan of Athos "Labyrinth" Miles Errant (September 1, 2002) "Borders of Infinity" Brothers in Arms Mirror Dance Memory (October 1, 1997) Miles in Love (February 5, 2008) Komarr A Civil Campaign "Winterfair Gifts" Miles, Mutants and Microbes (August 1, 2007) Falling Free (200 years before Miles's birth) "Labyrinth" (also printed in "Miles, Mystery, and Mayhem") Diplomatic Immunity See also List of Vorkosigan Saga planets Vorkosigan External links The Bujold Nexus - Official website of the author Lois McMaster Bujold The Dendarii Nexus - semi-official website Miles Vorkosigan/Naismith: His Life And Times - timeline cover of German edition of The Warrior's Apprentice Catalog at Baen books The Mountains of Mourning short story 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1,878 | Battle | Generally, a battle is a conceptual component in the hierarchy of combat in fare between two or more armed forces, wherein each group will seek to defeat the others within the scope of a military campaign, and are well defined in duration, area and force commitment. p.65, Dupuy Wars and military campaigns are guided by strategy, whereas battles take place on a level of planning and execution known as operational warfare. p.10, Glantz German strategist Carl von Clausewitz stated that "the employment of battles ... to achieve the object of war" translation of part quote from p.77, Clausewitz was the essence of strategy. The Battle of Waterloo by William Sadler II Etymology The definition of a battle can not be arrived at solely through the names of historical battles, many of which are a misnomer. The word battle is a loanword in English from the Old French bataille first attested in 1297, and is itself a borrowing from Late Latin battualia, meaning "exercise of soldiers and gladiators in fighting and fencing," from Latin battuere "beat", from which the English word battery is also derived via Middle English batri. p.33, Tucker and comes from the staged battles in the Colosseum in Rome that may have numbered 10,000 individuals. Characteristics of battle The defining characteristics of the battle as a concept in the Theory of combat pp.63-64, Dupuy has been a dynamic one through the course of military history, changing with the changes in the organisation, employment and technology of military forces. While the British military historian Sir John Keegan suggested an ideal definition of battle as "something which happens between two armies leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them" p.302, Keegan the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarized so neatly. In general a battle during the 20th century was, and continues to be defined by the combat between opposing forces representing major components of total forces committed to the military campaign, used to achieve a specific military objectives, within a time-frame of less than a month. pp.65-71, Dupuy Where the duration of the battle is longer then a week, they are often for reasons of staff operational planning called operations. Battles can be planned, encountered, or forced by one force on the other when it is unable to withdraw from combat. A battle always has as its purpose the reaching of a mission goal by use of military force. p.67, Dupuy A victory in the battle is achieved when one of the opposing sides forces the other to abandon its mission, or is forced to surrender its forces, have its forces rout, forced to retreat or rendered militarily ineffective for further combat operations. However, a battle may end in a Pyrrhic victory which ultimately favors the defeated party. If no resolution is reached in battle, it can result is a stalemate. A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision by a direct battle using conventional military forces often becomes an insurgency. Until the 19th century the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a part of a day or less (The Battle of Nations (1813) and the Battle of Gettysburg (1863) were exceptional for lasting three days). This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying armies in the field, or conducting night operations. The means of prolonging a battle was typically by employment of siege warfare. Improvements in transportation and the sudden evolving of trench warfare, with its siege-like nature during World War I in the 20th century, lengthened the duration of battles to days and weeks. This created the requirement for unit rotation to prevent combat fatigue, pp.62-63, Richardson with troops preferably not remaining in combat area of operations for more than a month. This theory proved to be completely unmanageable during the Second World War. The use of the term "battle" in military history has led to its misuse when referring to almost any scale of combat, notably by strategic forces involving hundreds of thousands of troops that may be engaged in either a single battle at one time (Battle of Leipzig) or multiple operations (Battle of Kursk). The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the weapons of the combatants, and may occupy large geographic areas as in the case of the Battle of Britain or the Battle of the Atlantic. Until the advent of artillery and aircraft, battles were fought with the two sides in sight, if not reach, of each other. The depth of the battlefield has also increased in modern warfare with inclusion of the supporting units in the rear areas; supply, artillery, medical, etc.; now outnumbering the front-line combat troops. Battles are, on the whole, made up of a multitude of individual combats, skirmishes and small engagements within the context of which the combatants will usually only experience a small part of the events of the battle's entirety. To the infantryman, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a major offensive, nor is it likely that they anticipate the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the first day on the Somme, July 1, 1916, would have anticipated that they would be fighting the same battle in five months time. Conversely, some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the French at the Battle of Waterloo fully expected to have to fight again the next day. Battlespace Battlespace is a unified strategy to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea and space. It includes the environment, factors and conditions that must be understood to successfully apply combat power, protect the force, or complete the mission. This includes enemy and friendly armed forces; facilities; weather; terrain; and the electromagnetic spectrum within the operational areas and areas of interest. Factors within battles Battles are decided by various factors. The number and quality of men and equipment, the commanders of each army, and the terrain advantages are among the most prominent factors. A unit may charge with high morale but less discipline and still emerge victorious. This tactic was effectively used by the early French Revolutionary Armies. Weapons and armor may also play as a decisive factor; however, during the Wars of Scottish Independence the Scots emerged victorious over the English despite inferior weaponry. Discipline within the troops is also important; at the Battle of Alesia, the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training. A squad that does not retreat is far more valuable than an army that flees upon sight. Battles can also be determined by terrain. Capturing high ground, for example, has been the central strategy in innumerable battles. An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb, and thus wear down. Another advantage is it is physically easier to strike a blow from a higher position than from a lower position. Although this does not hold as much in modern warfare, with the advent of aircraft, terrain is still vital for camouflage, especially for guerrilla warfare. Generals and commanders also play a decisive role during combat. Hannibal, Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte were all legendary generals and, consequently, their armies were extremely successful. An army that can trust the commands of their leaders with conviction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move. The British in the naval Battle of Trafalgar, for example, owed its success to the reputation of celebrated admiral Lord Nelson. Types of battle The battle of Gettysburg, Pa. July 3d. 1863, by Currier and Ives. Battles can be fought on land, sea and in the modern age, in the air. Naval battles have occurred since before the 5th century BC. Air battles have been far less common, due to its late conception, the most prominent being the Battle of Britain in 1940. However since the Second World War land or sea battles have come to rely on air support. Indeed, during the Battle of Midway, five aircraft carriers were sunk without either fleet coming into direct contact. There are numerous types of battles: A battle of encounter is a meeting engagement where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence. A battle of attrition aims to inflict losses on an enemy that are less sustainable compared to one's own losses. These need not be greater numerical losses - if one side is much more numerous than the other than pursuing a strategy based on attrition can work even if casualties on both sides are relatively equal. Many battles of the Western Front in the First World War were intentionally (Verdun) or unintentionally (Somme) attrition battles. A battle of breakthrough aims to pierce the enemy's defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned. A battle of encirclement—the Kesselschlacht of the German Blitzkrieg—surrounds the enemy in a pocket. A battle of envelopment involves an attack on one or both flanks; the classic example being the double-envelopment of the Battle of Cannae. A battle of annihilation is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. Battles do not frequently fit one particular type perfectly and are usually hybrids of different types listed above. A decisive battle is one of particular importance; often by bringing hostilities to an end, such as the Battle of Hastings or the Battle of Hattin, or as a turning point in the fortunes of the belligerents, such as the Battle of Stalingrad. A decisive battle can have political as well as military impact, changing the balance of power or boundaries between countries. The concept of the decisive battle became popular with the publication in 1851 of Edward Creasy's The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. British military historians J.F.C. Fuller (The Decisive Battles of the Western World) and B.H. Liddell Hart (Decisive Wars of History), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy's work. The differences among land battles throughout history There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought throughout time. Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as disorganized mobs. However, during the Battle of Megiddo, the first reliably documented battle in the fifteenth century BC, actual discipline was instilled in both armies. However, during the many wars of the Roman Empire, barbarians continued using mob tactics. As the Age of Enlightenment dawned, armies began to fight in highly disciplined lines. Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a single unit instead of individuals. Each army was successively divided into regiments, battalions, companies, and platoons. These armies would march, line up, and fire in divisions. Native Americans, on the other hand, did not fight in lines, utilizing instead guerrilla tactics. American colonists and European forces continued using disciplined lines, continuing into the American Civil War. A new style, during World War I, known as trench warfare, developed nearly half a century later. This also led to radio for communication between battalions. Chemical warfare also emerged with the use of poisonous gas during World War I. By World War II, the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies, became much more important as precise operations became vital. Instead of the locked trench warfare of World War I, during World War II, a dynamic network of battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons. As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable. Maneuver warfare also developed with an astonishing pace with the advent of the tank, replacing the archaic cannons of the Enlightenment Age. Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops. Modern battles now continue to resemble that of World War II, though prominent innovations have been added. Indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles now comprise of a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities . The difference of naval battles throughout history One significant difference of modern naval battles as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of marines, which introduced amphibious warfare. Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights solely on land and is no longer tied to the navy. A good example of an old naval battle is the Battle of Salamis. Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the battering ram to sink opposing fleets or steer close enough for boarding in hand-to-hand combat. Troops were often actually used to storm enemy ships as used by Romans and pirates. This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry. Another invention in the late Middle Ages was the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines, which was used to set enemy fleets on fire. Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion. After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warfare. During the 19th century, the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare. The ironclad, first used in the American Civil War, resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete. The invention of military submarines, during World War I, brought naval warfare to both above and below the surface. With the development of military aircraft during World War II, battles were fought in the sky as well as below the ocean. Aircraft carriers have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft. Aerial battles throughout history Although the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles in warfare. During World War I, the primary use was for reconnaissance, and small-scale bombardment, using ineffectual hand-dropped bombs. Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the Spanish Civil War and especially World War II. Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as dog fights. Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the Battle of Britain and the Battle of Midway. Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the helicopter, which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces. Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare - the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft. Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors. Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the "first strike" in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies. Battle naming Battle of Gibraltar of 1607 by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom. Battles are almost invariably named after some feature of the battlefield geography, such as the name of a town, forest or river. Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as The Glorious First of June. In the Middle Ages it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the chroniclers. For example, after Henry V of England defeated a French army on October 25, 1415, he met with the senior French herald and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby castle and so it was called the Battle of Agincourt. In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the Battle of Gallipoli which is known in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. Sometimes in desert warfare, there is no nearby town name to use; map coordinates gave the name to the Battle of 73 Easting in the First Gulf War. Some place names have become synonymous with the battles that took place there, such as the Passchendaele, Pearl Harbor, the Alamo or Waterloo. Military operations, many of which result in battle, are given codenames, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle. Operation Market Garden and Operation Rolling Thunder are examples of battles known by their military codenames. When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by ordinal number, such as the First and Second Battles of Bull Run. An extreme case are the twelve Battles of the Isonzo—First to Twelfth—between Italy and Austria-Hungary during the First World War. Some battles are named for the convenience of military historians so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another. Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions. To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at Beaumont Hamel on November 13, 1916 was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee would call the "Battle of the Ancre". Many combats are too small to merit a name. Terms such as "action", "skirmish", "firefight", "raid" or "offensive patrol" are used to describe small-scale battle-like encounters. These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily "decisive". Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo, some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day's events merited the title of "battle" or would be passed off as merely an "action". The effects of a battle Battles affect the individuals who take part, as well as the political actors. Personal effects of battle range from mild psychological issues to permanent and crippling injuries. Many battle-survivors have nightmares about the conditions they encountered, or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds. Some suffer flashbacks. Physical effects of battle can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of bodily functions, blindness, paralysis — and death. Battles also affect politics. A decisive battle can cause the losing side to surrender, while a Pyrrhic Victory such as the Battle of Isandlwana can cause the winning side to reconsider its long-term goals. Battles in civil wars have often decided the fate of monarchs or political factions. Famous examples include the War of the Roses, as well as the Jacobite Uprisings. Battles also affect the commitment of one side or the other to the continuance of a war, for example the Battle of Incheon and the Battle of Hue during the Tet Offensive. See also List of battles Military tactics Military strategy Naval battle Pitched battle Skirmish Warfare References Sources von Clausewitz, Carl, Bemerkungen über die reine und angewandte Strategie des Herrn von Bülow oder Kritik der darin enthaltenen Ansichten, Verstreute kleine Schriften, Ed. 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1,879 | HyperCard | HyperCard was an application program created by Bill Atkinson for Apple Computer, Inc. that was among the first successful hypermedia systems before the World Wide Web. It combined database capabilities with a graphical, flexible, user-modifiable interface. HyperCard also featured HyperTalk, written by Dan Winkler, a powerful and easy-to-learn programming language for manipulating data and the user interface. HyperCard users often employed it as a programming system for Rapid Application Development of different kinds of applications, database and otherwise. HyperCard was originally released with System Software 6 in 1987 and was finally withdrawn from sale in March 2004, although by then it had not been updated for many years. HyperCard runs natively only in Mac OS versions 9 or earlier, but it can still be used in Mac OS X's Classic mode on PowerPC based machines (G5 and earlier). The last functional native HyperCard authoring environment is Classic mode in Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger) on PowerPC based machines (although it can be run on modern Intel-based machines via an emulation layer such as SheepShaver, which is available for OS X, Linux and Windows). Description HyperCard has been described as a "software erector set." It integrated a software development environment with a run-time environment in a simple, easily accessible way. The tools required to write an application, principally the creation and configuration of screen objects like buttons, fields and menus, were part and parcel with the ability to add programmed functionality to those objects. When designing and programming an application one could contemplate both structure and capability within a single well defined arena. That one could personally design and implement a custom application uniquely suited to one's own needs revolutionized the very concept of what software was. Instead of trying to force a particular task onto an Excel spreadsheet for example, a custom solution could be authored, modified and updated as needed, without functional compromise and with a personalized interface in a very short time. "Empowerment" became a catchword as this possibility was embraced by the Macintosh community, as was the phrase "programming for the rest of us", that is, anyone, in fact, not just professional programmers. HyperCard was based on the concept of a "stack" of virtual "cards." Cards hold data, just as they would in a rolodex. The layout engine was similar in concept to a "form" as used in most Rapid Application Development (RAD) environments (such as Borland Delphi or Visual Basic). A special "Home" stack (precursor to the home page on a website) was available as an application launcher, a repository for shared scripts, and a facility for setting preferences. HyperCard was not only a database system. The layout of each card could be unique, just as one can write additional non-standard information on a Rolodex card. A special background layer contained elements that appeared on all cards of that stack or on all cards grouped under a certain background. Backgrounds could include pictures (its original purpose, "background picture"), in addition to the objects also available for each card: fields; buttons; (static) text; (editable) text fields; and other common GUI elements. Each card then could contain different data in the text or picture fields, as in a database. For instance, an address book could be built by adding to the background a few text fields to hold the name and address. Once completed, the user adds a new card (by typing Command-N or under software control) and types into the fields. The background could be modified at any time, allowing changes to be made easily. Basic operations such as search, add, and delete were built-in, allowing simple databases to be set up and used by anyone able to use the Macintosh computer. The Rolodex paradigm did not preclude the creation of standard looking applications. Arbitrary functionality could be programmed into a single card, making it resemble a traditional single-screen application. Additional cards could be linked similarly to the way that additional screens are linked in ordinary programs. Full control of the menu bar and support of virtually all native objects and controls allowed the creation of professional looking software. HyperCard's find command could quickly navigate to cards containing text using a patented hintBits algorithm. This could be made more selective with modifications such as find "Bob" in card field "hello". Similarly, it had a "sort" command that allowed evaluating entire expressions to determine sorting order. HyperTalk See also the page on HyperTalk. The programming language within HyperCard is called HyperTalk and is object oriented. Objects exist in a message path hierarchy and respond to messages generated by either the user or the system itself. Objects inherit properties and attributes from those above them in the hierarchy. HyperTalk object classes are predetermined by the HyperCard environment, although others can be added by the use of externals (see below). HyperTalk is verbose, hence its ease of use and readability. HyperTalk code segments are referred to as "scripts", a term that was considered less daunting to beginning programmers. Each HyperCard object class contains a number of "properties". For example, buttons are a type of object, and come in standard styles. To determine, say, whether a checkbox style button is in fact checked, a script can simply call the "checkmark" property, which would return either true or false. In a similar way, objects can be analyzed via functions. For example, the number of lines in text field (another type of object) can be determined by a variant of the "number" function, called simply as "the number of lines of field 'fieldName'". This is very useful when performing a particular action on each separate line of the field. The script that implements the action need only call the function to know exactly the number of lines it must deal with. Should the field data change, the already coded function call will still be accurate. HyperTalk is a weakly typed language. All variables, and in fact all values of any kind, are stored as typeless character strings handled by the interpreter as numbers or text based purely on context. This has a cost in speed but makes it far easier to write (and to read) code. Variables need not be declared, but rather are created on the fly as they are required. For example, the following expression creates a variable named “total”, and sets its initial value: "put 15 into total". Then the expression "add 3 to total" would result in the string "18" being stored in that variable. Taking this further, a powerful and intuitive structure known as "chunking" allows precise manipulation of text and number strings. It is possible, for example, to have the second character of the value "123" (the 2) added to the last character of the value "12345", yielding "12347". For another example, word 3 of "life is cruel" (cruel) can be appended after the first word of "Hello world", yielding "Hello cruel world". It would then be possible to put "Goodbye" into (thus replacing) the first word of that string, yielding "Goodbye cruel world". The abovementioned terms: "character", "word", "first", "last", "after", and "into", among many others, offer exquisite control over the ability to crunch numbers and parse text, down to the character level. HyperTalk supports most standard programming structures such as "if-then" and "repeat". The "if-then" is in such a general form that it even allows "case" structured code. HyperTalk scripting allowed the system to be easily modified and extended. Unlike many procedural languages, and even many scripting languages, HyperTalk proved to be far more accessible to a wide range of users, partly because scripts were more or less readable as English. For instance, put the first word of the third line of field "hello" into field "goodbye" did exactly that. Referring to objects and the items on cards or backgrounds was easy. The example above shows how to access data within a field on a particular card, but one could refer to any object in the same fashion — including the stack itself. All objects could be named or renamed, as in the example above. In addition, each object (including the stack itself) had unique numeric IDs that remained unchanged throughout the life of the object. Adding scripts was also easy. The user simply "command-option-clicked" (or they could click the "Script" button in the item's property dialog) on any element in the stack, and an editor would pop up. The script could then be edited, saved, and used immediately. In addition, HyperCard contained the "Message Box", an interactive command-line in a floating window that could execute single lines of script. This also included the "find" command, so it doubled as a search dialog. HyperCard 2.0 added a debugger, as well. HyperTalk was sufficiently popular that one of the main uses of HyperCard was not as a database, but as a programming tool that empowered ordinary computer users. Thousands of "stacks" were written and distributed as "stackware" in the few years when HyperCard was widely available. As stated above, programming "for the rest of us", that is, for non-professionals, allowed many thousands of personal applications to be created by individuals with a need for personal software solutions. Some are still in use today. Many hardware and software vendors provided their tutorials as HyperCard stacks, since the application was bundled with all Macs. Externals The power of HyperCard could be increased significantly through the use of external command and external function modules, more commonly known as XCMDs and XFCNs. These were code libraries packaged in a resource fork that integrated into either the system generally or the HyperTalk language specifically; this was an early example of the plugin concept. Unlike conventional plugins, these did not require separate installation before they were available for use; they could be included in a stack, where they were directly available to scripts in that stack. During HyperCard's peak popularity in the late 1980s, a whole ecosystem of vendors offered thousands of these externals for everything from HyperTalk compilers to graphing systems, database access, internet connectivity, and animation. Oracle offered an XCMD that allowed HyperCard to directly query Oracle databases on any platform. This was later superseded by Oracle's Oracle Card product. Externals allowed access to the Macintosh Toolbox, which contained many lower level commands and functions not native to HyperTalk, such as control of the serial and ADB ports. Access Control Typing set userlevel to 5 into the Message box would enable you to edit HyperCard documents and give you full user privileges, although individual stacks could be protected to prevent this. Applications HyperCard has been used for all sorts of hypertext and artistic purposes. Before the advent of PowerPoint, HyperCard was often used as a general-purpose presentation program. Examples of HyperCard applications include simple databases, "choose your own adventure"—type games, educational teaching aids, and the first wiki. Due to its rapid application design facilities, HyperCard was also sometimes used for prototyping of applications and sometimes even for version 1.0 implementations. Inside Apple, the QuickTime team was one of HyperCard's biggest customers. Beethoven's Ninth stack A number of commercial software products were created in HyperCard, most notably the original version of the interactive game narrative Myst, the Voyager Company's Expanded Books, and multimedia CD-ROMs of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM, the Beatles' A Hard Day's Night, and the Voyager MacBeth. The prototype and demo of the popular game You Don't Know Jack was written in HyperCard. Renault, the French auto manufacturer, used it to control their inventory system. Activision, which was until that time primarily a game company, saw HyperCard as an entry point into the business market. Changing their name to Mediagenic, they published several major HyperCard based applications, most notably Danny Goodman's Focal Point, a personal information manager, and Reports For HyperCard, a program by Nine To Five Software that allowed users to treat HyperCard as a full-fledged database system with robust information viewing and printing features. The HyperCard-inspired SuperCard for a while included the "Roadster" plugin that allowed stacks to be placed inside Web pages and viewed by browsers with an appropriate browser plugin. There was even a Windows version of this plugin allowing computers other than Macintoshes to use the plugin. History HyperCard was created by Bill Atkinson. Work for it began in March 1985 under the name of WildCard (hence the creator code of 'WILD'). In 1986 Dan Winkler began work on HyperTalk and the name was changed to HyperCard for trademark reasons. It was initially released in August 1987, with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if they promised to release it for free on all Macs. Apple timed its release to coincide with the MacWorld Conference & Expo in Boston, Massachusetts to guarantee maximum publicity. HyperCard was a huge hit almost instantly. Many people who thought they would never be able to program a computer started using HyperCard for all sorts of automation and prototyping tasks, a surprise even to its creator. Apple itself never seemed to understand what HyperCard's target market for users should be. Project managers found it was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally. Bug reports and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in, demonstrating it had a wide variety of users. Since it was also free, it was difficult to justify dedicating engineering resources to improvements in the software. It was not lost on Apple or its mainstream developers that the power HyperCard gave to people could cut into the sales of ordinary shrink wrapped products. HyperCard 2.0 In late 1989, Kevin Calhoun, then a HyperCard engineer at Apple, led an effort to upgrade the program. This resulted in 1990's HyperCard 2.0. The new version included an on the fly compiler that greatly increased performance of computationally intensive code, a new debugger and a number of improvements to the underlying HyperTalk language. At the same time HyperCard 2.0 was being developed, a separate group within Apple developed and in 1991 released "HyperCard IIGS", a version of HyperCard for the Apple IIGS system. Aimed mainly at the education market, HyperCard IIGS had roughly the same feature set as the 1.x versions of Macintosh HyperCard, while adding support for the color graphics capabilities of the IIGS. Although "stacks" (HyperCard program documents) were not binary-compatible, a translator program (itself a HyperCard stack) allowed stacks to be moved from one platform to the other. Then, Apple decided that most of its application software packages, including HyperCard, would be the property of a wholly owned subsidiary called Claris. Many of the HyperCard developers chose to stay at Apple rather than move to Claris, causing the development team to be split. Claris, in the business of selling software for a profit, attempted to create a business model where HyperCard could also generate revenues. They wrote a new "viewer only" version, the HyperCard Player which Apple distributed with the Macintosh operating system, while Claris sold the "full" version commercially. Many users were upset that they had to pay to use software that had traditionally been supplied free and which many considered a basic part of the Mac. Despite the new revenue stream, Claris did little to market HyperCard. Development continued with minor upgrades, as well as the first failed attempt to create a third generation of HyperCard. During this period, HyperCard began losing market share. Without a number of important, basic features, HyperCard authors began moving to systems such as SuperCard and Macromedia Authorware. Nevertheless HyperCard continued to be popular and used for a widening range of applications, from the game The Manhole, an earlier effort by the creators of Myst, to corporate information services and many thousands in between. Apple eventually folded Claris back into the parent company, returning HyperCard to Apple's core engineering group. In 1992, Apple released the eagerly anticipated upgrade of HyperCard 2.2 and made many HyperCard enthusiasts happy by including licensed versions of Color Tools and Addmotion II, adding support for color pictures and animations. However, these tools were limited and often cumbersome to use because HyperCard still lacked true, internal color support. HyperCard 3.0 Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple. Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia-authoring tool it was rolled into the QuickTime group. A new effort to allow HyperCard to create QuickTime interactive (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language. The resulting HyperCard 3.0 was first presented in 1996 when an alpha-quality version was shown to developers at Apple's annual Worldwide Developers Conference . Under the leadership of Dan Crow development continued through the late 1990s, with public demos showing many popular features such as color support, internet connectivity, and the ability to play HyperCard stacks (which were now special QuickTime movies) in a web browser. Development of HyperCard 3.0 stalled when the QuickTime team was focused away from development of QuickTime interactive to the streaming features of QuickTime 4.0. Finally in 2000 the HyperCard engineering team was reassigned to other tasks after Steve Jobs decided to abandon the product. Calhoun and Crow both left Apple shortly after in 2001. In the years that followed, the program saw no additional support from Apple. Apple finally ceased selling HyperCard in March 2004. According to Archive.org since at least February 11, 2008 the URL address http://www.apple.com/hypercard no longer points to Apple's site but redirects to this Wikipedia article. Legacy HyperCard is one of the first products that made use of and popularized the hypertext concept to a large popular base of users. Jakob Nielsen has pointed out that HyperCard was really only a hypermedia program since its links started from regions on a card, not text objects; actual HTML-style text hyperlinks were possible in later versions, but were awkward to implement and seldom used. Bill Atkinson later lamented that if he had only realized the power of network-oriented stacks, instead of focusing on local stacks on a single machine, HyperCard could have become the first Web browser. HyperCard: What Could Have Been HyperCard saw a loss in popularity with the growth of the World Wide Web, since the Web could handle and deliver data in much the same way as HyperCard without being limited to files on one's own hard disk. HyperCard had a significant impact on the web as it inspired the creation of both HTTP itself (through its influence on Tim Berners-Lee's colleague Robert Cailliau) , and JavaScript (whose creator, Brendan Eich, was inspired by HyperTalk Eich, Brendan (1998): Forward to the JavaScript Bible, 3rd Ed. ). It was also a key inspiration for ViolaWWW, an early web browser . The pointing-finger cursor used for navigating stacks later found its way into the first web browsers, as the hyperlink cursor Scott Granneman's computing history 1968-present: 1987 . Other companies offered their own versions. Four products are currently available which offer HyperCard-like functionality: HyperNext is a freeware software development system that uses many ideas from HyperCard and can create both standalone applications and stacks that run on the freeware Hypernext Player. HyperNext is available for Macintosh OS X & OS 9, and Windows XP & Vista. Runtime Revolution's Revolution expands greatly on HyperCard's feature set and offers color and a GUI toolkit which can be deployed on many popular platforms (Classic Macintosh system software, Mac OS X, Windows 98 through Vista, and Linux/Unix). Revolution directly imports existing HyperCard stacks and provides a migration path for stacks still in use. SuperCard is similar to HyperCard, but with many additional features such as: full color support, pixel and vector graphics, a full GUI toolkit, and support for many modern Mac OS X features. It runs only on Macs. TileStack is an attempt to create a web based version of HyperCard that is compatible with the original HyperCard files. It is currently in Beta. Past products included: Plus was a product similar to HyperCard for Windows and Macintosh. Asymetrix's Windows application ToolBook resembled HyperCard, and included an external converter to read HyperCard stacks. Oracle purchased Plus and created a cross-platform version as OracleCard, later renamed Oracle Media Objects, used as a 4GL for database access. In addition, many of the basic concepts of the original system were later re-used in other forms. Apple built their system-wide scripting engine AppleScript on a language similar to HyperTalk; it was often used for DTP workflow automation needs. In the 1990s FaceSpan provided a third-party graphical interface, and continues to do so today. AppleScript also has a native graphical programming front-end called Automator, released with Mac OS X 10.4, codenamed Tiger, in April 2005. One of HyperCard's strengths was its handling of multimedia, and many multimedia systems like Macromedia Authorware and Macromedia Director are based on concepts originating in HyperCard . AppWare, originally known as Serius Developer, is sometimes seen to be similar to HyperCard, as they were both rapid application development system. AppWare was sold in the early 90s and worked on both Windows and Mac systems. On a less positive note, as HyperCard executed scripts in stacks immediately on opening it was also one of the first applications susceptible to macro viruses. The Merryxmas virus was discovered in 1993 by Ken Dunham, two years before the "Concept" virus. Pantechnicon Wiki There were very few viruses based on HyperCard, and their overall impact was minimal. The Myst computer game franchise, initially released as a HyperCard stack and included bundled with some Macs (for example the Performa 5300), still lives on, making HyperCard a facilitating technology for starting one of the best-selling computer games of all time. According to Ward Cunningham, the inventor of Wikis, the wiki concept can be traced back to a HyperCard stack he wrote in the late 1980s, making HyperCard one of the grandparents of the Wiki idea. Wiki History Interview: Wikinewsie Kim Bruning discusses Wikimania An Evening With Wiki Inventor Ward Cunningham in Conversation with John Gage See also Apple Media Tool Automator: an easy-to-use script-authoring environment HyperNext: a freeware cross-platform development system for both Microsoft Windows and Macintosh OS X & OS 9. Morphic: a visual UI building system mTropolis: multimedia authoring using a drag-and-drop programming system NoteCards: from Xerox PARC, a similar system that pre-dates HyperCard Revolution: Rapid application development environment that can be deployed on many popular platforms Stagecast Creator: one of a number of similar "if you see this, do this" programming systems SuperCard ViolaWWW: early web browser initially based upon HyperCard References Bibliography Danny Goodman, The Complete HyperCard Handbook (Bantam Books, 1987), ISBN 0-9665514-2-7 External links Computer Chronicles 1987 interview with Bill Atkinson and Dan Winkler demoing HyperCard (from Archive.org) Revolution HyperCard Pantechnicon A list of HyperCard links HyperCard and AppleScript: in French comp.sys.mac.HyperCard The original Usenet group now enshrined as a Google Group that is still somewhat active. 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1,880 | Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy | Atomic absorption spectroscopy In analytical chemistry, atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique for determining the concentration of a particular metal element in a sample. The technique can be used to analyze the concentration of over 70 different metals in a solution. Although atomic absorption spectroscopy dates to the nineteenth century, the modern form was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists. They were led by Alan Walsh and worked at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organisation) Division of Chemical Physics in Melbourne, Australia. Principles The technique makes use of absorption spectrometry to assess the concentration of an analyte in a sample. It relies therefore heavily on Beer-Lambert law. In short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals for a short amount of time by absorbing a set quantity of energy (i.e. light of a given wavelength). This amount of energy (or wavelength) is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element, and in general, each wavelength corresponds to only one element. This gives the technique its elemental selectivity. As the quantity of energy (the power) put into the flame is known, and the quantity remaining at the other side (at the detector) can be measured, it is possible, from Beer-Lambert law, to calculate how many of these transitions took place, and thus get a signal that is proportional to the concentration of the element being measured. Instrumentation Atomic absorption spectrometer block diagram In order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized. The sample should then be illuminated by light. The light transmitted is finally measured by a detector. In order to reduce the effect of emission from the atomizer (e.g. the black body radiation) or the environment, a spectrometer is normally used between the atomizer and the detector. Types of Atomizer The technique typically makes use of a flame to atomize the sample, C. T. J. Alkemade, T. Hollander, W. Snelleman and P. J. T. Zeegers, Metal Vapours in Flames, Pergamon Press, Oxford (1982). but other atomizers such as a graphite furnace B. V. L'vov, Forty years of electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Advances and problems in theory, Spectrochim. Acta B 52 1239-1245 (1997). or plasmas, primarily inductively coupled plasmas, are also used. J. A. C. Broekaert, Analytical Atomic Spectrometry with Flames and Plasmas, Third Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany (1998). When a flame is used it is laterally long (usually ) and not deep. The height of the flame above the burner head can be controlled by adjusting the flow of the fuel mixture. A beam of light passes through this flame at its longest axis (the lateral axis) and hits a detector. Analysis of liquids A liquid sample is normally turned into an atomic gas in three steps: Desolvation (Drying) – the liquid solvent is evaporated, and the dry sample remains Vaporization (Ashing) – the solid sample vaporises to a gas Atomization – the compounds making up the sample are broken into free atoms. Radiation Sources The radiation source chosen has a spectral width narrower than that of the atomic transitions. Hollow cathode lamps Hollow cathode lamps are the most common radiation source in atomic absorption spectroscopy. Inside the lamp, filled with argon or neon gas, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the metal for excitation, and an anode. When a high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, gas particles are ionized. As voltage is increased, gaseous ions acquire enough energy to eject metal atoms from the cathode. Some of these atoms are in an excited states and emit light with the frequency characteristic to the metal Skoog, D.; Holler, J.; Crouch, S. Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 6th ed.; Thomson Books/Cole, 2007; pp 238. . Many modern hollow cathode lamps are selective for several metals. Diode lasers Atomic absorption spectroscopy can also be performed by lasers, primarily diode lasers because of their good properties for laser absorption spectrometry. O. Axner, Laser Spectrometric Techniques in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. In: Meyers RA ed. Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (2000), p. 9506-9595. The technique is then either referred to as diode laser atomic absorption spectrometry (DLAAS or DLAS), A. Zybin, J. Koch, H. D. Wizemann, J. Franzke and K. Niemax, Diode laser atomic absorption spectrometry, Spectrochimica Acta B 60 1-11 (2005). or, since wavelength modulation most often is employed, wavelength modulation absorption spectrometry. Background Correction methods The narrow bandwidth of hollow cathode lamps make spectral overlap rare. That is, it is unlikely that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another. Molecular emission is much broader, so it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line. This can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high calculation for the concentration in the solution. Three methods are typically used to correct for this: Zeeman correction - A magnetic field is used to split the atomic line into two sidebands (see Zeeman effect). These sidebands are close enough to the original wavelength to still overlap with molecular bands, but are far enough not to overlap with the atomic bands. The absorption in the presence and absence of a magnetic field can be compared, the difference being the atomic absorption of interest. Smith-Hieftje correction (invented by Stanley B. Smith and Gary M. Hieftje) - The hollow cathode lamp is pulsed with high current, causing a larger atom population and self-absorption during the pulses. This self-absorption causes a broadening of the line and a reduction of the line intensity at the original wavelength. Deuterium lamp correction - In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background emission. The use of a separate lamp makes this method the least accurate, but its relative simplicity (and the fact that it is the oldest of the three) makes it the most commonly used method. References See also Beer-Lambert law Laser absorption spectrometry JAAS Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry | Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy |@lemmatized atomic:19 absorption:20 spectroscopy:5 analytical:5 chemistry:2 technique:7 determine:1 concentration:5 particular:3 metal:8 element:5 sample:9 use:11 analyze:2 different:1 solution:2 although:1 date:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 modern:2 form:1 largely:1 developed:1 team:1 australian:1 chemist:1 lead:1 alan:1 walsh:1 work:1 csiro:1 commonwealth:1 science:1 industry:1 research:1 organisation:1 division:1 chemical:1 physic:1 melbourne:1 australia:1 principles:1 make:6 spectrometry:10 assess:1 analyte:1 rely:1 therefore:1 heavily:1 beer:3 lambert:3 law:3 short:2 electron:2 atom:5 atomizer:5 promote:1 high:5 orbitals:1 amount:2 time:1 absorb:1 set:1 quantity:3 energy:4 e:2 light:5 give:2 wavelength:7 specific:1 transition:3 general:1 correspond:1 one:2 elemental:1 selectivity:1 power:1 put:1 flame:7 know:1 remain:2 side:1 detector:4 measure:4 possible:1 calculate:1 many:2 take:1 place:1 thus:1 get:1 signal:1 proportional:1 instrumentation:1 spectrometer:2 block:1 diagram:1 order:2 constituent:1 atomize:2 illuminate:1 transmit:1 finally:1 reduce:1 effect:2 emission:4 g:1 black:1 body:1 radiation:4 environment:1 normally:2 type:1 typically:2 c:2 j:6 alkemade:1 hollander:1 w:1 snelleman:1 p:2 zeegers:1 vapour:1 pergamon:1 press:1 oxford:1 graphite:1 furnace:1 b:4 v:1 l:1 vov:1 forty:1 year:1 electrothermal:1 advance:1 problem:1 theory:1 spectrochim:1 acta:2 plasma:3 primarily:2 inductively:1 couple:1 also:3 broekaert:1 third:1 edition:1 wiley:2 vch:1 weinheim:1 germany:1 laterally:1 long:2 usually:1 deep:1 height:1 burner:1 head:1 control:1 adjust:1 flow:1 fuel:1 mixture:1 beam:1 pass:1 axis:2 lateral:1 hit:1 analysis:2 liquid:3 turn:1 gas:4 three:3 step:1 desolvation:1 dry:2 solvent:1 evaporate:1 vaporization:1 ash:1 solid:1 vaporises:1 atomization:1 compound:1 break:1 free:1 source:4 chosen:1 spectral:2 width:1 narrow:2 hollow:5 cathode:8 lamp:9 common:1 inside:1 fill:1 argon:1 neon:1 cylindrical:1 contain:1 excitation:1 anode:2 voltage:2 apply:1 across:1 particle:1 ionize:1 increase:1 gaseous:1 ion:1 acquire:1 enough:3 eject:1 excited:1 state:1 emit:1 frequency:1 characteristic:1 skoog:1 holler:1 crouch:1 principle:1 instrumental:1 ed:2 thomson:1 book:1 cole:1 pp:1 selective:1 several:1 diode:4 laser:8 perform:1 good:1 property:1 axner:1 spectrometric:1 meyers:1 ra:1 encyclopedia:1 new:1 york:1 john:1 son:1 inc:1 either:1 refer:1 dlaas:1 dlas:1 zybin:1 koch:1 h:1 wizemann:1 franzke:1 k:1 niemax:1 spectrochimica:1 since:1 modulation:2 often:1 employ:1 background:2 correction:4 methods:1 bandwidth:1 overlap:5 rare:1 unlikely:1 line:5 another:1 molecular:3 much:1 broad:2 likely:1 band:3 result:1 artificially:1 improperly:1 calculation:1 method:3 correct:1 zeeman:2 magnetic:2 field:2 split:1 two:1 sidebands:2 see:2 close:1 original:2 still:1 far:1 presence:1 absence:1 compare:1 difference:1 interest:1 smith:2 hieftje:2 invent:1 stanley:1 gary:1 pulse:2 current:1 cause:2 large:1 population:1 self:2 broadening:1 reduction:1 intensity:1 deuterium:2 case:1 separate:2 least:1 accurate:1 relative:1 simplicity:1 fact:1 old:1 commonly:1 reference:1 jaas:1 journal:1 |@bigram absorption_spectroscopy:5 analytical_chemistry:2 nineteenth_century:1 absorption_spectrometry:7 graphite_furnace:1 atomic_spectrometry:3 wiley_vch:1 vch_weinheim:1 hollow_cathode:5 cathode_lamp:5 anode_cathode:1 diode_laser:4 wiley_son:1 magnetic_field:2 zeeman_effect:1 |
1,881 | Jean_Grey | Jean Grey-Summers (née Grey) is a fictional comic book superheroine appearing in books published by Marvel Comics. She has been known under the aliases Marvel Girl and Phoenix, and is best known as one of five original members of the X-Men. Jean Grey-Summers is a mutant born with telepathic and telekinetic powers. Her powers first manifested when she saw her childhood friend being hit by a car. She is a caring, nurturing figure, but she also must deal with being an Omega-level mutant and the physical manifestation of the cosmic Phoenix Force. She faces death several times in the history of the series, first in the classic "Dark Phoenix Saga," but due to her connection with the Phoenix Force, she, as her namesake implies, rises from death. Phoenix is an important figure in the lives of her husband Cyclops; Professor X, who is like a father and mentor to her; Wolverine who is a very good friend and, at several points, a potential love interest; Storm, who is her best friend and a sister-like figure; her daughter Rachel Summers; her son X-Man; and stepson Cable. The character is present for much of the X-Men's history, and she is featured in all three X-Men animated series and several video games. Famke Janssen portrays Jean in the X-Men films. In 2006, IGN.com rated Jean Grey #6 on their list of Top 25 X-Men from the past forty years. Publication history Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, Jean first appeared as Marvel Girl in X-Men #1 (September 1963). After her resurrection, she continued with her original team mates, as a part of X-Factor, and later rejoined the X-Men, becoming a mainstay character once more. Fictional character biography Background Jean Grey-Summers was born the daughter of Dr. John Grey and Elaine Grey. Before joining the X-Men, she lived with her family in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, where Dr. Grey worked as a history professor at Bard College. Jean is the only member of her immediate family with mutant abilities (her niece and nephew, Joey and Gailyn, are also revealed as mutants). Her powers first manifest at the age of ten, prematurely triggered when her best friend, Annie Richards, is hit by a car. As her friend lies dying, Jean instinctively links to her mind and senses what Annie feels when she dies; the trauma of experiencing her friend's death nearly kills Jean as well, but instead leaves her in a coma. To rouse her out of her catatonic state, Jean's parents seek the expertise of specialists, of whom only Professor Charles Xavier is able to help. Xavier uses Jean to help locate mutants with his Cerebro Machine. During one fateful session on the astral plane Jean senses young Scott Summers in the orphanage and an aspect of her mind, manifesting in the form of a golden Phoenix raptor, reaches out to him. Xavier realizes that Jean's young mind cannot yet cope with her abilities, so he telepathically blocks her access to them, allowing her powers to evolve at a more natural pace. Jean develops her telekinetic powers at the age of 13. As a teenager, Jean leaves her parents to attend Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters and, using the codename "Marvel Girl", becomes the first female X-Man, joining the team on its first mission against Magneto. With the X-Men, she battles the team's earliest and most enduring threats, including Magneto's Brotherhood of Evil Mutants, the Juggernaut, and the Sentinels. She briefly leaves Xavier's school to attend Metro College. Back with the X-Men, she helps end the Factor Three conspiracy. It is also revealed that she secretly aided Professor Xavier in his preparation to thwart the Z'Nox invasion. While on a mission that took them into space Jean is observed by the Phoenix Force which is drawn to Jean's unlimited potential. Jean envisions her transformation into Phoenix but within an instant she cannot remember what she foresaw. Romance At the beginning of the series, Jean and Scott harbor a mutual crush for a long time but neither is aware of the other's feelings (though the readers are made aware early on) and both are too shy to make a move. Jean once has a date with Angel, but insists on taking Scott along, which confuses and frustrates both men. For a while, Angel has feelings for Jean which lead to some bad moments between him and Scott. When Jean leaves to pursue tertiary education at Metro College, it further widens the gap between Scott and Jean; however, Jean and Scott later date openly. At one point, Professor X seems to have some romantic feelings for her. However, he believes that she could not reciprocate because he is a paraplegic; therefore he says nothing of it, instead channeling his energies into an increasingly intimate mentor/student relationship with Jean. This forces her to keep his secrets and, at one point, transfer his own power into her. Jean and Scott's relationship takes a brief step forward when the X-Men temporarily disband. Jean works as a swimsuit model and Scott works as a radio announcer, and the two "pretend" to date. After the X-Men re-form, there are hints that they are more intimately involved, but the relationship is not "outed" for quite some time. When Jean "dies" and becomes Phoenix, her relationship with Scott changes because she has changed. After they are separated in the Savage Land and each thinks the other is dead, Scott is unable to mourn her, and reasons it's because he no longer loves her. Yet upon their reunion, to fight Proteus at Muir Island, the passion and relationship is rekindled. Soon after, they psychically "marry" - joining parts of their minds together in a psychic bond. When Logan is introduced as part of the "next generation", he is immediately drawn to her, and harbors a secret love for her. Through the series, Logan generally respects Jean's choice to be with Scott, and the two share a deep friendship which, despite a powerful emotional and physical attraction, is never consummated. In Grant Morrison's New X-Men stories, Jean increasingly talks to Logan about her marital problems, and Logan tries to help the married couple reconcile, even convincing Jean to return to Scott when Scott has a psychic affair with Emma Frost. Immediately following Jean's death, Scott begins to date Emma. Although he does 'honor and respect her', this may itself only be a psychic suggestion left by Jean to force Scott to move on and "live". Phoenix X-Men vol. 1, #101. Art by Dave Cockrum. The original team of X-Men is held captive by Krakoa the Living Island, so Xavier recruits a new team of X-Men to help save the others from Krakoa. Most of the team's senior members then leave, including Jean. Scott feels that he belongs only with the X-Men, and this upsets Jean. However, she remains in contact with the X-Men and becomes best friends with Ororo Munroe (Storm). While Jean and Scott are having a romantic evening in Manhattan, she, Wolverine, and Banshee, are abducted by Sentinels. They are taken to an abandoned S.H.I.E.L.D. orbital platform under the command of the anti-mutant activist Steven Lang, who is plotting to unleash a new generation of Sentinels. The other X-Men, with the aid of Dr. Peter Corbeau, rescue them. During the space station's destruction, the X-Men find that their shuttle has been damaged in an earlier fight with the Sentinels. The X-Men decide that someone must stay at the controls and pilot the ship, while everyone else remains in the shuttle's heavily-shielded life cell. Knowing no one else could survive long enough to pilot the shuttle to safety, Jean uses her telepathy on Dr. Corbeau to learn how to pilot the shuttle and her telekinesis to block the radiation as she pilots the ship back to Earth. Her telekinetic shields give way under the onslaught of the intense radiation. The strain of holding the solar radiation at bay with her powers destroys the psychic shields Xavier placed in her mind as a child, and Jean assumes her ultimate potential as a psychic, becoming an entity of pure thought. The shuttle crashes into a bay, and Jean telekinetically reforms her body and emerges from the water. Taking the code-name of Phoenix, Jean's psi-powers are now vastly stronger, and she manifests a fiery bird-shaped energy aura whenever she uses her powers to their fullest extent. Phoenix healed the M'Kraan Crystal to keep the universe from being destroyed. In the "Dark Phoenix Saga", Mastermind a.k.a. Jason Wyngarde tampers with Jean's mind, convincing her she's a Victorian aristocrat (and the Black Queen of the Hellfire Club) and that he is her husband. She turns on her friends, but then loses control of her powers and becomes the Dark Phoenix, attacking her friends and teammates and destroying a populated solar system's star. Jean regains her sanity long enough to commit suicide rather than risk becoming the Dark Phoenix again and killing anyone else. After killing herself on the moon, Jean's soul awakens in the afterlife and is dressed in a White Phoenix costume. Death greets Jean and tries to help her understand the Phoenix before fragments of her soul are sent back to Earth. John Byrne, penciller on Uncanny X-Men, had strong feelings against how powerful Phoenix had become and worked with writer Chris Claremont to effectively remove Phoenix from the storyline, initially by removing her powers. However, Byrne's decision to have Dark Phoenix destroy an inhabited solar system in Uncanny X-Men #135, coupled with the planned ending to the story arc, worried then-Editor-in-Chief Jim Shooter, who felt that allowing Jean to live at the conclusion of the story was both morally unacceptable (given that she had essentially committed an act of genocide) and also an unsatisfying ending from a storytelling point of view. As a result, Shooter requested that Claremont and Byrne rewrite the last chapter of issue #137, to explicitly place in the story both a consequence and an ending commensurate with the enormity of Phoenix's actions. The original ending, as well as an interview with Claremont, Byrne, Shooter, and then-Uncanny X-Men editor Louise Simonson which gives the full explanation for the changes, was published in the one-shot Phoenix: The Untold Story. In the original ending, instead of turning into Phoenix again during the X-Men's battle with the Shi'ar Imperial Guard, Jean is overpowered and captured. Lilandra has Jean subjected to what amounts to a psychic lobotomy, leaving Jean without any of her telepathic or telekinetic powers. The concept that Byrne and Claremont had in mind was that her powers ended up being more or less permanently suppressed, but with the threat always in the shadows of Phoenix returning. In the end, Jean is allowed to return to Earth with the rest of the X-Men, "cured" of the power and madness of Dark Phoenix. The one-shot also reveals the original splash page drawn for Uncanny X-Men #138, which shows Jean and Scott in a happier time, contrasted with the splash page actually published in issue #138 that shows Jean's funeral. Marvel editor Jim Shooter, in response to a question about the return of Jean Grey, responded, "Jean Grey is dead". For a while, Marvel stuck to this, although the interview in The Untold Story shows that Byrne had already given thought to a possible way to revive Jean (although the idea as it existed then was not expanded upon in the interview). Return Fantastic Four #286. Art by John Byrne. A few years later, there was a desire to bring Jean Grey back to life, as part of the launch of the new X-Factor series. Editorially, it was decreed that this would only be allowed if Jean could be utterly absolved of the evil deeds of the Dark Phoenix Saga. This absolution begins when the Avengers find a strange pod lying on the bottom of Jamaica bay, which they send to Reed Richards of the Fantastic Four. The pod cracks open and Jean emerges, with no memories from the time she flew the shuttle until she hatched from the cocoon, but the truth of Phoenix is now revealed. While dying upon the shuttle, Jean was, in fact, approached by a cosmic psychic entity known as the Phoenix Force, which duplicated Jean's form and merged with a portion of her soul/consciousness, while Jean herself was sealed in a pod at the bottom of the bay to heal. It was the Phoenix Force which became the Dark Phoenix and committed those evil actions, hence Jean was absolved of them and went on to found X-Factor with her original X-Men teammates. Jean is now without her telepathy, but her telekinesis is much more powerful. The former X-Men are contacted and she reunites with them. . Jean learns that the Phoenix Force merged with Rachel Summers, her daughter from an alternate timeline. Jean initially rejected Rachel because of this, as she felt Rachel's existence was a constant reminder of the dark future she came from and feared could still come to pass. During the time in which Jean is thought dead, Scott meets a pilot named Madelyne Pryor. They marry and gave birth to a son, Nathan Christopher Charles Summers. When Scott hears Jean is alive, he leaves Pryor. Shortly afterward, he joins Jean and the other founding X-Men to create X-Factor. Early in X-Factor's career, Jean first battles the mutants' nemesis, Apocalypse. Scott calls Madelyne to try to persuade her to come to New York. When he receives no answer, he assumes that his wife had left him. In truth, Mister Sinister kidnapped Madelyne and Nathan. Mr. Sinister had created Madelyne from Jean Grey's DNA, believing the offspring of Jean Grey and Scott Summers would be a genetically superior mutant who possessed incredible powers. With her purpose fulfilled, Sinister turns Madelyne over to the Marauders. The X-Men rescue her and she joins them. Wanting to rescue her son from Mr. Sinister, Madelyne makes a pact with demons, and using her despair, the goblins make her their queen, driving her insane. Madelyne attempts to sacrifice Nathan in a ritual that will bring the demons of Limbo into the world. Madelyne dies in a climactic battle with Jean after she links their minds and wills herself to die -- hoping the link will kill Jean as well. Madelyne dies, and then the piece of Jean's consciousness that had merged with the Phoenix Force (which had migrated into Madelyne Pryor upon the death of the Phoenix) returned to Jean, granting her all the memories of both Madelyne and the Dark Phoenix. Jean now also contained a spark of the Phoenix Force but would later expel it while helping an alien world fend off a Celestial. Her telepathy had also been restored to her by the villain Psynapse. Jean becomes a member of the X-Men's "Gold Team" led by Storm when X-Factor joins with Xavier. When her physical body dies in a Sentinel attack, Jean survives by transferring her psyche into the body of the comatose Emma Frost. While in Emma's body, Jean uses telekinesis, an ability that Emma never used. Jean is later restored to her original body with the help of Xavier and Forge. Jean is instrumental in saving Wolverine's life when Magneto rips the adamantium from his skeleton. Using her telekinesis, Jean holds Logan's body together and supports his healing factor. With Cyclops, Jean later encounters Stryfe for the first time. Marriage The wedding of Scott Summers and Jean Grey. X-Men #30, art by Andy Kubert.Scott proposed to Jean but she declined because the memories of him proposing to both Madelyne and The Phoenix kept haunting her. He told her he would wait for her. Later, Jean proposes to Scott and they marry , but not before she apologized to Rachel and welcomed her into her life permanently. During their honeymoon, they are taken into the future to raise Scott's son Nathan. After returning, Jean resumes using the name Phoenix as an attempt to redeem both the entity and herself and to honor Rachel, who was presumed dead at the time, but was later revealed to have been lost somewhere in the time-stream with the premature death of Apocalypse. She also adopted the classic green and gold Phoenix costume to signify this. During a battle with the aforementioned villain, Scott merged with the immortal mutant. Jean and Psylocke switch powers, and Jean adds Psylocke's telepathic powers to her own telepathy, as well as her shadow astral-form, while Psylocke gets Jean's telekinesis. Jean begins to manifest fiery Phoenix raptor effects as the physical manifestation of her powers. Jean also uses the Phoenix Force to witness humanity's possible evolution into Eternity and converses with Eternity itself when Prosh recruits her to help stop the Stranger from destroying the universe. Jean learns that Cyclops is alive, and searches for him with her stepson Cable (Nathan). Jean uses her increased telepathic powers to separate Cyclops' and Apocalypse's spirits. Jean enters Emma's mind interrupting Scott and Emma's telepathic affair. Art by Phil Jimenez.A combination of Jean's duties as headmistress of the Xavier Institute, her re-emerging Phoenix powers, and Scott's temporary merger with Apocalypse drives a wedge between the couple. Jean attempts to rebuild the relationship, but Scott remains distant, refusing to sleep with her. Scott turns to Emma Frost, who takes advantage of Scott's emotional problems, which leads to a telepathic extramarital affair. When confronted by Jean, Scott claims that they shared "only thoughts" and that he had done nothing wrong; Jean, however, disagrees and demands that Emma explain herself, but Emma only jeers and insults her. Enraged, Jean unleashes the Phoenix power on Emma, rifling through her memories and forcing her to confront the truth about herself. Later one of the Stepford Cuckoos shatters Emma's diamond form. Beast, under the belief that Emma can be saved, attempts to rebuild her from the shattered diamond. Jean arrives and informs Hank that despite her malicious nature, Emma had truly fallen in love with her husband, and understanding that Emma can offer Scott something she can't, she uses her powers to fuse the diamond pieces of Emma's body together again and revives her. Later, tricked by Xorn, Wolverine and Phoenix are propelled towards the sun while on Asteroid M. About to die, Wolverine reluctantly stabs Phoenix so she will not have to die an agonizing death in the intense solar heat. Seconds before they collide with the sun, the Phoenix Force manifests within Jean, and she saves them both. She tells him that by killing her, he helped her release the "Phoenix Consciousness." Arriving on Earth, they battled Xorn (who had revealed himself to be Magneto but would later be retconned into an imposter), who then mortally injures Phoenix by transferring a large amount of electro-magnetic energy to her brain, inducing a "planetary-scale stroke." As Jean dies in Scott's arms, she tells him to live. It was revealed later that before she died, Jean created a holempathic matrix crystal for Rachel and imprinted it with her essence so that, no matter what happened to her physically, her soul would always be with her. Here Comes Tomorrow Scott Summers refusal of Emma Frost's offer to re-open Xavier's Institute after Jean's death creates a future timeline in which Hank McCoy re-opens the school. Under the pressure, he takes the drug "Kick", which is revealed to be the aerosol form of the villain Sublime, who possesses Hank McCoy and drives him insane. 150 years later, the near-immortal Beast tries to resurrect Phoenix and use her to destroy every life-form on Earth, except for the creatures created by Sublime itself, only to be defeated by Jean. Phoenix then carries out her disinfection and absorbs the future universe into the "White Hot Room", a higher plane of reality with other Phoenix hosts and 'home' to the consciousness of the Phoenix Force. Jean wears a white variation of her Phoenix outfit and is revealed to be "a White Phoenix of the Crown". Jean reaches back in time and telepathically urges Scott to live. Instead of refusing Emma and leaving the institute, Scott chooses to be with Emma and keep the Xavier Institute alive. Endsong In the 2005 X-Men: Phoenix - Endsong limited series, the Shi'ar resurrect the Phoenix Force prematurely in hopes of destroying it while it is relatively weak, but the Phoenix escapes to Earth where it resurrects Jean and bonds with her once more, and reveals that the Phoenix force and Jean are one. The X-Men battle the Phoenix at the North Pole until, with the help of Cerebro, Emma and the Stepford Cuckoos contact all of the X-Men around the world to focus their love into Jean. This enables Jean and the Phoenix Force to achieve a perfect balance with one another and transform into the White Phoenix of the Crown. Jean then returns to the White Hot Room to make herself and Phoenix whole again. Warsong Writer Greg Pak has said that Warsong "is not another Jean Grey resurrection story. It's an essential Phoenix story, and therefore ultimately an essential tale for understanding Jean Grey." Pak also stated that Warsong will lay the groundwork for the future of both Jean and the Phoenix. However the story only featured her telepathic voice talking to the Stepford Cuckoos as they flew over her grave and a flashback in the first issue. The rest of the series involved the Cuckoos encountering the fragment of the Phoenix's consciousness that visited them at the end of the Endsong mini series. They merge with the fragment and gain Phoenix-level abilities, but later must imprison the Phoenix fragment in their diamond hearts, an ability they manifest after their origins--as cloned daughters of Emma Frost--are revealed. X-Men Messiah Complex Since the events of M-Day, when most of mutantkind was depowered and no new mutant births occur, mutantkind is on the verge of extinction. Cerebro then detects a new mutant baby born in Cooperstown, Alaska. When Cerebro detects her, a tremendous outburst of power from the child partially destroys it. As the child has aged and grown, she has developed features distinctively similar to Jean Grey, including crimson red hair, and green eyes. As seen in Cable #5, a closeup of the baby's eyes show twin reflections of the Phoenix emblem in them. Jean Grey's future A recent interview panel at the San Diego Comic Con confirmed that there are discussions going on at Marvel involving Jean's eventual return, however it also stated that it's a story Marvel doesn't want to rush. At the San Francisco Wondercon, when asked about Jean's future Matt Fraction told the audience "There's a little girl with red hair and green eyes in the future that you should keep your eyes on" in reference to Hope Summers. In X-Men - Kingbreaker #4, Korvus' Blade of the Phoenix loses its power and Rachel's connection to the Phoenix Echo is somehow lost. As yet, no explanation was given for what happened except for Rachel who says "Please, not now… Mom.". What happened to the Phoenix Force will be examined after “War of Kings” is over. In Uncanny X-Men #510, during the assault of the Sisterhood of Mutants, Emma Frost unexpectedly finds what seems to be Jean Grey communicating to her, and seemingly aiding Emma in overcoming an incapacitating psychic assault from Lady Mastermind. It's also revealed that the Sisterhood attack was to recover a lock of Jean's hair that Wolverine had in his possession. Powers and abilities Jean Grey-Summers is an Omega-level mutant, and has been one of the physical hosts of the vastly powerful Phoenix Force who possesses god-like powers and is one of the most feared beings that ever lived. With the Phoenix Force, Jean has potentially limitless psionic powers of telepathy, telekinesis, cosmic pyrokinesis and energy manipulation - Henry McCoy has said that, based on her massive power levels, "on the Richter scale, she'd be a 12". When bonded to the Phoenix, she is said to outclass mutants, granting her complete control over matter, energy, thought, and unlimited psionic energies. She can tap into reserved energies for future generations, denying them existence. When her powers first manifest, Jean is unable to cope with her telepathy, forcing Professor X to suppress her access to it altogether. Instead, he chooses to train her in the use of her telekinesis while allowing her telepathy to grow at its natural rate before reintroducing it. This is why in Jean's debut appearance as Marvel Girl, she is only capable of using her telekinetic powers. When the Professor hides to prepare for the Z'Nox, he reopens Jean's telepathic powers, which was initially explained as Xavier 'sharing' some of his telepathy with her. Jean is considered to be one of the Earth's most powerful telepathic minds. Jean Grey, as the Phoenix, has limitless telepathic powers, able to influence any individual. Jean's telepathy allows her to read, influence, control, and communicate with the minds of others, project her mind into the astral plane, and generate telepathic force blasts that can stun or kill others. Jean is one of the few telepaths skilled enough to communicate with animals (animals with high intelligence, such as dolphins, dogs, and ravens ). She can also telepathically take away or control people's natural bodily functions and senses, such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, or even mutant powers. A side effect of her telepathy is that she is gifted with an eidetic memory. Her telekinetic strength and skill are both of an extremely high level, capable of grasping objects in Earth orbit and manipulating hundreds of components in mid-air in complex patterns. She can telekinetically lift several tons of matter at once, and has learned to use her power both aggressively and defensively, as blasts of focused telekinetic force or defensive shields strong enough to withstand ballistic impacts. When Jean absorbs Psylocke's specialized telepathic powers, her own telepathy is increased to the point that she can physically manifest her telepathy as a psionic firebird whose claws can inflict both physical and mental damage. Jean can use her amplified telepathy to temporarily increase the speed of neural signals in the brain, which allows her to boost a mutant's powers to incredible levels. She briefly develops a psychic shadow form like Psylocke's, with a gold Phoenix emblem over her eye instead of the Crimson Dawn mark possessed by Psylocke. Jean briefly lost her telekinesis to Psylocke after this, but the Phoenix Force re-created those powers for her at a far stronger level than before. The Phoenix can revive, absorb, re-channel, and preserve the life-force of any kind of life-form, meaning that she can take life energy from one person and give it to others, heal herself with the same life energy, or even resurrect the dead, since the Phoenix is the sum of all life and death. As Phoenix, Jean's powers escalate to an incalculable level: allowing her to rearrange matter at a subatomic level, fly unaided through space, survive in any atmosphere, manipulate electromagnetic and cosmic energies for various effects and atmospheric disturbances. She has cosmic-level pyrokinesis, which allows her to create, control, and manipulate cosmic fire of extreme power. Her cosmic fire is not dependent on oxygen, which means that she can ignite it under seemingly impossible conditions such as the vacuum of space or underwater. Her cosmic pyrokinesis derives from her ability to generate intense heat, combustion, and concussive blasts by stimulating heat molecules, or simply by her access to cosmic power, or by combining both abilities at once to create cosmic fire of an even greater scale of power. Her cosmic fire usually takes form in the shape of a fiery bird, but can take other forms, such as fireballs, claws, or an ordinary looking flame. Her cosmic fire causes either mental pain, or physical pain, or both of them simultaneously. She has such complete control of her cosmic pyrokinesis ability that she only burns what she wants to burn, which she refers to as to "burn away what doesn't work." Thus, her cosmic fire will burn her enemies until they die or she extinguishes it by her own will, and it has no effect on her clothing or around her vicinity. She manifests a "telekinetic sensitivity" (called "the Manifestation of the Phoenix") to objects in her immediate environment that lets her feel the texture of objects, their molecular patterns, feel when other objects come into contact with them, and probe them at a molecular level. She can also create stargates that can transport her to anywhere in the universe instantaneously. As the Phoenix, Jean can resurrect herself after death and is unaffected by the passage of time. Though initially perceived as "borrowing" the powers of the Phoenix Force, due to original status as a host for the Force, they are entirely her own; Death itself has said that Jean is the rightful owner of those powers. Further evolution allowed her to actually become one with the Phoenix Force (as opposed to serving as its host) due to her status as an Omega-level mutant with unlimited potential, in which it was revealed that Jean was the White Phoenix of the Crown. As the White Phoenix, Jean can manipulate and control whole time-lines, as seen when she brought the alternate future of Here Comes Tomorrow into the White-Hot Room. Ancestry Introduced in Uncanny X-Men #125 (September, 1979), Lady Grey is the look-alike ancestor of X-Men member Jean Grey and a member of the Hellfire Club during the 18th century. During this issue the villain Mastermind attempted to turn Grey (then under the guise of the Phoenix) into the Black Queen of the modern Hellfire Club by creating the illusion that she was living in the body of an ancestor named Lady Grey. However, whether this ancestor was a real person or a creation of Mastermind was left uncertain. This question was finally answered in X-Men: Hellfire Club #2 (February, 2000), part of a mini-series on the history of the Club. This particular issue was scripted by Ben Raab and drawn by Charlie Adlard. Lady Grey was revealed to have been an influential member, possibly a Queen, of the Philadelphia, Pennsylvania branch of the Club during the American Revolutionary War (1775 - 1783). Other versions In other media See also End Of Greys Phoenix Force References External links Jean Grey at the Marvel Universe | Jean_Grey |@lemmatized jean:140 grey:28 summer:12 née:1 fictional:2 comic:3 book:2 superheroine:1 appear:2 publish:3 marvel:10 know:4 alias:1 girl:5 phoenix:87 best:4 one:16 five:1 original:9 member:7 x:53 men:43 mutant:18 born:1 telepathic:12 telekinetic:8 power:43 first:10 manifest:10 saw:1 childhood:1 friend:9 hit:2 car:2 caring:1 nurturing:1 figure:3 also:15 must:3 deal:1 omega:3 level:12 physical:7 manifestation:3 cosmic:14 force:29 face:1 death:12 several:4 time:12 history:5 series:9 classic:2 dark:10 saga:3 due:3 connection:2 namesake:1 implies:1 rise:1 important:1 life:11 husband:3 cyclops:4 professor:7 like:4 father:1 mentor:2 wolverine:6 good:1 point:5 potential:4 love:5 interest:1 storm:3 sister:1 daughter:4 rachel:9 son:4 man:2 stepson:2 cable:3 character:3 present:1 much:2 feature:3 three:2 animate:1 video:1 game:1 famke:1 janssen:1 portrays:1 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1,882 | Azawakh | The Azawakh is a sighthound dog breed from Africa. Description Appearance His morphology is very close to that of the Middle Eastern and of the North African sighthounds, all swift, highbred coursing hounds, although at first glance obvious physical singularities present themselves. For example, a short, flat back atop long legs accentuates his lofty bearing, and his hips appear higher than the withers. His natural beauty is austere and architectural, sharply contrasting the arabesque loveliness of the Saluki, or the rather somber dignity of the Sloughi. Almond eyed, lean and graceful, his profile is at once sere but harmonious, his presence aristocratic and aloof. He moves with a distinctly feline plastique, collected, elastic, and articulate, his demeanor guarded and mysterious, his glance feral, untamed. In his land of ancestry he can be found in a variety of colors as well as varying degrees of refinement, though format is basically constant. The standards call for a hound from 33 to 55 pounds (15-25 kg); its height is 24 to 29 inches (60-74 cm). The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles are "dry", meaning that they lie quite flat, unlike the Greyhound and Whippet. In this respect it is similar in type to the Saluki. In Africa, Azawakh are found in a variety of colors such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black. The Azawakh in its native land also comes with various white markings including Irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white). Because of this wide color variation in the native population, the American standard used by the AKC and UKC allows any color combination found in Africa. In the United States, the FCI standard is modified to have no color restrictions at a minimum and there is a strong sentiment that the FCI standard should be heavily edited or replaced. Colors permitted by the FCI breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Currently, white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in France, as is a white collar or half collar (Irish marked). The Azawakh’s light, supple, lissome gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is an upright double-suspension gallop. Health Azawakhs are an incredibly sound coursing hound. Serious coursing injuries are rare. The dogs heal very quickly from injury. Azawakh have no known incidence of hip dysplasia. There is a small occurrence of adult-onset idiopathic epilepsy in the breed. Wobbler disease or cervical vertebral instability does rarely occur. Some breeders believe this is a largely developmental problem where puppies grow too quickly due to a high-protein western diet. Like the Basenji, the Azawakh bitch often has a single annual estrus. Unassisted birth of healthy puppies is the norm. Litter sizes are usually from 4 to 6 puppies but litters as small as 1 and as large as 8 occur. Azawakh need a fairly high level of exercise and should have regular runs off lead in large enclosed areas to run off steam. The dogs are very social and emotional. They need a master that provides firm but fair leadership. Azawakh thrive companionship of other Azawakh. Temperament Unlike other sighthounds, the primary function of the Azawakh in his native land is that of protector. He develops an intense bond with his owner, yet does not look to his master for instructions. Azawakh are a study in opposing tensions: attentive yet aloof, affectionate yet fierce, refined yet rugged. With those they accept, Azawakh are gentle and extremely affectionate. With strangers many are reserved and prefer not to be touched, but are not inherently aggressive. Although raised to protect livestock, they do not have innate aggression toward canine nor human unless they are threatened. Azawakh have high energy and tremendous endurance. They are excellent training companions for runners and are nearly impervious to heat. They will happily run in weather over 100 degrees Fahrenheit that would kill a Greyhound. They love to dig holes in the garden, which is great exercise for both dog (digging) and owner (filling). Many Azawakh detest rain and cold weather. Azawakh are pack oriented and form complex social hierarchies. They have tremendous memories and are able to recognize each other after long periods of separation. They can often be found sleeping on top of each other for warmth and companionship. Origin Recent genetic, blood protein and archaeological studies as well as direct observation in the field offer a glimpse into the origin of the contemporary Azawakh breed. He comes out of the population of pariah dogs of sub-Saharan Africa--also called bush dogs or senji--and is also closely related to the Sloughi of the Maghreb. Despite morphological similarities, mitochondrial DNA evidence shows that he is only very distantly to other sight hounds. Azawakh have a rare glucose isomerase allele (GPIB) that occurs only in foxes, jackals, Italian wolves, Sloughi dogs and a handful of other quite unrelated rare dogs found mostly in Japan. The presence of the GPIB suggests an ancient differentiation of the Azawakh from other dog populations near the base of the dog family tree divergence from wolves or perhaps a uniquely African cross-breeding with local African canids such as jackals. Petroglyph rock art dating from 8,000 to 10,000 years ago during the Green Sahara (also known as the Holocene and Neolithic Subpluvial) shows cursorial dogs in conjunction with hunters. Archaeologists have found dog bones buried in Holocene settlements in the Sahara. At the close of the Holocene Wet Phase in the 4th millennium Before Christ, the Sahara returned to desert and created a formidable physical barrier to travel. Together, this evidence suggests that the Azawakh population has a unique genetic heritage that has been largely isolated from other dog populations for millennia. In the common era the Sahel dogs are almost totally isolated from northern dogs by the Sahara, but the ties to the pariah dogs to the south are extremely close. Azawakh are virtually indistinguishable from the Sahel pariah dog population from which they are drawn. In addition to a basic physical structure, the Azawakh share a number of unique traits with the pariah dogs: intense suspicion of the unknown strong guarding instinct pack hunting behavior complex social hierarchies unique vocalizations extra pre-molar teeth strong instinct to dig dens Throughout the Sahel, very elegant puppies can be found among rustic siblings. The Sahel nomads do not have the same breed concepts as in the West and, unlike the Bedouin of the North, do not recognize a strict separation of al hor (noble) from kelb (mongrel) dogs. The nomads act as an extra level of selection on top of the intense natural selection pressure of the Sahel environment. The approach to selection is diametrically opposed to Western breeding. Instead of selecting which dogs to breed upon maturity, they decide which puppies should live. This approach has the advantage of maintaining a large reservoir of genetic variability and resilience. The peoples of the Sahel control dam lines and cull puppies heavily at birth according to locally held aesthetic criteria that we do not fully understand. In the Sahel, color is not a selection criterion. The alpha male dog from the local population is usually the sire. Unless it is a wet year, only one puppy from a litter might be selected to live. Females are usually culled unless the family projects a need for more dogs in the future. History Azawakh among the Tuareg Bred by the Tuareg, Fula and various other nomads of the Sahara and sub-Saharan Sahel in the countries of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and southern Algeria, the breed is used there as a guard dog and to hunt gazelle and hare at speeds up to 40 miles per hour. The austerity of the Sahel environment has ensured that only the most fit dogs survive and has accentuated the breed's ruggedness and independence. Unlike some other sighthounds, the Azawakh is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. In role of a guard dog, if an Azawakh senses danger it will bark to alert the other members of the pack, and they will gather together as a pack under the lead of the alpha dog, then chase off or attack the predator. The Sloughi, by comparison, is more of an independent lone hunter and has a high hunting instinct. Map showing the breed's area of origin They are relatively uncommon in Europe and North America but there is a growing band of devotees. Azawakhs have a range of temperaments from lap dog to quite fierce. Lifelong socialization and firm but gentle handling are critical. Well socialised and trained, they can be good with other dogs, cats, children, and strangers. Azawakh may be registered with the FCI in the USA via the Federación Canófila de Puerto Rico (FCPR). European FCI clubs and the AKC recognize the FCPR as an acceptable registry. The AKC recognizes Azawakh as a Foundation Stock Service breed and they are eligible to participate in AKC-sanctioned performance events. Azawakh may be registered with the UKC and ARBA. The breed is not yet registered by CKC. Azawakh are eligible for ASFA lure coursing and NOFCA open field coursing events. References Colour, Pattern and Marking Varieties of the Azawakh in the Regions of Origin, 2005, Dr. Gabriel Meissen. Dogs of Africa, 2003, by Sian Hall, Alpine Blue Ribbon Books. Dog's Best Friend, 1999, by Ursula Birr, Gerald Krakauer and Daniela Osiander, Park Street Press. The Functional Saluki, 1993, Dan Belkin, Ph.D., Transcribed from a seminar given at the Saluki Club of America National Specialty. The Genetics of the Dog, 2001, Anatoly Ruvinsky and J. Sampson, CABI Publishing Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of domestic dogs 2002, Savolainen P, Zhang YP, Luo J, Lundeberg J, and Leitner T, Science 298: 1610-3 The Genetic Impoverishment of the Azawakh Breed, 2003, Elisabeth Naumann. Sloughi, 2004, by Dr. M.