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1,900 | History_of_Afghanistan | The history of Afghanistan begins at 330 BC with the rise of Alexander the Great to modern times. CNN: Afghanistan, Crossroads of History Afghanistan For the development of the name Afghanistan, see Origins of the name Afghan is a territory whose current boundaries were mostly determined in the 19th Century. The word Afghanistan is used to refer to that territory, even though, and especially because, it has been known by many other names throughout history. Afghanistan's history, internal political development, foreign relations, and very existence as an independent state have largely been determined by its geographic location at the crossroads of Central, West, and South Asia. Over the centuries, waves of migrating peoples passed through the region—described by historian Arnold Toynbee as a "roundabout of the ancient world"--leaving behind a mosaic of ethnic and linguistic groups. In modern times, as well as in antiquity, vast armies of the world passed through this region of Asia, temporarily establishing local control and often dominating. Invariably, most of Afghanistan's history was spent as part of the larger events that took place upon the Iranian plateau as a whole. The Aryan peoples who arrived in Afghanistan left their languages, (Pashto, Persian, etc.) and culture as a legacy. It is perhaps not surprising that it is the Middle Eastern influence (Persian and Arab invasions) that has defined modern Afghanistan, while its Greek, Central Asian nomadic, and Zoroastrian/Pagan/Hindu/Buddhist past have long since vanished. Although it was the scene of great empires and flourishing trade for over two millennia, the area's heterogeneous groups, with Turkic groups predominant in the extreme northwest and showing some connection to the mixed Hazaras of the central regions, were not bound into a single political entity until the reign of Ahmed Shah Durrani, who in 1747 founded the monarchy that ruled the country until 1973. In the nineteenth century, Afghanistan lay between the expanding might of the Russian and British empires. In 1900, Abdur Rahman Khan (the "Iron Amir"), after twenty years of rule, looked at the events of the past century and wondered how his country, which stood "like a Lion between these Hypocrats (Britain and Tsarist Russia) or a King between two Hypocrat ministers, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?" Islam played perhaps the key role in the formation of Afghanistan's society. Despite the early thirteenth century Mongol invasion of what is today Afghanistan—which has been described as resembling "more some brute cataclysm of the blind forces of nature than a phenomenon of human history," even a warrior as formidable as Genghis Khan did not uproot Islamic civilization; within two generations, his heirs had become Muslims. Later, native Afghan empire builders such as the Ghorids, would continue to make Afghanistan a major medieval power as well as a center of learning that produced Ferdowsi, and Al-Biruni among countless other academics and literary iconic figures. Prehistoric Afghanistan Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution and others suggests that early humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in Afghanistan were among the earliest in the world. Nancy Hatch Dupree - An Historical Guide To Afghanistan - Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)...Link John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 - Afghanistan...Link It is not clear who the early inhabitants of Afghanistan were, though it is likely they were connected through culture and trade to neighboring civilizations like Jiroft and Tappeh Sialk and the Indus Valley Civilization. Urban civilization may have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar) may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex became prominent in the region between 2200 and 1700 BC (approximately). The city of Balkh (Bactra) was founded about this time (ca. 2000-1500 BC). It's possible that the BMAC may have been an Indo-European culture, perhaps the Proto-Indo-Aryans, who began their migration into India towards the end of this period. The centuries following the end of the BMAC and the Aryan invasions are not well known due to a lack of source information. Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization possibly became prominent in the southern and eastern parts of the region at the same time. Ancient Afghanistan, Pre-Islamic period (before 651) Ancient Afghanistan was often ruled by various Persian dynasties, such as the Achaemenid Empire (559–330 BCE) Alexander the Great fighting the Persian king Darius (Pompeii mosaic, from a 4th century BCE original Greek painting, now lost). After several centuries of darkness, history returns to find kingdoms formed in Arachosia, Bactria, Aria, and Gandhara. Parts of the region were controlled by the Medean Empire until it was overthrown in 550 BCE by their Achaemenid vassals. This Achaemenid Persian Empire soon conquered the rest of Afghanistan and ruled for over 200 years. During the 320s BCE, Afghanistan and the rest of the Persian Empire were conquered by Alexander the Great and became part of his empire, which empire fragmented after his death in 323 BCE as his generals fought for supremacy. A general named Seleucus carved out the largest Hellenistic kingdom, the Seleucid Empire, which included most of Iran and Afghanistan. In 305 BCE the Seleucids gave Arachosia and Gandhara to the Mauryan Empire of India in return for a treaty of alliance and 500 Indian war elephants. Bactria and Aria remained in Seleucid hands until 250 BCE, when the Bactrian Satrap Diodotus rebelled and established the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. A campaign by Seleucid King Antiochus III led to the restoration of many of the eastern provinces in the late 200s BCE. Mauryan rule to Indo-Greco-Bactrian Kingdoms The Mauryan Dynasty was overthrown in 185 BCE by a general named Pusyamitra Sunga, who founded the Sunga Dynasty. This led to war with the Greco-Bactrian allies of the Mauryans, led by King Demetrius I, who quickly overran Afghanistan and the Indus region, then marched towards the Sunga capital. Suddenly a civil war broke out amongst the Greeks when a general named Eucratides overthrew Demetrius' brother Antimachus I, forcing Demetrius to abandon his Indian campaign and defend his throne, but he was defeated and restricted to his newly-conquered territories in India, which became known as the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Greco-Bactria continued until ca. 130 BCE, when Eucratides' son, King Heliocles I, was defeated and driven out of Bactria by the Yuezhi tribes. It is thought that his dynasty continued to rule in Kabul and Alexandria of the Caucasus until 70 BCE when King Hermaeus was defeated by the Yuezhi. One of Demetrius' successors, Menander I, brought the Indo-Greek Kingdom to its height between 165-130 BCE, expanding the kingdom in India to even larger proportions than Demetrius. After Menander's death, the Indo-Greeks steadily declined and the last Indo-Greek king was defeated in ca. 10 AD. Indo-Scythians and The Kushan Empire Coin of Shahi Kings of Kabul & Gandhara: Samanta Deva, circa 850 AD -1000 AD. Obv: Rider bearing lance on caparisoned horse facing right.Devanagari Legends : 'bhi '?. Rev:Recumbent bull facing left ,trishula on bulls rump,Devanagari Legends: Sri Samanta Deva. Driven from the Tarim Basin by the Xiongnu in the early 100s BCE, the Yuezhi pushed a Scythian tribe called the Indo-Scythians or Sakas, south into the Greco-Bactrian lands. In 140 BCE they defeated the last Greco-Bactrian King, Heliocles I. Soon afterwards, the Indo-Scythians captured Arachosia from the Indo-Greeks (Arachosia was then renamed Sistan). Unable to invade India from the north, the Indo-Scythians took a more southerly route, through Gedrosia to Sindh, then moving north along the Indus river. The Indo-Scythians were defeated by the Parthian Empire and driven from Sistan into India by 20 AD, where they founded the Western Satraps Kingdom that survived until about 405 AD. In the meantime, Parthia's hold on the region was tenuous, and [it?] soon broke away to become the short-lived Kingdom of the Indo-Parthians. In Bactria, the Yuezhi were united in the mid 1st century to become the Kushan Empire. Northern region Northern parts of Greco-Bactria were conquered by the Tocharian or Yuezhi tribes in the 140s BCE, while the Indo-Scythians or Sakas conquered Arachosia (which became known as Sakastan and later Sistan. The Indo-Scythians fled to India after they were defeated by the Parthians and Indo-Parthians in the early 1st century AD. Invasions by the Kushans, Sassanid Persians, Hephthalites or White Huns, and Göktürks followed in succeeding centuries. Kushans and Buddhism During the Kushan rule, Afghanistan became the center of Buddhist culture and learning.{{Cquote| The Kushan empire reached its zenith in the reign of Kanishk the Great (AD 78-144) who was responsible for the preservation, development and propagation of the Buddhist religion and arts in the far east . Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War By Kaveh Farrokh Published by Osprey Publishing, 2007 Page152 }} 3rd to 9th century -Buddhist Turk and Hindu Shahis The Shahi (Devanagari शाही) as in: Rajatarangini, IV, 140-43, Kalahana. , Sahi as in inscriptions: See: Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, 1972, p 111, Yogendra Mishra. , also called Shahiya as in: Tarikh-al-Hind, trans. E. C. Sachau, 1888/1910, vol ii, pp 10, Abu Rihan Alberuni; Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: The Forgotten City of Gandhara, p. 1. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar. Shahi Family. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 Oct. 2006 . dynasties ruled portions of the Kabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of Gandhara (northern Pakistan and Kashmir) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in third century to the early ninth century .The Shahis continued to rule eastern Afghanistan until the late 9th century till the Ghaznavid invasions . Islamic conquest (642-1200) By 642 AD, Arabs had conquered Persia and invaded Afghanistan from the west, introducing Islam. Afghanistan at the time had local rulers called the Shahi, which were under the influence of the empire of Tang China, which had extended its influence all the way to Kabul. The Khorasani Persian-Arabs controlled the western and northern areas until they were conquered by the Ghaznavid Empire in 998. Shahi overthrown by Ghazni in 10th century The Arab forces did not conquer all of Afghanistan. The southern and eastern parts of Afghanistan remained independent, first as part of the Turk Shahi Kingdoms (from 565 to 870 AD), then as part of the Hindu Shahi Kingdom of Gandhara, which lasted until it was conquered by the Muslim Ghaznavid Empire in 1021 AD. Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazna (Ghazni) into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into India. The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in 1148 by the Ghurids (Ghor), but Ghaznavid Khans continued to live in Ghazni as the 'Nasher' until the early 20th century, but they did not regain their once vast power until about 500 years later when the Ghilzai Pashtuns's defeated the Safavid Persians in Kandahar. Various princes and Seljuk rulers attempted to rule parts of the country until the Shah Muhammad II of the Khwarezmid Empire conquered all of Persia in 1205. By 1219, the empire had fallen to the Mongols. Mongol conquest (1200-1500) Led by Genghis Khan, the invasion resulted in massive slaughter of the population, destruction of many cities, including Herat, Ghazni, and Balkh, and the despoliation of fertile agricultural areas. The country became a part of Mongol Empire. Ghazni was main base for the Mongol campaigns of India. Neguderis settled there under the rule of Chagatai Khans while most of Afghanistan was a part of Ilkhanate. De-facto of Chagatai Khanate Tamerlane, incorporated what is today Afghanistan into his own vast Asian empire. Babur, a descendant of Timur and the founder of Moghul Empire at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital. Post-Mongol divisions (1500-1700) Afghanistan was divided from the 16th to the early 18th centuries. In the North were the Uzbeks, the west was under Safavid Persia's rule and the east was ruled by the Mughals and local Pashtun rule. In 1706, the Afghans (Pashstuns), led by Mirwais Khan Hotak decided to rise against the Persian Safavids. The Persians were expelled. In 1721 Mir Mahmud Hotaki, son of Mirwais led the Afghans in invading Persia. The Persians were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad. The Afghans captured Isfahan (Iran) in 1722. Mir Mahmud became the Persian Shah. He began a reign of terror against his Persian subjects and was eventually murdered by his own troops. They selected Ashraf Khan as the new Afghan leader. He was able to secure peace with the Ottomans in 1727. However, in the next year, Nadir Shah of Persia launched a national revolt against the Afghan occupiers. He defeated the Afghans in the 1729 Battle of Damghan. Ashraf was killed the next year trying to flee back to Afghanistan. In 1739, Nadir Shah conquered Kandahar, and occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. After his death in 1747, the Durrani Pashtuns became the principal Afghan rulers. A History of Asia, Volume 2 (Woodridge Bingham, Hilary Conroy, Frank W. Ikle) Allyn and Bacon, Inc.: Boston, 1974 (LCC 73-77190) Hotaki dynasty (1709-1736) On the whole, the indigenous Pashtun tribes living in the Kandahar area were more attached to the Persians and, indeed, on those occasions when the Moghuls received the city by means other than conquest, it was disaffected Persian governors who instigated the transfer, not the tribes. The tribes were not above pitting foreigner against foreigner in order to further their attempts to better one another. However, siding sometimes with the Persians, sometimes with the Moghuls, but never with each other, they perpetuated tribal disunity and prolonged foreign domination. The principal contenders in these tribal disputes came from the two most important Pashtun groups in the Kandahar area, the Ghilzai and the Abdali (later Durrani), between whom there was long-standing enmity. As a matter of fact, because of these quarrels, many of the turbulent Abdali had been forcibly transferred to Herat by the irritated Persians by the end of the 16th century. This left the Ghilzai paramount in Kandahar, but the dispute more hotly contested, the hatred more deeply entrenched, and revenge more fervently sought. The Persians were adept at manipulating such machinations and their rule at Kandahar was tolerant until the court at Isfahan began to sink in decadence. Mirroring this, the Persian governors of Kandahar became more and more rapacious and, in response, the tribes became more and more restless. Mounting tribal disturbances finally caught the concern of the court and they sent Gurgin Khan, a Georgian known for his uncompromising severity toward revolt, to Kandahar in 1704. Kandahar's mayor at this time was Mirwais Khan Hotak, the astute and influential leader of the Ghilzai. Gurgin, advocate of law by force, burnt, plundered, murdered and imprisoned, but the tribes would not be subdued; revolts were crushed only to break out anew and Mirwais, credited with master-minding the rebellions, was sent to Isfahan tagged as a highly dangerous prisoner. Imagine Gurgin's surprise and dismay when Mirwais returned to Kandahar shortly thereafter clothed in lustrous robes of honor, symbols of respect and trust. The Shah of Persia thus declared the influence of Mirwais, not Gurgin, at the Persian court. Mirwais had extricated himself from a very nasty situation but, more importantly, he had observed the depths of decay at Isfahan, much as Babur had observed it at Herat, and correctly determined that the Safavid Empire was on the brink of collapse. Mirwais formulated plans for disposing of the hated Gurgin; only the difficult task of waiting for the right moment remained. The moment came in April, 1709. Because details of the assassination are varied, this discussion recounts the version popular among Kandarians today who say that Mirwais invited Gurgin to a picnic at his country estate at Kohkran on the outskirts of Kandahar city. Here the guests were fed all manner of rich dishes and plied with strong wines until "everyone was plunged in debauch." This was the moment. Mirwais struck, killing Gurgin, and his followers killed the Georgian's escort. The rebels then marched to take possession of the citadel. Isfahan was astounded and sent emissaries to complain. The emissaries were imprisoned. Isfahan sent armies to take the city. The armies were defeated. The Persian court then sat in stunned idleness while Mirwais extended his authority throughout the Kandahar region. If they were to remain free, the tribes must be united and to this formidable task the venerable statesman devoted the rest of his life. But not many years were left for Mirwais. He died in 1715. An imposing blue domed mausoleum at Kohkaran Bagh, next to the orchard where Gurgin was assassinated, is a fitting monument to Afghanistan's first great nationalist. The qualities which enabled Mirwais to lead the tribes toward a meaningful unity were not, unfortunately, inherited by his ambitious 18 year old son, Mahmood, whose visions only encompassed conquest and power. Killing his uncle, elected successor to Mirwais, Mahmood gathered his followers and marched across Persia and seized the Safavid throne (1722). Mahmood met an early death in 1725 and was succeeded by his cousin, Ashraf, who ruled until 1730 when a new soldier-of-fortune, the Turkman Nadir Quli Beg, ended Ghilzai rule. Afghanland - History - Mirwais Khan Hotak...Link Durrani Empire (1747-1818) Ahmed Shah Durrani, the founder of the Durrani Empire and the modern state of Afghanistan, established his rule in 1747 at Kandahar. Ahmad Shah, a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, was elected King in a loya jirga after the assassination of Nadir Shah Afshari in the same year. Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah consolidated chieftains, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south. With the exception of a 9-month period in 1929, all of Afghanistan's rulers until the 1978 Marxist coup were from Durrani's Pashtun tribal confederation, and all were members of that tribe's Mohammedzai clan after 1818. CIA World Factbook - Afghanistan...Link Encyclopaedia Britannica - Ahmad Shah Durrani...Link Nancy Hatch Dupree - An Historical Guide To Afghanistan - The South (Chapter 16)...Link Columbia Encyclopedia - Afghanistan: History...Link History Of Nations - History of Afghanistan...Link Afghanistan Online - Biography (Ahmad Shah Abdali)...Link Britannica Student Encyclopedia - Government and History (from Afghanistan)...Link European influence in Afghanistan (1826-1919) Dost Mohammed Khan gained control in Kabul. Collision between the expanding British and Russian Empires significantly influenced Afghanistan during the 19th century in what was termed "The Great Game." British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars and "The Siege of Herat" 1837-1838, in which Persians trying to retake Afghanistan and throw out the British and Russians sent armies into the country waging wars with the British mostly around and in the city of Herat. The first (1839-1842) resulted in the destruction of a British army; it is remembered as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule. The second Anglo-Afghan war (1878-1880) was sparked by Amir Shir Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman to the Afghan throne. During his reign (1880-1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs. Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, despite German encouragement of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of British India. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, however. Habibullah, Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in 1919, possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the Third Anglo-Afghan war with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 19 as their Independence Day. Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war (1919-1929) By 1921, banditry was dramatically curtailed in Afghanistan by harsh punishment, such as being imprisoned in suspended cages and left to die. King Amanullah (1919-1929) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Europe and Turkey (during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by Atatürk), introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, Amanullah Khan's Foreign Minister and father-in-law - and an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's first constitution (declared through a Loya Jirga), which made elementary education compulsory. "Education in Afghanistan," published in Encylopaedia Iranica, volume VIII - pp. 237-241...Link Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah (1929-1973) Prince Mohammed Nadir Khan, a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated and killed Habibullah Kalakani in October of the same year, and with considerable Pashtun tribal support he was declared King Nadir Shah. He began consolidating power and regenerating the country. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation. In 1933, however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a Kabul student. Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. In 1946, another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. In 1953, he was replaced as Prime Minister by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. However, disputes with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and he was asked to resign in 1963. From 1963 until 1973, Zahir Shah took a more active role. In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction headed by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin and supported by elements within the military, and the Parcham (Banner) faction led by Babrak Karmal. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society. However, most of the following presidents and heads of state were Ghilzai (Taraki, Amin, Najib, Mullah Omar), once again trying to wrest power from the Durrani. Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan (1973-1978) Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime Minister Mohammad Sardar Daoud Khan seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973 while Zahir Shah was receiving treatment for eye problems and therapy for lumbago in Italy. Barry Bearak, Former King of Afghanistan Dies at 92, The New York Times, July 23, 2007. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability. As disillusionment set in, in 1978 a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber (or "Kaibar"), was killed by the government. The leaders of PDPA apparently feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of them were arrested by the government shortly after. Hafizullah Amin and a number of military wing officers of the PDPA's Khalq faction (more independent of Moscow than the Parcham faction) managed to remain at large and organized an uprising. Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978-1979) On 27 April 1978 the PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha overthrew the regime of Mohammad Daoud, who was killed along with his family. The uprising was known as the Great Saur Revolution ('Saur' corresponds to parts of 'April' and May). On 1 May, Taraki became President , Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form or another, until April 1992. Once in power, the PDPA implemented a liberal and socialist agenda. It moved to replace religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist ones. Men were obliged to cut their beards, women couldn't wear a burqa, and mosques were placed off limits. It carried out an ambitious land reform, waiving farmers' debts countrywide and banning usury. The government also made a number of decrees on women’s rights, banning forced marriages, giving state recognition of women’s right to vote, and introducing women to political life. A prominent example was Anahita Ratebzad, who was a major Marxist leader and a member of the Revolutionary Council. Ratebzad wrote the famous New Kabul Times editorial (May 28 1978) which declared: “Privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country .... Educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention.” The PDPA invited the Soviet Union to assist in modernizing its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas). The USSR also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals and schools and to drill water wells; they also trained and equipped the Afghan army. Upon the PDPA's ascension to power, and the establishment of the DRA, the Soviet Union promised monetary aid amounting to at least $1.262 billion. Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. The majority of people in the cities including Kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these policies. However, the secular nature of the government made it unpopular with conservative Afghans in the villages and the countryside, who favoured traditionalist 'Islamic' restrictions on women's rights and in daily life. Many groups - partly led by members of the traditional establishment who lost their privileges in the land reform - were formed in an attempt to reverse dependence on the Soviet Union, some resorting to violence and sabotage of the country's industry and infrastructure. The government responded with heavy-handed military reprisals and arrested, exiled and executed many Mujahideen "holy Muslim warriors". The Mujahideen belonged to various different factions, but all shared, to varying degrees, a similarly conservative 'Islamic' ideology. The U.S. saw the situation as a prime opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union. As part of a Cold War strategy, in 1979 the United States government (under President Jimmy Carter and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) began to covertly fund and train anti-government Mujahideen forces through the Pakistani secret service known as Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), with the intention of provoking Soviet intervention, (according to Brzezinski). In March 1979 Hafizullah Amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained President and in control of the Army. On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, who died or was killed. Soviet intervention (1979-1992) In 1979, with the Afghan army unable to cope with the large number of violent incidents, the Soviet Union sent troops to crush the uprising, install a pro-Moscow government, and support the new government. On December 25, 1979, the Soviet army entered Kabul. This was the starting point of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the Soviet war in Afghanistan, which ended only in 1989 with a full withdrawal of Soviet troops under the Geneva Accords reached in 1988 between Afghanistan and Pakistan. For over nine years, the Soviet Army conducted military operations against the Afghan mujahideen rebels. The American CIA, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia assisted in the financing of the resistance because of their anti-communist stance. Among the foreign participants in the war was Osama bin Laden, whose Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK) (Office of Order) organization trained a small number of mujahideen and provided some arms and funds to fight the Soviets. Bin Laden played only a limited part in this conflict and, in 1988, he broke away from the MAK with some of its more militant members to form Al-Qaida, in order to expand the anti-Soviet resistance effort into a worldwide Islamic fundamentalist movement. The Soviet Union withdrew its troops in February 1989, but continued to aid the government, led by Mohammed Najibullah. Massive amounts of aid from the CIA and Saudi Arabia to the mujahideen also continued. 1990s After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Najibullah government was overthrown on April 18, 1992 when Abdul Rashid Dostum mutinied, and allied himself with Ahmed Shah Massoud, to take control of Kabul and declare the Islamic State of Afghanistan. When the victorious mujahideen entered Kabul to assume control over the city and the central government, internecine fighting began between the various militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation. With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious, and personality differences surfaced, and civil war continued. An interim Islamic Jihad Council was put in place, first led by Sibghatullah Mojadeddi for two months, then by Burhanuddin Rabbani. Fighting among rival factions intensified. In reaction to the anarchy and warlordism prevalent in the country, and the lack of Pashtun representation in the Kabul government, the Taliban, a movement of religious scholars and former mujahideen, emerged from the southern province of Kandahar. These Taliban took control of approximately 95% of the country by the end of 2000, limiting the opposition mostly to a small corner in the northeast. The opposition formed the Afghan Northern Alliance, which continued to receive diplomatic recognition in the United Nations as the government of Afghanistan. 2000s President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference. In response to the Taliban's refusal to hand over Al Qaida operatives without the provision of tangible evidence linking Al Qaida to the September 11, 2001 attacks and the Taliban's refusal to assist the U.S. in prosecuting Al Qaida, the United States and its coalition allies launched an invasion of Afghanistan to oust the Taliban government. Sponsored by the UN, Afghan factions met in Bonn, Germany and chose a 30 member interim authority led by Hamid Karzai, a Pashtun from Kandahar. After governing for 6 months, former King Zahir Shah convened a Loya Jirga, which elected Karzai as president and gave him authority to govern for two more years. Then, on October 9, 2004, Karzai was elected as president of Afghanistan in the country's first ever presidential election. Further readingAfghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul (2008). Eds., Friedrik Hiebert and Pierre Cambon. National Geographic, Washington, D.C. ISBN 978-1-4262-0374-9. Anthony Arnold, Afghanistan's Two-Party CommunismHenry S. Bradsher, Afghanistan and the Soviet UnionDavid B. Edwards, Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan JihadLouis Dupree, AfghanistanDeSpain, Dori. A Brief History of Afghanistan. School Journal. Volume 53. Issue 9 (2007) Arnold Charles Fletcher, Afghanistan: Highway of ConquestVartan Gregorian, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization, 1840-1946 Kawun Kakar Hasan, Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amin 'Abdal-Rahman KhanW. Kerr Fraser-Tytler, Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern AsiaRaiz Muhammad Khan, Untying the Afghan Knot: Negotiating the Soviet WithdrawalRichard S. Newell, The Politics of AfghanistanElliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) Leon B. Poullada, Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919-1929 Olivier Roy, Islam and Resistance in AfghanistanBarnett Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International SystemBernard, P. 1994. “The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.” In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing., pp. 99–129. Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. Rashid, Ahmed, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. Yale University Press, 2001, 294 pages. ISBN 0-300-08902-3 Sarianidi, Viktor I. 1971. “The Lapis Lazuli Route in the Ancient East.” V. I. Sarianidi. Archaeology Magazine, January 1971, pp. 12–15. Sarianidi, Viktor I. 1985. The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York. Sarianidi, Viktor. 1989. “Early Kushan Jeweller's Art.” International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin, Issue 15. Moscow, Nauka Publishers, pp. 124–134. Sarianidi, Viktor 1990-1992 “Tilya Tepe: The Burial of a Noble Warrior.” PERSICA XIV, 1990-1992, pp. 103–130. Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. The Afghans. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford. ISBN 0-631-19841-5. Watson, Burton. Trans. 1961. Records of the Grand Historian of China: Translated from the Shih chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Chap. 123. The Account of Ta-yüan. Columbia University Press. Wood, John. 1872. A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London.Afghanistan.'' The Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th Edition. 2005. References External links Historical photos of Afghanistan Library of Congress - Country Study of Afghanistan Encarta Encyclopedia - Afghanistan An Historical Guide To Afghanistan - By Nancy Hatch Dupree History of Afghanistan - By John Ford Shroder, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. History of Nations - Afghanistan U.S. Department of State Background Note on Afghanistan BBC: Country profile: Afghanistan Afghanistan Online - History of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan - From Pre-history till today List of rulers for Afghanistan HISTORY: For Ages, Afghanistan Is Not Easily Conquered, New York Times, 9/18/2001 Afghan history chronology Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List Excellent series of links from the American International School of Kabul See also Timeline of the history of Afghanistan First Anglo-Afghan War Second Anglo-Afghan Warjihuig Third Anglo-Afghan War Mount Imeon Pashtunization Aśvakas Silk Road, Lapis lazuli | History_of_Afghanistan |@lemmatized history:26 afghanistan:97 begin:9 bc:3 rise:2 alexander:3 great:10 modern:6 time:10 cnn:1 crossroad:2 development:5 name:6 see:3 origin:1 afghan:33 territory:3 whose:3 current:1 boundary:2 mostly:3 determine:3 century:22 word:1 use:1 refer:1 even:3 though:2 especially:2 know:6 many:8 throughout:3 internal:1 political:6 foreign:8 relation:2 existence:1 independent:3 state:9 largely:1 geographic:2 location:1 central:10 west:5 south:4 asia:8 wave:1 migrate:1 people:7 pass:2 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1,901 | Leg_theory | Leg theory is a bowling tactic in the sport of cricket. The term leg theory is somewhat archaic and seldom used any more, but the basic tactic still plays a part in modern cricket. Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg stump. This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of fielders on the leg side. The line of attack aims to cramp the batsman, making him play the ball with the bat close to the body. This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the off side. Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches. Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman which in turn can lead to a quick dismissal. Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both fast bowling and spin bowling, particularly leg spin to right-handed batsmen or off spin to left-handed batsmen. However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side. The English opening bowlers Sydney Barnes and Frank Foster used leg theory with some success in Australia in 1911-12. In England, at around the same time Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic. Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively. Fast leg theory In 1930, England captain Douglas Jardine, together with Nottinghamshire's captain Arthur Carr and his bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman's body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side. The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch. Jardine called this modified form of the tactic fast leg theory. On the 1932-33 English tour of Australia, Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen. It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball. Wicket-keeper Bert Oldfield's skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head, almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd. This was despite the fact that Oldfield's skull was fractured due to him ducking a yorker and he himself admitted that it was his error which led to his injury. The Australian press dubbed the tactic Bodyline, and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players. Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as fast leg theory, which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic. This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the Marylebone Cricket Club - the administrators of English cricket - of the dangers posed by Bodyline. The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and "squealing". It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring West Indian cricket team in 1933 that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed. The MCC subsequently revised the Laws of Cricket to prevent the use of fast leg theory/Bodyline tactics again. See also Bodyline Off theory | Leg_theory |@lemmatized leg:19 theory:13 bowling:5 tactic:8 sport:1 cricket:8 term:1 somewhat:1 archaic:1 seldom:1 use:5 basic:1 still:1 play:5 part:1 modern:1 simply:1 put:1 involve:1 concentrate:2 attack:4 near:1 line:2 stump:2 may:2 accompany:1 concentration:2 fielder:3 side:6 aim:1 cramp:1 batsman:12 make:2 ball:8 bat:1 close:2 body:2 difficult:1 hit:4 freely:1 score:2 run:3 especially:2 since:1 mean:1 likely:2 additional:1 field:1 effective:1 prevent:2 take:1 catch:2 stifle:2 manner:1 lead:5 impatience:1 frustration:1 result:1 rash:1 turn:2 quick:1 dismissal:1 moderately:1 successful:1 fast:7 spin:3 particularly:1 right:1 hand:2 leave:1 however:1 rely:1 lack:1 discipline:1 risky:1 patient:1 skilled:1 player:4 strong:1 english:8 opening:1 bowler:3 sydney:1 barnes:1 frank:1 foster:1 success:1 australia:2 england:4 around:1 time:2 fred:1 root:1 one:1 main:1 proponent:1 consider:1 many:2 fan:1 commentator:1 boring:1 encourages:1 conservatively:1 captain:2 douglas:1 jardine:2 together:2 nottinghamshire:1 arthur:1 carr:1 harold:1 larwood:2 bill:1 voce:2 develop:1 variant:1 bowl:2 short:1 pitched:1 would:2 rise:1 heavily:1 stack:1 ring:1 idea:1 defend:1 deflect:1 air:1 call:1 modified:1 form:1 tour:2 australian:6 extremely:1 dangerous:1 sustain:1 injury:2 wicket:1 keeper:1 bert:1 oldfield:2 skull:2 fracture:2 head:1 almost:1 precipitate:1 riot:1 crowd:1 despite:1 fact:1 due:1 duck:1 yorker:1 admit:1 error:1 press:2 dub:1 bodyline:5 claim:1 deliberate:1 attempt:1 team:3 intimidate:1 injure:1 report:1 controversy:1 reach:1 describe:1 sound:1 people:1 harmless:1 well:1 establish:1 serious:1 misunderstanding:1 amongst:1 public:1 marylebone:1 club:1 administrator:1 danger:2 pose:2 authority:1 declare:1 protest:1 case:1 sore:1 losing:1 squeal:1 return:1 subsequent:1 west:1 indian:1 demonstrate:1 country:1 mcc:1 subsequently:1 revise:1 law:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram hand_batsman:2 wicket_keeper:1 skull_fracture:2 marylebone_cricket:1 |
1,902 | Marshall_McLuhan | Herbert Marshall McLuhan, CC (July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian educator, philosopher, and scholar — a professor of English literature, a literary critic, a rhetorician, and a communications theorist. McLuhan's work is viewed as one of the cornerstones of the study of media theory. McLuhan is known for the expressions "the medium is the message" and "global village". McLuhan was a fixture in media discourse from the late 1960s to his death and he continues to be an influential and controversial figure. More than ten years after his death he was named the "patron saint" of Wired magazine. Life and career McLuhan was born in Edmonton, Alberta, to Methodist parents Elsie Naomi (née Hall) and Herbert Ernest McLuhan. His brother, Maurice, was born two years later. "Marshall" was a family name: his maternal grandmother's surname. Both of his parents were born in Canada. His mother was a Baptist schoolteacher who later became an actress. His father had a real estate business in Edmonton. When war broke out, the business failed, and McLuhan's father enlisted in the Canadian army. After a year of service he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front. After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attending Kelvin Technical High School before enrolling in the University of Manitoba in 1928. Gordon, pp. 99-100. McLuhan earned a BA (1933) — winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences Gordon (1997), p.34 Marchand (1998), p.32 — and MA (1934) in English from the University of Manitoba, after a one year stint as an engineering major. He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and, having failed to secure a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford, McLuhan was accepted for enrollment at the University of Cambridge. Although he already had earned BA and MA degrees at Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enroll as an undergraduate "affiliated" student, with one year's credit toward a three-year Cambridge Bachelor's degree, before any doctoral studies. Gordon, p. 40; McLuhan later commented "One advantage we Westerners have is that we're under no illusion we've had an education. That's why I started at the bottom again." Marchand (1990), p 30. He entered Trinity Hall, Cambridge in the Fall of 1934, where he studied under I. A. Richards and F. R. Leavis, and was influenced by New Criticism. Marchand, p. 33-34 Upon reflection years after, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the training of perception and such concepts as Richards's notion of feedforward. Marchand, pp. 37-47. These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms. Old Messengers, New Media: The Legacy of Innis and McLuhan, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada He received his bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936 Gordon, p. 94. and began graduate work. Later, he returned from England to take a job as a teaching assistant at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, which he held for the 1936-37 academic year, unable to find a suitable job in Canada. Gordon, pp. 69-70. While studying the trivium at Cambridge he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1937, Gordon, p. 54-56 founded on his reading of G. K. Chesterton. Lewis H. Lapham, Introduction to Understanding Media (First MIT Press Edition), p. xvii At the end of March 1937, Gordon, p.74, gives the date as March 25; Marchand (1990), p.44, gives it as March 30. McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process when he was formally received into the Roman Catholic Church. After consulting with a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert; his mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable. Marchand (1990), pp. 44-45. McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter. Marchand (1990), p. 45. He had a lifelong interest in the number three Gordon, p. 75 - the trivium, the Trinity - and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him. Associates speculated about his intellectual connection to the Virgin Mary, one saying, "He [McLuhan] had a direct connection with the Blessed Virgin Mary... He alluded to it very briefly once, almost fearfully, in a please-don't-laugh-at-me tone. He didn't say, "I know this because the Blessed Virgin Mary told me," but it was clear from what he said that one of the reasons he was so sure about certain things was that the Virgin had certified his understanding of them." (cited in Marchand, p. 51). For the rest of his career he taught in Roman Catholic institutions of higher education. From 1937 to 1944 he taught English at Saint Louis University (with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge). At Saint Louis he tutored and befriended Walter J. Ong, S.J. (1912-2003), who would go on to write his Ph.D. dissertation on a topic McLuhan had called to his attention, and who would himself also later become a well-known authority on communication and technology. While in St. Louis, he also met his future wife. On August 4, 1939, McLuhan married teacher and aspiring actress Corinne Lewis (1912-2008) of Fort Worth, Texas, and they spent 1939-40 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940) and began to work on his doctoral dissertation on Thomas Nashe and the verbal arts. War had broken out in Europe while the McLuhans were in England, and he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defense. The McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University in 1940 where he continued teaching and they started a family. He was awarded a Ph.D. in December 1943. Gordon, p. 115. Returning to Canada, from 1944 to 1946 McLuhan taught at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario. Moving to Toronto in 1946, McLuhan joined the faculty of St. Michael's College, a Catholic college of the University of Toronto. Hugh Kenner was one of his students and Canadian economist and communications scholar Harold Innis was a university colleague who had a strong influence on McLuhan's work. In the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars, funded by the Ford Foundation, at the University of Toronto. As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities and, to keep him, the university created the Centre for Culture and Technology in 1963. He published his first major work during this period: The Mechanical Bride (1951) was an examination of the effect of advertising on society and culture. He also produced an important journal, Explorations, with Edmund Carpenter, throughout the 1950s. Together with Harold Innis, Eric A. Havelock, Derrick de Kerckhove, and Barry Wellman, McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as the Toronto School of Communication. McLuhan remained at the University of Toronto through 1979, spending much of this time as head of his Centre for Culture and Technology. McLuhan was named to the Albert Schweitzer Chair in Humanities at Fordham University in the Bronx, New York, for one year (1967-68). During the time at Fordham University, his son Eric McLuhan conducted what came to be known as the Fordham Experiment, about the different effects of "light-on" versus "light-through" media. While at Fordham, McLuhan was diagnosed with a benign brain tumor; it was treated successfully. He returned to Toronto where for the rest of his life, he worked at the University of Toronto and lived in Wychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking the downtown where Anatol Rapoport was his neighbour. In 1970, McLuhan was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. Website of the Governor General of Canada In 1975 the University of Dallas hosted him from April to May, appointing him the McDermott Chair. Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children: Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth and Michael. The associated costs of a large family eventually drove McLuhan to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, IBM and AT&T among them. In September 1979 he suffered a stroke, which affected his ability to speak. The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research center shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests, most notably by Woody Allen, in whose Oscar-winning motion picture Annie Hall McLuhan had a cameo role. University of Toronto Bulletin, 1979; Martin Friedland, The University of Toronto: A History, University of Toronto Press, 2002 He never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on the last day of 1980. Major works During his years at Saint Louis University (1937-1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoral dissertation and the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as the book The Mechanical Bride, which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it. McLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar, dialectic and logic, and rhetoric — collectively known as the trivium) from the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe. McLuhan's doctoral dissertation from 1942 was published by Gingko Press in March 2006. Gingko Press also plans to publish the complete manuscript of items and essays that McLuhan prepared, only a selection of which were published in his book. With the publication of these two books a more complete picture of McLuhan's arguments and aims is likely to emerge. In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of the trivium to outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history of Western culture. McLuhan suggests that the Middle Ages, for instance, was characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic. The key development that led to the Renaissance was not the rediscovery of ancient texts but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and language. Modern life is characterized by the reemergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by the New Criticism of Richards and Leavis. For a nuanced account of McLuhan's thought regarding Richards and Leavis, see McLuhan's "Poetic and Rhetorical Exegesis: The Case for Leavis against Richards and Empson" in the Sewanee Review, volume 52, number 2 (1944): 266-76. In The Mechanical Bride, McLuhan turned his attention to analyzing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture. This followed naturally from his earlier work as both dialectic and rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed at persuasion. At this point his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence of communication media independent of their content. His famous aphorism "the medium is the message" (elaborated in his 1964 book, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man) calls attention to this intrinsic effect of communications media. The phrase "the medium is the message" may be better understood in light of Bernard Lonergan's further articulation of related ideas: at the empirical level of consciousness, the medium is the message, whereas at the intelligent and rational levels of consciousness, the content is the message. This sentence uses Lonergan's terminology from Insight: A Study of Human Understanding to clarify the meaning of McLuhan's statement that "the medium is the message"; McLuhan read this when it was first published in 1957 and found "much sense" in it -- in his letter of September 21, 1957, to his former student and friend, Walter J. Ong, S.J., McLuhan says, "Find much sense in Bern. Lonergan's Insight" (Letters of Marshall McLuhan, 1987: 251). Lonergan's Insight is an extended guide to "making the inward turn": attending ever more carefully to one's own consciousness, reflecting on it ever more carefully, and monitoring one's articulations ever more carefully. When McLuhan declares that he is more interested in percepts than concepts, he is declaring in effect that he is more interested in what Lonergan refers to as the empirical level of consciousness than in what Lonergan refers to as the intelligent level of consciousness in which concepts are formed, which Lonergan distinguishes from the rational level of consciousness in which the adequacy of concepts and of predications is adjudicated. This inward turn to attending to percepts and to the cultural conditioning of the empirical level of consciousness through the effect of communication media sets him apart from more outward-oriented studies of sociological influences and the outward presentation of self carried out by George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, Berger and Luckmann, Kenneth Burke, Hugh Duncan, and others. McLuhan also started the journal Explorations with anthropologist Edmund "Ted" Carpenter. In a letter to Ong dated May 31, 1953, McLuhan reported that he had received a two-year grant of $43,000 from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal. The Mechanical Bride (1951) McLuhan's The Mechanical Bride:Folklore of Industrial Man (1951) is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture. His interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 book Culture and Environment by F.R. Leavis and Denys Thompson, and the title The Mechanical Bride is derived from a piece by the Dadaist artist, Marcel Duchamp. Like his 1962 book The Gutenberg Galaxy, The Mechanical Bride is sui generis and composed of a number of short essays that can be read in any order – what he styled the "mosaic approach" to writing a book. Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof. The analyses bear on aesthetic considerations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text. McLuhan chose the ads and articles included in his book not only to draw attention to their symbolism and their implications for the corporate entities that created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed. Examples of advertisements A nose for news and a stomach for whiskey: McLuhan analyzes an ad for Time Magazine in which he likens a reporter depicted as a romantic character from a Hemingway novel and asks "Why is it [his] plangent duty to achieve cirrhosis of the liver?"<ref>'The Mechanical Bride, pg 9</ref> Freedom to Listen - Freedom to Look: An ad for the Radio Corporation of America depicts a rural family doing their business with the radio on. Earlier in the Bride McLuhan notes "We still have our freedom to listen?" and here "Come on kiddies. Buy a radio and feel free - to listen." The Mechanical Bride, pg 21 For Men of Distinction - Lord Calvert: An ad for Lord Calvert whiskey depicts nine gentlemen holding a glass of their whiskey, while McLuhan notes the lack of non-artists amongst them; "Why pick on the arts? Hasn't anyone in science or industry ever distinguished himself by drinking whiskey?" The Mechanical Bride, pg 56 The Famous DuBarry Success Course: An ad for beauty creams complete with female model in a swimsuit hawks itself as a "success course" complete with "tuition", to which McLuhan asks, "Why laugh and grow fat when you can experience anguish and success in a strait jacket?" The Mechanical Bride, pg 152 The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962) McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (written in 1961, first published in Canada by University of Toronto Press in 1962) is a pioneering study in the fields of oral culture, print culture, cultural studies, and media ecology. Throughout the book, McLuhan takes pains to reveal how communication technology (alphabetic writing, the printing press, and the electronic media) affects cognitive organization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization: ...[I]f a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture. It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody. And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent. Gutenberg Galaxy 1962, p. 41. Movable type His episodic and often rambling history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic tribal humankind to the electronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention of movable type greatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan means phonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic/logogramic writing systems, like hieroglyphics or ideograms.) Print culture, ushered in by the Gutenberg press in the middle of the fifteenth century, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting with approval an observation on the nature of the printed word from Prints and Visual Communication by William Ivins, McLuhan remarks: In this passage [Ivins] not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background. [...] The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, "formal" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook. Gutenberg Galaxy pp. 124-26. The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon in The Medium is the Massage) is that new technologies (like alphabets, printing presses, and even speech itself) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn affects social organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits ("visual homogenizing of experience"), which in turn affects social interactions ("fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a... specialist outlook"). According to McLuhan, the advent of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the Modern period in the Western world: individualism, democracy, Protestantism, capitalism and nationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of "segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification." Gutenberg Galaxy p. 154. The global village In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called "electronic interdependence": when electronic media replace visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind will move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a "tribal base." McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is the global village. Wyndham Lewis's America and Cosmic Man (1948) and James Joyce's Finnegan's Wake are sometimes credited as the source of the phrase, but neither used the words "global village" specifically as such. According to McLuhan's son Eric McLuhan, his father, a Wake scholar and a close friend of Lewis, likely discussed the concept with Lewis during their association, but there is no evidence that he got the idea or the phrasing from either; McLuhan is generally credited as having coined the term. The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations in The Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan himself was interested in exploring effects, not making value judgments: Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence. [...] Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time. [...] In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture. Gutenberg Galaxy p. 32. Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has no per se moral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society's self-conception and realization: Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds? [...] Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition. Thus print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify this visual technology by an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers. "But", someone says, "we didn't know it would happen." Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies. It would be good for morality. Gutenberg Galaxy p. 158. The moral valence of technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter seventeenth century with the modern concern for the "end of the book." If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that "there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies." Though the World Wide Web was invented thirty years after The Gutenberg Galaxy was published, McLuhan may have coined and certainly popularized the usage of the term "surfing" to refer to rapid, irregular and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements like "Heidegger surf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as Descartes rode the mechanical wave." Paul Levinson's 1999 book Digital McLuhan explores the ways that McLuhan's work can be better understood through the lens of the digital revolution. Book has been translated into Japanese, Chinese, Croatian, Romanian, and Korean. Later, Bill Stewart's 2007 "Living Internet" website describes how McLuhan's "insights made the concept of a global village, interconnected by an electronic nervous system, part of our popular culture well before it actually happened." McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong's Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to write The Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book in America. America 107 (Sept. 15, 1962): 743, 747. However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy as "a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond." New Catholic Encyclopedia 8 (1967): 838. McLuhan himself said of the book, "I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of [The Gutenberg Galaxy]. It seems to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago. I wish somebody else had written it. It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite of Understanding Media [the 1960 NAEB report] that I'm doing now." McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy won Canada's highest literary award, the Governor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner, Northrop Frye. Gordon, p. 109. Understanding Media (1964) McLuhan's most widely known work, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964), is a pioneering study in media theory. In it McLuhan proposed that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study — popularly quoted as "the medium is the message". McLuhan's insight was that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content delivered over the medium, but by the characteristics of the medium itself. McLuhan pointed to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this concept. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles or a television has programs, yet it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces during nighttime that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan states that "a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence." Understanding Media, p. 8. More controversially, he postulated that content had little effect on society — in other words, it did not matter if television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, to illustrate one example — the effect of television on society would be identical. He noted that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book could be reread at will, but a movie had to be screened again in its entirety to study any individual part of it. "Hot" and "cool" media In the first part of Understanding Media, McLuhan also stated that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Some media, like the movies, were "hot" - that is, they enhance one single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort in filling in the details of a movie image. McLuhan contrasted this with "cool" TV, which he claimed requires more effort on the part of viewer to determine meaning, and comics, which due to their minimal presentation of visual detail require a high degree of effort to fill in details that the cartoonist may have intended to portray. A movie is thus said by McLuhan to be "hot", intensifying one single sense "high definition", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book to be "cool" and "low definition", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value. Understanding Media, p. 22. "Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a dialogue." Understanding Media, p. 25. Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement without considerable stimulus. For example, print occupies visual space, uses visual senses, but can immerse its reader. Hot media favour analytical precision, quantitative analysis and sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential, linear and logical. They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others. For this reason, hot media also include radio, as well as film, the lecture and photography. Cool media, on the other hand, are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Therefore, according to McLuhan cool media include television, as well as the seminar and cartoons. McLuhan describes the term "cool media" as emerging from jazz and popular music and, in this context, is used to mean "detached." See CBC Radio Archives This concept appears to force media into binary categories. However, McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than as dichotomous terms. The Medium is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects (1967) This book, published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller, "eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide." Marchand, p. 203 Initiated by Quentin Fiore, McLuhan & Fiore, 1967 McLuhan adopted the term "massage" to denote the effect each medium has on the human sensorium, taking inventory of the "effects" of numerous media in terms of how they "massage" the sensorium. According to McLuhan biographer W. Terrence Gordon, "by the time it appeared in 1967, McLuhan no doubt recognized that his original saying had become a cliché and welcomed the opportunity to throw it back on the compost heap of language to recycle and revitalize it. But the new title is more than McLuhan indulging his insatiable taste for puns, more than a clever fusion of self-mockery and self-rescue — the subtitle is 'An Inventory of Effects,' underscoring the lesson compressed into the original saying." (Gordon, p. 175.) However, the FAQ section on the website maintained by McLuhan's estate says that this interpretation is incomplete and makes its own leap of logic as to why McLuhan left it as is. "Why is the title of the book The Medium is the Massage and not The Medium is the Message? Actually, the title was a mistake. When the book came back from the typesetter's, it had on the cover 'Massage' as it still does. The title was supposed to have read The Medium is the Message but the typesetter had made an error. When McLuhan saw the typo he exclaimed, 'Leave it alone! It's great, and right on target!' Now there are possible four readings for the last word of the title, all of them accurate: Message and Mess Age, Massage and Mass Age." Fiore, at the time a prominent graphic designer and communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel. Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with a textual synopsis on the facing page. The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from "reading" typographic print to "scanning" photographic facsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different "massage" or "effect" on the human sensorium. In The Medium is the Massage, McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962's The Gutenberg Galaxy — that media are "extensions" of our human senses, bodies and minds. Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. "The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth [century]", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while "[t]he technique of the suspended judgment is the discovery of the twentieth century", brought on by the bard abilities of radio, movies and television. Understanding Media, p. 68. An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made by Columbia Records. The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhan interrupted by other speakers, including people speaking in various phonations and falsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought. Various audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media. McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording "the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video." Marchand (1998), p.187. "I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art." - 'Old man' speaking "Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey." - 'Middle aged man' speaking War and Peace in the Global Village (1968) McLuhan used James Joyce's Finnegans Wake as a major inspiration for this study of war throughout history as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future. Joyce's Wake is claimed to be a gigantic cryptogram which reveals a cyclic pattern for the whole history of man through its Ten Thunders. Each "thunder" below is a 100-character portmanteau of other words to create a statement he likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced. In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (and many of these are themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word. There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes. McLuhan claims that the ten thunders in Wake represent different stages in the history of man: War and Peace in the Global Village, p. 46. Thunder 1: Paleolithic to Neolithic. Speech. Split of East/West. From herding to harnessing animals.Thunder 2: Clothing as weaponry. Enclosure of private parts. First social aggression.Thunder 3: Specialism. Centralism via wheel, transport, cities: civil life.Thunder 4: Markets and truck gardens. Patterns of nature submitted to greed and power.Thunder 5: Printing. Distortion and translation of human patterns and postures and pastors.Thunder 6: Industrial Revolution. Extreme development of print process and individualism.Thunder 7: Tribal man again. All choractors end up separate, private man. Return of choric.Thunder 8: Movies. Pop art, pop Kulch via tribal radio. Wedding of sight and sound.Thunder 9: Car and Plane. Both centralizing and decentralizing at once create cities in crisis. Speed and death.Thunder 10: Television. Back to tribal involvement in tribal mood-mud. The last thunder is a turbulent, muddy wake, and murk of non-visual, tactile man. From Cliché to Archetype (1970) In his 1970 book, From Cliché to Archetype, McLuhan, collaborating with Canadian poet Wilfred Watson, approached the various implications of the verbal cliché and of the archetype. One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village; the global theater. In McLuhan's terms, a cliché is a "normal" action, phrase, etc. which becomes so often used that we are "anesthetized" to its effects. An example of this given by McLuhan is Eugene Ionesco’s play The Bald Soprano, whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco pulled from an Assimil language book. "Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible." From Cliché to Archetype, p. 4. McLuhan's archetype "is a quoted extension, medium, technology or environment." "Environment" would also include the kinds of "awareness" and cognitive shifts brought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological context Carl Jung described. McLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between the cliché and the archetype, or a "doubleness": Another theme of the Wake [Finnegans Wake] that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.' The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age. In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy. When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on new scope and new urgency. Most men are pushed into the artist's role. The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type of hendiadys dialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy. From Cliché to Archetype, p. 99. McLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to the Theater of the Absurd: Pascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing. The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about. In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché. From Cliché to Archetype, p. 5. The “languages of the heart,” or what McLuhan would otherwise define as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché. The satellite medium, McLuhan states, encloses the Earth in a man-made environment, which "ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theater to be programmed." From Cliché to Archetype, p. 9. All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.) and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions ("past times are pastimes"). McLuhan thereby meshes this into the term global theater. It serves as an update to his older concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition described by that of the global theater. Key concepts Tetrad In Laws of Media (1988), published posthumously by his son Eric, McLuhan summarized his ideas about media in a concise tetrad of media effects. The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously. McLuhan designed the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium: What does the medium enhance? What does the medium make obsolete? What does the medium retrieve that had been obsolesced earlier? What does the medium flip into when pushed to extremes? The laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the "grammar and syntax" of the "language" of media. McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium "overheats", or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme. Visually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the center. The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are the Enhancement and Retrieval qualities of the medium, both Figure qualities. The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are the Obsolescence and Reversal qualities, both Ground qualities. , p. 28 A blank tetrad diagram Using the example of radio: Enhancement (figure): What the medium amplifies or intensifies. Radio amplifies news and music via sound. Obsolescence (ground): What the medium drives out of prominence. Radio reduces the importance of print and the visual. Retrieval (figure): What the medium recovers which was previously lost. Radio returns the spoken word to the forefront. Reversal (ground): What the medium does when pushed to its limits. Acoustic radio flips into audio-visual TV.Figure and ground McLuhan adapted the Gestalt psychology idea of a figure and a ground, which underpins the meaning of, "The medium is the message." He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground. McLuhan believed that to fully grasp the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other. McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals. All technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions about time and space. The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used — and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates — are analyzed together. He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society. Legacy A portion of Toronto's St. Joseph Street is co-named Marshall McLuhan Way. After the publication of Understanding Media, McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most publicized English teacher in the twentieth century and arguably the most controversial. This publicity had much to do with the work of two California advertising executives, Gerald Feigen and Howard Gossage, who used personal profits to fund their practice of "genius scouting." Much enamoured with McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at the Lombardy Hotel in New York. Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of both Time and Newsweek, any time he needed it. In August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a "McLuhan festival" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco. During this "festival", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, editors from the San Francisco Chronicle and Ramparts magazine. Perhaps more significant, however, was Tom Wolfe's presence at the festival, which he would later write about in his article, "What If He Is Right?", published in New York Magazine and Wolfe's own The Pump House Gang. According to Feigen and Gossage, however, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they later claimed that their work only "probably speeded up the recognition of [McLuhan's] genius by about six months." Marchand, pp. 182-184. In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse. Newsweek magazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared in Life Magazine, Harper's, Fortune, Esquire, and others. Cartoons about him appeared in The New Yorker. In 1969 Playboy magazine published a lengthy interview with him. During his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influenced cultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such as Neil Postman, Jean Baudrillard, Camille Paglia, Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, William Irwin Thompson, Paul Levinson, Douglas Rushkoff, Jaron Lanier and John David Ebert, as well as political leaders such as Pierre Elliott Trudeau and Jerry Brown. Andy Warhol was paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous 15 minutes of fame quote. When asked in the 70s for a way to sedate violences in Angola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices. Daniele Luttazzi, interview at RAI Radio1 show Stereonotte, July 01 2007 2:00 am. Quote: "McLuhan era uno che al premier canadese che si interrogava su un modo per sedare dei disordini in Angola, McLuhan disse, negli anni 70, 'riempite la nazione di apparecchi televisivi'; ed è quello che venne fatto; e la rivoluzione in Angola cessò." In 1991 McLuhan was named as the "patron saint" of Wired Magazine and a quote of his appeared on the masthead for the first ten years of its publication. He is mentioned by name in a Peter Gabriel penned lyric in the song "Broadway Melody of 1974". This song appears on the concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway, from progressive rock band Genesis. The lyric is: "Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin' head buried in the sand." McLuhan is also jokingly referred to during an episode of The Sopranos entitled House Arrest. Despite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan was posting on a Wired mailing list in 1996. The information this individual provided convinced one writer for Wired that "if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective." Works cited By Marshall McLuhan 1951 The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man; 1st Ed.: The Vanguard Press, NY; reissued by Gingko Press, 2002 ISBN 1-58423-050-9 1962 The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man; 1st Ed.: Univ. of Toronto Press; reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ISBN 0-7100-1818-5 1964 Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man; 1st Ed. McGraw Hill, NY; reissued MIT Press, 1994, with introduction by Lewis H. Lapham; reissued by Gingko Press, 2003 ISBN 1-58423-073-8 1967 The Medium is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects with Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel; 1st Ed.: Random House; reissued by Gingko Press, 2001 ISBN 1-58423-070-3 1968 War and Peace in the Global Village design/layout by Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel; 1st Ed.: Bantam, NY; reissued by Gingko Press, 2001 ISBN 1-58423-074-6. 1970 From Cliché to Archetype with Wilfred Watson; Viking, NY ISBN 0-67033-093-0 About Marshall McLuhan Gordon, W. Terrence. Marshall McLuhan: Escape into Understanding: A Biography. Basic Books, 1997. ISBN 0465005497. Marchand, Philip. Marshall McLuhan: The Medium and the Messenger. Random House, 1989; Vintage, 1990; The MIT Press; Revised edition, 1998. ISBN 0262631865 Molinaro, Matie; Corinne McLuhan; and William Toye, eds. Letters of Marshall McLuhan. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1987, ISBN 0195405943 Notes and references External links The Narcissus Syndrome Revisited by Yves Doré Understand Media - A website dedicated to media literacy and media education with inspiration drawn from Marshall McLuhan's work. McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto Useful introduction to some of McLuhan's ideas by Jim Andrews Marshall McLuhan page from the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory That Not-So-Silent Sea essay by Edmund Carpenter [PDF] UbuWeb Marshall McLuhan featuring the LP The Medium is the Massage Official Site CBC Digital Archives - Marshall McLuhan, the Man and his Message McLuhan global research network Liss Jeffrey's McLuhan bibliography free online McLuhan Revisited by Cecil Adams The Media Ecology Association Marshall McLuhan/Finnegans Wake Reading Club Venice, Calif. Very active West Coast USA club & link to Yahoo McLuhan group Blog about McLuhan's Tetrad , and media law Mcluhan Tetrad Concept explained McLuhan facts, sources, and class McLuhan's Laws of Media The Medium is the Message A Biographical Introduction to Marshall McLuhan Marshall McLuhan's Enduring Visions & Values Philosophy and Application MediaTropes eJournal A scholarly journal, Vol. 1, Marshall McLuhan's "Medium is the Message": Information Literacy in a Multimedia Age | Marshall_McLuhan |@lemmatized herbert:4 marshall:20 mcluhan:176 cc:1 july:2 december:2 canadian:4 educator:1 philosopher:1 scholar:3 professor:1 english:7 literature:1 literary:5 critic:2 rhetorician:1 communication:13 theorist:2 work:22 view:4 one:20 cornerstone:1 study:21 medium:100 theory:3 know:9 expression:1 message:15 global:14 village:10 fixture:2 discourse:2 late:5 death:4 continue:2 influential:1 controversial:2 figure:9 ten:4 year:14 name:7 patron:2 saint:6 wired:3 magazine:10 life:8 career:3 bear:4 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1,903 | Essendon_Football_Club | Essendon's Home and Clash Jumpers Essendon Football Club, nicknamed The Bombers, is an Australian rules football club and is part of the Australian Football League. Formed in 1871 as a junior club and as a senior club in 1873, it is headquartered at the Essendon Recreation Reserve, Windy Hill in the Melbourne suburb of Essendon, but match day home games are at Etihad Stadium. They share the most premierships of any VFL/AFL club. Essendon have won 16 AFL/VFL premierships which is the most of any club in the AFL (along with Carlton who have also won 16). History Some doubt exists as to precisely when the Essendon Football Club came into being, with 1871, '72 and '73 all being suggested as possible starting dates. The Essendon football club began from a meeting held at the home of a well-known brewery family, the McCrackens, whose Ascot Vale property hosted a team of local junior players. There they formed the Senior Club at "Ailsa", Kent St, Ascot Vale. At this stage, the uniform consisted of black and red stripes. The Clubs - The Complete History of Every Club in the VFL/AFL , Editors G Hutchinson and J Ross, ISBN 1-86458-189-1 Robert McCracken, the owner of several city hotels, was the founder and first President of the Essendon club, and his 17-year old son, Alex, it's secretary. He would follow his father into the same post, and later become president of the newly formed VFL. Alex’s cousin, Collier, who had already played with Melbourne, was the team’s first captain. The McCracken family loomed large in the formation and running of the club. The Clubs - The Complete History of Every Club in the VFL/AFL , Editors G Hutchinson and J Ross, ISBN 1-86458-189-1 Equally, there seems little doubt that, whatever the exact date of its formation, the club's first official fixture took place on 7 June 1873 against Carlton, with Essendon achieving victory by the only goal. Essendon played 13 matches in its first season, winning seven, with four draws and losing only two. In 1875, before the club's first senior match, the club changed the design of its guernsey to the black with red sash that has remained the clubs uniform since. At first Essendon was regarded as a junior club, and even after the formation of the VFA in 1877 the side was sometimes allowed 'odds' of, for example, twenty-five players as against twenty, when confronted by the leading teams of the time. Essendon finished their first year in the VFA playing 19 games for eight wins and a finish in fourth place. During its early years in the Association, Essendon played its home matches at Flemington Hill, but in 1881 it made a move to the East Melbourne Cricket Ground which was situated near the centre of the city and had more suitable facilities. There Essendon would stay until its return to its heartland at the Essendon Recreation Reserve some 40 years later. The move made it easier for players to travel to training but also had the adverse side effect of disenfranchising many of the club's supporters. Nevertheless, the team continued to show improvement on the field, finishing second on three occasions during the 1880s, and attracting ever larger crowds to their games. The club was part of many firsts to achieve several milestones. and in 1878, they were involved in the first match played on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full sized field at Flemington Hill. In 1879 Essendon played Melbourne in one of the earliest night matches recorded when the ball was painted white. In 1880 they also became the first metropolitan club to visit Geelong on the first "football special" train, as well as being the first side to record ten goals in a single senior match. One of its players, Charlie Pearson, was the first to bring the skill of "overhead" [marking] to the game and would also be named "Champion of the Colony". In 1883 Essendon travelled to Adelaide where it engaged in 4 matches, winning 3 and losing 1, Essendon was involved in the first match in 1886 where the goal umpires used white flags to signal scores, and in 1888 it was one of several VFA clubs to confront a team of a visiting rugby players from Great Britain who played rugby while in New Zealand and New South Wales, and Australian football in Victoria and South Australia. Essendon won 7.13 to 3.3 (behinds were recorded in the score at this time, but were not actually counted until 1897). They were the first team to wear white shorts in away matches in 1893. In 1891 Essendon were the leading side in the Association, comfortably securing the premiership with only 1 loss from 20 matches played. The following season saw the arrival of one of the club's greatest players, Albert Thurgood, who kicked a VFA record 56 goals for the season as Essendon again won the premiership, with only one loss for the season. In 1893 they were the "champion team" winning the premiership and going through the season undefeated, and in 1894 they made it four premierships in a row with 16 wins and a draw from 18 matches. In 1895 Albert Thurgood moved to Western Australia and this coincided with a slump in Essendon's fortunes. From the formation of the VFL until the first world war (1897 - 1915) At the end of the 1896 season Essendon along with 7 other clubs formed a break away body, the Victorian Football League. Their first game in 1897 was against Geelong at Corio oval in Geelong. They were too strong for Geelong, winning by 23 points. In that year, there was no grand final but a round robin series to decide the premiers. Essendon won the premiership that year, after finishing at the top of the ladder after the round robin series. A couple of years later Essendon defeated Collingwood in the 1901 grand final but lost to Collingwood in the 1902 grand final. They won two successive premierships in 1911 and 1912 over Collingwood and South Melbourne respectively. The "Same Olds" Essendon were known as the "Same Olds" (as in "the same old Essendon") in order to distinguish the Essendon VFL side (that played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground) to which this article refers, from the separate and unconnected Essendon VFA side (that played at what was then the Essendon Cricket Ground), which existed from 1900 to 1921. Hutchinson, C., "How the teams got their names", p. 159 in Ross, J. (ed), 100 Years of Australian Football 1897-1996: The Complete Story of the AFL, All the Big Stories, All the Great Pictures, All the Champions, Every AFL Season Reported, Viking, (Ringwood), 1996. ISBN 0-670-86814-0 Having already moved from its ground at Kent Street, Ascot Vale ("McCracken's Paddock") to Flemington Hill, the club was again forced to move in 1881; and, because the City of Essendon mayor of the day, James Taylor, considered the Essendon Cricket Ground "to be suitable only for the gentleman's game of cricket", History of Windy Hill (Essendon Recreation Reserve) Essendon moved to East Melbourne. This move away from Essendon, at a time when fans would walk to their local ground, did not go over well with many Essendon people; and, as a consequence, a new team and club was formed in 1900, unconnected with the first (although it played in the same colours), that was based at the Essendon Cricket Ground, and playing in the Victorian Football Association. It was known firstly as Essendon Town and, after 1905, as Essendon "A" ("A" for association). Known as the "Dreadnoughts" [sic], the team continued to play at the Essendon Cricket Ground until the expansion of the Jolimont Railway Yards into the East Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1922 meant that the "Same Olds" were looking for a new home. Maplestone, M., Flying Higher: History of the Essendon Football Club 1872-1996, Essendon Football Club, (Melbourne), 1996. ISBN 0-959-17402-8 Returning home Fred Baring during the 1920s Having played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground from 1882 to 1921, and having won four VFA Premierships (1891-1894) and four VFL Premierships (1897, 1901, 1911, (1912) whilst there, In 1911 and 1912 Both Essendon VFL and VFA Clubs won their respective premierships; (Mapleston, 1996, p.56. Essendon were looking for a new home, and were offered grounds at the current Royal Melbourne Showgrounds, at Victoria Park, at Arden St, North Melbourne, and the Essendon Cricket Ground. The Essendon City Council, offered the (VFL) team the Essendon Cricket Ground, announcing that it would be prepared to spend over ₤12,000 on improvements, including a new grandstand, scoreboard and re-fencing of the oval. The Essendon VFL club returned to Essendon, and the Essendon VFA club disbanded, with most of its players moving over to (then VFA club) North Melbourne. In the absence of the VFA team, there was no need for the "Same Olds" distinction and, by 1922, the other nicknames "Sash Wearers" and "Essendonians" that had been variously used from time to time were also abandoned. The team became universally known as "The Dons" (from EssenDON); it was not until much later, during the War years of the early 1940s, that they became known as "The Bombers" — due to Windy Hill’s proximity to the Essendon Aerodrome. Hutchinson, 1996, p.159. In the 1922 season, back at Essendon at last, they reached the final four for the first time since 1912, finishing in third place. In the 1923 season the Dons topped the ladder with 13 wins from 16 games. After a 17 point second semi final loss to South Melbourne defeated Fitzroy (who had beaten South Melbourne) in the challenge final: Essendon 8.15 (63) to Fitzroy 6.10 (46). Amongst Essendon’s best players were half forward flanker George "Tich" Shorten, center half forward Justin McCarthy, centre half back Tom Fitzmaurice, rover Frank Maher and wingman Jack Garden. This was one of Essendon's most famous sides, dubbed the "Mosquito Fleet", due to the number of small, very fast players in the side. Six players were 5'6" (167 cm) or smaller. The 1924 season proved to be arguably the strangest year in Essendon's entire history. For the first time since 1897 there was no ultimate match — either “challenge final” or “grand final” — to determine the premiers. Instead, the top 4 clubs after the home and away season played a round-robin to determine the premiers. Essendon, having previously defeated both Fitzroy (by 40 points) and South Melbourne (by 33 points), clinched the premiership by means of a 20 point loss to Richmond. With the Tigers having already lost a match to Fitzroy by a substantial margin the Dons were declared premiers by virtue of their superior percentage. Ultimately, Essendon again managed to win successive premierships. But the low crowds for the finals meant this was never attempted again, resulting in Essendon having the unique record of winning the only two premierships without a grand final. Prominent contributors to Essendon's 1924 premiership success included back pocket Clyde Donaldson, follower Norm Beckton, half back flanker Roy Laing, follower Charlie May and rover Charlie Hardy. The 1924 season was not without controversy, with rumours of numerous players accepting bribes. Regardless of the accuracy of these allegations, the club's image was tarnished, and the side experienced its lowest period during the decade that followed, with poor results on the field and decreased support off it. There was worse to follow, with various Essendon players publicly blaming each other for the poor performance against Richmond, and then, with dissension still rife in the ranks, the side plummeted to an embarrassing 28 point loss to VFA premiers Footscray Football Club in a special charity match played a week later in front of 46,100 people, in aid of Dame Nellie Melba's Disabled Soldiers' Fund, purportedly (but not officially) for the championship of Victoria. See Frost, L., “Did the 1924 Bombers throw their last game?”, (25 September, 2006), AFL Official Website. While it is always difficult to assess the damage caused by events such as these, the club's fortunes dipped alarmingly, and persistently. Indeed, after finishing third in the 1926 season, it was to be 14 years before Essendon would even contest a finals series. The Dick Reynolds years (1933 - 1960) The 1933 season, was probably the start of the Essendon revival, seeing the debut of the player regarded as one of Essendon's greatest players Dick Reynolds. His impact was immediate. He won his first Brownlow Medal aged 19. His record of three Brownlow victories (1934, 1937, 1938), equalled Haydn Bunton, Sr (1931, 1932, 1935), and later equalled by Bob Skilton (1959, 1963, 1968), and Ian Stewart (1965, 1966, 1971). Statue of Essendon's greatest, Dick Reynolds at the Melbourne Cricket Ground Reynolds went on to arguably even greater achievements as a coach, a position to which he was first appointed, jointly with Harry Hunter, in 1939 (this was while Reynolds was still a player). A year later he took the reins on a solo basis and was rewarded with immediate success (at least in terms of expectations at the time which, after so long in the wilderness, were somewhat modest). He was regarded as having a sound tactical knowledge of the game and being an inspirational leader, as he led the side into the finals in 1940 for the first time since 1926, when the side finished 3rd. Melbourne, which defeated Essendon by just 5 points in the preliminary final, later went on to trounce Richmond by 39 points in the grand final. 1941 brought Essendon's first grand final appearance since 1923, but the side again lowered its colours to Melbourne. A year later war broke out and the competition was considerably weakened, with Geelong being forced to pull out of the competition due to travel restrictions as a result of petrol rationing. Attendances at games also declined dramatically, whilst some clubs had to move from their normal grounds due to them being used for military purposes. Many players were lost to football due to their military service. Nevertheless, Essendon went on to win the 1942 premiership with Western Australian Wally Buttsworth in irrepressible form at centre half back. Finally, the long awaited premiership was Essendon's after comprehensively outclassing Richmond in the grand final, 19.18 (132) to 11.13 (79). The match was played at Carlton in front of 49,000 spectators. In any case, there could be no such reservations about Essendon's next premiership, which came just four years later. Prior to that Essendon lost a hard fought grand final to Richmond in 1943 by 5 points, finished 3rd in 1944, and dropped to 8th in 1945. After WWII, Esssendon enjoyed great success. In the five years immediately after the war, Essendon won 3 premierships (1946, 1949, 1950) and were runners up twice (1947, 1948). In 1946, Essendon were clearly the VFL's supreme force, topping the ladder after the roster games and surviving a drawn second semi final against Collingwood to win through to the grand final a week later with a 10.16 (76) to 8.9 (57). Then, in the grand final against Melbourne, Essendon set a grand final record score of 22.18 (150) to Melbourne 13.9 (87), with 7 goal centre half forward Gordon Lane. Rover Bill Hutchinson, and defenders Wally Buttsworth, Cec Ruddell and Harold Lambert among the best players. The 1947 grand final has to go down in the ledger as 'one of the ones that got away', Essendon losing to Carlton by a single point despite managing 30 scoring shots to 21. As if to prove that lightning does occasionally strike twice, the second of the 'ones that got away' came just a year later, the Dons finishing with a lamentable 7.27 (of which full forward Bill Brittingham contributed 2.12) to tie with Melbourne (who managed 10.9) in the 1948 grand final. A week later Essendon waved the premiership good-bye, as Melbourne raced to a 13.11 (89) to 7.8 (50) triumph. The club's Annual Report made an assessment that was at once restrained and, as was soon to emerge, tacitly and uncannily prophetic: ......it is very apparent that no team is complete without a spearhead and your committee has high hopes of rectifying that fault this coming season. The 1949 season heralded the arrival on the VFL scene of John Coleman, arguably the greatest player in Essendon's history, and, in the view of some, the finest player the game has known. In his first ever appearance for the Dons, against Hawthorn in round 1 1949, he booted 12 of his side's 18 goals to create an opening round record which was to endure for forty five years. More importantly, however, he went on to maintain the same high level of performance throughout the season, kicking precisely 100 goals for the year to become the first player to top the ton since Richmond's Jack Titus in 1940. The Coleman factor was just what Essendon needed to enable them to take that vital final step to premiership glory, but even so it was not until the business end of the season that this became clear. Essendon struggled to make the finals in 4th place, but once there they suddenly ignited to put in one of the most consistently devastating September performances in VFL history. Collingwood succumbed first as the Dons powered their way to an 82 point first semi final victory, and a fortnight later it was the turn of the North Melbourne Football Club as Essendon won the preliminary final a good deal more comfortably than the ultimate margin of 17 points suggested. In the grand final, Essendon were pitted against Carlton and in a match that was a total travesty as a contest they overwhelmed the Blues to the tune of 73 points, 18.17 (125) to 6.16 (52). Best for the Dons included pacy aboriginal half back flanker Norm McDonald, ruckman Bob McLure, and rovers Bill Hutchinson and Ron McEwin. John Coleman also did well, registering 6 majors. A year later Essendon were if anything even more dominant, defeating the North Melbourne Football Club in both the second semi final and the grand final to secure consecutive VFL premierships for the third time. Best afield in the grand final in what was officially his swansong as a player was captain-coach Dick Reynolds, who received sterling support from the likes of Norm McDonald, ruckman/back pocket Wally May, back pocket Les Gardiner, and big Bob McLure. With 'King Richard' still holding court as coach in 1951, albeit now in a non-playing capacity, Essendon seemed on course for a third consecutive flag but a controversial four week suspension dished out to John Coleman on the eve of the finals effectively put paid to their chances. Coleman was reported for retaliation after twice being struck by his Carlton opponent, Harry Caspar, and without him the Dons were rated a 4 goals poorer team. Nevertheless, they still managed to battle their way to a 6th successive grand final with wins over Footscray by 8 points in the first semi final and Collingwood by 2 points in the preliminary final. The Dons sustained numerous injuries in the preliminary final and the selectors sprang a surprise on grand final day by naming the officially retired Dick Reynolds as 20th man. 'King Richard' was powerless to prevent the inevitable, although leading at half time, the Geelong kicked five goals to three points in the third quarter to set up victory by 11 points. Essendon slumped to 8th in 1952 but John Coleman was in irrepressible form managing 103 goals for the year. Hugh Buggy noted in 'The Argus': It was the wettest season for twenty two years and Coleman showed that since the war he was without peer in the art of goal kicking. Two seasons later Coleman's career was tragically ended after he dislocated a knee during the round 8 clash with the North Melbourne Football Club at Essendon. Aged just twenty five, he had kicked 537 goals in only 98 VFL games in what was generally a fairly low scoring period for the game. His meteoric rise and fall were clearly the stuff of legend, and few if any players, either before or since, have had such an immense impact over so brief a period. According to Alf Brown, football writer for 'The Herald': (Coleman) had all football's gifts. He was courageous, a long, straight kick, he had a shrewd football brain and, above all, he was a spectacular, thrilling mark. Somewhat more colourful, R.S. Whittington suggested, "Had he been a trapeze artist in a strolling circus, Coleman could have dispensed with the trapeze." Without Coleman, Essendon's fortunes plummeted, and there were to be no further premierships in the 1950s. The nearest miss came in 1957 when the Bombers (as they were popularly known by this time) earned premiership favouritism after a superb 16 point second semi final defeat of Melbourne, only to lose by over 10 goals against the same side a fortnight later. 1959 saw another grand final loss to Melbourne, this time by 37 points, but the fact that the average age of the Essendon side was only 22 was seen as providing considerable cause for optimism. However, it was to take another three years, and a change of coach, before the team's obvious potential was translated into tangible success. The Post Reynolds era and the 'Slugging' Seventies. (1961 - 1980) John Coleman started his coaching career at Essendon in 1961, thus ending the Dick Reynolds era at the club. In the same year Essendon finished the season mid table and supporters were not expecting too much for the following season. However, the club blitzed the opposition in this year, losing only two matches and finishing top of the table. Both losses were to the previous year's Grand finalists. The finals posed no problems for the resurgent Dons, easily accounting for Carlton in the season's climax, winning the 1962 premiership. This was a remarkable result for Coleman who in his second season of coaching pulled off the ultimate prize in Australian football. As so often is the case after a flag, the following two years were below standard. A further premiership in 1965 (won from 4th position on the ladder), was also unexpected due to periods of poor form during the season. The Bombers were a different club when the finals came around, but some of the credit for the improvement was given to the influence of Brian Sampson and Ted Fordham during the finals. Coleman's time as coach turned out to be much like his playing career: highly successful but cut short when he had to stand down due to health problems in 1967. Only six years later, on the eve of the 1973 season, he would be dead of a heart-attack at just 44 years of age. After Coleman's retirement, the club hit tough times both on the field and off. Finals appearances were rare for the side, which was more often in contention for the wooden spoon (last place) than the premiership. Essendon did manage to make the 1968 VFL Grand Final, but lost a heartbreaker to Carlton by just three points and would not make it back to the big stage for a decade and a half. During the period from 1968 until 1980, five different coaches were tried, with none lasting longer than four years. Off the field the club went through troubled times as well. In 1970 five players went on strike before the season even began, demanding higher payments. Essendon did make the finals in 1972 and 1973 under the autocratic direction of Des Tuddenham (Collingwood) but they were beaten badly in successive elimination finals by St. Kilda and would not taste finals action again until the very end of the decade. The 70s Essendon sides were involved in many rough and tough encounters under Tuddenham, who himself came to logger heads with Ron Barassi at a quarter time huddle where both coaches exchanged heated words. Essendon had tough, but talented players with the likes of "Rotten Ronnie" Ron Andrews and experienced players such as Barry Davis, Ken Fletcher, Geoff Blethyn, Neville Fields and West Australian import Graham Moss. In May 1974, a controversial half time all-in-brawl with Richmond at Windy Hill and a 1975 encounter with Carlton were testimony of the era. Following the Carlton match, the 'Herald' described Windy Hill as "Boot Hill", because of the extent of the fights and the high number of reported players (eight in all - four from Carlton and four from Essendon). The peak of these incidents would occur in 1980 with new recruit Phil Carman making headlines for head-butting an umpire. The tribunal suspended him for sixteen weeks, and although most people thought this was a fair (or even lenient) sentence, he took his case to the supreme court, gathering even more unwanted publicity for the club. Despite this, the club had recruited many talented young players in the late 70s who would emerge as club greats. Three of those young players were Simon Madden, Tim Watson and Paul Van Der Haar. Terry Daniher and his brother Neale would come via a trade with South Melbourne, and Roger Merrett joined soon afterwards to form the nucleus of what would become the formidable Essendon sides of the 1980s. This raw but talented group of youngsters took Essendon to an elimination final in 1979 under Barry Davis but were again thrashed in an Elimination Final, this time at the hands of Fitzroy. Davis resigned at the end of the 1980 season after missing out on a finals appearance. One of the few highlights for Essendon supporters during this time was when Moss won the 1976 Brownlow Medal; he was the only Bomber to do so in a 40 year span from 1953-1993. Even that was bittersweet as he quit VFL football to move back to his native Western Australia, where he finished out his career as a player and coach at his beloved Claremont. In many ways, Graham Moss' career reflects Essendon's mixed fortunes during the decade. Early Kevin Sheedy era (1981-1990) Essendon appointed former Richmond stalwart Kevin Sheedy as head coach in October 1980. Sheedy had been a key player in Richmond's premiership sides of the mid-70s. Having only just retired in 1979, he had no coaching experience and was regarded as something of a risk. The cunning apprentice plumber had developed a reputation as a player for thinking outside the square and had a knack for getting under the skin of opposing players and supporters. Things did not start very well, with the side languishing on the bottom of the ladder early in 1981, having recorded just one victory in its first six encounters. Sheedy threatened to come out of retirement and show his players "how it was done" if things didn't pick up. The team responded in stunning fashion, reeling off 15 successive victories through round 21, before running out of petrol at the business end of the year and succumbing to Fitzroy again in another elimination final. Still, it was a new era at Windy Hill, and the 1981 season also brought with it the club's first ever night premiership. Essendon 1980s shield logoMaking the finals proved to be a habit of Sheedy's, with the side again making the finals in 1982 and 1983. Essendon capped the '83 season by making their first grand final in 15 years, and though they would go down to Hawthorn by a then record margin, the stage was set for Essendon to finally return to the top. Essendon won the night flag again in 1984 and emerged as co-favourite for the flag along with Hawthorn. Essendon finished the year on top of the ladder and came up against the Hawks again in the second semi-final. The Hawks would again prevail, but this time in a close, spirited encounter in which the young Dons began to believe that they were the equal of the mighty Hawks. Essendon then obliterated Collingwood by 133 points in the preliminary final the following week to make it back to the big stage and face the Hawks one more time. This time the results would be different. For most of the 1984 VFL Grand Final, things looked very much like 1983, as Hawthorn would kick the first four goals of the match and carry that margin all the way to three-quarter time. It appeared almost certain that Hawthorn would win back-to-back premierships. Sheedy pulled some of his now famous positional moves, and the Bombers, led by Leon Baker's four goals in the term, put on a stunning 9 goal rally which took them well in front, and the Dons finally had their 13th flag after nearly 20 years of trying. Essendon was even more dominant in 1985, they again finished on top of the ladder, only losing two games for the season. Essendon met Hawthorn in the Grand Final again, but this time it wasn't even close, as the Bombers managed to get revenge for 1983 and thrashed the Hawks by 78 points. These results had many media commentators talking about an Essendon dynasty, especially since the side had some of Essendon's greatest ever players in Tim Watson, Simon Madden and Terry Daniher in the prime of their careers. Unfortunately this did not pan out, as Essendon were hit badly by injuries during 1986 and fell away during the rest of the decade. A series of departures through defections (Roger Merrett left for the newly-formed Brisbane Bears) and controversial trades (the most notorious of which was the highly unpopular deal involving well-liked clubmen Stephen Carey and Peter Bradbury) damaged club morale for several years. Despite this, by 1990 Essendon had put together another contending side, finishing top of the ladder and having won through to another grand final. Two events may have helped contribute to Essendon's lackluster performances in this finals series. The first occurred during the last round of the home and away season, when several key players had been rested, allowing Kevin Sheedy to play the four Daniher brothers together in a match. The second occurred when Collingwood and West Coast played a drawn qualifying final, resulting in a replay which delayed the rest of the finals series a week. Essendon would not play a match for three weeks, and with some of the players having been rested during Round 22, there were some players who had not played for nearly a month when it came time to face Collingwood in the second semi-final. The Pies won this easily, and the flat Bombers were forced to regroup and managed to knock off a young West Coast squad in the prelim. By this stage most of the more experienced players were nearing retirement, as evident in that second semi final, and was evident again on Grand Final day, in which Collingwood won convincingly. The Baby Bombers and rebuilding (1991-1998) 1991 and 1992 saw the end of some of the club's most distinguished careers - those of Simon Madden, Terry Daniher and (temporarily) Tim Watson. Around this time period saw a transition of the club off the field. Following the 1991 season, Essendon moved from its traditional home ground at Windy Hill to the larger and newly-renovated MCG. This move saw massive increases in game attendance, memberships, and revenue generated. Combined with shrewd marketing (particularly from coach Kevin Sheedy) and continued on field success, these factors all helped Essendon become one of the financial powerhouses of the competition. On the field, a quiet rebuilding effort similar to the late 70's had been underway, with a new breed of players such as Gavin Wanganeen, Joe Misiti, Mark Mercuri, Michael Long, Dustin Fletcher (son of Ken), and an unheralded youngster from Canberra named James Hird, who was taken at #79 in the 1992 draft. This side became known as the "Baby Bombers", as the core of the side was made up of young and inexperienced but highly talented players early in their careers. They would take the football world by storm in 1993, when, in one of the most even seasons ever, Essendon defeated Carlton in a landslide to win a most unexpected premiership. Gavin Wanganeen would take out the club's first Brownlow Medal since 1976. After the success of 1993, the young side finished tenth in 1994 and fifth in 1995. Despite this, Essendon came agonisingly close to a Grand Final spot in 1996 when they were beaten on the siren by a point to Sydney in Sydney. James Hird had developed into one of the premier players of the competition, and was jointly awarded the 1996 Brownlow with Michael Voss of Brisbane. Essendon were dealt a blow at the end of the 1996 season when Wanganeen left the club to play for the new Port Adelaide side in 1997. The Bombers would tumble all the way down to 14th, which, coupled with an 8th place finish in 1998, began to bring forth rumblings that perhaps Kevin Sheedy's time was up. (1999-2001) Essendon had been somewhat unheralded prior to 1999, as the previous couple of years had been rather mediocre by club standards. Kevin Sheedy was beginning to feel some pressure as head coach. Things started very badly as James Hird suffered stress fractures in his foot that ended his season after just two games, and threatened to end his career. Following an anemic loss to West Coast in round 4 (in which the Dons could only manage three goals in perfect weather conditions), the playing group managed to come together and went on a tear throughout the rest of the home and away season, led by breakout performances from full-forward Matthew Lloyd, who dazzled with a 13 goal haul against the Sydney Swans, and Mark Mercuri, who just narrowly missed out on winning the Brownlow Medal. Essendon finished on top of the ladder and emerged as prohibitive premiership favourites, having beaten powerful co-contender North Melbourne twice in convincing fashion. They disposed of Sydney easily in the first week of the finals and took a week off to rest. Up next was Carlton in the preliminary final. The Blues had been thrashed in a previous final by Adelaide and were considered little more than a bump in the road to the Bombers' next flag. In an epic preliminary final, a spirited Carlton stunned and shocked the football world by pulling off a dramatic one-point upset over a complacent Essendon side. At times the Bombers appeared cocky and almost appeared to be toying with the Blues, dominating long passages of play. However, terribly inaccurate kicking (0.5 in the second quarter and 14.19 for the day) ultimately sealed their fate as they could not put the Blues away despite 14 scoring shots during the third quarter. The final blow came with just seconds left when defender Dean Wallis failed to spot a leading Dustin Fletcher deep in the forward 50 and got caught holding the ball. This would be the fourth final lost by a point under Sheedy, and of particular embarassment as it occurred at the hands of their hated and bitter arch rivals. To this day, Carlton celebrates this victory as much, if not more, than many of their premiership victories. The failure of 1999 caused the players to redouble their efforts, having resolved to use that prelim defeat to motivate them like nothing else could. As a result, the 2000 season would prove to be the best Essendon, or perhaps any side in the league, has produced since Collingwood provided the league's only undefeated Home and Away season in 1929. Essendon would lose just one solitary match during the home-and-away season, winning 20 consecutive matches before losing to the Western Bulldogs in round 21 denying Essendon an undefeated season. Essendon finished the home and away season at 21-1 and faced North Melbourne in the Qualifying Final. Many felt the Kangaroos had backed into the '99 flag due to Essendon's preliminary final stumble, and the Bombers unleashed all of their pent-up fury upon the hapless Kangaroos, kicking 31 goals and obliterating North to the tune of 125 points, at the time a finals record margin. Essendon then drew Carlton again in the Preliminary Final, but lightning would not strike twice for the Blues. The Dons easily accounted for them by 45 points, then coolly dismissed an overmatched Melbourne by 60 points in the Grand Final the next week to win a record equalling 16th premiership, completing one of the most dominant single seasons in AFL/VFL history. It was especially sweet for James Hird, who had come back from his career-threatening injury to win the Norm Smith medal. The side looked set to repeat their success the following year. Early on, it appeared Essendon would once again dominate the competition, opening their 2001 campaign with another thrashing of North Melbourne. However, some cracks began to appear. Carlton shocked the Bombers again in Round 3, but a worse defeat at the hands of the Brisbane Lions several weeks later ultimately signalled that change was in the air. It was prior to this match that Brisbane coach Leigh Matthews famous stated "If it bleeds, you can kill it". Suddenly the aura of invincibility surrounding the Bombers began to fade, and opposing sides lined up to try and throw everything they could at Essendon. The "invincibles" of the 99-01 era produced one more dramatic thrill in Round 16, when, against North Melbourne, they produced the greatest comeback in AFL/VFL history, winning by 12 points after trailing by as many as 69 at one point in the second quarter. However, the Bombers were a spent force. Form became patchy, late season injuries piled up, and the Bombers stumbled into the finals. Essendon disposed of Richmond easily, but narrowly scraped by Hawthorn in a controversial preliminary, and went into the Grand Final battered and bruised. The Lions, who had not been beaten since the teams' earlier encounter, overran an underdone Bomber side in the second half, and the repeat dream was dashed. Decline and the end of the Sheedy era (2002 - 2007) After the devastating loss to Brisbane in the 2001 Grand Final, Essendon began to fall from the power and grace they once commanded. Lucrative contracts to a number of premiership players had caused serious pressure on the club's salary cap, forcing the club to reluctantly trade away many key cogs from the machine that dominated the competition just two years before. Blake Caracella, Chris Heffernan (later returned to the club), Justin Blumfield, Gary Moorcroft and Damien Hardwick had all departed by the end of 2002. The club remained competitive, attempting to top-up the list with veterans cast off from other clubs, however they could progress no further than the second week of the finals each year for the years of 2002, 2003, and 2004. In 2004, James Hird played his 200th game against Richmond in round 15, but suffered a mysterious injury in the match. At season's end, the curtain had fallen on the careers of Mark Mercuri, Sean Wellman and Joe Misiti. Their season ended with a 10-point defeat to Geelong in the second semi-final on September 11, 2004. During 2004, Sheedy signed a new three year contract, by the end of which he was the second on the list of most VFL/AFL games coached behind Collingwood's Jock McHale. Essendon, having been a consistent side over a long period of time, suffered from lack of quality draft picks. Many of the high draft picks used during this period failed to pan out. Kevin Sheedy, known for his unorthodox but keen eye for talent recruiting, had become adept at drafting some of the best young indigenous players in the country. However, in his everlasting quest to unearth new talent from unlikely sources, he began to take more risks with his draft choices, often demonstrating a fondness for project players who would take a long time to develop (and in many cases, never fully did). The club also paid for its reliance on veteran castoffs from other clubs. Whilst acquisitions such as Scott Camporeale and Justin Murphy (both from Carlton) were serviceable, these players often took the place in the side of younger players and this emphasis was thought to have stifled development of new talent. In addition, a rash of bad luck hit the club. Popular midfielder and clubman Adam Ramanauskas would be cut down in the prime of his career by cancer. Ramanauskas eventually overcame the cancer twice and a major knee injury to play senior football again, but he would never be the same player after this, and retired at the end of 2008. The 2005 season saw Essendon miss the finals for the first time since 1997, finishing with their worst season to that time under Sheedy's coaching, 13th position with 8 wins and 14 losses. With the Bombers looking towards a new era, it was announced on September 27 that Matthew Lloyd would replace James Hird as Essendon captain for the 2006 season, marking the end of Hird's reign since he took over the captaincy in 1998. Even with the failure of 2005, Essendon had played finals in 19 out of 25 seasons under Sheedy, with six top of the ladder finishes, seven Grand Final appearances and four premierships. Lloyd played his 200th game in round 13 against St Kilda, a game Essendon won by 15 points. 2006 brought trying times for the Essendon Football Club, with injuries to big names and other important players dropping out of form. Matthew Lloyd's hamstring injury during the Round 3 clash with the Bulldogs was so severe that he was ruled out for the entire season, therefore requiring a stand-in captain, David Hille, to be appointed. James Hird also suffered a minor injury in the game against the Kangaroos, but returned in Round 17 to give the Bombers a rare win over their 2001 Grand Final nemesis, the Brisbane Lions. Essendon recorded just 3 wins and a draw for the season and experienced one of the longest losing streaks in its sordid history, dropping fourteen consecutive matches after opening the season with a win over reigning premiers Sydney. The Bombers came dangerously close to their first wooden spoon since 1933, finishing ahead of bottom placed Carlton only on percentage. Despite this, there were some encouraging performances from the Bombers during the season. A win over Collingwood ruined the Pies' hopes of making the top four. In another match against St Kilda, Essendon led nearly the entire game, only to be run down in the final minutes in a three point loss. 2007 started much better for Essendon, with three wins in their first four rounds, before falling away. They defeated Adelaide, Fremantle and St Kilda in rounds one, two and four respectively, before a string of losses to Collingwood, Hawthorn and the Kangaroos had them sitting at 3-4 after round seven. However, they got back on track thrashing recent triple premiers Brisbane in round eight, followed by narrow wins over Richmond, last year's grand finalistsSydney and West Coast. Following a disappointing loss to Port Adelaide in round 12, they defeated Melbourne in round 13, where Matthew Lloyd kicked his 800th goal and Demons coach and former Bombers player Neale Daniher resigned as Melbourne coach. James Hird played his 250th game and Adam Ramanauskas played his first match in more than one and a half years in the match against Geelong, but the Dons were thrashed by 50 points after sustaining multiple injuries. Matthew Lloyd was suspended for this match. Weeks of speculation surrounding Kevin Sheedy's came to a head in July following three disappointing losses. Turmoil at clubs around the league resulted in several coaching changes. On July 25, 2007, it was announced that Kevin Sheedy's contract would not be renewed after 27 years, sending the entire football world into shock. The move was considered somewhat rushed and mis-handled by many members of the media. Several other AFL clubs were also making coaching changes, and in some circles it was thought that the club needed to sack Sheedy quickly in order to gain access to the best prospective coaches available. The decision of removing Sheedy itself proved divisive amongst Essendon supporters and even moved one faction to move towards a dismissal of the board, which was dimissed in an extraordinary general meeting. On field, the emotional Bombers responded by defeating Adelaide for the second time this season in what was to be Sheedy and Hird's final match at Etihad Stadium. After two straight 63-point defeats at the hands of Hawthorn and Fremantle, Essendon defeated fellow rivals Carlton, the match notable for Lloyd kicking the goal of the year, with his inventive backheel. James Hird and Kevin Sheedy were farewelled by the Melbourne faithful at the Melbourne Cricket Ground a week later against Richmond, but unfortunately their Melbourne farewell was spoiled by the Tigers, who, at that stage, were still a real chance of winning the wooden spoon. Their official farewell match was against West Coast in round 22, and despite a thrilling comeback (including seven last-quarter goals to Scott Lucas), they were defeated by eight points. There was a huge applause from the Subiaco Oval crowd following this match (interestingly, they also waved their scarves and jackets), where Hird and Sheedy were officially farewelled. Post Sheedy/Hird years (2008 - present) Essendon began the Matthew Knights era on a positive note, having advanced to the semi-finals of the 2008 NAB Cup preseason competition with two solid victories over the Brisbane Lions and Western Bulldogs. Unfortunately, they bowed out of the pre-season competition with a narrow 3-point loss to St. Kilda, who would eventually go on to win the competition. Essendon added four new faces to the squad for the 2008 season, through the 2007 NAB AFL Draft, these players were David Myers, Tayte Pears, Cale Hooker and Darcy Daniher who was selected previously as a father-son selection. Essendon struggled at the start of the Home and Away Season, winning only 2 games out of their first 11. They had wins over NMFC and Carlton but lost the rest including a match against defending premiers Geelong and beaten by 99 points. In Round 12, the teams fortunes improved, Essendon managed to score a victory over the West Coast Eagles at Etihad Stadium by 22 points. The following week, the Bombers beat Carlton by 35 points, giving the team a much needed confidence booster. In the split-round, the Dons took on Fremantle at Subiaco Oval and ground out a gritty and hard fought 4 point win at the season break. Skipper Matthew Lloyd kicked eight goals against Melbourne and took him into eighth place on the all-time goal scorers list. Yet another series of crippling injuries ravaged the club, leaving them with as little as 24 fit men for selection. The club were forced to play third-string rookie ruckman Tom Bellchambers for the last two matches of the year following season ending injuries to both David Hille and Jason Laycock. A series of severely undermanned Bomber squads took to the grounds for the remaining matches, and all ended in blowout defeats, the worst of which was a 108-point drubbing to surprise top four contender St. Kilda. Essendon would finish 2008 in 12th position on the AFL ladder with 8 wins and 14 losses. It was announced that 2000 Essendon premiership players Jason Johnson and Adam Ramanauskas would retire, as well as Mal Michael and Damien Peverill, who was told earlier in the season that his services "would not be required" at the end of 2008. In November 2008 Adam Ramanauskas was appointed into a development role within the club, to mentor both rookie and younger players on the list. Ramanuaskas will bring a great deal of AFL experience and knowledge to the squad, at both Bendigo and Windy Hill. Other appointments include former Essendon defender Paul Hamilton into the General Managers role and Alan Richardson from Collingwood, as an Assistant and Development Coach. Season 2009 has thus far proved one of ups and downs for Essendon. Along with dismal performances against Port Adelaide and Brisbane, the Bombers have recorded thrilling last gasp wins against their arch rivals Carlton and Collingwood, and a 44 point thrashing of 2008 premiers Hawthorn. Round 8 was a valiant effort by the Bombers against the undefeated St Kilda, unfortunately the first quarter 40 point difference kept Essendon out of the game despite Essendon winning the next three quarters. After 9 rounds Essendon were surprisingly in the top 4 of the AFL ladder. Rivalries Major rivals Carlton - With the teams sharing the record of 16 premierships, both sides are keen to become outright leader, or if out of the finals race, at least ensure the other doesn't. In recent years, the rivalry has thickened with Carlton beating the 1999 premiership favourites by 1 point in the preliminary final. Richmond - Essendon and Richmond play in the annual 'Dreamtime At The 'G' match. In the last one, Essendon won by 40 points. In 1974 this rivalry resulted in a famous half time brawl which involved trainers, officials and players at Windy Hill. Collingwood - The match that has been played on Anzac Day between these two sides since 1995 is described as the second biggest match of the season, behind only the Grand Final. Being possibly the two biggest football clubs in Victoria, regardless of their position on the ladder this game always attracts a huge crowd. In 2006, the Magpies were the only Victorian team to drop a match against Essendon (Round 19, 2006). In doing so Essendon avoided the wooden spoon and Collingwood's top-four hopes (and premiership hopes) were dashed. Minor rivals Brisbane Lions - Since Essendon and Brisbane fought out the 2001 Grand Final, matches between them have been entertaining and close games. Sydney Swans - In 1996, the Swans beat Essendon by a point in the preliminary final at the SCG. This ended Essendon's season and got the Swans through to their first grand final in 51 years. Matches between them are usually close. North Melbourne - A rivalry that first began over supporter boundaries, and then over Essendon's thwarting North Melbourne's final hopes in the 1950s, this would spill over again in the 1990s. Many Essendon supporters believed the outcome of North Melbourne's 1996 and 1999 Premierships would have been much different had the Bombers managed to win the Preliminary Finals in each of those years. Coach Kevin Sheedy's famous 'Marshmallow War' jibe only served to strengthen the rivalry. The Bombers managed to get the upper hand in the rivalry for a while with their famous comeback in Round 16 of the 2001 season where, trailing by 69 points halfway through the second quarter, the Bombers came back hard, scoring a flurry of goals to eventually win by 12 points. The Bombers didn't beat the Kangaroos again until Round 1, 2008 when they came back from 27 points down in second quarter to win by 55 points. West Coast Eagles - Since Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy famously waved his jacket over his head following a close victory over the Eagles in 1993, it has become a tradition for the winning side's supporters to do the same after a match between the two sides. If one team is winning by a considerable margin, the coat waving has been known to begin well before the match ends. Essendon's games against West Coast always sell out the 43,000 seat Subiaco Oval. Hawthorn - The two sides had a number of physical encounters in the mid-1980s when they were the top two sides of the competition. The rivalry was exacerbated when Dermott Brereton ran through Essendon's three-quarter time huddle during a match in 1988 and again by an all in brawl during a match in 2004 allegedly instigated by Brereton (Now known as the 'line in the sand' match after the direction allegedly given by Brereton for the Hawthorn players to make a physical stand). This was reminiscent of a similar brawl in the 1985 grand final. Supporter base A strong North West suburban club, Essendon over the last 20 years has become one of the most supported in Australia, rivalling Collingwood and arguably overtaking Carlton as the major Victorian power of the AFL. The club can boast a significant number of paid up members in the Outer Eastern Suburbs, due in part to the recruitment of a number of players from the old VFL Draft Zone days when players such as Paul Van Der Haar, Darren Williams, Paul Salmon and current Melbourne Football Club Coach Dean Bailey, to name a but few. It is estimated that the Essendon Football Club has a following of around 700,000 people Australia-wide. This can only be put down to a number of significant changes made during the last two decades, Essendon having always boasted a big following, but not until the club moved to the Melbourne Cricket Ground from Windy Hill in 1992 did they began to utilize their huge latent supporter base. Combined with immediate success at the new venue, things began to dramatically change off field. Instantly crowd figures grew, and each year saw attendances at Essendon games annually become the highest of any club in the competition. So much so, that if a comparison was made between the average attendance of home games during the last year at Windy Hill (17,537), to that of one just seven seasons later at the MCG (58,905), attendances had tripled. Another reason for this growth has to be due to the long-time coach Kevin Sheedy. Sheedy became coach of Essendon in 1981, but one of the qualities he brought to the club besides the instant success, was his marketing ability. Sheedy became one of the first coaches to use his position to promote the club, which he did Australia wide and continues to do today. Almost every club in the AFL now has a coach following Sheedy's lead. Interestingly enough, during 2005, Essendon was the third most supported team in Western Australia (behind the West Coast Eagles and the Fremantle Dockers). Famous fans include the deceased Steve Irwin, former Victorian Premier,Joan Kirner, Patricia Bodsworth, former Federal treasurer Peter Costello, Former ACTU boss Bill Kelty, Louise Lovett, Seven News Melbourne weekend newsreader Jennifer Keyte, singer Anthony Callea and Jarrod Rebecchi, a fictional character in the Ten soap Neighbours. Year Members Finishing position199827,099Finals199929,858Preliminary Finalists200034,278Premiers200136,227Runner Up200235,219Finals200331,970Finals200437,042Finals200535,39813th200632,51115th200734,21912th200841,94712th200940,3294th (as of conclusion Round 9) Club jumper In his book "The Stopover That Stayed - A History of Essendon (the village that is) author Grant Aldous, Page 138 states " Essendon Rowing Club claim they first sported the colours -borrowed from racing silks. The football club says, with no documentation, that Essendon wore red and black striped guernseys until 1875, when the red sash was adopted." While it is recorded that Essendon has always had black and red in its strip, The original uniform was actually going to be a red and black striped jumper. However it is understood that the black and red stripes mentioned as the official colours refer only to the socks. When the club was formed in 1873 uniforms were not available, and most players wore Navy Blue work guernseys. To avoid clashing with other teams, Essendon adopted a Red sash in 1875, and is recorded in magazines of the day as wearing Blue with Red sash up until about 1889. At this time, uniforms were ordered in the club colours, Black with a Red sash, and in every game from 1890 to today. However, in 2007 the AFL Commission laid down the requirement that all clubs have provide a clash jumper design for use for games. According to the AFL, Essendon would be required to wear this alternate jumper in designated away games against Richmond, Melbourne and St Kilda. While many can understand this request of the AFL, there are others that are bemused by this demand, namely Essendon supporters and traditionalists of the game. They argue that the clubs that supposedly clash with the Essendon jumper have had many different guernseys with many variations, consequently moving them closer to the Essendon design. They also argue that in some cases, these clubs had a completely different jumper with different colours. Two designs suggested for the Clash Jumper was a Red Jumper with black EFC writing and a jumper with an extra thick sash. Essendon have agreed on this second option as their "clash jumper", however the club has stated it intends to do whatever possible to avoid ever wearing the alternate design, to widespread support from the majority of club members. The club wore the design coupled with red shorts for their Round 4 clash with St Kilda in 2007. They wore it again in the Round 9 clash against Richmond but that time, they wore white shorts rather than red shorts. In 2008, they were not forced to wear the clash jumper against St Kilda, but wore it against Richmond in Round 16, again with white shorts. The club wore a one off variation to their normal colours of red and black, with a yellow strip on the left sleeve on June 29, 2007. This decision was taken in response to the AFL not allowing the club's players wear yellow armbands to promote cancer awareness and being fined $20,000 in 2006 for ignoring an AFL directive not to do so. However, on this opportunity, the AFL took no action against the club. This was repeated on August 2, 2008 in the Clash for Cancer game against Melbourne. The specially designed jumper had an AFL endorsed yellow band on the left sleeve. It is believed that the jumpers may well be auctioned off at later date. Premierships VFA Premierships (4) 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. VFL/AFL Premierships (16) 1897, 1901, 1911, 1912, 1923, 1924, 1942, 1946, 1949, 1950, 1962, 1965, 1984, 1985, 1993, 2000 Significant club achievements VFA Runner-Up (3) 1882, 1884, 1885 VFL/AFL Runner-Up (19) 1898, 1902, 1908, 1941, 1943, 1947, 1948, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1968, 1983, 1990, 2001 VFL/AFL Night Series/Pre-Season Premierships (6) 1981, 1984, 1990, 1993, 1994, 2000. VFL/AFL Minor Premierships (17) 1898, 1911, 1923, 1924, 1942, 1946, 1948, 1950, 1962, 1968, 1984, 1985, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2001. McClelland Trophies (9) Awarded to Minor Premiers since 1951 1951, 1953, 1957, 1968, 1990, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2001. VFL/AFL Lightning Premierships (2) 1943, 1996. VFL/AFL Reserve Premierships (8) 1921, 1941, 1950, 1952, 1968, 1983, 1992, 1999. Individual awards Best and Fairest Brownlow Medal winners Dick Reynolds (1934, 1937 & 1938) Bill Hutchison (1952 & 1953) Graham Moss (1976) Gavin Wanganeen (1993) James Hird (1996) Coleman Medal winners Ron Evans (1959, 1960) Ted Fordham (1966) Matthew Lloyd (2000, 2001, 2003) Norm Smith Medal winners Billy Duckworth (1984) Simon Madden (1985) Michael Long (1993) James Hird (2000) Michael Tuck Medal winners Gavin Wanganeen (1993) Gary O'Donnell (1994) Mark Mercuri (2000) Mark of the Year winners Gary Moorcroft (2001) Matthew Lloyd (2008) Goal of the Year winners Michael Long (1993) Matthew Lloyd (2007) National team representatives Justin Blumfield (2000) Chris Heffernan (2000) James Hird (2000, 2004) Jason Johnson (2001) Matthew Lloyd (2001) Adam Ramanauskas (2001) Adam McPhee (2004) Mark McVeigh (2004) Kepler Bradley (2005) Dustin Fletcher (2005, 2006, 2007) Andrew Lovett (2005) Brent Stanton (2006) Team of the Century To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club, as well as 100 years of the VFL/AFL, Essendon announced its "Team of the Century" in 1997. Champions of Essendon In 2002, a club panel chose and ranked the 25 greatest players to have played for Essendon. Dick Reynolds John Coleman James Hird Bill Hutchison Simon Madden Tim Watson Ken Fraser Jack Clarke Albert Thurgood Tom Fitzmaurice Terry Daniher Wally Buttsworth Reg Burgess Bill Busbridge Barry Davis Keith Forbes Graham Moss Mark Harvey Gavin Wanganeen Mark Thompson John Birt Matthew Lloyd Michael Long Fred Baring Harold Lambert Current squad Mascot Essendon's mascot is named Skeeta Reynolds named after Dick Reynolds. He appears as a red mosquito in an Essendon jumper, and wearing a red and black scarf. He is the mascot for Essendon in AFL mascot manor. His backstory is that he was a bomber pilot and one day he landed in Windy Hill in 1922. He liked it so much that he never left. http://www.entertainmentstore.com.au/corporateSite/images/shows/profilepics/afl/bombers.jpg Club honours ''See Essendon Football Club honours. Corporate Presidents Current president: Ray Horsburgh See also Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club coaches Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club players Dreamtime at the 'G References/Notes 8 The Stop-over that stayed - A History of Essendon, Grant Aldous, Published by The City of Essendon, Date unknown ISBN 0959516603. External links Official website of the Essendon Football Club "Around the Grounds" - Web Documentary - Windy Hill BomberTalk - Essendon Football Club Discussion Forum. BomberBlitz.com - Unofficial Website of the Essendon Football Club. Essendon Bombers Discussion Board on BigFooty. 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1,904 | Education_reform | Education reform is a plan or movement which attempts to bring about a systematic change in educational theory or practice across a community or society. In western society, this has preoccupied many famous intellectuals such as Plato Plato's Dialogues are primarily an account of a gifted teacher, Socrates, instructing various people. Plato later formed "The Academy" to teach philosophy. and Rousseau Rousseau, "Emile", is his book about natural education. . In fact, Western civilization developed classical education to economically teach skills and a framework for all human knowledge. Historically, many reforms, such as religious education and universities, originated to correct real or perceived defects in classical education. Since the 1850s, most reforms have attempted to either make individuals more perfectly developed, or to reduce the costs or increase the effectiveness of mass education. For example, the Transcendental movement, Joseph Lancaster's London poor school, or Deweyism. Early history Classical times Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. In The Republic, he said, "...compulsory learning never sticks in the mind." An important educational debate in the time of the Roman Empire arose after Christianity had achieved broad acceptance. The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought: "Given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin, was it safe to teach it to Christian children?" Modern reforms Though educational reform doubtedly occurred on a local level at various points throughout history, the modern notion of education reform is tied with the spread of Compulsory education - education reforms did not become widespread until after organized schooling was sufficiently systematized to be 'reformed.' In the modern world, economic growth and the spread of democracy have raised the value of education and increased the importance of ensuring that all children and adults have access to high quality and effective education. Modern education reforms are increasingly driven by a growing understanding of what works in education and how to go about successfully improving teaching and learning in schools. Whelan, Lessons Learned (2009) Reforms of classical education Western classical education as taught from the 18th to the 19th century has weaknesses that inspired reformers. Classical education is most concerned with answering the who, what, where, when and why? questions that concern a majority of students. Unless carefully taught, group instruction naturally neglects the theoretical "why" and "which" questions that strongly concern a minority of students. Classical education in this period also depreciated local languages and cultures in favor of ancient languages (Greek and Latin) and their cultures. This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities. Educational economies in the 1800s Before the advent of government-funded public schools, the primary mode of education for those of the lower classes was the charity school, pioneered during the 1800s by Protestant organizations and adapted for use by the Roman Catholic Church and governmental bodies. Because these schools operated on very small budgets and attempted to serve as many needy children as possible, economic factors were prominent in their design. The basic program was to develop "grammar" schools. These taught only grammar and bookkeeping. This program permits people to start businesses to make money, and gives them the skills to continue their education inexpensively from books. "Grammar" was the first third of the then-prevalent system of Classical education. The ultimate development of the grammar school was by Joseph Lancaster and Adam Bell who developed the monitorial system. Lancaster who started as a poor Quaker in early 19th century London. Bell started the Madras School of India. The monitorial system uses slightly more-advanced students to teach less-advanced students, achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 2, while educating more than a thousand students per adult. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called Improvements in Education that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world. Discipline and labor in a Lancaster school were provided by an economic system. Scrip, a form of money meaningless outside the school, was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition. Every job of the school was bid-for by students in scrip. The highest bid won. The jobs permitted students to collect scrip from other students for services rendered. However, any student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes. Besides tutoring, students could use scrip to buy food, school supplies, books, and childish luxuries in a school store. The adult supervisors were paid from the bids on jobs. With fully-developed internal economies, Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. The students were very clever at reducing their costs, and once invented, improvements were widely adopted in a school. For example, Lancaster students, motivated to save scrip, ultimately rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library, and read them in groups around music stands to reduce textbook costs. Exchanges of tutoring, and using receipts from "down tutoring" to pay for "up tutoring" were commonplace. Established educational elites found Lancaster schools so threatening that most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly-paid education explicitly to keep public education in "responsible" hands. These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education and were not accountable to established authorities. Lancaster's supporters responded that any schoolchild could avoid cheats, given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the education, and thus deserved no say in their composition. Lancaster, though motivated by charity, claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the poorest street-children. Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life. Educational Economies in the 1800s - K12 Academics Progressive reforms in Europe and the United States The term progressive in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number of kinds of educational progressivism, most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period between the late 19th and the middle of the 20th centuries. Child-study Jean-Jacques Rousseau has been called the father of the child-study movement. It has been said that Rousseau "discovered" the child (as an object of study). Rousseau's principal work on education is Emile: Or, On Education, in which he lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education to adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in Plato's Republic and also of the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it; he held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the child and its curiosity, teaching it by confronting it with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning it by experience rather than teaching it intellectually. His ideas were rarely implemented directly, but were influential on later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel, the inventor of the kindergarten. Transcendentalist education H. D. Thoreau's Walden and reform essays in the mid-19th century were influential also (see the anthology Uncommon Learning: Henry David Thoreau on Education, Boston, 1999). For a look at transcendentalist life, read Louisa May Alcott's Little Women. Her father, A. Bronson Alcott, a close friend of Thoreau's, pioneered progressive education for young people as early as the 1830s. The transcendental education movement failed, because only the most gifted students ever equaled the skills of their classically-educated teachers. These students would, of course, succeed in any educational regime. Accounts seem to indicate that the students were happy, but often pursued classical education later in life. National identity Education is often seen in Europe and Asia as an important system to maintain national, cultural and linguistic unity. Prussia instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, "Hochdeutsch". One significant reform was kindergarten, whose purpose was to have the children spend time in supervised activities in the national language, when the children were young enough that they could easily learn new language skills. Since most modern schools copy the Prussian models, children start school at an age when their language skills remain plastic, and they find it easy to learn the national language. This was an intentional design on the part of the Prussians. In the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a native speaker. In other countries, such as the Soviet Union, France, Spain, and Germany this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities. Dewey John Dewey, a philosopher and educator, was heavily influential in American and international education, especially during the first four decades of the twentieth century. An important member of the American Pragmatist movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a harsh critic of "dead" knowledge disconnected from practical human life, foreshadowing Paulo Freire's attack on the "banking concept of education." Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Bill Joel and those who followed him. He presented his educational theories as a synthesis of the two views. His slogan was that schools should encourage children to "Learn by doing." He wanted people to realize that children are naturally active and curious. Dewey's understanding of logic is best presented in his "Logic, the Theory of Inquiry" (1938). His educational theories were presented in "My Pedagogic Creed", The School and Society, The Child and Curriculum, and Democracy and Education (1916). The question of the history of Deweyan educational practice is a difficult one. He was a widely known and influential thinker, but his views and suggestions were often misunderstood by those who sought to apply them, leading some historians to suggest that there was never an actual implementation on any considerable scale of Deweyan progressive education. The schools with which Dewey himself was most closely associated (though the most famous, the "Laboratory School", was really run by his wife) had considerable ups and downs, and Dewey left the University of Chicago in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School. Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore. The administrative progressives The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed "administrative progressivism" by historians. This began to be implemented in the early 20th century. While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the industrial revolution and the concept economies of scale. The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs, the move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level. (Cf. "State, federal, and local control of education in the United States", below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp. 17-26) These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards. In more recent times, groups such as the think tank Reform's education division, and S.E.R. have attempted to pressure the government of the U.K. into more modernist educational reform, though this has been met with limited success. Critiques of progressive and classical reforms Many progressive reforms failed to transfer learned skills. Evidence suggests that higher-order thinking skills are unused by many people (cf. Jean Piaget, Isabel Myers, and Katharine Cook Briggs). Some authorities say that this refutes key assumptions of progressive thinkers such as Dewey. Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied people's developmental stages. He showed by widely reproduced experiments that most young children do not analyze or synthesize as Dewey expected. Some authorities therefore say that Dewey's reforms do not apply to the primary education of young children. Katherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Myers developed a psychological test that reproducibly identifies sixteen distinct human temperaments, building on work by Jung. A wide class of temperaments ("Sensors", half by category, 60% of the general population) prefer not to use non-concrete information such as theories or logical inference. In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 60% of the general population only use, and therefore would prefer to learn answers to concrete "Who, what, when, where", and "how" questions, rather than answers to the theoretical "which" and "why" questions advocated by progressives. This information was confirmed (on another research track) by Jean Piaget, who discovered that nearly 60% of adults never habitually use what he called "formal operational reasoning," a term for the development and use of theories and explicit logic. If this criticism is true, then schools that teach only principles would fail to educate 60% of the general population. The data from Piaget, Myers and Briggs can also be used to criticize classical teaching styles that never teach theory or principle. In particular, a wide class of temperaments ("Intuitives", half by category, 40% of the general population) prefer to reason from trusted first principles, and then apply that theory to predict concrete facts. In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 40% of the general population prefer to use, and therefore want to learn, answers to theoretical "Which and "Why" questions, rather than answers to the concrete "Who, what, when, where" and "How" questions. The synthesis resulting from this two-part critique is a "neoclassical" learning theory similar to that practiced by Marva Collins, in which both learning styles are accommodated. The classroom is filled with facts, that are organized with theories, providing a rich environment to feed children's natural preferences. To reduce the limitations of depending only on natural preferences, all children are required to learn both important facts, and important forms of reasoning. Diane Ravitch argues that "progressive" reformers have replaced a challenging liberal arts curriculum with ever-lower standards and indoctrination, particularly in inner-city schools, thereby preventing vast numbers of students from achieving their full potential. Education reform in the United States since the mid-20th Century Reforms arising from the civil rights era From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in US education stemmed from the Civil Rights movement and related trends; examples include racial integration and busing, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer. (Tyack and Cuban, p. 29) Reform efforts in the 1980s In the 1980s, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of A Nation at Risk, Ronald Reagan's efforts to reduce or eliminate the United States Department of Education. In the latter half of the decade, E.D. Hirsch put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education, advocating an emphasis on "cultural literacy"--the facts, phrases, and texts that Hirsch asserted every American had once known and that now only some knew, but was still essential for decoding basic texts and maintaining communication. Hirsch's ideas remain significant through the 1990s and into the 21st century, and are incorporated into classroom practice through textbooks and curricula published under his own imprint. Reform efforts in the 1990s Most states and districts in the 1990s adopted outcome-based education in some form or another. A state would create a committee to adopt standards, and choose a performance-based assessment to assess whether the students knew the required content or could perform the required tasks. OBE reforms usually had other disputed methods, such as constructivist mathematics and whole language, larded onto them. Some proponents advocated replacing the traditional high school diploma with a Certificate of Initial Mastery. Other reform movements were school-to-work, which would require all students except those in a university track to spend substantial class time on a job site. Funding levels Although many people have claimed that U.S. public schools are underfunded, there are few countries that spend as much per student on education. However, the United States is well known for huge inequalities in the economics of school districts. [ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1141/is_n26_v33/ai_19389741 National Catholic Reporter, May 2, 1997 by John Allen] Among developed countries, there is almost no correlation between spending on education and educational performance. Top performers include Singapore, Finland and Korea, all with relatively low spending on education, while high spenders including Norway and Luxembourg have relatively low performance. OECD, PISA 2006. Whelan, Lessons Learned: How Good Polices Produce Better Schools, 2009. However, within countries, differences in spending between schools or districts may accentuate inequalities if they result in the best teachers moving to teach in the most wealthy areas. According to a 2005 report from the OECD, the United States is tied for first place with Switzerland when it comes to annual spending per student on its public schools, with each of those two countries spending more than $11,000 (in U.S. currency). OECD calls for broader access to post-school education and training, OECD, September 13, 2005 Despite this high level of funding, U.S. public schools lag behind the schools of other rich countries in the areas of reading, math, and science. Who's No. 1? Finland, Japan and Korea, Says OECD According to a 2007 article in The Washington Post, the Washington D.C. public school district spends $12,979 per student per year. This is the third highest level of funding per student out of the 100 biggest school districts in the U.S. Despite this high level of funding, the school district provides outcomes that are lower than the national average. In reading and math, the district's students score the lowest among 11 major school districts--even when poor children are compared only with other poor children. Thirty-three percent of poor fourth graders in the U.S. lack basic skills in math, but in Washington D.C., it's 62%. Can D.C. Schools Be Fixed?, The Washington Post, June 10, 2007 According to a 2006 study by the Goldwater Institute, Arizona's public schools spend 50% more per student than Arizona's private schools. The study also says that while teachers constitute 72% of the employees at private schools, they make up less than half of the staff at public schools. According to the study, if Arizona's public schools wanted to be like private schools, they would have to hire approximately 25,000 more teachers, and eliminate 21,210 administration employees. The study also said that public school teachers are paid about 50% more than private school teachers. Private Schools Now 33% Off!, Cato Institute, October 18, 2006 In 1985 in Kansas City, Missouri, a judge ordered the school district to raise taxes and spend more money on public education. Spending was increased so much, that the school district was spending more money per student than any of the country's other 280 largest school districts. Although this very high level of spending continued for more than a decade, there was no improvement in the school district's academic performance. Money And School Performance: Lessons from the Kansas City Desegregation Experiment, Cato Institute, March 16, 1998 Catastrophe in Kansas City, December 1995 According to a 1999 article by William J. Bennett, former U.S. Secretary of Education, increased levels of spending on public education have not made the schools better. Among many other things, the article cites the following statistics: 20 Troubling Facts about American Education, William J. Bennett, October 1999 Between 1960 and 1995, U.S. public school spending per student, adjusted for inflation, increased by 212%. In 1994, less than half of all U.S. public school employees were teachers. Out of 21 industrialized countries, U.S. 12th graders ranked 19th in math, 16th in science, and last in advanced physics. Alternatives to public education In the United States, Private schools (independent schools) have long been an alternative to public education for those with the ability to pay tuition. These include religious schools, preparatory and boarding schools, and schools based on alternative philosophies such as Montessori education. Over 4 million students, about 1 child in 12, attend religious schools in the United States, most of them Christian. Boston.com / News / Boston Globe / Opinion / Op-ed / Making the case for parochial schools Montessori pre- and primary school programs employ alternative theories of guided exploration which seek to embrace children's natural curiosity rather than, for instance, scolding them for falling out of rank. Home education is favored by a growing number of parents who take direct responsibility for their children's education rather than enrolling them in local public schools seen as not meeting expectations. School choice Libertarian theorists such as Milton Friedman advocate school choice to promote excellence in education through competition. A highly competitive 'market' for schools would eliminate the need to otherwise attempt a workable method of accountability for results. Public education vouchers would permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds currently allocated to local public schools. The theory is that children's guardians will naturally shop for the best schools, much as is already done at college level. Though appealing in theory, many reforms based on school choice have not led to substantial improvements in teaching and learning. Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009) For instance, New Zealand's landmark reform in 1989, during which schools were granted substantial autonomy, funding was devolved to schools, and parents were given a free choice of which school their children would attend, led to only modest improvements in most schools and was associated with increases in inequity and greater racial and social stratification in schools. Similar results have been found in other jurisdictions. Though discouraging, the failure of choice to lead to improvement in student learning often seems to reflect weaknesses in the way that choice is implemented rather than a failure of the basic principle itself. Whelan, Lessons Learned: How good policies produce better schools (2009). Fiske, Ladd, When Schools Compete (2000) Barriers to reform A recent Fordham Institute study found that some labor agreements with teachers' unions may restrict the ability of school systems to implement merit pay and other reforms. Contracts were more restrictive in districts with high concentrations of poor and minority students. Frederick M. Hess and Coby Loup, "The LEADERSHIP LIMBO: Teacher Labor Agreements in America’s Fifty Largest School Districts," Fordham Institute, February 2008 The methodology and conclusions of the study have been criticized by teachers' unions. Nelson Hernandez, "Some Teachers' Contracts Bind Reforms, Study Says: Agreements in D.C. Region Generally Praised," The Washington Post, Monday, February 25, 2008; Page B04 Motivations Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as poverty-, gender-, or class-based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness. Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people—the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic, etc. The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western democracy in the 20th century. The "beliefs" of school districts are optimistic that quite literally "all students will succeed", which in the context of high school graduation exams, all students in all groups, regardess of heritage or income will pass tests that in the introduction typically fall beyond the ability of all but the top 20 to 30 percent of students. The claims clearly renounce historical research that shows that all ethnic and income groups score differently on all standardized tests and standards based assessments and that students will achieve on a bell curve. Instead, education officials across the world believe that by setting clear, achievable, higher standards, aligning the curriculum, and assessing outcomes, learning can be increased for all students, and more students can succeed than the 50 percent who are defined to be above or below grade level by norm referenced standards. States have tried to use state schools to increase state power, especially to make better soldiers and workers. This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in Europe, such as Germany and Italy. Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when the U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress Lakota and Navaho, or when a culture has widely respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the Spanish failed to suppress Catalan. Many students of democracy have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that the quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and that education can improve these abilities. Politically-motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as Plato in The Republic. In the United States of America, this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by Thomas Jefferson, who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for public schooling in Virginia. Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the twentieth century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as health, wealth and well-being. For example, in Kerala, India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In Iran, increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information. Digital Education Web-based international educational software is under development by students at New York University, based on the belief that current educational institutions are too rigid: effective teaching is not routine, students are not passive, and questions of practice are not predictable or standardized. The software allows for courses tailored to an individual's abilities through frequent and automatic multiple intelligences assessments. Ultimate goals include assisting students to be intrinsically motivated to educate themselves, and aiding the student in self-actualization. Courses typically taught only in college are being reformatted so that they can be taught to any level of student, whereby elementary school students may learn the foundations of any topic they desire. Such a program has the potential to remove the bureaucratic inefficiencies of education in modern countries, and with the decreasing digital divide, help developing nations rapidly achieve a similar quality of education. With an open format similar to Wikipedia, any teacher may upload their courses online and a feedback system will help students choose relevant courses of the highest quality. Teachers can provide links in their digital courses to webcast videos of their lectures. Students will have personal academic profiles and a forum will allow students to pose complex questions, while simpler questions will be automatically answered by the software, which will bring you to a solution by searching through the knowledge database, which includes all available courses and topics. Notable reforms Some of the methods and reforms have gained permanent advocates, and are widely utilized. Many educators now believe that anything that more precisely meets the needs of the child will work better. This was initiated by M. Montessori and is still utilized in Montessori schools. The teaching method must be teachable! This is a lesson from both Montessori and Dewey. This view now has very wide currency, and is used to select much of the curricula of teachers' colleges. Conservative programs are often based on classical education, which is seen by conservatives to reliably teach valuable skills in a developmentally appropriate order to the majority of Myers-Briggs temperaments, by teaching facts. Programs that test individual learning, and teach to mastery of a subject have been proved by the state of Kentucky to be far more effective than group instruction with compromise schedules, or even class-size reduction (see reference to KERA, below) Schools with limited resources, such as most public schools and most third-world and missionary schools, use a grammar-school approach. The evidence of Lancaster schools suggests using students as teachers. If the culture supports it, perhaps the economic discipline of the Lancaster school can reduce costs even further. However, much of the success of Lancaster's "school economy" was that the children were natives of an intensely mercantile culture. In order to be effective, classroom instruction needs to change subjects at times near a typical student's attention span, which can be as frequently as every two minutes for young children. This is an important part of Marva Collins' method. The Myers-Briggs temperaments fall into four broad categories, each sufficiently different to justify completely different educational theories. Many developmental psychologists say that it might be socially profitable to test for and target temperaments with special curricula. Some of the Myers-Briggs temperaments are known to despise educational material that lacks theory. Therefore, effective curricula need to raise and answer "which" and "why" questions, to teach students with "intuitive" (Myers-Briggs) modalities. Philosophers identify independent, logical reasoning as a precondition to most western science, engineering, economic and political theory. Therefore, every educational program that desires to improve students' outcomes in political, health and economic behavior should include a Socratically-taught set of classes to teach logic and critical thinking. Substantial resources and time can be saved by permitting students to test out of classes. This also increases motivation, directs individual study, and reduces boredom and disciplinary problems. To support inexpensive continuing adult education a community needs a free public library. It can start modestly as shelves in an attended shop or government building, with donated books. Attendants are essential to protect the books from vandalism. Adult education repays itself many times over by providing direct opportunity to adults. Free libraries are also powerful resources for schools and businesses. New programs based on modern learning theories should be quantitatively investigated for effectiveness, as was done by KERA (see reference, below). A notable reform of the education system of Massachusetts occurred in 1993. The current student voice''' effort echoes past school reform initiatives focusing on parent involvement, community involvement, and other forms of participation in schools. However, it is finding a significant amount of success in schools because of the inherent differences: student voice is central to the daily schooling experience because students spend all day there. Many educators today strive for meaningful student involvement in their classrooms, while school administrators, school board members, and elected officials each lurch to hear what students have to say. Internationally Taiwan In other parts of the world, educational reform has had a number of different meanings. In Taiwan in the 1990s and 2000s a movement tried to prioritize reasoning over mere facts, reduce the emphasis on central control and standardized testing. There was consensus on the problems. Efforts were limited because there was little consensus on the goals of educational reforms, and therefore on how to fix the problems. By 2003, the push for education reform had declined. Further reading "Marva Collins' Way" by Marva Collins See Laurie James, "Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools," New York, 1994. References Kliebard, Herbert. The Struggle for the American Curriculum. New York : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987 Tyack, David, and Cuban, Larry. Tinkering Toward Utopia: a century of public school reform''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995 Darling-Hammond, Linda. "The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools that Work". Jossey-Bass, 1997 See also Block scheduling Certificate of Initial Mastery Criterion-referenced test High school graduation examination Higher-order thinking Inquiry-based Science Merit pay Multiculturalism Political correctness Project-based learning Student-centered learning Sudbury model democratic schools Teaching for social justice Anti-education activism External links | Education_reform |@lemmatized education:94 reform:49 plan:2 movement:9 attempt:6 bring:3 systematic:1 change:4 educational:28 theory:18 practice:8 across:2 community:3 society:6 western:5 preoccupy:1 many:19 famous:2 intellectual:2 plato:7 dialogue:1 primarily:1 account:2 gifted:2 teacher:17 socrates:1 instruct:1 various:2 people:10 later:2 form:8 academy:1 teach:24 philosophy:2 rousseau:6 emile:2 book:5 natural:5 fact:8 civilization:1 develop:8 classical:13 economically:1 skill:9 framework:2 human:3 knowledge:5 historically:2 religious:3 university:5 originate:1 correct:1 real:2 perceive:2 defect:1 since:4 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1,905 | McLaren | McLaren is a Formula One team based in Woking, Surrey, . Founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren, McLaren is best known as a Formula One constructor but has also competed in the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race and Canadian-American Challenge Cup. The team is one of the most successful teams in Formula One, having won 162 races, 12 Drivers' Championships and 8 Constructors' Championships. The team were the first to design a car using a carbon fibre monocoque, which is now ubiquitous in its use by all teams. The current team was formed by the merger of Bruce McLaren Motor Racing with Ron Dennis's Project Four Racing in 1981. Shortly after the merger, Dennis organised a buyout of the original McLaren shareholders to take full control of the team. McLaren is part of McLaren Racing, a member of the McLaren Group. Engines are supplied by McLaren shareholder Mercedes-Benz through Mercedes-Benz High Performance Engines. Dennis was team principal from the 1981 merger until March 2009, when he agreed to transfer his position to longtime McLaren employee Martin Whitmarsh. Dennis will continue to work within the McLaren Group. On 29 May 2009 McLaren, along with all other members of Formula One Teams Association (FOTA) submitted their entries for the 2010 FIA Formula One World Championship, despite threatening to pull out at the end of the year. Racing history 1960s A McLaren M1A sports car of 1964, the first McLaren racing car. Bruce McLaren Motor Racing was founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren, initially as a builder of sports cars. The team built and raced a series of cars powered by American V8s in various races in Canada and the US. The team was transformed in 1967 when they introduced the Mk6, the first cars in McLaren orange, and completely dominated the 1967 Can-Am season. The Kiwi made the team’s Grand Prix debut at the 1966 Monaco race. However, Bruce’s race was rather short-lived due to a terminal oil leak on the car. The 1966 programme was hampered by a poor choice of engines—Bruce had selected a short-stroke version of the 4.2 litre Ford Indy engine, which generated a lot of noise but very little power and was big and bulky. Ironically, Jack Brabham had adopted a Repco-developed engine based on a similar Oldsmobile block to the one Bruce was using in his early sports cars and his team took the 1966 and 1967 world championships. Bruce McLaren driving the McLaren M7C at the Nürburgring in 1969. Bruce abandoned the Ford in favour of a woefully underpowered but at least reliable Serenissima V8 (a descendant of the old ATS V8) to score the team's first point. In he initially turned to a slightly enlarged M4 Formula Two car powered by a 2.0 litre BRM V8 before building a similar but slightly larger car called the M5 for the BRM V12. This was quick but had reliability problems and Bruce soon decided that the team had to adopt the Cosworth DFV engine. Original McLaren kiwi logo; a New Zealand icon. In and the team raced only one car in the Championship with Bruce behind the wheel. In addition to his Grand Prix duties, Bruce contested the Can-Am Championship that year and, alongside team mate Denny Hulme, the pair won five out of the season’s six races. Bruce McLaren in 1966. Team principal from 1966 to 1970 In with the Cosworth powered M7 the team consisted of two drivers including reigning Formula One World Champion Denny Hulme who also drove for McLaren in Can-Am that year. Bruce won the non-championship Race of Champions, at the Brands Hatch circuit, then the Belgian Grand Prix was the scene of the team's first Championship win. Hulme won the Italian Grand Prix and Canadian Grand Prix later in the year. A further three podium finishes followed for Bruce in , but the team's fifth win had to wait until the last race of the 1969 championship when Hulme won the Mexican Grand Prix. In Can-Am the McLaren team won all eleven races. Bruce McLaren won six races, Hulme five, and Bruce won the driver's championship. 1970s The McLaren M19C, with its distinctive Yardley sponsorship. |Emerson Fittipaldi in a M23 at the 1974 British Grand Prix. The M26 was used from to , but was not as successful as its predecessor. As a team, McLaren had a disastrous beginning to the decade. The team entered the Indianapolis 500 for the first time but Hulme was severely burned on the hands in an incident in practice. Peter Revson replaced Hulme but retired from the race. Bruce's business partner Teddy Mayer took over effective control of the team. On 2 June 1970, Bruce McLaren was killed in a crash at Goodwood while testing the new M8D Can-Am car. While travelling at , a fastener for the rear bodywork failed and the entire rear piece detached from the car. The car spun into a concrete marshal post and McLaren was killed instantly. Twelve days after Bruce McLaren's death Dan Gurney won the opening Can-Am race of 1970 at Mosport for McLaren. The McLaren M8D won nine of the ten races in 1970 and Hulme won the championship. In 1971 the team saw off the challenge of 1969 World Champion Jackie Stewart in the Lola T260, winning eight races, with Peter Revson taking the title. McLaren went winless in Formula 1 in and , years dominated by Jochen Rindt and Jackie Stewart respectively. Hulme took the team's first F1 win since Bruce's death in the 1972 South African Grand Prix with the M19C. Hulme also won three Can-Am races in 1972 but the McLaren M20 was defeated by the Porsche 917/10s of Mark Donohue and George Follmer. McLaren decided to abandon the Can-Am series at the end of 1972, focussing solely on Formula One and USAC. The original Can-Am series itself ceased at the end of 1974, with McLaren by far the most successful constructor with 43 wins. In USAC competition Peter Revson had won pole position for the 1971 Indianapolis 500 in a McLaren M16. The M16 introduced to USAC competition the concept of mounting the car's engine entirely ahead of the rear axle, rather than partly over it, as was the standard at the time. The car also wore prominent front and rear wings, another practice not common in American racing. Revson finished second in 1971, and Mark Donohue won the '500' in 1972 driving a McLaren-Offenhauser run by Roger Penske. The McLaren M23, designed by Gordon Coppuck, was the team's new car for the 1973 Formula One season. It was described by Coppuck as being essentially the front of an M16 and the back of an M19. It was a wedge-shaped car following the same concept as the Lotus 72 but with more conventional suspension and up to date aerodynamics. Hulme won with it in Sweden and Revson took the only Grand Prix wins of his career in Britain and Canada. At Indianapolis, Johnny Rutherford took pole position in the "works" M16C. In Emerson Fittipaldi joined McLaren, now under the direction of Teddy Mayer, from Lotus to become their lead driver. The team achieved their first Formula One World Constructors' and World Drivers' Championship (with Fittipaldi) and their first Indianapolis 500 win (with Johnny Rutherford). The year also saw Yardley cosmetics replaced as Formula One sponsor by Marlboro cigarettes (although one Yardley car was run by an ostensibly separate team for the year alongside the two Marlboro entries), a deal that was to last until . was a less successful year for the team. Fittipaldi was second in the championship behind Niki Lauda. Jochen Mass took his sole GP win in Spain, and Rutherford was second at Indianapolis. At the end of 1975 Fittipaldi left McLaren to join his brother's Fittipaldi/Copersucar team. The Drivers' Championship would come McLaren's way again in with Fittipaldi's replacement, James Hunt beating Niki Lauda by a single point. Meanwhile Johnny Rutherford scored McLaren's second Indianapolis 500 victory, with the team becoming the first team to twice accomplish both feats in the same year. Hunt won three times in F1 in 1977, but these would prove to be McLaren's last GP wins of the decade. The M23's replacement, the M26 was a troublesome car, and subsequent models were even less successful. McLaren ended their American involvement at the end of the 1979 CART season after increasingly poor returns from the series. 1980s and early 1990s dominance Alain Prost in his McLaren MP4/2B at the 1985 German Grand Prix. Equipped with Honda power and the driving strength of Prost and Ayrton Senna for , McLaren dominated the season, winning all but one race. Senna won his first world championship after a season-long battle with Prost. Senna won his third and final world championship for McLaren in . The current McLaren F1 team resulted from a merger of the McLaren team and Ron Dennis' personal Formula 2 team, called Project Four Racing, in 1980. Project Four was also backed by Marlboro, and had designer John Barnard and an innovative carbon-fibre F1 chassis design but no money and inadequate facilities for F1; McLaren had the facilities but were at the end of a long losing streak. John Hogan, a Philip Morris executive, forced McLaren chairman Teddy Mayer to accept the merger with Dennis' team. This was in effect a reverse takeover with the Formula One constructor becoming McLaren International. In 1981 Dennis and his business partners bought out the other McLaren shareholders, Mayer and Tyler Alexander. In Dennis persuaded then Williams backer, Mansour Ojjeh to become a partner in McLaren International. Ojjeh invested in Porsche built turbocharged engines which carried the name of his company, Techniques d'Avant Garde (TAG). The nomenclature for McLaren's F1 cars since the merger has caused some confusion among fans of the sport, as all McLaren cars since 1981 have carried designations of the form "MP4/x", or since 2001 "MP4-x", McLaren's official website; Historic timeline of cars. Retrieved on 2007-12-29. where x is the generation of the chassis (e.g. MP4/1, MP4-22). In fact, "MP4" stood initially for "Marlboro Project 4", McLaren Formula 1 by Rainer W. Schlegelmilch & Hartmut Lehbrink, 1999 Könemann, ISBN 3-8290-0945-3 (Page 98) so that the full title of the cars (McLaren MP4/x) reflected not only the historical name of the team, but also the names of the team's major sponsor and its new component part. The team's cars still use the same nomenclature, but since the change of title sponsor for the 1997 season, MP4 is now, rather conveniently, said to stand for McLaren-Project 4. At no time has the "MP4" prefix reflected the particular generation of the chassis. The most successful period in McLaren's history came under the early leadership of Ron Dennis. John Barnard designed the revolutionary McLaren MP4/2 chassis, the first F1 chassis made entirely of carbon-fibre composites, which proved very strong when mated to the TAG/Porsche turbo engine, designed and built to Barnard's specifications. A succession of strong drivers helped, with Niki Lauda, Alain Prost, Keke Rosberg, and Stefan Johansson driving for the team in this period. McLaren-Porsche won the Constructors' title in (with Lauda taking the Drivers' crown), and (with Prost winning his first world title). McLaren did not win the Constructors' Championship in , although Prost took the drivers' title again. After losing the previous two Constructors titles to Williams in 1986 and , McLaren was able to convince Honda to switch its backing from Williams starting in . The McLaren-Honda MP4/4 won an amazing 15 of 16 races that year and leading all but 27 laps, achieving a staggering and unbeaten record to this date. (Senna had been leading comfortably at Monza, but collided with back-marker Jean-Louis Schlesser's Williams.) Ayrton Senna took the driver's title that season, his first with the Woking marque. The next year, using a new 3.5 L naturally-aspirated engine designed by Honda, McLaren again won both titles with the McLaren MP4/5, with Alain Prost clinching it at the Japanese Grand Prix after a highly controversial collision with his teammate Senna. This was the culmination of a vitriolic feud between the two men. Believing that Honda and Ron Dennis viewed Senna as the future of the team, Prost announced on July 1989 that he would not remain with the team. By Suzuka, the Brazilian had two cars and 20 people around him, while the Frenchman had one car with maybe four or five mechanics. prostfan.com - Ayrton Senna by Alain Prost In support of Senna, who had finished the race first but was subsequently disqualified, McLaren appealed unsuccessfully. Alain Prost left to join the Ferrari team in . Nevertheless, McLaren continued to top Formula One for the next two seasons. Despite stiff challenges from Prost's Ferrari and Nigel Mansell's Williams, Senna won the World Drivers' Championship in 1990 and , respectively, using the MP4/6 V12. McLaren also won the constructors title in both of those years. New teammate Gerhard Berger helped to ensure this double success and the McLaren drivers often played pranks on each other to lighten the atmosphere. Mid-1990s decline By , Honda had withdrawn from F1 and the team used underpowered Ford V8 engines to power the MP4/8. Although Ayrton Senna (pictured at the German GP) won five races, McLaren was not a match for the dominant Williams team. After the 1993 Australian Grand Prix, the team failed to win a race until . Beginning in , McLaren's dominance began to be eroded by the ascendant Renault-powered Williams, a drop in form that was compounded by the departure of Honda from Formula One at the end of that season. McLaren switched to customer Ford engines for the season. While these proved competitive in the hands of Senna, American Michael Andretti's season was a disaster, scoring only a handful of points. He was replaced before the end of the year by Finnish youngster Mika Häkkinen. Senna had played a game of brinkmanship with Dennis over his contract at the start of the season, but as it became obvious that the MP4/8 was competitive he agreed to complete the season. During 1993 McLaren experimented with a Lamborghini V12 which Senna reckoned was worth racing; Dennis chose a works deal with Peugeot instead, Lamborghini's owners Chrysler pulled the plug on the F1 programme and Senna departed for Williams at the end of the season after winning the final two races of the year. Concluding the season on a high, McLaren announced they were to begin a challenge for the land speed record. However, as results began to decline in the following seasons the plan was quietly shelved. At the end of the 1993 season, McLaren took part in a seven part BBC Two series called A Season With McLaren, detailing the teams 1993 season. For Martin Brundle joined Häkkinen in new Peugeot-powered cars. The results and the engine were unimpressive, and Peugeot was dropped after a single year in favour of the promising new Mercedes-Benz (Ilmor) engine. But was even worse, with the radical MP4/10 proving to be too heavy and slow. Former world-champion Nigel Mansell came to the team, but had a torrid time — he was unable to fit into the car at first—and retired after just two races with Mark Blundell taking his place. was the end of an era for McLaren, as they parted company with long-term sponsors Marlboro, and the famous red and white McLaren livery disappeared from Formula One to be replaced with Reemtsma's West branding and a silver Mercedes livery in . Late 1990s return to form While Williams dominated F1 in 1996 and 1997, McLaren made slow, careful strides with its Mercedes-Ilmor engine and drivers Häkkinen and David Coulthard. Coulthard made a promising start to the 1997 season by winning the Australian Grand Prix. The car was not good enough to consistently win grands prix, although Coulthard was successful late at the Italian Grand Prix. Mika Häkkinen won the and world drivers' championships for McLaren, with the team also taking the constructors' crown in 1998. He is shown here at the 1999 Canadian Grand Prix, an event which he won. At the 1997 Austrian Grand Prix, Darren Heath, an F1 Racing photographer, noticed in some of his shots that one of the rear brakes of the McLarens were glowing red in an acceleration zone of the track. The magazine discovered through investigation that McLaren had installed a second brake pedal, selectable by the driver, to act on one of the rear wheels depending on the direction of the corner. This allowed the driver to reduce wheelspin when exiting slow corners and more usefully eliminate understeer by turning the car into the corner while entering it, giving him the ability to brake later into the apex of the turn. Though the car passed scrutineering this system was not entirely legal, but was an innovation, and hence gave McLaren an advantage. As the system allowed one side of the car to be retarded compared to the other the system was considered a type of four-wheel steering which was banned in F1. One notable backer of this complaint was Jackie Stewart; on the grid at Brazil in 1998 he aired this view in an interview with ITV. While F1 Racing suspected what McLaren were doing, they required proof to publish the story. At the Luxembourg Grand Prix the two McLarens retired from the race. This allowed Heath to take a picture of the footwell of Häkkinen's car and the second brake pedal. The story was run in the November issue of F1 Racing and led to the system being dubbed the "fiddle brake". Ferrari's protestations to the FIA lead to the system being banned at the 1998 Brazilian Grand Prix. During 1997 McLaren poached Williams' talented designer, Adrian Newey. Then Mika Häkkinen offered a taste of things to come with his victory in the final race of the 1997 season, the European Grand Prix. The fact that McLaren now had Adrian Newey on board, coupled with the withdrawal of Renault at the end of 1997 allowed McLaren to mount a strong challenge in , with one source F1 Racing Magazine - December 1997 Issue even stating that McLaren had built such a strong team that the only way to increase their championship hopes was to hire double world champion Michael Schumacher. In 1998 the McLaren was once again able to regularly challenge for Grand Prix victories, winning nine grands prix that year. Häkkinen won the Drivers' Championship in 1998, scoring 100 points, and McLaren took the Constructors' Championship in 1998. Häkkinen took the title again in , but the season was more difficult for the team who lost the Constructors' Championship to Ferrari despite an injured Schumacher. 2000s Members of the McLaren Formula One team push driver Kimi Räikkönen's MP4-19 into the garage during qualifying for the US Grand Prix at Indianapolis in 2004. 2000 was another closely-fought season, but ultimately Ferrari's Michael Schumacher prevailed. Ron Dennis, team principal 1980-2009, at the 2000 Monaco Grand Prix In , Mika Häkkinen dropped off the pace in comparison with Coulthard, although neither driver could compete with the now dominant combination of Michael Schumacher and Ferrari. In Häkkinen took a sabbatical (which turned into retirement), opening the way for promising compatriot Kimi Räikkönen to take his place. McLaren only captured four wins over the following three seasons. 2002 saw just a single win at Monaco for Coulthard while rivals Ferrari won all but two races. started very promisingly, with wins at the two first grands prix of the year, one each for Coulthard and Räikkönen. However, rival teams soon caught up as McLaren was severely hampered in by the development of the MP4-18, a radical new design which due to reliability problems never raced. This forced the team to use the year-old MP4-17D, a very severe handicap in modern Formula One racing. However, despite this, Räikkönen finished in the points consistently and challenged Michael Schumacher for the championship all the way up to the very last race, eventually losing the title by only two points. The team began the 2004 Formula One season with the MP4-19, which technical director Adrian Newey described as a "debugged version of the MP4-18." This proved to be anything but the case, and a new car was required by mid-season. The MP4-19B was basically an all new car with a radically redesigned aerodynamic package. The fact that Coulthard qualified third for its first race, the French Grand Prix, gave the team hope of a better end to the season. This was realised when Räikkönen won the 2004 Belgian Grand Prix ahead of the seemingly unstoppable Ferrari of Michael Schumacher, who won 13 of the 18 races that year, currently the record for most wins in a single season. Kimi Räikkönen nearly won the Drivers' Championship in . Colombian driver and former CART champion Juan Pablo Montoya was named as Coulthard's replacement for the season, partnering Räikkönen. Montoya had to be replaced for two races by test drivers Pedro de la Rosa and Alexander Wurz after sustaining a shoulder injury while playing tennis. The general unreliability of the car cost McLaren a number of race victories when Räikkönen had been leading or in contention to win. Renault (and Fernando Alonso in particular) were able to capitalise on the McLarens' breakdowns and win both titles. Reflecting on an competitive but ultimately unsuccessful season for the team, Ron Dennis remarked that "We feel our championship efforts were thwarted by our conservative approach to the first four races." On 19 December 2005, the team announced the signing of the 2005 World Drivers' Champion Fernando Alonso to drive for the team from the 2007 Formula One season. 2006 The McLaren-Mercedes car, the MP4-21, proved to be less successful than its predecessor. The 2006 season saw McLaren introduce a new, chrome livery for their MP4-21. The team was positive about its chances in the upcoming championship after the performances in the latter half of 2005. However, in winter testing it became clear that the Mercedes engine was lacking in power. Mercedes responded by introducing a new spec engine which offered far improved performance. Juan Pablo Montoya parted company acrimoniously with the team after the United States Grand Prix, in which he ended both his and team mate Räikkönen's hopes for the race by crashing into him at the start. He announced he was departing to race NASCAR for Chip Ganassi Racing, and was replaced by test driver Pedro de la Rosa for the remainder of the season. Following the 2006 Italian Grand Prix, Ferrari confirmed that they had signed Räikkönen as a replacement for the retiring Michael Schumacher. The season continued with the McLarens being near the top of the field, but the superior reliability and speed of the Ferraris and Renaults prevented the team from gaining any race victories from 2006, something not seen for a decade at McLaren. In 2007, Steve Matchett argued that the poor reliability of McLaren in 2006 and recent previous years was due to a lack of team continuity and stability. His cited examples of instability are logistical challenges related to the move to the McLaren Technology Centre, Adrian Newey's aborted move to Jaguar and later move to Red Bull and the subsequent move of Newey's deputy to Red Bull. He also cites major upheavals at Ilmor which may have contributed to the "lamentable string of engine failures"; the piecemeal buyout by Mercedes-Benz, the resultant departure of co-founder Mario Illien, the appointment of Mercedes-Benz engineer Markus Deusmann to head the renamed Mercedes-Benz High Performance Engines and the departure of Deusmann a year later to BMW. 2007 In Malaysia, Fernando Alonso scored his first victory for McLaren. MP4 22 Detail The season saw Fernando Alonso join the team alongside F1 rookie Lewis Hamilton. Vodafone became the new title sponsor. Alonso and Hamilton scored four race wins each over the course of the season, with Hamilton finishing on the podium for his first 9 races (up to/including Silverstone) including his maiden win at the Canadian Grand prix, he only failed to make the podium on 5 of the 17 races. The team were also involved in a number of controversies during the season. Alonso was judged to have deliberately impeded his team-mate during qualifying at the Hungarian Grand Prix, and the FIA ruled that the team should not be allowed to score constructors points at the event. More seriously, the team were found guilty of obtaining a rival team's technical information and after two hearings by the governing body, the team were disqualified from the constructors championship. The drivers were allowed to continue without penalty, and Hamilton led the Drivers' Championship heading into the final race, with Alonso also still in contention but neither driver was able to clinch it, both finishing a single point behind Ferrari's Kimi Räikkönen, after engine and gearbox trouble near the beginning of the race put him at the back of the pack (around 17th) he fought up to 7th place but needed 5th to win the world championship. On November 2, Alonso and McLaren agreed to terminate the contract of the Spaniard by mutual consent with neither party paying a financial penalty. 