-D Crapon de Caprona, Kennel Club Books. External links Association Burkinabe Idi du Sahel Rare Breed Network: The Azawakh The Azawakh Club Azawakh Community Pedigree Database Azawakh Friends Foundation Azawakhs and Other Imports from Africa World Wide Azawakhs | Azawakh |@lemmatized azawakh:34 sighthound:1 dog:32 breed:15 africa:6 description:1 appearance:1 morphology:1 close:3 middle:1 eastern:1 north:3 african:3 sighthounds:3 swift:1 highbred:1 course:4 hound:4 although:2 first:1 glance:2 obvious:1 physical:3 singularity:1 present:1 example:1 short:2 flat:2 back:1 atop:1 long:2 legs:1 accentuate:2 lofty:1 bearing:1 hip:2 appear:1 high:6 withers:1 natural:2 beauty:1 austere:1 architectural:1 sharply:1 contrast:1 arabesque:1 loveliness:1 saluki:4 rather:1 somber:1 dignity:1 sloughi:5 almond:1 eye:1 lean:1 graceful:1 profile:1 sere:1 harmonious:1 presence:2 aristocratic:1 aloof:2 move:1 distinctly:1 feline:1 plastique:1 collect:1 elastic:1 articulate:1 demeanor:1 guard:3 mysterious:1 feral:1 untamed:1 land:3 ancestry:1 find:7 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1,883 | Demographics_of_Moldova | Demographics of Moldova, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Ethnic map of Moldova (1989 data) This article is about the demographic features of the population of Moldova, including distribution, ethnicity, languages, religious affiliation and other statistical data. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 4,455,421 (July 2005 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 20.2% (male 459,452/female 442,725) 15-64 years: 69.5% (male 1,489,813/female 1,606,202) 65 years and over: 10.3% (male 169,038/female 288,191) (2005 est.) Median age: total: 32.22 years male: 30.14 years female: 34.27 years (2005 est.) Population growth rate: 0.22% (2005 est.) Birth rate: 15.27 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) Death rate: 12.79 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) Net migration rate: -0.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.59 male(s)/female total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2005 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 40.42 deaths/1,000 live births male: 43.11 deaths/1,000 live births female: 37.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 65.18 years male: 61.12 years female: 69.43 years (2005 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.81 children born/woman (2005 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 0.2% (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 5,500 (2001 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths: less than 300 (2001 est.) Literacy: (definition: age 15 and over can read and write) total population: 99.1% male: 99.6% female: 98.7% (2003 est.) Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write. 1989 est. 2003 est. total population: 96% 99.1% male: 99% 99.6% female: 94% 98.7% Ethnic groups According to the 2004 Moldovan Census, 3,383,332 people lived in the areas controlled by the central government of Moldova. According to the 2004 Census in Transnistria, 555,347 people lived in the breakaway Transnistria. Thus, total population of the country in 2004 amounted to 3,938,679. Ethnic composition of the main part of Moldova, according to the 2004 census, was: Moldovans 2,564,849 (75.8%) Romanians 73,276 (2.2%) Ukrainians 282,406 (8.3%) Russians 201,218 (5.9%) Gagauzians 147,500 (4.4%) Bulgarians 65,662 (1.9%) Gypsies 12,271 (0.36%) Jews 3,608 (0.11%) Poles 2,383 (0.07%) other 16,139 (0.48%) undeclared 14,020 (0.41%) Ethnic composition of Moldova in 2004, including territories under the control of Tiraspol, was: Moldovans 2,742,005 (69.6%) Romanians 73,276 (1.9%) Ukrainians 442,346 (11.2%) Russians 369,488 (9.4%) Gagauzians 158,500 (4.0%) Bulgarians 76,662 (1.9%) others/undeclared 76,402 (1.9%) Note: due to an ongoing controversy, Romanians and Moldovans are sometimes counted together, resulting in combined figures of 2,638,125 (78.0%) and 2,815,281 (71.5%) respectively. Urban/rural population, ethnic groups by district table(s) Tiraspol-controlled areas Population urban rural Moldovans Russians Ukrainians others </tr> population cities population communes ca. ca. ca. ca. </tr> </tr> Tiraspol 158,069 158,069 1 - - 15.2% 24,000 41.6% 66,000 33% 52,000 10% 16,000</tr> Camenca sub-district 27,284 10,323 1 16,961 12 ~41% 11,000 ~7% 2,000 ~48% 13,000 ~4% 1,000 </tr> Râbniţa sub-district 82,699 53,648 1 29,051 22 ~29% 24,000 ~23% 19,000 ~43% 36,000 ~5% 4,000 </tr> Dubăsari sub-district 36,449 23,650 1 12,799 9 68.6% 24,500 12.3% 4,600 17.1% 6,400 2% 1,000 </tr> Grigoriopol sub-district 48,000 11,473 2 36,527 14 62% 29,800 15% 7,200 18% 8,600 5% 2,400 </tr> Slobozia sub-district 86,742 23,477 4 63,265 12 38% 33,000 22% 19,000 ~28% 24,000 ~12% 11,000 </tr> </tr> Subtotal Transnistria 439,243 280,640 10 158,603 69 33.3% 146,293 26.8% 117,601 31.9% 139,938 8% 35,411 </tr> </tr> Tighina 97,027 97,027 1 - - 25.1% 24,363 42.8% 41,569 17.4% 16,902 14.6% 14,193 </tr> Proteagailovca ~3,000 - - ~3,000 1 ~45% 1,350 ~30% ~900 ~25% 750 - - </tr> Gîsca 4,983 - - 4,983 1 ~15% ~750 ~60% ~3,000 ~25% ~1,250 - - </tr> Chiţcani (incl. Mereneşti and Zahorna) ~9,000 - - ~9,000 1 35% ~3,100 53% 4,800 10% ~900 2% ~200 </tr> Cremenciug 1,094 - - 1,094 1 ~35% ~400 ~35% ~400 ~20% ~200 ~10% ~100 </tr> Roghi ~1,000 - - ~1,000 1 ~90% 900 - - - - ~10% ~100 </tr> </tr> Subotal other localities 116,104 97,027 1 19,077 5 26.6% 30,863 43.6% 50,669 17.2% 20,002 12.5% 14,570 </tr> </tr> Total Tiraspol-controlled areas 555,347 377,667 11 177,680 74 31.9% 177,156 30.3% 168,270 28.8% 159,940 9% 49,981 </tr> <small>Notes: The more general data in the above table was taken as published by the breakaway authorities from Tiraspol, other numbers were calculated from these and from other available data to fill in all fields. In doing so, the same principles were followed as elsewhere: Transnistrian authorities published only the percentage of ethnic groups (in the missing cases, this was completed by alternative sources); the number of people was sometimes calculated from those percentages. The number or percentage of Romanians (other than those declaring themselves Moldovans) in Tiraspol-controlled ares was not published; it is included in "others". The number of inhabitants of Proteagailovca + Gîsca was given by Tiraspol as 7,983. Other sources indicate "just over 3,000" for Protegailovca, and "just under 5,000" for Gîsca. In this table, it is assumed there are 3,000 inhabitants in Proteagailovca, and 4,983 in Gîsca . The number of inhabitants of Slobozia sub-district + the commune of Chiţcani was given by Tiraspol as 95,742. Other sources indicate ~9,000 for Chiţcani. In this table it is assumed there are 9,000 inhabitantts in Chiţcani, and 86,742 in Slobozia sub-district. The number of inhabitants of Dubăsari sub-district + the village of Roghi was given by Tiraspol as 37,449. Other sources indicate ~1,000 for Roghi. In this table it is assumed there are 1,000 inhabitantts in Roghi, and 35,449 in Dubăsari sub-district. </small> Languages Romanian is the official language of Moldova. In political contexts it is sometimes also called Moldovan. Native language Currently, 2,588,355 people or 76.51% of the inhabitants of right bank Moldova (proper) have Moldovan/Romanian as native language, of which 2,029,847 (60.00%) declared it Moldovan and 558,508 (16.51%) declared it Romanian. 380,796 people or 11.26% have Russian as native language, 186,394 or 5.51% - Ukrainian, 137,774 or 4.07% - Gagauz, 54,401 or 1.61% - Bulgarian, 21,504 or 0.63% - another language, and 14,108 or 0.41% did not declare one. Soviet era data In the Soviet census of 1989 members of most of the ethnic groups in Moldavian SSR claimed the language of their ethnicity as their mother tongue: Moldovans (95%), Ukrainians (62%), Russians (99%), Gagauz (91%), Bulgarians (79%), and Romani people (82%). The exceptions were Jews (26% citing Yiddish), Belarusians (43%), Germans (31%), and Poles (10%). In the Soviet census of 1989, 62% of the total population claimed Moldovan as their native language. Only 4% of the entire population claimed Moldovan as a second language. In 1979, Russian was claimed as a native language by a large proportion of Jews (66%) and Belarusians (62%), and by a significant proportion of Ukrainians (30%). Proportions of other ethnicities naming Russian as a native language ranged from 17% of Bulgarians to 3% of Moldovans (Russian was more spoken by urban Moldovans than by rural Moldovans). Russian was claimed as a second language by a sizeable proportion of all ethnicities: Moldovans (46%), Ukrainians (43%), Gagauz (68%), Jews (30%), Bulgarians (67%), Belarusians (34%), Germans (53%), Roma (36%), and Poles (24%). First language in daily use According to the 2004 census, 2,543,354 people or 75.17% of the inhabitants of Moldova (proper) have Moldovan/Romanian as first language, of which 1,988,540 (58.77%) declared it Moldovan and 554,814 (16.40%) declared it Romanian. 540,990 people or 15.99% have Russian as first language, 130,114 or 3.85% - Ukrainian, 104,890 or 3.10% - Gagauz, 38,565 or 1.14% - Bulgarian, 11,318 or 0.34% - another language, and 14,101 or 0.41% did not declare one. Ethnic group Romanian Russian Ukrainian Gagauzian Bulgarian other language did non declare Total</tr> </tr>Moldovans/Romanians Moldovans Romanians2,495,9772,424,444 71,533 129,909128,372 1,5379,2519,170 81804799 51,1171,113 41,067951 116-- -2,638,1252,564,849 73,276 Russians 11,657 187,526 1,224 329 344 138 - 201,218</tr> Ukrainians 21,649 141,206 118,699 427 294 131 - 282,406</tr> Gagauzians 3,365 40,445 413 102,395 821 61 - 147,500</tr> Bulgarians 5,698 23,259 188 673 35,808 36 - 65,662</tr> other ethnic groups 4,961 18,610 339 262 181 9,856 192 34,401</tr> did non declare 47 35 - - - 29 13,909 14,020 </tr> </tr> Total by language of first use 2,543,354 75.17% 540,990 15.99% 130,114 3.85% 104,890 3.10% 38,565 1.14% 11,318 0.34% 14,101 0.41% 3,383,332 100%</tr> Usage of own language by the ethnic groups of Moldova ethhnic group own language Romanian Russian</tr> </tr> Moldovans/Romanians 94.62% - 4.92%</tr> Russians 93.20% 5.79% -</tr> Ukrainians 42.03% 7.66% 50.00%</tr> Gagauzians 69.42% 2.28% 27.42%</tr> Bulgarians 54.53% 8.68% 35.42%</tr> others up to 28.65% 14.42% 54.10%</tr> Urban areas ethhnic group own language Romanian Russian</tr> </tr> Moldovans/Romanians 87.23% - 12.56%</tr> Russians 95.85% 3.82% -</tr> Ukrainians 13.06% 6.56% 80.19%</tr> Gagauzians 40.10% 2.19% 57.23%</tr> Bulgarians 36.81% 7.93% 54.45%</tr> others up to 28.11% 8.35% 62.05%</tr> Rural areas ethhnic group own language Romanian Russian</tr> </tr> Moldovans/Romanians 98.25% - 1.16%</tr> Russians 80.52% 15.25% -</tr> Ukrainians 72.99% 8.85% 17.74%</tr> Gagauzians 86.16% 2.33% 10.40%</tr> Bulgarians 68.95% 9.29% 19.95%</tr> others up to 30.34% 33.39% 29.25%</tr> Religions According to the 2004 census, the population of Moldova has the following religious composition: Religion Adherents % of total</tr> Eastern Orthodox Christians 3,158,015 93.3%</tr>Newer Protestant faiths Baptists Seventh-day Adventists Pentecostal Brethren Assemblies 32,754 13,503 9,179 5,0751.83%0.99% 0.41% 0.28% 0.15%Traditional Protestant Confessional Evangelicals Refomed Evangelical Synod-Presbyterians1,429 1,190 3,5960.19%0.04% 0.04% 0.11% Old-Rite Christians 5,094 0.15%</tr> Roman Catholics 4,645 0.14%</tr> Other religions 29,813 0.88%</tr> </tr> Non-religious 33,207 0.98%</tr> Atheists 12,724 0.38%</tr> Percentages are calculated from the number of people declaring a religion; 75,727 (2.24%) of the population did not declare a religion.a Known as Creştini după Evanghelie''.b Traditionally Orthodox Lipovans. The Soviet government strictly limited the activities of the Orthodox Church (and all religions) and at times sought to exploit it, with the ultimate goal of abolishing it and all religious activity altogether. Most Orthodox churches and monasteries in Moldova were demolished or converted to other uses, such as administrative buildings or warehouses, and clergy were sometimes punished for leading services. Still, many believers continued to practice their faith. In 1991, Moldova had 853 Orthodox churches and eleven Orthodox monasteries (four for monks and seven for nuns). In addition, the Old Russian Orthodox Church (Old Believers) had fourteen churches and one monastery in Moldova. In the interwar period, the vast majority of ethnic Moldovans belonged to the Romanian Orthodox Church (Bucharest Patriarchate), but today both Romanian and Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) have jurisdiction in Moldova, with the latter having more parishes. According to the local needs, liturgy is performed in Romanian, Russian, and Turkic (Gagauz). After the revival of religious activity in the last 20 years, a minority of the clergy and the faithful wanted to return to the Bucharest Patriarchate (Metropolis of Bessarabia). Because higher-level church authorities were unable to resolve the matter, Moldova now has two episcopates, one for each patriarchate. In late 1992, the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia issued a decree upgrading its eparchy of Chişinău and Moldova to a metropolis. Moldova also has a Greek Catholic minority, mainly among ethnic Ukrainians, although the Soviet government declared the Greek Catholic Churches illegal in 1946 and forcibly united them with the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the Greek Catholic Churches had survived underground until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Despite the Soviet government's suppression and harassment, Moldova's practicing Jews managed to retain their religious identity. About a dozen Jewish newspapers were started in the early 1990s, and religious leaders opened a synagogue in Chişinău; there were six Jewish communities of worship throughout the country. In addition, Moldova's government created the Department of Jewish Studies at Chişinău State University, mandated the opening of a Jewish high school in Chişinău, and introduced classes in Judaism in high schools in several cities. The government also provides financial support to the Society for Jewish Culture. Other religious denominations in Moldova are the Armenian Apostolic Church, Seventh-Day Adventists, Baptists, Pentecostals, and Molokans (a Russian Orthodox sect). Citizens in the independent Moldova have much greater religious freedom than they did in Soviet times. Legislation passed in 1992 guarantees religious freedom, but requires all religious groups to be officially recognized by the government. In 1992 construction or restoration of 221 churches was underway, but clergy remained in short supply. Analysis Although Moldova was the most densely populated of the former Soviet republics (129 inhabitants per square kilometer in 1990, compared with 13 inhabitants per square kilometer for the Soviet Union as a whole), it has few large cities. The largest and most important of these is Chişinău, the country's capital and its most important industrial center, with a population of 712,218 in 2004. The city's population is 72.11% Romanian/Moldovan, 13.92% Russsian, 8.28% Ukrainian, and 5.69% others (Bulganians, Gagauzians, Jews, Poles, Gypsies, others). The proportion of Russophones living in Moldova decreased in the years immediately after 1989 because of the emigration. The second largest city in the country, Tiraspol, had a population of 184,000 in 1990. Located in Transnistria, with a population of 158,069 in 2004, it is the major city in the breakaway Transnistria. In contrast to Chişinǎu, Tiraspol has only some 15.2% ethnically Moldovan, with Russians comprising 41.6%, and Ukrainians 33%. Due to deportations and emigration during and after the 1992 War of Transnistria, it has been reported that the Moldovan population has gone down by up to 10,000 since 1990. Other important cities include Bălţi, with a population of 162,000 in 1990, and 127,561 in 2004, and Tighina, with a population of 132,000 in 1990 and 100,027 in 2004. Other major cities include Râbniţa, population 53,648, Cahul, population 35,488, Ungheni, population 32,530, Soroca, population 28,362, and Orhei, population 25,641. Traditionally a predominantly rural country, Moldova gradually began changing its character in the 20th century. As urban areas became the sites of new industrial and intellectual jobs and amenities such as hospitals, the population of cities and towns grew. The Soviets kept the population of Moldova under control with the famous Soviet policy of propiska, which forbid a person to live in another locality than the one written in his/her identity documents without approval of Soviet authorities. The new residents Moldova's cities during the Soviet era were not only Moldovans, who had moved from the nearby rural areas, but also many Russians and Ukrainians who had been recruited to fill positions in industry and government, moving in from other parts of the Soviet Union. Many people have emigrated to Romania in 1940 (estinated at 200,000) and 1944 (estimated at more than 200,000), and others had lost their lives during the war (over 100,000 as conscripts), in Stalinist persecutions (over 8,000 executed, over 80,000 sent to Gulag, ~200,000 deported), or during the 1946-1947 famine (216,000 deceised). As a consequence of industrial growth after 1956, there was significant immigration to the Moldavian SSR by representatives of other ethnic groups, especially Russians and Ukrainians. At the time of the 1989 census, Moldova's total population was 4,335,400. The largest ethnic group, Moldovans, numbered 2,795,000, accounting for 64.5 % of the population. The other major ethnicities were Ukrainians, about 600,000 (14%); Russians, about 562,000 (13.0%); Gagauz, about 153,000 (4%); Bulgarians, about 88,000 (2%); and Jews, about 66,000 (2.0%). There were also smaller but appreciable numbers of Poles and Gypsies in the population. In Transnistria ethnic Moldovans accounted for only 40% of the population in 1989, followed by Ukrainians (28%), and Russians (25%). In the early 1990s, there was significant emigration from the republic, primarily from urban areas and mainly by non-Moldovan minorities. Moldovans made up a sizable proportion of the urban population in 1989 (about half the population of Chişinǎu and other cities), as well as a large proportion of the rural population (over 80%), but only 23% of the ethnic Moldovans lived in the republic's ten largest cities, with the rest of the community being predominantly rural. Unlike Moldovans, Russians tend to be urban dwellers in Moldova; more than 72% of them lived in the ten largest cities in 1989. Many of them came to the Moldova after it was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. Some of them came to alleviate the postwar shortage of qualified labor in the Moldavian SSR, which was created by the rapid industrialization, but also by the loss of human life during the war, deportations, and famine. Ethnic Russians settled mainly in Chişinǎu, Bălţi, Bender, and in the cities of the eastern bank of the Dniester, such as Tiraspol, Rîbniţa, and Dubăsari. Only about 25% of Moldova's Russians lived in Transnistria in 1990, as many as in Chişinǎu alone. In 1990, Moldova's divorce rate of 3.0 divorces per 1,000 population had risen from the 1987 rate of 2.7 divorces per 1,000 population. The usual stresses of marriage were exacerbated by a society in which women were expected to perform most of the housework in addition to their work outside the home. Compounding this were crowded housing conditions (with their resulting lack of privacy) and the growing economic crisis. See also Aging of Europe References External links Rumanian national identity in the Republic of Moldova, Arianna Montanari 2004 cenus Disaster by Depopulation - Red Cross report about impact of demographic changes on family structure and child care | Demographics_of_Moldova |@lemmatized demographic:5 moldova:33 data:6 fao:1 year:15 number:10 inhabitant:9 thousand:1 ethnic:17 map:1 article:1 feature:1 population:42 include:5 distribution:1 ethnicity:5 language:23 religious:11 affiliation:1 statistical:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:4 july:1 est:17 age:5 structure:2 male:13 female:13 median:1 total:14 growth:2 rate:9 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:11 life:3 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:2 bear:1 woman:2 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 people:11 less:1 literacy:2 definition:2 read:2 write:3 group:13 accord:6 moldovan:12 census:8 area:8 control:6 central:1 government:8 transnistria:8 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1,884 | Country_Liberal_Party | The Country Liberal Party (CLP) is a Northern Territory political party affiliated with both the Liberal and National parties. It is a member of the Coalition. Country Liberal Party The CLP dominated the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly from its establishment in 1978 to 2001, but lost Government in 2001 and was reduced to four parliamentary members in 2005. At the 9 August 2008 Legislative Assembly general election it gained a significant swing, gaining 11 out of the 25 Northern Territory Legislative Assembly seats. Senator Nigel Scullion is the CLP's sole representative in federal parliament, is the deputy leader of the National Party and sits with the National Party in the Senate. History The Country Liberal Party (CLP) was established in the Northern Territory in 1974. The state Country Party members first contested the 1919 federal election, with an established federal Country Party contesting the 1922 federal election. The 1922 election saw the main anti-Labor party, the Nationalist Party of Australia deprived of a majority, and were required to form a coalition in order to command a majority on the floor of parliament. The price for such support was the resignation of Nationalist (ex-Labor) Prime Minister, Billy Hughes, who was replaced by Stanley Bruce. In 1966, the Country Party was established in the territory, while the Liberal Party was small. In recognition of this, the local Liberals supported the Country Party candidate for the sole NT seat from 1969 to 1972. An alliance had formed, primarily against the conservatives' arch-rivals the Australian Labor Party (ALP). After the 1974 federal election and subsequent Joint Sitting of parliament, legislation was passed which created a unicameral Legislative Assembly, as well as members with full voting rights at a federal level. The local Country and Liberal Party members decided to form an independent "Country Liberal Party" (CLP) to field candidates for the Legislative Council in 1974. Northern Territory Self-Government occurred on 1 July 1978. In 1979, the CLP formally affiliated with both the Liberal Party and the then-National Country Party. These affiliations remain to this day, and relations with both parties are close. However, the CLP has had no major opportunities to sway the actions of either. Both the Liberals and the Nationals receive Country Liberal Party delegations, and the party president has full voting rights with the National Party and observer status with the Liberal Party. The party also directs its federal members and senators as to which of the two other parties they should sit with in the parliamentary chamber. The CLP vote is often tabulated together with either of its coalition partners in many election results tables, or included within a single Coalition vote. The CLP in Northern Territory Politics The CLP has contested Northern Territory Legislative Assembly elections since 1974. General elections were held in 1974, 1977, 1980, 1983, 1987, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2001, 2005 and 2008. The CLP won control of the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly at every election until 2001, when the ALP won. The loss marked a major turning point in Northern Territory politics, a result which was exacerbated when, at the 2005 NT election, the ALP won a second landslide victory, reducing the once-dominant party to a total of just four members in the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Assembly general election held on 9 August 2008 saw the CLP reverse its earlier election losses, increasing its representation from four to 11 members. The CLP has also contested many Legislative Assembly by-elections. Parliamentary Leaders Paul Everingham 1974-1984 Ian Tuxworth 1984-1986 Stephen Hatton 1986-1988 Marshall Perron 1988-1995 Shane Stone 1995-1999 Denis Burke 1999-2003 Terry Mills 2003-2005 Denis Burke 2005 Jodeen Carney 2005-2008 Terry Mills 2008- References External links Country Liberal Party official site Official history NT Electoral Commission site Australian Electoral Commission site | Country_Liberal_Party |@lemmatized country:12 liberal:13 party:28 clp:13 northern:9 territory:10 political:1 affiliate:2 national:6 member:8 coalition:4 dominate:1 legislative:10 assembly:9 establishment:1 lose:1 government:2 reduce:2 four:3 parliamentary:3 august:2 general:3 election:13 gain:2 significant:1 swing:1 seat:2 senator:2 nigel:1 scullion:1 sole:2 representative:1 federal:7 parliament:3 deputy:1 leader:2 sits:1 senate:1 history:2 establish:3 state:1 first:1 contest:4 saw:2 main:1 anti:1 labor:3 nationalist:2 australia:1 deprive:1 majority:2 require:1 form:3 order:1 command:1 floor:1 price:1 support:2 resignation:1 ex:1 prime:1 minister:1 billy:1 hughes:1 replace:1 stanley:1 bruce:1 small:1 recognition:1 local:2 candidate:2 nt:3 alliance:1 primarily:1 conservative:1 arch:1 rival:1 australian:2 alp:3 subsequent:1 joint:1 sitting:1 legislation:1 pass:1 create:1 unicameral:1 well:1 full:2 voting:2 right:2 level:1 decide:1 independent:1 field:1 council:1 self:1 occur:1 july:1 formally:1 affiliation:1 remain:1 day:1 relation:1 close:1 however:1 major:2 opportunity:1 sway:1 action:1 either:2 receive:1 delegation:1 president:1 observer:1 status:1 also:2 direct:1 two:1 sit:1 chamber:1 vote:2 often:1 tabulate:1 together:1 partner:1 many:2 result:2 table:1 include:1 within:1 single:1 politics:2 since:1 hold:2 win:3 control:1 every:1 loss:2 mark:1 turn:1 point:1 exacerbate:1 second:1 landslide:1 victory:1 dominant:1 total:1 reverse:1 early:1 increase:1 representation:1 paul:1 everingham:1 ian:1 tuxworth:1 stephen:1 hatton:1 marshall:1 perron:1 shane:1 stone:1 denis:2 burke:2 terry:2 mill:2 jodeen:1 carney:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:3 electoral:2 commission:2 |@bigram legislative_assembly:9 prime_minister:1 arch_rival:1 unicameral_legislative:1 landslide_victory:1 external_link:1 |
1,885 | Open-wheel_car | Open-wheel car (Often single-seater car, in UK English) describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and, in most cases, one seat. Open-wheel cars contrast with street cars, stock cars, and touring cars, which have their wheels below the body or fenders. Open-wheel cars are usually built specifically for racing, frequently with a degree of sophistication unknown in other forms of motorsport. In the United States, it is common to refer to open wheel cars as Indy Cars because of their recognizable appearance at the annual Indianapolis 500. These vehicles have also historically been called champ cars (short for 'championship car') due to their racing heritage at the highest levels of competition even before the Indy 500. Design A typical open-wheeler has a minimal cockpit sufficient only to enclose the driver's body, with the head exposed to the air. In modern cars, the engine is often located directly behind the driver, and drives the rear wheels. Depending on the rules of the class, many types of open-wheelers have wings at the front and rear of the vehicle, as well as a very low and virtually flat undertray that helps achieve additional aerodynamic downforce pushing the car on to the road. Some major races, such as the Monaco Grand Prix (sanctioned by Formula One) and the Long Beach Grand Prix (sanctioned by the IRL), are held on temporary street circuits. However, most open-wheel races are on dedicated road race circuits, such as Road America in the US, Nürburgring's GP-Strecke in Germany, and the Bahrain International Circuit in the Middle East. In the United States, some top-level open wheel events are held on ovals, of both short track and superspeedway variety, with an emphasis being placed more on speed and endurance than the manueverability inherently required by road and street course events. The most famous and most well-attended oval race in the world is the Indianapolis 500 in Speedway, Indiana, sanctioned by the IRL. Open-wheeled racing is among the fastest in the world. Speeds on ovals can range in constant excess of 210-220 mph (335-350 km/h), and at Indianapolis in excess of 230 mph (370 km/h). In 1996, Paul Tracy recorded a trap speed of 256.948 mph (413.52 km/h) at Michigan International Speedway. In 2000, Gil de Ferran set the one-lap qualifying record of 241.426 mph (388.54 km/h) at California Speedway. Even on tight non-oval street circuits such as the Grand Prix of Toronto, open-wheel Champ Cars attain speeds of 190 mph (305.77 km/h). Driving an open wheel car is substantially different from driving a car with fenders. Virtually all Formula One drivers spent some time in various open-wheel categories before joining the F1 ranks. Open-wheel vehicles, due to their light weight, aerodynamic capabilities, and powerful engines, are often considered the fastest racing vehicles available and among the most challenging to master. Wheel-to-wheel contact is dangerous, particularly when the forward edge of one tire contacts the rear of another tire, resulting in the vehicle being suddenly and powerfully flung upwards. One standout example of this is the 2005 Chicagoland crash of Ryan Briscoe with Alex Barron. The lower weight of an open wheel racecar allows for better performance. While the exposure of the wheels to the airstream causes a very high aerodynamic drag at high speeds, it allows improved cooling of the brakes, which is important on road courses with their frequent changes of pace. See also Formula One Formula 500 Formula 1000 Formula 3000 Formula 5000 Formula BMW Formula Ford Formula Mazda Formula 2 Formula 3 Formula Palmer Audi Formula Junior F2000 Championship Series A1 Grand Prix Champ Car World Series GP2 Series IndyCar Series Australian National Formula Australian Formula 1 Australian Formula 2 Australian Formula 3 Australian 1½ Litre Formula Formula Holden Karts KF1 Superkart Midget cars Sprint cars World Series by Renault Firestone Indy Lights Formula Atlantic Superleague Formula Formula Vee Hotstox | Open-wheel_car |@lemmatized open:14 wheel:17 car:21 often:3 single:1 seater:1 uk:1 english:1 describe:1 outside:1 main:1 body:3 case:1 one:7 seat:1 contrast:1 street:4 stock:1 tour:1 fender:2 usually:1 build:1 specifically:1 race:5 frequently:1 degree:1 sophistication:1 unknown:1 form:1 motorsport:1 united:2 state:2 common:1 refer:1 indy:3 recognizable:1 appearance:1 annual:1 indianapolis:3 vehicle:5 also:2 historically:1 call:1 champ:3 short:2 championship:2 due:2 racing:3 heritage:1 high:3 level:2 competition:1 even:2 design:1 typical:1 wheeler:2 minimal:1 cockpit:1 sufficient:1 enclose:1 driver:3 head:1 expose:1 air:1 modern:1 engine:2 locate:1 directly:1 behind:1 drive:3 rear:3 depend:1 rule:1 class:1 many:1 type:1 wing:1 front:1 well:2 low:2 virtually:2 flat:1 undertray:1 help:1 achieve:1 additional:1 aerodynamic:3 downforce:1 push:1 road:5 major:1 monaco:1 grand:4 prix:4 sanction:3 formula:23 long:1 beach:1 irl:2 hold:2 temporary:1 circuit:4 however:1 dedicated:1 america:1 u:1 nürburgring:1 gp:1 strecke:1 germany:1 bahrain:1 international:2 middle:1 east:1 top:1 event:2 oval:4 track:1 superspeedway:1 variety:1 emphasis:1 place:1 speed:5 endurance:1 manueverability:1 inherently:1 require:1 course:2 famous:1 attend:1 world:4 speedway:3 indiana:1 wheeled:1 among:2 fast:2 range:1 constant:1 excess:2 mph:5 km:5 h:5 paul:1 tracy:1 record:2 trap:1 michigan:1 gil:1 de:1 ferran:1 set:1 lap:1 qualifying:1 california:1 tight:1 non:1 toronto:1 attain:1 substantially:1 different:1 spend:1 time:1 various:1 category:1 join:1 rank:1 light:2 weight:2 capability:1 powerful:1 consider:1 available:1 challenging:1 master:1 contact:2 dangerous:1 particularly:1 forward:1 edge:1 tire:2 another:1 result:1 suddenly:1 powerfully:1 flung:1 upwards:1 standout:1 example:1 chicagoland:1 crash:1 ryan:1 briscoe:1 alex:1 barron:1 racecar:1 allow:2 good:1 performance:1 exposure:1 airstream:1 cause:1 drag:1 improved:1 cooling:1 brake:1 important:1 frequent:1 change:1 pace:1 see:1 bmw:1 ford:1 mazda:1 palmer:1 audi:1 junior:1 series:5 indycar:1 australian:5 national:1 litre:1 holden:1 karts:1 superkart:1 midget:1 sprint:1 renault:1 firestone:1 atlantic:1 superleague:1 vee:1 hotstox:1 |@bigram rear_wheel:1 grand_prix:4 mph_km:5 |
1,886 | Alfons_Maria_Jakob | Alfons Maria Jakob (2 July 1884, Aschaffenburg/Bavaria–17 October 1931, Hamburg) was a German neurologist with important contributions on neuropathology. Alfons Maria Jakob was the son of a shopkeeper. He studied medicine in Munich, Berlin, and Strasbourg, where obtained his doctorate in 1908. In 1909 he commenced clinical work under the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin and did laboratory work with Franz Nissl and Alois Alzheimer in Munich. In 1911 he went to Hamburg to work with Theodor Kaes and became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric State Hospital Hamburg-Friedrichsberg. Following the death of Kaes in 1913, Jakob succeeded him as prosector. After serving in the German army in World War I, he returned to Hamburg and climbed the academic ladder. He was habilitated in neurology in 1919 and in 1924 became professor of neurology. Under Jakob's guidance the department grew rapidly. He made notable contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology. Jakob published five monographs and more than 75 papers. His neuropathological studies contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and Friedreich's ataxia. He first recognised and described Alper's disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (the latter with Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt). He accumulated immense experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bedded ward devoted exclusively to that disorder. Jakob made a lecture tour of the United States and South America where he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever. He suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last 7 years of his life. This eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation. Associated eponym Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: A very rare and incurable form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. Bibliography Die extrapyramidalen Erkrankungen. In: Monographien aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatry, Berlin, 1923 Normale und pathologische Anatomie und Histologie des Grosshirns. Separate printing of Handbuch der Psychiatry. Leipzig, 1927-1928 Das Kleinhirn. In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie, Berlin, 1928 Die Syphilis des Gehirns und seiner Häute. In: Oswald Bumke (edit.): Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten, Berlin, 1930 | Alfons_Maria_Jakob |@lemmatized alfons:2 maria:2 jakob:8 july:1 aschaffenburg:1 bavaria:1 october:1 hamburg:4 german:2 neurologist:1 important:1 contribution:2 neuropathology:3 son:1 shopkeeper:1 study:2 medicine:1 munich:2 berlin:4 strasbourg:1 obtain:1 doctorate:1 commence:1 clinical:1 work:3 psychiatrist:1 emil:1 kraepelin:1 laboratory:2 franz:1 nissl:1 alois:1 alzheimer:1 go:1 theodor:1 kaes:2 become:3 head:1 anatomical:1 pathology:1 psychiatric:1 state:2 hospital:1 friedrichsberg:1 follow:2 death:1 succeed:1 prosector:1 serve:1 army:1 world:1 war:1 return:1 climb:1 academic:1 ladder:1 habilitate:1 neurology:2 professor:1 guidance:1 department:1 grow:1 rapidly:1 make:2 notable:1 knowledge:1 concussion:1 secondary:1 nerve:1 degeneration:1 doyen:1 publish:1 five:1 monograph:1 paper:2 neuropathological:1 contribute:1 greatly:1 delineation:1 several:1 disease:4 include:1 multiple:1 sclerosis:1 friedreich:1 ataxia:1 first:1 recognise:1 describe:1 alper:1 creutzfeldt:3 latter:1 han:1 gerhard:1 accumulate:1 immense:1 experience:1 neurosyphilis:1 bed:1 ward:1 devote:1 exclusively:1 disorder:1 lecture:1 tour:1 united:1 south:1 america:1 write:1 yellow:1 fever:1 suffer:1 chronic:1 osteomyelitis:1 last:1 year:1 life:1 eventually:1 cause:2 retroperitoneal:1 abscess:1 paralytic:1 ileus:1 die:3 operation:1 associate:1 eponym:1 rare:1 incurable:1 form:1 transmissible:1 spongiform:1 encephalopathy:1 prion:1 bibliography:1 extrapyramidalen:1 erkrankungen:1 monographien:1 au:1 dem:1 gesamtgebiete:1 der:4 neurologie:1 und:4 psychiatry:2 normale:1 pathologische:1 anatomie:2 histologie:1 de:2 grosshirns:1 separate:1 printing:1 handbuch:3 leipzig:1 da:1 kleinhirn:1 mikroskopischen:1 syphilis:1 gehirns:1 seiner:1 häute:1 oswald:1 bumke:1 edit:1 geisteskrankheiten:1 |@bigram psychiatrist_emil:1 emil_kraepelin:1 alois_alzheimer:1 anatomical_pathology:1 multiple_sclerosis:1 creutzfeldt_jakob:2 jakob_disease:2 yellow_fever:1 spongiform_encephalopathy:1 au_dem:1 handbuch_der:3 |
1,887 | King's_Royal_Rifle_Corps | The King's Royal Rifle Corps was a British Army infantry formation, originally raised in colonial North America as the Royal Americans, and recruited from American colonists. Later known as the 60th Rifles, the regiment served for more than 200 years throughout the British Empire. In 1956 the regiment became part of the Royal Green Jackets. History The King's Royal Rifle Corps was raised in the American colonies in 1756 as the 62nd (Royal American) Regiment to defend the thirteen colonies against infiltration by the French and their native American allies. After Braddock's defeat in 1755, royal approval for a new regiment, as well as funds, were granted just before Christmas 1755 - hence the regiment's traditional Birthday of Christmas Day. However parliamentary delays meant it was 4 March 1756 before a special Act of Parliament created four battalions of 1,000 men to include foreigners for service in the Americas. Swiss and German forest fighting experts, American colonists and British volunteers from other British regiments were recruited. The battalions were raised on Governors Island, New York. The regiment was renumbered the 60th (Royal American) Regiment in 1757 when the 50th (Shirley's) and 51st (Pepperrell's) foot regiments were removed from the British Army roll after their surrender at Fort Oswego. Among the distinguished foreign officers given commissions in the 60th (Royal Americans) was Henri Bouquet, a Swiss citizen, whose ideas on tactics, training and man-management (including the unofficial introduction of the rifle and 'battle-dress`) were only to become universal in the British Army after another 150 years. With his counterparts, Bouquet, the commanding officer of the 1st battalion, Military Heritage set about creating a unit that was uniquely suited to warfare in the forests and lakes that were the North American theatre of battle between Great Britain and France. The Royal Americans represent a deliberate attempt to produce a different and more able soldier who was encouraged to use his initiative, whilst retaining the discipline that was noticeably lacking in the irregular units of colonial Rangers that were being raised at the same time. The new regiment fought at Louisbourg in 1758 and Quebec in 1759 in the campaign which finally wrested Canada from France; at Quebec it won from General James Wolfe the motto Celer et Audax (Swift and Bold). These were conventional battles on the European model, but the challenge of Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763 was of a very different character and threatened the British control of North America. The new regiment at first lost several outlying garrisons but finally proved its mastery of forest warfare under Bouquet's leadership at the decisive victory of Bushy Run. They were uniformed and equipped in a similar manner to other British regiments with red coats and Grenadier hats , but on campaign swords were replaced with hatchets, and coats and hats would be cut down for ease of movement on the North American frontier. Napoleonic Wars During the Napoleonic Wars the unit played a part in the Peninsular War. The first four regular battalions had been raised as regular line battalions, but a 5th battalion was raised and equipped entirely with the Baker rifles, and wore green jackets with red facings. The mixing of rifle troops and muskets proved popular enough that eventually the line battalions' light companies were replaced with rifle companies. The line battalions found themselves in different theatres, including the West Indies. The rifle battalion was soon supplemented with a second, and found themselves in the Peninsula with Wellington's army, serving along with the 95th Rifles, and the King's German Legion rifle units. A 7th battalion was eventually raised as a rifle battalion specifically for service in the American War of 1812 Raising of the 7th Battalion of the 60th Regiment for North America, by Keith Raynor War of 1812 . The unit's name was not changed until after the Napoleonic Wars; first to The Duke of York's Own Rifle Corps and then in 1830 to the King's Royal Rifle Corps. In 1858 the Rifle Depot at Winchester was made their headquarters. During the rest of the 1800s the unit was active in China, Canada (Wolseley Expedition), Afghanistan, India, Burma and South Africa. The regiment was deployed during the Second Boer War from the outset playing a key role in the first battle at Talana Hill. World War I In World War I the unit was expanded to twenty-two battalions and saw much action on the Western Front. Over 12,000 soldiers of the regiment were killed while eight members won the Victoria Cross and over 2,000 further decorations were awarded. After 1918 the unit returned to garrison duties in India, Palestine and Ireland. In 1926 the regiment was reorganized as one of the first mechanized infantry regiments. World War II In World War II after initial deployment to France as part of the BEF, the regiment lost two battalions at the Defence of Calais (2nd Bn KRRC and 1st Bn the Queen Victoria's Rifles(TA)) where a Green Jacket Brigade held up the German advance to enable the evacuation of the allied armies at Dunkirk. Redeployed to northern Africa the unit began to see success, continuing with actions in Italy, Austria, Germany and in the Battle of Greece and Crete (where its 9th Battalion, The Rangers (TA), served with 1st Armoured Brigade Group). The 1st Battalion served in the 4th Armoured Brigade that failed to link up with the 1st Parachute Division at the Battle of Arnhem. Post war the unit was deployed in Germany. Royal Green Jackets On 7 November 1958 the Regiment was re-titled as the 2nd Green Jackets, The King's Royal Rifle Corps, and the two other regiments of the Green Jackets Brigade - which had existed since 1948 - also had their titles changed. In 1966 the three regiments of the brigade were amalgamated to form the three battalion Royal Green Jackets Regiment. This regiment was again amalgamated in 2007 to form the five regular and two territorial battalion regiment The Rifles. The regiment's traditions are preserved as the 4th Battalion, The Rifles which is a redesignation of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Green Jackets. Territorial Battalions Queen Victoria’s Rifles The Rangers The Queen's Westminsters In WW2 these territorial battalions were made formally part of the KRRC as follows: 1st Battalion Queen Victoria's Rifles - 7th Battalion KRRC 2nd Battalion Queen Victoria's Rifles - 8th Battalion KRRC 1st Battalion The Rangers - 9th Battalion KRRC 2nd Battalion The Rangers - 10th Battalion KRRC 1st Battalion The Queen's Westminsters - 11th Battalion KRRC 2nd Battalion The Queen's Westminsters - 12th Battalion KRRC Alliances - The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada (1956-1966) See also Rifle Brigade - sister regiment sharing much common history and traditions References Light Infantry Reunited - Site for all ex and serving Light Infantry/RGJ and Rifles personnel | King's_Royal_Rifle_Corps |@lemmatized king:5 royal:14 rifle:24 corp:5 british:8 army:5 infantry:4 formation:1 originally:1 raise:7 colonial:2 north:5 america:4 american:12 recruit:2 colonist:2 later:1 know:1 regiment:26 serve:5 year:2 throughout:1 empire:1 become:2 part:4 green:8 jacket:8 history:2 colony:2 defend:1 thirteen:1 infiltration:1 french:1 native:1 ally:1 braddock:1 defeat:1 approval:1 new:4 well:1 fund:1 grant:1 christmas:2 hence:1 traditional:1 birthday:1 day:1 however:1 parliamentary:1 delay:1 mean:1 march:1 special:1 act:1 parliament:1 create:2 four:2 battalion:34 men:1 include:3 foreigner:1 service:2 swiss:2 german:3 forest:3 fighting:1 expert:1 volunteer:1 governor:1 island:1 york:2 renumbered:1 shirley:1 pepperrell:1 foot:1 remove:1 roll:1 surrender:1 fort:1 oswego:1 among:1 distinguish:1 foreign:1 officer:2 give:1 commission:1 henri:1 bouquet:3 citizen:1 whose:1 idea:1 tactic:1 training:1 man:1 management:1 unofficial:1 introduction:1 battle:6 dress:1 universal:1 another:1 counterpart:1 commanding:1 military:1 heritage:1 set:1 unit:10 uniquely:1 suit:1 warfare:2 lake:1 theatre:2 great:1 britain:1 france:3 represent:1 deliberate:1 attempt:1 produce:1 different:3 able:1 soldier:2 encourage:1 use:1 initiative:1 whilst:1 retain:1 discipline:1 noticeably:1 lack:1 irregular:1 ranger:5 time:1 fought:1 louisbourg:1 quebec:2 campaign:2 finally:2 wrest:1 canada:3 win:2 general:1 james:1 wolfe:1 motto:1 celer:1 et:1 audax:1 swift:1 bold:1 conventional:1 european:1 model:1 challenge:1 pontiac:1 rebellion:1 character:1 threaten:1 control:1 first:5 lose:2 several:1 outlying:1 garrison:2 prove:2 mastery:1 leadership:1 decisive:1 victory:1 bushy:1 run:1 uniformed:1 equip:2 similar:1 manner:1 red:2 coat:2 grenadier:1 hat:2 sword:1 replace:2 hatchet:1 would:1 cut:1 ease:1 movement:1 frontier:1 napoleonic:3 war:12 play:2 peninsular:1 regular:3 line:3 entirely:1 baker:1 wore:1 facing:1 mixing:1 troop:1 musket:1 popular:1 enough:1 eventually:2 light:3 company:2 find:2 west:1 indie:1 soon:1 supplement:1 second:2 peninsula:1 wellington:1 along:1 legion:1 specifically:1 raising:1 keith:1 raynor:1 name:1 change:2 duke:1 depot:1 winchester:1 make:2 headquarters:1 rest:1 active:1 china:1 wolseley:1 expedition:1 afghanistan:1 india:2 burma:1 south:1 africa:2 deploy:2 boer:1 outset:1 key:1 role:1 talana:1 hill:1 world:4 expand:1 twenty:1 two:4 saw:1 much:2 action:2 western:1 front:1 kill:1 eight:1 member:1 victoria:5 cross:1 decoration:1 award:1 return:1 duty:1 palestine:1 ireland:1 reorganize:1 one:1 mechanized:1 ii:2 initial:1 deployment:1 bef:1 defence:1 calais:1 bn:2 krrc:8 queen:8 ta:2 brigade:6 hold:1 advance:1 enable:1 evacuation:1 allied:1 dunkirk:1 redeploy:1 northern:1 begin:1 see:2 success:1 continue:1 italy:1 austria:1 germany:2 greece:1 crete:1 armoured:1 group:1 armour:1 fail:1 link:1 parachute:1 division:1 arnhem:1 post:1 november:1 title:2 exist:1 since:1 also:2 three:2 amalgamate:2 form:2 five:1 territorial:3 tradition:2 preserve:1 redesignation:1 westminster:3 formally:1 follow:1 alliance:1 sister:1 share:1 common:1 reference:1 reunite:1 site:1 ex:1 rgj:1 personnel:1 |@bigram commanding_officer:1 pontiac_rebellion:1 decisive_victory:1 west_indie:1 mechanized_infantry:1 infantry_regiment:1 queen_victoria:4 battalion_krrc:6 krrc_battalion:5 |