2008 Hamilton won the 2008 Australian Grand Prix for McLaren, before winning the title. On 14 December 2007, it was confirmed that Heikki Kovalainen would drive the second car for McLaren Mercedes for the 2008 Formula One season alongside Lewis Hamilton. Vodafone McLaren Mercedes started the year with both drivers scoring in the points at the 2008 Australian Grand Prix. Hamilton started from pole and ended up winning the Grand Prix, while Kovalainen started 3rd and dropped two spots by the finish. McLaren's 14 points saw them lead the Formula One Constructors' World Championship standings after the first race, as well as the driver's championship with Hamilton. After a mixed continuation to the season post-Melbourne, Hamilton then recorded victories at Monaco, Britain (his first on home soil) and Germany. At the inaugural 2008 European Grand Prix, McLaren ran a relatively low key race, with Hamilton taking 2nd place and Kovalainen taking 4th. Hamilton stated after the race that he was happy to play the long game, picking up as many points as possible in order to boost his championship lead. Following the European Grand Prix, Hamilton led the championship by 6 points from Felipe Massa, and McLaren held 113 points, which put them in second place behind Ferrari (121 points). At the following race, the Belgian Grand Prix, Hamilton crossed the finish line in first position but was deemed to have gained an illegal advantage cutting a chicane during an overtake, and a 25 second penalty was given to him at the end of the race, demoted him to third in the classification. Hamilton re-passes Räikkönen in the closing stages of the Belgian Grand Prix, having cut the previous corner. The next race at Monza saw Kovalainen qualify second, and Hamilton 15th after a poor tyre choice during the second qualifying session, choosing to stay out on intermediate tyres rather than the full extreme-wets. The race saw Kovalainen finish second, while Hamilton managed to recover to 7th place. At the inaugural Singapore night race, Hamilton qualified second with Kovalainen in fifth. During the race, both of Hamilton's main championship rivals Massa and Räikkönen failed to finish in the points. Hamilton managed to finish third, with Kovalainen tenth. After qualifying in pole position for the Japanese Grand Prix, Hamilton could only finish 12th. Kovalainen qualified third, but retired in the race with engine problems. After a miserable weekend the previous year, Hamilton won from pole in the Chinese Grand Prix. Kovalainen qualified fifth, but again retired with a hydraulics/engine failure. Going into the final round of the season in Brazil, Hamilton had a seven point lead over Massa. As long as he finished in the top five, he would win the championship regardless of where Massa finished. With Massa taking pole, Hamilton could only qualify 4th and Kovalainen 5th. By the final lap of the race, Hamilton had been overtaken by Sebastian Vettel and with Massa having already won the race, his sixth position would mean that Hamilton would finish runner-up. However Toyota's Timo Glock, who had stayed out on dry tyres despite the falling rain, was driving slowly enough for Hamilton to overtake him at the final few corners. Crossing the line in the required fifth, Hamilton became the youngest ever, first black man and first McLaren driver in 9 years to win the Formula One Driver's Championship. 2009 At McLaren's team launch for the 2009 Formula One season Ron Dennis announced that he will retire from his position as team principal for McLaren. Martin Whitmarsh succeeded Dennis in this position. McLaren's new car, the MP4-24 was unveiled at the McLaren Technical Centre, Woking, England, on Friday 16 January 2009. McLaren test driver, Pedro de la Rosa was surprised at the initial pace of the MP4-24, given the lack of aerodynamic grip available under the new regulations. McLaren made a poor start to the 2009 season, with Kovalainen failing to finish either of the opening two races. Hamilton originally finished fourth in the opening race, before being promoted to third position by a stewards decision following the race. However it subsequently transpired that the evidence provided by McLaren and Hamilton as part of that decision wasn't correct and Hamilton was disqualified. He scored McLaren's first points of the season with a seventh place finish at the Malaysian Grand Prix. On 29 April 2009, the FIA issued a three-race suspended ban to McLaren for bringing the sport into disrepute after lying to stewards at the Australian and Malaysian Grands Prix. Sponsorship The team has had title sponsorship from four brands in its history: Yardley (1971-1973), Marlboro (1974-1996), West (1997-2005) and Vodafone (2007-present). It was originally called Bruce McLaren Motor Racing, although it had early title sponsorship from Yardley cosmetics. McLaren had one of the longest standing title sponsorship arrangements in sport with Philip Morris through their Marlboro brand. The relationship dated back to 1974 and was continuous from 1981 to 1996, after which (from the 1997 season on) Marlboro chose to exclusively sponsor Ferrari. Reemtsma (through its West brand) was the title sponsor of McLaren from 1997 until 29 July 2005, after which McLaren were obliged to seek a new principal sponsor due to a European Union directive banning tobacco advertising. The team was therefore known as Team McLaren Mercedes until the end of 2006. The current title sponsor is Vodafone, with the official team name for the 2007 season being Vodafone McLaren Mercedes, as announced in December 2005. Aside from title sponsors, other current sponsors and suppliers include Diageo plc (Johnnie Walker whisky brand), aigo, FedEx, Hugo Boss, H&R, Hilton Hotels, Mobil 1 (fuel and lubricants), Santander,and Lenovo. Formula One results (italics indicates non-works entries; bold indicates championships won) Season Name Car Tyres Engine Oil Drivers WCC Position 2009 Vodafone McLaren Mercedes MP4-24 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Lewis HamiltonHeikki Kovalainen 5th (13 pts)* 2008 Vodafone McLaren Mercedes MP4-23 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Lewis HamiltonHeikki Kovalainen 2nd (151 pts) 2007 Vodafone McLaren Mercedes MP4-22 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Fernando AlonsoLewis Hamilton Excluded†(203‡) (2nd) 2006 Team McLaren Mercedes MP4-21 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Kimi RäikkönenJuan Pablo MontoyaPedro de la Rosa 3rd (110 points) 2005 Team McLaren Mercedes /West McLaren Mercedes MP4-20 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Kimi RäikkönenJuan Pablo MontoyaPedro de la RosaAlexander Wurz 2nd (182 points) 2004 West McLaren Mercedes MP4-19MP4-19B Mercedes-Benz Mobil David CoulthardKimi Räikkönen 5th (69 pts) 2003 West McLaren Mercedes MP4-17D Mercedes-Benz Mobil David CoulthardKimi Räikkönen 3rd (142 pts) 2002 West McLaren Mercedes MP4-17 Mercedes-Benz Mobil David CoulthardKimi Räikkönen 3rd (65 pts) 2001 West McLaren Mercedes MP4-16 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard 2nd (102 pts) 2000 West McLaren Mercedes MP4/15 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard 2nd (152 pts) 1999 West McLaren Mercedes MP4/14 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard 2nd (124 pts) 1998 West McLaren Mercedes MP4/13 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard Champion (156 pts) 1997 West McLaren Mercedes MP4/12 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard 4th (63 pts) 1996 Marlboro McLaren Mercedes MP4/11 Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenDavid Coulthard 4th (49 pts) 1995 Marlboro McLaren Mercedes MP4/10MP4/10BMP4/10C Mercedes-Benz Mobil Mika HäkkinenNigel MansellMark BlundellJan Magnussen 4th (30 pts) 1994 Marlboro McLaren Peugeot MP4/9 Peugeot Shell Mika HäkkinenMartin BrundlePhilippe Alliot 4th (42 pts) 1993 Marlboro McLaren MP4/8 Ford Shell Ayrton SennaMichael AndrettiMika Häkkinen 2nd (84 pts) 1992 Honda Marlboro McLaren MP4/6BMP4/7A Honda Shell Ayrton SennaGerhard Berger 2nd (99 pts) 1991 Honda Marlboro McLaren MP4/6 Honda Shell Ayrton SennaGerhard Berger Champion (139 pts) 1990 Honda Marlboro McLaren MP4/5B Honda Shell Ayrton SennaGerhard Berger Champion (121 pts) 1989 Honda Marlboro McLaren MP4/5 Honda Shell Ayrton SennaAlain Prost Champion (141 pts) 1988 Honda Marlboro McLaren MP4/4 Honda Shell Alain ProstAyrton Senna Champion (199 pts) 1987 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/3 TAG (Porsche) Shell Alain ProstStefan Johansson 2nd (76 pts) 1986 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/2C TAG (Porsche) Shell Alain ProstKeke Rosberg 2nd (96 pts) 1985 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/2B TAG (Porsche) Shell Niki LaudaAlain ProstJohn Watson Champion (90 pts) 1984 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/2 TAG (Porsche) Shell Niki LaudaAlain Prost Champion (143.5 pts) 1983 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/1CMP4/1E FordTAG (Porsche) Unipart Niki LaudaJohn Watson 5th (43 pts) 1982 Marlboro McLaren International MP4/1B Ford Unipart Niki LaudaJohn Watson 2nd (69 pts) 1981 Marlboro McLaren International M29CM29FMP4/1 Ford Unipart John WatsonAndrea de Cesaris 6th (28 pts) 1980 Marlboro Team McLaren M29BM29CM30 Ford Castrol John WatsonAlain ProstStephen South 8th (11 pts) 1979 Marlboro Team McLarenLöwenbräu Team McLaren M26M28M28BM28CM29 Ford Castrol John WatsonPatrick Tambay 7th (15 pts) 1978 Marlboro Team McLarenLiggett Group/BS FabricationsCentro Asegurador F1Melchester Racing M23M26 Ford Texaco James HuntPatrick TambayBruno GiacomelliBrett LungerNelson PiquetEmilio de VillotaTony Trimmer 8th (15 pts) 1977 Marlboro Team McLarenChesterfield RacingIberia Airlines M23M26 Ford Texaco James HuntJochen MassGilles VilleneuveBruno GiacomelliBrett LungerEmilio de Villota 3rd (60 pts) 1976 Marlboro Team McLaren M23 Ford Texaco James HuntJochen Mass 2nd (75 pts) 1975 Marlboro Team TexacoLucky Strike Racing M23 Ford Texaco Emerson FittipaldiJochen MassDave Charlton 3rd (63 pts) 1974 Marlboro Team TexacoYardley Team McLarenScribante Lucky Strike Racing M23 Ford TexacoSasol Emerson FittipaldiDenny HulmeMike HailwoodJochen MassDavid HobbsDave Charlton Champion (73 pts) 1973 Yardley Team McLaren M19AM19CM23 Ford Gulf Denny HulmePeter RevsonJody ScheckterJacky Ickx 3rd (58 pts) 1972 Yardley Team McLaren M19AM19C Ford Gulf Denny HulmePeter RevsonJody ScheckterBrian Redman 3rd (47 pts) 1971 Bruce McLaren Motor RacingEcurie BonnierPenske-White Racing M7CM14AM19A Ford Gulf Denny HulmePeter GethinJackie OliverJo BonnierHelmut MarkoMark Donohue 6th (10 pts) 1970 Bruce McLaren Motor RacingTeam SurteesEcurie Bonnier M7CM14AM7DM14D FordAlfa Romeo Gulf Denny HulmeBruce McLarenPeter GethinDan GurneyAndrea de AdamichNanni GalliJohn SurteesJo Bonnier 4th (34 pts) 1969 Bruce McLaren Motor RacingTeam LawsonAntique Automobiles / Colin Crabbe Racing M7AM7BM7CM9A Ford ShellGulf Denny HulmeBruce McLarenDerek BellBasil van RooyenVic Elford 4th (38 pts) 1968 Bruce McLaren Motor RacingJoakim Bonnier Racing TeamAnglo American Racers M5AM7A FordBRM Shell Denny HulmeBruce McLarenJo BonnierDan Gurney 2nd (49 pts)10th (3 pts) 1967 Bruce McLaren Motor Racing M4BM5AM7A BRM Shell Bruce McLaren 8th (3 pts) 1966 Bruce McLaren Motor Racing M2B FordSerenissima Europa Bruce McLaren 9th (2 pts)11th (1 pt) † Excluded due to breach of Article 151(c) of the International Sporting Code. ‡ Not awarded points for 2007 Hungarian Grand Prix. * Season in progress. See also Mercedes-Benz motorsport McLaren Group McLaren Automotive Bruce McLaren References External links The official site of McLaren Bruce McLaren Website:www.bruce-mclaren.com McLaren statistics | McLaren |@lemmatized mclaren:175 formula:27 one:36 team:93 base:2 woking:3 surrey:1 found:2 new:19 zealander:2 bruce:33 best:1 know:2 constructor:15 also:13 compete:2 indianapolis:8 mile:1 race:70 canadian:4 american:6 challenge:8 cup:1 successful:8 win:65 driver:33 championship:38 first:27 design:7 car:41 use:9 carbon:3 fibre:3 monocoque:1 ubiquitous:1 current:4 form:4 merger:6 motor:9 ron:7 dennis:16 project:5 four:9 racing:12 shortly:1 organise:1 buyout:2 original:3 shareholder:3 take:22 full:3 control:2 part:7 member:3 group:4 engine:22 supply:1 mercedes:47 benz:22 high:3 performance:4 principal:5 march:1 agree:3 transfer:1 position:10 longtime:1 employee:1 martin:3 whitmarsh:2 continue:4 work:4 within:1 may:2 along:1 association:1 fota:1 submit:1 entry:3 fia:4 world:16 despite:5 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1,906 | Bain-marie | A bain-marie A bain-marie (also known as a water bath) is a French term for a piece of equipment used in science, industry, and cooking to heat materials gently and gradually to fixed temperatures, or to keep materials warm over a period of time. Description The bain-marie comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and types, but traditionally is a wide, cylindrical, usually metal container made of three or four basic parts: a handle, an outer (or lower) container that holds the working-liquid, an inner (or upper), smaller container that fits inside the outer one and which holds the material to be heated or cooked, and sometimes a base underneath. Under the outer container of the bain-marie (or built into its base) is a heat source. Typically the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working-liquid. The smaller container, filled with the substance to be heated, fits inside the outer container, filled with the working-liquid (usually water), and the whole is heated at, or below, the base, causing the temperature of the materials in both containers to rise as needed. The insulating action of the water helps to keep contents of the inner pot from boiling or scorching. When the working-liquid is water and the bain-marie is used at sea level, the maximum temperature of the material in the lower container will not exceed 100 degrees Celsius (the boiling point of water at sea level). Using different working-liquids (oils, salt solutions, etc.) in the lower container will result in different maximum temperatures. Alternatives A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric "dry-heat" bain-marie, heated by element below both pots. The dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are often much less expensive than their traditional counterparts. Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using either hot water or vapor, or steam, in the heating process. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub (or "bath"), and the vapour-type bain-marie heats with scalding-hot steam. Culinary applications Unless you own a very thick bottom pan, and have a hob which temperature can be put on very low, Chocolate needs to be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting and caking onto the pot. Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the center. Custard may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. Classic warm sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, requiring heat to emulsify the mixture but not enough to curdle or "split" the sauce, are often cooked using a bain-marie. Some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an "oven-type" bain-marie. Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is done easily in a bain-marie. Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings. Bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful. Origin Bains-marie were originally developed for use in the practice of alchemy, when alchemists needed a way to heat materials slowly and gently. In that early form of chemical science, it was believed by many that the best way to heat certain materials was to mimic the supposed natural processes, occurring in the Earth's core, by which precious metals were germinated. The device's invention is popularly attributed to Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist traditionally supposed to have been Miriam, a sister of Moses. The name comes from the medieval-Latin term balneum (or balineum) Mariae — literally, Mary's bath — from which the French bain de Marie, or bain-marie, is derived. According to The Jewish Alchemists, Patai, Raphael, The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book, Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ Maria the Jewess was an ancient alchemist who lived in Alexandria -- although this would seem to contradict the tradition that she was Moses' sister: Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 334 BC, while Moses is thought to have lived around 1200-1450 BC Date_of_the_Exodus . Either she lived in Alexandria, or she was Moses' sister, or neither—but not both. If she was Moses' sister, she certainly did not live in Alexandria. See also Double boiler Double steaming References José María de Jaime Lorén. 2003. Epónimos científicos. Baño María. María La Judía. Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU. (Moncada, Valencia). Prof. Dr. Hassan S. El Khadem. 1996. A Translation of a Zosimos' Text in an Arabic Alchemy Book. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Volume 84. Number 3, Pages 168-178. 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1,907 | Hernán_Cortés | Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the King of Castile, in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Born in Medellín, Extremadura, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda and, for a short time, became alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored. Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as interpreter; she would later bear Cortés a son. When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec empire, Cortés was awarded the title of Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. Cortés returned to Spain in 1541 where he died peacefully but embittered. Because of the controversial undertakings of Cortés and the scarcity of reliable sources of information about him, it has become difficult to assert anything definitive about his personality and motivations. Early lionizing of the conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of Cortés. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors' character in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment and greatly expanded concern for human rights, as typified by the Black Legend, also did little to expand understanding of Cortés as an individual. As a result of these historical trends, descriptions of Cortés tend to be simplistic, and either damning or idealizing. Name While he is often now referred to as Hernán or Hernando Cortez (), in his time he called himself Hernando or Fernando Cortés(). The names Hernán, Hernando, and Fernando are all equally correct. The latter two were most commonly used during his lifetime, but the former shortened form has become common in both the Spanish and English languages in modern times, and is the name which many people know him by today. For example, the English language version of his letters is called "Hernán Cortés: Letters from Mexico", etc. Early life Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés, was an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. Hernán's mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, Hernán was the second cousin once removed of Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs), through her parents Diego Altamirano and wife and cousin Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano, first cousin of Pizarro's father. Machado, J. T. Montalvão, Dos Pizarros de Espanha aos de Portugal e Brasil, Author's Edition, 1st Edition, Lisbon, 1970. Through his father, Hernán was a twice distant relative of Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, the third Governor of Hispaniola. His paternal grandfather was a son of Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy, and wife Mencía de Orellana y Carvajal. Hernán Cortés is described as a pale, sickly child by his biographer, chaplain, and friend Francisco López de Gómara. At the age of 14, Cortés was sent to study at the University of Salamanca in west-central Spain. This was Spain's great center of learning, and while accounts vary as to the nature of Cortés' studies, his later writings and actions suggest he studied Law and probably Latin. After two years, Cortés, tired of schooling, returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that helped him to justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico. At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as restless, haughty, and mischievous. The Latin Library, Hernan Cortés This was probably a fair description of a sixteen-year-old boy who had returned home only to find himself frustrated by life in his small provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain. Departure for the New World Contemporary painting of Hernán Cortés. Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, the newly appointed governor of Hispaniola (currently Haiti and the Dominican Republic), but an injury he sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bedroom of a married woman from Medellín, prevented him from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in the heady atmosphere of Spain's southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucai, and Seville, listening to the tales of those returning from the Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, Indians and strange unknown lands. He finally left for Hispaniola in 1504 where he became a colonist. Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed. p.73 Arrival Cortés did not arrive in the "New World" until he finally succeeded in reaching Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. The history of the conquistadores is rife with accounts of rivalry, jockeying for positions, mutiny, and betrayal. Upon his arrival in 1504 in Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola, the eighteen-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen, which entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. Soon afterwards, Nicolás de Ovando, still the governor, gave him a repartimiento of Indians and made him a notary of the town of Azua de Compostela. His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his efforts from the leader of the expedition. Cortés in Cuba In 1511, Cortés had recovered from syphilis and accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Velázquez was appointed as governor. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the quinto, or customary one-fifth of the profits from the expedition. The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. Cortés continued to build a reputation as a daring and bold leader. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate (alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with a repartimiento (gift of land and Indian slaves), mines and cattle. This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers. As time went on, relations between Cortés and governor Velázquez became strained. This all began once news of Juan de Grijalva, establishing a colony on the mainland where there was a lot of silver and gold, reached Velázquez; it was decided to send him help. Cortés was appointed captain-general of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind. With Cortés’experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within a month. Predictably, Velázquez’s jealousy exploded and decided to place the leadership of the expedition in other hands. However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports. Cortés also found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez' displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez. Sanderson Beck, "Cortès in Mexico" It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies, that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony. He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and then Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518. Conquest of Mexico Map depicting Cortés' invasion route In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old gripe between Velázquez and Cortés, he changed his mind and revoked his charter. Cortés ignored the orders and went ahead anyway, in February 1519, in an act of open mutiny. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and a small number of cannons, he landed in the Yucatan Peninsula in Mayan territory. Bernard Grunberg, "La folle aventure d'Hernan Cortés", in L'Histoire n°322, July-August 2007 There, he met Jeronimo de Aguilar, a Spaniard who had survived from a shipwreck and joined the troops. Jeronimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan priest, had learnt Maya during his captivity, and could thus translate for Cortés. In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the Spanish crown. He stopped in Trinidad to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Then he proceeded to Tabasco and won a battle against the natives, who did not want to welcome the Spaniards, during which time he received from the vanquished twenty young indigenous women and he converted them all. Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed. p.75 Among these women was La Malinche, his future mistress and mother of his child Martín. Malinche knew both the (Aztec)Nahuatl language and Maya, thus enabling Hernán Cortés to communicate in both. She became a very valuable interpretor and counselor. Through her help, Cortés learned from the Tabascans about the wealthy Aztec Empire and its riches. In July 1519, his men took over Veracruz: by this act, Cortés dismissed the authority of the governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of Charles V. In order to eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships. In Veracruz, he met some of Moctezuma's tributaries and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma. Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Cortès marched on Tenochtitlan in mid-August 1519, along with 600 men, 15 horsemen, 15 cannons, and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors. On the way to Tenochtitlan, Cortés made alliances with native American tribes such as the Nahuas of Tlaxcala, the Tlaxcaltec, who surrounded the Spanish and about 2,000 porters onto of a hilltop, and the Totonacs of Cempoala. In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 3,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula, the second largest city in central Mexico. Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed when under investigation) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, infamously massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city. By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlan the Spaniards had a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II, due to Mexican tradition and diplomatic customs. Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the heart of the Aztec Empire, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later. He gave lavish gifts in gold to the Spaniards which enticed them to plunder vast amounts of gold. In his letters to Charles V, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl or Quetzalcoatl himself — a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians. Restall, Matthew (2003). Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press; Townsend, Camilla (2003). "Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico." American Historical Review 108, no. 3: 659-687. But quickly Cortès learned that Spaniards on the coast had been attacked, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his own palace, requesting him to swear allegiance to Charles V. Meanwhile, Velasquez sent another expedition, led by Pánfilo de Narváez, to oppose Cortès, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men. Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvaez. He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narvaez's men to join him. In Mexico, one of Cortés' lieutenants Pedro de Alvarado, committed a massacre in the Main Temple, triggering a local rebellion. Cortés speedily returned to Mexico and proposed an armistice, attempting to support himself on Moctezuma, but the latter was stoned to death by his subjects on July 1, 1520, and Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala. During the Noche Triste (30 June-1 July 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlan across the causeway, while their backguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán. After a battle in Otumba, they managed to reach Tlaxcala, after having lost 870 men. With the assistance of their allies, Cortés' men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from Cuba. Cortés began a policy of attrition towards the island city of Tenochtitlán cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities thus changing the balance, and organizing the siege of Tenochtitlán, destroying the city. In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Villafana, who was hanged. Finally, with the capture of Cuauhtémoc, the Tlatoani (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on 13 August 1521, the Aztec Empire disappeared, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City. From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico. Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions A painting from Diego Muñoz Camargo's History of Tlaxcala (Lienzo Tlaxcala), c. 1585, showing La Malinche and Hernán Cortés. Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain. This picture is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Gomara. However, there may be more to the picture than this. Cortés' own greed and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the King "Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression." Catholic Encyclopedia, Hernan Cortés King Charles I of Spain, who had become Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519, appointed Cortés as governor, captain general, and chief justice of the newly conquered territory, dubbed "New Spain of the Ocean Sea". But also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing — in effect submitting him to close observation and administration. Cortés initiated the construction of Mexico City, destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important European city in the Americas. Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the encomienda land tenure system in 1524. He also supported efforts to evangelize the indigenous people to Christianity and sponsored new explorations. He then spent the next seven years establishing peace among the Indians of Mexico and developing mines and farmlands. Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent. In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés' enemy, Bishop Fonseca p30-31 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens translation of Cortés' letters "Hernan Cortés" letters from Mexico" 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene books ), sent a military force under the command of Juan de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco. This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Juan Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight. From 1524 to 1526, Cortés headed an expedition to Honduras where he defeated Cristóbal de Olid, who had claimed Honduras as his own under the influence of the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez. Fearing that Cuauhtémoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he brought him with him in Honduras and hanged him during the journey. Raging over Olid's treason, Cortés issued a decree to arrest Velázquez, whom he was sure was behind Olid's treason. This, however, only served to further estrange the Spanish Crown and the Council of Indies, both of which were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortés' rising power. p34 of J.H. Elliot, introductory essay to Anthony Pagdens translation of Cortés' letters "Hernan Cortés" letters from Mexico" 2001 (1971, 1986) Yale University NotaBene books The crest awarded to Cortés, by Charles V Cortés's fifth letter to Charles V attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on “various and powerful rivals and enemies” who have “obscured the eyes of your Majesty.” Unfortunately, the Holy Roman Emperor had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with wars with France, the German Protestants and the expanding Ottoman Empire), Charles V except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles V was attending to matters in his German domains and Spain was ruled by Bishop (later Pope) Adrian of Utrecht, who functioned as regent. Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner with powers, (a Juez de residencia, Luis Ponce de León), to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him. Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against (his) own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the Indies. A few days after Cortés' return from his expedition, Ponce de León suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died shortly after his arrival, appointing Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor, who was confirmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527. Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government. Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south; but de Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sunk. Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherent's hand was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to Emperor Charles V. First return to Spain (1528) In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. He presented himself with great splendor before the court. By this time Charles V had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required. Indeed, he had spent lavishly to rebuild Tenochtitlán, damaged during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire. He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded in 1529 by being named the "Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca" (Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley), a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendants until 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest region of New Spain, and Cortés had 23 000 vassals. Although confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain. During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators. He sided with local Indians in a lawsuit. The Indians documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex. Return to Mexico Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th century artist Jakob Seisenegger. Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors, but with diminished power, a viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza, having been entrusted in 1535 with the administration of civil affairs, although Cortés still retained military authority, with permission to continue his conquests. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged. On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. At a time when there was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés a charge was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his character and plans. He was accused of murdering his first wife. The proceedings of the investigation were kept secret. No report, either exonerating or condemning Cortés, was published. Had the Government declared him innocent, it would have greatly increased his popularity; had it declared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipitated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that grave danger was feared from his influence. After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, Cortés retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration. Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy. In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The Gulf of California was originally named the Sea of Cortes by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539. This was the last major expedition by Cortés. Later life and death Second return to Spain After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, abuse of power, etc. ). On his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely obtain an audience. On one occasion he forced his way through a crowd that surrounded the emperor's carriage, and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés proudly, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities." http://www.virtualology.com/virtualmuseumofhistory/hallofexplorers/HERNANDOCORTES.COM/ http://students.ou.edu/P/Kathryn.R.Pruitt-1/spanishtreasure.html Expedition against Algiers The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join himself and his fleet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in the Barbary Coast in 1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire and was used as a base by the famous Turkish corsair Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha who was also the Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman Fleet. During this unfortunate campaign, which was his last, Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who managed to defeat the fleet of Charles V for a second time after the 1538 Battle of Preveza. Naval Battle of Preveza, 1538 Last years Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was given a royal runaround for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at age 62. Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of three of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favorite. After his death his body has been moved more than eight times by several reasons. On the 4 of december of 1547 he was buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years later (1550) due the space was required by the duke, his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the same church. In his testament, Cortés asked his body to be buried in the monastery he had orderd to by build in Coyoacan in México, ten years after his death, buth the monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent to New spain and buried in the church of "San Francisco de Texcoco", where his mother and one of his sisters were buried. In 1629 died "don Pedro Cortés fourth "Marquez del Valle" his last male descendent, so the viceroy decided to move the bones of Cortés along his descendant to the Franciscan church in México. This was delayed by nine years, while his body stayed in the main room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was moved the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where stayed for 87 years. In 1716 it was move to another place in the same church. In 1794 his bones were moved to the "Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Cortés), where a statue by Tolsa and a mausoleum were made. There was a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang their bells. In 1823, after the independence of México, it seemed it was inminent his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the satue and the coat of arms were set to Italy, to Palermo to be protected by the duke of Terranova. The bones were hidden ,and everyone tought the had been sent out of México. In 1836 his bones were moved to another place in the same building. It was not until 1947, when they were rediscovered thanks to the discovery of a secret document by Lucas Alaman. His body put in charge of the "Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia" INAH, it was autentified and then restored to the same place, this time with a bronce incription and his coat of arms . In 1981, when a copy of the bust by Tolsa was put in the church, there was a failed attempt to destroy his bones. Children Natural children of Hernán Cortés: don Martín Cortés, son of doña Marina (La Malinche), called the First Mestizo; about him was written The New World of Martín Cortés; married doña Bernaldina de Porras and had two children: doña Ana Cortés don Fernando Cortés, Principal Judge of Veracruz. Descendants of this line are alive today in Mexico. Martín - the legitimate son of Cortés and Catalina Juárez Marcaida don Luis, son of doña Antonia Hermosillo doña Catalina Pizarro, daughter of his relative doña Leonor Pizarro doña Leonor, daughter of doña Isabel de Moctezuma, the oldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin doña María Cortés de Moctezuma, married to don Juan de Tolosa, a miner, daughter of Mexica (Aztec) princess Tecuichpotzin Xocoyotzin, born in Tenochtitlan on July 11, 1510 and died on July 9, 1550, daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin and wife doña María Miahuaxuchitl He married twice: firstly in Cuba to Catalina Juárez Marcaida, who died at Coyoacán in 1522, without issue, and secondly in 1529 to doña Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, daughter of don Carlos Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess doña Juana de Zúñiga, and had: don Luis Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, who died a child in Texcoco in 1530 doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, who died a short time after birth in 1531 don Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in Cuernavaca in 1532, married at Nalda on February 24, 1548 his twice cousin once removed doña Ana Ramírez de Arellano y Ramírez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line doña María Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, married to don Luis de Quiñones y Pimentel, 5th Count of Luna doña Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in Sevilla after the funeral of her father doña Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, married Don Fernando Enríquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of Alcalá de los Gazules, 3rd Marquess of Tarifa and 6th Count of Los Molares, and had issue Disputed interpretation of the life of Cortés There are relatively few sources to the early life of Cortés; his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him. Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specific purpose of putting his efforts in a favourable light and so must be read critically. Another main source is the biography written by Cortés' private chaplain Lopez de Gómara, which was written in Spain several years after the conquest. Gómara never set foot in the Americas and knew only what Cortés had told him, and he had an affinity for knightly romantic stories which he incorporated richly in the biography. The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls "the lies of Gomara", the account written by the Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo does not paint Cortés as a romantic hero but rather tries to emphasize that also Cortés' men should be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico. In the years following the conquest also more critical accounts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written. The Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies in which he raised strong accusations of brutality, and heinous violence towards the Indians against the conquistadors in general and Cortés in particular. The accounts of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants are also less than flattering towards Cortés. The result of the scarce sources to the life of Cortés has been sharp divisions in the description of Cortés' personality and a tendency to describe him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and honorable cavalier. Cortés's representations in México Monument in Mexico City commemorating the encounter of Cortés and Motecuhzoma. In México there are few representations of Cortés. However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names throughout the republic. The only authentic monuments are in Mexico City at the pass between the volcanoes Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl where Cortés took his soldiers on their march to Mexico City. It is known as the Paso de Cortes. The muralist Diego Rivera painted several representation of him but the most famous, depicts him as a naked, powerful and ominous figure along with Malinche in a mural in the National Palace in México city. Monument in Mexico City known as "Monumento al Mestizaje. In 1981, president Lopez Portillo tried to bring Cortés to public recognition. First, he made public a copy of the bust of Cortés made by Manuel Tolsá in the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno with an official ceremony, but soon a nationalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out ot the public http://www.letraslibres.com/index.php?art=9040 . Today the copy of bust is in the "Museo Nacional de Historia" in an obscure corner http://www.medellin.es/estatuas.htm while the original is in Nápoles, Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli. Later, another monument, known as "Monumento al Mestizaje" by Julián Martínez y M. Maldonado (1982) was commissioned by Lopez Portillo to be put in the "Zocalo" (Main square) of Coyoacan, near the place of his country house, but it had to be removed to a little known park, the Jardín Xicoténcatl, Barrio de San Diego Churubusco. The statue depicts Cortés, Malinche and their son. http://www.abc.es/hemeroteca/historico-13-10-2006/abc/Domingos/cortes-y-sus-9-entierros_1423747181753.html There is another statue by Sebastián Aparicio, in Cuernavaca, was in a hotel "El casino de la selva". Cortés is barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest. The hotel was closed to made a commercial center, and the statue was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the commercial center. http://www.letraslibres.com/index.php?art=9040 Writings - The Cartas de Relación Cortés' personal account of the conquest of Mexico is narrated in his five letters addressed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. These five letters, or cartas de relación, are Cortés' only surviving writings. See "Letters and Dispatches of Cortés," translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843); Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico" (Boston, 1843); and Sir Arthur Helps's "Life of Hernando Cortes" (London, 1871). As one specialist describes them... "The Cartas de relación have enjoyed an unequaled popularity among students of the Conquest of Mexico. Cortés was a good writer. His letters to the emperor, on the conquest, deserve to be classed among the best Spanish documents of the period. They are, of course, coloured so as to place his own achievements in relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and does not exaggerate, except in matters of Indian civilization and the numbers of population as implied by the size of the settlements. Even there he uses comparatives only, judging from outward appearances and from impressions. Historians, sociologists, and political scientists use them to glean information about the Aztec empire and the clash between the European and Indian cultures. However, as early as the sixteenth century doubt has been cast on the historicity of these Conquest accounts. It is generally accepted that Cortés does not write a true “history,” but rather combines history with fiction. That is to say, in his narrative Cortés manipulates reality in order to achieve his overarching purpose of gaining the favor of the king. Cortés applies the classical rhetorical figure of evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full of “vividness” that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters." His first letter is lost, and the one from the municipality of Vera Cruz has to take its place. It was published for the first time in volume IV of "Documentos para la Historia de España", and subsequently reprinted. The first carta de relación is available online at The Segunda Carta de Relacion, bearing the date of October 30, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522. The "Carta tercera", May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in 1523. The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at Toledo in 1525. The fifth, on the Honduras expedition, is contained in volume IV of the Documentos para la Historia de España. The important letter mentioned in the text has been published under the heading of Carta inédita de Cortés by Ycazbalceta. A great number of minor documents, either by Cortés or others, for or against him, are dispersed through the voluminous collection above cited and through the Colección de Documentos de Indias, as well as in the Documentos para la Historia de México of Ycazbalceta. There are a number of reprints and translations of Cortés's writings into various languages. Ancestors Ancestors of Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca See also History of Mexico Quetzalcoatl Spanish Conquest of Mexico Siege of Tenochtitlan Cortez the Killer a song by Neil Young about him. Barbary pirates Ottoman-Habsburg wars Primary sources Hernán Cortés, Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.) ISBN 0300090943 Francisco López de Gómara, Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 ISBN 030681319X History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William H. Prescott Last Will and Testament of Hernán Cortés "Cortes, Hernando" Belinda H. Nanney. http://historicaltestarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=445 "Hernan Cortes, marques del Valle de Oaxaca" Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/138839/Hernan-Cortes-marques-del-Valle-de-Oaxaca Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin America. By John A. Crow. 4th ed. New York: University of California P, 1992. Secondary sources Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0671511041 Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0786702710 History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H. Prescott ISBN 0375758038 The Rain God cries over Mexico by László Passuth Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0195160770 The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov (1996) ISBN 0061320951 Hernando Cortés by Fisher, M. & Richardson K. Hernando Cortés Crossroads Resource Online. Hernando Cortés by Jacobs, W.J., New York, N.Y.:Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974. The World’s Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés. Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago Press Inc. 1991. Genealogy of Hernán Cortés Genealogy of Hernán Cortés Origin of the Surname Cortés Myth and Reality: The Legacy of Spain in America by Jesus J. Chao. Culture/Society Opinion. February 12, 1992. The Institute of Hispanic Culture of Houston LeonPortilla, Miguel, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962. Maura, Juan Francisco.“Cobardía, falsedad y opportunismo español: algunas consideraciones sobre la “verdadera” historia de la conquista de la Nueva España”. Lemir (Revista de literatura medieval y del Renacimiento) 7 (2003): 1-29. http://parnaseo.uv.es/Lemir/Revista/Revista7/NuevaEspa.htm External links Biography of Hernán Cortés The change of Hernán Cortés' self-image by means of the conquest Hernando Cortes on the Web – web directory with thumbnail galleries Conquistadors, with Michael Wood – website for 2001 PBS documentary Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. Hernan Cortes - The Conquistador of the Aztecs; Informational Link Blog about the History of Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources, pictures and educational resources. Latin American studies center, material on Cortés Fernand Cortez, opera by Gaspare Spontini, Jean-Paul Penin References "Cortes, Hernando" Belinda H. Nanney. http://historicaltestarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=445 "Hernan Cortes, marques del Valle de Oaxaca" Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/138839/Hernan-Cortes-marques-del-Valle-de-Oaxaca | Hernán_Cortés |@lemmatized hernán:19 cortés:183 de:93 monroy:6 pizarro:10 marqués:4 del:13 valle:9 oaxaca:11 december:3 spanish:17 conquistador:8 lead:4 expedition:20 cause:3 fall:2 aztec:20 empire:12 bring:6 large:4 portion:1 mainland:3 mexico:56 king:8 castile:3 early:6 century:3 part:8 generation:1 colonizer:1 begin:5 first:15 phase:1 colonization:2 america:9 bear:11 medellín:4 extremadura:2 spain:28 family:3 less:2 nobility:2 choose:1 pursue:2 livelihood:1 new:27 world:7 go:3 hispaniola:9 later:9 cuba:13 receive:7 encomienda:2 short:3 time:20 become:13 alcalde:3 magistrate:2 second:6 town:3 found:3 island:2 elect:1 captain:4 third:3 partly:1 fund:1 enmity:1 governor:19 diego:13 velázquez:21 cuéllar:2 result:3 recall:2 last:7 moment:1 order:11 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1,908 | Electronic_mixer | A simple three-channel passive additive mixer. More channels can be added by simply adding more input jacks and mix resistors. A "virtual ground" active additive mixer. The buffer amplifiers serve to reduce crosstalk and distortion. An electronic mixer is a device that combines two or more electronic signals into one composite output signal. There are two basic types of mixer. Additive mixers add two signals together, and are used for such applications as audio mixing. Multiplying mixers multiply the signals together, and produce an output containing both original signals, and new signals that have the sum and difference of the frequency of the original signals. Additive mixers Additive mixers add two or more signals, outputting a composite signal that contains the frequency components of each of the source signals. The simplest additive mixers are simple resistor networks, and thus purely passive, while more complex mixers employ active components such as buffer amplifiers for impedance matching and better isolation. Product Mixers Ideal product mixers act as signal multipliers, producing an output signal equal to the product of the two input signals. Product mixers are often used in conjugation with an oscillator in the communications field to modulate signal frequencies. Product mixers can either up-convert or down-convert an input signal frequency, but it is more common to down-convert to a lower frequency to allow for easier filter design. In many typical circuits, the single output signal actually contains multiple waveforms, namely those at the sum and difference of the two input frequencies and harmonic waveforms. The ideal signal may be obtained by removing the other signal components with a filter. Product mixers have been implemented in a wide variety of ways. The most popular are Gilbert cell mixers, diode mixers, diode ring mixers (ring modulation) and switching mixers. A diode mixer has two or more signals going into a diode. Diodes mixers take advantage of the non-linearity of diode devices to produce the desired multiplication in the squared term. It is a very inefficient method as most of the power output is in other unwanted terms which need filtering out. Inexpensive AM radios still use diode mixers. Gilbert cell mixers are just an arrangement of transistors that multiplies the two signals. The switching mixers (below) pass more power and usually insert less distortion. Switching mixers use an array of Field effect transistors or (in older days) vacuum tubes. These are used as electronic switches, to permit the signal to go one direction, then the other. They are controlled by the signal being mixed. They are especially popular with digitally-controlled radios. | Electronic_mixer |@lemmatized simple:3 three:1 channel:2 passive:2 additive:6 mixer:25 add:4 simply:1 input:4 jack:1 mix:1 resistor:2 virtual:1 ground:1 active:2 buffer:2 amplifier:2 serve:1 reduce:1 crosstalk:1 distortion:2 electronic:3 device:2 combine:1 two:8 signal:22 one:2 composite:2 output:6 basic:1 type:1 together:2 use:5 application:1 audio:1 mixing:1 multiply:3 produce:3 contain:3 original:2 new:1 sum:2 difference:2 frequency:6 component:3 source:1 network:1 thus:1 purely:1 complex:1 employ:1 impedance:1 matching:1 good:1 isolation:1 product:6 ideal:2 act:1 multiplier:1 equal:1 often:1 conjugation:1 oscillator:1 communication:1 field:2 modulate:1 either:1 convert:3 common:1 low:1 allow:1 easy:1 filter:3 design:1 many:1 typical:1 circuit:1 single:1 actually:1 multiple:1 waveform:2 namely:1 harmonic:1 may:1 obtain:1 remove:1 implement:1 wide:1 variety:1 way:1 popular:2 gilbert:2 cell:2 diode:6 ring:2 modulation:1 switch:4 go:2 diodes:1 take:1 advantage:1 non:1 linearity:1 desired:1 multiplication:1 squared:1 term:2 inefficient:1 method:1 power:2 unwanted:1 need:1 inexpensive:1 radio:2 still:1 arrangement:1 transistor:2 pas:1 usually:1 insert:1 less:1 array:1 effect:1 old:1 day:1 vacuum:1 tube:1 permit:1 direction:1 control:2 mixed:1 especially:1 digitally:1 |@bigram additive_mixer:6 vacuum_tube:1 |
1,909 | List_of_explorations | Some of the most important explorations of Western civilization (in chronological order) : Exploration When Who (explorer) Around western Europe to Thule Island about 330 BC Pytheas of Marseilles The Middle East and India 325 BC-280 BC Alexander the Great Greenland 900 Gunnbjörn Ulfsson Silk Road 1274-1295 Marco Polo Azores 1427 Diogo de Silves Sierra Leone 1460 Pêro de Sintra Congo River 1482 Diogo Cão Cape of Good Hope 1487 Bartolomeu Dias Americas 1492 Christopher Columbus Sea route to India 1497-1498 Vasco da Gama Caribbean 1493-1502 Christopher Columbus Jamaica 1494 Christopher Columbus Brazil 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral Inland Mexico and Central America 1519-1524 Hernán Cortés Peru and Ecuador 1531-1534 Francisco Pizarro Circumnavigate the Globe 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano Timor 1522 Juan Sebastián Elcano Inca Empire 1531-1534 Francisco Pizarro The North 1574-1631 Henry Hudson The North 1594-1597 Willem Barents Oceania 1642-1643 Abel Tasman Oceania 1768-1779 James Cook North Pacific, western Alaska, east shores of Asia 1771 Moric Benovsky Hawaiian Islands 1778 James Cook Central America and Latin America 1799-1803 Alexander von Humboldt North America 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition The North Magnetic Pole 1831-06-01 James Clark Ross Africa 1849-1863 David Livingstone The Northern Sea Route 1878 Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld The South Magnetic Pole January 16, 1909 Douglas Mawson, Edgeworth David, and Alistair Mackay The North Pole April 6, 1909 Robert Peary The South Pole December 14, 1911 Roald Amundsen The South Pole January 1, 1918 Robert Falcon Scott Mount Everest Summit May 29, 1953 Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay The Moon July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 Mars 1960 to present NASA and other space agency exploration robots See also Age of Discovery Exploration of Australia Exploration of the High Alps Portugal in the period of discoveries | List_of_explorations |@lemmatized important:1 exploration:5 western:3 civilization:1 chronological:1 order:1 explorer:1 around:1 europe:1 thule:1 island:2 bc:3 pytheas:1 marseille:1 middle:1 east:2 india:2 alexander:2 great:1 greenland:1 gunnbjörn:1 ulfsson:1 silk:1 road:1 marco:1 polo:1 azores:1 diogo:2 de:2 silves:1 sierra:1 leone:1 pêro:1 sintra:1 congo:1 river:1 cão:1 cape:1 good:1 hope:1 bartolomeu:1 dia:1 america:5 christopher:3 columbus:3 sea:2 route:2 vasco:1 da:1 gama:1 caribbean:1 jamaica:1 brazil:1 pedro:1 álvares:1 cabral:1 inland:1 mexico:1 central:2 hernán:1 cortés:1 peru:1 ecuador:1 francisco:2 pizarro:2 circumnavigate:1 globe:1 ferdinand:1 magellan:1 juan:2 sebastián:2 elcano:2 timor:1 inca:1 empire:1 north:6 henry:1 hudson:1 willem:1 barents:1 oceania:2 abel:1 tasman:1 james:3 cook:2 pacific:1 alaska:1 shore:1 asia:1 moric:1 benovsky:1 hawaiian:1 latin:1 von:1 humboldt:1 lewis:1 clark:2 expedition:1 magnetic:2 pole:5 ross:1 africa:1 david:2 livingstone:1 northern:1 adolf:1 erik:1 nordenskiöld:1 south:3 january:2 douglas:1 mawson:1 edgeworth:1 alistair:1 mackay:1 april:1 robert:2 peary:1 december:1 roald:1 amundsen:1 falcon:1 scott:1 mount:1 everest:1 summit:1 may:1 sir:1 edmund:1 hillary:1 sherpa:1 tenzing:1 norgay:1 moon:1 july:1 apollo:1 mar:1 present:1 nasa:1 space:1 agency:1 robot:1 see:1 also:1 age:1 discovery:2 australia:1 high:1 alp:1 portugal:1 period:1 |@bigram silk_road:1 marco_polo:1 sierra_leone:1 bartolomeu_dia:1 christopher_columbus:3 vasco_da:1 da_gama:1 pedro_álvares:1 álvares_cabral:1 hernán_cortés:1 peru_ecuador:1 francisco_pizarro:2 circumnavigate_globe:1 ferdinand_magellan:1 juan_sebastián:2 sebastián_elcano:2 abel_tasman:1 von_humboldt:1 lewis_clark:1 robert_peary:1 roald_amundsen:1 mount_everest:1 |
1,910 | Liquid_consonant | Liquid consonants, or liquids, are trills, taps, or approximant consonants that are not classified as semivowels (glides) because they do not correspond phonetically to specific vowels (in the way that, for example, the initial in English yes corresponds to ). The class of liquids can be divided into lateral liquids and rhotics. Obstruent laterals, which are mainly found in indigenous languages of North America and include such sounds as the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (), the voiced alveolar lateral fricative , and the affricates , , and , are sometimes thought of as liquids but do not have their high sonority. Nor can obstruent laterals be used in the same way as sonorant laterals in the languages where they occur. Typical liquids in English are the sounds and . In most other European languages the letter r represents an alveolar trill, which is its value in the IPA. In French, German and Danish, the letter r represents a uvular trill pronounced far back in the throat ()—this may also be an uvular fricative or approximant. Some European languages, such as Italian and Serbo-Croatian, have more than two liquid phonemes. These languages typically have the set , though some (like Russian) have (Russian also has ). Elsewhere in the world, two liquids of the types mentioned above remains the most common attribute of a language's consonant inventory, except in North America and Australia. In North America, a majority of languages do not have rhotics at all and there is a wide variety of lateral sounds - though most are obstruent laterals rather than liquids. Most indigenous Australian languages are very rich in liquids, with some having as many as seven distinct liquids. These typically include dental, alveolar, retroflex and palatal laterals, and as many as three rhotics. This richness in liquid consonants in a sense compensates for the small vowel inventories and lack of fricatives of Aboriginal languages. Some African languages also contrast two rhotics, usually a trill and a flap. On the other side, there are many indigenous languages with no liquids in the Amazon Basin and eastern North America, and also a few in Asia and Africa. Polynesian languages typically have only one liquid, which may be either a lateral or a rhotic. See also List of phonetics topics References | Liquid_consonant |@lemmatized liquid:14 consonant:4 trill:4 tap:1 approximant:2 classify:1 semivowel:1 glide:1 correspond:1 phonetically:1 specific:1 vowel:2 way:2 example:1 initial:1 english:2 yes:1 corresponds:1 class:1 divide:1 lateral:10 rhotics:4 obstruent:3 mainly:1 find:1 indigenous:3 language:11 north:4 america:4 include:2 sound:3 voiceless:1 alveolar:4 fricative:4 voiced:1 affricate:1 sometimes:1 think:1 high:1 sonority:1 use:1 sonorant:1 occur:1 typical:1 european:2 languages:1 letter:2 r:2 represent:2 value:1 ipa:1 french:1 german:1 danish:1 uvular:2 pronounce:1 far:1 back:1 throat:1 may:2 also:5 italian:1 serbo:1 croatian:1 two:3 phoneme:1 typically:3 set:1 though:2 like:1 russian:2 elsewhere:1 world:1 type:1 mention:1 remain:1 common:1 attribute:1 inventory:2 except:1 australia:1 majority:1 wide:1 variety:1 rather:1 australian:1 rich:1 many:3 seven:1 distinct:1 dental:1 retroflex:1 palatal:1 three:1 richness:1 sense:1 compensate:1 small:1 lack:1 aboriginal:1 african:1 contrast:1 usually:1 flap:1 side:1 amazon:1 basin:1 eastern:1 asia:1 africa:1 polynesian:1 one:1 either:1 rhotic:1 see:1 list:1 phonetics:1 topic:1 reference:1 |@bigram voiceless_alveolar:1 alveolar_lateral:2 lateral_fricative:2 fricative_affricate:1 alveolar_trill:1 uvular_trill:1 uvular_fricative:1 fricative_approximant:1 serbo_croatian:1 dental_alveolar:1 alveolar_retroflex:1 retroflex_palatal:1 palatal_lateral:1 amazon_basin:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
1,911 | Dan_DeCarlo | Daniel S. DeCarlo (December 12, 1919, - December 19, 2001) was an American cartoonist best known as the artist who developed the look of Archie Comics in the late 1950s and early 1960s, modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher's house style. As well, he is the generally recognized creator of Sabrina, the Teenage Witch, Josie and the Pussycats (with the lead character named for his wife), and Cheryl Blossom. His twin sons, Dan Jr. and James "Jim" DeCarlo (b. January 27, 1948) were also prolific "Archie" artists, pencilling and inking respectively. Lambiek Comiclopedia: Dan & James DeCarlo Jr.. Accessed March 18, 2008 Previous to this he had a remarkable 10-year run on the humor title Millie the Model for Marvel Comics' 1950s predecessor, Atlas Comics, writing and drawing the slapsticky adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of cast from #18-93 (June 1949 - November 1959). DeCarlo also contributed the short-lived Sherry the Showgirl and Showgirls for Atlas. Biography Early life and career Sherry the Showgirl #2 (September 1956). Cover art by DeCarlo. Dan DeCarlo was born in New Rochelle, New York. He attended New Rochelle High School in his hometown, followed by Manhattan's Art Students League from 1938 to 1941, when he was drafted into the U.S. Army. Stationed in Great Britain, he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes. He also drew a weekly military comic strip. He met his future wife, French citizen Josie Dumont, in Belgium after the Battle of the Bulge. Later career In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for the magazines The Saturday Evening Post and Argosy, as well as publisher Martin Goodman's Humorama line of pin-up girl cartoon digests. In his later years, he was involved in a bitter legal dispute with Archie Comics over ownership of Josie and the Pussycats characters, which were to be featured in the Josie and the Pussycats movie released in 2001 by MCA/Universal. In the midst of the dispute, the publisher terminated its 40-year relationship with him. Among his final works were a story for Paul Dini's independent comics title Jingle Belle, and stories for Bongo Comics' The Simpsons TV tie-in comic, Bart Simpson. DeCarlo is cited, along with fellow Archie artist Harry Lucey and others, as being a strong artistic influence on alternative comics creators Jaime Hernandez and Gilberto Hernandez, who rose to fame in the 1980s with their Love and Rockets. Hatfield, Charles. Alternative Comics: An Emerging Literature. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005. p. 72 Death DeCarlo, who lived near New Rochelle in Scarsdale, New York, died of pneumonia, according to his wife, although some press reports listed heart attack. He was predeceased by his twin sons, Dan Jr. and Jim, who assisted their father as inkers. 1956 example of DeCarlo's cartoon work for men's magazines. "Allan, are you trying to pull the wool over my eyes?" Awards DeCarlo won the National Cartoonists Society Award for Best Comic Book in 2000 for Betty & Veronica. He was nominated for the Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974. Quotes Josie DeCarlo, on the inspiration for the fictional Josie: "We went on a Caribbean cruise, and I had a [cat] costume for the cruise, and that's the way it started". Comic Source Newsletter #19: Uncredited partial reprint of The New York Times obituary Paul Dini: ""It was tragic that when he was at an age when many cartoonists are revered as treasures by more beneficent publishers, Dan felt spurned and slighted by the owners of properties that prospered greatly from his contributions. Still, he was esteemed by fans and professionals the world over, and he often told me he was very grateful for the support he received from them over the past few years". Comic Book Resources Dec. 20, 2001: Obituary Footnotes References Official Dan DeCarlo website Lambiek Comiclopedia: Dan DeCarlo Ask Art — The American Artists Bluebook: Dan DeCarlo (1919-2001) Includes excerpt from The New York Times obituary The Grand Comics Database Humorama The Comics Journal #221: "Girl Trouble at Archie" The Comics Journal'' #240: "Supreme Court Rejects DeCarlo Appeal" The Trades, Jan. 1, 2002: Interview with Dan DeCarlo The Seattle Graphic Artists Guild Weekly eNewsletter: "Advocacy News: DeCarlo Sues Archie Comics'' External links Official Dan DeCarlo website Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Archie Jozine: Josie and the Pussycats / Dan DeCarlo fan site | Dan_DeCarlo |@lemmatized daniel:1 decarlo:20 december:2 american:2 cartoonist:3 best:3 know:1 artist:5 develop:1 look:1 archie:7 comic:18 late:2 early:2 modernize:1 character:3 contemporary:1 appearance:1 establish:1 publisher:4 house:1 style:1 well:2 generally:1 recognize:1 creator:2 sabrina:1 teenage:1 witch:1 josie:7 pussycat:4 lead:1 name:1 wife:3 cheryl:1 blossom:1 twin:2 son:2 dan:11 jr:3 james:2 jim:2 b:1 january:1 also:3 prolific:1 pencil:1 ink:1 respectively:1 lambiek:2 comiclopedia:2 access:1 march:1 previous:1 remarkable:1 year:4 run:1 humor:2 title:2 millie:2 model:1 marvel:1 predecessor:1 atlas:2 write:1 draw:3 slapsticky:1 adventure:1 collins:1 redheaded:1 friendly:1 nemesis:1 chili:1 storm:1 rest:1 cast:1 june:1 november:1 contribute:1 short:1 live:2 sherry:2 showgirl:3 biography:1 life:1 career:2 september:1 cover:1 art:3 bear:1 new:7 rochelle:3 york:4 attend:1 high:1 school:1 hometown:1 follow:1 manhattan:1 student:1 league:1 draft:1 u:1 army:1 station:1 great:1 britain:1 work:4 motor:1 pool:1 draftsman:1 paint:1 company:1 mascot:1 nose:1 airplane:1 weekly:2 military:1 strip:1 meet:1 future:1 french:1 citizen:1 dumont:1 belgium:1 battle:1 bulge:1 later:1 addition:1 book:3 freelance:1 piece:1 magazine:2 saturday:1 evening:1 post:1 argosy:1 martin:1 goodman:1 humorama:2 line:1 pin:1 girl:2 cartoon:2 digest:1 involve:1 bitter:1 legal:1 dispute:2 ownership:1 feature:1 movie:1 release:1 mca:1 universal:1 midst:1 terminate:1 relationship:1 among:1 final:1 story:2 paul:2 dini:2 independent:1 jingle:1 belle:1 bongo:1 simpson:2 tv:1 tie:1 bart:1 cite:1 along:1 fellow:1 harry:1 lucey:1 others:1 strong:1 artistic:1 influence:1 alternative:2 jaime:1 hernandez:2 gilberto:1 rise:1 fame:1 love:1 rocket:1 hatfield:1 charles:1 emerge:1 literature:1 jackson:1 university:1 press:2 mississippi:1 p:1 death:1 near:1 scarsdale:1 die:1 pneumonia:1 accord:1 although:1 report:1 list:1 heart:1 attack:1 predecease:1 assist:1 father:1 inkers:1 example:1 men:1 allan:1 try:1 pull:1 wool:1 eye:1 award:3 win:1 national:1 society:1 betty:1 veronica:1 nominate:1 shazam:1 penciller:1 division:1 quote:1 inspiration:1 fictional:1 go:1 caribbean:1 cruise:2 cat:1 costume:1 way:1 start:1 source:1 newsletter:1 uncredited:1 partial:1 reprint:1 time:2 obituary:3 tragic:1 age:1 many:1 revere:1 treasure:1 beneficent:1 felt:1 spurn:1 slight:1 owner:1 property:1 prosper:1 greatly:1 contribution:1 still:1 esteem:1 fan:2 professional:1 world:1 often:1 tell:1 grateful:1 support:1 receive:1 past:1 resource:1 dec:1 footnote:1 reference:1 official:2 website:2 ask:1 bluebook:1 include:1 excerpt:1 grand:1 database:1 journal:2 trouble:1 supreme:1 court:1 reject:1 appeal:1 trade:1 jan:1 interview:1 seattle:1 graphic:1 guild:1 enewsletter:1 advocacy:1 news:1 sue:1 external:1 link:1 markstein:1 toonopedia:1 jozine:1 site:1 |@bigram archie_comic:4 sabrina_teenage:1 teenage_witch:1 josie_pussycat:4 marvel_comic:1 dan_decarlo:7 comic_strip:1 saturday_evening:1 bart_simpson:1 supreme_court:1 external_link:1 markstein_toonopedia:1 |
1,912 | Coil | A coil is a series of loops. Coil may refer to: Coil, a colloquial term for an intrauterine device Coil, a synonym for inductor Coil stamp, a type of postage stamp sold as strips one stamp wide Warp coil, a component in the Star Trek universe's warp drive Mortal coil, the troubles of daily life and the strife and suffering of the world Coil of wigeons, a group of wigeons Coil was the original name, and is the Japanese name for the Pokémon, Magnemite Coiled tubing Ignition coil, used in spark-ignition petrol engines Coil (G.I. Joe), offshoot of the Cobra Terrorist Organization in the fictional G.I. Joe universe Coil (chemistry), a tube, frequently in spiral form, used as a condenser COIL may refer to: Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser Coilin, a human gene In music: Coil (band), a British experimental band COIL (japanese band), a Japanese rock band most noted for their work on the video game Gitaroo Man Coil (album), a 1997 album by Toad the Wet Sprocket Icon of Coil, a Norwegian electronic body music band Lacuna Coil, an Italian goth heavy metal band This Mortal Coil, a British band on the 4AD label "Coil" (song), from the album Watershed by Opeth | Coil |@lemmatized coil:21 series:1 loop:1 may:2 refer:2 colloquial:1 term:1 intrauterine:1 device:1 synonym:1 inductor:1 stamp:3 type:1 postage:1 sell:1 strip:1 one:1 wide:1 warp:2 component:1 star:1 trek:1 universe:2 drive:1 mortal:2 trouble:1 daily:1 life:1 strife:1 suffering:1 world:1 wigeon:2 group:1 original:1 name:2 japanese:3 pokémon:1 magnemite:1 tube:2 ignition:2 use:2 spark:1 petrol:1 engine:1 g:2 joe:2 offshoot:1 cobra:1 terrorist:1 organization:1 fictional:1 chemistry:1 frequently:1 spiral:1 form:1 condenser:1 chemical:1 oxygen:1 iodine:1 laser:1 coilin:1 human:1 gene:1 music:2 band:7 british:2 experimental:1 rock:1 note:1 work:1 video:1 game:1 gitaroo:1 man:1 album:3 toad:1 wet:1 sprocket:1 icon:1 norwegian:1 electronic:1 body:1 lacuna:1 italian:1 goth:1 heavy:1 metal:1 label:1 song:1 watershed:1 opeth:1 |@bigram postage_stamp:1 star_trek:1 mortal_coil:2 spark_ignition:1 petrol_engine:1 |
1,913 | Federated_States_of_Micronesia | The Federated States of Micronesia is an island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, north of Papua New Guinea. The country is a sovereign state in free association with the United States. The Federated States of Micronesia were formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under U.S. administration. In 1979 they adopted a constitution, and in 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of Free Association with the United States. The Federated States of Micronesia are located in the region known as Micronesia, which consists of hundreds of small islands divided in eight territories. The term Micronesia may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole. History The ancestors of the Micronesians settled over four thousand years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on Yap. Nan Madol, consisting of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. It is located near the island of Pohnpei and used to be the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people from about AD 500 until 1500, when the centralized system collapsed. European explorers — first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish — reached the Carolines in the sixteenth century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. It was sold to Germany in 1899, conquered by Japan in 1914, before being seized by the United States during World War II and administered by the US under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. During World War II, a significant portion of the Japanese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, Operation Hailstone, one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed. On May 10, 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia. Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the United States of America, which entered into force on November 3, 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence. The Compact was renewed in 2004. Politics The Federated States of Micronesia are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has fourteen members elected by popular vote. Four senators — one from each state — serve four-year terms; the remaining ten senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve two-year terms. The President and Vice President are elected by Congress from among the four state-based senators to serve four-year terms in the executive branch. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. There are no formal political parties. In international politics, the Federated States of Micronesia has often voted with the United States with respect to United Nations General Assembly resolutions. However, in recent years other countries have had a higher voting coincidence with the United States. General Assembly - Overall Votes - Comparison with U.S. vote lists Micronesia as in the country with the fourth high coincidence of votes. In past years' reports, Micronesia has always been in the top four. Administrative divisions The four states in the federation are: FlagStateCapitalLand area FSM government website - Geography Population FSM government website - Population Population densityFlag of Chuuk Chuuk Weno 127 km² 53,595 420 per km²Flag of Kosrae Kosrae Tofol 110 km² 7,686 70 per km²Flag of Pohnpei Pohnpei Kolonia 346 km² 34,486 100 per km²Flag of Yap Yap Colonia 118 km² 11,241 95 per km² These states are further divided into municipalities. Geography Map of the Federated States of Micronesia Kolonia Town looking down from Sokehs Ridge in Pohnpei. The Federated States of Micronesia consists of 607 islands extending (2,900 km) across the archipelago of the Caroline Islands east of the Philippines. The four constituent island groups are Yap, Chuuk (called Truk until January 1990), Pohnpei (known as "Ponape" until November 1984), and Kosrae (formerly Kusiae). These four states are each represented by a white star on the national flag. The capital is Palikir, on Pohnpei. The country has seven official languages: English, Ulithian, Woleaian, Yapese, Pohnpeian, Kosraean, and Chuukese. The other languages spoken in Micronesia are Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Kapingamarangi Language, Nukuoro Language, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, and Mokilese. Economy Economic activity of the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. Long line tuna fishing is also viable with foreign vessels from Taiwan and China operated in the 1990s. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth. The nation uses the US dollar as their currency. Demographics The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. It has a nearly 100% Pacific Islander and Asian population. Chuukese 48.8%, Pohnpeian 24.2%, Kosraean 6.2%, Yapese 5.2%, Yap outer islands 4.5%, Asian 1.8%, Polynesian 1.5%, other 6.4%, unknown 1.4%. Many Micronesians are known to have some Japanese ancestry, which is a result of intermarriages between Japanese settlers and Micronesians during the Japanese colonial period. President Emanuel Mori Meets With Japan Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda; AESonline.org A Reluctant Power There is a growing population of Americans, Australians, Europeans, and residents from China and the Philippines. English has become the common language of the government, and for secondary and tertiary education. Outside of the main capital towns of the four FSM states, the local languages are primarily spoken. Population growth remains high at more than 3% annually, offset somewhat by net emigration. Pohnpei is notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of color blindness known as maskun. Culture A large (approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) in height) example of Yapese stone money (Rai stones) in the village of Gachpar. Each of the four States has its own culture and traditions, but there are also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old. For example, cultural similarities like the importance of the traditional extended family and clan systems can be found on all the islands. The island of Yap is notable for its "stone money" (Rai stones), large disks usually of calcite, up to 12 feet (4 m) in diameter, with a hole in the middle. The islanders, aware of the owner of a piece, do not necessarily move them when ownership changes. There are five major types: Mmbul, Gaw, Ray, Yar, and Reng, the last being only 1 foot (0.3 m) in diameter. Their value is based on both size and history, many of them having been brought from other islands, as far as New Guinea, but most coming in ancient times from Palau. Approximately 6,500 of them are scattered around the island. There have been few published literary writers from the Federated States of Micronesia. "Seeking Micronesian literary writers", Marianas Variety, February 18, 2009 In 2008, Emelihter Kihleng became the first ever Micronesian to publish a collection of poetry in the English language "Micronesian Poet Publishes Collection of Poems", Office of Insular Affairs, May 12, 2008 . Defense arrangements The FSM is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the United States, which is wholly responsible for its defense. The Division of Maritime Surveillance operates a paramilitary Maritime Wing and a small Maritime Police Unit. The Compact of Free Association allows FSM citizens to join the U.S. military without having to obtain U.S. permanent residency or citizenship. U.S. Military Enlistment Standards See also List of Federated States of Micronesia-related topics Notes References US-CIA. CIA - The World Factbook: Federated States of Micronesia. The World Factbook. United States of America: Central Intelligence Agency. 2003. History_Federated_States_of_Micronesia Bibliography External links Government Government of the Federated States of Micronesia Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Federated States of Micronesia from UCB Libraries GovPubs Jane's Federated States of Micronesia Home Page Trust Territory of the Pacific Archives at the University of Hawaii Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute - Federated States of Micronesia Nature.org - Micronesia environmental conservation myMicronesia.com Online resource center about the islands of Micronesia. Provides free listings and links to all Micronesian businesses, as well as civic, cultural, health and educational organizations. News media The Yap Networker - Yap's news source Maps Map of Micronesia Nan Madol islet complex Provides computer based reconstruction of the main islets and features Travel Moon Handbooks Micronesia Travel Overview of Micronesia be-x-old:Фэдэратыўныя Штаты Мікранэзіі | Federated_States_of_Micronesia |@lemmatized federated:15 state:36 micronesia:28 island:16 nation:5 locate:3 pacific:7 ocean:1 north:1 papua:1 new:3 guinea:2 country:4 sovereign:2 free:6 association:5 united:11 formerly:2 part:2 trust:5 territory:6 islands:5 u:10 administration:1 adopt:1 constitution:3 independence:2 attain:1 compact:4 region:2 know:4 consist:4 hundred:1 small:3 divide:2 eight:1 term:5 may:3 refer:1 federate:3 whole:1 history:2 ancestor:1 micronesians:3 settle:1 four:12 thousand:1 year:6 ago:1 decentralize:1 chieftain:1 base:6 system:3 eventually:1 evolve:1 centralized:2 economic:3 religious:1 empire:1 center:2 yap:8 nan:2 madol:2 series:1 artificial:1 link:2 network:1 canal:1 often:2 call:2 venice:1 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1,914 | Francis_Gary_Powers | Francis Gary Powers with a model of the U-2. Francis Gary Powers (August 17, 1929 – August 1, 1977) was an American pilot whose CIA CIA FOIA - Francis Gary Powers: U-2 Spy Pilot Shot Down by the Soviets U-2 spy plane was shot down while over the Soviet Union, causing the 1960 U-2 incident. Early life Powers was born in Jenkins, Kentucky, with Melungeon ancestry, and raised in Pound, Virginia, on the Virginia-Kentucky border. After graduating from Milligan College in Johnson City, Tennessee, he was commissioned in the United States Air Force in 1950. Upon completing his training (52-H) he was assigned to the 468th Strategic Fighter Squadron at Turner Air Force Base, Georgia as an F-84 Thunderjet pilot. He was assigned to operations in the Korean War, but (according to his son) was recruited by the CIA because of his outstanding record in single engine jet aircraft, soon after recovering from an illness. By 1960, the 31-year old Powers was already a veteran of many covert aerial reconnaissance missions. The U-2 Incident He left the Air Force with the rank of captain in 1956, to join the CIA U-2 program. U-2 pilots carried out espionage missions using a spy plane that could reach altitudes above 70,000 feet, essentially making it invulnerable to Soviet anti-aircraft weapons of the time. The U-2 was equipped with a state-of-the-art camera designed to snap high-resolution photos from the edge of the atmosphere over hostile countries that included the Soviet Union. These cameras systematically photographed military installations and other important intelligence targets. Soviet intelligence, including the KGB, had been well aware of U-2 missions since 1956, but lacked the technology to launch counter-measures until 1960. Powers’ U-2, which departed from a military airbase in Peshawar and may have received support from the US Air Station at Badaber, near Peshawar in Pakistan, was shot down by an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 Surface to Air) missile S-75 on May 1, 1960, over Sverdlovsk. Soviets had shadowed his plane from a lower altitude, then took him down as he crossed over Sverdlosk, which was deep in Soviet airspace. Powers was unable to activate the plane's self-destruct mechanism, as instructed, before he parachuted to the ground, right into the hands of the KGB. When the U.S. government learned of Powers' disappearance over the Soviet Union, it issued a cover statement claiming that a "weather plane" had crashed down after its pilot had "difficulties with his oxygen equipment." What U.S. officials did not realize was that the plane crashed almost fully intact, and the Soviets recovered its photography equipment, as well as Powers, whom they interrogated extensively for months before he made a "voluntary confession"and public apology for his part in U.S. espionage. Ultimately the whole incident would set back the peace talks between Khrushchev and Eisenhower for years. On August 17, 1960, Powers was convicted of espionage against the Soviet Union. He was sentenced to a total of 10 years in prison, three years of imprisonment followed by seven years of hard labor. Powers was held in the famous "Vladimirsky Central" prison in the city of Vladimir, east of Moscow. This prison had been used to hold other high-profile prisoners, such as the son of Joseph Stalin. The prison, which is still active today, contains a small museum that includes an exhibit on Powers, who, it is said, had a good rapport with Russian prisoners during his time there. On February 10, 1962, twenty-one months after his capture, he was exchanged along with American student Frederic Pryor in a spy swap for Soviet KGB Colonel Vilyam Fisher (aka Rudolf Abel) at the Glienicke Bridge in Berlin, Germany. Aftermath Wooden U-2 model - one of two used by Powers when he testified to the Senate Committee. The wings and tail are detachable to demonstrate the aircraft's breakup upon impact. Though Powers had not divulged details of the U-2 program, he received a cold reception upon his return to the United States. Initially, he was criticized for having failed to activate his aircraft’s self-destruct charge designed to destroy the camera, photographic film, and related classified parts of his aircraft before capture. In addition, others criticized him for deciding not to use an optional CIA-issued "suicide pill" or cyanide capsule. After being debriefed extensively by the CIA, Lockheed, and the USAF, on March 6, 1962, he appeared before a Senate Armed Services Select Committee hearing chaired by Senator Richard Russell and including Senators Prescott Bush and Barry Goldwater, Sr. During the proceeding it was determined that Powers followed orders, did not divulge any critical information to the Soviets, and conducted himself “as a fine young man under dangerous circumstances.” After his return, Powers worked for Lockheed as a test pilot from 1963 to 1970. In 1970, he co-wrote a book titled Operation Overflight: A Memoir of the U-2 Incident, which led to his termination from Lockheed as a result of negative publicity over the book. He then became an airborne traffic reporter for radio station KGIL in the San Fernando Valley, and was known for his unique sign off “Gary Powers, KGIL skywatch” when he finished his report. He was then hired by Los Angeles television station KNBC to pilot their new "telecopter", a helicopter equipped with externally mounted 360 degree cameras. Death Powers died on August 1, 1977, when, upon his return from covering brush fires in Santa Barbara county, his helicopter ran out of fuel and crashed just a few miles from Burbank Airport where he was based. http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Powers-N4TV.htm KNBC cameraman George Spears was also killed in the incident. Many have wondered or speculated on how an experienced pilot such as Powers could have allowed the aircraft to run out of fuel. According to Powers' son, Powers had reported a fuel gauge error to the mechanics. When the plane's fuel gauge indicator displayed "Empty", he actually had enough fuel for thirty more minutes of flight time. Apparently the aviation mechanic fixed the fuel gauge in the KNBC helicopter, but did not tell Powers of the correction. When he was returning to Burbank from the aforementioned brush fire coverage (live helicopter coverage now being common and ubiquitous throughout Southern California for brush fires and other breaking news) Powers ran out of fuel and subsequently crashed in a field in the Sepulveda Dam Recreation Area. Eyewitnesses suggested that Powers attempted to autorotate the helicopter onto recreational fields at this location. However, he intentionally banked to avoid children on the fields and ultimately crashed the helicopter into an adjacent agricultural field, resulting in the aircraft rolling and the occupants' deaths. Powers was survived by his wife Sue, and two children, Dee and Francis Gary Powers Jr.. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Powers-N4TV.htm In 1998, information was declassified revealing that Powers’ fateful mission had actually been a joint USAF/CIA operation. In 2000, on the 40th anniversary of the U-2 Incident, his family was finally presented with his posthumously awarded Prisoner of War Medal, Distinguished Flying Cross, Silver Star and National Defense Service Medal. In addition, then CIA Director George Tenet authorized Powers to posthumously receive the CIA's coveted Intelligence Star for extreme fidelity and extraordinary courage in the line of duty. http://www.spymuseum.org/programs/educate/pdfs/AIRSHO2007_Powers.pdf In popular culture In 1976, the book by Powers and Curt Gentry became a television movie, entitled Francis Gary Powers: The True Story of the U-2 Spy Incident, with Lee Majors playing the part of Powers. References Further reading Nigel West, Seven Spies Who Changed the World. London: Secker & Warburg, 1991 (hard cover). London: Mandarin, 1992 (paperback). Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower. State College, PA: Penn State Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0271019277. Francis Gary Powers, Curt Gentry, Operation Overflight. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, 1971 (hard cover) ISBN 978-0340148235. Potomac Book, 2002 (paperback) ISBN 978-1574884227. External links CIA FOIA documents on Gary Powers Documents and Photographs regarding the U-2 Spy Plane Incident of 1960, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Check-Six.com - The Crash of Francis Gary Powers' Helo Transcripts of the Soviet court trial (in Russian) 1962 Russia frees US spy plane pilot | Francis_Gary_Powers |@lemmatized francis:7 gary:9 power:36 model:2 u:21 august:4 american:2 pilot:9 whose:1 cia:10 foia:2 spy:8 shoot:3 soviet:13 plane:9 union:4 cause:1 incident:8 early:1 life:1 bear:1 jenkins:1 kentucky:2 melungeon:1 ancestry:1 raise:1 pound:1 virginia:2 border:1 graduate:1 milligan:1 college:2 johnson:1 city:2 tennessee:1 commission:1 united:2 state:5 air:5 force:3 upon:4 complete:1 training:1 h:1 assign:2 strategic:1 fighter:1 squadron:1 turner:1 base:2 georgia:1 f:1 thunderjet:1 operation:4 korean:1 war:2 accord:2 son:3 recruit:1 outstanding:1 record:1 single:1 engine:1 jet:1 aircraft:7 soon:1 recover:2 illness:1 year:5 old:1 already:1 veteran:1 many:2 covert:1 aerial:1 reconnaissance:1 mission:4 leave:1 rank:1 captain:1 join:1 program:3 carry:1 espionage:3 use:4 could:2 reach:1 altitude:2 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1,915 | Mercury_(programming_language) | Mercury is a functional logic programming language geared towards real-world applications. It is developed at the University Of Melbourne Computer Science department under the supervision of Zoltán Somogyi. The first version was developed by Fergus Henderson, Thomas Conway and Zoltán Somogyi and was released on April 8, 1995. Mercury is a purely declarative logic language based on Prolog The Mercury Project - Motivation . It features a strong, static, polymorphic type system, as well as a strong mode and determinism system. The official implementation, the Melbourne Mercury Compiler is available for most Unix platforms, including Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows (in Windows, it requires one of the Cygwin or MinGW toolsets, and can be compiled either with GCC or Microsoft Visual C++). Despite having no official release since 2006, Mercury is still under active development as of 2009 mercury-developers mailing list, May 2009 , and a new "unstable" release is made automatically each day. Overview Mercury is based on the logic programming language Prolog. It has the same syntax, and the same basic concepts such as the SLD resolution algorithm. It can ostensibly be viewed as a pure subset of Prolog with strong types and modes. As such, it is often compared to its predecessor, both in terms of features, and run-time efficiency. The language is designed with good software engineering principles in mind. Unlike Prolog, it has a separate compilation phase, rather than being directly interpreted, which allows a much wider range of errors to be caught before running a program. (Modern versions of Prolog normally support compilation as well as providing an interpreter. An executable produced by a modern prolog compiler can also be very efficient.) It features a sophisticated, strict type and mode system, which its authors claim makes it much easier to write robust software. Mercury's module system enables division into self-contained units, a problem for past logic programming languages. (But note that several Prolog implementations now also support modules.) Due to the use of information obtained at compile time (such as type and mode information), programs written in Mercury typically perform significantly faster than equivalent programs written in Prolog The Mercury Project - Benchmarks . The authors claim that Mercury is the fastest logic language in the world, by a wide margin. Mercury is a purely declarative language, unlike Prolog, since it lacks "extra-logical" Prolog statements such as "cut" (which prevents backtracking) and imperative I/O. This enables advanced program optimization, but can make certain programming constructs (such as a switch over a number of options, with a default) harder to express. (Note that while Mercury does allow impure functionality, it is not necessary in most software, and serves primarily as a way of calling foreign language code. Also, all impure code must be explicitly marked.) Operations which would typically be impure (such as input/output) are expressed using pure constructs in Mercury using linear types, by threading a dummy "world" value through all relevant code. Notable programs written in Mercury include the Mercury compiler itself and the Prince XML formatter. Back-ends Mercury has several back-ends, which means it is possible to compile Mercury code into the following languages and code-styles: Production level: Low-level C for GCC (the original Mercury back-end) High-level C Alpha or beta quality (may not work well, or even be completely broken): IL for Microsoft's .NET Java bytecode for Sun's JVM Assembler via the GCC back-end Erlang Past back-ends: Aditi, a deductive database system also developed at the University of Melbourne. Mercury-0.12.2 is the last version of Mercury that will support Aditi. This makes Mercury a useful high-level language for targeting multiple platforms, or for linking with code written using multiple back-ends. Mercury also has a strong foreign language interface, allowing code in other languages (depending on the chosen back-end) to be linked with Mercury code. The following foreign languages are possible: Back-end Foreign language(s) C (both levels) C IL IL or C# Java Java Other languages can then be interfaced to by calling them from these languages. However, this means that foreign language code may need to be written several times for the different backends, otherwise portability between backends will be lost. The most commonly used back-end is the original low-level C back-end. As both C backends are the only back-ends considered production quality, this means that you will not lose a great deal of portability using foreign-language C code. Examples Hello World: :- module hello. :- interface. :- import_module io. :- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det. :- implementation. main(!IO) :- io.write_string("Hello, World!\n", !IO). Calculating the 10th Fibonacci number (in the most obvious way) Adapted from Ralph Becket's Mercury tutorial : :- module fib. :- interface. :- import_module io. :- pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det. :- implementation. :- import_module int. :-func fib(int) = int. fib(N) = (if N =< 2 then 1 else fib(N - 1) + fib(N - 2)). main(!IO) :- io.write_string("fib(10) = ", !IO), io.write_int(fib(10), !IO), io.nl(!IO). % Could instead use io.format("fib(10) = %d\n", [i(fib(10))], !IO). References See also Alice programming language Oz/Mozart programming language and compiler Visual Prolog programming language External links Official Mercury Homepage Literate Programs (examples) in Mercury | Mercury_(programming_language) |@lemmatized mercury:27 functional:1 logic:5 program:10 language:21 gear:1 towards:1 real:1 world:5 application:1 develop:3 university:2 melbourne:3 computer:1 science:1 department:1 supervision:1 zoltán:2 somogyi:2 first:1 version:3 fergus:1 henderson:1 thomas:1 conway:1 release:3 april:1 purely:2 declarative:2 base:2 prolog:11 project:2 motivation:1 feature:3 strong:4 static:1 polymorphic:1 type:5 system:5 well:3 mode:4 determinism:1 official:3 implementation:4 compiler:4 available:1 unix:1 platform:2 include:2 mac:1 x:1 microsoft:3 window:2 require:1 one:1 cygwin:1 mingw:1 toolsets:1 compile:3 either:1 gcc:3 visual:2 c:9 despite:1 since:2 still:1 active:1 development:1 developer:1 mail:1 list:1 may:3 new:1 unstable:1 make:4 automatically:1 day:1 overview:1 programming:3 syntax:1 basic:1 concept:1 sld:1 resolution:1 algorithm:1 ostensibly:1 view:1 pure:2 subset:1 often:1 compare:1 predecessor:1 term:1 run:2 time:3 efficiency:1 design:1 good:1 software:3 engineering:1 principle:1 mind:1 unlike:2 separate:1 compilation:2 phase:1 rather:1 directly:1 interpret:1 allow:3 much:2 wider:1 range:1 error:1 catch:1 modern:2 normally:1 support:3 provide:1 interpreter:1 executable:1 produce:1 also:6 efficient:1 sophisticated:1 strict:1 author:2 claim:2 easy:1 write:6 robust:1 module:4 enable:2 division:1 self:1 contain:1 unit:1 problem:1 past:2 note:2 several:3 due:1 use:7 information:2 obtain:1 typically:2 perform:1 significantly:1 fast:2 equivalent:1 benchmark:1 wide:1 margin:1 lack:1 extra:1 logical:1 statement:1 cut:1 prevent:1 backtracking:1 imperative:1 advanced:1 optimization:1 certain:1 construct:2 switch:1 number:2 option:1 default:1 harder:1 express:2 impure:3 functionality:1 necessary:1 serve:1 primarily:1 way:2 call:2 foreign:6 code:10 must:1 explicitly:1 mark:1 operation:1 would:1 input:1 output:1 linear:1 thread:1 dummy:1 value:1 relevant:1 notable:1 prince:1 xml:1 formatter:1 back:11 end:11 mean:3 possible:2 following:2 style:1 production:2 level:6 low:2 original:2 high:2 alpha:1 beta:1 quality:2 work:1 even:1 completely:1 broken:1 il:3 net:1 java:3 bytecode:1 sun:1 jvm:1 assembler:1 via:1 erlang:1 aditi:2 deductive:1 database:1 last:1 useful:1 target:1 multiple:2 link:3 interface:3 depend:1 choose:1 interfaced:1 however:1 need:1 different:1 backends:3 otherwise:1 portability:2 lose:2 commonly:1 consider:1 great:1 deal:1 example:2 hello:3 io:18 pred:2 main:4 di:2 uo:2 det:2 n:6 calculate:1 fibonacci:1 obvious:1 adapt:1 ralph:1 becket:1 tutorial:1 fib:9 int:3 func:1 else:1 nl:1 could:1 instead:1 format:1 reference:1 see:1 alice:1 oz:1 mozart:1 external:1 homepage:1 literate:1 |@bigram microsoft_window:1 input_output:1 alpha_beta:1 java_bytecode:1 io_io:4 int_int:1 external_link:1 |
1,916 | Felix_Wankel | Felix Heinrich Wankel (August 13, 1902 – October 9, 1988) was a German mechanical engineer and the inventor of the Wankel engine. Wankel was born in Lahr, Germany, in the upper Rhine Valley. Since his mother was widowed in World War I, Wankel received no university education or even an apprenticeship. However, he was able to teach himself technical subjects and conceived the idea of the Wankel engine in 1924. Career Wankel engine, type DKM54 (1957) During World War II, he developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes. After the war, he was imprisoned by the Allies for some months, his laboratory was closed, his work confiscated, and he was prohibited from doing more work. In 1951, he began development of the engine at NSU (NSU Motorenwerke AG), leading to the first running prototype on February 1, 1957. Wankel-Jubiläum: Warten aufs Wunder - Auto - SPIEGEL ONLINE - Nachrichten His engine design was first licensed by Curtiss-Wright in New Jersey. Mazda in Japan solved the chatter marks problem. The engine has been successfully used by Mazda in several generations of their RX-series of coupés and sedans including the R100 and especially the RX-7. In later years, Wankel was granted an honorary Doctorate of Engineering. He was known for his championing of animal rights and opposition to the use of animals in testing. Wankel died in Heidelberg, aged 86. Licensees 21.10.1958 Curtiss-Wright Corp. USA without restriction, no series29.12.1960 Fichtel & Sachs AG BRD industrial engine and boat, 0.5-30 PS25.02.1961 Yanmar Diesel Co. Ltd JP gasoline and diesel engine, 1-100 PS, 1-300 PS 27.02.1961 Toyo Kogyo, Co. Ltd. JP gasoline 1-200 PS land vehicles 04.10.1961 Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz AG BRD diesel engine without restriction26.10.1961 Daimler-Benz AG BRD gasoline 50 PS upwards30.10.1961 MAN AG BRD diesel engine without restriction02.11.1961 Friedrich Krupp AG BRD diesel engine without restriction 12.03.1964 Daimler-Benz AG BRD diesel engine without restriction15.04.1964 S.p.A Alfa Romeo IT gasoline engine 50-300 PS or Passenger car17.02.1965 Rolls-Royce Motors Ltd. GB diesel and hybrid engines 100-850 Ps 18.02.1965 IFA VEB DDR gasoline engine 0.5-25 PS and 50-150 PS02.03.1965 Dr.Ing. h.c. Porsche KG BRD gasoline engine 50-1000 Ps01.03.1966 Outboard Marine Corp. USA gasoline engine 50-400 Ps11.05.1967 Comotor S.A. L gasoline and diesel engine 40-200 PS12.09.1967 Graupner BRD 0,1-3 PS model engines28.08.1969 Savkel Ltd. IS gasoline 0.5-30 PS industrial engines01.10.1970 Nissan JP gasoline engines 80-120 Ps10.11.1970 General Motors USA everything, except aircraft engines24.11.1970 Suzuki JP gasoline engines 20-60 PS for motorcycle25.05.1971 Toyota JP gasoline engines 75-150 PS29.11.1971 Ford-Werke AG, Köln BRD gasoline engines 80-200 PS (1974 quit)25.07.1972 BSA Ltd. GB gasoline engines 35-60 PS for motorcycle 29.09.1972 Yamaha JP gasoline engines 20-80 PS for motorcycle04.10.1971 Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd. JP gasoline engines 20-80 PS for motorcycle 03.02.1973 American Motors (AMC) USA gasoline engines 20-200 PS Honors and awards Honorary doctorate degree from Technische Universität München, December 5, 1969. The Federation of German Engineers (VDI) Gold Medal, 1969. The Grand Federal Service Cross, Germany's highest civilian honor, 1970 The Franklin Medal, Philadelphia, 1971. The Bavarian Service Medal, 1973. The "Honour Citizen" of Lahr,1981, and the title of Professor in 1987. The Soichiro Honda Medal, 1987. Honorary citizenship of Lindau (declined) See also Wankel engine NSU Ro 80 Norton Commander motorcycle Citroën GS Birotor Mazda RX-7 Mazda RX-8 VAZ Aixro References External links Animated Engines, Wankel - Animations of Wankel and other engines, ie. steam, stirling, internal combustion. | Felix_Wankel |@lemmatized felix:1 heinrich:1 wankel:12 august:1 october:1 german:3 mechanical:1 engineer:2 inventor:1 engine:24 bear:1 lahr:2 germany:2 upper:1 rhine:1 valley:1 since:1 mother:1 widow:1 world:2 war:3 receive:1 university:1 education:1 even:1 apprenticeship:1 however:1 able:1 teach:1 technical:1 subject:1 conceive:1 idea:1 career:1 type:1 ii:1 develop:1 seal:1 rotary:1 valve:1 air:1 force:1 aircraft:2 navy:1 torpedo:1 imprison:1 ally:1 month:1 laboratory:1 close:1 work:2 confiscate:1 prohibit:1 begin:1 development:1 nsu:3 motorenwerke:1 ag:8 lead:1 first:2 run:1 prototype:1 february:1 jubiläum:1 warten:1 aufs:1 wunder:1 auto:1 spiegel:1 online:1 nachrichten:1 design:1 license:1 curtiss:2 wright:2 new:1 jersey:1 mazda:4 japan:1 solve:1 chatter:1 mark:1 problem:1 successfully:1 use:2 several:1 generation:1 rx:4 series:1 coupés:1 sedan:1 include:1 especially:1 late:1 year:1 grant:1 honorary:3 doctorate:2 engineering:1 know:1 championing:1 animal:2 right:1 opposition:1 test:1 die:1 heidelberg:1 age:1 licensee:1 corp:2 usa:4 without:5 restriction:2 fichtel:1 sachs:1 brd:9 industrial:2 boat:1 yanmar:1 diesel:8 co:2 ltd:6 jp:7 gasoline:17 p:14 toyo:1 kogyo:1 ps:2 land:1 vehicle:1 klöckner:1 humboldt:1 deutz:1 daimler:2 benz:2 man:1 friedrich:1 krupp:1 alfa:1 romeo:1 passenger:1 roll:1 royce:1 motor:3 gb:2 hybrid:1 ifa:1 veb:1 ddr:1 dr:1 ing:1 h:1 c:1 porsche:1 kg:1 outboard:1 marine:1 comotor:1 l:1 graupner:1 model:1 savkel:1 nissan:1 engines:5 general:1 everything:1 except:1 suzuki:1 toyota:1 ford:1 werke:1 köln:1 quit:1 bsa:1 motorcycle:3 yamaha:1 kawasaki:1 heavy:1 industry:1 american:1 amc:1 honor:2 award:1 degree:1 technische:1 universität:1 münchen:1 december:1 federation:1 vdi:1 gold:1 medal:4 grand:1 federal:1 service:2 cross:1 high:1 civilian:1 franklin:1 philadelphia:1 bavarian:1 honour:1 citizen:1 title:1 professor:1 soichiro:1 honda:1 citizenship:1 lindau:1 decline:1 see:1 also:1 ro:1 norton:1 commander:1 citroën:1 g:1 birotor:1 vaz:1 aixro:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 animate:1 animation:1 ie:1 steam:1 stirling:1 internal:1 combustion:1 |@bigram wankel_engine:5 rotary_valve:1 honorary_doctorate:2 ag_brd:6 jp_gasoline:7 gasoline_diesel:2 diesel_engine:6 toyo_kogyo:1 daimler_benz:2 alfa_romeo:1 gasoline_engine:7 roll_royce:1 royce_motor:1 marine_corp:1 gasoline_engines:5 technische_universität:1 gold_medal:1 mazda_rx:2 rx_mazda:1 external_link:1 internal_combustion:1 |
1,917 | Economy_of_Eritrea | As of 2005, Eritrea is one of the poorest countries in the world. More than half of the population lives on less than US$1 per day, and about one-third lives in extreme poverty (defined as subsisting on less than 2,000 calories per day). Although the Eritrean government has stated its commitment to adoption of market-based economic policies in the long run, authorities are increasingly reliant on centrally planned economic management. In general, the government produces few consistent and reliable statistics on economic activity. Eritrea has experienced modest economic growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in Gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004 of 2.5% over 2003. However, worker remittances from abroad are estimated to account for 32 percent of gross domestic product. Eritrea country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (September 2005). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Economic history In the early 1950s, when Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia, it possessed a far more sophisticated urban and industrial infrastructure than Ethiopia. Industrialization in the years since then focused on Ethiopia, however, at the expense of further development in Eritrea. By the time of its independence from Ethiopia in 1993, Eritrea’s economy had been destroyed by war and was dependent on income from ports and its small agricultural base. The onset of conflict with Ethiopia, which lasted from 1998 to 2000, halted all bilateral trade, severely reducing port activity and income in Eritrea. According to World Bank estimates, Eritrea lost US$225 million worth of livestock and 55,000 homes during the war. GDP growth fell to zero in 1999 and to -1% in 2000. Planting of crops was prevented in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%. Damage to public buildings is estimated at US$24 million. The end of hostilities with Ethiopia was followed by consecutive years of drought, which together have crippled the agricultural base Gross domestic product (GDP) In 2003 GDP was estimated to have grown by 2 percent, a slight improvement over 2002, the last year for which firm figures are available, when GDP expanded by 1.8 percent in real terms to about US$600 million. Despite the growth, GDP per capita declined in 2003 by 10 percent in real terms, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Although in 2001 GDP grew by 10.2 percent, this increase came on the heels of 2000, when, as a consequence of war with Ethiopia, GDP contracted by a staggering 13.2 percent. Growth in 1999 was flat at 0.3 percent growth. Between 1994 and 1997, when relations with Ethiopia and the rest of the world were stable, GDP growth averaged 7 percent. In 2004, according to IMF estimates, GDP per capita in Eritrea was only US$130. Breakdowns of the Eritrean economy by sector are not readily available; however, according to some estimates, in 2003 services accounted for 62.4 percent of GDP, industry for 25.3 percent, and agriculture for the remaining 12.4 percent. Industries Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing In 2003 agriculture employed nearly 80 percent of the population but accounted for only 12.4 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in Eritrea. The agricultural sector is hampered by the absence of modern farming equipment and techniques, erratic rainfall, exhausted soils, and lack of financial services and investment. Major agricultural products are barley, beans and lintels, dairy products, meat, millet, skins, sorghum, teff, and wheat. The displacement of 1 million Eritreans as a result of the war with Ethiopia, multi-year drought, and the widespread presence of land mines all have played a role in the declining productivity of the agricultural sector. Currently, almost a quarter of the country’s most productive land remains unoccupied because of the lingering effects of the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia. In 2005 domestic food production is expected to provide for less than 20 percent of domestic demand and will leave between 1.7 and 2.2 million people dependent on humanitarian assistance to meet basic food needs. Farmers are largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and growth in this and other sectors is hampered by lack of rain and inadequate water storage. Erratic rainfall and the delayed demobilization of agriculturalists from the military kept cereal production well below normal, holding down growth in 2002-2004. Forestry is not a significant economic activity in Eritrea. Reliable figures on the extent and value of the fishing industry in Eritrea are difficult to obtain. However, Eritrea’s long coastline clearly offers the opportunity for significant expansion of the fishing industry from its current, largely artisanal, stage. Eritrea exports fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia, and there is hope that the construction of a new, jet-capable airport in Massawa, as well as rehabilitation of the port there, may support increased exports of high-value seafood. In 2002 exports were about 14,000 tons, but the maximum stable yield is thought to be nearly 80,000 tons. Italian and Dutch investors built a fish processing plant in 1998 that now exports 150 tons of frozen fish every month to markets in Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands. Tensions with Yemen over fishing rights in the Red Sea flared up in 1995 and again in 2002, and Eritrea’s difficult relations with other nations could hamper further development of the industry. Mining and minerals Eritrea’s substantial mineral deposits are largely unexplored as a consequence of the war with Ethiopia. According to the Eritrean government, artisanal mining in 1998 collected 573.4 kilograms of gold. Eritrea is estimated to have some 14,000 kilograms of total gold reserves. Western observers also have noted Eritrea’s excellent potential for quarrying ornamental marble and granite. As of 2001, some 10 mining companies (including Canadian and South African firms) had obtained licenses to prospect for different minerals in Eritrea. The government of Eritrea reportedly is in the process of conducting a geological survey for use by potential investors in the mining sector. The presence of hundreds of thousands of land mines in Eritrea, particularly along the border with Ethiopia, presents a serious impediment to future development of the mining sector. Industry and Manufacturing During the period of federation, industrial capacity largely shifted to Ethiopia, leaving the Eritrean industrial sector with outmoded capital equipment. In 2003 industry accounted for 25.3 percent of gross domestic product . Major products include processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, glass, leather goods, marble, textiles, and salt. Energy Households consume more than 80 percent of total energy production. Electricity production in 2001 was estimated at 220.5 million kilowatt-hours. Consumption for that year was estimated at 205.1-kilowatt hours. An 88-megawatt electricity plant funded by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Abu Dhabi was completed just south of Massawa in 2003, its completion delayed nearly three years by the war with Ethiopia. Annual consumption of petroleum in 2001 was estimated at 370,000 tons. Eritrea has no domestic petroleum production; the Eritrean Petroleum Corporation conducts purchases through international competitive tender. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, opportunities exist for both on- and offshore oil and natural gas exploration; however, these prospects have yet to come to fruition. The Eritrean government has expressed interest in developing alternative energy sources, including geothermal, solar, and wind power. Services In 2003 services accounted for 62.4 percent of gross domestic product. Financial services, the bulk of the services sector, are principally rendered by the National Bank of Eritrea (the nation’s central bank), the Commercial Bank of Eritrea, the Housing and Commerce Bank of Eritrea, the Agricultural and Industrial Bank of Eritrea, the Eritrean Investment and Development Bank, and the National Insurance Corporation of Eritrea, all majority owned by the government and ruling party. Tourism Eritrea’s poverty, the presence of large numbers of land mines, and the continued tensions that flare up between Eritrea and its neighbors have deterred the development of a tourist industry in Eritrea. According to the World Tourism Organization, international tourism receipts in 2002 were only US$73 million (compared with US$730 million for Tanzania). Banking and Finance According to the International Monetary Fund, commercial banks in Eritrea—all government owned and operated—appear to be in compliance with prudent regulations. Although the commercial banking sector is largely profitable, mostly owing to income from foreign exchange transactions, the sector is burdened by a high proportion of non-performing loans. Core lending activities do not generate sufficient income to cover operating costs at most commercial banks. Labor Agriculture employs about 80 percent of the population in Eritrea, and the remaining 20 percent are employed in industry and services. Although information is scarce, unemployment is reported to be high. Currency, exchange rate, and inflation The official currency is the Eritrean nakfa (ERN), introduced in November 1997. In early 2005, likely in an effort to increase foreign capital reserves, the Eritrean government decreed that all transactions in Eritrea must be conducted in nakfa. In April it became illegal for individuals to hold and exchange foreign currency. As of January 1, 2005, the government set the foreign exchange rate at US$1=ERN15. Inflation continues to be a problem in Eritrea, particularly as years of drought push grain prices higher and defense expenditures remain high. The International Monetary Fund estimates that in 2003 (the most recent year for which figures are available) average inflation reached 23 percent. Government Budget Eritrea does not publish a budget, making its fiscal condition difficult to assess. According to the International Monetary Fund, the overall fiscal deficit in 2003 was 17 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Government expenditures for that year were estimated to be US$375 million, with revenues of only US$235.7 million. In 2002 the fiscal deficit was 32 percent of GDP. Current expenditures continue to exceed budgeted spending, particularly in defense and other discretionary expenditures. Monetary policy remains subservient to the financing demands of the government, and debt is unsustainably high. This situation is not likely to change until demobilization of the military occurs. Foreign economic relations China, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany are aggressively pursuing market opportunities in Eritrea. There is growing interest in U.S. products and services in Eritrea, although U.S. investment in Eritrea is still small. In 2002 Eritrea imported goods worth US$533 million, including food, military matériel, fuel, manufactured goods, machinery, and transportation equipment. Eritrea’s main suppliers were the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Italy, Germany, and Belgium. In January 2005, all imports by private businesses and individuals were temporarily suspended because of the country’s shortfall in foreign currency. In 2002 exports from Eritrea were valued at US$52 million, and the bulk were skins, meat, live sheep and cattle, and gum arabic. The major markets for Eritrean goods were Sudan, followed by Italy, Djibouti, and Germany. More recently, fish, flowers, salt, and textiles have joined the list of exports, and Sudan is no longer a major trading partner. In 2002 imports worth US$533 million far exceeded exports at US$52 million. Asmara’s poor relations with neighboring countries have had a profoundly negative impact on the economy, one reason for the dire balance of payments situation. Exports declined significantly during the border conflict with Ethiopia, a decline exacerbated by a subsequent break in trade relations with Sudan. At the same time, imports—mostly of food aid, manufactures, and transportation equipment—continue to rise, and foreign reserves have declined to precarious levels. According to the International Monetary Fund, in 2003 foreign reserves were just US$17.2 million, sufficient to cover only two weeks of imports. The balance of payments in 2000 was negative US$44.7 million; by 2003 it had improved to negative US$16.4 million. Remittances from Eritreans abroad and foreign aid form a significant portion of Eritrea’s income. Of the two, remittances far exceed foreign aid and are estimated to have reached US$400 million per year in 1999, the last year for which figures are available. In January 2005, the government halted all imports by businesses and the private sector because of the country’s shortfall in foreign currency. In 1997 external debt totaled US$75.5 million. By 2001, that figure had grown to US$409.6 million. Foreign investment, although ostensibly favored by the Eritrean government, is nonetheless hindered by government regulations that seek to protect domestic industries from foreign competition and by a generally unfavorable investment climate. Major foreign investors in Eritrea include China, South Korea, Italy, South Africa, and Germany, as well as the World Bank. In 1998 net official development assistance was US$135.8 million; in 2002 it reached US$217.6 million. The government prefers private-sector investment to official aid programs, and its relations with aid-dispensing nations and international institutions have often been difficult. References See also Eritrea Banking in Eritrea External links IMF Executive Board Concludes Consultation with Eritrea February 2005 | Economy_of_Eritrea |@lemmatized eritrea:47 one:3 poor:2 country:6 world:5 half:1 population:3 live:2 less:3 u:25 per:5 day:2 third:1 life:1 extreme:1 poverty:2 define:1 subsist:1 calorie:1 although:6 eritrean:13 government:16 state:1 commitment:1 adoption:1 market:5 base:3 economic:7 policy:2 long:2 run:1 authority:1 increasingly:1 reliant:1 centrally:1 plan:1 management:1 general:1 produce:1 consistent:1 reliable:2 statistic:1 activity:4 experience:1 modest:1 growth:8 recent:2 year:12 indicate:1 improvement:2 gross:7 domestic:11 product:12 gdp:14 however:5 worker:1 remittance:3 abroad:2 estimate:13 account:5 percent:22 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 september:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:2 public:2 domain:1 history:1 early:2 award:1 ethiopia:15 possess:1 far:4 sophisticated:1 urban:1 industrial:4 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1,918 | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FO_-_Q | symbols - B -- C - D -- E - H -- I - K -- L - N -- O - Q -- R - S -- T - W -- X - Z -- FOLDOC Status Page O O2 Oaklisp OAP OATH Ob- OBDC OBE Oberon DONE Oberon-2 Oberon-V Obfuscated C Contest DONE obi-wan error OBJ OBJ0 OBJ2 OBJ3 object ObjectBroker ObjectCenter Object CHILL object code Object Compatibility Standard Object Database Management Group DONE Object Data Management Group (see above) Objecteering object identifier Objectionable-C Objective C DONE Objective CAML Objective PASCAL Object Linking and Embedding Object Lisp ObjectLOGO Object Management Group Object management system Object Modelling Technique Object Oberon object-orientation object-oriented object-oriented analysis object-oriented database DONE object-oriented design Object-Oriented Fortran object-oriented language Object-Oriented Pascal object-oriented programming object-oriented programming language Object-oriented SQL Object-Oriented Turing ObjectPAL Object Pascal Object Request Broker Object Role Modeling Object Value Objectworks Object Z Objlog OBJT ObjVlisp ObjVProlog Obliq oblique stroke Oblog OBSCURE observational equivalence Oc OC-12 OC-3 OC-48 OCAL occam occam 2 Occam's Razor occlude occurs check OCL OCLC OC-n OCODE OCP OCR OCS octal octal forty Octave octet octothorpe OCX OD390 ODA ODBC ODC Ode ODI ODIF ODMA ODMG ODP ODSA ODT OEM off-by-one error Office Office By Example Office Workstations Limited off-line off-line world off-side rule off the trolley ogg (done) OHCI Ohm ohnosecond OIC OID -oid OIL OLAP OLC OLDAS old fart old talk Old Testament OLE OLE custom controls OLGA Olivetti O-Logic OLTP OLWM om OMA Omega Omega-algebraic Omega test OMF OMG OMNICODE OMNIFAX OMNITAB OMR OMS OMT OMTool ONC Ondine one-banana problem one-line fix one-liner wars ones complement One-Time Password One Time Programmable Read-Only Memory one-way function one-way hash function on-line On-Line Analytical Processing Online Computer Library Center, Inc. On-Line Computer system Online Media Online Public Access Catalog On-Line Transaction Processing Ontic onto ontology OnX OO OOA OOD OODB DONE OODBMS DONE OOF OOGL OOP OOPL OOPS OOPSLA OOSD OOZE op OPAC Opal op code open open box testing OpenBSD NO IMPORT insubstantial open/closed principle open-collar worker Open DataBase Connectivity Open Data-link Interface Open DeathTrap Open Desktop Open Distributed Processing Open Distributed System Architecture OpenDoc Open Document Architecture Open Document Interchange Format Open Document Management API OpenGL DONE Open Graphics Library DONE OpenInsight Open Look Open Network Computing Open Prolog Open Scripting Architecture Open Shortest-Path First Open Shortest-Path First Interior Gateway Protocol Open Software Foundation open source NO IMPORT insubstantial Open Source Definition Open Source Initiative Open source license OpenStep DONE open switch Open Systems Interconnect Open Systems Interconnection Open Telecom Platform Open Trading Protocol OpenTransport Open University OpenVMS OpenWindows operand operating system Operating System/360 Operating System/Multiprogramming of Fixed Tasks operational database operational requirements operational semantics operational test and evaluation operational testing operation code operator operator overloading Opportunity Management System OPS OPS5 OPS83 Optical Carrier 12 Optical Carrier 3 Optical Carrier 48 Optical Carrier n Optical Character Recognition optical diff optical fiber optical fibre optical grep Optical Mark Reader optical mouse NO IMPORT insubstantial Optical Time Domain Reflectometer Optical Time Domain Reflectometry optimal optimise NO IMPORT insubstantial optimising compiler NO IMPORT insubstantial optimism optimize NO IMPORT insubstantial option OPTRAN Opus OR Oracle 7 Oracle Card Oracle*CASE Oracle Co-operative Applications Oracle Corporation Oracle Rdb DONE Oracle Toolkit Orange Book ORB Orbit Orca Order Code Processor order-embedding ordering ordinal ordinate OREGANO O'Reilly and Associates org Organic Mode Orient84/K Original Equipment Manufacturer ORKID ORM orphaned i-node orphan process ORTHOCARTAN orthogonal orthogonal instruction set Orwell OS OS2 OS/2 OS/360 DONE OS/390 DONE OS-9 OSA OSA extension OSAX OSCAR OSD OSE OSF OSI OSI Model OSI Reference Model OSI-RM OSI seven layer model O'small OS/MFT OS/MVT OSP OSPF OSQL OSSL OS/VS1 OS/VS2 OT OTDR OT&E OTI OTOH OTP OTPROM OTT Ottawa Euclid Ousterhout, John K. Ousterhout's dichotomy Ousterhout's fallacy Ousterhout's false dichotomy outer join outline font out-of-band DONE output output device Outside Awareness Port outside-in testing outsourcing overclocking Overdrive overflow bit overflow pdl overhead overlay overloading overriding overrun overrun screw overuse strain injury OWHY OWL Owl Ox Oz oz Oz-Email P+ P1754 p2c P3L P4 P6 pa PABX PACE Packard Bell Electronics, Inc. packed decimal Done Packed Encoding Rules packet Packet Assembler/Disassembler packet driver Packet in Plastic Grid Array Packet InterNet Groper packet radio packet sniffer packet-switched packet switching Packet Switch Node packet writing PackIt PACT I PACTOLUS PAD padded cell Paddle PAGE page paged Page Description Language Paged Memory Management Unit page fault page in page mode Page Mode DRAM Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory page out pager paging PaiLisp pain in the net Paintbrush PAISley PAL Palace palette palmtop Palo Alto Research Center Palo Alto Research Centre PAM Pam Pandora panic PANON PANS Pansophic Pantone PAP (computer) Paper Feed Control Character papermail paper-net paraconsistent probability PARADE PARADIGM PLUS Paradigms of AI Programming Paradise Paradox paradox Paradox Application Language Paragon Paralation Paralation C Paralation LISP ParAlfl Parallaxis Parallel C parallel computer parallel computing Parallel FORTH Parallel Fortran Parallel Haskell parallelism Parallel Pascal parallel port DONE Parallel Presence Detect parallel processing parallel processor parallel random access machine parallel reduction Parallel SML Parallel Sysplex Parallel Virtual Machine param parameter parameter RAM parametric polymorphism paraML paranoid programming ParaSoft Corp Parasol PARC parent parentheses parent message parent process DONE Pari Paris parity parity bit parity error Parkinson's Law of Data Park-Miller Parlance Parlog Parlog++ parm PARMACS ParMod PARS PARSEC parser parser generator parsing Parsley Partial Differential Equation LANguage partial equivalence relation partial evaluation partial function partial key partially ordered set partial ordering Partial Response Maximum Likelihood partition PARTS @-party PARULEL Pascal Pascal- Pascal-80 Pascal+CSP Pascal-F Pascal-FC Pascal/L Pascal-Linda Pascal-m Pascal-P Pascal P4 Pascal Plus Pascal/R Pascal-S Pascal-SC pasos2 Pasqual PASRO PASSIM passive matrix display passphrase password Password Authentication Protocol paste pastie PAT patch patch pumpkin patch space PATCHY path path coverage testing pathname pathname separator pathological Path Pascal pathspec pattern matching pattern recognition PAW PAW++ payware PB Cache PBD PBEM PBM PBX PC pC++ PC200 PCA P-CAD PC AT PCB PC Card PCCTS PCF PCI NO IMPORT insubstantial PCI bus NO IMPORT insubstantial PCI Configuration Utility PCI Mezzanine Card PCI slot NO IMPORT insubstantial PC-ism PCjr PCL PCLIPS PCM PCMCIA PCMIA PCN PC-NFS P-code PC Pursuit PC-RT PCS PC-Scheme PCS/Geneva PC-TALK III PCTE PCTE+ PC-TILES PCU PC-ware pcx PD PDA PDC PDC Prolog PDEL PDELAN PDES PDF PDFTeX PDH PDIL pdksh PDL PDL2 PDM PDP PDP-10 PDP-11 PDP-20 PDP-6 PDP-7 PDP Assembly Language PDS PDSA cycle PDS/MaGen PDU PE pe PeaceNet Peano arithmetic PEARL Pebble Pebbleman PEBCAK PEBKAC PECOS Pedagogic Algorithmic Language PEEK PEEL peephole optimisation peer peer-to-peer Pegasus PEIPA PEM PENCIL pencil and paper penis war Pentium Pentium 2 Pentium 3 Pentium II Pentium III Pentium II Xeon Pentium Pro peon PeopleSoft, Inc. Pepper PEPsy PER percent perceptron percussive maintenance perf perfect programmer syndrome PERFORM periodic group peripheral Peripheral Component Interconnect NO IMPORT insubstantial peripheral device Peripheral Technology Group Perl Perl5 perl-byacc Perl profiler Permanent Virtual Circuit Permanent Virtual Connection permission permutation perp perplexity persistence persistent Persistent Functional Language persistent memory Personal Communication Network Personal Communication Services personal computer Personal Computer Memory Card International Association Personal Digital Assistant Personal Identification Number Personalized Array Translator person of no account perspective PERT pessimal pessimising compiler peta- petabyte petaflops petdingo Peter Chen Petri net PETSCII DONE, inside the Commodore PET article PEX pf PFE PFL pfm pForth Pfortran pg PGA PGA370 PGP PH pH ph phacker phage phase phase alternating line Phase Encoded phase of the moon phase-wrapping PHIGS Philips Philips SCC68070 philosophy PHOCUS phone mail Phonetastic Phong shading phosphor fatigue photo CD Photoshop PHP phreaking DONE physical address physical addressing physical layer physical memory physical