1,888 | Canadian_English | Canadian English (CanE, en-CA en-CA is the language code for Canadian English , as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag). ) is the variety of English used in Canada. More than 26 million Canadians (85% of the population) have some knowledge of English (2006 census). Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory (2006 Census) Approximately 17 million speak English as their native language. Outside Quebec, 76% of Canadians speak English natively. Canadian English contains elements of British English in its vocabulary, as well as several distinctive Canadianisms. In many areas, speech is influenced by French, and there are notable local variations. However, Canada has very little dialect diversity compared to the United States. The phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon for most of Canada are similar to that of the Western and Midland regions of the United States, Labov, p. 222. while the phonological system of western Canadian English is identical to that of the Pacific Northwest of the United States, and the phonetics are similar. Boberg, C: "Geolinguistic Diffusion and the U.S.-Canada Border", "Language Variation and Change", 12(1):15 As such, Canadian English and American English are sometimes grouped together as North American English. Canadian English spelling is a blend of British and American conventions. History The term "Canadian English" is first attested in a speech by the Reverend A. Constable Geikie in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857. Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect," in comparison to what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain. Chambers, p. xi. Canadian English is the product of four waves of immigration and settlement over a period of almost two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of British Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States – as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English, "Canadian English." Brinton, Laurel J., and Fee, Marjery, ed. (2005). Ch. 12. in The Cambridge history of the English language. Volume VI: English in North America., Algeo, John, ed., pp. 422–440. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0521264790, 9780521264792. On p. 422: "It is now generally agreed that Canadian English originated as a variant of northern American English (the speech of New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania)." and is nothing more than a variety of it. "Canadian English." McArthur, T., ed. (2005). Concise Oxford companion to the English language, pp. 96–102. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280637-8. On p. 97: "Because CanE and AmE are so alike, some scholars have argued that in linguistic terms Canadian English is no more or less than a variety of (Northern) American English." The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada, who were worried about anti-English sentiment among its citizens. Waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910 and 1960 had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of globalization. Chambers, p. xi–xii. The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, AskOxford.com:Factors which shaped the varieties of English and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary to the English of Upper Canada. Spelling and dictionaries Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American rules. Most notably, French-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, usually retain British spellings (colour, honour and centre). While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense (noun), Canada uses the British spelling defence. (Note that defensive is universal.) In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like tire and curb, which in British English are spelled tyre and kerb. Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse. (The etymological convention that verbs derived from Greek roots are spelled with -ize and those from Latin with -ise is preserved in that practice. Sir Ernest Gowers, ed., Fowler's Modern English Usage, 2nd ed. (Oxford: OUP, 1965), 314. ) Some nouns take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice is a noun and practise is a verb. Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonant when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British) travelled, counselling, and controllable (always doubled in British, sometimes in Canadian) to American traveled, counseling, and controllable (only doubled when stressed). The same phenomenon occurs with consonants other than L, as in the words focussed and 'budgetted. (Both Canadian and British English use balloted and profiting. ) Canadian spelling rules can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, the British spelling of the word cheque probably relates to Canada's once-important ties to British financial institutions. Canada's automobile industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of tire and American terminology for the parts of automobiles (e.g., truck instead of lorry, gasoline instead of petrol). A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada. Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2004), often along with the chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English, and, where necessary (depending on context) one or more other references. (See Further reading below.) The first Canadian dictionaries of Canadian English were edited by Walter Spencer Avis and published by Gage Ltd (also Gauge. Toronto. The Beginner's Dictionary (1962), the Intermediate Dictionary (1964) and, finally, the Senior Dictionary (1967) were milestones in CanE lexicography. Many secondary schools in Canada use these dictionaries. The dictionaries have regularly been updated since: the Senior Dictionary was renamed Gage Canadian Dictionary and exists in what may be called its 5th edition from 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. Concise versions and paperback version are available. In 1997, the ITP Nelson Dictionary of the Canadian English Language was another product, but has not been updated since. In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled The Oxford Canadian Dictionary. A second edition, retitled The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether colour or color was the most popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available. The scholarly Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (DCHP) was first published in 1967 by Gage Ltd. It was a partner project of the Senior Dictionary (and appeared only a few weeks apart from each other). The DCHP can be considered the "Canadian OED", as it documents the historical development of CanE words that can be classified as "Canadianisms". It therefore includes words such as mukluk, Canuck, bluff and grow op, but does not list common core words such as desk, table or car. It is a specialist, scholarly dictionary, but is not without interest to the general public. After more than 40 years, a second edition has been commenced at UBC in Vancouver in 2006. Throughout most of the 20th century, Canadian newspapers generally adopted American spellings e.g. color as opposed to the British-based colour. The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the The Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually. Canadian newspapers also received much of their international content from American press agencies, therefore it was much easier for editorial staff to leave the spellings from the wire services as provided. But reader complaints regarding the American spellings continued, given the widespread usage of the British variants in Canada which were particularly taught in the school systems. Eventually, Canadian newspapers adopted the British spelling variants such as -our endings, notably with the The Globe and Mail changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion on 2 September 1998. The Toronto Star adopted this new spelling policy on 15 September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997. Phonemic incidence The pronunciation of certain words has both American and British influence. The name of the letter Z is normally the Anglo-European (and French) zed; the American zee is not unknown in Canada, but it is often stigmatized. J.K. Chambers, Sociolinguistic Theory: Linguistic Variation and Its Social Significance, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. In the words adult and composite, the emphasis is usually on the first syllable, as in Britain. Canadians side with the British on the pronunciation of lieutenant , shone , lever , and several other words; been is pronounced by many speakers as rather than ; as in Southern England, either and neither are more commonly and , respectively. Schedule can sometimes be ; process, progress, and project are sometimes pronounced , , and ; leisure is often , harassment is often . Again and against are often pronounced rather than . The stressed vowel of words such as borrow, sorry or tomorrow is rather than . Words such as fragile, fertile, and mobile are pronounced as , , and . The pronunciation of fertile as is also becoming somewhat common in Canada, even though remains dominant. Words like semi, anti, and multi tend to be pronounced as , , and rather than , , and . Loanwords that have a low central vowel in their language of origin, such as llama, pasta, and pyjamas, as well as place names like Gaza, tend to have rather than (which is the same as due to the father-bother merger, see below); this also applies to older loans like drama. The word khaki is sometimes pronounced , the preferred pronunciation of the Canadian Army during the Second World War. The pronunciation was the one used by author and veteran Farley Mowat. The most common pronunciation of vase is . vase. (2009). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved March 3, 2009. Words of French origin, such as clique, niche, and croissant, are pronounced more like they would be in French. The word syrup is commonly pronounced . The word premier "leader of a provincial or territorial government" is commonly pronounced , with and being rare variants. The herb and given masculine name basil is usually pronounced rather than . Many Canadians pronounce asphalt as "ash-falt" . Barber, p. 77. This pronunciation is also common in Australian English, but not in General American English or British English. Milk may be pronounced by some speakers. It is common especially in areas such as Saskatchewan, although some Americans pronounce it that way as well. Regional variation Canada has very little dialect diversity compared to the United States. The provinces east of Ontario show the largest dialect diversity. Northern Canada is, according to Labov, a dialect region in formation, and a homogenous dialect has not yet formed. Labov, p. 214 A very homogeneous dialect exists in Western and Central Canada, a situation that is similar to that of the Western United States. William Labov identifies an inland region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies, with periphery areas with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. This dialect forms a dialect continuum with the far Western United States, however it is sharply differentiated from the Inland Northern United States. This is a result of the relatively recent phenomenon known as the Northern cities vowel shift; see below. Western and Central Dialect Based on Labov et al.; averaged F1/F2 means for speakers from Western and Central Canada. Note that and are indistinguishable; and are very open. As a variety of North American English, this variety is similar to most other forms of North American speech in being a rhotic accent, which is historically a significant marker in differentiating different English varieties. Like General American, this variety possesses the merry-Mary-marry merger (except in Montreal, which tends towards a distinction between marry and merry Labov p. 218 ), as well as the father-bother merger. Canadian raising Perhaps the most recognizable feature of CanE is Canadian raising. The diphthongs and are "raised" before voiceless consonants, namely /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, and /f/. In these environments, becomes . One of the few phonetic variables that divides Canadians regionally is the articulation of the raised allophone of : in Ontario, it tends to have a mid-central or even mid-front articulation, sometimes approaching , while in the West and Maritimes a more retracted sound is heard, closer to . Boberg Among some speakers in the Prairies and in Nova Scotia, the retraction is strong enough to cause some tokens of raised to merge with , so that couch and coach sound the same, and about sounds like a boat (though never like a boot, as in the American stereotype of Canadian raising). Canadian raising is found throughout Canada, including much of the Atlantic Provinces. It is the strongest in the Inland region, and is receding in younger speakers in Lower Mainland British Columbia, as well as certain parts of Ontario. Many Canadians, especially in parts of the Atlantic provinces, do not possess Canadian raising. In the U.S., this feature can be found in areas near the border such as the Upper Midwest, although it is much less common than in Canada; raising of alone, however, is increasing in the U.S., and unlike raising of , is generally not noticed by people who do not have the raising. Because of Canadian raising, many speakers are able to distinguish between words such as writer and rider—a feat otherwise impossible, because North American dialects turn intervocalic /t/ into an alveolar flap. Thus writer and rider are distinguished solely by their vowels, even though the distinction between their consonants has since been lost. Speakers who do not have raising cannot distinguish between these two words. The low-back merger and the Canadian Shift Almost all Canadians have the cot-caught merger, which also occurs in the Western U.S. Speakers do not distinguish (as in caught) and (as in cot), which merge as , a low back rounded vowel. The merger causes speakers not only to produce these vowels identically, but also fail to hear the difference when speakers who preserve the distinction (e.g. speakers of Conservative General American and Inland Northern American English) pronounce these vowels. This merger has existed in Canada for several generations. Labov p. 218. This merger creates a hole in the short vowel sub-system Martinet, Andre 1955. Economie des changements phonetiques. Berne: Francke. and triggers a sound change known as the Canadian Shift, which involves the front lax vowels . The of bat is lowered and retracted in the direction of (except in some environments, see below). Indeed, is backer in this variety than almost all other North American dialects; Labov p. 219. the retraction of was independently observed in Vancouver Esling, John H. and Henry J. Warkentyne (1993). "Retracting of in Vancouver English." and is more advanced for Ontarians and women than for people from the Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men. Charles Boberg, "Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English." Then, and may be lowered (in the direction of and ) and/or retracted; studies actually disagree on the trajectory of the shift. Labov et al. 2006; Charles Boberg, "The Canadian Shift in Montreal"; Robert Hagiwara. "Vowel production in Winnipeg"; Rebecca V. Roeder and Lidia Jarmasz. "The Canadian Shift in Toronto." For example, Labov et al. (2006) noted a backward and downward movement of in apparent time in all of Canada except the Atlantic Provinces, but no movement of was detected. Therefore, in Canadian English, the short-a and the short-o are shifted in opposite directions to that of the Northern Cities shift, found across the border in the Inland Northern U.S., which is causing these two dialects to diverge: the Canadian short-a is very similar in quality to the Inland Northern short-o; for example, the production would be recognized as map in Canada, but mop in the Inland North. Other features Most Canadians have two principle allophones of (raised to lower-mid position before voiceless consonants and low-central or low-back elsewhere) and three of (raised before voiceless consonants, fronted to or before nasals, and low-central elsewhere). Unlike in many American English dialects, remains a low-front vowel in most environments in Canadian English. Raising along the front periphery of the vowel space is restricted to two environments - before nasal and voiced velar consonants - and varies regionally even in these. Ontario and Maritime Canadian English commonly show some raising before nasals, though not as extreme as in many American varieties. Much less raising is heard on the Prairies, and some ethnic groups in Montreal show no pre-nasal raising at all. On the other hand, some Prairie speech exhibits raising of before voiced velars ( and ), with an up-glide rather than an in-glide, so that bag sounds close to vague. Labov, p. 221. The first element of (as in start) tends to be raised. As with Canadian raising, the relative advancement of the raised nucleus is a regional indicator. A striking feature of Atlantic Canadian speech (the Maritimes and Newfoundland) is a nucleus that approaches the front region of the vowel space, accompanied by strong rhoticity, ranging from to . Western Canadian speech has a much more retracted articulation with a longer non-rhotic portion, approaching a mid-back quality, (though there is no tendency toward a merger with ). Articulation of in Ontario is in a position midway between the Atlantic and Western values. Labov, p. 219. Another change in progress in Canadian English, part of a continental trend affecting many North American varieties, is the fronting of , whereby the nucleus of moves forward to high-central or even high-front position, directly behind . There is a wide range of allophonic dispersion in the set of words containing (i.e., the GOOSE set), extending over most of the high region of the vowel space. Most advanced are tokens of in free position after coronals (do, too); behind these are tokens in syllables closed with coronals (boots, food, soon), then tokens before non-coronals (goof, soup); remaining in back position are tokens of before (cool, pool, tool). Unlike in some British speech, Canadian English does not show any fronting or unrounding of the glide of , and most Canadians show no parallel centralization of , which generally remains in back position, except in Cape Breton and Newfoundland. Traditionally diphthongal vowels such as (as in boat) and (as in bait) have qualities much closer to monophthongs in some speakers especially in the Inland region. Some older speakers still maintain a distinction between whale and wail, and do and dew. Labov p.218. British Columbia British Columbia English has several words still in current use borrowed from the Chinook Jargon. Most famous and widely used of these terms are skookum and saltchuck. In the Yukon, cheechako is used for newcomers or greenhorns. A study shows that people from Vancouver exhibit more vowel retraction of /æ/ before nasals than people from Toronto, and this retraction may become a regional marker of West Coast English Erin Hall "Regional variation in Canadian English vowel backing" . Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) A strong Canadian raising exists in the prairie regions together with certain older usages such as chesterfield and front room also associated with the Maritimes. Aboriginal Canadians are a larger and more conspicuous population in prairie cities than elsewhere in the country and certain elements of aboriginal speech in English are sometimes to be heard. Similarly, the linguistic legacy, mostly intonation but also speech patterns and syntax, of the Scandinavian, Slavic and German settlers who are far more numerous and historically important in the Prairies than in Ontario or the Maritimes can be heard in the general milieu. Again, the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carries with it certain linguistic traits inherited from French, Aboriginal and Celtic forebears. Some terms are derived from immigrant groups or are just local inventions: Bluff: small group of trees isolated by prairie Bunny Hug: elsewhere hoodie or hooded sweat shirt (primarily Saskatchewan) Ginch/gonch/gitch/gotch: underwear (usually men's or boys' underwear) Jam Buster: jelly filled doughnut. Porch Climber: moonshine or homemade alcohol. Pot Hole: usually a deeper slough; also used to refer to slough in plural. Pot hole more commonly refers to a hole in a paved road caused by the freezing and thawing cycle. Slough: pond - usually a pond on a farm In farming communities with substantial Ukrainian, German, or Mennonite populations, accents, sentence structure, and vocabulary influenced by these languages is common. Ontario Ottawa Valley The area to the north and west of Ottawa is heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, with many French loanwords. This is frequently referred to as the Valley Accent. Toronto Although only 1.5% of Torontonians speak French, about 56.2% are native speakers of English, according to the 2006 Census http://www.fin.gov.on.ca/english/economy/demographics/census/cenhi06-8.pdf . As a result Toronto shows a more variable speech pattern. Labov p. 214-215. Although slang terms used in Toronto are synonymous with those used in other major North American cities, there is also a heavy influx of slang terminology originating from Toronto's many immigrant communities. These terms originate mainly from various European, Asian, and African words. Among youths in ethnically diverse areas, a large number of words borrowed from Jamaican Patois can be heard, owing to the large number of Jamaican immigrants in Toronto. Quebec Many people in Montreal distinguish between the words marry and merry. A person with English as the first language is called an Anglophone. The corresponding term for a French speaker is Francophone and the corresponding term for a person who is neither Anglophone nor Francophone is Allophone. The terms Anglophone and Francophone are used in New Brunswick, and Ontario. Quebec Anglophones generally pronounce French street names in Montreal as French words. Pie IX Boulevard is pronounced as in French («pea-nuf»), not as "pie nine." On the other hand, most Anglophones do pronounce final Ds, as in Bernard and Bouchard. In the city of Montreal, especially in some of the western suburbs like Cote-St-Luc, Hampstead or Westmount, there is a strong Jewish influence in the English spoken in these areas. A large wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union before and after World War II is also evident today. Their English has a strong Yiddish influence; there are some similarities to English spoken in New York. Italians and Greeks living in Montreal have also adopted English and therefore have their own dialect. Words used mainly in Quebec and especially in Montreal are: Boberg, p. 36. stage for "apprenticeship or internship", copybook for a notebook, dépanneur or dep for a convenience store, and guichet for an ABM/ATM. It is also common for Anglophones to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents, such as "Open" and "Close" for "On" and "Off", e.g. "Open the lights, please" for "Turn on the lights, please" Maritimes Based on Labov et al.; averaged F1/F2 means for speakers from NS, NB, NL. Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some villages very isolated. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping. The phonology of Maritimer English has some unique features: Pre-consonantal is sometimes deleted. The flapping of intervocalic and to alveolar tap between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop , is less common in the Maritimes. Therefore, battery is pronounced as instead of . Especially among the older generation, and are not merged; that is, the beginning sound of why, white, and which is different from that of witch, with, wear. Like most varieties of CanE, Maritimer English contains Canadian raising. Newfoundland The dialect spoken in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, an autonomous dominion until March 31, 1949, is often considered the most distinctive Canadian English dialect. Some Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation, morphology, syntax, and preservation of archaic adverbal-intensifiers. The dialect can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, and fishing villages in particular remained very isolated. A few speakers have a transitional pin-pen merger. Grammar When writing, Canadians will start a sentence with As well, in the sense of "in addition"; this construction is a Canadianism. Trudgill and Hannah, International English (4th edition), p. 76. Canadian and British English share idioms like in hospital and to university, http://ling.uta.edu/~laurel/stvan98_ch1.pdf while in American English the definite article is mandatory. Vocabulary Where CanE shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English; many terms in standard CanE are, however, shared with Britain, but not with the majority of American speakers. In some cases British and the American terms coexist in CanE to various extents; a classic example is holiday, often used interchangeably with vacation. In addition, the vocabulary of CanE also features words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. As a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire – e.g., constable, for a police officer of the lowest rank, and chartered accountant. Education The term college, which refers to post-secondary education in general in the U.S., refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as federated schools within some Canadian universities. Most often, a college is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a CEGEP in Quebec. In Canada, college student might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management while university student is the term for someone earning a bachelor's degree. For that reason, going to college does not have the same meaning as going to university, unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant. Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally "the principal", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding his or her name, i.e. "Principal Smith". The assistant to the principal is not titled as "assistant principal", but rather as "vice-principal". Canadian universities publish calendars or schedules, not catalogs as in the U.S.. Students write or take exams, they rarely sit them. Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called invigilators as in Britain, or sometimes proctors as in the U.S.; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution. Successive years of school are often, if not usually, referred to as grade one, grade two, and so on. In Quebec English, however, the speaker will often say primary one, primary two, (a direct translation from the French), and so on. (Compare American first grade, second grade (sporadically found in Canada), and English/Welsh Year 1, Year 2, Scottish/Nth.Irish Primary 1, Primary 2 or P1, P2, and Sth.Irish First Class, Second Class etc.) American Speech 80.1 (2005), p. 47. In the U.S., the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, these are simply grades 9 through 12. American Speech 80.1 (2005), p. 48. As for higher education, only the term freshman (usually reduced to frosh) has some currency in Canada. The American usages "sophomore", "junior" and "senior" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech. The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, the grade 12s failed to graduate; John is in his second year at McMaster. The "first year", "third year" designation also applies to Canadian law school students, as opposed to the common American usage of "1L", "2L" and "3L." Canadian students use the term marks (more common in England) or grades to refer to their results; usage is very mixed. Units of measurement Unlike in the U.S., use of units is standard in Canada, as a result of the national adoption of the Metric System during the mid to late 1970s; this has spawned some colloquial usages such as klick for kilometre. See metrication in Canada. Transportation Although Canadian lexicon features both railway and railroad, railway is the usual term, at least in naming (witness Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway); most rail terminology in Canada, however, follows American usage (e.g., ties and cars rather than sleepers and trucks). Eastern Canada distinctively uses van rather than caboose. A two-way ticket can be either a round-trip (American term) or a return (British term). The terms highway (e.g. Trans-Canada Highway), expressway (Central Canada, as in the Gardiner Expressway) and freeway (Sherwood Park Freeway, Edmonton) are often used to describe various high speed roads with varying levels of access control. Generally, but not exclusively, highway refers to a provincially funded road. Often such roads will be numbered. Similar to the US, the terms expressway and freeway are often used interchangeably to refer to divided highways with access only at grade-separated interchanges (e.g. a 400-Series Highway in Ontario). However, expressway may also refer to a road that has control of access but has at-grade junctions, railway crossings (e.g. the Harbour Expressway in Thunder Bay.) Sometimes the term Parkway is also used (e.g. the Hanlon Parkway in Guelph). In Quebec, freeways and expressways are called autoroutes. In Alberta, the generic Trail is often used to describe a freeway, expressway or major urban street (e.g. Deerfoot Trail, Macleod Trail or Crowchild Trail in Calgary, Yellowhead Trail in Edmonton). The British term motorway is not used. The American terms turnpike and tollway for a toll road are not common. The term throughway or thruway was used for first tolled limited-access highways (e.g. the Deas Island Throughway, now Highway 99, from Vancouver, BC, to Blaine, Washington, USA or the Saint John Throughway (Highway 1) in Saint John, NB), but this term is not common anymore. In everyday speech, when a particular roadway is not being specified, the term highway is generally or exclusively used. A railway at-grade junction is a level crossing; the U.S. term grade crossing is rarely, if ever, used. A railway or highway crossing overhead is an overpass or underpass, depending on which part of the crossing is referred to (the two are used more or less interchangably); the British term flyover is sometimes used in Ontario, and in the Maritimes, subway is also used. Politics While in standard usage the terms Prime Minister and Premier are interchangeable terms for the head of an elected parliamentary government, Canadian English today generally follows a usage convention of reserving the title Prime Minister for the national leader and referring to provincial or territorial leaders as Premiers. However, because Canadian French does not have separate terms for the two positions, using premier ministre for both, the title Prime Minister is sometimes seen in reference to a provincial leader when a francophone is speaking or writing English. As well, until the 1970s the leader of the Ontario provincial government was officially styled Prime Minister. To table a document in Canada is to present it (as in Britain), whereas in the U.S. it means to withdraw it from consideration. Several political terms are more in use in Canada than elsewhere, including riding (as a general term for a parliamentary constituency or electoral district). The term reeve was at one time common for the equivalent of a mayor in some smaller municipalities in British Columbia and Ontario, but is now falling into disuse. The term Tory, used in Britain with a similar meaning, denotes a supporter of the federal Conservative Party of Canada, the historic federal or provincial Progressive Conservative party. The term Red Tory is also used to denote the more socially liberal wings of the Tory parties. Blue Tory is less commonly used, and refers to more strict fiscal (rather than social) conservatism. The U.S. use of Tory to mean the Loyalists in the time of the American Revolution is not used in Canada, where they are called United Empire Loyalists, or simply Loyalists. Members of the Liberal Party of Canada or a provincial Liberal party are sometimes referred to as Grits. Historically, the term comes from the phrase Clear Grit, used in Victorian times in Canada to denote an object of quality or a truthful person. Members of the New Democratic Party are sometimes referred to as Dippers (from the party's initials NDP). Members of the Bloc Québécois are sometimes referred to as Bloquistes. At the purely provincial level, members of Quebec's Parti Québécois are often referred to as Péquistes, and members of the Quebec provincial Action démocratique du Québec as Adéquistes. The term "Socred" is no longer common due to its namesake party's decline, but referred to members of the Social Credit Party, and was particularly common in British Columbia. It was not used for Social Credit members from Quebec, nor generally used for the federal caucus of that party; in both cases Créditiste, the French term, was used in English. Members of the national senate are referred to by the title "Senator" preceding their name, as in the United States. Members of the Canadian House of Commons, following British parliamentary nomenclature, are termed "Members of Parliament", and are referred to as "The Honourable Jennifer Jones, MP" during their term of office only. This style is extended to the Premiers of the provinces during their service. Senators, and members of the Privy Council are styled "The Honourable" for life, and the Prime Minister of Canada is styled "The Right Honourable". Members of provincial legislatures do not have a pre-nominal style. Law Lawyers in all parts of Canada, except Quebec, which has its own civil law system, are called "barristers and solicitors" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories is permitted to engage in both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales, and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a fused legal profession). The words lawyer and counsel (not counsellor) predominate in everyday contexts; the word attorney refers to any personal representative; a Canadian lawyer representing a client is an attorney-at-law. The equivalent of an American district attorney, meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a crown attorney (in Ontario), crown counsel (in British Columbia), crown prosecutor or the crown, on account of Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy in which the Crown is the locus of state power. The words advocate and notary – two distinct professions in Quebec civil law – are used to refer to that province's equivalent of barrister and solicitor, respectively. In Canada's common law provinces and territories, the word notary means strictly a notary public. Within the Canadian legal community itself, the word solicitor is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word attorney is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general). Despite the conceptual distinction between barrister and solicitor, Canadian court documents would contain a phrase such as "John Smith, solicitor for the Plaintiff" even though "John Smith" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court. In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like "I am the solicitor for Mr. Tom Jones." The word litigator is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word barrister is still employed to denote the same specialization. Judges of Canada's superior courts (which exist at the provincial and territorial levels) are traditionally addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady", like much of the Commonwealth, however there are some variances across certain jurisdictions, with some superior court judges preferring the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship". Masters are addressed as "Mr. Master" or simply "Sir". Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as "Your Honour". Judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of "Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice". Justices of The Peace are addressed as "Your Worship". "Your Honour" is also the correct form of address for a Lieutenant Governor. As in England, a serious crime is called an indictable offence, while a less-serious crime is called a summary offence. The older words felony and misdemeanour, which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current Criminal Code (R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system. As noted throughout the Criminal Code, a person accused of a crime is called the accused and not the defendant, a term used instead in civil lawsuits. A county in British Columbia means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States. The rough equivalent to "county" as used elsewhere is a "Regional District". Places Distinctive Canadianisms are: bachelor: bachelor apartment, an apartment all in a single room, with a small bathroom attached ("They have a bachelor for rent"). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, "bachelor". The usual American term is studio. In Montreal, this is known as a two- or one-and-a-half apartment, depending on whether it has a separate kitchen; some Canadians, especially in Prince Edward Island, call it a loft. Boberg 2005. beer parlour: used as a synonym for pub; being replaced by "bar." camp: in Northern Ontario, it refers to what is called a cottage in the rest of Ontario and a cabin in the West. Boberg 2005, p. 38. It is also used, to a lesser extent, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, as well as in parts of New England. fire hall: fire station, firehouse. fire hall - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary height of land: a drainage divide. Originally American. Webster's New World College Dictionary, Wiley, 2004. parkade: a parking garage, especially in the West. washroom: http://www.oup.com/elt/catalogue/teachersites/oald7/images/un212.gif the general term for what is normally named public toilet or lavatory in Britain. In the U.S. (where it originated) mostly replaced by restroom in the 20th century. Generally used only as a technical or commercial term outside of Canada. The word bathroom is also used. Indian reserve. These are not "reservations" as they are in the U.S. rancherie: the residential area of an Indian reserve, used in BC only. quiggly hole and/or quiggly: the depression in the ground left by a kekuli or pithouse. Groups of them are called "quiggly hole towns". Used in the BC Interior only. gasbar: a filling station (gas station) with a central island, having pumps under a fixed concrete awning. Daily life Terms common in Canada, Britain, and Ireland but less frequent or nonexistent in the U.S. are: Tin (as in tin of tuna), for can, especially among older speakers. Among younger speakers, can is more common, with tin . Cutlery, for silverware or flatware. Serviette, especially in Eastern Canada, for a paper table napkin. Tap, conspicuously more common than faucet in everyday usage. The following are more or less distinctively Canadian: ABM, bank machine: synonymous with ATM (which is also used). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, ABM; Boberg 2005. BFI bin: Dumpster, after a prominent Canadian waste management company, in provinces where that company does business; compare Kleenex, Xerox. chesterfield: originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a term for any couch or sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California). chesterfield. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 Once a hallmark of CanE, chesterfield is now largely in decline among younger generations in the western and central regions. J.K. Chambers, "The Canada-U.S. border as a vanishing isogloss: the evidence of chesterfield." Journal of English Linguistics 23 (1995): 156-66. Couch is now the most common term; sofa is also used. eavestroughs: rain gutters. Also used, especially in the past, in the Northern and Western U.S.; the first recorded usage is in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick: "The tails tapering down that way, serve to carry off the water, d'ye see. Same with cocked hats; the cocks form gable-end eave-troughs [sic], Flask." Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, eavestrough; Oxford English Dictionary; American Heritage Dictionary. garburator: (rhymes with carburetor) a garbage disposal. According to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary (second edition), garburator is "Canadian" and garbage disposal is "North American." homogenized milk or homo milk: Milk containing 3.25% milk fat, typically called "whole milk" in the US. hydro: a common synonym for electrical service (used primarily in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and British Columbia). The four Canadian provinces noted have electric companies generate power from hydroelectricity, and incorporate the term "Hydro" in their names. Usage: "I didn't pay my hydro bill so they shut off my lights." Hence hydrofield, a line of electricity transmission towers, usually in groups cutting across a city, and hydro lines/poles, electrical transmission lines/poles. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, hydro. These usages of hydro are also standard in the Australian state of Tasmania. loonie: the Canadian one-dollar coin; derived from the use of the common loon on the reverse. The toonie (less commonly spelled tooney, twooney, twoonie) is the two-dollar coin. Loonie is also used to refer to the Canadian currency, particularly when discussing the exchange rate with the U.S. dollar; neither loonie nor toonie can describe amounts of money (e.g. thirty dollars). packsack: a backpack; more commonly heard in Northern Ontario. pencil crayon: coloured pencil. pogie or pogey: term referring to unemployment insurance, which is now officially called Employment Insurance in Canada. Derived from the use of pogey as a term for a poorhouse. Pogey: What Does it Mean? Bonny, 2006 Not used for welfare, in which case the term is "the dole", as in "he's on the dole". Apparel The following are common in Canada, but not in the U.S. or the U.K. runners: Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, runner. running shoes, especially in Western Canada. American Speech 80.1 (2005). Also used in Australian English Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. and Irish English http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2009/0106/1230936690382.html Sometimes the gym doesn't fix it - The Irish Times - Tue, Jan 06, 2009 http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/magazine/2008/0322/1206024702849.html?via=me Machismo . . . or masochism? - The Irish Times - Sat, Mar 22, 2008 http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/health/2008/1007/1222959451495.html Stars in the running - The Irish Times - Tue, Oct 07, 2008 . Atlantic Canada prefers sneakers while central Canada (including Quebec and Ontario) prefer "running shoes". American Speech 80.1 (2005), p. 36. tuque: or toque, touque, a knitted winter hat, often with a pompom on the crown. A similar hat would be called a beanie in the western U.S. and a watch cap in the eastern U.S, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom. There is a strong tendency in Canadian English in the last few decades to also refer to these forms as touques. There seems to be no exact equivalent in the U.S., since the touque is of French Canadian origin. The form touque is a standard form in wide usage, contrary to the Oxford Canadian Dictionary. bunny hug: a hooded sweater (hoodie). This term is uncommon outside of Western Canada. Also known as a Kangaroo Jacket. Food and beverage Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer pop over soda to refer to a carbonated beverage (but neither term is dominant in British English; see further at Soft drink naming conventions). "Soft drink" is also extremely common throughout Canada. What Americans call Canadian bacon is named back bacon or, if it is coated in cornmeal or ground peas, peameal bacon in Canada. What most Americans call a candy bar is usually known as a chocolate bar (as in the UK, however, some in the US, especially older Americans in northern states, occasionally call it a chocolate bar). Even though the word French fries is used by Canadians, some older speakers use the word chips (which is always used in fish and chips, as elsewhere). Whole-wheat bread is sometimes referred to as brown bread, although the standard term is still used. The following are Canadianisms: double-double: a cup of coffee with two creams and two sugars, most commonly associated with the Tim Hortons chain of coffee shops. By the same token, triple-triple. CBC.ca Arts - 'Double-double'? Now you can look it up mickey: a bottle of hard liquor (informally called a pint in the Maritimes and the US). two-six, twenty-sixer, twixer: a bottle of hard liquor (called a fifth in the Maritimes and the US or a quart in areas of Nova Scotia). forty pounder, forty: bottle of malt liquor. (A reference used primarily in southern Ontario.) http://www.thebeerstore.ca/Beers/pricelist.asp?str=&id=0651&brandname=CANADIAN Texas mickey: a bottle of hard liquor. (Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.) two-four: a case of 24 beers, also known as a "flat" in Western Canada poutine: a snack of french fries topped with cheese curds and hot gravy. Breakwich: A breakfast sandwich. Informal speech A rubber in the U.S. and Canada is slang for a condom; however, in Canada it is sometimes another term for eraser (as it is in the United Kingdom). The word bum can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or, derogatorily, to a homeless person (as in the U.S.). However, the "buttocks" sense does not have the indecent character and Australian use, as it is commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as arse (commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or ass, or mitiss (used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword). Similarly the word pissed can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being mad or angry (as in the U.S.), though anger is often said as pissed off, while piss drunk or pissed up is said to describe inebriation (though piss drunk is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states). Canadian colloquialisms One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interjection eh, which is stereotyped as being said by all Canadians in modern culture. The only usage of eh exclusive to Canada, according to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, is for "ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed" as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike." In that case, eh? is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as mm or oh or okay. Other uses of eh—for instance, in place of huh? or what? meaning "please repeat or say again"—are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia. This term in particular is also common in some border areas around the Great Lakes, in Maine, and in the Detroit metropolitan region. The term Canuck means, simply, Canadian in its demonymic form, and is a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory. In the 19th and early 20th Centuries it tended to refer to French-Canadians only until it became adopted widely in English as a result of the Johnny Canuck comic book character. It is also the name for Vancouver's NHL team. The term hoser, popularized by Bob & Doug McKenzie, typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male in Canadian usage; Canadians do not usually use it as a generic term for themselves, though many non-Canadians do. Bob & Doug also popularised the use of Beauty, eh, which, as noted above may be used in variety of ways. This describes something as being of interest, of note, signals approval or simply draws attention to it. A Newf or Newfie is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory. In the Maritimes, a Caper or "Cape Bretoner" is someone from Cape Breton Island, a Bluenoser is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent, while an Islander is someone from Prince Edward Island (the same term is used in British Columbia for people from Vancouver Island, or the numerous islands along it). Miscellaneous Canadianisms The code appended to mail addresses (the equivalent of the British postcode and the American ZIP code) is called a postal code. The term First Nations is often used in Canada to refer to what are called American Indians or Native Americans in the United States. This term does not include the Métis and Inuit, however; the term aboriginal peoples (and sometimes spelled with a capital "A": "Aboriginal peoples") is preferred when all three groups are included. While the act of "going camping" still refers to tenting at a designated outdoor campground or wilderness park, the term "going out to camp" may refer to the habitation of a summer cottage or building more-or-less built according to government code. In British Columbia, "camp" was used as a reference for certain company towns (e.g. Bridge River). Is is used in western Canada to refer to logging and mining camps such as Juskatla Camp. It is also is a synonym for a mining district; the latter occurs in names such as Camp McKinney and usages such as "Cariboo gold camp" and "Slocan mining camp" for the Cariboo goldfields and Slocan silver-galena mining district, respectively. A "cottage" in British Columbia is generally a small, even petite house, perhaps with an English design or flavour. The Ontarian usage of a sometimes-palatial "place on the lake" is unknown in BC, and rare in other parts of western Canada, other than when used by transplants from Eastern Canada. Similarly, "chalet" - originally a term for a small warming hut - can mean a veritable mansion, but refers to one located in a ski resort. A stagette is a female bachelorette party (US) or hen party (UK). A wedding social, also known as a stag and doe (or "buck and doe") is a pre-wedding fund-raiser for the bride and groom hosted by family and friends. Money is collected through admission, the sale of alcoholic beverages, and raffles or draws for various items. Originating in Manitoba, this term has become common throughout Northwestern Ontario (except in Thunder Bay, where it is known as a "shag") as well as parts of Saskatchewan (though it is less common in that province and may mean either "shag carpet" or to have sex with [profane]). The humidex is a measurement used by meteorologists to reflect the combined effect of heat and humidity. An expiry date is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK Use by date). The term expiration date is more common in the United States (where expiry date is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products). References See also American and British English spelling differences Bungee language Canadian French Canadian Gaelic I Am Canadian North American English North American Regional Phonology Pacific Northwest English Quebec French Regional accents of English speakers Vowel shift Further reading Barber, Katherine, editor (2004). Canadian Oxford Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-541816-6. Barber, Katherine. "11 Favourite Regionalisms Within Canada", in David Vallechinsky and Amy Wallace (2005). The Book of Lists, Canadian Edition. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-676-97720-2. Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: Renewing the study of lexical variation in North American English." American Speech 80/1. Boberg, Charles, Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English, McGill University. Courtney, Rosemary, et al., senior editors (1998). The Gage Canadian Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Gage Learning Corp. ISBN 0-7715-7399-5. Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed., p. xi. Clark, Joe (2008). Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English (e-book). ISBN 978-0-9809525-0-6. Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62181-X. Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction, 3rd ed., pp. 67–68. Canadian English: Editors' Association of Canada, Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide, 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2000). Canadian federal government style guide: Public Works and Government Services Canada, The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998). Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides: J.A. McFarlane and Warren Clements, The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage, 9th ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998). The Canadian Press, The Canadian Press Stylebook, 13th ed. and its quick-reference companion CP Caps and Spelling, 16th ed. (both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004). Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, Guide to Canadian English Usage (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001). External links Canadian Oxford Dictionaries (Oxford University Press) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe & Wonder Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling - comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish Cornerstone's Canadian English Page Canadian Glossary, eh! 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1,889 | Neutron_activation_analysis | Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is a nuclear process used for determining certain concentrations of elements in a vast amount of materials. NAA allows discrete sampling of elements as it disregards the chemical form of a sample, and focuses solely on its nucleus. The method is based on neutron activation and therefore requires a source of neutrons; a range of different sources can be used. A nuclear reactor An actinoid such as californium which emits neutrons through spontaneous fission. An alpha source such as radium or americium, mixed with beryllium; this generates neutrons by a (α,12C+n) reaction. A D-T fusion reaction in a gas discharge tube. Neutron sources Reactors Some reactors are used for the neutron irradiation of samples for radioisotope production for a range of purposes. The sample can be placed in an aluminium can which is then placed in the reactor; if epithermal neutrons are required for the irradiation then cadmium can be used to filter out the thermal neutrons. Fusors A relatively simple Farnsworth-Hirsch fusor can be used to generate neutrons for NAA experiments. The advantages of this kind of apparatus is that it is compact, often benchtop-sized, and that it can simply be turned off and on. A disadvantage is that this type of source will not produce the neutron flux that can be obtained using a reactor. Isotope sources For many workers in the field a reactor is an item which is too expensive, instead it is common to use a neutron source which uses a combination of an alpha emitter and berylium. These sources tend to be much weaker than reactors. Gas discharge tubes These can be used to create pulses of neutrons, they have been used for some activation work where the decay of the target isotope is very rapid. For instance in oil wells. General information In chemistry, neutron activation analysis is a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample. The particular advantage of this technique is that it does not destroy the sample, and thus has been used for analysis of works of art and historical artifacts. The neutron activation analysis technique is also used to find the activity. The sample is introduced into the intense radiation field of a nuclear reactor. The sample is thus bombarded with neutrons, causing the elements to form radioactive isotopes. The radioactive emissions and radioactive decay paths for each element are well known. Using this information it is possible to study spectra of the emissions of the radioactive sample, and determine the concentrations of the elements within it. NAA Overview Neutron Activation Analysis is a sensitive multi-element analytical technique used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of major, minor, trace and rare elements. NAA was discovered in 1936 by Hevesy and Levi, who found that samples containing certain rare earth elements became highly radioactive after exposure to a source of neutrons . This observation led to the use of induced radioactivity for the identification of elements. NAA is significantly different from other spectroscopic analytical techniques in that it is based not on electronic transitions but on nuclear transitions. To carry out an NAA analysis the specimen is placed into a suitable irradiation facility and bombarded with neutrons, this creates artificial radioisotopes of the elements present. Following irradiation the artificial radioisotopes decay via the emission of particles or more importantly gamma-rays, which are characteristic of the element from which they were emitted. For the NAA procedure to be successful the specimen or sample must be selected carefully. In many cases small objects can be irradiated and analysed intact without the need of sampling. But more commonly a small sample is taken, usually by drilling in an inconspicuous place. About 50 mg (one-twentieth of a gram) is a sufficient sample, so damage to the object is minimised . It is often good practice to remove two samples using two different drill bits made of different materials. This will reveal any contamination of the sample from the drill bit material itself. The sample is then encapsulated in a vial made of either high purity linear polyethylene or quartz . These sample vials come in many shapes and sizes to accommodate many specimen types. The sample and a standard are then packaged and irradiated in a suitable reactor at a constant, known neutron flux. A typical reactor used for activation uses uranium fission, providing a high neutron flux and the highest available sensitivities for most elements . The neutron flux from such a reactor is in the order of 1012 neutrons cm-2 s-1 Pollard, A. M., Heron, C., 1996, Archaeological Chemistry. Cambridge, Royal Society of Chemistry. . The type of neutrons generated are of relatively low kinetic energy (KE), typically less than 0.5eV . These neutrons are termed thermal neutrons. Upon irradiation a thermal neutron interacts with the target nucleus via a non-elastic collision, causing neutron capture. This collision forms a compound nucleus which is in an excited state. The excitation energy within the compound nucleus is formed from the binding energy of the thermal neutron with the target nucleus. This excited state is unfavourable and the compound nucleus will almost instantaneously de-excite (transmutate) into a more stable configuration through the emission of a prompt particle and one or more characteristic prompt gamma photons . In most cases this more stable configuration yields a radioactive nucleus. The newly formed radioactive nucleus now decays by the emission of both particles and one or more characteristic delayed gamma photons. This decay process is at a much slower rate than the initial de-excitation and is dependent on unique half-life of the radioactive nucleus. These unique half-lives are dependent upon the particular radioactive species and can range from fractions of a second to several years. Once irradiated the sample is left for a specific decay period then placed into a detector, which will measure the nuclear decay according to either the emitted particles, or more commonly the emitted gamma-rays . Variations of NAA NAA can vary according to a number of experimental parameters. The kinetic energy of the neutrons used for irradiation will be a major experimental parameter. The above description is of activation by slow neutrons, slow neutrons are fully moderated within the reactor and have KE <0.5eV. Medium KE neutrons may also be used for activation, these neutrons have been only partially moderated and have KE of 0.5eV to 0.5MeV, and are termed epithermal neutrons. Activation with epithermal neutrons is known as Epithermal NAA (ENAA). High KE neutrons are sometimes used for activation, these neutrons are unmoderated and consist of primary fission neutrons. High KE or fast neutrons have a KE >0.5MeV. Activation with fast neutrons is termed Fast NAA (FNAA). Another major experimental parameter is whether nuclear decay products (gamma-rays or particles) are measured during neutron irradiation (Prompt gamma), or at some time after irradiation (Delayed Gamma). PGNAA is generally performed by using a neutron stream tapped off the nuclear reactor via a beam port. Neutron fluxes from beam ports are the order of 106 times weaker than inside a reactor . This is somewhat compensated for by placing the detector very close to the sample reducing the loss in sensitivity due to low flux. PGNAA is generally applied to elements with extremely high neutron capture cross-sections; elements which decay too rapidly to be measured by DGNAA; elements that produce only stable isotopes; or elements with weak decay gamma-ray intensities . PGNAA is characterised by short irradiation times and short decay times, often in the order of seconds and minutes. DGNAA is applicable to the vast majority of elements that form artificial radioisotopes. DG analyses are often performed over days, weeks or even months. This improves sensitivity for long-lived radionuclides as it allows short-lived radionuclide to decay, effectively eliminating interference . DGNAA is characterised by long irradiation times and long decay times, often in the order of hours, weeks or longer. Thumb|Nuclear processes occurring when cobalt is irradiated with neutrons If NAA is conducted directly on irradiated samples it is termed Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). In some cases irradiated samples are subjected to chemical separation to remove interfering species or to concentrate the radioisotope of interest, this technique is known as Radiochemical Neutron Activation Analysis (RNAA). NAA Detectors There are a number of detector types and configurations used in NAA. Most are designed to detect the emitted gamma radiation. The most common types of gamma detectors encountered in NAA are the gas ionisation type, scintillation type and the semiconductor type. Of these the scintillation and semiconductor type are the most widely employed. There are two detector configurations utilised, they are the planar detector, used for PGNAA and the well detector, used for DGNAA. The planar detector has a flat, large collection surface area and can be placed close to the sample. The well detector ‘surrounds’ the sample with a large collection surface area. Scintillation type detectors use a radiation sensitive crystal, most commonly Sodium Iodide NaI (TI), which emits light when struck by gamma photons. These detectors have excellent sensitivity and stability, and a reasonable resolution. Semiconductor detectors utilise the semiconducting element germanium. The germanium is processed to form a p-i-n (positive-intrinsic-negative) diode, and when cooled to ~77K by liquid nitrogen to reduce dark current and detector noise, produces a signal which is proportional to the photon energy of the incoming radiation. There are two types of germanium detector, the lithium drifted germanium or Ge(Li) (pronounced ‘jelly’), and the High Purity Germanium or HPGe. The semiconducting element silicon may also be used but germanium is preferred, as its higher atomic number makes it more efficient at stopping and detecting high energy gamma-rays. Both Ge(Li) and HPGe detectors have excellent sensitivity and resolution, but Ge(Li) detectors are unstable at room temperature, with the lithium drifting into the intrinsic region ruining the detector. The development of undrifted high purity germanium has overcome this problem. Particle detectors can also be used to detect the emission of alpha (α) and beta(β) particles which often accompany the emission of a gamma photon but are less favourable, as these particles are only emitted from the surface of the sample and are often absorbed or attenuated by atmospheric gases requiring expensive vacuum conditions to be effectively detected. Whereas gamma-rays are not absorbed or attenuated by atmospheric gases, and can also escape from deep within the sample with minimal absorption. NAA Analytical Capabilities NAA can detect up to 74 elements depending upon the experimental procedure. With minimum detection limits ranging from 0.1 to 1x106ng g-1 depending on element under investigation. Heavier elements have larger nuclei, therefore they have a larger neutron capture cross-section and are more likely to be activated. Some nuclei can capture a number of neutrons and remain relatively stable, not undergoing transmutation or decay for many months or even years. Other nuclei decay instantaneously or form only stable isotopes and can only be identified by PGNAA. <p align=center style='text-align:center'>Sensitivity (picograms) <p align=center style='text-align:center'>Elements <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1 Dy, Eu <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1 - 10 In, Lu, Mn <p align=center style='text-align:center'>10 - 100 Au, Ho, Ir, Re, Sm, W <p align=center style='text-align:center'>100 - 1E3 Ag, Ar, As, Br, Cl, Co, Cs, Cu, Er, Ga, Hf, I, La, Sb, Sc, Se, Ta, Tb, Th, Tm, U, V, Yb <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1E3 - 1E4 Al, Ba, Cd, Ce, Cr, Hg, Kr, Gd, Ge, Mo, Na, Nd, Ni, Os, Pd, Rb, Rh, Ru, Sr, Te, Zn, Zr <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1E4 - 1E5 Bi, Ca, K, Mg, P, Pt, Si, Sn, Ti, Tl, Xe, Y <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1E5 - 1E6 F, Fe, Nb, Ne <p align=center style='text-align:center'>1E7 Pb, S Table source Summary of NAA NAA can perform non-destructive analyses on solids, liquids, suspensions, slurries, and gases with no or minimal preparation. Due to the penetrating nature of incident neutrons and resultant gamma-rays the technique provides a true bulk analysis. As different radioisotopes have different half-lives, counting can be delayed to allow interfering species to decay eliminating interference. Until the introduction of ICP-AES and PIXE, NAA was the standard analytical method for performing multi-element analyses with minimum detection limits in the sub-ppm range . Accuracy of NAA is in the region of 5%, and relative precision is often better than 0.1% . There are two noteworthy drawbacks to the use of NAA; even though the technique is essentially non-destructive the irradiated sample will remain radioactive for many years after the initial analysis, requiring handling and disposal protocols for low-level to medium-level radioactive material; also the number of suitable activation nuclear reactors is declining, with a lack of irradiation facilities the technique has declined in popularity and become more expensive. External links NAA - The University of Texas at Austin - Nuclear Engineering Teaching Laboratory NAA - University of Wisconsin Nuclear Reactor NAA - University of Missouri-Columbia, Research Reactor Center NAA - Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University NAA - Del Mar Ventures NAA - The British Museum NAA - Worcester Polytechnic Institute Reed Research Reactor- Reed College, Portland, OR - Washington State University Nuclear Radiation Center - Activation Laboratories References | Neutron_activation_analysis |@lemmatized neutron:51 activation:16 analysis:13 naa:30 nuclear:13 process:4 use:30 determine:3 certain:2 concentration:3 element:25 vast:2 amount:1 material:4 allow:3 discrete:1 sampling:1 disregard:1 chemical:2 form:8 sample:27 focus:1 solely:1 nucleus:11 method:2 base:2 therefore:2 require:4 source:10 range:5 different:6 reactor:17 actinoid:1 californium:1 emit:5 spontaneous:1 fission:3 alpha:3 radium:1 americium:1 mixed:1 beryllium:1 generate:3 α:2 n:2 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1,890 | Gray_whale | The Gray (or Grey) Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) is a whale that travels between feeding and breeding grounds yearly. It reaches a length of about 16 meters (52 ft), a weight of 36 tons and an age of 50–60 years. Gray Whales were once called Devil Fish because of their fighting behavior when hunted. The Gray Whale is the sole species in the genus Eschrichtius, which in turn is the sole genus in the family Eschrichtiidae. This animal is descended from the filter-feeding whales that developed at the beginning of the Oligocene, over 30 million years before the present. The Gray Whale is distributed in a eastern North Pacific (American) population and a critically endangered western North Pacific (Asian) population. A third population in the North Atlantic became extinct in the 18th century. Systematics and taxonomy The Gray Whale has been traditionally placed in its own monotypic genus and family, however recent DNA sequencing analysis indicates that certain rorquals of the family Balaenopteridae, such as the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) are more closely related to the Gray Whale than they are to some other rorquals, such as the minke whales. It was placed in its own genus by John Gray, naming it in honour of zoologist Daniel Eschricht. Meanwhile the living Pacific species was described by Cope as Ranchianectes glaucus in 1869. Skeletal comparisons showed the Pacific species to be identical to the Atlantic remains in the 1930s and Gray's name has been generally accepted since. The name Eschrichtius gibbosus is sometimes seen; this is dependent on the acceptance of a 1777 description by Erxleben. Many other names have been ascribed to the Gray Whale, including Desert Whale , Devil Fish, Gray Back, Mussel Digger and Rip Sack. Description The Gray Whale is a dark slate-gray in color and covered by characteristic gray-white patterns, scars left by parasites which drop off in the cold feeding grounds. It lacks the numerous prominent furrows of the related rorquals, instead bearing two to five shallow furrows on the underside of the throat. The Gray Whale lacks a dorsal fin, instead bearing several dorsal 'knuckles'. Whale population Two Pacific Ocean populations of the Gray Whale are known to exist: one of not more than 300 individuals whose migratory route is unknown, but presumed to be between the Sea of Okhotsk and southern Korea, and a larger one with a population between 20,000 and 22,000 individuals in the Eastern Pacific travelling between the waters off Alaska and the Baja California. The Gray Whale was thought to have become extinct in the North Atlantic in the 18th century. Radiocarbon dating of subfossil remains has confirmed this, with whaling the possible cause. In the fall, the Eastern Pacific, or California, Gray Whale starts a 2–3 month, 8,000–11,000 km trip south along the west coast of Canada, the United States and Mexico. The animals travel in small groups. The destinations of the whales are the coastal waters of Baja California and the southern Gulf of California, where they breed and the young are born. The breeding behavior is complex and often involves three or more animals. The gestation period is about one year, and females have calves every other year. The calf is born tail first and measures about 4 meters in length. It is believed that the shallow waters in the lagoons there protect the newborn from sharks. After several weeks, the return trip starts. This round trip of 16,000–22,000 km, at an average speed of 5 km/h, is believed to be the longest yearly migration of any mammal. A whale watching industry provides ecotourists and marine mammal enthusiasts the opportunity to see groups of Gray Whales as they pass by on their migration. Feeding The whale feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans which it eats by turning on its side (usually the right) and scooping up the sediments from the sea floor. It is classified as a baleen whale and has a baleen, or whalebone, which acts like a sieve to capture small sea animals including amphipods taken in along with sand, water and other material. Mostly, the animal feeds in the northern waters during the summer; and opportunistically feeds during its migration trip, depending primarily on its extensive fat reserves. Gray Whale breaching off the coast of Santa Barbara, California. A Gray Whale viewed from above. Migration The migration route of the Eastern Pacific, or California, Gray Whale is often described as the longest known mammal migration. Beginning in the Bering and Chukchi seas and ending in the warm-water lagoons of Mexico's Baja peninsula, their round trip journey moves them through 12,500 miles of coastline. This journey begins each October as the northern ice pushes southward. Travelling both night and day, the Gray Whale averages approximately 120 km (80 miles) per day. By mid-December to early January, the majority of the Gray Whales are usually found between Monterey and San Diego, where they are often seen from shore. By late December to early January, the first of the Gray Whales begin to arrive the calving lagoons of Baja. These first whales to arrive are usually pregnant mothers that look for the protection of the lagoons to give birth to their calves, along with single females seeking out male companions in order to mate. By mid-February to mid-March the bulk of the Gray Whales have arrived the lagoons. It is at this time that the lagoons are filled to capacity with nursing, calving and mating Gray Whales. By late March or early April a number of Gray Whales enter Puget Sound and may be seen from Canada as far south as Everett, Washington near the mouth of the Snohomish River. The three primary lagoons that the whales seek in Baja California are Laguna Ojo de Liebre (known in English as Scammon Lagoon, named after whaleman Charles Scammon who discovered the lagoons in the 1850s and hunted the Grays), San Ignacio, and Magdalena. As noted, the Grays were called the devil fish until the early 1970s when a fisherman in the Laguna San Ignacio named Pachico Mayoral (although terrified to death) reached out and touched a Gray mother that kept approaching his boat. Today the whales in all three lagoons are protected, but whale watching in the lagoons is permitted. Throughout February and March, the first Gray Whales to leave the lagoons are the males and single females. Once they have mated, they will begin the trek back north to their summer feeding grounds in the Bering and Chukchi seas. Pregnant females and nursing mothers with their newborn calves are the last to leave the lagoons. They leave only when their calves are ready for the journey, which is usually from late March to mid-April. Often there are still a few lingering Gray Whale mothers with their young calves in the lagoons well into May. A population of about 2,000 Gray Whales stay along the Oregon coast throughout the summer, not making the farther trip to Alaska waters. Conservation and human interaction The only predators of adult Gray Whales are humans and the Orca. Beginning in the 1570s the Japanese began to catch Gray Whales. At Kawajiri, Nagato 169 Gray Whales were caught between 1698 and 1889, or a little over one a year. At Tsuro, Shikoku 201 were taken between 1849 and 1896. Several hundred more were probably caught by European (primarily American) whalemen in the Sea of Okhotsk from the 1840s to perhaps the early 20th century. A total of forty-four were caught by net whalemen in Japan during the 1890s. The real damage was done between 1911 and 1933, when Korean and Japanese whalemen killed 1,449 Gray Whales. By 1934 the western Gray Whale was near extinction. From 1891 to 1966 an estimated 1,800-2,000 Gray Whales were caught, with peak catches of 100-200 annually occurring in the 1910s. European commercial whaling for Gray Whales in the North Pacific began in the winter of 1845-46, when two United States ships, the Hibernia and the United States, caught thirty-two in Magdalena Bay. More ships followed in the two following winters (1846-47 and 1847-48), after which gray whaling in the bay was nearly abandoned because "of the inferior quality and low price of the dark-colored gray whale oil, the low quality and quantity of whalebone from the gray, and the dangers of lagoon whaling." Gray whaling in Magdalena Bay was revived in the winter of 1855-56 by several vessels, mainly from San Francisco, including the ship Leonore, under Captain Charles Melville Scammon. This was the first of eleven winters from 1855 through 1865 known as the "bonanza period," during which gray whaling along the coast of Baja California reached its peak. Not only were Grays taken in Magdalena Bay, but also by ships anchored along the coast from San Diego south to Cabo San Lucas and from whaling stations from Crescent City in northern California south to San Ignacio Lagoon. During the same period vessels targeting Right and Bowhead Whales in the Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic would occasionally take a Gray or two if neither of the former two species were in sight. In December 1857 Charles Scammon, in the brig Boston, along with his schooner-tender Marin, entered Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Jack-Rabbit Spring Lagoon) or later known as Scammon's Lagoon (by 1860) and found one of the Gray Whale's last refuges. In three months he caught a total of forty-seven whales for a yield of 1,700 barrels of oil. In the winter of 1859-60 Scammon, in the bark Ocean Bird, along with several other vessels, performed a similar feat of daring by entering San Ignacio Lagoon to the south where he discovered the last of the Gray Whales' breeding lagoons. Within only a couple of seasons the lagoon was nearly cleaned out of whales. Between 1846 and 1874 an estimated 8,000 Gray Whales were killed by European whalemen, with over half having been killed in the Magdalena Bay complex (Estero Santo Domingo, Magdalena Bay itself, and Almejas Bay) and by shore whalemen in California and Baja California. This, for the most part, does not take into account the large number of calves injured or left to starve after their mothers had been killed in the breeding lagoons. Since whalemen primarily targeted mothers with calves in the lagoons, several thousand should probably be added to the total. Also, shore whaling in California and Baja California continued after this period, until the early 20th century. During the modern era a second, shorter, and less intensive hunt occurred for Gray Whales in the eastern North Pacific. Only a few were caught from two whaling stations on the coast of California from 1919 to 1926, and a single station in Washington (1911-21) accounted for the capture of another. For the entire west coast of North America for the years 1919 to 1929 some 234 Gray Whales were caught. Only a dozen or so were taken by the stations in British Columbia, nearly all of them in the 1953 season at Coal Harbor. A whaling station in Richmond, California caught 311 Gray Whales for "scientific purposes" between 1964 and 1969. From 1961 to 1972 the Soviet Union caught 138 Gray Whales, although they originally had reported not having taken any. The only other significant catch was made in two seasons by the steam-schooner California off Malibu, California. In the winters of 1934-35 and 1935-36 the California anchored off Point Dume in Paradise Cove. In all she caught at least 272 Gray Whales, with 186 of them being caught in the first winter. In 1936 Gray Whales were protected, forcing the ship to concentrate on other species. Gray Whales have been granted protection from commercial hunting by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since 1949, and are no longer hunted on a large scale. Limited hunting of Gray Whales has continued since that time, however, primarily in the Chukotka region of north-eastern Russia, where large numbers of Gray Whales spend the summer months. This hunt has been allowed under an "aboriginal/subsistence whaling" exception to the commercial-hunting ban. Anti-whaling groups have protested the hunt, saying that the meat from the whales is not for traditional native consumption, but is used instead to feed animals in government-run fur farms; they cite annual catch numbers that rose dramatically during the 1940s, at the time when state-run fur farms were being established in the region. Although the Soviet government denied these charges as recently as 1987, in recent years the Russian government has acknowledged the feeding of Gray Whale meat to animals on fur farms in the region. The Russian IWC delegation has said that the hunt is justified under the aboriginal/subsistence exemption, since the fur farms provide a necessary economic base for the region's native population. Currently, the annual quota for the Gray Whale catch in the region is 140 whales per year. Pursuant to an agreement between the United States and Russia, the Makah Indian tribe of Washington claimed 4 whales per year from the total IWC quota established at the 1997 meeting. With the exception of a single Gray Whale killed in 1999, the Makah people have been prevented from conducting Gray Whale hunts by a series of legal challenges, culminating in a United States federal appeals court decision in December 2002 that said the National Marine Fisheries Service must prepare an Environmental Impact Statement before allowing the hunt to go forward. On September 8, 2007, five members of the Makah tribe shot a gray whale using high powered rifles in spite of the limitations. The whale died within 12 hours, sinking while heading out to sea. Local News | Gray whale shot, killed in rogue tribal hunt | Seattle Times Newspaper As of 2001, the population of California Gray Whales had grown back to about 26,000 animals. As of 2004, the population of Western Pacific (seas near Korea, Japan, and Kamchatka) Gray Whales was an estimated 101 individuals. The North Atlantic population of Gray Whales may have been hunted to extinction in the 18th century. There is circumstantial evidence that whaling could have possibly contributed to this population's decline, as an increase in whaling activity in the 17th and 18th century did coincide with the population's disappearance. As of 2008, the IUCN regards the Gray Whale as being of "Least Concern" from a conservation perspective. However, the specific subpopulation in the northwest Pacific is regarded as being "Critically Endangered". Captivity In 1972, a 3-month-old Gray Whale named Gigi was captured for brief study by Dr. David W. Kenney, and then released near San Diego. In January 1997, the new-born baby whale J.J. was found helpless near the coast of Los Angeles, California, 4.2 m long and 800 kg in mass. Nursed back to health in SeaWorld San Diego, she was released into the Pacific Ocean on March 31, 1998, 9 m long and 8500 kg in mass. She shed her radio transmitter packs three days later. In the news A Gray Whale, thought to have gotten lost on its migration, was seen in the Fraser River in British Columbia, Canada on January 25, 2007. It then headed the right way back to the ocean, albeit slowly. A lone Gray Whale was seen in early 2005 on the eastern coastline of Japan, and around Tokyo bay. It attracted crowds of whale watchers in April, but later became entangled in a fisherman's net, drowned and was washed up in early May. (BBC News) On March 10, 2009, a Gray Whale calf swam into the San Diego Bay and is currently still there. March 25, 2009, Gray Whale in San Diego Bay named "Diego". May 2009, an adult gray whale and a young gray whale play in the Sitka Sound in Alaska. These whales attract many whale watchers and have been in the area for almost a month. 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albeit:1 slowly:1 lone:1 around:1 tokyo:1 attract:2 crowd:1 watcher:2 entangle:1 drown:1 wash:1 bbc:1 swam:1 play:1 sitka:1 area:1 almost:1 reference:1 |@bigram meter_ft:1 gray_whale:61 filter_feeding:1 critically_endanger:2 humpback_whale:1 whale_balaenoptera:1 closely_relate:1 minke_whale:1 dorsal_fin:1 pacific_ocean:2 sea_okhotsk:3 baja_california:6 baleen_whale:1 santa_barbara:1 san_diego:6 puget_sound:1 san_ignacio:4 magdalena_bay:5 san_francisco:1 cabo_san:1 bowhead_whale:1 santo_domingo:1 soviet_union:1 malibu_california:1 circumstantial_evidence:1 los_angeles:1 bbc_news:1 |