memory address Physics Analysis Workbench PI PIC pi-calculus Pick BASIC PICL pico- picosecond PICS PICT PicTeX Pictorial Janus picture picture element Picture Quality Scale PID pidgen+ PIE pif piggybacking pig, run like a PIGUI PIL PILE PIL/I PILOT pilot error Pilot European Image Processing Archive PIM PIN PINBOL pine pin feed ping ping-flood pinging ping-pong Pin Grid Array Pink-Shirt Book pin-out PIP pipe pipeline pipeline break Pipeline Burst Cache pipelined Pipelined Burst Cache pipeline stall pipelining PIPEX Ltd. piracy pirate PIRL pistol PIT pixel pixmap pizza box PJPEG pk PKE PKI PKLITE PKUNZIP PKWARE, Inc. PKZIP pl PL1 PL/1 PL-11 PL360 PL516 PL-6 PL.8 Pla PLACE PLAGO plaid screen PLAIN plain ASCII Plain Old Documentation Plain Old Telephone Service Plain Old Telephone System plain TeX plaintext PLAN .plan Plan 9 Planet plan file PLANIT Plankalkül PLANNER Planner-73 PLANS plants PLASMA Plastic Pin Grid Array platform Platform for Internet Content Selection Platform Independent Graphical User Interface platinum-iridium Platon PLAY play by electronic mail Playground Play, Inc. playpen Playstation playte PLC PL/C PL Cornell PLD plenum cable pleonasm plesiochronous Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Pleuk grammar development system Plexus PL/I PL/I-FORMAC pling plingnet PLisp PL/I SUBSET PL/I Subset G PLITS PLL PL/M DONE PLMK plokta plonk plotter PL/P PL/PROPHET PL/S PL/Seq PL/SQL PLTL plug and play plug and pray Pluggable Authentication Module plugh plug-in PLUM Plumber plumbing Plural EuLisp PLUS plus PLUSS ply PM pm pm2 P-mail PMBX PMC PML pn pnambic PNG PNP PNU-Prolog PoB POC POCAL pocket calculator pocket computer pod P.O.D. POE POFAC POGO point point-and-drool interface point-and-grunt interface pointed domain pointer pointer swizzling pointing device Point Of Contact point of presence point of sale terminal Point-to-Point Protocol Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol Poisson distributions poke Polka poll polling Poly polygon pusher POLYGOTH polylithism Poly/ML polymorphic polymorphic lambda-calculus polymorphism polynomial polynomial-time polynomial-time algorithm polyvinyl chloride POM Ponder Pong POOL POOL2 POOL-I POOL-T POP PoP pop POP++ POP-1 POP-10 Pop-11 POP-2 POP3 POP-9X POPART POPCORN pop-down menu POPJ Poplar POPLER POPLOG POPLOG ML POP server PopTalk porno pornography port portability portable Portable AIRTIME Portable Commodore 64 Portable Common Loops Portable Common Tool Environment Portable Document Format Portable Forth Environment Portable Network Graphics Portable Operating System Interface Portable Pixmap Portable Scheme Debugger Portable Scheme Interpreter Portable Standard Lisp Portable Tool Interface Port Address Translation PORTAL portal porting Port Language portmapper port number POS POSE poset POSIX POST post postcardware posted write-through DONE Postel, Jon postfix notation postfix syntax POSTGRES PostgreSQL posting postmaster post office problem Post Office Protocol post-order traversal POSTQUEL PostScript DONE Post, Telephone and Telegraph administration POSYBL potential difference POTS pound pound on pound sign POWER PowerBuilder power cycle DONE powerdomain PowerFuL power hit PowerMac Power Macintosh power-on self-test PowerOpen PowerOpen Association PowerOpen Environment PowerPC PowerPC 601 PowerPC G3 PowerPC Platform PowerPC Reference Platform Powerpoint power save mode powerset Powersoft Corporation PP96 PPC PPCP PPD PPGA PPL PPLambda PPM PPN PPP P-Prolog PPTP PQS PR pr pr0n PRA pragma PRAM Praxis Critical Systems pre ox PRE-CC PRECCX precedence lossage precharge precision predecessor predicate calculus predomain pre-emptive multitasking prefetch prefix DONE prefix notation prefix syntax pre-order pre-order traversal PREP prepaging prepend preprocessor presence detect presentation layer Presentation Manager prestidigitization PRESTO Pretty Amazing New Stuff Pretty Good Privacy pretty pictures prettyprint pretzel key preventive maintenance PRI primary cache primary key primary management domain Primary Rate Interface Prime Computer Primenet, Inc. prime number theorem prime time primitive Princeton University principal type PRINT printed circuit board printer Printer Access Protocol printer port printf PRINT I printing discussion print server Print Services Facility priority interrupt priority inversion priority queue priority scheduling PRISM Prisoner of Bill privacy Privacy Enhanced Mail Private Automatic Branch eXchange Private Branch Exchange Private Manual Branch eXchange privileged instruction PRL PRMD PRML DONE probabilistic probabilistic automaton Probe problem state PROC procedural language Procedural Language/SQL procedure process Process and Experiment Automation Real-Time Language Process Design Language 2 process ID process identifier DONE processor Processor Direct Slot processor farm processor time process scheduling process table PROCOL Procomm Procrustean string Prodigy ProDoc product production system Professional Graphics Adapter Professional Office System professional programming PROFILE profile PROFS PROGENY proglet program Program Composition Notation program counter Program Design Language Program Evaluation and Review Technique Program Information File Programmable Airline Reservation System Programmable Array Logic Programmable Logic Controller Programmable Read-Only Memory Programmed Data Processor PROgrammed Graph REwriting Systems programmer Programmer Brain Damage Programmer's Cheer Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System PROgrammer's Microapplication Language Programmer's Switch programming programming fluid programming language Programming Language/Cornell Programming Language/Systems Program Temporary Fix program transformation Prograph DONE PROGRES progressive coding Progressive JPEG progressive/sequential coding PROJECT project assurance Project Athena Project Guardian projection projective plane Project MAC project management project planning Prolog Prolog++ Prolog-2 Prolog-D-Linda Prolog-II Prolog-III Prolog-Linda Prolog/Mali PROM PROMAL Prometheus promiscuous mode PROM monitor pron Pronet Pronunciation proof PROOF/L proof theory propeller head propeller key Proposal Writing propositional calculus proprietary PROSE ProSet PROSPER Prospero ProTalk protected mode PROTEUS protocol protocol protocol analyser protocol converter Protocol Data Unit protocol layer protocol stack PROTON Protosynthex Prototyper prototyping provably difficult provably unsolvable provider provocative maintenance prowler proxy ARP proxy gateway Proxy Server proxy server PS PS/2 DONE PS 440 PSA PS-ALGOL pSather PSD PSDN pseudo Pseudocode pseudoprime pseudo-random number PseudoScheme pseudosuit pseudo-tty PSF PSI Psion Organiser PSK PSL PSL/PSA PSML PSN PSTN psychedelicware psyton pt P-TAC ptc PTF Pthreads PTI PTN Ptolemy PTT PUB public directory public domain public domain software public-key cryptography Public-Key Cryptography Standards public-key encryption Public Key Infrastructure Public Switched Telephone Network puff PUFFT pull pull-down list pull-down menu pull media Pulse Code Modulation pumpkin pumpkineer pumpking punch card punched card punt Purdue Compiler-Construction Tool Set Purdue University pure functional language pure lambda-calculus PureLink Pure Lisp purely functional language Purify Purple Book purple wire Purveyor push push-button Push Down List push media PVC PVM PV-WAVE pw py Python Q QA qa QA4 QAM Qbasic QBE QCA qdjanus QDOS QEMM386 QIC QL Qlambda QLISP QLOG QMW Q'NIAL QNX DONE QoS QPE QT-OBJECTS QTRADER quad Quadralay Corporation Quadrature Amplitude Modulation quadruple bucky quadruplex Quake Qualcomm quality quality assurance quality control quality of service Quality Systems & Software Ltd. quantifier Quantify quantum quantum bogodynamics quantum cell quantum cell wire quantum computer quantum computing quantum dot Quantum-dot Cellular Automata quarter Quarter Inch Cartridge Quay Financial Software QUEASY Queen Mary and Westfield College Queens Problem Queens Puzzle Queen's University QUEL query Query By Example query expansion ques Quest question mark queue QUICK quick-and-dirty QuickDraw Quicksilver Quicksort Quicktime quiesce quiesce time QUIKSCRIPT QUIKTRAN QUIN quine Quintec-Objects quintillion Quintus Prolog quote chapter and verse quotient Qu-Prolog Quty quux qux QWERTY QX See also : Free On-line Dictionary of Computing | Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing%2FO_-_Q |@lemmatized symbol:1 b:1 c:7 e:1 h:1 k:3 l:3 n:3 q:3 r:2 w:1 x:1 z:2 foldoc:1 status:1 page:13 oaklisp:1 oap:1 oath:1 ob:1 obdc:1 obe:1 oberon:4 v:1 obfuscate:1 contest:1 obi:1 wan:1 error:4 obj:1 object:32 objectbroker:1 objectcenter:1 chill:1 code:6 compatibility:1 standard:3 database:4 management:9 group:5 data:5 see:2 objecteering:1 identifier:2 objectionable:1 objective:3 caml:1 pascal:20 link:2 embed:2 lisp:4 objectlogo:1 system:20 modelling:1 technique:2 orientation:1 orient:11 analysis:2 design:3 fortran:2 language:20 program:18 programming:2 sql:3 turing:1 objectpal:1 request:1 broker:1 role:1 model:4 value:1 objectworks:1 objlog:1 objt:1 objvlisp:1 objvprolog:1 obliq:1 oblique:1 stroke:1 oblog:1 obscure:1 observational:1 equivalence:2 oc:5 ocal:1 occam:3 razor:1 occlude:1 occur:1 check:1 ocl:1 oclc:1 ocode:1 ocp:1 ocr:1 ocs:1 octal:2 forty:1 octave:1 octet:1 octothorpe:1 ocx:1 oda:1 odbc:1 odc:1 ode:1 odi:1 odif:1 odma:1 odmg:1 odp:1 odsa:1 odt:1 oem:1 one:9 office:6 example:2 workstation:1 limit:1 line:9 world:1 side:1 rule:2 trolley:1 ogg:1 ohci:1 ohm:1 ohnosecond:1 oic:1 oid:2 oil:1 olap:1 olc:1 oldas:1 old:6 fart:1 talk:2 testament:1 ole:2 custom:1 control:3 olga:1 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1,919 | Molotov_cocktail | The Molotov cocktail, also known as the petrol bomb, gasoline bomb, or Molotov bomb, or simply Molotov, is a generic name used for a variety of improvised incendiary weapons. They are frequently used by rioters due to their relatively easy mode of production. The bombs were derisively named after the then Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union, Vyacheslav Molotov, by the Finns during the Winter War. Mechanism In its simplest form, a Molotov cocktail is a glass bottle containing petrol fuel usually with a source of ignition such as a burning cloth wick held in place by the bottle's stopper. In action the fuse is lit and the bottle hurled at a target such as a vehicle or fortification. When the bottle smashes on impact, the ensuing cloud of petrol droplets and vapor are ignited, causing an immediate fireball followed by a raging fire as the remainder of the fuel is consumed. Other flammable liquids such as wood alcohol and turpentine have been used in place of petrol. Thickening agents such as tar, sugar, animal blood, XPS foam, egg whites, motor oil, rubber cement, and dish soap have been added to help the burning liquid adhere to the target and create clouds of thick choking smoke. Development and use in war The original design of Molotov cocktail produced by the Finnish alcohol monopoly ALKO during the Winter War of 1939–1940. The bottle has storm matches instead of a rag for a fuse. During World War II, the Soviet Union attacked Finland in November 1939, after the shelling of Mainila. The Finnish Army, facing Red Army tanks in what came to be known as the Winter War, borrowed an improvised incendiary device design from the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War. In that conflict, General Francisco Franco ordered Spanish Nationalists to use the weapon against Soviet T-26 tanks supporting the Spanish Republicans in a failed 1936 Soviet assault near Toledo, 30 km from Madrid. During the Winter War, the Soviet air force made extensive use of incendiaries and cluster bombs against Finnish troops and fortifications. When Soviet People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that the Soviet Union were not dropping bombs but rather delivering food to the starving Finns, the Finns started to call the air bombs Molotov bread baskets. * Soon they responded by attacking advancing tanks with "Molotov cocktails" which were "a drink to go with the food". At first, the term was used to describe only the burning mixture itself, but in practical use the term was soon applied to the combination of both the bottle and its contents. This Finnish use of the hand- or sling-thrown explosive against Soviet tanks was repeated in the subsequent Continuation War. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Alko corporation at its Rajamäki distillery, bundled with matches to light them. Production totalled 450,000 during the Winter War. The original design of Molotov cocktail was a mixture of ethanol, tar and gasoline in a 750 ml bottle. The bottle had two long pyrotechnic storm matches attached to either side. Before use one or both of the matches was lit; when the bottle broke on impact, the mixture ignited. The storm matches were found to be safer to use than a burning rag on the mouth of the bottle. A display of improvised munitions, including a Molotov cocktail, from the Warsaw Uprising, 1944 They also saw use during the Nomonhan Incident, a border conflict ostensibly between Mongolia and Manchukuo that saw heavy fighting between Japanese and Soviet forces. Short of anti-tank equipment, Japanese infantry attacked Soviet tanks with gasoline-filled bottles. Japanese infantrymen claimed that several hundred Soviet tanks had been destroyed through the use of Molotov cocktails, though Soviet loss records do not support this assessment. Coox, Alvin, 1990, Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939 The Polish home army developed a version which ignited on impact thus avoiding the need to light the fuse before throwing. Ignition was caused by a reaction between concentrated sulfuric acid mixed with the fuel and a mixture of potassium chlorate and sugar which was crystallized from solution onto a rag attached to the bottle. It should be noted while Molotov cocktails may be a psychologically effective method of disabling tanks and armoured vehicles by forcing the crew out or damaging external components, most modern tanks cannot be physically destroyed or rendered completely inoperable by Molotov cocktails; only "disabled". Most tanks and IFVs of the 21st century have specially designed nuclear, biological and chemical protective systems that make them internally air-tight and sealed; well protected from vapors, gases, and liquids. Modern tanks possess very thick composite armour consisting of layers of steel, ceramics, plastics and Kevlar, which makes them extremely difficult to destroy by Molotov cocktails alone, as these materials have melting points well above the burning temperature of gasoline. Damaging external components such as optical systems, antennas, externally-mounted weapons systems or ventilation ports and openings is however possible and can make a tank virtually "blind" or allow burning gasoline to seep into the vehicle, forcing the crew to at least open the hatches or perhaps abandon the vehicle. If thrown into a tank, it would, like most other grenades, kill the crew inside. Modern tanks of the U.S. and its NATO allies have onboard fire suppression systems. Should a fire start in an area occupied by the tank crew it will be automatically extinguished with Halon. Legality As incendiary devices, Molotov cocktails are illegal to manufacture or possess in many regions. Their use against people is typically covered under a variety of charges, including battery, actual or grievous bodily harm, manslaughter, attempted murder, and murder, depending upon their effect and upon local laws. Their use against property is usually covered under arson charges. In the United States, Molotov cocktails are considered "destructive devices" and regulated by the ATF. See also No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenade Molotov bread basket Improvised explosive device References External links A detailed technology of the Molotov cocktail History of the Molotov cocktail Soviet Molotov coctail photos | Molotov_cocktail |@lemmatized molotov:22 cocktail:15 also:3 know:2 petrol:4 bomb:7 gasoline:5 simply:1 generic:1 name:2 use:15 variety:2 improvised:3 incendiary:5 weapon:3 frequently:1 rioter:1 due:1 relatively:1 easy:1 mode:1 production:2 derisively:1 foreign:2 minister:1 soviet:13 union:3 vyacheslav:2 finn:3 winter:5 war:9 mechanism:1 simple:1 form:1 glass:1 bottle:12 contain:1 fuel:3 usually:2 source:1 ignition:2 burn:4 cloth:1 wick:1 hold:1 place:2 stopper:1 action:1 fuse:3 lit:1 hurl:1 target:2 vehicle:4 fortification:2 smash:1 impact:3 ensue:1 cloud:2 droplet:1 vapor:2 ignite:3 cause:2 immediate:1 fireball:1 follow:1 rag:4 fire:3 remainder:1 consume:1 flammable:1 liquid:3 wood:1 alcohol:2 turpentine:1 thicken:1 agent:1 tar:2 sugar:2 animal:1 blood:1 xps:1 foam:1 egg:1 white:1 motor:1 oil:1 rubber:1 cement:1 dish:1 soap:1 add:1 help:1 burning:2 adhere:1 create:1 thick:2 choke:1 smoke:1 development:1 original:2 design:4 produce:2 finnish:4 monopoly:1 alko:2 storm:3 match:5 instead:1 world:1 ii:1 attack:3 finland:1 november:1 shelling:1 mainila:1 army:3 face:1 red:1 tank:15 come:1 borrow:1 device:4 spanish:3 civil:1 conflict:2 general:1 francisco:1 franco:1 order:1 nationalist:1 support:2 republican:1 failed:1 assault:1 near:1 toledo:1 km:1 madrid:1 air:3 force:4 make:4 extensive:1 cluster:1 troop:1 people:2 commissar:1 affair:1 claim:2 radio:1 broadcast:1 drop:1 rather:1 deliver:1 food:2 starve:1 start:2 call:1 bread:2 basket:2 soon:2 respond:1 advance:1 drink:1 go:1 first:1 term:2 describe:1 mixture:4 practical:1 apply:1 combination:1 content:1 hand:1 sling:1 thrown:1 explosive:2 repeat:1 subsequent:1 continuation:1 eventually:1 mass:1 corporation:1 rajamäki:1 distillery:1 bundle:1 light:3 total:1 ethanol:1 ml:1 two:1 long:1 pyrotechnic:1 attach:2 either:1 side:1 one:1 break:1 find:1 safe:1 mouth:1 display:1 munition:1 include:2 warsaw:1 uprising:1 saw:2 nomonhan:2 incident:1 border:1 ostensibly:1 mongolia:1 manchukuo:1 heavy:1 fighting:1 japanese:3 short:1 anti:1 equipment:1 infantry:1 fill:1 infantryman:1 several:1 hundred:1 destroy:3 though:1 loss:1 record:1 assessment:1 coox:1 alvin:1 japan:1 russia:1 polish:1 home:1 develop:1 version:1 thus:1 avoid:1 need:1 throw:2 reaction:1 concentrate:1 sulfuric:1 acid:1 mixed:1 potassium:1 chlorate:1 crystallize:1 solution:1 onto:1 note:1 may:1 psychologically:1 effective:1 method:1 disable:2 armoured:1 crew:4 damage:1 external:3 component:2 modern:3 cannot:1 physically:1 render:1 completely:1 inoperable:1 ifvs:1 century:1 specially:1 nuclear:1 biological:1 chemical:1 protective:1 system:4 internally:1 tight:1 seal:1 well:2 protect:1 gas:1 possess:2 composite:1 armour:1 consisting:1 layer:1 steel:1 ceramic:1 plastic:1 kevlar:1 extremely:1 difficult:1 alone:1 material:1 melt:1 point:1 temperature:1 damaging:1 optical:1 antenna:1 externally:1 mounted:1 ventilation:1 port:1 opening:1 however:1 possible:1 virtually:1 blind:1 allow:1 seep:1 least:1 open:1 hatch:1 perhaps:1 abandon:1 would:1 like:1 grenade:2 kill:1 inside:1 u:1 nato:1 ally:1 onboard:1 suppression:1 area:1 occupy:1 automatically:1 extinguish:1 halon:1 legality:1 illegal:1 manufacture:1 many:1 region:1 typically:1 cover:2 charge:2 battery:1 actual:1 grievous:1 bodily:1 harm:1 manslaughter:1 attempt:1 murder:2 depend:1 upon:2 effect:1 local:1 law:1 property:1 arson:1 united:1 state:1 consider:1 destructive:1 regulate:1 atf:1 see:1 special:1 improvise:1 reference:1 link:1 detailed:1 technology:1 history:1 coctail:1 photo:1 |@bigram molotov_cocktail:15 soviet_union:3 vyacheslav_molotov:2 flammable_liquid:1 francisco_franco:1 foreign_affair:1 sulfuric_acid:1 potassium_chlorate:1 grievous_bodily:1 bodily_harm:1 external_link:1 |
1,920 | Demographics_of_Latvia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the historical territory of Latvia, including population density, ethnic background, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Background Latvia was settled by the Baltic tribes some three millennia ago. The territories along the eastern Baltic first came under foreign domination at the beginning of the 13th century, with the formal establishment of Riga in 1201 under the German Teutonic Knights. Latvia, in whole or in parts, remained under foreign rule for the next eight centuries, finding itself at the cross-roads of all the the regional superpowers of their day, including Denmark (the Danes held on lands around the Gulf of Riga), Sweden, and Russia, with southern (Courland) Latvia being at one time a vassal to Poland-Lithuania as well as Latgale falling directly under Poland-Lithuania rule. Through all this time, Latvia remained largely under Baltic German hegemony, with Baltic Germans comprising the largest land-owners, a situation which did not change until Latvia's independence. Historically, Latvia has had significant German, Russian, Jewish and Polish minorities. The majority (roughly two thirds) of Latvians, under Swedish influences, adopted Lutheranism, while the minority (the remaining third) of Latvians under Poland-Lithuania, Latgale in particular, adopted Catholicism. Aglona, in Latgale, has been the site of annual Catholic pilgrimage for centuries, even through to today. Historical shifts In 1897, the first official census in this area indicated that Latvians formed 68.3 % of the total population of 1.93 million; Russians accounted for 12%, Jews for 7.4 %, Germans for 6.2 %, and Poles for 3.4 %. The remainder were Lithuanians, Estonians, Gypsies, and various other nationalities. The demographics shifted dramatically in the 20th century due to the world wars, the repatriation of the Baltic Germans, the Holocaust, and occupation by the Soviet Union. Today, only the Russian minority, which has tripled in numbers since 1935, remains important. The share of ethnic Latvians grew from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 80% (1,508,800), after human loss in WWII and human deportation and other repressive measures, dramatically fell to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989. In 2005, there were even fewer Latvians than in 1989, though their share of the population was larger - 1,357,099 (58.8% of the inhabitants). People who arrived in Latvia during the Soviet era, and their descendants born before 21 August 1991, have to pass naturalisation process to receive Latvian citizenship. Children born to residents after the restoration of independence in 1991 automatically receive citizenship. However, if both parents are "stateless," then the parents must take the extra step of choosing Latvian citizenship for their child—who is automatically entitled, but for whom citizenship is not automatic (neither granted nor imposed). Over 100,000 persons have been naturalized as Latvian citizens in recent years, but 392,816 persons (278, 213 of them ethnic Russians) live in Latvia with aliens' passports. Large numbers of Russians, as well some Ukrainians and Belarussians remained in Latvia after the fall of the Soviet Union. Latvians and Livonians, the indigenous peoples of Latvia, are now 60% of the population. Livonians are the other indigenous ethnic group, with about 100 of them remaining. Some Latgalians consider themselves as a group separate from Latvians but the predominant view is that Latgallians are a distinctive subgroup of Latvians. According to rankings provided by the: United states Census Bureau - International Data Base (IDB) - Country Rankings, Latvia is estimated to have a population of 1,544,000 in the year 2050. Polish minority in Latvia forms numbers about 60,000-75,000 and forms about 2.5% of Latvian population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Latvia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following data are estimates by July, 2008, obtained from the CIA World Factbook. Population 2,245,423 Age structure 0-14 years: 13.4% (male 154,077; female 146,825) 15-64 years: 69.7% (male 760,976; female 803,106) 65 years and over: 16.9% (male 124,658; female 255,781) (2008 est.) Population growth rate -0.629% (2008 est.) Birth rate 9.62 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 13.63 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate -2.29 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.48 male(s)/female total population: 0.86 male(s)/female (2004 est.) Infant mortality rate 8.96 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 71.88 years male: 66.68 years female: 77.35 years (2008 est.) Total fertility rate 1.29 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Latvian(s) (archaic: Lett(s)) adjective: Latvian (archaic: Lettish) Ethnic groups Latvians 59.2%, Russians 28.0%, Belarusians 3.7%, Ukrainians 2.5%, Poles 2.4%, Lithuanians 1.3%, other 2.9% (2008) Religions Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99.8% male: 99.8% female: 99.8% (2004 est.) 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1,921 | Finno-Ugric_languages | Finno-Ugric () is a group of languages in the Uralic language family, comprising Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian and related languages. It comprises the Finno-Permic and Ugric language families. Status The term Finno-Ugric is somewhat controversial today , with many historical linguists feeling that the Finno-Permic languages are as distinct from the Ugric languages as they are from the Samoyedic languages spoken in Siberia. Thus it is felt that the early Finno-Permic and Ugric groups may have diffused from proto-Uralic at the same time as proto-Samoyedic. It was earlier thought that the geographically distant Samoyed had separated first, and the branching into Ugric and Finno-Permic took place later, but this does not have strong support in the linguistic data. However, some proponents of the Finno-Ugric grouping have provided extra-linguistic arguments by marshalling archaeological evidence of separate Finno-Ugric peoples originally living across a large swath of Northern Europe. The fact that the Finno-Ugric languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of the Indo-European family, gave some initial impetus to the Finno-Ugric grouping. Indeed, in the past, and occasionally today as well, the term Finno-Ugric was used for the entire Uralic language family. Origins Proto-Finno-Ugric is the reconstructed protolanguage for the Finno-Ugric languages, that is the ancestor of the Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, and the Ugric languages, whose best known example is Hungarian. The parent language is Proto-Uralic, from which Proto-Finno-Ugric and Proto-Samoyedic had split. However, this classification is not without problems; Proto-Finno-Ugric may also be interpreted as a geographical grouping of Proto-Uralic dialects, because the differences are few. It has been suggested that the area where Proto-Finno-Ugric was spoken reached between the Baltic Sea and the Ural mountains. The Saami languages belong to the Finno-Ugric family of languages. They can be traced back to a Finnic-Saami protolanguage, which is called Early-Proto-Finnic. According to Robert Austerlitz, Proto-Finno-Ugric had about seven cases; nominative, accusative, genitive, locative, allative, ablative, and adverbial. The birthplace of the Finno-Ugric languages cannot be located with certainty. Central and northern Russia west of the Ural mountains is generally assumed to be the most likely spot, perhaps around the 3rd millennium BC. This is suggested by the high intralinguistic family diversity around the middle Volga River where three highly distinct branches of the Uralic family, Mordvinic, Mari, and Permic are located. Also reconstructed plant and animal names (including spruce, Siberian pine, Siberian Fir, Siberian larch, brittle willow, elm, and hedgehog) are consistent with this localization. Reconstructed Proto-Finno-Ugric contains Iranic loanwords, notably the words for "honeybee", "honey" and "hatchet" (tappara in Finnish, tabar in Iranic), probably from the time when Iranic tribes (such as Scythians and Sarmatians) inhabited the Eurasian steppes. There is evidence that before the arrival of the Slavic speaking tribes to the area of modern-day Russia, speakers of Finno-Ugric languages may have been scattered across the whole area between the Urals and the Baltic Sea. This was the distribution of the Comb Ceramic Culture, a stone age culture which appears to have corresponded to the Finno-Ugric speaking populations, c. 4200 BC–c. 2000 BC. There have been attempts to relate the Finno-Ugric languages to the Indo-European languages, in the so called Indo-Uralic theories, but there are not enough similarities to link them with any certainty. Similar inflectional endings exist, but whether or not they are genetically related is not resolvable. A common lexicon not attestable to borrowing is thin, and no sound laws are established. A portion of the Baltic-Finnic lexicon is not shared with the remaining Finno-Ugric languages and may be due to a pre-Finnic substrate, which may coincide in part with the substrate of the Indo-European Baltic languages. As far as the Sami (Lappic) languages are concerned, a hypothesis has been advanced that the ancestors of the Sami originally spoke a different language, but adopted their current tongue under the pressure of their Finnic-speaking neighbours. The theory that the Finno-Ugric birthplace originally covered a very large area in Northern Europe has been supported more by archaeological and genetic data than by linguistic evidence. Notably, the controversial Finnish academic Kalevi Wiik has argued that Proto-Finno-Ugric was the original language in most of Northern and Central Europe, and that the earliest Finno-Ugric speakers and their languages originated in the territory of modern Ukraine (the so-called "Ukrainian refuge") during the last glacial period, when the whole of northern Europe was covered with ice. This hypothesis, however, has been rejected by nearly all experts in Finno-Ugric comparative linguistics; Wiik's model has been criticized for confusing genetic, archaeological and linguistic concepts, and some see the theory as unscientific. The controversy over the Finno-Ugric grouping is politically sensitive because the foreign rulers of Finland in the 18th and 19th centuries attempted to link the Finnish to the Sami people (supposed to be culturally inferior) through the similarity of their languages. Subsequently, with the independence of Finland, the Finno-Ugric theory grew in strength there. On the other hand, the Hungarian groups have sometimes claimed relations to the Altaic languages, particularly the Turkic language family. History The first mention of a Uralic people is in Tacitus' Germania, mentioning the Fenni (usually interpreted as referring to the Sami) and two other possibly Finno-Ugric tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria, the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection, but did not look into linguistic evidence. In 1671, Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm commented on the similarities of Lapp, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words in Finnish and Hungarian, while the German scholar Martin Vogel tried to establish a relationship between Finnish, Lapp and Hungarian. These two authors were thus the first to outline what was to become the classification of a Finno-Ugric family. In 1717, Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid (Collinder, 1965). In the same year, the German scholar Johann Georg von Eckhart (published in Leibniz' Collectanea Etymologica) for the first time proposed a relation to the Samoyedic languages. By 1770, all constituents of Finno-Ugric were known, almost 20 years before the traditional starting-point of Indo-European studies. Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Especially Hungarian intellectuals were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Ruhlen (1987) as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch". Still, in spite of the hostile climate, the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics suggested a relationship of Hungarian and Lapp (Sami) in 1770, and in 1799, the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date. At the beginning of the 19th century, research on Finno-Ugric was thus more advanced than Indo-European research. But the rise of Indo-European comparative linguistics absorbed so much attention and enthusiasm that Finno-Ugric linguistics was all but eclipsed in Europe; in Hungary, the only European country that would have had a vested interest in the family (Finland and Estonia being under Russian rule), the political climate was too hostile for the development of Uralic comparative linguistics. Some progress was made, however, culminating in the work of the German Jozsef Budenz, who for 20 years was the leading Finno-Ugric specialist in Hungary. Another late-19th-century contribution is that of Hungarian linguist Ignác Halász, who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s, and whose work is at the base of the wide acceptance of the Samoyed-Finno-Ugric relationship today. During the 1990s, linguists Kalevi Wiik, Janos Pusztay and Ago Künnap and historian Kyösti Julku announced a "breakthrough in Present-Day Uralistics", dating Proto-Finnic to 10,000 BC. The theory was almost entirely unsuccessful in the scientific community (cf. Merlijn de Smit, see external links). Structural features See also: Typology of Uralic languages All Finno-Ugric languages share structural features and basic vocabulary which find their origins in the hypothetical proto-Finno-Ugric language. Around 200 basic words in this language have been suggested, including word stems for concepts related to humans such as names for relatives and body parts. This common vocabulary includes, according to Lyle Campbell, at least 55 words related to fishing, 33 related to hunting and eating animals, 12 related to reindeer, 17 related to plant foods, 31 related to technology, 26 related to building, 11 related to clothing, 18 related to climate, 4 related to society, 11 related to religion, and 3 related to commerce. Most Finno-Ugric languages typologically belong to the agglutinative languages, which share common features like inflection by adding suffixes (instead of prepositions as in English) and syntactic coordination of suffixes. Furthermore, Finno-Ugric languages lack grammatical gender and thus use one pronoun for both he and she; for example, hän in Finnish, tämä in Votic, tema in Estonian, ő in Hungarian. In many Finno-Ugric languages possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns, such as my and your, are rarely used. Speakers suggest possession via declension. In those that have developed further towards fusional languages, the genitive of the personal pronoun is used to express possession. Examples: Estonian mu koer 'my dog' , colloquial Finnish mun koira, Northern Sami mu beana 'my dog' (literally 'dog of me') or beatnagan 'my dog' (literally 'dog-my'). In others, a pronominal suffix is used, optionally together with the genitive case of a pronoun: thus book Finnish (minun) koirani, 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog-my'), from koira "dog". Similarly, Hungarian, lacking possessive pronouns in their own right, uses possessive noun suffixes, optionally together with pronouns; cf. 'the dog' = a kutya vs. 'my dog' = az én kutyám (literally, 'the I dog-my') or simply a kutyám (literally, 'the dog-my'). Hungarian, however, does have independent possessive pronouns; for example, enyém 'mine', tiéd 'yours', etc. These are also declined; for example, nom. enyém, acc. enyémet, dat. enyémnek, etc. Classification Geographical span of Uralic languages. Nenets, Enets, Selkup and Nganasan are Samoyedic, the rest are Finno-Ugric. The Finno-Ugric subfamily of the Uralic languages has the following members: Ugric (Ugrian) Hungarian Hungarian Ob Ugric (Ob Ugrian) Khanty (Ostyak) Mansi (Vogul) Finno-Permic (Permian-Finnic) Permic (Permian) Komi (Komi-Zyrian, Zyrian) Komi-Permyak Udmurt (Votyak) Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari, Volga-Finnic) Mari (Cheremisic) Mari (Cheremis) Mordvinic (Mordvin, Mordvinian, Mordva) Erzya Moksha Extinct Finno-Volgaic languages of uncertain position Merya (position uncertain, extinct) Meshcherian (position uncertain, extinct) Muromian (position uncertain, extinct) Finno-Lappic (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic) Sami (Samic, Saamic, Lappic, Lappish) Western Sami (Western Samic) Southern Sami Ume Sami — Nearly extinct Lule Sami Pite Sami — Nearly extinct Northern Sami Eastern Sami (Eastern Samic) Kemi Sami — Extinct Inari Sami Akkala Sami — Extinct Kildin Sami Skolt Sami Ter Sami — Nearly extinct Baltic-Finnic (Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic, Finnic, Fennic) Estonian South Estonian (including Mulgi and Tartu) Võro (Voro, Võru, Voru; including Seto or Setu) Finnish - including Meänkieli (also known as Tornedalen or Tornedalian Finnish), Kven and Ingrian Finnish Ingrian (Izhorian) - Nearly extinct Karelian Karelian proper Lude (Ludic, Ludian) Olonets Karelian (Livvi, Aunus, Aunus Karelian, Olonetsian) Livonian (Liv) — Nearly extinct Veps (Vepsian) Votic (Votian, Vod) — Nearly extinct Disputes The classification of Finno-Ugric within Uralic, and of Finno-Permic and Ugric within Finno-Ugric, is accepted by practically all scholars. Dispute is at present largely confined to the Finno-Permic family, surrounding different proposals for the arrangement of its subgroups and regarding the validity of the Volgaic group. The term Volgaic denoted a branch believed to include the Mari and Mordvinic languages, but it has now become obsolete: research has shown that it was a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one. The Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than they are to the Mari languages. Another dispute surrounds the affinity of the Yukaghir languages, which is traditionally regarded as a language isolate, with some scholars proposing a strong affinity to Uralic (Collinder, 1965). The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is remote by some standards. With a time depth of only 3 or 4 thousand years, it is far younger than many major families such as Indo-European or Semitic, and about the same age as, for instance, the Eastern subfamily of Nilotic. But the grouping is still far from transparent — the absence of early records constitutes an obstacle to exact reconstruction not found in, for example, Indo-European or Semitic. While much has been speculatively deduced about the Finno-Ugric Urheimat, little is certain, and, of course, the relatedness of the languages does not necessarily imply any racial or cultural unity of the peoples speaking them. Linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric group (especially Angela Marcantonio, see References) believe that Ugric and Finno-Permic are more distantly related than proponents advertise, and possibly no closer than, for example, the Turkic and Ugric groups. These linguists propose a Ural-Altaic supergroup and deny the validity of the Uralic node within this grouping. Such proposals do not contest the ultimate relatedness of Finno-Ugric, but rather try to include more languages (on even more tenuous grounds) into the family. However, this approach has been rejected by nearly all specialists in Uralic linguistics (for critical reviews, see e.g. Aikio 2003; Bakró-Nagy 2003, 2005; De Smit 2003; Georg 2003; Kallio 2004; Laakso 2004; Saarikivi 2004). Other unorthodox comparisons have been advanced such as Uralo-Dravidian, Finno-Basque, Hungaro-Sumerian. These are considered spurious by specialists. For the most part these belong to the field of pseudoscientific language comparison rather than scientific comparative linguistics. Common vocabulary This is a small sample of cognates in basic vocabulary across Uralic, illustrating the sound laws (based on the Encyclopædia Britannica and Hakkinen 1979). Note that in general two cognates do not have the same meaning; they merely have the same origin. Thus, the English word in each row should be regarded as an approximation of the original meaning, not a translation of the other words. According to Estonian philologist Mall Hellam, the only entire sentence that is mutually intelligible is, "The living fish swims in water" (even though it isn't really mutually intelligible ). English Finnish Estonian North Sami Inari Sami Mari Komi Khanty Hungarian Finno-Ugric reconstruction heart sydän, sydäm- süda, südam- - - šüm śələm səm szív *śiδä(-m)/*śüδä(-m) lap syli süli salla, sala solla šəl syl jöl öl *süle/*sile vein suoni soon suotna, suona suona šön sən jan ín 'sinew' *sōne/*sene go mennä, men- minna, min- mannat moonnađ mije- mun- mən- menni, megy *mene- fish kala kala guolli, guoli kyeli kol kul hal hal *kala hand käsi, käte-gen. käden, part. kättä käsi, kät-gen. käe, part. kätt giehta, gieđa kieta kit ki köt kéz *käte eye silmä silm čalbmi, čalmmi čalme šinča śin sem szem *śilmä one yksi, yhte-gen. yhden, part. yhtä üks, üht-gen. ühe, part. üht(e) okta, ovtta ohta ikte ət'ik ĭt egy *ykte two kaksi, kahte-gen. kahden, part. kahta kaks, kaht-gen. kahe, part. kaht(e) guokte kyeh´ti kokət kyk kät kettő/két *kakta/*käktä three kolme kolm golbma kulma kumət kujim koləm három *kolme/*kulme ice jää jää jiekŋa, jieŋa jiena ij ji jöŋk jég *jäŋe louse täi täi dihkki tikke tij toj tögtəm tetű *täje (Orthographical notes: The hacek (š) denotes postalveolar articulation, while the accent (ś) denotes a secondary palatal articulation. The Finnish letter 'y' [y] represents the same phoneme (a rounded or centralized [i]) as the letter 'ü' in other languages. The voiced dental spirant [ð] is the origin of the standard Finnish 'd', which is realized differently in each dialect today. The same sound is marked with the letter đ in the Sami languages. The Sami 'č' is a voiceless postalveolar affricate [].) Numbers The numbers from 1 to 10 in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Livonian, North Sami, Erzya, Meadow Mari, Moksha, Mansi, Hungarian, and Proto-Finno-Ugric. Number Finnish Estonian Võro Livonian North Sami Inari Sami Erzya Meadow Mari Moksha Mansi Hungarian Proto-F-U 1 yksi üks ütś ikš okta ohta vejke ikte fkä akva egy *ykte 2 kaksi kaks katś kakš guokte kyeh´ti kavto kokət kaftə kityg kettő *kakte 3 kolme kolm kolm kuolm golbma kulma kolmo kumət kolmə hurum három, harm- *kolme 4 neljä neli nelli nēļa njeallje nelji ńiľe nələt nilä nila négy *neljä 5 viisi viis viiś vīž vihtta vitta veƭe wizət vetä at öt *vitte 6 kuusi kuus kuuś kūž guhtta kutta koto kuδət kotə hot hat *kutte 7 seitsemän seitse säidse seis čieža čiččam śiśem šəmət sisäm sat hét N/A 8 kahdeksan kaheksa katõsa kōdõks gávcci käävci kavkso kandaš(e) kafksə ńololov nyolc N/A 9 yhdeksän üheksa ütesä īdõks ovcci oovce vejkse indeš(e) veJksə ontolov kilenc N/A 10 kymmenen kümme kümme kim logi love kemeń lu keməń lov tíz N/A One reconstruction for numbers 8 and 9 is *kak+teksa '10–2' and *yk+teksa '10–1', where *teksa cf. deka is an Indo-European loan; notice that the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European. Finno-Ugric Swadesh lists 100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the Rosetta Project website: Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, Erzya. Notice that particularly the Finnish list is unreliable, because it contains several neologisms or formal words, for example, henkilö (from henki life + place suffix) instead of the more commonly used ihminen, which is a Baltic Finnic word. The Finnish list has also spelling errors suggesting it was compiled by a person who does not know Finnish. Peoples The relative numbers of Finnougric-speaking peoples Finno-Ugric is not an ethnic group, but rather a linguistic construct. Therefore it makes little sense to speak of "Finno-Ugric people" as a group apart from the languages they speak. The four largest ethnicities speaking Finno-Ugric languages are the Hungarians (15 million), Finns (6–7 million), Mordvins (1.2 million), and Estonians (1.1 million). Three (Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians) inhabit independent nation-states, Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, while the Mordvins have an autonomous Mordovian Republic within Russia. The traditional area of the indigenous Sámi people is in Northern Fenno-Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula in Northwest Russia and is known as Sápmi. Some other Finno-Ugric peoples have autonomous republics in Russia: Karelians (Republic of Karelia), Komi (Komi Republic), Udmurts (Udmurt Republic), Mari (Mari El Republic), and Mordvins (Moksha and Erzya; Republic of Mordovia). Khanty and Mansi peoples live in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug of Russia, while Komi-Permyaks live in Komi-Permyak Okrug, which formerly was an autonomous okrug of Russia, but today is a territory with special status within Perm Krai. Population Genetics The linguistic reconstruction of the Finno-Ugric language family has lead to the postulation not just of an ancient Proto–Finno-Ugric people, but that the modern Finno-Ugric–speaking peoples are ethnically related. http://books.google.com/books?id=7rmgP02a_mkC&pg=PR7&ots=BX_ZloC9mA&dq=proff+Hungarian&sig=tg85J7fSIQSnBEMkfYH1g_ujmHY Such hypotheses are based on the assumption that heredity can be traced though linguistic relatedness Where do Finns come from? . Such theories are rarely accepted by the modern scientific community: It has not been shown that any contemporary group originated from one single ancient people, barring the earliest humans. Like perhaps all populations, individual groups of Finno-Ugric speakers have a diverse array of cultural, environmental, and genetic influences. However, modern genetic studies have shown that the Y-chromosome haplogroup N3, and sometimes N2, having branched from haplogroup N, which, itself, probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years before present from father haplogroup NO (haplogroup O being the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup in Southeast Asia), is almost specific, though certainly not restricted, to Uralic or Finno-Ugric speaking populations, especially as high frequency or primary paternal haplogroup. European Journal of Human Genetics - Abstract of article: A counter-clockwise northern route of the Y-chromosome haplogroup N from Southeast Asia towards Europe http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v74n4/40783/40783.web.pdf?erFrom=-1818203271335085617Guest Some of the ethnicities speaking Finno-Ugric languages are: (Finnic) Besermyan Burtas Chud Finns Estonians Karelians Komi Komi-Permyaks Udmurts Mari Merya people Meshchera people Mordvins (Moksha and Erzya ) Muromian people Sami (Lapps) Setos Izhorians Livonians Veps Votes (Ugric) Hungarians Székely Csángó Magyarab Jász Khanty Mansi Nenets people Gallery See also Finnic peoples Ugric peoples Volga Finns Comb Ceramic culture Uralic languages Uralo-Siberian languages Old Hungarian script Old Permic script References Further reading Aikio, Ante (2003). Angela Marcantonio, The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. (Book review.) In: Word - Journal of the International Linguistic Association 3/2003: 401–412. Bakró-Nagy Marianne 2003. Az írástudók felelőssége. Angela Marcantonio, The Uralic Language Family. Facts, myths and statistics. In: Nyelvtudományi Közlemények 100: 44–62. (Downloadable: ) Bakró-Nagy Marianne 2005. The responsibility of literati. Angela Marcantonio, The Uralic Language Family. Facts, myths and statistics. In: Lingua 115: 1053–1062. (Downloadable: ) Benkő, Loránd: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen (Etymological Dictionary of Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1992-1997., ISBN 963-05-6227-8. Collinder, Björn: Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary. Uppsala, 1955, ISBN 3-87118-187-0. Collinder, Björn: An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkely, California. Campbell, Lyle: Historical Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh University Press 1998. Csepregi Márta (ed.): Finnugor kalauz (Finno-Ugric Guide). Budapest: Panoráma, 1998., ISBN 963-243-862-0. De Smit, Merlijn 2003: A. Marcantonio: The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics (review). In: Linguistica Uralica 2003, 57-67. Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed.: Languages of the World: Uralic languages. Chicago, 1990. Georg, Stefan 2003. Rezension: A. Marcantonio: The Uralic Language Family. Facts, Myths and Statistics. In: Finnisch-Ugrische Mitteilungen Band 26/27. Häkkinen, Kaisa: Suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten etymologisen tutkimuksen asemasta ja ongelmista (About the situation and problems of the etymological research of the Finno-Ugric languages) (1979), in Nykysuomen rakenne ja kehitys (Structure and development of modern Finnish) volume 2, (NRJK 2) Pieksämäki 1984, ISBN 951-717-360-1. Kallio, Petri 2004. (Review:) The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths, and Statistics (Angela Marcantonio). In: Anthropological Linguistics Vol. 46, no. 4: 486-489. Laakso, Johanna: Karhunkieli. Pyyhkäisyjä suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten tutkimukseen (A Bear Tongue. Views on the Research of the Finno-Ugric Languages). Helsinki: SKS, 1999. Laakso, Johanna (ed.): Uralilaiset kansat (Uralic Peoples). Porvoo - Helsinki - Juva: WSOY, 1992, ISBN 951-0-16485-2. Laakso, Johanna 2004. Sprachwissenschaftliche Spiegelfechterei (Angela Marcantonio: The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics). In: Finnisch-ugrische Forschungen 58: 296-307. Marcantonio, Angela: What Is the Linguistic Evidence to Support the Uralic Theory or Theories? - In Linguistica Uralica 40, 1, pp 40–45, 2004. Marcantonio, Angela: The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. 2003. Marcantonio, Angela, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni: The "Ugric-Turkic Battle": A Critical Review. In Linguistica Uralica 37, 2, pp 81–102, 2001. Online version. Ruhlen, Merritt, A Guide to the World's languages, Stanford, California (1987), pp. 64–71. Saarikivi, Janne 2004. Review of: Angela Marcantonio. Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. In: Journal of Linguistics 1/2004. p. 187-191. Sammallahti, Pekka: Historical phonology of the Uralic languages. - In: Denis Sinor (ed.), The Uralic languages. Description, history and foreign influences. Leiden - New York - København - Köln: Brill, 1998. Sammallahti, Pekka, Matti Morottaja: Säämi - suoma - säämi škovlasänikirje (Inari Sami - Finnish - Inari Sami School Dictionary). Helsset/Helsinki: Ruovttueatnan gielaid dutkanguovddaš/Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus, 1983, ISBN 951-9475-36-2. Sammallahti, Pekka: Sámi - suoma - sámi sátnegirji (Northern Sami - Finnish - Northern Sami Dictionary). Ohcejohka/Utsjoki: Girjegiisá, 1993, ISBN 951-8939-28-4. Sinor, Denis (ed.): Studies in Finno-Ugric Linguistics: In Honor of Alo Raun (Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series: Volume 131). Indiana Univ Research, 1977, ISBN 0-933070-00-4. Vikør, Lars S. (ed.): Fenno-Ugric. In: The Nordic Languages. Their Status and Interrelations. Novus Press, pp. 62–74, 1993. Wiik, Kalevi: Eurooppalaisten juuret, Atena Kustannus Oy. Finland, 2002. (Languages of the Peoples in the USSR III. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Languages). (Moscow): (Nauka), 1966. A magyar szókészlet finnugor elemei. Etimológiai szótár (The Hungarian Vocabulary of Finno-Ugric Origin. Etymological Dictionary). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967-1978. External links Some Finno-Ugrian links A more comprehensive link collection FAQ about Finno-Ugrian Languages Linguistic Shadow-Boxing Johanna Laakso's book review of Angela Marcantonio's "The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics" Uralic Linguistics Vs. Voodoo Science! A collection of links about the "new paradigm" debate by Merlijn de Smit Numbers in Asian languages Counting to ten in a variety of languages Ugri.info Finno-Ugric peoples infobase Finno-Ugric Electronic Library by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in Syktyvkar, Komi Republic (interface in Russian and English, texts in Mari, Komi, Udmurt, Erzya and Moksha languages): http://library.finugor.ru/ The Finno-Ugrics:The dying fish swims in water The Economist, December 20, 2005 "Ethnic origins of Finno-Ugric nations and modern Finno-Ugric nationalism in the Russian Federation" by Konstantin Zamyatin | Finno-Ugric_languages |@lemmatized finno:93 ugric:89 group:12 language:80 uralic:37 family:24 comprise:2 finnish:27 estonian:15 hungarian:26 related:1 permic:12 status:3 term:3 somewhat:1 controversial:2 today:5 many:3 historical:3 linguist:5 feel:1 distinct:2 samoyedic:7 speak:9 siberia:1 thus:6 felt:1 early:5 may:5 diffuse:1 proto:18 time:4 earlier:1 think:1 geographically:1 distant:1 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1,922 | Aldona_of_Lithuania | Aldona (baptized Ona or Anna; her pagan name Aldona is known only from the writings of Maciej Stryjkowski; ca. 1309 – May 26, 1339) was the Queen of Poland (1333–1339), and the Princess of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was the daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Biography Aldona married Casimir III of Poland, when he was 15 or 16 years old. The bride was probably of about the same age. The marriage took place on April 30 or October 16, 1325 and was a purely political maneuver to strengthen the first Polish–Lithuanian coalition against the Teutonic Knights. Casimir was seeking allies over the dispute of Pomerania with the Knights. Gediminas just underwent an unsuccessful attempt at Christianization of Lithuania. This coalition was a prelude to Union of Krewo in 1385 and Union of Lublin in 1569 that resulted in the new state, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The details of the agreement are not known; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish prisoners, numbering some 25,000. The importance of the marriage was attested by the fact that Casimir abandoned his earlier plans to marry Jutta of Bohemia. The alliance was put in practice when joint forces organized an attack against Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1326. However, the coalition was not strong and collapsed ca. 1330, but there is no evidence of fights between Poland and Lithuania while Aldona was alive. The marriage into the Lithuanian dynasty that ruled since ca. 1289 might have brought some legitimacy to Władysław I from the Piast dynasty who was crowned in 1320 replacing the Přemyslid dynasty. Aldona died suddenly at the end of May of 1339 and was buried in Kraków. Aldona was remembered for her piety and devotion to music. Everywhere she went, she took court musicians with her. It was even suggested by Jan Długosz that cymbals which were played in procession before her represented some pagan Lithuanian tradition. Rowell, C. S. Lithuania Ascending, 232 Her husband Casimir is known for his romantic affairs: after Aldona's death he married three more times. Aldona had two daughters, Cunigunde (died in 1357), who married Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, on January 1, 1345, and Elisabeth (died in 1361), who was married to Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania. Rowell, C. S. Lithuania Ascending, xxxvi Elisabeth's daughter, Elizabeth of Pomerania, was the fourth wife of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. References See also House of Gediminas – family tree of Aldona Gediminids | Aldona_of_Lithuania |@lemmatized aldona:9 baptize:1 ona:1 anna:1 pagan:2 name:1 know:4 writing:1 maciej:1 stryjkowski:1 ca:3 may:2 queen:1 poland:3 princess:1 grand:2 duchy:1 lithuania:6 daughter:3 gediminas:4 duke:2 biography:1 marry:5 casimir:4 iii:1 year:1 old:1 bride:1 probably:1 age:1 marriage:3 take:2 place:1 april:1 october:1 purely:1 political:1 maneuver:1 strengthen:1 first:1 polish:3 lithuanian:4 coalition:3 teutonic:1 knight:2 seek:1 ally:1 dispute:1 pomerania:3 underwent:1 unsuccessful:1 attempt:1 christianization:1 prelude:1 union:2 krewo:1 lublin:1 result:1 new:1 state:1 commonwealth:1 detail:1 agreement:1 however:2 release:1 prisoner:1 number:1 importance:1 attest:1 fact:1 abandon:1 early:1 plan:1 jutta:1 bohemia:1 alliance:1 put:1 practice:1 joint:1 force:1 organize:1 attack:1 margraviate:1 brandenburg:1 strong:1 collapsed:1 evidence:1 fight:1 alive:1 dynasty:3 rule:1 since:1 might:1 bring:1 legitimacy:1 władysław:1 piast:1 crown:1 replace:1 přemyslid:1 die:3 suddenly:1 end:1 bury:1 kraków:1 remember:1 piety:1 devotion:1 music:1 everywhere:1 go:1 court:1 musician:1 even:1 suggest:1 jan:1 długosz:1 cymbal:1 play:1 procession:1 represent:1 tradition:1 rowell:2 c:2 ascending:2 husband:1 romantic:1 affair:1 death:1 three:1 time:1 two:1 cunigunde:1 louis:2 vi:1 roman:3 son:1 iv:2 holy:2 emperor:2 january:1 elisabeth:2 bogislaus:1 v:1 xxxvi:1 elizabeth:1 fourth:1 wife:1 charles:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 house:1 family:1 tree:1 gediminids:1 |@bigram grand_duchy:1 duchy_lithuania:1 polish_lithuanian:2 teutonic_knight:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 piast_dynasty:1 přemyslid_dynasty:1 jan_długosz:1 |
1,923 | John_Wilkes_Booth | John Wilkes Booth (May 10, 1838 – April 26, 1865) was an American stage actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865. Booth was a member of the prominent 19th century Booth theatrical family from Maryland and, by the 1860s, was a popular actor, well known in both the Northern United States and the South. He was also a Confederate sympathizer vehement in his denunciation of the Lincoln Administration and outraged by the South's defeat in the American Civil War. He strongly opposed the abolition of slavery in the United States and Lincoln's proposal to extend voting rights to recently emancipated slaves. Booth and a group of co-conspirators he led planned to kill Abraham Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson, and Secretary of State William Seward in a desperate bid to help the Confederacy's cause. Although Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia had surrendered four days earlier, Booth believed the war was not yet over because Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston's army was still fighting the Union Army. Of the conspirators, only Booth was completely successful in carrying out his part of the plot—Lincoln died the next morning from a single gunshot wound to the back of the head, becoming the first American president to be assassinated—altering the course of American history in the aftermath of the Civil War. Following the shooting, Booth fled on horseback to southern Maryland. He eventually made his way to a farm in rural northern Virginia; he was tracked down and killed by Union soldiers twelve days later. Eight others were tried and convicted, and four were hanged shortly thereafter. Over the years, various authors have suggested that Booth might have escaped his pursuers and subsequently died many years later under a pseudonym. Background and early life Booth's parents, the noted British Shakespearean actor Junius Brutus Booth and his mistress Mary Ann Holmes, came to the United States from England in June 1821. They purchased a farm near Bel Air in Harford County, Maryland, where John Wilkes Booth was born in a four-room log house on May 10, 1838, the ninth of ten children. He was named after the English radical politician John Wilkes, a distant relative. Smith, p. 18. Booth's uncle Algernon Sydney Booth was the great-great-great-grandfather of Cherie Blair (née Booth), wife of former British Prime Minister Tony Blair.–– Junius Brutus Booth's wife, Adelaide Delannoy Booth, was granted a divorce in 1851 on grounds of adultery, and Holmes legally wed John Wilkes Booth's father on May 10, 1851, the youth's 13th birthday. Smith, pp. 43–44. Booth's father built Tudor Hall that year on the Harford County property as the family's summer home, while also maintaining a winter residence on Exeter Street in Baltimore in the 1840s–1850s. John Wilkes Booth's boyhood home, Tudor Hall, still stands on Maryland Route 22 near Bel Air. It was acquired by Harford County in 2006, to be eventually opened to the public as a historic site and museum (reference: "Harford expected to OK renovation of Booth home." The Baltimore Sun. September 8, 2008, p. 4). As a boy, John Wilkes Booth was athletic and well-liked, becoming skilled at horsemanship and fencing. A sometimes indifferent student, he attended the Bel Air Academy, where the headmaster described him as "[n]ot deficient in intelligence, but disinclined to take advantage of the educational opportunities offered him. Each day he rode back and forth from farm to school, taking more interest in what happened along the way than in reaching his classes on time". Kimmel, p. 70. The Bel Air Academy, originally the Harford Academy founded in 1814, is the forerunner of today's Bel Air High School. In 1850–1851, he attended the Quaker-run Milton Boarding School for Boys located in Sparks, Maryland, and later St. Timothy's Hall, an Episcopal military academy in Catonsville, Maryland, beginning when he was 13 years old. Clarke, pp. 39–40. At the Milton school, students recited such classical works as those by Herodotus, Cicero, and Tacitus. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 87. The Milton Boarding School building in Sparks, Md., which John Wilkes Booth once attended, still stands and is now the Milton Inn restaurant. Students at St. Timothy's wore military uniforms and were subject to a regimen of daily formation drills and strict discipline. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 91. After his father's death when young Booth was fourteen years old, he left school. While attending the Milton Boarding School, the youth met a Gypsy fortune-teller who read his palm and pronounced a grim destiny, telling Booth that he would have a grand but short life, doomed to die young and "meeting a bad end". Clarke, pp. 43–45. His sister recalled that Booth wrote down the palm-reader's prediction and showed it to his family and others, often discussing its portents in moments of melancholy in later years. Goodrich, p. 211. As recounted by Booth's sister, Asia Booth Clarke, in her memoirs written in 1874, no one church was preeminent in the Booth household. Booth's mother was Episcopalian and his father was described as a free spirit, preferring a Sunday walk along the Baltimore waterfront with his children to attending church. On January 23, 1853, the 14-year-old Booth was finally baptized at St. Timothy's Protestant Episcopal Church. By the age of 16, Booth was interested in the theatre and in politics, becoming a delegate from Bel Air to a rally by the Know Nothing Party for Henry Winter Davis, the anti-immigrant party's candidate for Congress in the 1854 elections. Smith, p. 60. Aspiring to follow in the footsteps of his father (who had died in 1852) and his actor brothers, Edwin and Junius Brutus, Jr., Booth began practicing elocution daily in the woods around Tudor Hall and studying Shakespeare. Smith, p. 49. Theatrical career 1850s At age 17, Booth made his stage debut on August 14, 1855, in the supporting role of the Earl of Richmond in Richard III at Baltimore's Charles Street Theatre. Smith, pp. 61–62. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 95. The audience hissed at the inexperienced actor when he missed some of his lines. He also began acting at Baltimore's Holliday Street Theater, owned by John T. Ford, where the Booths had performed frequently. In 1857, Booth joined the stock company of the Arch Street Theatre in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he played for a full season. Kimmel, p. 149. At his request he was billed as "J.B. Wilkes", a pseudonym meant to avoid comparison with other members of his famous thespian family. Author Jim Bishop wrote that Booth "developed into an outrageous scene stealer, but he played his parts with such heightened enthusiasm that the audiences idolized him". In February 1858, he played in Lucrezia Borgia at the Arch Street Theatre. On opening night, he experienced stage fright and stumbled over his line. Instead of introducing himself by saying, "Madame, I am Petruchio Pandolfo", he stammered, "Madame, I am Pondolfio Pet—Pedolfio Pat—Pantuchio Ped—dammit! Who am I?", causing the audience to roar with laughter. Kimmel, p. 150. Later that year, Booth played the part of an Indian, Uncas, in a play staged in Petersburg, Virginia, and then became a stock company actor at the Richmond Theatre in Virginia, where he became increasingly popular with audiences for his energetic performances. Kimmel, pp. 151–153. On October 5, 1858, Booth played the part of Horatio in Hamlet, with his older brother Edwin having the title role. Afterward, Edwin led the younger Booth to the theatre's footlights and said to the audience, "I think he's done well, don't you?" In response, the audience applauded loudly and cried "Yes! Yes!" In all, John Wilkes performed in 83 plays in 1858. Among them were Wallace, the Hero of Scotland and Brutus, having as their theme the killing or overthrow of an unjust ruler. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 100. Booth said that of all Shakespearean characters, his favorite role was Brutus—the slayer of a tyrant. Goodrich, pp. 35–36. Called "the handsomest man in America" and a "natural genius" by some reviewers and noted for having an "astonishing memory", other critics were mixed in their estimation of his acting. Bishop, p. 23. He stood tall, had jet-black hair, and was lean and athletic. Noted Civil War reporter George Alfred Townsend described him as a "muscular, perfect man", with "curling hair, like a Corinthian capital". Townsend, p. 26. Booth's stage performances were often characterized by his contemporaries as acrobatic and intensely physical, leaping upon the stage and gesturing with passion. He was an excellent swordsman and a fellow actor once recalled that he occasionally cut himself with his own sword. Historian Benjamin Platt Thomas wrote that Booth "won celebrity with theater-goers by his romantic personal attraction", but that he was "too impatient for hard study" and his "brilliant talents had failed of full development. Author Gene Smith wrote that Booth's acting may not have been quite as precise as his brother Edwin's, but his strikingly handsome appearance enthralled women. Smith, pp. 71–72. As the 1850s drew to a close, Booth was becoming wealthy as an actor, earning $20,000 a year (equivalent to more than $500,000 in 2009). 1860s After finishing the 1859–1860 theatre season in Richmond, Virginia, Booth embarked on his first national tour as a leading actor. He engaged a Philadelphia attorney, Matthew Canning, to serve as his agent. Kimmel, p. 157. By mid-1860, he was playing in such cities as New York, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, St. Louis, Columbus, Georgia, Montgomery, Alabama, and New Orleans. Smith, pp. 72–73. Poet and journalist Walt Whitman said of Booth's acting, "He would have flashes, passages, I thought of real genius". Smith, p. 80. The Philadelphia Press drama critic said, "Without having [his brother] Edwin's culture and grace, Mr. Booth has far more action, more life, and, we are inclined to think, more natural genius." When the Civil War began on April 12, 1861, Booth was starring in Albany, New York. His outspoken admiration for the South's secession, publicly calling it "heroic", so enraged local citizens that they demanded his banning from the stage for making "treasonable statements". Kimmel, p. 159. Albany's drama critics were kinder, however, giving him rave reviews. One called the Maryland actor a genius, praising his acting for "never fail[ing] to delight with his masterly impressions". Smith, p. 86. As the Civil War raged across the divided land in 1862, Booth appeared mostly in Union and border states. In January, he played Richard III in St. Louis and then made his Chicago debut. In March, he made his first acting appearance in New York City. Kimmel, pp. 166–167. In May 1862, the popular actor made his Boston debut, playing nightly at the Boston Museum in Richard III (May 12, 15, and 23), Romeo and Juliet (May 13), The Robbers (May 14 and 21), Hamlet (May 16), The Apostate (May 19), The Stranger (May 20), and The Lady of Lyons (May 22). Following his performance of Richard III on May 12, the Boston Transcript's review the next day called Booth "the most promising young actor on the American stage". Starting in January 1863, he returned to the Boston Museum for a series of plays, including the role of the villain Duke Pescara in The Apostate that won acclaim from both audiences and critics. Kimmel, p. 170. Back in Washington in April, he played the title roles in Hamlet and Richard III, one of his favorites. Billed as "The Pride of the American People, A Star of the First Magnitude", the critics were equally enthusiastic. The National Republican drama critic said Booth "took the hearts of the audience by storm" and termed his performance "a complete triumph". Smith, p. 97. Kimmel, p. 172. At the beginning of July 1863, Booth finished the acting season at Cleveland's Academy of Music, as the Battle of Gettysburg raged in Pennsylvania. Between September–November 1863, Booth played a hectic schedule in the northeast, appearing in Boston, Providence, Rhode Island, and Hartford, Connecticut. Each day the handsome actor received fan mail from infatuated women. Goodrich, p. 37. When old Booth family friend John T. Ford opened 1,500-seat Ford's Theatre on November 9 in Washington, D.C., Booth was one of the first leading men to appear there, playing in Charles Selby's The Marble Heart. Smith, p. 101. In this play, Booth portrayed a Greek sculptor in costume, making marble statues come to life. President Lincoln watched the play from his box. At one point during the performance, Booth was said to have shaken his finger in Lincoln's direction as he delivered a line of dialogue. Lincoln's sister-in-law, sitting with him in the same presidential box where he would later be slain, turned to him and said, "Mr. Lincoln, he looks as if he meant that for you". The President replied, "He does look pretty sharp at me, doesn't he?". On another occasion when Lincoln's son Tad saw Booth perform, he said the actor thrilled him, prompting Booth to give the President's youngest son a rose. Booth ignored an invitation to visit Lincoln between acts, however. On November 25, 1864, Booth performed for the only time with his two brothers, Edwin and Junius, in a single engagement production of Julius Caesar at the Winter Garden Theatre in New York. Smith, p. 105. He played Mark Antony and his brother Edwin had the larger role of Brutus in a performance acclaimed as "the greatest theatrical event in New York history". Kunhardt, Jr., A New Birth of Freedom, pp. 342–343 The proceeds went towards a statue of Shakespeare for Central Park which still stands today. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 149. In January 1865, he acted in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet in Washington, again garnering rave reviews. The National Intelligencer enthused of Booth's Romeo, "the most satisfactory of all renderings of that fine character", especially praising the death scene. Kimmel, p. 177. Booth made the final appearance of his acting career at Ford's on March 18, 1865, when he again played Duke Pescara in The Apostate. Clarke, p. 87. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 188. Business ventures Booth invested some of his growing wealth in various enterprises during the early 1860s, including land speculation in Boston's Back Bay section. He also started a business partnership with John Ellsler, manager of the Cleveland Academy of Music, and another friend, Thomas Mears, to develop oil wells in northwestern Pennsylvania, where an oil boom had started in August 1859, following Edwin Drake's discovery of oil there. Initially calling their venture Dramatic Oil (later renaming it Fuller Farm Oil), the partners invested in a site along the Allegheny River at Franklin, Pennsylvania, in late 1863 for drilling. By early 1864, they had a producing oil well, named Wilhelmina for Mears' wife, yielding 25 barrels of crude oil daily, considered a good yield at the time. The Fuller Farm Oil company was selling shares with a prospectus featuring the well-known actor's celebrity status as "Mr. J. Wilkes Booth, a successful and intelligent operator in oil lands", it said. The partners, impatient to increase the well's output, attempted the use of explosives which wrecked the well and ended production. Booth, already growing more obsessed with the South's worsening situation in the Civil War and angered at Lincoln's re-election, withdrew from the oil business on November 27, 1864, with a substantial loss of his $6,000 investment. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 127–128 and 136. Civil War years Strongly opposed to the abolitionists who sought to end slavery in the U.S., Booth attended the hanging on December 2, 1859, of abolitionist leader John Brown, who was executed for leading a raid on the Federal armory at Harpers Ferry (in present-day West Virginia). Booth had been rehearsing at the Richmond Theatre when he abruptly decided to join the Richmond Grays, a volunteer militia of 1,500 men travelling to Charles Town for Brown's hanging, to guard against any attempt by abolitionists to rescue Brown from the gallows by force. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 105. When Brown was hanged without incident, Booth stood in uniform near the scaffold and afterwards expressed great satisfaction with Brown's fate, although he admired the condemned man's bravery in facing death stoically. Goodrich, pp. 60–61. Abraham Lincoln was elected president on November 6, 1860, and the following month Booth drafted a long speech, apparently undelivered, that decried Northern abolitionism and made clear his strong support of the South and the institution of slavery. On April 12, 1861, the Civil War began, and eventually eleven Southern states seceded from the Union. In Booth's native Maryland, the slaveholding portion of the population favored joining the Confederate States of America. Because the threatened secession of Maryland would leave the Federal capital of Washington, D.C., an indefensible enclave within the Confederacy, Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus and imposed martial law in Baltimore and portions of the state, ordering the imprisonment of pro-secession Maryland political leaders at Ft. McHenry and the stationing of Federal troops in Baltimore. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 81 and 137. Although Maryland remained in the Union, newspaper editorials and many Marylanders, including Booth, agreed with Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney that Lincoln's actions were unconstitutional. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 114–117. As a popular actor in the 1860s, he continued to travel extensively to perform in both North and South, and as far west as New Orleans, Louisiana. According to his sister Asia, Booth confided to her that he also used his position to smuggle quinine to the South during his travels there, helping the Confederacy obtain the needed drug despite the Northern blockade. Clarke, pp. 81–84. Although Booth was pro-Confederate, his family, like many Marylanders, was divided. He was outspoken in his love for the South, and equally outspoken in his hatred for Lincoln. As the Civil War went on, Booth increasingly quarreled with his brother Edwin, who declined to make any stage appearances in the South and refused to listen to John Wilkes' fiercely partisan denunciations of the North and President Lincoln. In early 1863, Booth was arrested in St. Louis while on a theatre tour, when he was heard saying he "wished the President and the whole damned government would go to hell". Smith, p. 107. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 124. Charged with making "treasonous" remarks against the government, he was released when he took an oath of allegiance to the Union and paid a substantial fine. In February 1865, Booth became infatuated with Lucy Hale, the daughter of U.S. Senator John P. Hale of New Hampshire, and they became secretly engaged when Booth received his mother's blessing for their marriage plans. "You have so often been dead in love," his mother counseled Booth in a letter, "be well assured she is really and truly devoted to you". Booth composed a handwritten Valentine card for his betrothed on February 13, expressing his "adoration". She was unaware of Booth's deep antipathy towards President Lincoln. Plot to kidnap Lincoln As the 1864 Presidential election drew near, the Confederacy's prospects for victory were ebbing and the tide of war increasingly favored the North. The likelihood of Lincoln's re-election filled Booth with rage towards the President, whom Booth blamed for the war and all of the South's troubles. Booth, who had promised his mother at the outbreak of war that he would not enlist as a soldier, increasingly chafed at not actually fighting for the South, confiding in his diary, "I have begun to deem myself a coward and to despise my own existence". He began to formulate plans to kidnap Lincoln from his summer residence at the Old Soldiers Home, three miles (5 km) from the White House, and to smuggle him across the Potomac River into Richmond. Once in Confederate hands, Lincoln would be exchanged for the release of Confederate Army prisoners of war held captive in Northern prisons and, Booth reasoned, bring the war to an end by emboldening opposition to the war in the North or forcing Union recognition of the Confederate government. Smith, p. 109. Wilson, p. 43. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 131 and 166. Throughout the Civil War, the Confederacy maintained a network of underground operators in southern Maryland, particularly Charles and St. Mary's counties, smuggling recruits across the Potomac River into Virginia and relaying messages for Confederate agents as far north as Canada. Booth recruited his friends Samuel Arnold and Michael O'Laughlen as accomplices. Bishop, p. 72. They met often at the house of Maggie Branson, a known Confederate sympathizer, at 16 North Eutaw Street in Baltimore. He also met with several well-known Confederate sympathizers at The Parker House in Boston. In October, Booth made an unexplained trip to Montreal, which at the time was a well-known center of clandestine Confederate activity. He spent ten days in the city, staying for a time at St. Lawrence Hall, a rendezvous for the Confederate Secret Service, and meeting several Confederate agents there. Townsend, p. 41. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 140–141. No conclusive proof has linked Booth's kidnapping or assassination plots to a conspiracy involving the leadership of the Confederate government, although historians such as David Herbert Donald have said, "It is clear that, at least at the lower levels of the Southern secret service, the abduction of the Union President was under consideration". Donald, p. 587. Historian Thomas Goodrich concluded that Booth entered the Confederate Secret Service as a spy and courier. Goodrich, p. 61. Other writers exploring possible connections between Booth's planning and Confederate agents include Nathan Miller's Spying For America and William Tidwell's Come Retribution: the Confederate Secret Service and the Assassination of Lincoln. After Lincoln's landslide re-election in early November 1864 on a platform advocating passage of the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution to abolish slavery altogether, Booth devoted increasing energy and money to his kidnap plot. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 143–144. He assembled a loose-knit band of Southern sympathizers, including David Herold, George Atzerodt, Lewis Powell (also known as Lewis Payne or Paine), and John Surratt, a rebel agent. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 177–184. They began to meet routinely at the boarding-house of Surratt's mother, Mrs. Mary Surratt. By this time, Booth was arguing so vehemently with his older, pro-Union brother Edwin about Lincoln and the war that Edwin finally told him he was no longer welcome at his New York home. Booth also railed against Lincoln in conversations with his sister Asia, saying, "That man's appearance, his pedigree, his coarse low jokes and anecdotes, his vulgar similes, and his policy are a disgrace to the seat he holds. He is made the tool of the North, to crush out slavery." Clarke, p. 88. As the Confederacy's defeat became more certain in 1865, Booth decried the end of slavery and Lincoln's election to a second term, "making himself a king", the disgruntled actor fumed, in "wild tirades", his sister recalled. Clarke, p. 89. Booth attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4 as the invited guest of his secret fiancée, Lucy Hale. In the crowd below were Powell, Atzerodt, and Herold. There was no attempt to assassinate Lincoln during the inauguration. Later, however, Booth remarked about his "excellent chance ... to kill the President, if I had wished". On March 17, Booth learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance of the play Still Waters Run Deep at a hospital near the Soldier's Home. Booth assembled his team on a stretch of road near the Soldier's Home in the attempt to kidnap Lincoln en route to the hospital, but the president did not appear. Donald, p. 588. Booth later learned that Lincoln had changed his plans at the last moment to attend a reception at the National Hotel in Washington where, coincidentally, Booth was staying at the time. Assassination of Lincoln On April 12, 1865, after hearing the news that Robert E. Lee had surrendered at Appomattox Court House, Booth told Louis J. Weichmann, a friend of John Surratt, and a boarder at Mary Surratt's house, that he was done with the stage and that the only play he wanted to present henceforth was Venice Preserv'd. Weichmann did not understand the reference. Venice Preserv'd is about an assassination plot. With the Union Army's capture of Richmond and Lee's surrender, Booth's scheme to kidnap Lincoln was no longer feasible, and he changed his goal to assassination. The previous day, Booth was in the crowd outside the White House when Lincoln gave an impromptu speech from his window. When Lincoln stated that he was in favor of granting suffrage to the former slaves, Booth declared that it would be the last speech Lincoln would ever make. Wilson, p. 80. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 210. On the morning of Good Friday, April 14, 1865, Booth went to Ford's Theatre to get his mail, where he was told by John Ford's brother that President and Mrs. Lincoln accompanied by Gen. and Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant would be attending the play Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre that evening. Goodrich, pp. 37–38. He immediately set about making plans for the assassination, which included making arrangements with livery stable owner James W. Pumphrey for a getaway horse, and an escape route. Booth informed Powell, Herold and Atzerodt of his intention to kill Lincoln. He assigned Powell to assassinate Secretary of State William H. Seward and Atzerodt to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson. Herold would assist in their escape into Virginia. Townsend, pp. 42–43. By targeting Lincoln and his two immediate successors to the office, Booth seems to have intended to decapitate the Union government and throw it into a state of panic and confusion. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 353. Any possibility of assassinating the Union Army's commanding general, as well, was foiled when Gen. Grant declined the theatre invitation, at Mrs. Grant's insistence. Instead, the Grants departed Washington by train that evening for a visit with relatives in New Jersey. Booth had hoped that the assassinations would create sufficient chaos within the Union that the Confederate government could reorganize and continue the war, as long as one Confederate army remained in the field or, that failing, to avenge the South's defeat. Goodrich, pp. 39 and 97. In his 2005 analysis of Lincoln's assassination, Thomas Goodrich wrote, "All the elements in Booth's nature came together at once—his hatred of tyranny, his love of liberty, his passion for the stage, his sense of drama, and his lifelong quest to become immortal." Goodrich, p. 62. As a famous and popular actor who had frequently performed at Ford's Theatre, and was well known to its owner John T. Ford, Booth had free access to all parts of the theater, even having his mail sent there. Bishop, p. 102. By boring a spyhole into the door of the presidential box earlier that day, the assassin could check that his intended victim had made it to the play and observe the box's occupants. That evening, at around 10 p.m., as the play progressed, John Wilkes Booth slipped into Lincoln's box and shot him in the back of the head with a .44 caliber Derringer. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 227. Booth's escape was almost thwarted by Major Henry Rathbone, who was present in the Presidential box with Mrs. Mary Todd Lincoln. Townsend, p. 8. Rathbone was stabbed by Booth when the startled officer lunged at the assassin. Rathbone's fiancée, Clara Harris, who was also present in the box, was unhurt. Booth then jumped from the President's box to the stage, where he raised his knife and shouted "Sic semper tyrannis" (Latin for "Thus always to tyrants", attributed to Brutus at Caesar's assassination and the Virginia state motto), while others said he added, "I have done it, the South is avenged!" Smith, p. 154. Goodrich, p. 97. Various accounts state that the assassin injured his leg when his spur snagged a decorative U.S. Treasury Guard flag while leaping to the stage. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 15. Historian Michael W. Kauffman questioned this legend in his book, American Brutus: John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies, writing in 2004 that eyewitness accounts of Booth's hurried stage exit made it unlikely that his leg was broken at that point. Kauffman contends that Booth was injured later that night during his flight to escape when his horse tripped and fell on him, calling Booth's claim to the contrary an exaggeration to self-portray his actions as heroic. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 272–273. Reaction and pursuit In the ensuing pandemonium inside Ford's Theatre, Booth fled by a stage door to the alley, where his getaway horse was held for him by Joseph "Peanuts" Burroughs. The owner of the horse had warned Booth that the horse was high spirited and would break halter if left unattended. Booth left the horse with Edmund Spangler and Spangler arranged for Burroughs to hold the horse. The fleeing assassin galloped into southern Maryland, accompanied by David Herold, having planned his escape route to take advantage of the sparsely-settled area's lack of telegraphs and railroads, along with its predominantly Confederate sympathies. Bishop, p. 66. Its dense forests and swampy terrain made it ideal for an escape route into rural Virginia, he felt. At midnight, Booth and Herold arrived at Surratt's Tavern on the Brandywine Pike, from Washington, where they had stored guns and equipment earlier in the year as part of the kidnap plot. Smith, p. 174. The fugitives then continued southward, stopping before dawn on April 15 at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, from Washington, for treatment of Booth's painful, injured leg. Booth told the physician the injury occurred when his horse fell, Mudd said later. The next day, Booth and Herold arrived at the home of Samuel Cox around 4 a.m. As the two fugitives hid in the woods nearby, Cox contacted Thomas A. Jones, his foster brother and a Confederate agent in charge of spy operations in the southern Maryland area since 1862. Balsiger and Sellier, Jr., p. 191. By order of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, the War Department advertised a $100,000 reward for information leading to the arrest of Booth and his accomplices, and Federal troops were dispatched to search southern Maryland extensively, following tips reported by Federal intelligence agents to Col. Lafayette Baker. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, pp. 106–107. The 26 soldiers who caught Booth were eventually awarded $1,653.85 each by Congress, along with $5,250 for Lieut. Doherty who led the detachment and $15,000 for Col. Lafayette Baker. While Federal troops combed the rural area's woods and swamps for Booth in the days following the assassination, the nation experienced an outpouring of grief. On Tuesday morning, April 18, mourners waited seven abreast in a mile-long line outside the White House for the public viewing of the slain president, reposing in his open walnut casket in the black-draped East Room. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, p. 120. A cross of lilies was at the head and roses covered the coffin's lower half. Townsend, p. 14. Thousands of mourners arriving on special trains jammed Washington for the next day's funeral, sleeping on hotel floors and even resorting to blankets spread outdoors on the capital's lawn. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, p. 123. Prominent abolitionist leader and orator Frederick Douglass called the assassination an "unspeakable calamity" for African-Americans. Great indignation was directed towards Booth as the assassin's identity was telegraphed across the nation. Newspapers called him an "accursed devil", "monster", "madman", and a "wretched fiend". Smith, p. 184. Historian Dorothy Kunhardt wrote: Even in the South, sorrow was expressed in some quarters. In Savannah, Georgia, where the mayor and city council addressed a vast throng at an outdoor gathering to express their indignation, many in the crowd wept. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, pp. 89–90. Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston called Booth's act "a disgrace to the age". Allen, p. 309. Robert E. Lee also expressed regret at Lincoln's death by Booth's hand. Kunhardt III, Philip B., "Lincoln's Contested Legacy", Smithsonian, pp. 34–35. Not all were grief-stricken, however. In New York City, a man was attacked by an enraged crowd when he shouted, "It served Old Abe right!" after hearing the news of Lincoln's death. Elsewhere in the South, Lincoln was hated in death as in life, and Booth was viewed as a hero as many rejoiced at news of his deed. Other Southerners feared that a vengeful North would exact a terrible retribution upon the defeated former Confederate states. "Instead of being a great Southern hero, his deed was considered the worst possible tragedy that could have befallen the South as well as the North", wrote Kunhardt. While hiding in the Maryland woods as he waited for an opportunity to cross the Potomac River into Virginia, Booth read the accounts of national mourning reported in the newspapers brought to him by Jones each day. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, p. 203. By Thursday, April 20, he was aware that some of his co-conspirators were already arrested: Mary Surratt, Powell (or Paine), Arnold, and O'Laughlen. Stern, p. 251. Booth was surprised to find little public sympathy for his action, especially from those anti-Lincoln newspapers that had previously excoriated the President in life. As news of the assassination reached the far corners of the nation, indignation was aroused against Lincoln's critics, whom many blamed for encouraging Booth to act. The San Francisco Chronicle editorialized: "Booth has simply carried out what ... secession politicians and journalists have been for years expressing in words ... who have denounced the President as a 'tyrant', a 'despot', a 'usurper', hinted at, and virtually recommended". Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 80. Booth wrote of his dismay in a journal entry on April 21, as he awaited nightfall before crossing the Potomac River into Virginia (see map): "For six months we had worked to capture. But our cause being almost lost, something decisive and great must be done. I struck boldly, and not as the papers say. I can never repent it, though we hated to kill". Smith, p. 187. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, p. 178. That same day, the nine-car funeral train bearing the body of Abraham Lincoln departed Washington on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, arriving at Baltimore's Camden Station at 10 a.m., the first stop on a 13-day journey to Springfield, Illinois, its final destination. Goodrich, p. 195. As the funeral train slowly made its way westward through seven states, stopping en route at Harrisburg, Philadelphia, Trenton, New York, Albany, Buffalo, Cleveland, Columbus Ohio, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis during the following days, 30 million people lined the railroad tracks along the route, holding aloft signs with legends such as "We mourn our loss", "He lives in the hearts of his people", and "The darkest hour in history". Smith, p. 192. Kauffman, American Brutus, p. 291. In the cities where the train stopped, 1.5 million people viewed Lincoln in his coffin. Aboard the train was Clarence Depew, president of the New York Central Railroad, who said, "As we sped over the rails at night, the scene was the most pathetic ever witnessed. At every crossroads the glare of innumerable torches illuminated the whole population, kneeling on the ground." Dorothy Kunhardt called the funeral train's journey "the mightiest outpouring of national grief the world had yet seen". Kunhardt, Twenty Days, p. 139. Meanwhile, as mourners were viewing Lincoln's remains when the funeral train steamed into Harrisburg at 8:20 p.m., Booth and Herald were provided with a boat and compass by Jones, to cross the Potomac at night on April 21. Instead of reaching Virginia, however, they mistakenly navigated upriver to a bend in the broad Potomac River, coming ashore again in Maryland on April 22. The 23-year old Herold knew the area well, having frequently hunted there, and recognized a nearby farm as belonging to a Confederate sympathizer. The farmer led them to his son-in-law, Col. John J. Hughes, who provided the fugitives with food and a hideout until nightfall, for a second attempt to row across the river to Virginia. Smith, pp. 197–198. Booth wrote in his diary, "With every man's hand against me, I am here in despair. And why; For doing what Brutus was honored for ... And yet I for striking down a greater tyrant than they ever knew am looked upon as a common cutthroat". The pair finally reached the Virginia shore near Machodoc Creek before dawn on Sunday, April 23. Kimmel, pp. 238–240. There, they made contact with Thomas Harbin, whom Booth had previously brought into his erstwhile kidnapping plot. Harbin took Booth and Herold to another Confederate agent in the area, William Bryant, who supplied them with horses. Stern, p. 279. While Lincoln's funeral train was in New York City on Monday, April 24, Lieutenant Edward P. Doherty was dispatched from Washington at 2 p.m. with a detachment of 26 Union soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry Regiment to capture Booth in Virginia. Smith, pp. 203–204. Accompanied by Lieutenant Colonel Everton Conger, an intelligence officer assigned by Lafayette Baker, the detachment steamed down the Potomac River on a boat, the John S. Ide, landing at Belle Plain, Virginia, at 10 p.m. Townsend, p. 29. The pursuers crossed the Rappahannock River and tracked Booth and Herold to Richard H. Garrett's farm, just south of Port Royal, Caroline County, Virginia. Booth and Herold had been led to the farm on April 24 by William S. Jett, a former private in the 9th Virginia Cavalry whom they had met before crossing the Rappahannock. The Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination; Booth was introduced to them as "James W. Boyd", a Confederate soldier who, they were told, had been wounded in the battle of Petersburg and was returning home. Garrett's son, Richard, was an 11-year-old eyewitness. In later years, be became a Baptist minister and widely lectured on the events of Booth's demise at his family's farm. In 1921, Garrett's lecture was published in the Confederate Veteran as the "True Story of the Capture of John Wilkes Booth". According to his account, Booth and Herold arrived at the Garrett's farm, located on the road to Bowling Green, around 3 p.m. on Monday afternoon. Because Confederate mail delivery had ceased with the collapse of the Confederate government, he explained, the Garretts were unaware of Lincoln's assassination. After having dinner with the Garretts that evening, news of Gen. Johnston's surrender reached Booth. The last Confederate armed force of any size, its capitulation meant that the Civil War was unquestionably over and Booth's attempt to save the Confederacy by Lincoln's assassination had failed. Stern, p. 306. The Garretts also finally learned of Lincoln's death and the substantial reward for Booth's capture. Booth, said Garrett, displayed no reaction, other than to ask if the family would turn in the fugitive should they have the opportunity. Still not aware of their guest's true identity, one of the older Garrett sons averred that they might, if only because they needed the money. The next day, Booth told the Garretts he intended to reach Mexico, drawing a route on a map of theirs. However, biographer Theodore Roscoe said of Garrett's account, "Almost nothing written or testified in respect to the doings of the fugitives at Garrett's farm can be taken at face value. Nobody knows exactly what Booth said to the Garretts, or they to him". Theodore Roscoe, The Web of Conspiracy (New York, 1959, p. 376), footnoted in The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 71, No. 4 (October, 1963), Virginia Historical Society, p. 391. Death Conger tracked down Jett and interrogated him, learning of Booth's location at the Garrett farm. Before dawn on Wednesday, April 26, the soldiers caught up with the fugitives hiding in Garrett's tobacco barn. David Herold surrendered, but Booth refused Conger's demand to surrender, saying "I prefer to come out and fight", and the soldiers then set the barn on fire. Smith, pp. 210–213. As Booth moved about inside the blazing barn, Sergeant Boston Corbett shot him. According to Corbett's later account, he fired at Booth because the fugitive "raised his pistol to shoot" at them. Conger's report to Secretary Stanton, however, stated that Corbett shot Booth "without order, pretext or excuse", and recommended that Corbett be punished for disobeying orders to take Booth alive. Booth, fatally wounded in the neck, was dragged from the barn to the porch of Garrett's farmhouse, where he died three hours later, at age 26. The bullet had pierced three vertebrae and partially severed his spinal cord, paralyzing him. Goodrich, p. 211. In his last dying moments, he reportedly whispered "tell my mother I died for my country". Asking that his hands be raised to his face so he could see them, Booth uttered his last words, "Useless, useless," and died as dawn was breaking. In Booth's pockets were found a compass, a candle, pictures of five women including his fiancée Lucy Hale, and his diary, where he had written of Lincoln's death, "Our country owed all her troubles to him, and God simply made me the instrument of his punishment." Donald, p. 597. Shortly after Booth's death, his brother Edwin wrote to his sister Asia, "Think no more of him as your brother; he is dead to us now, as he soon must be to all the world, but imagine the boy you loved to be in that better part of his spirit, in another world." Clarke, p. 92. Asia also had in her possession a sealed letter which Booth had given her in January 1865 for safekeeping, only to be opened upon his death. Bishop, p. 70. In the letter, Booth had written: Booth's letter, seized along with other family papers at Asia's house by Federal troops and published by The New York Times while the manhunt was underway, explained his reasons for plotting against Lincoln. In it he said, "I have ever held the South was right. The very nomination of Abraham Lincoln, four years ago, spoke plainly war upon Southern rights and institutions". The institution of "African slavery", he had written, "is one of the greatest blessings that God has ever bestowed upon a favored nation" and Lincoln's policy was one of "total annihilation". Aftermath Booth's body was shrouded in a blanket and tied to the side of an old farm wagon for the trip back to Belle Plain. Townsend, p. 38. There, his corpse was taken aboard the ironclad USS Montauk and brought to the Washington Navy Yard for identification and an autopsy. The body was identified there as Booth's by more than ten people who knew him. Kunhardt, Twenty Days, pp. 181–182. Among the identifying features used to make sure that the man that was killed was Booth was a tattoo on his left hand with his initials J.W.B., and a very distinct scar on the back of his neck. The third, fourth, and fifth vertebrae were removed during the autopsy to allow access to the bullet. These bones are still on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, D.C. The body was then buried in a storage room at the Old Penitentiary, later moved to a warehouse at the Washington Arsenal on October 1, 1867. Smith, pp. 239–241. In 1869, the remains were once again identified before being released to the Booth family, where they were buried in the family plot at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, after a burial ceremony conducted by Fleming James, minister of Christ Episcopal Church, in the presence of more than 40 people. "On the 18th of February, 1869, Booth's remains were deposited in Weaver's private vault at Green Mount Cemetery awaiting warmer weather for digging a grave. Burial occurred in Green Mount Cemetery on June 22, 1869. Booth was an Episcopalian, and the ceremony was conducted by the Reverend Minister Fleming, James of Christ Episcopal Church, where Weaver was a sexton." (T. 5/25/95 at p. 117; Ex. 22H). Gorman & Williams Attorneys at Law: Sources on the Wilkes Booth case. The Court of Special Appeals of Maryland (September 1995), No. 1531; By then, wrote scholar Russell Conwell after visiting homes in the vanquished former Confederate states, hatred of Lincoln still smoldered and "Photographs of Wilkes Booth, with the last words of great martyrs printed upon its borders ... adorn their drawing rooms". Eight others implicated in Lincoln's assassination were tried by a military tribunal in Washington, D.C., and found guilty on June 30, 1865. Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7, 1865. Kunhardt, pp. 204–206. Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life imprisonment at Fort Jefferson in Florida's Dry Tortugas; Edmund Spangler was given a six-year term in prison. O' Laughlen died in a yellow fever epidemic there in 1867. The others were eventually pardoned in February 1869 by President Andrew Johnson. Smith, p. 239. Forty years later, when the centennial of Lincoln's birth was celebrated in 1909, a border state official reflected on Booth's assassination of Lincoln, "Confederate veterans held public services and gave public expression to the sentiment, that 'had Lincoln lived' the days of reconstruction might have been softened and the era of good feeling ushered in earlier". A century later, Goodrich concluded in 2005, "For millions of people, particularly in the South, it would be decades before the impact of the Lincoln assassination began to release its terrible hold on their lives". Goodrich, p. 289. The majority of Northerners viewed Booth as a madman or monster who murdered the saviour of the Union, while in the South, many cursed Booth for bringing upon them the harsh revenge of an incensed North instead of the reconciliation promised by Lincoln. Goodrich, p. 294. Theories of Booth's escape In 1907, Finis L. Bates wrote Escape and Suicide of John Wilkes Booth, contending that a Booth look-alike was mistakenly killed at the Garrett farm while Booth eluded his pursuers. Booth, said Bates, assumed the pseudonym "John St. Helen" and died in 1903 at Enid, Oklahoma, after making a deathbed confession that he was the fugitive assassin. By 1913, more than 70,000 copies of the book had been sold, and Bates exhibited St. Helen's mummified body in carnival sideshows. In response, the Maryland Historical Society published an account in 1913 by then-Baltimore mayor William M. Pegram, who had viewed Booth's remains upon the casket's arrival at the Weaver funeral home in Baltimore on February 18, 1869, for burial at Green Mount Cemetery. Pegram, who had known Booth well as a young man, submitted a sworn statement that the body he had seen in 1869 was Booth's. Others positively identifying this body as Booth at the funeral home included Booth's mother, brother, and sister, along with his dentist and other Baltimore acquaintances. Earlier, The New York Times had published an account by their reporter in 1911 detailing the burial of Booth's body at the cemetery and those who were witnesses. The rumor periodically revived, as in the 1920s, when a corpse advertised as the "Man Who Shot Lincoln" was exhibited on a national tour by a carnival promoter. According to a 1928 article in the Saturday Evening Post, the exhibitor said he obtained St. Helen's corpse from Bates' widow. The Lincoln Conspiracy, a book published in 1977, contended there was a government plot to conceal Booth's escape, reviving interest in the story and prompting the display of St. Helen's mummified body in Chicago that year. The book sold more than one million copies and was made into a feature film called The Lincoln Conspiracy, which was theatrically released in 1977. Balsiger and Sellier, Jr., front cover. A 1998 book, The Curse of Cain: The Untold Story of John Wilkes Booth, contended that Booth had escaped, sought refuge in Japan and eventually returned to the United States. In 1994 two historians, together with several descendants, sought a court order for the exhumation of Booth's body at Green Mount Cemetery, which was, according to their lawyer, "intended to prove or disprove longstanding theories on Booth's escape" by conducting a photo-superimposition analysis. The application was blocked, however, by Baltimore Circuit Court Judge Joseph H. H. Kaplan, who cited, among other things, "the unreliability of petitioners' less-than-convincing escape/cover-up theory" as a major factor in his decision. The Maryland Court of Special Appeals upheld the ruling. Kauffman, American Brutus, pp. 393–394. No gravestone marks the precise location where Booth is buried in the family's gravesite. Author Francis Wilson, 11 years old at the time of Lincoln's assassination, wrote an epitaph of Booth in his 1929 book John Wilkes Booth: "In the terrible deed he committed, he was actuated by no thought of monetary gain, but by a self-sacrificing, albeit wholly fanatical devotion to a cause he thought supreme". Wilson, p. 19. Footnotes Bibliography Further reading For younger readers External links Cervical (Neck) Vertebrae preserved at National Museum of Health and Medicine Autopsy Lieut. Doherty's report to the War Department on 29 April 1865, recounting Booth's capture Booth: Escape and wanderings until final ending of the trail by suicide at Enid, Oklahoma, January 12, 1903 (1922) Digitized by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library The life, crime, and capture of John Wilkes Booth, with a full sketch of the conspiracy of which he was the leader, and the pursuit, trial and execution of his accomplices (1865) Digitized by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library. | John_Wilkes_Booth |@lemmatized john:28 wilkes:20 booth:200 may:13 april:18 american:32 stage:14 actor:18 assassinate:6 president:22 abraham:5 lincoln:73 ford:11 theatre:17 washington:16 c:5 member:2 prominent:2 century:2 theatrical:3 family:12 maryland:20 popular:5 well:16 know:12 northern:6 united:4 state:19 south:20 also:12 confederate:32 sympathizer:5 vehement:1 denunciation:2 administration:1 outrage:1 defeat:3 civil:11 war:24 strongly:2 oppose:2 abolition:1 slavery:7 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1,924 | Appellate_court | Court of Appeal, Court of Appeals, and Appellate Division redirect here; for a list of specific courts using those titles, see Court of Appeal (disambiguation), Court of Appeals (disambiguation), and Appellate Division (disambiguation). An appellate court is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A supreme court is therefore itself a kind of appellate court. Appellate courts worldwide can operate by varying rules. For example, the Isle of Man's traditional local appellate court is the Staff of Government Division which has only two Justices, titled "Deemsters," whose decisions are joined to the original trial decision. They almost always have a majority, if either Deemster agrees with the trial Judge. 5-TO-4, "NEVERMORE!" Institutional titles Many US jurisdictions title their appellate court a Court of Appeal or Court of Appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a Court of Errors (or Court of Errors and Appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (since renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, courts able to hear appeals are known as an Appellate Division. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on the one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. Authority to review The authority of appellate courts to review a decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some places, the appellate court has limited powers of review. For example, in the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the court below made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. 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1,925 | Allophone | In phonetics, an allophone (from the , állos, "other" and φωνή, phōnē, "voice, sound") is one of several similar speech sounds (phones) that belong to the same phoneme. A phoneme is an abstract unit of speech sound that can distinguish words: That is, changing a phoneme in a word can produce another word. Speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a distinctive sound in that language. An allophone is not distinctive, but rather a variant of a phoneme; changing the allophone won't change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native, or be unintelligible. (There is debate over how real, and how universal, phonemes really are. See phoneme for details.) Every time a speech sound is produced, it will be slightly different from other utterances. Only some of the variation is significant (i.e., detectable or perceivable) to speakers. There may be complementary allophones which are distributed regularly within speech according to phonetic environment, as well as notable free variants, which are a matter of personal habit or preference. Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones. In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process. A tonic allophone is sometimes called an allotone, for example in the neutral tone of Mandarin. Examples in English vs. other languages For example, as in pin and as in spin are allophones for the phoneme in the English language because they cannot distinguish words (in fact, they occur in complementary distribution). English speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Plain also occurs as the p in cap , or the second p in paper . Chinese languages treat these two phones differently; for example in Mandarin, (written b in Pinyin) and (written p) contrast phonemically. There are many other allophonic processes in English, like lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction. Aspiration – strong explosion of breath. In English a voiceless plosive that is p, t or k is aspirated whenever it stands as the only consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable or of the first, stressed or unstressed, syllable in a word. Nasal plosion – In English a plosive () has nasal plosion when it’s followed by nasal, inside a word or across word boundary. Partial devoicing of sonorants – In English sonorants() are partially devoiced when they follow a voiceless sound within the same syllable. Complete devoicing of sonorants – In English a sonorant is completely devoiced when it follows an aspirated plosive (). Partial devoicing of obstruents – in English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound, inside a word or across its boundary. Retraction – in English are retracted before . Because the choice of allophone is seldom under conscious control, people may not realize they exist. English speakers may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme , namely unreleased and aspirated , if they contrast the pronunciations of the following words: Night rate: (sans word space between . and ɹ) Nitrate: If a flame is held before the lips while these words are spoken, you may notice that it flickers more during aspirated nitrate than during unaspirated night rate. The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin speaker, to whom and are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than it is to the English speaker who has learned since childhood to ignore it. Allophones of English may be noticed if the 'light' of leaf is contrasted with the 'dark' of feel . Again, this difference is much more obvious to a Turkish speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme. Representing a phoneme with an allophone Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple (i.e. 'broad') transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, so that the allophony is significant, things become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, then that representation is chosen for the phoneme. However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than this allows. In such cases a common convention is to use the "elsewhere condition" to decide which allophone will stand for the phoneme. The "elsewhere" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules. For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only when preceding a nasal consonant within the same syllable; elsewhere they're oral. Therefore, by the "elsewhere" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic; nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes. In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the world's languages than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory. In rare cases a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, so as not to privilege any one allophone. See also Allophonic rule Allomorph Alternation (linguistics) Complementary distribution Phoneme List of phonetics topics Free variation | Allophone |@lemmatized phonetics:2 allophone:25 állos:1 φωνή:1 phōnē:1 voice:1 sound:11 one:4 several:2 similar:1 speech:5 phone:2 belong:1 phoneme:23 abstract:2 unit:1 distinguish:2 word:12 change:3 produce:2 another:1 speaker:8 particular:1 language:6 perceive:1 distinctive:2 rather:1 variant:2 win:1 meaning:1 result:1 may:11 non:1 native:1 unintelligible:1 debate:1 real:1 universal:1 really:1 see:2 detail:1 every:1 time:1 slightly:1 different:3 utterance:1 variation:3 significant:2 e:2 detectable:1 perceivable:1 complementary:5 distribute:1 regularly:1 within:3 accord:1 phonetic:3 environment:1 well:1 notable:1 free:2 matter:1 personal:1 habit:1 preference:1 significantly:1 case:4 use:3 specific:1 context:1 involve:1 phonological:2 process:2 tonic:1 sometimes:1 call:1 allotone:1 example:5 neutral:1 tone:1 mandarin:3 english:17 v:1 pin:1 spin:1 cannot:1 fact:1 occur:2 distribution:2 treat:2 first:2 aspirate:3 second:2 unaspirated:2 plain:2 also:3 p:4 cap:1 paper:1 chinese:1 two:2 differently:1 write:2 b:1 pinyin:1 contrast:3 phonemically:1 many:1 allophonic:3 like:1 lack:1 plosion:4 nasal:8 partial:4 devoicing:6 sonorants:5 complete:2 obstruent:3 lengthen:1 shorten:1 vowel:4 retraction:2 aspiration:1 strong:1 explosion:1 breath:1 voiceless:3 plosive:3 k:1 whenever:1 stand:2 consonant:2 beginning:1 stressed:1 syllable:4 stress:1 unstressed:1 follow:3 inside:2 across:2 boundary:2 partially:2 devoice:2 sonorant:1 completely:1 aspirated:2 voiced:1 devoiced:1 next:2 pause:1 retract:1 choice:1 seldom:1 conscious:1 control:1 people:1 realize:2 exist:1 become:2 aware:1 difference:3 namely:1 unreleased:1 pronunciation:1 following:1 night:2 rate:2 sans:1 space:1 ɹ:1 nitrate:2 flame:1 hold:2 lip:2 speak:1 notice:2 flicker:1 felt:1 hand:1 front:1 separate:2 distinction:1 much:3 obvious:2 learn:1 since:2 childhood:1 ignore:1 light:1 leaf:1 dark:1 feel:1 turkish:1 single:1 represent:3 abstraction:1 direct:1 transcription:2 without:1 simple:2 broad:1 however:2 allophony:1 thing:1 complicated:1 often:1 transcribe:1 sense:1 require:1 diacritic:1 representation:1 choose:2 linguist:2 prefer:1 great:1 precision:1 allow:1 common:2 convention:2 elsewhere:4 condition:2 decide:1 remain:1 others:1 describe:1 rule:2 oral:4 pattern:1 precede:1 therefore:1 consider:2 basic:1 world:1 reflect:1 historical:1 origin:1 give:1 balanced:1 look:1 chart:1 phonemic:1 inventory:1 rare:1 symbol:1 dingbat:1 privilege:1 allomorph:1 alternation:1 linguistics:1 list:1 topic:1 |@bigram allophone_allophone:1 allophone_phoneme:3 voiceless_plosive:1 stressed_syllable:1 unstressed_syllable:1 plosive_nasal:1 phonetic_transcription:1 nasal_consonant:1 phonemic_inventory:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
1,926 | David_Brewster | Sir David Brewster FRS (11 December 1781 – 10 February 1868) was a Scottish physicist,mathematician ,scientist, inventor and writer. Life and work David Brewster was born at Jedburgh, where his father, a teacher of high reputation, was rector of the grammar school. At the age of twelve, he was sent to the University of Edinburgh, being intended for the clergy. However, he had already shown a strong inclination for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a "self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician," as Sir Walter Scott called him, of great local fame—James Veitch of Inchbonny, who was particularly skilful in making telescopes. Though he duly finished his theological studies and was licensed to preach, Brewster's other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In 1799 fellow-student, Henry Brougham, persuaded him to study the diffraction of light. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the Philosophical Transactions of London and other scientific journals. The fact that other philosophers, notably Etienne Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel, were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others. A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer. The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings: The laws of polarization by reflection and refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena The discovery of the polarizing structure induced by heat and pressure The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms The laws of metallic reflection Experiments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation, the prime importance belongs to the discovery of the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle of biaxial crystals, and of the production of double refraction by irregular heating. These discoveries were promptly recognized. As early as 1807 the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was made a member of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley medal; in 1818 he received the Rumford Medal of the society; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years. Among the non-scientific public his fame spread more effectually by his rediscovery in about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom and the United States. An instrument of greater interest, the stereoscope, which, though of much later date (1849–1850), and along with the kaleidoscope did more than anything else to popularize his name, was not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors. Brewster's contribution was the suggestion to use lenses for uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention. A much more valuable and practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system. Although Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation, perfected the dioptric apparatus independently, Brewster was active earlier in the field than Fresnel, describing the dioptric apparatus in 1812. He pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel suggested it and it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly through his persistent efforts. Although Brewster's own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a regular contributor to the Edinburgh Magazine, of which he acted as editor at the age of twenty. In 1807, he undertook the editorship of the newly projected Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, of which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica (seventh and eighth editions) writing, among others, the articles on electricity, hydrodynamics, magnetism, microscope, optics, stereoscope, and voltaic electricity. In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774–1854), the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, which took the place of the Edinburgh magazine. The first ten volumes (1819–1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825–1826) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the Edinburgh Journal of Science in 1824, sixteen volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years 1824–1832, with very many articles from his own pen. He contributed between three and four hundred papers to the transactions of various learned societies, and few of his contemporaries wrote as much for the various reviews. In the North British Review alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made of the most important of them all–his biography of Sir Isaac Newton. In 1831 he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in Murray's Family Library; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much fuller Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years' investigation of original manuscripts and other available sources. Brewster's position as editor brought him into frequent contact with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular communication among those in the field of science. In a review of Charles Babbage's book Decline of Science in England in John Murray's Quarterly Review, he suggested the creation of "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers" Reflexions on the Decline of Science in England, and on some of its Causes, Quarterly Review, Vol. 43, Nr. 86 (October 1830) . This was taken up by various Declinarians and found speedy realization in the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along with Babbage and Sir John F. W. Herschel, had the chief part in shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the Guelphic order of Hanover. In 1838, he was appointed principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, University of St Andrews. In 1849, he acted as president of the British Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France in succession to J. J. Berzelius; and ten years later, he accepted the office of principal of the University of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death. Of a high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character. In estimating his place among scientific discoverers, the chief thing to be borne in mind is that his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws that he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy although he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of James D. Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica: "His scientific glory is different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry (1824); Treatise on Optics (1831); Letters on Natural Magic, addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1832); The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler (1841); More Worlds than One (1854). Brewster died in 1868, and was buried at Melrose Abbey. See pages 221 - 236 of The Home Life of Sir David Brewster, by Mrs. Gordon. See also Brewster's angle. Coddington magnifier References Further reading External links Sir David Brewster -- a short biography The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society | David_Brewster |@lemmatized sir:9 david:4 brewster:23 fr:1 december:1 february:1 scottish:1 physicist:1 mathematician:2 scientist:1 inventor:1 writer:2 life:6 work:6 bear:2 jedburgh:1 father:1 teacher:1 high:2 reputation:1 rector:1 grammar:1 school:1 age:3 twelve:1 send:1 university:3 edinburgh:7 intend:1 clergy:2 however:2 already:2 show:1 strong:1 inclination:1 natural:2 science:9 foster:1 intimacy:1 self:1 taught:1 philosopher:4 astronomer:1 walter:2 scott:2 call:1 great:3 local:1 fame:2 jam:1 veitch:1 inchbonny:1 particularly:1 skilful:1 make:5 telescope:1 though:3 duly:1 finish:1 theological:1 study:2 license:1 preach:1 interest:2 distract:1 duty:2 profession:1 fellow:1 student:1 henry:1 brougham:1 persuade:1 diffraction:1 light:3 result:4 investigation:4 communicate:1 time:2 paper:2 philosophical:2 transaction:2 london:2 scientific:6 journal:3 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1,927 | Destroy_All_Monsters | Destroy All Monsters, released in Japan as , is a 1968 daikaiju eiga (Monster Movie). The ninth in Toho Studios' Godzilla series, it was directed by Ishiro Honda with special effects by Eiji Tsuburaya and Sadamasa Arikawa. The film features 11 monsters: Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah, Rodan, Gorosaurus, Anguirus, Kumonga, Manda, Minilla, Baragon, and Varan. Plot At the close of the 20th Century, all of the Earth's kaiju have been collected and confined in an area known as Monster Island, by the United Nations Science Committee, in the Ogasawara island chain. A special control center is constructed underneath the island to ensure the monsters stay secure, and serve as a research facility to study them. When communications with Monster Island are suddenly and mysteriously severed, and all of the monsters begin attacking world capitals, Dr. Yoshida of the UNSC orders Captain Yamabe and the crew of his spaceship, Moonlight SY-3, to investigate Ogasawara. There, they discover that the scientists, led by Dr. Otani, have become mind-controlled slaves of a feminine alien race identifying themselves as the Kilaaks, who reveal that they are in control of the monsters. Their leader demands that the human race surrender, or face total annihilation. Godzilla attacks New York City, Rodan invades Moscow, Mothra lays waste to Beijing, Gorosaurus destroys Paris, and Manda attacks London, which is set in to motion to take attention away from Japan, so the aliens can establish an underground stronghold near Mt. Fuji in Japan. The Kilaaks then turn their next major attack on Tokyo, and without serious opposition, become arrogant in their aims, until the UNSC discover the Kilaaks have switched to broadcasting the control signals from their base under the Moon's surface. In a desperate battle, the crew of the SY-3 destroy the Kilaak's lunar outpost and return the alien control system to Earth. With all of the monsters under the control of the UNSC, the Kilaaks unleash their hidden weapon, King Ghidorah. The three-headed space monster is dispatched to protect the alien stronghold at Mt. Fuji, and battles Godzilla, Minilla, Mothra, Rodan, Gorosaurus, Anguirus, Kumonga, Manda, Baragon, and Varan. While seemingly invincible, King Ghidorah is eventually overpowered by the combined strength of the Earth monsters and is killed. Refusing to admit defeat, the Kilaaks produce their trump card, a burning monster they call the Fire Dragon, which begins to torch cities and destroys the control center on Ogasawara. Captain Yamabe pursues this new threat in the SY-3, and narrowly achieves victory for the human race. The Fire Dragon is revealed to be a flaming Kilaak saucer and is destroyed. Godzilla and the other monsters are eventually returned to Monster Island to live in peace. Original screenplay There was an initial screenplay with the preliminary title All Monsters Attack Directive, which would have many of the same elements, which would be used in the eventual film. However the difference was that the film would have ten monsters, instead of eleven. This first draft for the project included monsters that would appear in the final film, such as Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah, Rodan, Baragon, Varan, Kumonga, and Manda. The other two monsters were Maguma from 1962's Gorath and Ebirah from 1966's Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster, were also put into early script. The roles for the two monsters are unknown, except that Maguma was to be one of the guardians of the Kilaak base with Baragon, who would have been the ones to fend off the SDF. The film’s title was later changed to Destroy All Monsters, and Ebirah and Maguma were replaced with Anguirus, Minilla and Gorosaurus. U.S. versions American International Pictures released the film theatrically in North America in 1969. The Americanization was handled by Titan Productions (formerly Titra Studios). There were some minor alterations done to prepare the film for U.S. release: Dialogue was dubbed to English (featuring the voices of actors such as Hal Linden). Dialogue: First line of opening narration changed from "It's the end of the 20th Century," to the year specific, "The year is 1999." Deleted: Opening credits; Moved to the end of the film and changed to white credits against a black background with the original Ifukube cue. Deleted: Shot of Minilla covering his eyes while King Ghidorah drops Anguirus. This version has been replaced on home video and television by Toho's "International Version". While uncut and widescreen (slightly cropped), it features an English dub track produced by William Ross' Tokyo-based Frontier Enterprises used to sell the film to overseas markets in 1968. Subsequently, American International Pictures found the dubbing to be substandard and handed the film over to Titan Productions in New York to record a new English dialogue track. Considered by fans and critics to be the preferred English-language dubbing, AIP's arguably superior version is unfortunately now considered "lost". Critical reception of U.S. Release The New York Times did not review the film on first release, but film critic Howard Thompson gave it a positive review on a re-release at a children's matinee with the Bugs Bunny short, Napoleon Bunny-Part, in December 1970. He commented, "...the feature wasn't bad at all of this type. The trick photography and especially the blended sweep and skill of the miniature settings provided the visual splash. The human beings, with good dubbed English voices, were a personable lot as they wrestled with some outer space culprits who had rounded up Japan's favorite monsters and turned them against the planet earth." DVD releases ADV Films Released: 1999 Aspect Ratio: Widescreen (2.35:1) (non-anamorphic) Sound: English 2.0 Region 1 Note: Contains Toho's International Version; No interactive menu. ADV Films Released: May 18, 2004 Aspect Ratio: Widescreen (2.35:1) (non-anamorphic) Sound: English 2.0 Supplements: CD soundtrack album Region 1 Note: 50th Anniversary Edition; Includes CD soundtrack album and new cover art but film disc is identical to 1999 edition. External links Godzilla on the web(Japan) References Thompson, Howard. Destroy All Monsters (film review). The New York Times. 