1,891 | Microtubule | Space-filling model of a microtubule segment derived from cryo-electron microscopy. The protofilaments are seen running along the axis of the segment. The microtublue (+) end is towards the top of the image. Microtubules are one of the components of the cytoskeleton. They have a diameter of 25 nm and length varying from 200 nanometers to 25 micrometers. Microtubules serve as structural components within cells and are involved in many cellular processes including mitosis, cytokinesis, and vesicular transport. Structure Microtubules are polymers of α- and β-tubulin dimers. The tubulin dimers polymerize end to end in protofilaments. The protofilaments then bundle into hollow cylindrical filaments. Typically, the protofilaments arrange themselves in an imperfect helix with one turn of the helix containing 13 tubulin dimers each from a different protofilament. The image above illustrates a small section of microtubule, a few αβ dimers in length. Another important feature of microtubule structure is polarity. Tubulin polymerizes end to end with the α subunit of one tubulin dimer contacting the β subunit of the next. Therefore, in a protofilament, one end will have the α subunit exposed while the other end will have the β subunit exposed. These ends are designated the (−) and (+) ends, respectively. The protofilaments bundle parallel to one another, so in a microtubule, there is one end, the (+) end, with only β subunits exposed while the other end, the (−) end, only has α subunits exposed. Organization within cells Microtubules are nucleated and organized by the microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), such as centrioles and basal bodies. Microtubules are part of a structural network (the cytoskeleton) within the cell's cytoplasm, but, in addition to structural support, microtubules take part in many other processes, as well. They are capable of growing and shrinking in order to generate force, and there are also motor proteins that allow organellesand other cellular factors to move along the microtubule. A notable structure involving microtubules is the mitotic spindle used by eukaryotic cells to segregate their chromosomes correctly during cell division. Microtubules are also part of the cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells (prokaryote flagella are entirely different). Nucleation and growth Polymerization of microtubules is nucleated in a microtubule organizing center. Contained within the MTOC is another type of tubulin, γ-tubulin, which is distinct from the α and β subunits which compose the microtubules themselves. The γ-tubulin combines with several other associated proteins to form a circular structure known as the "γ-tubulin ring complex." This complex acts as a scaffold for α/β tubulin dimers to begin polymerization; it acts as a cap of the (−) end while microtubule growth continues away from the MTOC in the (+) direction. Dynamic instability During polymerization, both the α- and β-subunits of the tubulin dimer are bound to a molecule of GTP. While the GTP bound to α-tubulin is stable, the GTP bound to β-tubulin may be hydrolyzed to GDP shortly after assembly. The kinetics of GDP-tubulin are different from those of GTP-tubulin; GDP-tubulin is prone to depolymerization. A GDP-bound tubulin subunit at the tip of a microtubule will fall off, though a GDP-bound tubulin in the middle of a microtubule cannot spontaneously pop out. Since tubulin adds onto the end of the microtubule only in the GTP-bound state, there is generally a cap of GTP-bound tubulin at the tip of the microtubule, protecting it from disassembly. When hydrolysis catches up to the tip of the microtubule, it begins a rapid depolymerization and shrinkage. This switch from growth to shrinking is called a catastrophe. GTP-bound tubulin can begin adding to the tip of the microtubule again, providing a new cap and protecting the microtubule from shrinking. This is referred to as rescue. Dynamic Instability In vivo microtubule dynamics vary considerably. Assembly, disassembly and catastrophe rates depend on which microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are present. Chemical effects on microtubule dynamics Microtubule dynamics can also be altered by drugs. For example, the taxane drug class (e.g. paclitaxel or docetaxel), used in the treatment of cancer, blocks dynamic instability by stabilizing GDP-bound tubulin in the microtubule. Thus, even when hydrolysis of GTP reaches the tip of the microtubule, there is no depolymerization and the microtubule does not shrink back. Nocodazole and Colchicine have the opposite effect, blocking the polymerization of tubulin into microtubules. Motor proteins In addition to movement generated by the dynamic instability of the microtubule itself, the fibers are substrates along which motor proteins can move. The major microtubule motor proteins are kinesin, which generally moves towards the (+) end of the microtubule, and dynein, which generally moves towards the (−) end. Additional images References Manu Lopus, Mythili Yenjerla, and Leslie Wilson (2009) Microtubule Dynamics (Advanced Review). In Wiley Encyclopedia of Chemical Biology, Begley TP, Ed. Wiley, NJ. 3, 153–160. | Microtubule |@lemmatized space:1 fill:1 model:1 microtubule:37 segment:2 derive:1 cryo:1 electron:1 microscopy:1 protofilaments:5 see:1 run:1 along:3 axis:1 microtublue:1 end:17 towards:3 top:1 image:3 one:6 component:2 cytoskeleton:2 diameter:1 nm:1 length:2 vary:2 nanometer:1 micrometer:1 serve:1 structural:3 within:4 cell:6 involve:2 many:2 cellular:2 process:2 include:1 mitosis:1 cytokinesis:1 vesicular:1 transport:1 structure:4 polymer:1 α:8 β:8 tubulin:23 dimer:7 polymerize:1 bundle:2 hollow:1 cylindrical:1 filament:1 typically:1 arrange:1 imperfect:1 helix:2 turn:1 contain:2 different:3 protofilament:2 illustrate:1 small:1 section:1 αβ:1 another:3 important:1 feature:1 polarity:1 polymerizes:1 subunit:9 contact:1 next:1 therefore:1 expose:4 designate:1 respectively:1 parallel:1 organization:1 nucleate:2 organize:3 center:2 mtocs:1 centriole:1 basal:1 body:1 part:3 network:1 cytoplasm:1 addition:2 support:1 take:1 well:1 capable:1 grow:1 shrink:3 order:1 generate:2 force:1 also:3 motor:4 protein:6 allow:1 organellesand:1 factor:1 move:4 notable:1 mitotic:1 spindle:1 use:2 eukaryotic:2 segregate:1 chromosome:1 correctly:1 division:1 cilium:1 flagellum:2 prokaryote:1 entirely:1 nucleation:1 growth:3 polymerization:4 mtoc:2 type:1 γ:3 distinct:1 compose:1 combine:1 several:1 associate:2 form:1 circular:1 know:1 ring:1 complex:2 act:2 scaffold:1 begin:3 cap:3 continue:1 away:1 direction:1 dynamic:8 instability:4 bind:1 molecule:1 gtp:8 bound:8 stable:1 may:1 hydrolyze:1 gdp:6 shortly:1 assembly:2 kinetics:1 prone:1 depolymerization:3 tip:5 fall:1 though:1 middle:1 cannot:1 spontaneously:1 pop:1 since:1 add:2 onto:1 state:1 generally:3 protect:2 disassembly:2 hydrolysis:2 catch:1 rapid:1 shrinkage:1 switch:1 shrinking:1 call:1 catastrophe:2 provide:1 new:1 refer:1 rescue:1 vivo:1 considerably:1 rate:1 depend:1 map:1 present:1 chemical:2 effect:2 alter:1 drug:2 example:1 taxane:1 class:1 e:1 g:1 paclitaxel:1 docetaxel:1 treatment:1 cancer:1 block:2 stabilize:1 thus:1 even:1 reach:1 back:1 nocodazole:1 colchicine:1 opposite:1 movement:1 fiber:1 substrate:1 major:1 kinesin:1 dynein:1 additional:1 reference:1 manu:1 lopus:1 mythili:1 yenjerla:1 leslie:1 wilson:1 advanced:1 review:1 wiley:2 encyclopedia:1 biology:1 begley:1 tp:1 ed:1 nj:1 |@bigram electron_microscopy:1 α_β:4 tubulin_dimer:6 α_subunit:3 β_subunit:5 mitotic_spindle:1 eukaryotic_cell:2 cilium_flagellum:1 growth_polymerization:1 gtp_bound:5 bound_tubulin:5 tip_microtubule:5 |
1,892 | Erbium | Erbium () is a chemical element with the symbol Er and atomic number 68. A rare, silvery, white metallic lanthanide, erbium is solid in its normal state. It is a rare earth element associated with several other rare elements in the mineral gadolinite from Ytterby in Sweden. Characteristics A trivalent element, pure erbium metal is malleable (or easily shaped), soft yet stable in air, and does not oxidize as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its salts are rose-colored, and the element has characteristic sharp absorption spectra bands in visible light, ultraviolet, and near infrared. Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths. Its sesquioxide is called erbia. Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role, but is thought by some to be able to stimulate metabolism. Erbium-doped glasses or crystals can be used as optical amplification media, where erbium ions are optically pumped at around 980 nm or 1480 nm and then radiate light at 1550 nm. This process can be used to create lasers and optical amplifiers. The 1550 nm wavelength is especially important for optical communications because standard single mode optical fibers have minimal loss at this particular wavelength. A large variety of medical applications can be found (i.e. dermatology, dentistry) by utilizing the 2940 nm emission (see Er:YAG laser) which is highly absorbed in water (about 12000/cm). Erbium is ferromagnetic below 19 K, antiferromagnetic between 19 and 80 K and paramagnetic above 80 K M. Jackson "Magnetism of Rare Earth" The IRM quaterly col. 10, No. 3, p. 1, 2000 . Applications Erbium's everyday uses are varied. It is commonly used as a photographic filter, and because of its resilience it is useful as a metallurgical additive. Other uses: Used in nuclear technology as a nuclear poison, as in neutron-absorbing control rods. When added to vanadium as an alloy, erbium lowers hardness and improves workability. Erbium oxide has a pink color, and is sometimes used as a colorant for glass and porcelain. The glass is then often used in sunglasses and cheap jewelry. Erbium is also used to provide the pink color in cubic zirconia, also used in inexpensive jewelry. The pink color is especially intense and beautiful under white fluorescent lighting. Erbium-doped optical silica-glass fibers are the active element in erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are widely used in optical communications. The same fibers can be used to create fiber lasers. Co-doping of optical fiber with Er and Yb is used in high-power Er/Yb fiber lasers, which gradually replace CO2 lasers for metal welding and cutting applications. Erbium can also be used in erbium-doped waveguide amplifiers. Erbium is commonly used in YAG lasers for cosmetic laser procedures and mild to medium depth skin resurfacing. Wrinkles.org An erbium-nickel alloy Er3Ni has an unusually high specific heat capacity at liquid-helium temperatures and is used in cryocoolers; a mixture of 65% Er3Co and 35% Er0.9Yb0.1Ni by volume improves the specific heat capacity even more. History Erbium (for Ytterby, a town in Sweden) was discovered by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1843. Mosander separated "yttria" from the mineral gadolinite into three fractions which he called yttria, erbia, and terbia. He named the new element after the town of Ytterby where large concentrations of yttria and erbium are located. Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time. After 1860, terbia was renamed erbia and after 1877 what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia. Fairly pure Er2O3 was independently isolated in 1905 by Georges Urbain and Charles James. Reasonably pure metal wasn't produced until 1934 when Klemm and Bommer reduced the anhydrous chloride with potassium vapor. Erbium at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory It was only in the 1990s that the price for Chinese-derived erbium oxide became low enough for erbium to be considered for use as a colorant in art glass. Erbium is the only colorant to give a stable pink color in glass. Erbium colored art glass is currently being produced in China, and has recently been produced by Fenton and Gillinder, in the United States. Occurrence Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is found bound in monazite sand ores. It has historically been very difficult and expensive to separate rare earths from each other in their ores but ion-exchange production techniques developed in the late 20th century have greatly brought down the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and their chemical compounds. The principal commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals xenotime and euxenite, and most recently, the ion adsorption clays of southern China. In the high-yttrium versions of these ore concentrates, yttrium is about two-thirds of the total by weight, and erbia is about 4-5%. This is enough erbium to impart a distinct pink color to the solution when the concentrate is dissolved in acid. This color behavior is highly similar to what Mosander and the other early workers in the lanthanides would have seen, in their extracts from Ytterby gadolinite. Isotopes Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable isotopes, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er-167, Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant (33.503% natural abundance). 29 radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Er-169 with a half-life of 9.4 days, Er-172 with a half-life of 49.3 hours, Er-160 with a half-life of 28.58 hours, Er-165 with a half-life of 10.36 hours, and Er-171 with a half-life of 7.516 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 3.5 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has 13 meta states, with the most stable being Er-167m (t½ 2.269 seconds). The isotopes of erbium range in atomic weight from 142.9663 u (Er-143) to 176.9541 u (Er-177). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Er-166, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before Er-166 are element 67 (holmium) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 (thulium) isotopes. Precautions As with the other lanthanides, erbium compounds are of low to moderate toxicity, although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Metallic erbium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard. In popular culture In Carl Sagan's science-fiction novel Contact, "dowels" constructed in large part of erbium play a prominent role in the operation of a machine of extraterrestrial origin designed for interstellar travel. See also Erbium compounds Terbium Ytterbium Yttrium References Los Alamos National Laboratory – Erbium Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 It's Elemental – Erbium Chemical Elements: Erbium http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/er.html External links WebElements.com – Erbium (also used as a reference) | Erbium |@lemmatized erbium:37 chemical:3 element:15 symbol:1 er:22 atomic:2 number:1 rare:9 silvery:1 white:2 metallic:2 lanthanide:3 solid:1 normal:1 state:3 earth:7 associate:1 several:1 mineral:3 gadolinite:3 ytterby:4 sweden:2 characteristic:2 trivalent:1 pure:3 metal:5 malleable:1 easily:1 shape:1 soft:1 yet:1 stable:6 air:1 oxidize:1 quickly:1 salt:1 rise:1 color:8 sharp:1 absorption:1 spectrum:1 band:1 visible:1 light:2 ultraviolet:1 near:1 infrared:1 otherwise:1 look:1 much:1 like:2 sesquioxide:1 call:2 erbia:6 property:1 degree:1 dictate:1 kind:1 amount:1 impurity:1 present:2 play:2 known:1 biological:1 role:2 think:1 able:1 stimulate:1 metabolism:1 doped:2 glass:7 crystal:1 use:16 optical:7 amplification:1 medium:2 ion:3 optically:1 pump:1 around:1 nm:5 radiate:1 process:1 create:2 laser:7 amplifier:3 wavelength:2 especially:2 important:1 communication:2 standard:1 single:1 mode:3 fiber:7 minimal:1 loss:1 particular:1 large:3 variety:1 medical:1 application:3 find:3 e:1 dermatology:1 dentistry:1 utilize:1 emission:1 see:3 yag:2 highly:2 absorb:2 water:1 cm:1 ferromagnetic:1 k:3 antiferromagnetic:1 paramagnetic:1 jackson:1 magnetism:1 irm:1 quaterly:1 col:1 p:1 everyday:1 us:2 vary:1 commonly:2 photographic:1 filter:1 resilience:1 useful:1 metallurgical:1 additive:1 nuclear:2 technology:1 poison:1 neutron:1 control:1 rod:1 add:1 vanadium:1 alloy:2 lower:1 hardness:1 improve:2 workability:1 oxide:2 pink:5 sometimes:1 colorant:3 porcelain:1 often:1 sunglass:1 cheap:1 jewelry:2 also:6 provide:1 cubic:1 zirconia:1 inexpensive:1 intense:1 beautiful:1 fluorescent:1 lighting:1 silica:1 active:1 dope:2 edfas:1 widely:1 co:1 doping:1 yb:2 high:3 power:1 gradually:1 replace:1 welding:1 cut:1 waveguide:1 cosmetic:1 procedure:1 mild:1 depth:1 skin:1 resurfacing:1 wrinkle:1 org:1 nickel:1 unusually:1 specific:2 heat:2 capacity:2 liquid:1 helium:1 temperature:1 cryocoolers:1 mixture:1 volume:1 even:1 history:1 town:2 discover:1 carl:2 gustaf:1 mosander:3 separate:2 yttria:3 three:1 fraction:1 terbia:4 name:1 new:1 concentration:1 locate:1 however:1 confuse:1 time:1 rename:2 know:1 fairly:1 independently:1 isolate:1 george:1 urbain:1 charles:1 james:1 reasonably:1 produce:3 klemm:1 bommer:1 reduce:1 anhydrous:1 chloride:1 potassium:1 vapor:1 lawrence:1 livermore:1 national:2 laboratory:2 price:1 chinese:1 derived:1 become:1 low:2 enough:2 consider:1 art:2 give:1 currently:1 china:2 recently:2 fenton:1 gillinder:1 united:1 occurrence:1 never:1 free:1 nature:1 bound:1 monazite:1 sand:1 ore:3 historically:1 difficult:1 expensive:1 exchange:1 production:2 technique:1 develop:1 late:1 century:1 greatly:1 bring:1 cost:1 compound:3 principal:1 commercial:1 source:1 xenotime:1 euxenite:1 adsorption:1 clay:1 southern:1 yttrium:3 version:1 concentrate:2 two:1 third:1 total:1 weight:2 impart:1 distinct:1 solution:1 dissolve:1 acid:1 behavior:1 similar:1 early:1 worker:1 would:1 extract:1 isotope:5 naturally:1 occur:1 compose:1 abundant:2 natural:1 abundance:1 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 half:7 life:6 day:1 hour:5 remain:1 radioactive:1 less:2 majority:1 live:1 minute:1 meta:1 second:1 range:1 u:2 primary:4 decay:3 electron:1 capture:1 beta:1 product:2 holmium:1 isotopes:2 thulium:1 precaution:1 moderate:1 toxicity:2 although:1 investigate:1 detail:1 dust:1 form:1 fire:1 explosion:1 hazard:1 popular:1 culture:1 sagan:1 science:1 fiction:1 novel:1 contact:1 dowels:1 construct:1 part:1 prominent:1 operation:1 machine:1 extraterrestrial:1 origin:1 design:1 interstellar:1 travel:1 terbium:1 ytterbium:1 reference:2 los:1 alamos:1 guide:1 revise:1 edition:1 albert:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 elemental:1 http:1 www:1 chemicalelements:1 com:2 html:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 |@bigram silvery_white:1 mineral_gadolinite:2 absorption_spectrum:1 nm_nm:1 optical_fiber:2 yag_laser:2 glass_porcelain:1 fluorescent_lighting:1 liquid_helium:1 carl_gustaf:1 chloride_potassium:1 lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 monazite_sand:1 stable_isotope:2 er_er:6 radioisotope_characterize:1 radioactive_isotope:1 beta_decay:1 carl_sagan:1 science_fiction:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
1,893 | Amara_Sinha | Amara Sinha (c. AD 375) was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) that flourished about AD 375. Amara seems to have been a Buddhist; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox Brahmins in the 5th century . The exception is the celebrated Amara-Kosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or the "Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by HT Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. References External links Amarakosha Sanskrit text | Amara_Sinha |@lemmatized amara:4 sinha:1 c:1 ad:2 sanskrit:4 grammarian:1 poet:1 whose:1 personal:1 history:1 hardly:1 anything:1 know:1 say:1 one:2 nine:1 gem:1 adorn:1 throne:1 vikramaditya:2 accord:1 evidence:1 hsuan:1 tsang:1 chandragupta:2 ii:1 flourish:1 seem:1 buddhist:1 early:1 tradition:1 assert:1 work:3 exception:2 destroy:1 persecution:1 carry:1 orthodox:1 brahmin:1 century:1 celebrated:1 kosha:2 treasury:1 vocabulary:1 root:1 three:1 book:1 hence:1 sometimes:1 call:1 trikanda:1 tripartite:1 contain:1 word:1 arrange:1 like:1 class:1 metre:1 aid:1 memory:1 first:1 chapter:1 print:2 rome:1 tamil:1 character:1 edition:1 entire:1 english:1 note:1 index:1 ht:1 colebrooke:1 appear:1 serampore:1 text:2 calcutta:1 french:1 translation:1 ala:1 loiseleur:1 deslongchamps:1 publish:1 paris:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 amarakosha:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
1,894 | Antioxidant | Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. The yellow sphere is the redox-active sulfur atom that provides antioxidant activity, while the red, blue, white, and dark grey spheres represent oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms, respectively. An antioxidant is a molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction that transfers electrons from a substance to an oxidizing agent. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals, which start chain reactions that damage cells. Antioxidants terminate these chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates, and inhibit other oxidation reactions by being oxidized themselves. As a result, antioxidants are often reducing agents such as thiols, ascorbic acid or polyphenols. Although oxidation reactions are crucial for life, they can also be damaging; hence, plants and animals maintain complex systems of multiple types of antioxidants, such as glutathione, vitamin C, and vitamin E as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases. Low levels of antioxidants, or inhibition of the antioxidant enzymes, causes oxidative stress and may damage or kill cells. As oxidative stress might be an important part of many human diseases, the use of antioxidants in pharmacology is intensively studied, particularly as treatments for stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. However, it is unknown whether oxidative stress is the cause or the consequence of disease. Antioxidants are also widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements in the hope of maintaining health and preventing diseases such as cancer and coronary heart disease. Although initial studies suggested that antioxidant supplements might promote health, later large clinical trials did not detect any benefit and suggested instead that excess supplementation may be harmful. In addition to these uses of natural antioxidants in medicine, these compounds have many industrial uses, such as preservatives in food and cosmetics and preventing the degradation of rubber and gasoline. History The term antioxidant originally was used to refer specifically to a chemical that prevented the consumption of oxygen. In the late 19th and early 20th century, extensive study was devoted to the uses of antioxidants in important industrial processes, such as the prevention of metal corrosion, the vulcanization of rubber, and the polymerization of fuels in the fouling of internal combustion engines. Matill HA (1947). Antioxidants. Annu Rev Biochem 16: 177–192. Early research on the role of antioxidants in biology focused on their use in preventing the oxidation of unsaturated fats, which is the cause of rancidity. Antioxidant activity could be measured simply by placing the fat in a closed container with oxygen and measuring the rate of oxygen consumption. However, it was the identification of vitamins A, C, and E as antioxidants that revolutionized the field and led to the realization of the importance of antioxidants in the biochemistry of living organisms. The possible mechanisms of action of antioxidants were first explored when it was recognized that a substance with anti-oxidative activity is likely to be one that is itself readily oxidized. Moreau and Dufraisse, (1922) Comptes Rendus des Séances et Mémoires de la Société de Biologie, 86, 321. Research into how vitamin E prevents the process of lipid peroxidation led to the identification of antioxidants as reducing agents that prevent oxidative reactions, often by scavenging reactive oxygen species before they can damage cells. The oxidative challenge in biology The structure of the antioxidant vitamin ascorbic acid (vitamin C). A paradox in metabolism is that while the vast majority of complex life on Earth requires oxygen for its existence, oxygen is a highly reactive molecule that damages living organisms by producing reactive oxygen species. Consequently, organisms contain a complex network of antioxidant metabolites and enzymes that work together to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components such as DNA, proteins and lipids. In general, antioxidant systems either prevent these reactive species from being formed, or remove them before they can damage vital components of the cell. However, since reactive oxygen species do have useful functions in cells, such as redox signaling, the function of antioxidant systems is not to remove oxidants entirely, but instead to keep them at an optimum level. The reactive oxygen species produced in cells include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and free radicals such as the hydroxyl radical (·OH) and the superoxide anion (O2−). The hydroxyl radical is particularly unstable and will react rapidly and non-specifically with most biological molecules. This species is produced from hydrogen peroxide in metal-catalyzed redox reactions such as the Fenton reaction. These oxidants can damage cells by starting chemical chain reactions such as lipid peroxidation, or by oxidizing DNA or proteins. Damage to DNA can cause mutations and possibly cancer, if not reversed by DNA repair mechanisms, while damage to proteins causes enzyme inhibition, denaturation and protein degradation. The use of oxygen as part of the process for generating metabolic energy produces reactive oxygen species. In this process, the superoxide anion is produced as a by-product of several steps in the electron transport chain. Particularly important is the reduction of coenzyme Q in complex III, since a highly reactive free radical is formed as an intermediate (Q·−). This unstable intermediate can lead to electron "leakage", when electrons jump directly to oxygen and form the superoxide anion, instead of moving through the normal series of well-controlled reactions of the electron transport chain. Peroxide is also produced from the oxidation of reduced flavoproteins, such as complex I. However, although these enzymes can produce oxidants, the relative importance of the electron transfer chain to other processes that generate peroxide is unclear. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, reactive oxygen species are also produced during photosynthesis, particularly under conditions of high light intensity. This effect is partly offset by the involvement of carotenoids in photoinhibition, which involves these antioxidants reacting with over-reduced forms of the photosynthetic reaction centres to prevent the production of reactive oxygen species. Metabolites Overview Antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions, depending on whether they are soluble in water (hydrophilic) or in lipids (hydrophobic). In general, water-soluble antioxidants react with oxidants in the cell cytosol and the blood plasma, while lipid-soluble antioxidants protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation. These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet. The different antioxidants are present at a wide range of concentrations in body fluids and tissues, with some such as glutathione or ubiquinone mostly present within cells, while others such as uric acid are more evenly distributed (see table below). Some antioxidants are only found in a few organisms and these compounds can be important in pathogens and can be virulence factors. The relative importance and interactions between these different antioxidants is a very complex question, with the various metabolites and enzyme systems having synergistic and interdependent effects on one another. The action of one antioxidant may therefore depend on the proper function of other members of the antioxidant system. The amount of protection provided by any one antioxidant will also depend on its concentration, its reactivity towards the particular reactive oxygen species being considered, and the status of the antioxidants with which it interacts. Some compounds contribute to antioxidant defense by chelating transition metals and preventing them from catalyzing the production of free radicals in the cell. Particularly important is the ability to sequester iron, which is the function of iron-binding proteins such as transferrin and ferritin. Selenium and zinc are commonly referred to as antioxidant nutrients, but these chemical elements have no antioxidant action themselves and are instead required for the activity of some antioxidant enzymes, as is discussed below. Antioxidant metaboliteSolubilityConcentration in human serum (μM) Concentration in liver tissue (μmol/kg)Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)Water50 – 60 260 (human) GlutathioneWater4 6,400 (human)Lipoic acidWater0.1 – 0.7 4 – 5 (rat) Uric acidWater200 – 400 1,600 (human)CarotenesLipidβ-carotene: 0.5 – 1 retinol (vitamin A): 1 – 3 5 (human, total carotenoids) α-Tocopherol (vitamin E)Lipid10 – 4050 (human)Ubiquinol (coenzyme Q)Lipid5 200 (human) Ascorbic acid Ascorbic acid or "vitamin C" is a monosaccharide antioxidant found in both animals and plants. As it cannot be synthesised in humans and must be obtained from the diet, it is a vitamin. Most other animals are able to produce this compound in their bodies and do not require it in their diets. In cells, it is maintained in its reduced form by reaction with glutathione, which can be catalysed by protein disulfide isomerase and glutaredoxins. Ascorbic acid is a reducing agent and can reduce and thereby neutralize reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. In addition to its direct antioxidant effects, ascorbic acid is also a substrate for the antioxidant enzyme ascorbate peroxidase, a function that is particularly important in stress resistance in plants. Although various antioxidants generally behave synergisticly, ascorbic acid can degrade other antioxidants of the phytochemical family anthocyanin. Glutathione The free radical mechanism of lipid peroxidation. Glutathione is a cysteine-containing peptide found in most forms of aerobic life. It is not required in the diet and is instead synthesized in cells from its constituent amino acids. Glutathione has antioxidant properties since the thiol group in its cysteine moiety is a reducing agent and can be reversibly oxidized and reduced. In cells, glutathione is maintained in the reduced form by the enzyme glutathione reductase and in turn reduces other metabolites and enzyme systems, such as glutathione peroxidases and glutaredoxins, as well as reacting directly with oxidants. Due to its high concentration and its central role in maintaining the cell's redox state, glutathione is one of the most important cellular antioxidants. In some organisms glutathione is replaced by other thiols, such as by mycothiol in the Actinomycetes, or by trypanothione in the Kinetoplastids. Melatonin Melatonin is a powerful antioxidant that can easily cross cell membranes and the blood-brain barrier. Unlike other antioxidants, melatonin does not undergo redox cycling, which is the ability of a molecule to undergo repeated reduction and oxidation. Redox cycling may allow other antioxidants (such as vitamin C) to act as pro-oxidants and promote free radical formation. Melatonin, once oxidized, cannot be reduced to its former state because it forms several stable end-products upon reacting with free radicals. Therefore, it has been referred to as a terminal (or suicidal) antioxidant. Tocopherols and tocotrienols (vitamin E) Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of eight related tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are fat-soluble vitamins with antioxidant properties. Of these, α-tocopherol has been most studied as it has the highest bioavailability, with the body preferentially absorbing and metabolising this form. It has been claimed that the α-tocopherol form is the most important lipid-soluble antioxidant, and that it protects membranes from oxidation by reacting with lipid radicals produced in the lipid peroxidation chain reaction. This removes the free radical intermediates and prevents the propagation reaction from continuing. This reaction produces oxidised α-tocopheroxyl radicals that can be recycled back to the active reduced form through reduction by other antioxidants, such as ascorbate, retinol or ubiquinol. This is in line with findings showing that α-tocopherol, but not water-soluble antioxidants, efficiently protects glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4)-deficient cells from cell death . GPx4 is the only known enzyme that efficiently reduces lipid-hydroperoxides within biological membranes. However, the roles and importance of the various forms of vitamin E are presently unclear, and it has even been suggested that the most important function of α-tocopherol is as a signaling molecule, with this molecule having no significant role in antioxidant metabolism. The functions of the other forms of vitamin E are even less well-understood, although γ-tocopherol is a nucleophile that may react with electrophilic mutagens, and tocotrienols may be important in protecting neurons from damage. Pro-oxidant activities Antioxidants that are reducing agents can also act as pro-oxidants. For example, vitamin C has antioxidant activity when it reduces oxidizing substances such as hydrogen peroxide, however, it will also reduce metal ions that generate free radicals through the Fenton reaction. 2 Fe3+ + Ascorbate → 2 Fe2+ + Dehydroascorbate 2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O2 → 2 Fe3+ + 2 OH· + 2 OH− The relative importance of the antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of antioxidants are an area of current research, but vitamin C, for example, appears to have a mostly antioxidant action in the body. However, less data is available for other dietary antioxidants, such as vitamin E, or the polyphenols. Enzyme systems Enzymatic pathway for detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Overview As with the chemical antioxidants, cells are protected against oxidative stress by an interacting network of antioxidant enzymes. Here, the superoxide released by processes such as oxidative phosphorylation is first converted to hydrogen peroxide and then further reduced to give water. This detoxification pathway is the result of multiple enzymes, with superoxide dismutases catalysing the first step and then catalases and various peroxidases removing hydrogen peroxide. As with antioxidant metabolites, the contributions of these enzymes to antioxidant defenses can be hard to separate from one another, but the generation of transgenic mice lacking just one antioxidant enzyme can be informative. Superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxiredoxins Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are a class of closely related enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of the superoxide anion into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. SOD enzymes are present in almost all aerobic cells and in extracellular fluids. Superoxide dismutase enzymes contain metal ion cofactors that, depending on the isozyme, can be copper, zinc, manganese or iron. In humans, the copper/zinc SOD is present in the cytosol, while manganese SOD is present in the mitochondrion. There also exists a third form of SOD in extracellular fluids, which contains copper and zinc in its active sites. The mitochondrial isozyme seems to be the most biologically important of these three, since mice lacking this enzyme die soon after birth. In contrast, the mice lacking copper/zinc SOD (Sod1) are viable but have numerous pathologies and a reduced lifespan (see article on superoxide, while mice without the extracellular SOD have minimal defects (sensitive to hyperoxia). In plants, SOD isozymes are present in the cytosol and mitochondria, with an iron SOD found in chloroplasts that is absent from vertebrates and yeast. Catalases are enzymes that catalyse the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, using either an iron or manganese cofactor. This protein is localized to peroxisomes in most eukaryotic cells. Catalase is an unusual enzyme since, although hydrogen peroxide is its only substrate, it follows a ping-pong mechanism. Here, its cofactor is oxidised by one molecule of hydrogen peroxide and then regenerated by transferring the bound oxygen to a second molecule of substrate. Despite its apparent importance in hydrogen peroxide removal, humans with genetic deficiency of catalase — "acatalasemia" — or mice genetically engineered to lack catalase completely, suffer few ill effects. Decameric structure of AhpC, a bacterial 2-cysteine peroxiredoxin from Salmonella typhimurium. PDB 1YEX Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases that catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide, organic hydroperoxides, as well as peroxynitrite. They are divided into three classes: typical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxins; atypical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxins; and 1-cysteine peroxiredoxins. These enzymes share the same basic catalytic mechanism, in which a redox-active cysteine (the peroxidatic cysteine) in the active site is oxidized to a sulfenic acid by the peroxide substrate. Over-oxidation of this cysteine residue in peroxiredoxins inactivates these enzymes, but this can be reversed by the action of sulfiredoxin. Peroxiredoxins seem to be important in antioxidant metabolism, as mice lacking peroxiredoxin 1 or 2 have shortened lifespan and suffer from hemolytic anaemia, while plants use peroxiredoxins to remove hydrogen peroxide generated in chloroplasts. Thioredoxin and glutathione systems The thioredoxin system contains the 12-kDa protein thioredoxin and its companion thioredoxin reductase. Proteins related to thioredoxin are present in all sequenced organisms, with plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana having a particularly great diversity of isoforms. The active site of thioredoxin consists of two neighboring cysteines, as part of a highly conserved CXXC motif, that can cycle between an active dithiol form (reduced) and an oxidized disulfide form. In its active state, thioredoxin acts as an efficient reducing agent, scavenging reactive oxygen species and maintaining other proteins in their reduced state. After being oxidized, the active thioredoxin is regenerated by the action of thioredoxin reductase, using NADPH as an electron donor. The glutathione system includes glutathione, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidases and glutathione S-transferases. This system is found in animals, plants and microorganisms. Glutathione peroxidase is an enzyme containing four selenium-cofactors that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. There are at least four different glutathione peroxidase isozymes in animals. Glutathione peroxidase 1 is the most abundant and is a very efficient scavenger of hydrogen peroxide, while glutathione peroxidase 4 is most active with lipid hydroperoxides. Surprisingly, glutathione peroxidase 1 is dispensable, as mice lacking this enzyme have normal lifespans, but they are hypersensitive to induced oxidative stress. In addition, the glutathione S-transferases show high activity with lipid peroxides. These enzymes are at particularly high levels in the liver and also serve in detoxification metabolism. Oxidative stress in disease Oxidative stress is thought to contribute to the development of a wide range of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, the pathologies caused by diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and neurodegeneration in motor neurone diseases. In many of these cases, it is unclear if oxidants trigger the disease, or if they are produced as a secondary consequence of the disease and from general tissue damage; One case in which this link is particularly well-understood is the role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease. Here, low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation appears to trigger the process of atherogenesis, which results in atherosclerosis, and finally cardiovascular disease. A low calorie diet extends median and maximum lifespan in many animals. This effect may involve a reduction in oxidative stress. While there is some evidence to support the role of oxidative stress in aging in model organisms such as Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans, the evidence in mammals is less clear. Diets high in fruit and vegetables, which are high in antioxidants, promote health and reduce the effects of aging, however antioxidant vitamin supplementation has no detectable effect on the aging process, so the effects of fruit and vegetables may be unrelated to their antioxidant contents. One reason for this might be the fact that consuming antioxidant molecules such as polyphenols and vitamin E will produce changes in other parts of metabolism, so it may be these other non-antioxidant effects that are the real reason they are important in human nutrition. Health effects Disease treatment The brain is uniquely vulnerable to oxidative injury, due to its high metabolic rate and elevated levels of polyunsaturated lipids, the target of lipid peroxidation. Consequently, antioxidants are commonly used as medications to treat various forms of brain injury. Here, superoxide dismutase mimetics, sodium thiopental and propofol are used to treat reperfusion injury and traumatic brain injury, while the experimental drug NXY-059 and ebselen are being applied in the treatment of stroke. These compounds appear to prevent oxidative stress in neurons and prevent apoptosis and neurological damage. Antioxidants are also being investigated as possible treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and as a way to prevent noise-induced hearing loss. Disease prevention Structure of the polyphenol antioxidant resveratrol. Antioxidants can cancel out the cell-damaging effects of free radicals. Furthermore, people who eat fruits and vegetables, which happen to be good sources of antioxidants, have a lower risk of heart disease and some neurological diseases, and there is evidence that some types of vegetables, and fruits in general, protect against a number of cancers. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective. World Cancer Research Fund (2007). ISBN 978-0-9722522-2-5. These observations suggested the idea that antioxidants might help prevent these conditions. However, this hypothesis has now been tested in many clinical trials and does not seem to be true, since antioxidant supplements have no clear effect on the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. This suggests that other substances in fruit and vegetables (possibly flavonoids), or a complex mix of substances, may contribute to the better cardiovascular health of those who consume more fruit and vegetables. However, there is some evidence that antioxidants might help prevent other diseases such as macular degeneration, suppressed immunity due to poor nutrition, and neurodegeneration. It is thought that oxidation of low density lipoprotein in the blood contributes to heart disease, and initial observational studies found that people taking Vitamin E supplements had a lower risk of developing heart disease. Consequently, at least seven large clinical trials were conducted to test the effects of antioxidant supplement with Vitamin E, in doses ranging from 50 to per day. However, none of these trials found a statistically significant effect of Vitamin E on overall number of deaths or on deaths due to heart disease. Further studies have also been negative. It is not clear if the doses used in these trials or in most dietary supplements are capable of producing any significant decrease in oxidative stress. Overall, despite the clear role of oxidative stress in cardiovascular disease, controlled studies using antioxidant vitamins have observed no reduction in either the risk of developing heart disease, or the rate of progression of existing disease. While several trials have investigated supplements with high doses of antioxidants, the "Supplémentation en Vitamines et Mineraux Antioxydants" (SU.VI.MAX) study tested the effect of supplementation with doses comparable to those in a healthy diet. Over 12,500 French men and women took either low-dose antioxidants ( of ascorbic acid, of vitamin E, of beta carotene, 100 g of selenium, and of zinc) or placebo pills for an average of 7.5 years. The investigators found there was no statistically significant effect of the antioxidants on overall survival, cancer, or heart disease. However, in a post-hoc analysis they found a 31% reduction in the risk of cancer in men, but not women. Many nutraceutical and health food companies sell formulations of antioxidants as dietary supplements and these are widely used in industrialized countries. These supplements may include specific antioxidant chemicals, like resveratrol (from grape seeds or knotweed roots), combinations of antioxidants, like the "ACES" products that contain beta carotene (provitamin A), vitamin C, vitamin E and Selenium, or herbs that contain antioxidants - such as green tea and jiaogulan. Although some levels of antioxidant vitamins and minerals in the diet are required for good health, there is considerable doubt as to whether these antioxidant supplements are beneficial or harmful, and if they are actually beneficial, which antioxidant(s) are needed and in what amounts. Indeed, some authors argue that the hypothesis that antioxidants could prevent chronic diseases has now been disproven and that the idea was misguided from the beginning. For overall life expectancy, it has even been suggested that moderate levels of oxidative stress may increase lifespan in the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, by inducing a protective response to increased levels of reactive oxygen species. However, the suggestion that increased life expectancy comes from increased oxidative stress conflicts with results seen in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the situation in mammals is even less clear. However, antioxidant supplements do not appear to increase life expectancy in humans. Physical exercise During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10. This leads to a large increase in the production of oxidants and results in damage that contributes to muscular fatigue during and after exercise. The inflammatory response that occurs after strenuous exercise is also associated with oxidative stress, especially in the 24 hours after an exercise session. The immune system response to the damage done by exercise peaks 2 to 7 days after exercise, which is the period during which most of the adaptation that leads to greater fitness occurs. During this process, free radicals are produced by neutrophils to remove damaged tissue. As a result, excessive antioxidant levels may inhibit recovery and adaptation mechanisms. Antioxidant supplements may also prevent any of the health gains that normally come from exercise, such as increased insulin sensitivity. The evidence for benefits from antioxidant supplementation in vigorous exercise is mixed. There is strong evidence that one of the adaptations resulting from exercise is a strengthening of the body's antioxidant defenses, particularly the glutathione system, to regulate the increased oxidative stress. This effect may be to some extent protective against diseases which are associated with oxidative stress, which would provide a partial explanation for the lower incidence of major diseases and better health of those who undertake regular exercise. However, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation. Indeed, despite its key role in preventing lipid membrane peroxidation, 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Although there appears to be no increased requirement for vitamin C in athletes, there is some evidence that vitamin C supplementation increased the amount of intense exercise that can be done and vitamin C supplementation before strenuous exercise may reduce the amount of muscle damage. However, other studies found no such effects, and some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as inhibits recovery. Adverse effects Structure of the metal chelator phytic acid. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract and preventing them from being absorbed. Notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where less meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans and unleavened whole grain bread. FoodsReducing acid presentCocoa and chocolate, spinach, turnip and rhubarb. Oxalic acidWhole grains, maize, legumes. Phytic acidTea, beans, cabbage. Tannins Nonpolar antioxidants such as eugenol, a major component of oil of cloves have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, as these compounds can be excreted rapidly in urine. More seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET) study of lung cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene and vitamin A had increased rates of lung cancer. Subsequent studies confirmed these adverse effects. These harmful effects may also be seen in non-smokers, as a recent meta-analysis including data from approximately 230,000 patients showed that β-carotene, vitamin A or vitamin E supplementation is associated with increased mortality but saw no significant effect from vitamin C. No health risk was seen when all the randomized controlled studies were examined together, but an increase in mortality was detected only when the high-quality and low-bias risk trials were examined separately. However, as the majority of these low-bias trials dealt with either elderly people, or people already suffering disease, these results may not apply to the general population. Study Citing Antioxidant Vitamin Risks Based On Flawed Methodology, Experts Argue News release from Oregon State University published on ScienceDaily, Accessed 19 April 2007 This meta-analysis was later repeated and extended by the same authors, with the new analysis published by the Cochrane Collaboration; confirming the previous results. These two publications are consistent with some previous meta-analyzes that also suggested that Vitamin E supplementation increased mortality, and that antioxidant supplements increased the risk of colon cancer. However, the results of this meta-analysis are inconsistent with other studies such as the SU.VI.MAX trial, which suggested that antioxidants have no effect on cause-all mortality. Overall, the large number of clinical trials carried out on antioxidant supplements suggest that either these products have no effect on health, or that they cause a small increase in mortality in elderly or vulnerable populations. While antioxidant supplementation is widely used in attempts to prevent the development of cancer, it has been proposed that antioxidants may, paradoxically, interfere with cancer treatments. This was thought to occur since the environment of cancer cells causes high levels of oxidative stress, making these cells more susceptible to the further oxidative stress induced by treatments. As a result, by reducing the redox stress in cancer cells, antioxidant supplements could decrease the effectiveness of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, the evidence is mixed, and some reviews indicate that antioxidants could reduce side effects or increase survival times. Measurement and levels in food Fruits and vegetables are good sources of antioxidants. Measurement of antioxidants is not a straightforward process, as this is a diverse group of compounds with different reactivities to different reactive oxygen species. In food science, the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) has become the current industry standard for assessing antioxidant strength of whole foods, juices and food additives. Other measurement tests include the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay. The CAP-e assay measures antioxidants that are available to enter and protect live cells. Antioxidants are found in varying amounts in foods such as vegetables, fruits, grain cereals, legumes and nuts. Some antioxidants such as lycopene and ascorbic acid can be destroyed by long-term storage or prolonged cooking. Other antioxidant compounds are more stable, such as the polyphenolic antioxidants in foods such as whole-wheat cereals and tea. In general, processed foods contain fewer antioxidants than fresh and uncooked foods, since the preparation processes may expose the food to oxygen. Antioxidant compoundsFoods containing high levels of these antioxidants Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Fruits and vegetables Vitamin E (tocopherols, tocotrienols) Vegetable oils Polyphenolic antioxidants (resveratrol, flavonoids) Tea, coffee, soy, fruit, olive oil, chocolate, cinnamon, oregano and red wine Carotenoids (lycopene, carotenes) Fruit and vegetables Other antioxidants are not vitamins and are instead made in the body. For example, ubiquinol (coenzyme Q) is poorly absorbed from the gut and is made in humans through the mevalonate pathway. Another example is glutathione, which is made from amino acids. As any glutathione in the gut is broken down to free cysteine, glycine and glutamic acid before being absorbed, even large oral doses have little effect on the concentration of glutathione in the body. Although large amounts of sulfur-containing amino acids such as acetylcysteine can increase glutathione, no evidence exists that eating high levels of these glutathione precursors is beneficial for healthy adults. Supplying more of these precursors may be useful as part of the treatment of some diseases, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, protein-energy malnutrition, or preventing the liver damage produced by paracetamol overdose. Other compounds in the diet can alter the levels of antioxidants by acting as pro-oxidants. Here, consuming the compound causes oxidative stress, which the body responds to by inducing higher levels of antioxidant defenses such as antioxidant enzymes. Some of these compounds, such as isothiocyanates and curcumin, may be chemopreventive agents that either block the transformation of abnormal cells into cancerous cells, or even kill existing cancer cells. Uses in technology Food preservatives Antioxidants are used as food additives to help guard against food deterioration. Exposure to oxygen and sunlight are the two main factors in the oxidation of food, so food is preserved by keeping in the dark and sealing it in containers or even coating it in wax, as with cucumbers. However, as oxygen is also important for plant respiration, storing plant materials in anaerobic conditions produces unpleasant flavors and unappealing colors. Consequently, packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables contains an ~8% oxygen atmosphere. Antioxidants are an especially important class of preservatives as, unlike bacterial or fungal spoilage, oxidation reactions still occur relatively rapidly in frozen or refrigerated food. These preservatives include natural antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (AA, E300) and tocopherols (E306), as well as synthetic antioxidants such as propyl gallate (PG, E310), tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA, E320) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, E321). The most common molecules attacked by oxidation are unsaturated fats; oxidation causes them to turn rancid. Since oxidized lipids are often discolored and usually have unpleasant tastes such as metallic or sulfurous flavors, it is important to avoid oxidation in fat-rich foods. Thus, these foods are rarely preserved by drying; instead, they are preserved by smoking, salting or fermenting. Even less fatty foods such as fruits are sprayed with sulfurous antioxidants prior to air drying. Oxidation is often catalyzed by metals, which is why fats such as butter should never be wrapped in aluminium foil or kept in metal containers. Some fatty foods such as olive oil are partially protected from oxidation by their natural content of antioxidants, but remain sensitive to photooxidation. Antioxidant preservatives are also added to fat-based cosmetics such as lipstick and moisturizers to prevent rancidity. Industrial uses Antioxidants are frequently added to industrial products. A common use is as stabilizers in fuels and lubricants to prevent oxidation, and in gasolines to prevent the polymerization that leads to the formation of engine-fouling residues. CE Boozer, GS Hammond, CE Hamilton (1955) "Air Oxidation of Hydrocarbons. The Stoichiometry and Fate of Inhibitors in Benzene and Chlorobenzene". Journal of the American Chemical Society, 3233–3235 They are widely used to prevent the oxidative degradation of polymers such as rubbers, plastics and adhesives that causes a loss of strength and flexibility in these materials. Polymers containing double bonds in their main chains are especially susceptible to oxidation and ozonolysis. Solid polymer products start to crack on exposed surfaces as the material degrades and the chains unzip. The mode of cracking varies between oxygen and ozone attack, the former causing a "crazy paving" effect, while ozone attack produces deeper cracks aligned at right angles to the tensile strain in the product. Ozone cracking is especially damaging to elastomers such as natural rubber, polybutadiene and other double-bonded rubbers. They can be protected by antiozonants. Oxidation and UV degradation are also frequently linked, mainly because UV radiation creates free radicals by bond breakage. The free radicals then react with oxygen to produce peroxy radicals which cause yet further damage, often in a chain reaction. Other polymers suceptible to oxidation include polypropylene and polyethylene. The former is more sensitive owing to the presence of secondary carbon atoms present in every repeat unit. Attack occurs at this point because the free radical formed is more stable than one formed on a primary carbon atom. Oxidation of polyethylene tends to occur at weak links in the chain, such as branch points in low density polyethylene. Fuel additiveComponents ApplicationsAO-22N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamineTurbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids, waxes, and greasesAO-24N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamineLow-temperature oilsAO-292,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenolTurbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids, waxes, greases, and gasolinesAO-302,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenolJet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolinesAO-312,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenolJet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolinesAO-322,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenolJet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolinesAO-372,6-di-tert-butylphenolJet fuels and gasolines, widely approved for aviation fuels See also Forensic engineering Free radical theory Nootropics Nutrition Phytochemical Mitohormesis Polymer degradation Antiozonant Evolution of dietary antioxidants Further reading Nick Lane Oxygen: The Molecule That Made the World (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0-198-60783-0 Barry Halliwell and John M.C. Gutteridge Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine(Oxford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0-198-56869-X Jan Pokorny, Nelly Yanishlieva and Michael H. Gordon Antioxidants in Food: Practical Applications (CRC Press Inc, 2001) ISBN 0-849-31222-1 References External links U.S. National Institute Health, Office on Dietary Supplements List of antioxidants, food sources, and Potential Benefits MedlinePlus: Antioxidants. | Antioxidant |@lemmatized space:1 fill:1 model:2 antioxidant:139 metabolite:6 glutathione:31 yellow:1 sphere:2 redox:8 active:10 sulfur:2 atom:4 provide:3 activity:9 red:2 blue:1 white:1 dark:2 grey:1 represent:1 oxygen:33 nitrogen:1 hydrogen:16 carbon:3 respectively:1 molecule:12 capable:2 slow:1 prevent:27 oxidation:25 chemical:7 reaction:19 transfer:3 electron:7 substance:5 oxidizing:1 agent:8 produce:20 free:18 radical:23 start:3 chain:11 damage:20 cell:29 terminate:1 remove:7 intermediate:4 inhibit:2 oxidize:8 result:11 often:5 reduce:19 thiols:2 ascorbic:13 acid:26 polyphenols:3 although:9 crucial:1 life:6 also:20 hence:1 plant:11 animal:6 maintain:6 complex:7 system:13 multiple:2 type:2 vitamin:44 c:15 e:21 well:7 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1,895 | Complex_number | A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram In mathematics, the complex numbers are an extension of the real numbers obtained by adjoining an imaginary unit, denoted i, which satisfies: Every complex number can be written in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers called the real part and the imaginary part of the complex number, respectively. Complex numbers are a field, and thus have addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations. These operations extend the corresponding operations on real numbers, although with a number of additional elegant and useful properties, e.g., negative real numbers can be obtained by squaring complex (imaginary) numbers. Complex numbers were first conceived and defined by the Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano, who called them "fictitious", during his attempts to find solutions to cubic equations. The solution of a general cubic equation may require intermediate calculations containing the square roots of negative numbers, even when the final solutions are real numbers, a situation known as casus irreducibilis. This ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher. The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli. A more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to the theory of quaternions. Complex numbers are used in many different fields including applications in engineering, electromagnetism, quantum physics, applied mathematics, and chaos theory. When the underlying field of numbers for a mathematical construct is the field of complex numbers, the name usually reflects that fact. Examples are complex analysis, complex matrix, complex polynomial and complex Lie algebra. Definitions Notation The set of all complex numbers is usually denoted by C, or in blackboard bold by . Although other notations can be used, complex numbers are very often written in the form where a and b are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit, which has the property i 2 = −1. The real number a is called the real part of the complex number, and the real number b is the imaginary part. For example, 3 + 2i is a complex number, with real part 3 and imaginary part 2. If z = a + ib, the real part a is denoted Re(z) or ℜ(z), and the imaginary part b is denoted Im(z) or ℑ(z). The real numbers, R, may be regarded as a subset of C by considering every real number a complex number with an imaginary part of zero; that is, the real number a is identified with the complex number . Complex numbers with a real part of zero are called imaginary numbers; instead of writing , that imaginary number is usually denoted as just bi. If b equals 1, instead of using or 1i, the number is denoted as i. In some disciplines (in particular, electrical engineering, where i is a symbol for current), the imaginary unit i is instead written as j, so complex numbers are sometimes written as a + bj or a + jb. Domain coloring plot of the function The hue represents the function argument, while the saturation and value represent the magnitude. Formal development In a rigorous setting, it is not acceptable to simply assume that there exists a number whose square is −1. The definition must therefore be a little less intuitive, building on the knowledge of real numbers. Write C for R2, the set of ordered pairs of real numbers, and define operations on complex numbers in C according to (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) (a, b)·(c, d) = (a·c − b·d, b·c + a·d) Since (0, 1)·(0, 1) = (−1, 0), we have found i by constructing it, not postulating it. We can associate the numbers (a, 0) with the real numbers, and write i = (0, 1). It is then just a matter of notation to express (a, b) as a + ib. Equality Two complex numbers are said to be equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. In other words, if the two complex numbers are written as a + bi and c + di with a, b, c, and d real, then they are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. This is an equivalence relation. Operations Complex numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided by formally applying the associative, commutative and distributive laws of algebra, together with the equation i 2 = −1: Addition: Subtraction: Multiplication: Division: where c and d are not both zero. This is obtained by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator with the complex conjugate of the denominator, that is (c − di). Since the complex number a + bi is uniquely specified by the ordered pair (a, b), the complex numbers are in one-to-one correspondence with points on a plane. This complex plane is described below. Elementary functions There are also other elementary functions that can be applied to complex functions. The most important is perhaps the exponential function exp(z), defined in terms of the infinite series The elementary functions are, loosely, those which can be built using exp and the arithmetic operations given above, as well as taking inverses; in particular, the inverse of the exponential function, the logarithm. The real-valued logarithm over the positive reals is well-defined (written ln), and the complex logarithm generalises this idea. However, is a multivalued function, unique only up to a multiple of 2πi. so the principal value is often taken by restricting the complex part to the interval (−π,π], giving where Arg is the principal argument. The familiar trigonometric functions are composed of these, so are also elementary. For example, Hyperbolic functions are similarly constructed. The field of complex numbers A field is an algebraic structure with addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division operations that satisfy certain algebraic laws. The complex numbers form a field, known as the complex number field, denoted by C. In particular, this means that the complex numbers possess: An additive identity ("zero"), 0 + 0i. A multiplicative identity ("one"), 1 + 0i. An additive inverse of every complex number. The additive inverse of a + bi is −a − bi. A multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of every nonzero complex number. The multiplicative inverse of a + bi is Examples of other fields are the real numbers and the rational numbers. When each real number a is identified with the complex number a + 0i, the field of real numbers R becomes a subfield of C. The complex numbers C can also be characterized as the topological closure of the algebraic numbers or as the algebraic closure of R, both of which are described below. The complex plane Geometric representation of and its conjugate in the complex plane. A complex number z can be viewed as a point or a position vector in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand diagram (see and ) named after Jean-Robert Argand. The point and hence the complex number z can be specified by Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates. The Cartesian coordinates of the complex number are the real part x = Re(z) and the imaginary part y = Im(z). The representation of a complex number by its Cartesian coordinates is called the Cartesian form or rectangular form or algebraic form of that complex number. Absolute value, conjugation and distance The absolute value (or modulus or magnitude) of a complex number is defined as . Algebraically, if , then The absolute value has three important properties: where if and only if (triangle inequality) for all complex numbers z and w. These imply that |1| = 1 and |z/w| = |z|/|w|. By defining the distance function d(z, w) = |z − w|, we turn the set of complex numbers into a metric space and we can therefore talk about limits and continuity. The complex conjugate of the complex number is defined to be , written as or . As seen in the figure, is the "reflection" of z about the real axis, and so both and are real numbers. Many identities relate complex numbers and their conjugates: if and only if z is real if and only if z is purely imaginary if z is non-zero. The latter formula is the method of choice to compute the inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular coordinates. That conjugation distributes over all the algebraic operations (and many functions; e.g. ) is rooted in the ambiguity in choice of i (−1 has two square roots). It is important to note, however, that the function is not complex-differentiable (see holomorphic function). Geometric interpretation of the operations on complex numbers The operations of addition, multiplication, and complex conjugation in the complex plane admit natural geometrical interpretations. X = A + B The sum of two points A and B of the complex plane is the point X = A + B such that the triangles with vertices 0, A, B, and X, B, A, are congruent. Thus the addition of two complex numbers is the same as vector addition of two vectors. X = AB The product of two points A and B is the point X = AB such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, A, and 0, B, X, are similar. X = A* The complex conjugate of a point A is the point X = A* such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, A, and 0, 1, X, are mirror images of each other. These geometric interpretations allow problems of algebra to be translated into geometry. And, conversely, geometric problems can be examined algebraically. For example, the problem of the geometric construction of the 17-gon was by Gauss translated into the analysis of the algebraic equation x17 = 1. (See Heptadecagon). Polar form The angle φ and distance r locate a point on an Argand diagram. Alternatively to the cartesian representation z = x+iy, the complex number z can be specified by polar coordinates. The polar coordinates are r = |z| ≥ 0, called the absolute value or modulus, and φ = arg(z), called the argument or the angle of z. The representation of a complex number by its polar coordinates is called the polar form of the complex number. For r = 0 any value of φ describes the same complex number z = 0. To get a unique representation, a conventional choice is to set φ = 0. For r > 0 the argument φ is unique modulo 2π; that is, if any two values of the complex argument differ by an exact integer multiple of 2π, they are considered equivalent. To get a unique representation, a conventional choice is to limit φ to the interval (-π,π], i.e. −π < φ ≤ π. This choice of φ is sometimes called the principal value of arg(z). Conversion from the polar form to the Cartesian form Conversion from the Cartesian form to the polar form (taking the sign appropriately so that z = eiφ). The value of φ can change by any multiple of 2π and still give the same angle. In applied contexts, such as computing, the principal value in the range (−π, +π] of the arg function may be written as atan2. The arg function is sometimes considered as multivalued taking as possible values Arg(z) + 2πk, where k is any integer. Notation of the polar form The notation of the polar form as is called trigonometric form. The notation cis φ is sometimes used as an abbreviation for cos φ + i sin φ: Using Euler's formula it can also be written as which is called exponential form. In electronics it is common to use angle notation to represent a phasor with amplitude A and phase θ as: where θ may be in either radians or degrees. In electronics j is used instead of i because i is used for electric current. Multiplication, division, exponentiation, and root extraction in the polar form Multiplication, division, exponentiation, and root extraction have simple formulas in polar form. Using sum and difference identities it follows that and that Geometrically, multiplication and division of complex numbers is respectively a counterclockwise and clockwise rotation on the argand plane. Exponentiation with integer exponents; according to De Moivre's formula, from which it follows that Exponentiation with arbitrary complex exponents is discussed in the article on exponentiation. Multiplication by a fixed complex number can be seen as a simultaneous rotation and stretching, in particular multiplication by i corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees (π/2 radians). The geometric content of the equation i 2 = −1 is that a sequence of two 90 degree rotations results in a 180 degree (π radians) rotation. Even the fact (−1) · (−1) = +1 from arithmetic can be understood geometrically as the combination of two 180 degree turns. If c is a complex number and n a positive integer, then any complex number z satisfying zn = c is called an n-th root of c. If c is nonzero, there are exactly n distinct n-th roots of c, which can be found as follows. Write c = re iφ with real numbers r > 0 and φ, then the set of n-th roots of c is where represents the usual (positive) n-th root of the positive real number r. If c = 0, then the only n-th root of c is 0 itself, which as n-th root of 0 is considered to have multiplicity n. Some properties Matrix representation of complex numbers While usually not useful, alternative representations of the complex field can give some insight into its nature. One particularly elegant representation interprets each complex number as a 2×2 matrix with real entries which stretches and rotates the points of the plane. Every such matrix has the form where a and b are real numbers. The sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form, and the product operation on matrices of this form is commutative. Every non-zero matrix of this form is invertible, and its inverse is again of this form. Therefore, the matrices of this form are a field, isomorphic to the field of complex numbers. Every such matrix can be written as which suggests that we should identify the real number 1 with the identity matrix and the imaginary unit i with a counter-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees. Note that the square of this latter matrix is indeed equal to the 2×2 matrix that represents −1. The square of the absolute value of a complex number expressed as a matrix is equal to the determinant of that matrix. If the matrix is viewed as a transformation of the plane, then the transformation rotates points through an angle equal to the argument of the complex number and scales by a factor equal to the complex number's absolute value. The conjugate of the complex number z corresponds to the transformation which rotates through the same angle as z but in the opposite direction, and scales in the same manner as z; this can be represented by the transpose of the matrix corresponding to z. If the matrix elements are themselves complex numbers, the resulting algebra is that of the quaternions. In other words, this matrix representation is one way of expressing the Cayley-Dickson construction of algebras. It should also be noted that the two eigenvalues of the 2x2 matrix representing a complex number are the complex number itself and its conjugate. While the above is a representation of C in the real matrices (2 x 2), it is not the only one. Any matrix has the property that its square is the negative of the identity matrix. Then is also isomorphic to the field C. Real vector space C is a two-dimensional real vector space. Unlike the reals, the set of complex numbers cannot be totally ordered in any way that is compatible with its arithmetic operations: C cannot be turned into an ordered field. More generally, no field containing a square root of −1 can be ordered. R-linear maps C → C have the general form with complex coefficients a and b. Only the first term is C-linear, and only the first term is holomorphic; the second term is real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations. The function corresponds to rotations combined with scaling, while the function corresponds to reflections combined with scaling. Solutions of polynomial equations A root of the polynomial p is a complex number z such that p(z) = 0. A surprising result in complex analysis is that all polynomials of degree n with real or complex coefficients have exactly n complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity). This is known as the fundamental theorem of algebra, and it shows that the complex numbers are an algebraically closed field. Indeed, the complex numbers are the algebraic closure of the real numbers, as described below. Construction and algebraic characterization One construction of C is as a field extension of the field R of real numbers, in which a root of x2+1 is added. To construct this extension, begin with the polynomial ring R[x] of the real numbers in the variable x. Because the polynomial x2+1 is irreducible over R, the quotient ring R[x]/(x2+1) will be a field. This extension field will contain two square roots of -1; one of them is selected and denoted i. The set {1, i} will form a basis for the extension field over the reals, which means that each element of the extension field can be written in the form a+ b·i. Equivalently, elements of the extension field can be written as ordered pairs (a,b) of real numbers. Although only roots of x2+1 were explicitly added, the resulting complex field is actually algebraically closed – every polynomial with coefficients in C factors into linear polynomials with coefficients in C. Because each field has only one algebraic closure, up to field isomorphism, the complex numbers can be characterized as the algebraic closure of the real numbers. The field extension does yield the well-known complex plane, but it only characterizes it algebraically. The field C is characterized up to field isomorphism by the following three properties: it has characteristic 0 its transcendence degree over the prime field is the cardinality of the continuum it is algebraically closed One consequence of this characterization is that C contains many proper subfields which are isomorphic to C (the same is true of R, which contains many subfields isomorphic to itself). As described below, topological considerations are needed to distinguish these subfields from the fields C and R themselves. Characterization as a topological field As just noted, the algebraic characterization of C fails to capture some of its most important topological properties. These properties are key for the study of complex analysis, where the complex numbers are studied as a topological field. The following properties characterize C as a topological field: C is a field. C contains a subset P of nonzero elements satisfying: P is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses. If x and y are distinct elements of P, then either x-y or y-x is in P If S is any nonempty subset of P, then S+P=x+P for some x in C. C has a nontrivial involutive automorphism x→x*, fixing P and such that xx* is in P for any nonzero x in C. Given a field with these properties, one can define a topology by taking the sets as a base, where x ranges over the field and p ranges over P. To see that these properties characterize C as a topological field, one notes that P ∪ {0} ∪ -P is an ordered Dedekind-complete field and thus can be identified with the real numbers R by a unique field isomorphism. The last property is easily seen to imply that the Galois group over the real numbers is of order two, completing the characterization. Pontryagin has shown that the only connected locally compact topological fields are R and C. This gives another characterization of C as a topological field, since C can be distinguished from R by noting that the nonzero complex numbers are connected, while the nonzero real numbers are not. Complex analysis The study of functions of a complex variable is known as complex analysis and has enormous practical use in applied mathematics as well as in other branches of mathematics. Often, the most natural proofs for statements in real analysis or even number theory employ techniques from complex analysis (see prime number theorem for an example). Unlike real functions which are commonly represented as two dimensional graphs, complex functions have four dimensional graphs and may usefully be illustrated by color coding a three-dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane. Applications The words "real" and "imaginary" were meaningful when complex numbers were used mainly as an aid in manipulating "real" numbers, with only the "real" part directly describing the world. Later applications, and especially the discovery of quantum mechanics, showed that nature has no preference for "real" numbers and its most real descriptions often require complex numbers, the "imaginary" part being just as physical as the "real" part. Control theory In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the frequency domain using the Laplace transform. The system's poles and zeros are then analyzed in the complex plane. The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make use of the complex plane. In the root locus method, it is especially important whether the poles and zeros are in the left or right half planes, i.e. have real part greater than or less than zero. If a system has poles that are in the right half plane, it will be unstable, all in the left half plane, it will be stable, on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability. If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a nonminimum phase system. Signal analysis Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals. For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities. For a sine wave of a given frequency, the absolute value |z| of the corresponding z is the amplitude and the argument arg(z) the phase. If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as complex valued functions of the form where ω represents the angular frequency and the complex number z encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above. In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying voltages and currents. The treatment of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance. (Electrical engineers and some physicists use the letter j for the imaginary unit since i is typically reserved for varying currents and may come into conflict with i.) This approach is called phasor calculus. This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which utilize digital versions of Fourier analysis (and Wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images, and video signals. Improper integrals In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain real-valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour integration. Quantum mechanics The complex number field is relevant in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is convenient and perhaps most standard. The original foundation formulas of quantum mechanics – the Schrödinger equation and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics – make use of complex numbers. Relativity In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time variable to be imaginary. (This is no longer standard in classical relativity, but is used in an essential way in quantum field theory.) Complex numbers are essential to spinors, which are a generalization of the tensors used in relativity. Applied mathematics In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots r of the characteristic equation of a linear differential equation and then attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = ert. Fluid dynamics In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in two dimensions. Fractals Certain fractals are plotted in the complex plane, e.g. the Mandelbrot set and Julia sets. History The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers perhaps occurred in the work of the Greek mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD, when, apparently inadvertently, he considered the volume of an impossible frustum of a pyramid, A brief history of complex numbers though negative numbers were not conceived in the Hellenistic world. Complex numbers became more prominent in the 16th century, when closed formulas for the roots of cubic and quartic polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia, Gerolamo Cardano). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. For example, Tartaglia's cubic formula gives the following solution to the equation x3 − x = 0: At first glance this looks like nonsense. However formal calculations with complex numbers show that the equation z3 = i has solutions –i, and . Substituting these in turn for in Tartaglia's cubic formula and simplifying, one gets 0, 1 and −1 as the solutions of x3 – x = 0. Rafael Bombelli was the first to explicitly address these seemingly paradoxical solutions of cubic equations and developed the rules for complex arithmetic trying to resolve these issues. This was doubly unsettling since not even negative numbers were considered to be on firm ground at the time. The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by René Descartes in 1637 and was meant to be derogatory (see imaginary number for a discussion of the "reality" of complex numbers). A further source of confusion was that the equation seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the algebraic identity , which is valid for positive real numbers a and b, and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of a, b positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity (and the related identity ) in the case when both a and b are negative even bedeviled Euler. This difficulty eventually led to the convention of using the special symbol i in place of to guard against this mistake. In the 18th century complex numbers gained wider use, as it was noticed that formal manipulation of complex expressions could be used to simplify calculations involving trigonometric functions. For instance, in 1730 Abraham de Moivre noted that the complicated identities, relating trigonometric functions of an integer multiple of an angle to powers of trigonometric functions of that angle, could be simply reexpressed by the following well-known formula which bears his name, de Moivre's formula: In 1748 Leonhard Euler went further and obtained Euler's formula of complex analysis: by formally manipulating complex power series and observed that this formula could be used to reduce any trigonometric identity to much simpler exponential identities. The existence of complex numbers was not completely accepted until the geometrical interpretation (see above) had been described by Caspar Wessel in 1799; it was rediscovered several years later and popularized by Carl Friedrich Gauss, and as a result the theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion. The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De Algebra tractatus. Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy for 1799, and is exceedingly clear and complete, even in comparison with modern works. He also considers the sphere, and gives a quaternion theory from which he develops a complete spherical trigonometry. In 1804 the Abbé Buée independently came upon the same idea which Wallis had suggested, that should represent a unit line, and its negative, perpendicular to the real axis. Buée's paper was not published until 1806, in which year Jean-Robert Argand also issued a pamphlet on the same subject. It is to Argand's essay that the scientific foundation for the graphic representation of complex numbers is now generally referred. Nevertheless, in 1831 Gauss found the theory quite unknown, and in 1832 published his chief memoir on the subject, thus bringing it prominently before the mathematical world. Mention should also be made of an excellent little treatise by Mourey (1828), in which the foundations for the theory of directional numbers are scientifically laid. The general acceptance of the theory is not a little due to the labors of Augustin Louis Cauchy and Niels Henrik Abel, and especially the latter, who was the first to boldly use complex numbers with a success that is well known. The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders. Argand called the direction factor, and the modulus; Cauchy (1828) called the reduced form (l'expression réduite); Gauss used i for , introduced the term complex number for a + bi, and called a2 + b2 the norm. The expression direction coefficient, often used for , is due to Hankel (1867), and absolute value, for modulus, is due to Weierstrass. Following Cauchy and Gauss have come a number of contributors of high rank, of whom the following may be especially mentioned: Kummer (1844), Leopold Kronecker (1845), Scheffler (1845, 1851, 1880), Bellavitis (1835, 1852), Peacock (1845), and De Morgan (1849). Möbius must also be mentioned for his numerous memoirs on the geometric applications of complex numbers, and Dirichlet for the expansion of the theory to include primes, congruences, reciprocity, etc., as in the case of real numbers. A complex ring or field is a set of complex numbers which is closed under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Gauss studied complex numbers of the form a + bi, where a and b are integral, or rational (and i is one of the two roots of x2 + 1 = 0). His student, Ferdinand Eisenstein, studied the type , where is a complex root of x3 − 1 = 0. Other such classes (called cyclotomic fields) of complex numbers are derived from the roots of unity xk − 1 = 0 for higher values of k. This generalization is largely due to Kummer, who also invented ideal numbers, which were expressed as geometrical entities by Felix Klein in 1893. The general theory of fields was created by Évariste Galois, who studied the fields generated by the roots of any polynomial equation in one variable. The late writers (from 1884) on the general theory include Weierstrass, Schwarz, Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Henri Poincaré, Eduard Study, and Alexander MacFarlane. See also Circular motion using complex numbers Complex base systems Complex geometry Complex plane De Moivre's formula Domain coloring Eisenstein integer Euler's identity Gaussian integer Hypercomplex number Local field Mandelbrot set Mathematical diagram Quaternion Riemann sphere (extended complex plane) Split-complex number Square root of complex numbers Imaginary number/Imaginary unit Notes References Mathematical references Historical references A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis. An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number. Further reading The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, by Roger Penrose; Alfred A. Knopf, 2005; ISBN 0-679-45443-8. Chapters 4-7 in particular deal extensively (and enthusiastically) with complex numbers. Unknown Quantity: A Real and Imaginary History of Algebra, by John Derbyshire; Joseph Henry Press; ISBN 0-309-09657-X (hardcover 2006). A very readable history with emphasis on solving polynomial equations and the structures of modern algebra. Visual Complex Analysis, by Tristan Needham; Clarendon Press; ISBN 0-198-53447-7 (hardcover, 1997). History of complex numbers and complex analysis with compelling and useful visual interpretations. External links Euler's work on Complex Roots of Polynomials at Convergence. MAA Mathematical Sciences Digital Library. John and Betty's Journey Through Complex Numbers MathWorld articles Complex number and Argand Diagram, and demonstration "Argand Diagram". Dimensions: a math film. Chapter 5 presents an introduction to complex arithmetic and stereographic projection. 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1,896 | Nastassja_Kinski | Nastassja Kinski (born Nastassja Aglaia Nakszyński, 24 January 1961) Other years of birth are given in several sources, among them 1959 () and 1960 (Dirk Jasper FilmStarLexikon). However, Nastassja was born during Klaus Kinski's second marriage of October 1960. 1961 is confirmed by references of the time, e.g. by an article in Der Spiegel from March 1961. Furthermore, Nastassja Kinski confirmed the year 1961 in an episode of the Johannes B. Kerner Show September 11, 2008. is a German actress, who has appeared in more than 60 international movies. Her starring roles include her Golden Globe Award-winning portrayal of 'Tess Durbeyfield' in Roman Polanski's film Tess, her roles in two erotic films (Stay As You Are and Cat People), and her parts in Wim Wenders' films The Wrong Move, Paris, Texas, and Faraway, So Close!. In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, Kinski was widely regarded as an international sex symbol: Richard Avedon's photo of her nude with a large python, marketed as a poster, is iconic even for those who do not know her name or Avedon's. Early life Born in Berlin, Kinski is the daughter of the German actor Klaus Kinski from his marriage to actress Ruth Brigitte Tocki. Her parents divorced in 1968. Kinski rarely saw her father after the age of 10. Kinski and her mother struggled financially.<ref>Daddy's Girl - The Guardian, 3 July 1999</ref> They eventually lived in a commune in Munich. Career Kinski's career began in Germany where she started as a model. At 13, the German New Wave actress Lisa Kreuzer placed her in the role of the dumb Mignon in Wim Wenders' film The Wrong Move. In 1976 she had her first major role in the feature film length and Wolfgang Petersen directed episode Reifezeugnis of the German TV crime series Tatort. Also in 1976, in her mid-teens, she starred in the British Hammer Film Productions' horror film To the Devil a Daughter (1976). Kinski has gained notoriety through nude appearances in these films while still a minor. This is linked to controversy as to the year of her birth, apparently reported to American authorities as 1959, although German records show 1961. (Variety states 1960. http://www.variety.com/profiles/people/main/29535/Nastassja%20Kinski.html?dataSet=1 ) She has stated that, as a child, she felt exploited by the industry and told a journalist from W Magazine, "If I had had somebody to protect me or if I had felt more secure about myself, I would not have accepted certain things. Nudity things. And inside it was just tearing me apart". Nastassja Kinski in an Interview with Louise Farr, Kinski Business, W (magazine), May 1997 Kinski starred in the erotic film Stay as you are (1978) with Marcello Mastroianni. New Line Cinema released it in the United States in December 1979, helping Kinski to get more recognition there. Time Magazine said: "Kinski is simply ravishing, genuinely sexy and high-spirited without being painfully aggressive about it." http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952572,00.html At 15 Kinski began a romantic relationship with director Roman Polanski. Leaming, Barbera Polanski, A Biography: The Filmmaker as Voyeur, New York: Simon and Schuster. 1981. 155 Roman Polanski: Wanted and Desired. Dir. Marina Zenovich. HBO, 2008. Polanski urged her to study acting with Lee Strasberg in the United States and cast her in his film, Tess (1979). In 1981, photographer Richard Avedon photographed Kinski with a serpent coiled around her naked body. In 1982 Kinski appeared in the Francis Ford Coppola/Dean Tavoularis collaboration One from the Heart, which bankrupted Coppola's American Zoetrope studio. In 1982 she made Cat People, and then Unfaithfully Yours, and The Hotel New Hampshire, a critical and commercial failure. Critics praised her in Paris, Texas, which won awards at Cannes; In the U.S., however, the film was not widely released. Kinski then split her time between Europe and the United States, making Moon in the Gutter (1983), Harem (1985) and Torrents of Spring (1989) in the former, and Exposed (1983), Maria's Lovers (1984) and Revolution (1985) in the latter. Kinski's luck turned in the 1990s when she appeared in films such as Terminal Velocity opposite Charlie Sheen, and Mike Figgis' critically acclaimed One Night Stand. Appearances of note have included Martin Donovan's Somebody Is Waiting (1996), Neil LaBute's Your Friends & Neighbors (1998), John Landis' Susan's Plan (1998), Chris Menges' The Lost Son (1999), Michael Winterbottom's The Claim (2000), and David Lynch's Inland Empire (2006). Personal life In the mid-1980s Kinski met Egyptian filmmaker Ibrahim Moussa. They married on 10 September 1984. They raised a son Aljosha (born 29 June 1984) and daughter Sonja Kinski, now a model (born 2 March 1986). The marriage was dissolved in 1992. From 1991 until 1997 Kinski lived with musician Quincy Jones. On 9 February 1993, their daughter, Kenya Julia Miambi Sara, was born. Kinski speaks German, French, English, Italian and Russian fluently. She is a vegetarian http://www.happycow.net/famous/nastassja_kinski and suffers from mild narcolepsy. Selected filmography The Wrong Move (1975) To the Devil a Daughter (1976) Tatort: Reifezeugnis (1977) Passion Flower Hotel (1978) Così come sei (aka Stay as you are) (1978) Tess (1979) One from the Heart (1982) Cat People (1982) Exposed (1983) Moon in the Gutter (1983) Maria’s Lovers (1984) Paris, Texas (1984) The Hotel New Hampshire (1984) Unfaithfully Yours (1984) Harem (1985) Revolution (1985) Il Sole Anche di Notte (1990) Faraway, So Close! (1993) Terminal Velocity (1994) Fathers' Day (1997) One Night Stand (1997) Bella Mafia (1997) Little Boy Blue (1997) Savior (1998) Playing by Heart (1998) Your Friends & Neighbors (1998) The Intruder (1999) The Claim (2000) The Magic of Marciano (2000)Time Share (2000) An American Rhapsody (2001) The Day the Earth Ended (2001) Town & Country (2001) .com for Murder (2002) Paradise Found (2003) À ton image (2004) Inland Empire (2006) Notes External links Daddy's Girl - The Guardian'', 3 July 1999. 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1,897 | Lymphedema | Lymphedema, also spelled lymphoedema, also known as lymphatic obstruction, is a condition of localized fluid retention caused by a compromised lymphatic system. The lymphatic system (often referred to as the body's "second" circulatory system) collects and filters the interstitial fluid of the body. Lymphedema has been barely recognized as being a serious health problem; however, this is slowly changing due to education and awareness. The danger with lymphedema comes from the constant risk of developing an uncontrolled infection in the affected limb. Still, physicians and medical staff who practice in fields where this disease is uncommon may fail to correctly diagnose the condition due to the apparent lack of information regarding this disease. Causes Lymphedema (also see Elephantiasis) may be inherited (primary) or caused by injury to the lymphatic vessels (secondary). It is most frequently seen after lymph node dissection, surgery and/or radiation therapy, in which damage to the lymphatic system is caused during the treatment of cancer, most notably breast cancer. In many patients with cancer this condition does not develop until months or even years after therapy has concluded. Lymphedema may also be associated with accidents or certain diseases or problems that may inhibit the lymphatic system from functioning properly. In tropical areas of the world, a common cause of secondary lymphedema is filariasis, a parasitic infection. It can also be caused by a compromising of the lymphatic system resulting from cellulitis. While the exact cause of primary lymphedema is still unknown, it generally occurs due to poorly-developed or missing lymph nodes and/or channels in the body. Lymphedema may be present at birth, develop at the onset of puberty (praecox), or not become apparent for many years into adulthood (tarda). Some cases of lymphedema may be associated with other vascular abnormalities. Lymphedema affects both men and women. In women, it is most prevalent in the upper limbs after breast cancer surgery and lymph node dissection, occurring in the arm on the side of the body in which the surgery is performed. It may also occur in the lower limbs or groin after surgery for colon, ovarian or uterine cancer in which removal of lymph nodes is required. In men, lower-limb primary lymphedema is most common, occurring in one or both legs. Surgery and/or treatment for prostate, colon and testicular cancers may result in secondary lymphedema, particularly where lymph nodes have been removed or damaged. The onset of secondary lymphedema in patients who have had cancer surgery has also been linked to aircraft flight (likely due to decreased cabin pressure). For breast cancer survivors, wearing a prescribed and properly-fitted low-compression sleeve and gauntlet may help decrease swelling during flight. Some cases of lower-limb lymphedema have been associated with the use of Tamoxifen, due to the blood clots and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) that can be caused by this medication. Symptoms Symptoms may include severe fatigue, a heavy swollen limb or localized fluid accumulation in other body areas, including the head or neck, discoloration of the skin overlying the lymphedema, and eventually deformity (elephantiasis). Lymphedema should not be confused with edema arising from venous insufficiency, which is not lymphedema. However, untreated venous insufficiency can progress into a combined venous/lymphatic disorder which is treated the same way as lymphedema (see Treatment below). Treatment Treatment for lymphedema varies depending on the severity of the edema and the degree of fibrosis of the affected limb. Most people with lymphedema follow a daily regimen of treatment as suggested by their physician or certified lymphedema therapist. The most common treatments for lymphedema are a combination of direct lymphatic massage, compression garments or bandaging and the use of intermittent sequential gradient pumps. Complex decongestive physiotherapy is an empiric system of lymphatic massage, skin care, and compressive garments. Although a combination treatment program may be ideal, any of the treatments can be done individually. Compression Garments Elastic compression garments are worn by a person with lymphedema on the affected limb following complete decongestive therapy to maintain edema reduction. Depending on the therapist's discretion, a compression garment may be custom-fit or purchased in over-the-counter, standard sizes. Compression garments are meant to be worn every day to maintain edema reduction and must be replaced on a regular basis. Bandaging or Wrapping Compression bandaging, also called wrapping, is the application of several layers of padding and short-stretch bandages to the involved areas. Short-stretch bandages are preferred over long-stretch bandages (such as those normally used to treat sprains), as the long-stretch bandages cannot produce the higher tension necessary to safely reduce Lymphedema and may in fact end up producing a tourniquet effect. During activity, whether exercise or daily activities, the short-stretch bandages enhance the pumping action of the lymph vessels by providing increased resistance for them to push against. This encourages lymphatic flow and helps to soften fluid-swollen areas. http://www.kinesiotaping.co.uk/lymphoedema/edema.jsp A new adjunct treatment is being taught to therapists using a special type of tape called Kinesio Taping. It is used to help soften edemas. Sequential Gradient Pump Therapy Sequential Gradient Pump Therapy has been utilized for over 30 years throughout the world. Compression pump technology utilizes a multi-chambered pneumatic sleeve with overlapping cells, to gently move the lymph fluid. There are several manufacturers of these devices, including Lympha-Press Bio Compression Systems and Flexitouch. These compression devices are recognized treatments and approved by Medicare and most insurance plans in the USA. Patients may often receive treatment on a pump for 10-15 minutes before an MLD (Manual Lymphatic Drainage) session to help break up fibrotic (hard) tissue. By softening or breaking up the fibrosis, the MLD Therapist may be more effective with the given treatment. Many patients may benefit from a pump without ever going to MLD sessions, as they are very beneficial, but not a requirement. However, after completion of the appropriate number of MLD sessions, many patients will benefit from a home use of a sequential pump. A recent Stanford University medical studyshowed that patients receiving the combined modalities of MLD/CDT and pneumatic pumping had a greater overall reduction in limb volume than patients receiving only MLD/CDT. However, in recent years some health professionals have begun to raise concern that compression pumps can cause genital swelling when used on persons with leg lymphedema. Complete Decongestive Therapy or Manual Lymph Drainage Complete decongestive therapy (CDT) is a primary tool in lymphedema management consisting of manual manipulation of the lymphatic ducts, PDF document short stretch compression bandaging, therapeutic exercise, and skin care. The technique was pioneered by Emil Vodder in the 1930s for the treatment of chronic sinusitis and other immune disorders. Initially, CDT involves frequent visits to a certified therapist with a doctor's prescription. Once the lymphedema is reduced, increased patient participation is required for ongoing care, along with the use of elastic compression garments and non-elastic directional flow foam garments. Manual manipulation of the lymphatic ducts consists of gentle, rhythmic massaging of the skin to stimulate the flow of lymph and its return to the blood circulation system. In the blood’s passage through the kidneys, the excess fluid is filtered out and eliminated from the body through urination. The treatment is very gentle and a typical session will involve drainage of the neck, trunk, and involved extremity (in that order), lasting approximately 40 to 60 minutes. CDT is generally effective on non-fibrotic lymphedema and less effective on more fibrotic legs, although it has shown to help break up fibrotic tissue. Surgical techniques Surgical techniques for correcting lymphedema may be excisional or physiological. Excisional techniques include: Circumferential excision of the lymphedematous tissue followed by skin grafting (Charles technique); longitudinal removal of the affected segment of skin and subcutaneous tissue and primary closure (Homans technique); excision of subcutaneous tissue and tunneling of a dermal flap through the fascia into a muscular compartment of the leg (Thompson technique). Lympholymphatic anastomosis (autologous lymphatic grafts to bridge obstructed lymphatic segments); lymphovenous shunt (anastomosis of lymphatic channels to veins); lymphangioplasty enteromesenteric flap omental transfer (pedicled portion of omentum transposed to the affected limb). Modified Liposuction has been developed in Sweden in recent years to remove adipose tissue associated with longstanding lymphedema, primarily in the upper region. This technique is meant to reduce the volume of a limb and does not cure lymphedema. Compression garments and compression bandages must still be worn after the operation. Care Skin Skin care is an important component of CDT. People with lymphedema or who have had lymph nodes removed are at a higher risk for infections of the affected areas, and so need to be taught a specific regimen of thorough but gentle cleansing followed by moisturizing in order to keep the skin in the best health possible. Infections Teaching higher risk sufferers about the signs and symptoms of infections is also important, since awareness is the key to early identification and treatment. Untreated infections can further damage an already impaired lymphatic system and lead to more severe lymphedema and skin ulcers. Therapeutic exercise In addition, specific therapeutic exercise while compression bandaging is worn is a valuable part of therapy, not only because it aids in the elimination of excess fluid, but also because some patients with chronic lymphedema or large, swollen areas will have poor strength or range of movement. Pool therapy using manual lymp drainage techniques will help to keep the tissue soft and assist in moving the lymphedema fluid. These patients benefit from exercise prescribed specifically for them by their physician to help improve their function and comfort. Complications When the lymphatic impairment becomes so great that the lymph fluid exceeds the lymphatic system's ability to transport it, an abnormal amount of protein-rich fluid collects in the tissues of the affected area. Left untreated, this stagnant, protein-rich fluid causes tissue channels to increase in size and number, reducing the availability of oxygen. This interferes with wound healing and provides a rich culture medium for bacterial growth that can result in infections: cellulitis, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis, and in severe cases, skin ulcers. It is vital for lymphedema patients to be aware of the symptoms of infection and to seek treatment at the first signs, since recurrent infections, in addition to their inherent danger, further damage the lymphatic system and set up a vicious circle. Very rarely, in certain exceptionally severe cases, lymphedema untreated over many years can lead to a form of cancer known as Lymphangiosarcoma. Since lymphedema is disfiguring, causes difficulties in daily living and can lead to lifestyle becoming severely limited, it may also result in psychological distress. Staging and severity Stages Whether primary or secondary, lymphedema develops in stages, from mild to severe. Methods of staging are numerous and inconsistent. They ranged from three to as many as eight stages. The most common method of staging was defined by the Fifth WHO Expert Committee on Filariasis: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_CDS_CPE_CEE_2001.26a.pdf. Stage 0 (latent): The lymphatic vessels have sustained some damage which is not yet apparent. Transport capacity is still sufficient for the amount of lymph being removed. Lymphedema is not present. Stage 1 (spontaneously reversible): Tissue is still at the "pitting" stage: when pressed by the fingertips, the affected area indents and holds the indentation. Usually upon waking in the morning, the limb or affected area is normal or almost normal in size. Stage 2 (spontaneously irreversible): The tissue now has a spongy consistency and is "non-pitting:" when pressed by the fingertips, the tissue bounces back without any indentation. Fibrosis found in Stage 2 Lymphedema marks the beginning of the hardening of the limbs and increasing size. Stage 3 (lymphostatic elephantiasis): At this stage, the swelling is irreversible and usually the limb(s) or affected area is very large. The tissue is hard (fibrotic) and unresponsive; some patients consider undergoing reconstructive surgery called "debulking". This remains controversial, however, since the risks may outweigh the benefits, and the further damage done to the lymphatic system may in fact make the lymphedema worse. A new staging system has been set forth by Lee, Morgan and Bergan and endorsed by the American Society of Lymphology. This provides a clear technique which can be employed by clinical and laboratory assessments to more accurately diagnose and prescribe therapy for lymphedema. In this improved version there are four stages identified (I-IV). Physicians and researchers can utilize additional laboratory assessments such as bioimpedance, MRI, or CT to build on the findings of a clinical assessment (physical evaluation). From this results of therapy can be accurately determined and reported in documentation as well as research. Risk is another measurement altogether. Current research using bioimpedance to measure risk of lymphedema is very promising. Grades Lymphedema can also be categorized by its severity (usually referenced to a healthy extremity): Grade 1 (mild edema): Lymphedema involves the distal parts such as a forearm and hand or a lower leg and foot. The difference in circumference is less than 4 centimeters, and other tissue changes are not yet present. Grade 2 (moderate edema): Lymphedema involves an entire limb or corresponding quadrant of the trunk. Difference in circumference is more than 4 but less than 6 centimeters. Tissue changes, such as pitting, are apparent. The patient may experience erysipelas. Grade 3a (severe edema): Lymphedema is present in one limb and its associated trunk quadrant. The difference in circumference is greater than 6 centimeters. Significant skin alterations, such as cornification or keratosis, cysts and/or fistulae, are present. Additionally the patient may experience repeated attacks of erysipelas. Grade 3b (massive edema): The same symptoms as Stage 3a except that two or more extremities are affected. Grade 4 (gigantic edema): Also known as elephantiasis. In this stage of lymphedema, the affected extremities are huge due to almost complete blockage of the lymph channels. Elephantiasis may also affect the head and face. Diagnosis, assessment and monitoring The diagnosis or early detection of lymphedema is difficult. The first signs may be subjective observations such as "my arm feels heavy" or "I have difficulty these days getting rings on and off my fingers". These may be symptomatic of early stage of lymphoedema where accumulation of lymph is mild and not detectable by any difference in arm volume or circumference (see severity above). As lymphedema develops further then definitive diagnosis is commonly based upon an objective measurement of difference between the affected or at-risk limb at the opposite unaffected limb, e.g. in volume or circumference. Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted worldwide criterion of difference definitively diagnostic although a volume of difference of 200 ml between limbs or a 4 cm (at a single measurement site or set intervals along the limb) is often used. Recently the technique of bioimpedance measurement (a method that measures the amount of fluid in a limb) has been shown to have greater sensitivity than these existing methods and holds promise as a simple diagnostic and screening tool. Impedance analysers specifically designed for this purpose are now commercially available. Similarly assessment and monitoring of lymphedema progression or its response to treatment is usually based on the changes in volume, circumference or impedance over time. Illustration Presented here is a case of unilateral hereditary lymphedema which had been present for 25 years without treatment: Presented here is a case of combined primary lymphedema and lipedema (Stage 3) before and after treatments: Photos courtesy of Amy's Lymphedema Story References External links American Society of Lymphology Association of manual lymphatic drainage practitioners MSU http://www.lymphaticresearch.org/main.php?content=homeLymphatic Research Foundation website Lymphnotes, information about lymphedema Lymphoedema Support Network (UK) , Kinesio Taping Association (UK)] Lyphedema Pumps] Schingale, Franz-Josef, "Lymphoedema, Lipoedema, Diagnosis and Therapy: A Guide for Those Affected," 2003, Hannover: Schlütersche GmbH & Co. KG. Lymphoedema-Lipoedema: Diagnosis and Therapy. 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1,898 | Christian_cross | A reliquary in the form of an ornate Christian Cross The Christian cross is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity. It is a representation of the instrument of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. It is related to the crucifix (a cross that includes a representation of Jesus' body) and to the more general family of cross symbols. The cross is a crucifix without Jesus' body on it. History of use of the symbol Pre-Christian cross-like symbols The cross-shaped sign, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly antedates, in both East and West, the introduction of Christianity. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization. It is supposed to have been used not just for its ornamental value, but also with religious significance. "Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all yielded numberless examples . . . The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many cases it was connected with some form of nature worship" (Encyclopaedia Britannica (1946), Vol. 6, p. 753. Some have sought to attach to the widespread use of this sign, in particular in its swastika form, a real ethnographic importance. It may have represented the apparatus used in kindling fire, and thus as the symbol of sacred fire Emile Burnouf, La science des religions or as a symbol of the sun, Bertrand, La religion des Gaulois, p. 159. The Companion Bible says: "These crosses were used as symbols of the Babylonian sun-god,[a cross within a circle], and are first seen on a coin of Julius Caesar, 100-44 B.C., and then on a coin struck by Caesar's heir (Augustus), 20 B.C. On the coins of Constantine I the most frequent symbol is ☧; but the same symbol is used without the surrounding circle, and with the four equal arms vertical and horizontal; and this was the symbol specially venerated as the 'Solar Wheel'. It should be stated that Constantine was a sun-god worshipper, and would not enter the 'Church' till some quarter of a century after the legend of his having seen such a cross in the heavens" (Appendix No. 162) denoting its daily rotation. It has also been interpreted as the mystic representation of lightning or of the god of the tempest, and even the emblem of the Aryan pantheon and the primitive Aryan civilization. Another symbol that has been connected with the cross is the ansated cross (ankh or crux ansata) of the ancient Egyptians, which often appears as a symbolic sign in the hands of the goddess Sekhet, and appears as a hieroglyphic sign of life or of the living. "The cross in the form of the 'Crux Ansata' . . . was carried in the hands of the Egyptian priests and Pontiff kings as the symbol of their authority as priests of the Sun god and was called 'the Sign of Life'." (The Worship of the Dead (London, 1904), by Colonel J. Garnier, p. 226. In later times the Egyptian Christians (Copts), attracted by its form, and perhaps by its symbolism, adopted it as the emblem of the cross (Gayet, "Les monuments coptes du Musée de Boulaq" in "Mémoires de le mission française du Caire", VIII, fasc. III, 1889, p. 18, pl. XXXI–XXXII & LXX–LXXI). In the Bronze Age we meet in different parts of Europe a more accurate representation of the cross, as conceived in Christian art, and in this shape it was soon widely diffused. This more precise characterization coincides with a corresponding general change in customs and beliefs. The cross is now met with, in various forms, on many objects: fibulas, cinctures, earthenware fragments, and on the bottom of drinking vessels. De Mortillet is of opinion that such use of the sign was not merely ornamental, but rather a symbol of consecration, especially in the case of objects pertaining to burial. In the proto-Etruscan cemetery of Golasecca every tomb has a vase with a cross engraved on it. True crosses of more or less artistic design have been found in Tiryns, at Mycenæ, in Crete, and on a fibula from Vulci. The material in this section is a slightly abbreviated copy of text in the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia reproduced in full in Wikisource. Early Christian use During the first two centuries of Christianity, the cross may have been rare in Christian iconography, as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution. The Ichthys, or fish symbol, was used by early Christians. The Chi-Rho monogram, which was adopted by Constantine I in the fourth century as his banner (see labarum), was another Early Christian symbol of wide use. However, the cross symbol was already associated with Christians in the second century, as is indicated in the anti-Christian arguments cited in the Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapters IX and XXIX, written at the end of that century or the beginning of the next, Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX). and by the fact that by the early third century the cross had become so closely associated with Christ that Clement of Alexandria, who died between 211 and 216, could without fear of ambiguity use the phrase (the Lord's sign) to mean the cross, when he repeated the idea, current as early as the apocryphal Epistle of Barnabas, that the number 318 (in Greek numerals, ΤΙΗ) in was interpreted using numerology as a foreshadowing (a "type") of the cross (T, an upright with crossbar, standing for 300) and of Jesus (ΙΗ, the first two letter of his name ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, standing for 18), Stromata, book VI, chapter XI and his contemporary Tertullian could designate the body of Christian believers as crucis religiosi, i.e. "devotees of the Cross". Apology., chapter xvi. In this chapter and elsewhere in the same book, Tertullian clearly distinguishes between a cross and a stake. In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign" (De Corona, chapter 3) The Jewish Encyclopedia says: The cross as a Christian symbol or "seal" came into use at least as early as the second century (see "Apost. Const." iii. 17; Epistle of Barnabas, xi.-xii.; Justin, "Apologia," i. 55-60; "Dial. cum Tryph." 85-97); and the marking of a cross upon the forehead and the chest was regarded as a talisman against the powers of demons (Tertullian, "De Corona," iii.; Cyprian, "Testimonies," xi. 21–22; Lactantius, "Divinæ Institutiones," iv. 27, and elsewhere). Accordingly the Christian Fathers had to defend themselves, as early as the second century, against the charge of being worshipers of the cross, as may be learned from Tertullian, "Apologia," xii., xvii., and Minucius Felix, "Octavius," xxix. Christians used to swear by the power of the cross (see Apocalypse of Mary, viii., in James, "Texts and Studies," iii. 118). In contemporary Christianity A crucifix on the wall of a church In Christianity the cross reminds Christians of God's act of love and atonement in Christ's sacrifice at Calvary—"the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world." The cross also reminds Christians of Jesus' victory over sin and death, since it is believed that through His death and resurrection He conquered death itself. Christian crosses at a joint service for the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, members of the major branches of Lutheranism, some Anglicans, and other Christians often make the sign of the cross upon themselves. This was already a common Christian practice in the time of Tertullian. De Corona, chapter 3, written in 204. The Feast of the Cross is an important Christian feast. One of the twelve great feasts in Eastern Orthodoxy is the Exaltation of the Cross on September 14, which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the original cross of Jesus was reportedly discovered in 326 by Helena of Constantinople, mother of Constantine the Great. The Catholic Church celebrates the feast on the same day and under the same name ("In Exaltatione Sanctae Crucis"), though in English it has been called the feast of the Triumph of the Cross. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican bishops place a cross [+] before the name when signing a document. Rejection of the cross as a symbol of Christianity Higher criticism Dr Didron comments: "The cross has been the object of a worship and adoration, resembling if not equal to, that offered to Christ. That sacred tree is adored almost as if it were equal with God himself". Adolphe Napoleon Didron, Christian Iconography Or The History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages, 1851, p. 373. Christians who venerate the Cross, of course, disagree, stating they worship God alone, and merely honour the Cross as the instrument of salvation by which Christ saved the world. The Greek word "σταυρός" (stauros) is rendered "cross" in nearly all English translations of the Bible. In classical Greek - the Greek that was used in the fifth and fourth centuries before Christ - this word meant merely an upright stake, or pale. The Imperial Bible-Dictionary says: "The Greek word for cross, [stau•ros′], properly signified a stake, an upright pole, or piece of paling, on which anything might be hung, or which might be used in impaling [fencing in] a piece of ground. . . . Even amongst the Romans the crux (from which our cross is derived) appears to have been originally an upright pole" [Imperial Bible Dictionary, edited by P. Fairbairn (London, 1874), Vol. I, p. 376]. In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, the Greek used by some of those who witnessed Jesus' death, the word was used to refer to a cross, as in the writings of the first-century B.C. Diodorus Siculus and in later writers, such as Plutarch and Lucian. Liddell and Scott: σταυρός Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses, noting the pre-Christian use of cross-like symbols and a supposed lack of its early use by Christians until after the deaths of the Apostles, reject it as essentially pagan in origin. They hold that the instrument on which Jesus died was really a single-beamed "torture stake". See Cross or stake as gibbet on which Jesus died. Jehovah's Witnesses also hold that the use in, for instance, of the Greek word "ξύλον" (xylon), meaning "wood", "timber", for the instrument of Christ's death indicates that the original writers had in mind an upright piece of timber, not a wooden cross. However, the word "ξύλον" was used of wooden objects as varied as firewood, a cudgel, a wooden collar or stocks for a prisoner, a gallows, a stake, a table, a wooden spoon, and a live tree. Liddell and Scott: ξύλον Jehovah's Witnesses' main reason for rejecting the cross is because they see it as an idol, the use of which in worship is condemned in the Bible (Ex 20:4,5; Ex 32:3-10; Ps 115:4-8; 1Co 10:14; Re 21:8). And, for them, it is unthinkable that the instrument of Christ's brutal murder should be seen as holy or worthy of veneration. Did Jesus really Die on a Cross Of course, other Christians disagree. Latter-Day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormon church) does not choose to display the cross as a direct symbol on their meetinghouses or in their chapels, seeing it as a sign of Christ's death and therefore inappropriate as a symbol of the living Christ or his church. They do not, however, reject the meaning of the cross as a symbol of Christ's crucifixion and His atonement for the sake of Mankind. Forms of the Cross The cross is often shown in different shapes and sizes, in many different styles. It may be used in personal jewelry, or used on top of church buildings. It is shown both empty, and with the body of Christ (corpus) nailed to it, in which case it is typically called a crucifix, though this word, in its original sense, denotes the body affixed to the cross. Roman Catholic and High Anglican depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize Jesus' sacrifice. Many Protestant traditions depict the cross without the corpus, interpreting this form as an indication of belief in the resurrection rather than as representing the interval between the death and the resurrection of Jesus. Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian cemeteries, either carved on gravestones or as sculpted stelas. Because of this, planting small crosses is sometimes used in countries of Christian culture to mark the site of fatal accidents, or to protest alleged deaths. In Catholic countries, crosses are often erected on the peaks of prominent mountains, such as the Zugspitze or Mount Royal, so as to be visible over the entire surrounding area. Forms of the Christian cross include: Altar cross. Cross on a flat base to rest upon the altar of a church. Earliest known example is a picture in a manuscript from the 9th century; by the 10th century they were commonly used, but the earliest extant altar cross is from the 12th century located at Great Lavra on Mt. Athos. Andrew cross. See, below, Saltire. Ankh. Shaped like the letter T surmounted by an oval or circle. Originally the Egyptian symbol for "life", it was adopted by the Copts (Egyptian Christians). Also called a crux ansata, meaning "cross with a handle". Anthony's cross. See, below, Tau cross. Archiepiscopal cross. A double-barred cross carried by an archbishop. Basque cross. The lauburu. Calvary cross. Either a stepped cross (see below), or a Gothic-style cross mounted on a base shaped to resemble Mt. Golgatha (where Christ was crucified), with the Virgin Mary and Saint John on either the base or crossarms. Canterbury cross. A cross with four arms of equal length which widen to a hammer shape at the outside ends. Each arm has a triangular panel inscribed in a triquetra (three-cornered knot) pattern. There is a small square panel in the center of the cross. A symbol of the Anglican and Episcopal Churches. Celtic Cross. Essentially a Latin cross, with a circle enclosing the intersection of the upright and crossbar, as in the standing High crosses; Consecration cross. One of 12 crosses painted on the walls of a church to mark where it had been anointed during its consecration. Coptic cross The original Coptic cross has its origin in the Coptic ankh. Crux fourchette. A cross with flared or forked ends (see illustration at Crosses in Heraldry). Cruciform floor plans of churches. Crux gemmata. A cross inlaid with gems. Denotes a glorification of the cross, this form was inspired by the cult of the cross that arose after Saint Helena's discovery of the true cross in Jerusalem in 327. Crux hasta. A cross with a long descending arm; a cross-staff. Crux pattée. A Greek cross with flared ends. Double cross. A cross with two crossbars. See Patriarchal cross. Gammadion. A hooked cross or swastika, also known as a crux gammata. Globus cruciger. Globe cross. An orb surmounted by a cross; used in royal regalia. Greek cross. With arms of equal length. One of the most common Christian forms, in common use by the 4th century. Gnostic cross. Cross used by the early Gnostic sects. Jerusalem Cross Also known as the Crusader's Cross. A big cross with four smaller crosses on its corner. It was used as a symbol of the Crusaders who fought against the Islamic forces. Latin cross. With a longer descending arm. Along with the Greek cross, it is the most common form, it represents the cross of Jesus' crucifixion. Living cross. One of two possibilities: Either a natural cross made of living vines and branches. Or, a man-made cross with vines or plants planted at its base. In the all-natural version, it refers to the legend that Jesus' cross was made from the Tree of Life. In the man-made cross with plants planted at the base, it contrasts the "new" Tree of Life (the cross) with the Book of Genesis Tree of Life. In both cases it shows Jesus' death (the cross) as a redemption for original sin (Tree of Life). Lorraine cross. Once with crossbars of equal length near the top and the bottom, now practically identical with the patriarchal cross Maltese cross. A Greek cross with arms that taper into the center. The outer ends may be forked. Marian Cross. A term invented to refer to Pope John Paul II's combination of a Latin cross and the letter M, representing the Mary present on Calvary. Occitan cross Papal Cross. A cross with three bars near the top. The bar are of unequal length, each one shorter than the one below. Patriarchal cross, also called an archiepiscopal cross or a crux gemina. A double cross, with the two crossbars near the top. The upper one is shorter, representing the plaque nailed to Jesus' cross. Similar to the Cross of Lorraine, though in the original version of the latter, the bottom arm is lower. The Eastern Orthodox cross adds a slanted bar near the foot. Pectoral cross. A large cross worn in front of the chest (in Latin, pectus) by some clergy. Peter cross. A cross with the crossbeam placed near the foot, that is associated with Saint Peter because of the tradition that he was crucified with head down. In modern times it has been used also as a symbol of the Devil and Satanism. Rose Cross is the central symbol to all groups embracing the Esoteric Christian philosophy of the Rosicrucians. Russian orthodox cross: See Suppedaneum cross. Saltire or crux decussata. An X-shaped cross associated with St. Andrew, patron of Scotland, and so a national symbol of that country. The shape is that of the cross on which Saint Andrew is said to have been martyred. Also known as St. Andrew's Cross or Andrew Cross. Stepped cross. A cross resting on a base with three steps, also called a graded or a Calvary cross. Suppedaneum cross. Also known as Crux Orthodoxa, Byzantine cross, Eastern cross, Russian cross, Slavic or Slavonic cross. A three-barred cross in which the short top bar represents the inscription over Jesus' head, and the lowest (usually slanting) short bar, placed near the foot, represents his footrest (in Latin, suppedaneum). This cross existed very early in Byzantium, and was adopted by the Russian Orthodox Church and especially popularized in the Slavic countries. Saint Thomas Cross. The ancient cross used by the Syrian Malabar Nasrani community of Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, India. Tau cross. A T-shaped cross. Also called the Saint Anthony's cross and crux commissa. For further information on the forms in which the cross is represented, including its heraldric use, see the article Cross. The Dagger symbol also represents the Christian cross. In Unicode, it is U+2020(). Gallery Here are some examples of crosses: See also Christian symbolism Cross burning Cross in Christian Art Intending cross Market cross Rood screen Rood loft Roodmas References External links MSN Encarta, "Cross" Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Ch. 6th, "Christian Art: § 77. 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market:1 rood:2 screen:1 loft:1 roodmas:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 msn:1 encarta:1 philip:1 schaff:1 ch:1 explanation:1 variation:1 image:1 |@bigram crucifixion_jesus:1 jesus_christ:2 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 julius_caesar:1 vertical_horizontal:1 chi_rho:1 minucius_felix:4 arm_outstretched:1 chapter_xxix:1 clement_alexandria:1 epistle_barnabas:2 xi_xii:1 eastern_orthodox:3 oriental_orthodox:1 eastern_orthodoxy:1 koine_greek:1 diodorus_siculus:1 liddell_scott:2 jehovah_witness:4 wooden_spoon:1 fatal_accident:1 mt_athos:1 virgin_mary:1 gnostic_sect:1 pectoral_cross:1 external_link:1 msn_encarta:1 philip_schaff:1 |
1,899 | Freddy_Heineken | Alfred Henry (Freddy) Heineken (November 4, 1923, Amsterdam, Netherlands – January 3, 2002) was a major stock holder and president of Heineken International, the brewing company bought in 1864 by his grandfather Gerard Adriaan Heineken in Amsterdam. He entered the service of the company (which by then was no longer owned by the family) on 1 June 1941 and bought back stock several years later, to ensure the family controlled the company again. He created the Heineken Holding that owned 50.005% of Heineken International and personally held a majority stake in Heineken Holding. By the time of his resignation as chairman of the board in 1989 he had transformed Heineken from a brand that was known chiefly in the Netherlands to a brand that is currently famous worldwide. Freddy Heineken married Lucille Cummins, an American from a Kentucky family of bourbon whiskey distillers. They had one child, Charlene Heineken, who inherited his fortune in 2002. Kidnapping Freddy Heineken and his chauffeur Ab Doderer were kidnapped in 1983 and released on a ransom of 35 million guldens (about 16 million Euros). The kidnappers Cor van Hout, Willem Holleeder, Jan Boelaard, Frans Meijer, and Martin Erkamps, were eventually caught and served their prison terms. Before being extradited Van Hout and Holleeder stayed for more than three years in France, first on the run, then in prison, and then, awaiting a change of the extradition treaty, then with house arrest, and finally in prison again. Meijer escaped and lived in Paraguay for years, until he was discovered and imprisoned there. In 2003, Meijer stopped resisting his extradition to the Netherlands, and was transferred to a Dutch prison to serve the last part of his term. | Freddy_Heineken |@lemmatized alfred:1 henry:1 freddy:3 heineken:10 november:1 amsterdam:2 netherlands:3 january:1 major:1 stock:2 holder:1 president:1 international:2 brewing:1 company:3 buy:2 grandfather:1 gerard:1 adriaan:1 enter:1 service:1 longer:1 family:3 june:1 back:1 several:1 year:3 later:1 ensure:1 control:1 create:1 hold:3 personally:1 majority:1 stake:1 time:1 resignation:1 chairman:1 board:1 transform:1 brand:2 know:1 chiefly:1 currently:1 famous:1 worldwide:1 married:1 lucille:1 cummins:1 american:1 kentucky:1 bourbon:1 whiskey:1 distiller:1 one:1 child:1 charlene:1 inherit:1 fortune:1 kidnap:2 chauffeur:1 ab:1 doderer:1 release:1 ransom:1 million:2 gulden:1 euro:1 kidnapper:1 cor:1 van:2 hout:2 willem:1 holleeder:2 jan:1 boelaard:1 frans:1 meijer:3 martin:1 erkamps:1 eventually:1 catch:1 serve:2 prison:4 term:2 extradite:1 stay:1 three:1 france:1 first:1 run:1 await:1 change:1 extradition:2 treaty:1 house:1 arrest:1 finally:1 escape:1 live:1 paraguay:1 discover:1 imprison:1 stop:1 resist:1 transfer:1 dutch:1 last:1 part:1 |@bigram bourbon_whiskey:1 |
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