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1,928 | Foreign_relations_of_Chad | The Foreign relations of Chad are motivated primarily by the desire for outside investment in Chadian industry and support for Chadian President Idriss Déby. Chad is officially non-aligned but has close relations with France, the former colonial power. Relations with neighbouring Libya and Sudan vary periodically. Lately, the Idris Déby regime has been waging an intermittent proxy war with Sudan. Other for those two countries, Chad generally has good relations with the other neighboring countries. Relations with African and Middle Eastern countries Although relations with Libya improved with the presidency of Idriss Déby, strains persist. Chad has been an active champion of regional cooperation through the Central African Economic and Customs Union, the Lake Chad and Niger River Basin Commissions, and the Interstate Commission for the Fight Against the Drought in the Sahel. Delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria. Despite centuries-old cultural ties to Arab North Africa, Chad maintained few significant ties to North African or Middle Eastern states in the 1980s. (Chad has not recognized the State of Israel since former Chadian President François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye broke off relations in September 1972.) President Habré hoped to pursue greater solidarity with Arab nations in the future, however, viewing closer relations with Arab states as a potential opportunity to break out of his nation's postcolonial dependence and assert Chad's unwillingness to serve as an arena for superpower rivalries. In addition, as a northern Muslim, Habré represented a constituency that favored Afro-Arab solidarity, and he hoped Islam would provide a basis for national unity in the long term. For these reasons, he was expected to seize opportunities during the 1990s to pursue closer ties with Arab nations. In 1988, Chad recognized the State of Palestine, which maintains a mission in N'Djamena. During the 1980s, several Arab states had supported Libyan claims to the Aozou Strip. Algeria was among the most outspoken of these states and provided training for anti-Habré forces, although most recruits for its training programs were from Nigeria or Cameroon, recruited and flown to Algeria by Libya. By the end of 1987, Algiers and N'Djamena were negotiating to improve relations. Lebanon's Progressive Socialist Party also sent troops to support Qadhafi's efforts against Chad in 1987, but other Arab states and the League of Arab States (Arab League) limited their involvement to expressions of hope that the dispute over the Aozou Strip could be settled peacefully. Canada Sudan On December 24, 2005, Chad declared itself as in a "state of belligerance" with neighboring Sudan. The conflict in the border region of Darfur has become an increasingly bi-national affair as increasing numbers of Sudanese flee to refugee camps in Chad, and Sudanese government troops and militias cross the borders to strike at both these camps and specific ethnic groups. Although the Government of Chad and the Government of Sudan signed the Tripoli Agreement on February 8, 2006, officially ending hostilities, fighting continues. On 11 August, 2006, Chad and Sudan resumed relations at the behest of Libyan president Muammar al-Gaddafi. See also: Battle of Amdjereme Chad broke diplomatic relations with Sudan at least twice in 2006 because it believed the Sudanese government was supporting Janjaweed and UFDC rebels financially and with arms. Two accords were signed, the Tripoli Accord, which was signed on February 8 and failed to end the fighting, and the more recently signed N'Djamena Agreement. On May 11, 2008 Sudan announced it was cutting diplomatic relations with Chad, claiming that it was helping rebels in Darfur to attack the Sudanese capital Khartoum Sudan cuts Chad ties over attack . Libya Nigeria Relations with Western countries Chad is officially non-aligned but has close relations with France, the former colonial power, which has about 1,200 troops stationed in the capital N'Djamena. It receives economic aid from countries of the European Community, the United States, and various international organizations. Libya supplies aid and has an ambassador resident in N'Djamena. Traditionally strong ties with the Western community have weakened over the past two years due to a dispute between the Government of Chad and the World Bank over how the profits from Chad's petroleum reserves are allocated. Although oil output to the West has resumed and the dispute has officially been resolved, resentment towards, what the Déby administration considered, foreign meddling lingers. France United States Relations with Asian countries Chad and the Republic of China (Taiwan) had relations from 1962 to 1972 and 1997 to 2006 when, for financial and security reasons, Chad announced its intention to recognize the People's Republic of China. Taiwan broke off relations with Chad on August 5, 2006 (hours before a scheduled official visit by Premier Su Tseng-chang) and Chad formally recognized the PRC on August 6. Membership of international organizations Chad belongs to the following international organizations: UN and some of its specialized and related agencies Organization for African Unity Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC) African Financial Community (Franc Zone) Agency for the Francophone Community African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States African Development Bank Central African States Development Bank Economic and Monetary Union of Central African (CEMAC) Economic Commission for Africa; G-77 International Civil Aviation Organization International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement International Development Association Islamic Development Bank International Fund for Agricultural Development International Finance Corporation International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies International Labour Organization International Monetary Fund Intelsat Interpol International Olympic Committee International Telecommunication Union International Trade Union Confederation NAM; Organisation of the Islamic Conference Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Universal Postal Union World Confederation of Labour World Intellectual Property Organization; World Meteorological Organization; World Tourism Organization World Trade Organization Diplomatic missions in Chad At present, the capital city of N'Djamena hosts 17 embassies, including those of the United States, Egypt, Algeria, Iraq, Sudan, Germany, the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nigeria, Cameroon, and the European Union. A number of other countries have nonresident ambassadors. Diplomatic missions of Chad Chad maintains embassies in 25 states. References | Foreign_relations_of_Chad |@lemmatized foreign:2 relation:17 chad:30 motivate:1 primarily:1 desire:1 outside:1 investment:1 chadian:3 industry:1 support:4 president:4 idriss:2 déby:4 officially:4 non:2 align:2 close:4 france:3 former:3 colonial:2 power:2 neighbour:1 libya:5 sudan:10 vary:1 periodically:1 lately:1 idris:1 regime:1 wag:1 intermittent:1 proxy:1 war:1 two:3 country:7 generally:1 good:1 neighboring:2 african:11 middle:2 eastern:2 although:4 improve:2 presidency:1 strain:1 persist:1 active:1 champion:1 regional:1 cooperation:1 central:5 economic:5 custom:2 union:7 lake:2 niger:2 river:1 basin:1 commission:3 interstate:1 fight:2 drought:1 sahel:1 delimitation:1 international:15 boundary:1 vicinity:1 lack:1 lead:1 border:3 incident:1 past:2 complete:1 awaits:1 ratification:1 cameroon:3 nigeria:4 despite:1 century:1 old:1 cultural:1 tie:5 arab:9 north:2 africa:2 maintain:3 significant:1 state:15 recognize:4 israel:1 since:1 françois:1 ngarta:1 tombalbaye:1 break:4 september:1 habré:3 hop:2 pursue:2 great:1 solidarity:2 nation:3 future:1 however:1 view:1 potential:1 opportunity:2 postcolonial:1 dependence:1 assert:1 unwillingness:1 serve:1 arena:1 superpower:1 rivalry:1 addition:1 northern:1 muslim:1 represent:1 constituency:1 favor:1 afro:1 islam:1 would:1 provide:2 basis:1 national:2 unity:2 long:1 term:1 reason:2 expect:1 seize:1 palestine:1 mission:3 n:6 djamena:6 several:1 libyan:2 claim:2 aozou:2 strip:2 algeria:3 among:1 outspoken:1 training:2 anti:1 force:1 recruit:2 program:1 fly:1 end:3 algiers:1 negotiate:1 lebanon:1 progressive:1 socialist:1 party:1 also:2 send:1 troop:3 qadhafi:1 effort:1 league:2 limit:1 involvement:1 expression:1 hope:1 dispute:3 could:1 settle:1 peacefully:1 canada:1 december:1 declare:1 belligerance:1 conflict:1 region:1 darfur:2 become:1 increasingly:1 bi:1 affair:1 increase:1 number:2 sudanese:4 flee:1 refugee:1 camp:2 government:5 militia:1 cross:3 strike:1 specific:1 ethnic:1 group:2 sign:4 tripoli:2 agreement:2 february:2 hostility:1 continue:1 august:3 resume:2 behest:1 muammar:1 al:1 gaddafi:1 see:1 battle:1 amdjereme:1 diplomatic:4 least:1 twice:1 believe:1 janjaweed:1 ufdc:1 rebel:2 financially:1 arm:1 accord:2 fail:1 fighting:1 recently:1 may:1 announce:2 cut:2 help:1 attack:2 capital:3 khartoum:1 western:2 station:1 receive:1 aid:2 european:2 community:4 united:3 various:1 organization:10 supply:1 ambassador:2 resident:1 traditionally:1 strong:1 weaken:1 year:1 due:1 world:6 bank:4 profit:1 petroleum:1 reserve:1 allocate:1 oil:1 output:1 west:1 resolve:1 resentment:1 towards:1 administration:1 consider:1 meddling:1 lingers:1 asian:1 republic:4 china:2 taiwan:2 financial:2 security:1 intention:1 people:1 hour:1 scheduled:1 official:1 visit:1 premier:1 su:1 tseng:1 chang:1 formally:1 prc:1 membership:1 belongs:1 following:1 un:1 specialize:1 relate:1 agency:2 udeac:1 franc:1 zone:1 francophone:1 caribbean:1 pacific:1 development:5 monetary:2 cemac:1 g:1 civil:1 aviation:1 red:4 crescent:2 movement:1 association:1 islamic:2 fund:2 agricultural:1 finance:1 corporation:1 federation:1 society:1 labour:2 intelsat:1 interpol:1 olympic:1 committee:1 telecommunication:1 trade:2 confederation:2 nam:1 organisation:2 conference:1 prohibition:1 chemical:1 weapon:1 universal:1 postal:1 intellectual:1 property:1 meteorological:1 tourism:1 present:1 city:1 host:1 embassy:2 include:1 egypt:1 iraq:1 germany:1 democratic:1 congo:1 nonresident:1 reference:1 |@bigram president_idriss:1 idriss_déby:2 n_djamena:6 nigeria_cameroon:2 muammar_al:1 al_gaddafi:1 diplomatic_relation:2 khartoum_sudan:1 monetary_fund:1 intelsat_interpol:1 universal_postal:1 diplomatic_mission:2 republic_congo:1 |
1,929 | Intelsat | Intelsat, Ltd. is the world’s largest commercial satellite communications services provider. Originally formed as International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), it was an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of communications satellites providing international broadcast services. As of 2007, Intelsat owns and operates a fleet of 51 communications satellites. In June 2007 BC Partners announced they had acquired 76 percent of Intelsat for about 3.75 billion euros. History INTELSAT I Early Bird An Intelsat IVA Satellite The Inter-Governmental Organization (IGO) began on August 20, 1964, with 11 participating countries. On April 6, 1965, Intelsat’s first satellite, the Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird), was placed in geostationary orbit above the Atlantic Ocean by a Delta D rocket. Intelsat logo from 1973 to 1998 In 1973, the name was changed and there were 80 signatories. Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies. By 2001, INTELSAT had over 100 members. It was also in this year when INTELSAT privatized and its name changed to Intelsat. Since its inception, Intelsat has used several versions (blocks) of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. INTELSAT completes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years. Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is Space Systems/Loral, having built 31 spacecraft (as of 2003), or nearly half of the fleet. Intelsat logo from 1998 to 2006The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. A failure of the Atlantic satellite in the spring of 1969 threatened to stop the Apollo 11 mission; a replacement satellite went into a bad orbit and could not be recovered in time; NASA had to resort to using undersea cable telephone circuits to bring Apollo's communications to NASA during the mission. Fortunately, during the Apollo 11 moonwalk, the moon was over the Pacific Ocean, and so other antennas were used, as well as INTELSAT III, which was in geostationary orbit of the Pacific. Commercialization Due to heavy lobbying by PanAmSat, a US satellite operator, the US congress passed the Open Market Reorganization for the Betterment of International Telecommunications (ORBIT) Act ORBIT Act in order to privatize the international organization. In April 1998, in order to appease the US government, Intelsat's senior management spun-off five of its older satellites to a private Dutch entity, New Skies Satellites, which soon became a direct competitor to INTELSAT. In order to avert the US government's interference with Intelsat, Intelsat's senior management unsuccessfully considered relocating the IGO to another country. Privatization On July 18, 2001, Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after being formed. In the period prior to Intelsat's privatization in 2001, ownership and investment in INTELSAT (measured in shares) was distributed among INTELSAT members according to their respective use of services. Investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. The organization’s primary source of revenue came from satellite usage fees which, after deduction of operating costs, was redistributed to INTELSAT members in proportion to their shares as repayment of capital and compensation for use of capital. Satellite services were available to any organization (both INTELSAT members and non-members), and all users paid the same rates. Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, allows rapid rerouting of traffic when one satellite fails. Modern satellites also are themselves more robust, lasting longer with much larger capacity. Current operation Intelsat headquarters in Washington, D.C. Intelsat was sold for U.S. $3.1bn in January 2005 to four private equity firms: Madison Dearborn Partners, Apax Partners, Permira and Apollo Management. The company acquired PanAmSat on July 3, 2006, and is now the world's largest provider of fixed satellite services, operating a fleet of 52 satellites in prime orbital locations. Intelsat maintains its corporate headquarters in Bermuda, with a majority of staff and satellite functions — administrative headquarters — located at the Intelsat Corporation offices in Washington, DC. A highly international business, Intelsat sources the majority of its revenue from non-U.S. located customers. Spacecraft operations are controlled through ground stations in Clarksburg, Maryland (USA), Hagerstown, Maryland (USA), Riverside, California (USA), and Fuchsstadt, Germany. http://www.intelsat.com/aboutus/careers/locations.aspx List of Intelsat locations Intelsat was operating Intelsat Americas-7 (known formerly as Telstar 7 and now known as Galaxy 27) which experienced a several-day power failure on November 29, 2004. http://portal.wikinerds.org/node/152 Wikinerds.org posting concerning IA-7 outage The satellite returned to service with reduced capacity. Gunter's Space Page - information on Galaxy 27 Renaming On February 1, 2007, Intelsat changed the names of 16 of its satellites formerly known under the Intelsat Americas and PanAmSat brands to Galaxy and Intelsat, respectively. http://www.intelsat.com/network/satellite/new-names.asp Further renaming information at Intelsat. Satellite name change table, http://www.intelsat.com/network/satellite/conversion-table.asp Satellite Details Satellite Coverage Map (HTML) Retired NameManufacturerSatellite typePayloadLaunch vehicleLaunch dateStatusIntelsat I (Early Bird)HughesDelta 306 Apr 1965RetiredIntelsat II F-1*HughesDelta 426 Apr 1966**De-orbited?Intelsat II F-2HughesDelta 4411 Jan 1967RetiredIntelsat II F-3HughesDelta 4722 Mar 1967RetiredIntelsat II F-4HughesDelta 5227 Sept 1967RetiredIntelsat III F-1TRWDelta 5918 Sept 1968Launch FailureIntelsat III F-2TRWDelta 6318 Dec 1968RetiredIntelsat III F-3TRWDelta 665 Feb 1969RetiredIntelsat III F-4TRWDelta 6821 May 1969RetiredIntelsat III F-5TRWDelta 7125 Jul 1969Launch FailureIntelsat III F-6TRWDelta 7514 Jan 1970RetiredIntelsat III F-7TRWDelta 7822 Apr 1970RetiredIntelsat III F-8TRWDelta 7923 Jul 1970 **De-orbited?Intelsat IV F-1HughesAtlas-Centaur 3522 May 1975RetiredIntelsat IV F-2HughesAtlas-Centaur 2525 Jan 1971RetiredIntelsat IV F-3HughesAtlas-Centaur 2619 Dec 1971RetiredIntelsat IV F-4HughesAtlas-Centaur 2822 Jan 1972RetiredIntelsat IV F-5HughesAtlas-Centaur 2913 Jun 1972RetiredIntelsat IV F-6HughesAtlas-Centaur 3320 Feb 1974Launch FailureIntelsat IV F-7HughesAtlas-Centaur 3123 Aug 1972RetiredIntelsat IV F-8HughesAtlas-Centaur 3221 Nov 1974RetiredIntelsat IV-A F-1HughesAtlas-Centaur 3625 Sept 1975RetiredIntelsat IV-A F-2HughesAtlas-Centaur 3729 Jan 1976RetiredIntelsat IV-A F-3HughesAtlas-Centaur 466 Jan 1978RetiredIntelsat IV-A F-4HughesAtlas-Centaur 3626 May 1977RetiredIntelsat IV-A F-5HughesAtlas-Centaur 4329 Sept 1977Launch FailureIntelsat IV-A F-6HughesAtlas-Centaur 4831 Mar 1978RetiredIntelsat V -501Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 5623 May 1981RetiredIntelsat V -502Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 546 Dec 1980RetiredIntelsat V -503Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 5515 Dec 1981RetiredIntelsat V -504Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 584 Mar 1982RetiredIntelsat V -505Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 6028 Sept 1982RetiredIntelsat V -506Ford AerospaceAtlas-Centaur 6119 May 1983RetiredIntelsat V -507Ford AerospaceAriane 1 V718 Oct 1983RetiredIntelsat V -508Ford AerospaceAriane 1 V84 Mar 1984RetiredIntelsat V -509Ford AerospaceAtlas G9 Jun 1984Launch FailureIntelsat V -510Ford AerospaceAtlas G22 Mar 1985RetiredIntelsat V -511Ford AerospaceAtlas G29 Jun 1985RetiredIntelsat V -512Ford AerospaceAtlas G28 Sept 1985RetiredIntelsat V -513Ford AerospaceAriane 2 V2317 May 1988RetiredIntelsat V -514Ford AerospaceAriane 2 V1830 May 1986Launch FailureIntelsat V -515Ford AerospaceAriane 2 V2826 Jan 1989RetiredIntelsat VI -601HughesAriane 44L V4729 Oct 1991RetiredIntelsat VI -602HughesAriane 44L V3427 Oct 1989RetiredIntelsat VI -603HughesCommercial Titan III14 Mar 1990**Spacecraft successfully re-boosted during STS-49 Mission, 7 May 1992Intelsat VI -604HughesCommercial Titan III23 Jun 1990RetiredIntelsat VI -605HughesAriane 4 V4514 Aug 1991RetiredIntelsat KGEAtlas IIA (AC-105)9 Jun 1992RetiredIntelsat VII-702Space Systems LoralAriane 44LP V6417 Jun 1994Intelsat VII-703Space Systems LoralAtlas IIA (AC-111)6 Oct 1994Intelsat VII-706Space Systems LoralAriane 44LP V7317 May 1995?Intelsat VII-708Space Systems LoralLong March 3B15 Feb 1996Launch Vehicle Failure NOTE: * "F" denotes "flight" version. Initial satellites at Intelsat were designed and manufactured as identical copies, where the flight number, for example Flight-2 (F-2) was used to differentiate individual satellites of the series. ** Titan upper stage failed to release. Active NameManufacturerSatellite typePayloadOrbital locationLaunch vehicleLaunch dateIntelsat 701Space Systems Loral180.0°EAriane 44LP V6022 Oct 1993Intelsat 704 Space Systems/Loral Selected to Provide Communications Satellite to Intelsat Space Systems Loral66°EAtlas IIA (AC-113)10 Jan 1995Intelsat 705Space Systems Loral50.0°WAtlas IIA (AC-115)22 Mar 1995Intelsat 707Space Systems Loral53.0°WAriane 44LP V8414 Mar 1996Intelsat 709Space Systems Loral85.2°EAriane 44P V8715 Jun 1996Intelsat 801Lockheed MartinLM-300031.5°WAriane 44P V9428 Feb 1997Intelsat 802Lockheed MartinLM-300032.9°EAriane 4 V9625 Jun 1997Intelsat 803Lockheed MartinLM-3000Ariane 4 V10023 Sep 1997Intelsat 804Lockheed MartinLM-3000Ariane 4 V10421 Dec 1997Intelsat 805Lockheed MartinLM-300055.5°WAtlas IIA (AC-153)18 Jun 1998Intelsat 806Lockheed MartinLM-3000Atlas IIA (AC-15127 Feb 1998Intelsat 901Space Systems LoralFS-130018.0°WAriane 44L-3 V1419 Jun 2001Intelsat 902Space Systems LoralFS-130062.0°EAriane 44L-3 V14329 Aug 2001Intelsat 903Space Systems LoralFS-130034.5°WProton-K/Block DM-3 #28L30 Mar 2002Intelsat 904Space Systems LoralFS-130060.0°EAriane 44L V14823 Feb 2002Intelsat 905Space Systems LoralFS-130024.5°WAriane 44L V1526 Jun 2002Intelsat 906Space Systems LoralFS-130064.2°EAriane 44L V1546 Sep 2002Intelsat 907Space Systems LoralFS-130027.5°WAriane 44L V15915 Feb 2003Intelsat 10-02AstriumSpacebus1.0°WProton-M/Briz-M16 Jun 2004Galaxy 28 (Intelsat Americas-8)Space Systems LoralFS-130089.0°WSea Launch Zenit-3SL23 Jun 2005Galaxy 16 (PanAmSat 16)Space Systems LoralFS-130099.0°WSea Launch Zenit-3SL18 Jun 2006Galaxy 17AlcatelFS-130091.0°WAriane 5-ECA V1765 May 2007Intelsat-11Orbital SciencesStar-243.1°WAriane 5GS V1785 Oct 2007Horizons-2Orbital SciencesStar-274.0°WAriane 5GS V18021 Dec 2007Galaxy 18 (PanAmSat Galaxy 18)Space Systems LoralFS-1300123.0°WSea Launch Zenit-3SL21 May 2008Galaxy 19 (Intelsat Americas 9)Space Systems LoralFS-130097.0°WSea Launch Zenit-3SL24 Sep 2008 Sea Launch delivered Galaxy 19 to GTO on September 24, 2008 using a Zenit rocket launched from its Ocean Odyssey floating platform. Galaxy 19 was built by Space Systems/Loral and carries 52 physical transponders. Intelsat will locate the satellite at 97 degrees West Longitude, with coverage of all 50 US states as well the Caribbean, Canada and Mexico. Satellites under construction As of December 2008, Intelsat has announced several upcoming satellite launches. NameSatellite typeOrbital locationLaunch dateLaunch vehiclePayloadIntelsat 14SS/L-130045 West27 August 2009Atlas V 43140 C and 22 Ku + Internet Router In Space (IRIS) Hosted PayloadIntelsat 15Orbital (Star-2 Bus)85 East4Q 2009Zenit-3SLB22 KuIntelsat 16Orbital (Star-2 Bus)58 West4Q 2009Proton24 KuIntelsat 17SS/L-130066 East4Q 2010Zenit-3SL24 C and 28 KuIntelsat New DawnOrbital (Star-2 Bus)33 East4Q 2010Ariane 5 or Soyuz14 C and 16 KuIntelsat 18Orbital (Star-2 Bus 2.4)180 East1Q 2011Zenit-3SLB40 C and 24 KuIntelsat 22Boeing Satellite Systems (BSS-702B)72 East1Q 2012TBD48 C and 24 KU and 18 UHF See also Eutelsat Inmarsat Intersputnik Intelsat Americas SES S.A. COMSAT Intelsat 708 External links Intelsat, Ltd. Market Developments in the Global Satellite Services Industry and the Implementation of the ORBIT Act GAO-05-550T April 14, 2005 Data Yahoo! - Intelsat, Ltd. Company Profile Pacific Satellite Fails References | Intelsat |@lemmatized intelsat:58 ltd:3 world:2 large:4 commercial:1 satellite:36 communication:5 service:8 provider:2 originally:1 form:2 international:5 telecommunication:2 organization:5 intergovernmental:1 consortium:1 owning:1 manage:1 constellation:1 provide:3 broadcast:1 operate:3 fleet:3 june:1 bc:1 partner:3 announce:2 acquire:2 percent:1 billion:1 euro:1 history:1 early:4 bird:3 iva:1 inter:1 governmental:1 igo:2 begin:1 august:2 participate:1 country:3 april:3 first:1 nickname:1 place:1 geostationary:2 orbit:8 atlantic:2 ocean:4 delta:1 rocket:2 logo:2 name:5 change:4 signatory:1 earth:1 station:2 territory:1 dependency:1 member:6 also:3 year:4 privatize:2 since:1 inception:1 use:7 several:3 version:2 block:3 dedicated:1 complete:1 spacecraft:5 independently:1 lead:1 variety:1 contractor:1 supplier:1 space:10 system:24 loral:3 build:2 nearly:1 half:1 network:3 robust:2 failure:3 spring:1 threaten:1 stop:1 apollo:4 mission:3 replacement:1 go:1 bad:1 could:1 recover:1 time:1 nasa:2 resort:1 undersea:1 cable:1 telephone:1 circuit:1 bring:1 fortunately:1 moonwalk:1 moon:1 pacific:3 antenna:1 well:3 iii:9 commercialization:1 due:1 heavy:1 lobbying:1 panamsat:5 u:7 operator:1 congress:1 pass:1 open:1 market:2 reorganization:1 betterment:1 act:3 order:3 appease:1 government:2 senior:2 management:3 spin:1 five:1 old:1 private:3 dutch:1 entity:1 new:3 sky:1 soon:1 become:2 direct:1 competitor:1 avert:1 interference:1 unsuccessfully:1 consider:1 relocate:1 another:1 privatization:2 july:2 company:3 period:1 prior:1 ownership:1 investment:2 measure:1 share:3 distribute:1 among:1 accord:1 respective:1 determine:1 percentage:1 total:1 contribution:1 need:1 finance:1 capital:3 expenditure:1 primary:1 source:2 revenue:2 come:1 usage:1 fee:1 deduction:1 operating:1 cost:1 redistribute:1 proportion:1 repayment:1 compensation:1 available:1 non:2 user:1 pay:1 rate:1 today:1 number:2 span:1 fibre:1 optic:1 line:1 allow:1 rapid:1 rerouting:1 traffic:1 one:1 fail:3 modern:1 lasting:1 longer:1 much:1 capacity:2 current:1 operation:2 headquarters:3 washington:2 c:6 sell:1 january:1 four:1 equity:1 firm:1 madison:1 dearborn:1 apax:1 permira:1 fix:1 prime:1 orbital:1 location:3 maintain:1 corporate:1 bermuda:1 majority:2 staff:1 function:1 administrative:1 locate:3 corporation:1 office:1 dc:1 highly:1 business:1 customer:1 control:1 ground:1 clarksburg:1 maryland:2 usa:3 hagerstown:1 riverside:1 california:1 fuchsstadt:1 germany:1 http:4 www:3 com:3 aboutus:1 career:1 aspx:1 list:1 america:4 know:3 formerly:2 telstar:1 galaxy:6 experience:1 day:1 power:1 november:1 portal:1 wikinerds:2 org:2 node:1 post:1 concern:1 ia:1 outage:1 return:1 reduced:1 gunter:1 page:1 information:2 rename:2 february:1 brand:1 respectively:1 asp:2 table:2 conversion:1 detail:1 coverage:2 map:1 html:1 retire:1 namemanufacturersatellite:2 typepayloadlaunch:1 vehiclelaunch:2 datestatusintelsat:1 hughesdelta:2 apr:3 ii:4 f:28 de:2 jan:8 mar:9 sept:6 failureintelsat:6 dec:6 feb:7 may:11 jul:2 iv:14 centaur:20 jun:14 aug:3 nov:1 v:16 aerospaceatlas:10 aerospaceariane:5 oct:6 vi:5 titan:3 successfully:1 boost:1 sts:1 kgeatlas:1 iia:6 ac:6 vii:4 loralariane:2 loralatlas:1 lorallong:1 march:1 vehicle:1 note:1 denote:1 flight:3 initial:1 design:1 manufacture:1 identical:1 copy:1 example:1 differentiate:1 individual:1 series:1 upper:1 stage:1 release:1 active:1 typepayloadorbital:1 locationlaunch:2 dateintelsat:1 eariane:6 select:1 eatlas:1 watlas:2 wariane:8 martinlm:6 sep:3 loralfs:11 wproton:2 k:1 dm:1 briz:1 wsea:4 launch:7 zenit:5 eca:1 sciencesstar:2 americas:1 sea:1 deliver:1 gto:1 september:1 odyssey:1 float:1 platform:1 carry:1 physical:1 transponder:1 degree:1 west:1 longitude:1 state:1 caribbean:1 canada:1 mexico:1 construction:1 december:1 upcoming:1 namesatellite:1 typeorbital:1 datelaunch:1 vehiclepayloadintelsat:1 l:2 ku:2 internet:1 router:1 iris:1 host:1 payloadintelsat:1 star:4 bus:4 kuintelsat:5 dawnorbital:1 bs:1 uhf:1 see:1 eutelsat:1 inmarsat:1 intersputnik:1 ses:1 comsat:1 external:1 link:1 development:1 global:1 industry:1 implementation:1 gao:1 data:1 yahoo:1 profile:1 reference:1 |@bigram inter_governmental:1 geostationary_orbit:2 atlantic_ocean:1 undersea_cable:1 pacific_ocean:1 fibre_optic:1 private_equity:1 equity_firm:1 washington_dc:1 http_www:3 v_aerospaceatlas:10 aerospaceatlas_centaur:6 v_aerospaceariane:5 iia_ac:6 eutelsat_inmarsat:1 external_link:1 |
1,930 | Fluorescence | Fluorescent minerals Fluorescence is a luminescence that is mostly found as an optical phenomenon in cold bodies, in which the molecular absorption of a photon triggers the emission of a photon with a longer (less energetic) wavelength. The energy difference between the absorbed and emitted photons ends up as molecular rotations, vibrations or heat. Sometimes the absorbed photon is in the ultraviolet range, and the emitted light is in the visible range, but this depends on the absorbance curve and Stokes shift of the particular fluorophore. The term 'fluorescence' was coined by George Gabriel Stokes in his 1852 paper; the name was given as a description of the essence of the mineral fluorite, composed of calcium fluoride, which gave a visible emission when illuminated with "invisible radiation" (UV radiation). Equations Photochemistry Fluorescence occurs when a molecule, atom or nanostructure relaxes to its ground state after being electrically excited. Excitation: Fluorescence (emission): , here is a generic term for photon energy with h = Planck's constant and = frequency of light. (The specific frequencies of exciting and emitted light are dependent on the particular system.) State S0 is called the ground state of the fluorophore (fluorescent molecule) and S1 is its first (electronically) excited state. A molecule in its excited state, S1, can relax by various competing pathways. It can undergo 'non-radiative relaxation' in which the excitation energy is dissipated as heat (vibrations) to the solvent. Excited organic molecules can also relax via conversion to a triplet state which may subsequently relax via phosphorescence or by a secondary non-radiative relaxation step. Relaxation of an S1 state can also occur through interaction with a second molecule through fluorescence quenching. Molecular oxygen (O2) is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence because of its unusual triplet ground state. Molecules that are excited through light absorption or via a different process (e.g. as the product of a reaction) can transfer energy to a second 'sensitized' molecule, which is converted to its excited state and can then fluoresce. This process is used in lightsticks. Quantum yield The fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed. The maximum fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0 (100%); every photon absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent. Another way to define the quantum yield of fluorescence, is by the rates excited state decay: where is the rate of spontaneous emission of radiation and is the sum of all rates of excited state decay. Other rates of excited state decay are caused by mechanisms other than photon emission and are therefore often called "non-radiative rates", which can include: dynamic collisional quenching, near-field dipole-dipole interaction (or resonance energy transfer), internal conversion and intersystem crossing. Thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, this will affect both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield. Fluorescence quantum yield are measured by comparison to a standard with known quantology; the quinine salt, quinine sulfate, in a sulfuric acid solution is a common fluorescence standard. Lifetime The fluorescence lifetime refers to the average time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon. Fluorescence typically follows first-order kinetics: where is the concentration of excited state molecules at time , is the initial concentration and is the decay rate or the inverse of the fluorescence lifetime. This is an instance of exponential decay. Various radiative and non-radiative processes can de-populate the excited state. In such case the total decay rate is the sum over all rates: where is the total decay rate, the radiative decay rate and the non-radiative decay rate. It is similar to a first-order chemical reaction in which the first-order rate constant is the sum of all of the rates (a parallel kinetic model). If the rate of spontaneous emission, or any of the other rates are fast, the lifetime is short. For commonly used fluorescent compounds typical excited state decay times for fluorescent compounds that emit photons with energies from the UV to near infrared are within the range of 0.5 to 20 nanoseconds. The fluorescence lifetime is an important parameter for practical applications of fluorescence such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Rules There are several rules that deal with fluorescence. The Kasha–Vavilov rule dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation. This is not always true and is violated severely in many simple molecules. A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation. The Jablonski diagram describes most of the relaxation mechanism for excited state molecules. Applications There are many natural and synthetic compounds that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications. Some deep-sea animals, such as the Greeneye, use fluorescence. Lighting Fluorescent paint and plastic lit by UV tubes. The common fluorescent tube relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit light. The emitted light is in the ultraviolet (UV) range, is invisible, and is harmful to most living organisms. The tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the phosphor, which absorbs the ultraviolet and re-emits visible light. Fluorescent lighting is very energy efficient compared to incandescent technology, but the spectra produced may cause certain colours to appear unnatural. In the mid 1990s, white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) became available, which work through a similar process. Typically, the actual light-emitting semiconductor produces light in the blue part of the spectrum, which strikes a phosphor compound deposited on the chip; the phosphor fluoresces from the green to red part of the spectrum. The combination of the blue light that goes through the phosphor and the light emitted by the phosphor produce a net emission of white light. The modern mercury vapor streetlight is said to have been evolved from the fluorescent lamp. Glow sticks oxidise phenyl oxalate ester in order to produce light. Compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) is the same as any typical fluorescent lamp with advantages. It is self-ballasted and used to replace incandescents in most applications. They produce a quarter of the heat per lumen as incandescent bulbs and last about five times as long. These bulbs contain mercury and must be handled and disposed with care. The disadvantages to the self-ballasting properties of compact fluorescent is that they may not fit properly in all light fixtures. Some fluorescent lights have a significant delay in turning on compared to incandescents, a disadvantage in some applications. Additionally, the technology which allows them to be 'plug-and-play' also significantly reduces their life-span and reliability in dimming applications. Analytical chemistry Fluorescence in several wavelengths can be detected by an array detector, to detect compounds from HPLC flow. Also, TLC plates can be visualized if the compounds or a coloring reagent is fluorescent. Fluorescence is most effective when there is a larger ratio of atoms at lower energy levels in a Boltzmann distribution. There is then a higher probability of lower energy atoms being excited and releasing photons, making analysis more efficient. Fingerprints can be visualized with fluorescent compounds such as ninhydrin. Biochemistry and medicine Biological molecules can be tagged with a fluorescent chemical group (fluorophore) by a simple chemical reaction, and the fluorescence of the tag enables sensitive and quantitative detection of the molecule. Examples: Fluorescence microscopy of tissues, cells or subcellular structures is accomplished by labeling an antibody with a fluorophore and allowing the antibody to find its target antigen within the sample. Labeling multiple antibodies with different fluorophores allows visualization of multiple targets within a single image. Automated sequencing of DNA by the chain termination method; each of four different chain terminating bases has its own specific fluorescent tag. As the labeled DNA molecules are separated, the fluorescent label is excited by a UV source, and the identity of the base terminating the molecule is identified by the wavelength of the emitted light. Ethidium bromide stained agarose gel. Ethidium bromide fluoresces orange when intercalating DNA and when exposed to UV light. DNA detection: the compound ethidium bromide, when free to change its conformation in solution, has very little fluorescence. Ethidium bromide's fluorescence is greatly enhanced when it binds to DNA, so this compound is very useful in visualising the location of DNA fragments in agarose gel electrophoresis. Ethidium bromide can be toxic - a safer alternative is the dye SYBR Green. The DNA microarray Immunology: An antibody has a fluorescent chemical group attached, and the sites (e.g., on a microscopic specimen) where the antibody has bound can be seen, and even quantified, by the fluorescence. FACS (fluorescent-activated cell sorting) Fluorescence has been used to study the structure and conformations of DNA and proteins with techniques such as Fluorescence resonance energy transfer, which measures distance at the angstrom level. This is especially important in complexes of multiple biomolecules. Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria, has become an extremely important research tool. GFP and related proteins are used as reporters for any number of biological events including such things as sub-cellular localization. Levels of gene expression are sometimes measured by linking a gene for GFP production to another gene. Also, many biological molecules have an intrinsic fluorescence that can sometimes be used without the need to attach a chemical tag. Sometimes this intrinsic fluorescence changes when the molecule is in a specific environment, so the distribution or binding of the molecule can be measured. Bilirubin, for instance, is highly fluorescent when bound to a specific site on serum albumin. Zinc protoporphyrin, formed in developing red blood cells instead of hemoglobin when iron is unavailable or lead is present, has a bright fluorescence and can be used to detect these problems. As of 2006, the number of fluorescence applications is growing in the biomedical, biological and related sciences. Methods of analysis in these fields are also growing, albeit with increasingly unfortunate nomenclature in the form of acronyms such as: FLIM, FLI, FLIP, CALI, FLIE, FRET, FRAP, FCS, PFRAP, smFRET, FIONA, FRIPS, SHREK, SHRIMP or TIRF. Most of these techniques rely on fluorescence microscopes. These microscopes use high intensity light sources, usually mercury or xenon lamps, LEDs, or lasers, to excite fluorescence in the samples under observation. Optical filters then separate excitation light from emitted fluorescence, to be detected by eye, or with a (CCD) camera or other light detectors (photomultiplier tubes, spectrographs, etc). Much research is underway to improve the capabilities of such microscopes, the fluorescent probes used, and the applications they are applied to. Of particular note are confocal microscopes, which use a pinhole to achieve optical sectioning – affording a quantitative, 3D view of the sample. Gemology, mineralogy, geology, and forensics Gemstones, minerals, fibers, and many other materials which may be encountered in forensics or with a relationship to various collectibles may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short-wave ultraviolet, long-wave ultra violet, or X-rays. Many types of calcite and amber will fluoresce under shortwave UV. Rubies, emeralds, and the Hope Diamond exhibit red fluorescence under short-wave UV light; diamonds also emit light under X ray radiation. Crude oil (petroleum) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull brown for heavy oils and tars through to bright yellowish and bluish white for very light oils and condensates. This phenomenon is used in oil exploration drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples. Organic liquids Organic liquids such as mixtures of anthracene in benzene, toluene, or stilbene in the same solvents, fluoresce with ultraviolet or gamma ray irradiation. The decay times of this fluorescence is of the order of nanoseconds since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene. See also Absorption-re-emission atomic line filters use the phenomenon of fluorescence to filter light extremely effectively. Black light Blacklight paint Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy Fluorescence in plants: natural and modified Fluorescence spectroscopy Fluorescent multilayer card Fluorescent Multilayer Disc Fluorescent lamp Fluorometer High-visibility clothing Laser-induced fluorescence List of light sources Phosphorescence X-ray fluorescence External links Fluorescence Applications Spanning the UV, Vis, and NIR by Photon Technology International Inc. Fluorescence Applications & Instruments Slideshows | HORIBA Jobin Yvon Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database Carl Zeiss Interactive Fluorescence Dye and Filter Database. ISS Fluorescence Lifetime Standards Tables ISS Fluorescence Probes Data Tables The Fluorescence Foundation Fluorophores.org The database of fluorescent dyes Jablonski diagram Fluorescence on Scienceworld Basic Concepts in Fluorescence Scorpion detection using UV LEDs Immunofluorescence Protocol An example of use of fluorescence in generating cellular images Difference between flourescence and glow in the dark More examples how the fluorescence can be used Fluorescence in digital Photography The Influence of Fluorescence in the World of Art Fluorescence control by Photonic Crystals - ICMM The Fluorescent Mineral Society Fluorescence in Practice Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics "A nano-history of fluorescence" lecture by David Jameson Exitation and emmision spectra of various fluorescent dyes Manawatu Microscopy - first known collaboration environment for Microscopy and Image Analysis featuring Open DataBase of Fluorescent Dyes and Stains and their applications. Further reading Lakowicz, J.R. 2006. Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, Third Edition, Plenum Press, New York. ISBN 0-387-31278-1. Valeur, B. 2001. Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and Applications, Wiley-VCH. ISBN 352729919X . Guilbault, G.G. 1990. Practical Fluorescence, Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. 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1,931 | Bill_Mumy | Charles William "Bill" Mumy, Jr. (; born February 1, 1954), is an American actor, musician, pitchman, instrumentalist, voice-over artist and a figure in the science-fiction community. He is known primarily for his roles in movies and television, character-type roles, and who also works in television production. The red-headed Mumy came to prominence in the 1960s as a child actor, most notably as Will Robinson, the youngest of the three children of Prof. John and Dr. Maureen Robinson (Guy Williams and June Lockhart) and friend of the nefarious and pompous Dr. Zachary Smith (Jonathan Harris), in the cult 1960s CBS sci-fi television series Lost in Space. He later appeared as a lonely teenager, Sterling North, in the 1969 Disney movie, Rascal, and as Teft in the 1971 film Bless the Beasts and Children. In the 1990s, he had the role of Lennier in the syndicated sci-fi TV series Babylon 5, and he also served as narrator of A&E Network's Emmy Award-winning series, Biography. He is also notable for his musical career, as half of the duo Barnes & Barnes. Life Early life and career Mumy was born in San Gabriel, California, the son of Muriel Gertrude (née Gould) and Charles William Mumy, Sr., a cattle rancher. He began his professional career at the age of six, and has worked on over 400 television episodes, 18 motion pictures, various commercials, and scores of voice over work, as well as working as a musician, songwriter, recording artist and writer. Television career Billy Mumy as Will Robinson in his first major acting role. He is well known as a player in the original The Twilight Zone, especially in the episode, "It's a Good Life," where he played the all-powerful and evil child "Anthony" who completely dominates and terrorizes his town. Mumy also played the character of young Pip, a boy who enjoyed playing with his father but was always ignored, in the episode, "In Praise of Pip," and the character of Billy Bayles, a boy who talks to his dead grandmother through a toy telephone, in the episode, "Long Distance Call." He later played an adult Anthony, whose daughter (played by his daughter, Liliana Mumy) has similar powers, in the second revival of The Twilight Zone. In 1963, at the age of eight, he appeared in Jack Palance's ABC circus drama The Greatest Show on Earth. The next year, he appeared as (1) David Janssen's nephew in ABC's The Fugitive in the fifteenth episode entitled "Home Is The Hunted", (2) as Barry in the episode entitled "Sunday Father" of the NBC medical drama The Eleventh Hour, (3) as Billy (himself) three times in the ABC sitcom The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, and (4) co-starring with Michael McGreevey and Roger Mobley in the Disney film For the Love of Willadena, and as a troubled orphan taken home with Darrin and Samantha Stevens in the Bewitched first season episode entitled "A Vision of Sugarplums." Mumy was the first choice for the 1965 role of Eddie Munster, but his parents objected because of the extensive make-up, and the role went to Butch Patrick; Billy did appear in one episode as a friend of Eddie. He is probably best known as Will Robinson from the classic 1965-68 television series Lost in Space, and as ambassadorial aide Lennier from the 1990s popular syndicated series Babylon 5. Mumy has garnered the most praise from sci-fi fandom for his portrayal of these two characters. He played a Starfleet member in the acclaimed Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Siege of AR-558". To his delight, he plays a human character who assists Ezri Dax in turning cloaked Dominion mines against an army of Jem'hadar. His most recent acting performances can be seen in a 2006 episode of Crossing Jordan and the Sci Fi original film A.I. Assault. Voice-over career Mumy has narrated over 50 episodes of the Arts & Entertainment Channel's Biography series, as well as hosting and narrating several other documentaries and specials for A & E, Animal Planet network, The Sci Fi Channel, and E!. His voice over acting talents can be heard on animated shows like Ren and Stimpy, Scooby Doo, Batman: The Animated Series, Steven Spielberg's Animaniacs, Little Wizard Adventures, The Oz Kids and Disney's Buzz Lightyear of Star Command. He also voices dozens of national commercials, such as Farmers Insurance, Ford, Bud Ice, Blockbuster, Twix, Oscar Mayer, and McDonald's. Music career Mumy is an accomplished musician who plays guitar, bass, keyboards, banjo, mandolin, harmonica, and percussion. Among his various musical credits, Bill has recorded and written songs with America, toured with Shaun Cassidy, and played in Rick Springfield's band in the film, Hard to Hold. He also created the band The Be Five with other Babylon 5 actors. Along with comic book artists who also are musicians, he'll perform at SDCC in a band called Seduction of the Innocent. Mumy has released a number of solo CDs, including Dying to Be Heard, In the Current, Pandora's Box, After Dreams Come True, Los Angeles Times, and Ghosts, as well as nine albums with partner Robert Haimer as Barnes and Barnes. Their most famous hit is the song "Fish Heads", which was named as one of the top 100 videos of all time by Rolling Stone magazine. Friendship with Jonathan Harris At age 11, in 1965, Mumy began working with Jonathan Harris on Lost in Space, and the two became close friends, both on and off set. He would also spend time with Harris's family, while not working on "Space" or taking a hiatus from the show. In 1996, it was mentioned that Mumy was also reunited with Harris, again, at a Walt Disney convention in Orlando, Florida, before Mumy worked with Harris on Lost In Space: Forever, a couple of years later, where Mumy wrote the script and Harris rewrote the lines. This was done one year after the rest of the cast (including both Mumy & Harris) appeared inside TV Guide and said that the Sci Fi Channel had planned to do a Lost in Space marathon while promoting a new movie. Harris was involved in the movie, Lost in Space: The Journey Home, with him, but died before production started in 2002, and Mumy attended his series' star's funeral, where he read the eulogy. After Harris's death on November 3, 2002, Mumy was asked to narrate his longtime friend's life on A&E Biography, that same year. Personal life Unlike many child actors, Mumy entered the profession at his own insistence, and his parents took pains to make sure he matured properly in his job. His father, who was a cattle rancher, carefully invested his son's income, and thereby avoided problems encountered by other child actors of his period. He currently lives in Hollywood Hills, California, with his wife, Eileen, and their two accomplished child-actor children, Seth and Liliana. Filmography Year Title Role 1960 The Wizard of Baghdad Aladdin (uncredited) 1961 Tammy Tell Me True Neil Bateman (uncredited) 1963 A Child Is Waiting Boy counting Jean's pearls 1963 A Ticklish Affair Alex Martin 1963 Palm Springs Weekend 'Boom Boom' Yates 1965 Dear Brigitte Erasmus Leaf 1968 Wild in the Streets Boy 1969 Rascal Sterling North 1971 Bless the Beasts and Children Teft 1973 Papillon Lariot 1982 Fish Heads Art Barnes 1983 Twilight Zone: The Movie Tim (Segment #3) 1984 Hard to Hold Keyboard Player 1991 Captain America Young General Fleming 1992 Double Trouble Bob 1995 Three Wishes Neighbor 1997 The Monkey Prince Voice of Sam 1997 Underground Adventure Voice of Sam 1997 The Weird Al Show UPS guy 2004 Comic Book: The Movie Himself 2005 Holly Hobbie and Friends: Surprise Party(Direct to DVD) Voice of Bud (Amy's father) 2006 A.I. 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1,932 | Neville_Chamberlain | Arthur Neville Chamberlain (18 March 1869 – 9 November 1940) was a British Conservative politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1940. Chamberlain is best known for appeasement foreign policy, in particular regarding his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany, and for his "containment" policy of Germany in 1939 that culminated in declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939. After working in business and local government and a short spell as Director of National Service in 1916 and 1917, Chamberlain followed his father and older half-brother in becoming a Member of Parliament in the 1918 general election at age 49. He declined a junior ministerial position, remaining a backbencher until he was appointed Postmaster General after the 1922 general election. He was rapidly promoted in 1923 to Minister of Health and then Chancellor of the Exchequer but presented no budget before the government fell in 1924. He returned as Minister of Health, introducing a range of reform measures from 1924 to 1929. He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the coalition National Government in 1931 and spent six years reducing the war debt and the tax burden. When Stanley Baldwin retired after the abdication of Edward VIII and the coronation of George VI, Chamberlain took his place as Prime Minister in 1937. In 1938, he returned the so-called Treaty Ports to the Irish Free State. Chamberlain was forced to resign the premiership on 10 May 1940, after Germany invaded the Netherlands, Belgium and France. He was succeeded by Winston Churchill but remained very well regarded in Parliament. Before ill health forced him to resign, he was an important member of Churchill's War Cabinet. He had a key role in the formation of the Special Operations Executive. Chamberlain died of cancer six months after leaving the premiership. Early life Chamberlain was born in a house called Southbourne, in the Edgbaston district of Birmingham, England. Andrew J. Crozier, 'Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville (1869–1940)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2006 http://0-www.oxforddnb.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk:80/view/article/32347 accessed 20 December 2007 He was the eldest son of the second marriage of Joseph Chamberlain, Lord Mayor of Birmingham, and a half-brother (and cousin through their mothers) to Austen, later Sir Austen. Joseph's first wife died giving birth to Austen; Peter T. Marsh, 'Chamberlain, Joseph (1836–1914)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2007 http://0-www.oxforddnb.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk:80/view/article/32350 accessed 20 December 2007 Neville's mother also died in childbirth in 1875, when Neville was six years old. The Chamberlain children found their relations with their father strained, and Neville grew up developing strong bonds with those siblings who were closest to him in age, most notably his sisters Ida and Hilda, to whom he wrote every week while away from them. Neville Chamberlain was a cousin of actor Alan Napier. Chamberlain was educated at Rugby School. At first he declined to join the school debating society, changing his mind only in 1886 when he spoke in favour of preserving the United Kingdom, agreeing with his Liberal Unionist father's opposition over Irish Home Rule. It was during this period that Chamberlain developed a love of botany, and later became a fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society. He was also fascinated by ornithology and fishing. Chamberlain had a passion for music and literature, and in later life would often quote William Shakespeare in public debates. After leaving school, Chamberlain became a student at Mason Science College (later the University of Birmingham), as one of only eleven Prime Ministers not to have attended either Oxford or Cambridge universities. He studied science, mathematics and metallurgy and shortly after completing his studies became apprenticed to an accounting firm. In 1890, Joseph Chamberlain's finances took a downturn, and he decided, against better advice from his brothers, to try growing sisal in the Bahamas. Neville and Austen were sent to the Americas to investigate the island of Andros, which seemed a good prospect for a plantation, but the crops failed in the unsuitable environment, and by 1896 the business was shut down at a heavy loss. Neville Chamberlain's later ventures at home were more successful. He served as chairman of several manufacturing firms in Birmingham, including Elliots (a metal goods manufacturer) and Hotskins (a cabin berth manufacturer). Cherry, Gordon E Birmingham A Study in Geography, History and Planning (1994) ISBN 0-471-94900-0 He gained a reputation for being a hands-on manager, taking a strong interest in the day-to-day running of affairs. Lord Mayor of Birmingham Although he campaigned for his father and brother during elections, Chamberlain did not enter politics on his own behalf until November 1911 when he was elected to Birmingham City Council and immediately became chairman of the Town Planning Committee. That January, though he had settled into bachelorhood, he married Anne Vere Cole, with whom he had two children, a daughter, Dorothy Ethel (1911-1994; m. Stephen Lloyd) and a son, Francis Neville Francis Neville Chamberlain (1914-1965; m. Parrott). Under Chamberlain's direction, Birmingham soon adopted one of the first town planning schemes in Britain. In 1913, he took charge of a committee looking at housing conditions. The interim report of the committee could not be implemented immediately because of the war, but it did much to show Chamberlain's vision of improvements to housing. In 1915, like his father before him, he became Lord Mayor of Birmingham. Within the first two months, he had won government approval to increase the electricity supply, and he organised the use of coal as part of the war effort; he also prevented a strike by council workers. During this time he assisted in the creation of the Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and the establishment of the Birmingham Municipal Bank, the only one of its type in the country, which aimed to encourage savings to pay for the war loan. The bank proved highly successful and lasted until 1976. Chamberlain was re-elected Lord Mayor in 1916, but he did not complete his term. Early ministerial career In December 1916, Chamberlain was in London when he received a message asking him to meet the new Prime Minister, David Lloyd George. In a brief meeting, Lloyd George offered Chamberlain the new position of Director of National Service, with responsibility for coordinating conscription and ensuring that essential war industries were able to function with sufficient workforces. Chamberlain had been recommended for the position by several people, including his brother Austen, and he agreed to accept the post; despite several interviews, however, he was left unclear about many aspects of the job. Over the following eight months only a few thousand volunteers were placed in industry. Chamberlain clashed several times with Lloyd George, who had taken a strong dislike to him, thus making the position even harder to operate. Chamberlain resigned in 1917. He and Lloyd George retained a mutual contempt that lasted throughout their political careers. Embittered by his failure, Chamberlain decided to stand in the next general election, when he was elected, at age 49 — by far the oldest age for any future Prime Minister entering Parliament to date — for Birmingham Ladywood. He was offered a junior post at the Ministry of Health but declined it, refusing to serve a Lloyd George government. He also declined a knighthood. Chamberlain spent the next four years as a Conservative backbencher, despite his half-brother Austen becoming leader of Conservative MPs in 1921. In October 1922, discontent amongst Conservatives against the Lloyd George Coalition Government erupted. At a meeting at the Carlton Club, the majority of MPs voted to leave the coalition, even though it meant abandoning their current leadership, since Austen had pledged to support Lloyd George. Neville was on his way home from Canada at the time of the meeting and so was not forced to choose between supporting his brother's leadership and bringing down a man he despised. The new Conservative Prime Minister, Andrew Bonar Law, offered Chamberlain the position of Postmaster General, outside Cabinet. There was much discussion amongst the Chamberlain family as to whether he should accept; in the end, Austen reluctantly agreed to allow Neville to accept the post. He also became a member of the Privy Council. In 1922, the Conservatives won the general election, but the Minister of Health, Sir Arthur Griffith-Boscawen, lost his seat and failed to win a by-election. To fill the position, Law chose Chamberlain. In this position, he introduced a Housing Act that provided subsidies for private companies building affordable housing as a first step towards a programme of slum clearances. He also introduced the Rent Restriction Act, which limited evictions and required rents to be linked to the property's state of repair. Chamberlain's main interest lay in housing, and becoming the Minister of Health gave him a chance to spread these ideas on a national basis. These ideas stemmed from his father, Joseph Chamberlain. The following month Stanley Baldwin became Prime Minister and after serving as his own Chancellor of the Exchequer for three months whilst he sought a successor, he promoted Chamberlain to a position which he held until the government fell in January 1924. His first Chancellorship was unusual in that he presented no budget. Chamberlain remained one of the leading Conservative figures, but he faced a significant challenge in the 1924 general election from Oswald Mosley, head of the Labour Party in Birmingham. After a tense series of recounts, Chamberlain was elected by a mere 77 votes; in subsequent elections he stood in a safer seat. The Conservatives formed a new government, but Chamberlain declined a second term as Chancellor of the Exchequer, choosing to become Minister of Health again. Over the next four and a half years, he successfully introduced 21 pieces of legislation, the boldest of which was perhaps the Rating and Valuation Act 1925, which radically altered local government finance. The act transferred the power to raise rates from the Poor Law boards of guardians to local councils, introduced a single basis and method of assessment for evaluating rates, and enacted a process of quinquennial valuations. The measure established Chamberlain as a strong social reformer, but it angered some in his own party. He followed it with the Local Government Act 1929, which abolished the boards of guardians altogether, transferring their powers to local government and eliminating workhouses. The act also eliminated rates paid by agriculture and reduced those paid by businesses, a measure forced by Winston Churchill and the Exchequer; the result was a strong piece of legislation that won Chamberlain much acclaim. Another prominent piece of legislation was the Widows, Orphans, and Old Age Pensions Act 1925, which did much to foster the development of the embryonic Welfare State in Britain. Becoming the heir apparent of the Conservative Party In the 1929 general election, Chamberlain changed his constituency from Birmingham Ladywood to Birmingham Edgbaston and held it easily, but the Conservative Party lost the election and entered a period of internal conflict. In 1930 Chamberlain became Chairman of the Conservative Party for a year and was widely seen as the next leader. However, Stanley Baldwin survived the conflict over his leadership and retained it for another seven years. During this period, Chamberlain founded and became the first head of the Conservative Research Department. During these two years out of power, Baldwin's leadership came in for much criticism. Many in politics, Conservative or otherwise, urged the introduction of protective tariffs, an issue which had caused conflict on and off for the last 30 years. Chamberlain was inclined towards tariffs, having a personal desire to see his father's last campaign vindicated. The press baron Lord Beaverbrook launched a campaign for "Empire Free Trade", meaning the removal of tariffs within the British Empire and the erection of external tariffs; he was supported in his opposition to Baldwin by Lord Rothermere, who also opposed Baldwin's support for Indian independence. Their main newspapers, the Daily Express and Daily Mail respectively, criticised Baldwin and stirred up discontent within the party. At one point, Beaverbrook and Rothermere created the United Empire Party, which stood in by-elections and tried to get Conservatives to adopt its platform. Chamberlain found himself in the difficult position of supporting his leader, even though he disagreed with Baldwin's handling of the issue and was best placed to succeed if he did resign. Baldwin stood his ground, first winning a massive vote of confidence within his party and then taking on the challenge of the United Empire Party at the Westminster St. George's by-election in 1931. The official Conservative candidate was victorious, and Chamberlain found his position as the clear heir to Baldwin established, especially after Churchill's resignation from the Conservative Business Committee over Indian Home Rule. Chamberlain and Baldwin were strong political partners throughout their fourteen years at the height of politics together, but Chamberlain was frustrated by Baldwin's sense of detachment and disinterest in the detail of policy, while Baldwin found Chamberlain's low opinion of the Labour Party disappointing. Despite their disagreements, their partnership proved to be effective. Formation of the National Government While the Conservative Party settled internal matters, the Labour Government faced a massive economic crisis as currencies collapsed and speculators turned towards the United Kingdom. Matters were not helped by the publication of the May Report, which revealed that the budget was unbalanced. The revelation triggered a crisis of confidence in the pound, and Labour ministers grappled with the proposed budget cuts. Given the possibility that the Government could fall, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald met regularly with delegations from both the Conservatives and Liberals. Baldwin spent much of the summer in France, so Chamberlain was the primary leader of the Conservative delegation; he soon came to the conclusion that the best solution was a National Government of politicians drawn from all parties, which would be able to push through budget cuts without inflicting blame on any individual party, splitting the Labour Party as a convenient side effect. He also believed that a National Government would have the greatest chance of introducing tariffs. As the political situation deteriorated, Chamberlain argued strongly for coalition, eventually convincing both Baldwin and MacDonald that this was the best outcome. King George V and the acting Liberal leader Sir Herbert Samuel, among others, were also convinced. Finally, on 24 August 1931, the Labour government resigned and MacDonald formed a National Government. Chamberlain once more returned to the Ministry of Health with the specific task of encouraging local authorities to make cuts to their expenditure. Return to the Exchequer After the 1931 general election, Chamberlain became Chancellor of the Exchequer a second time. As Chancellor, Chamberlain hoped to introduce protective tariffs, but the economic situation threatened government unity; at the general election, the parties supporting the government had agreed to ask for a "Doctor's mandate" to enact any legislation necessary to resolve the economic situation. Now the government, made up of Conservatives, Liberals, National Labour, and Liberal Nationals, faced a major crisis. The government agreed that no immediate steps would be taken; instead, the issue was referred to a subcommittee of the Cabinet — whose members were largely in favour of tariffs. In the meantime, Chamberlain introduced the Abnormal Importations Bill, which allowed temporary duties to be imposed if importers seemed to be taking advantage of government delays. The Cabinet committee reported in favour, albeit not unanimously, of introducing a general tariff of 10%, with exceptions for certain goods such as produce from the Dominions and colonies, as well as higher tariffs for excessively high imports or for particular industries which needed safeguarding. In addition, the government would negotiate with Dominion governments to secure trading agreements within the British Empire, promoting Chamberlain's father's vision of the Empire as an economically self-sufficient unit. The Liberals in the Cabinet, together with Lord Snowden, refused to accept this and threatened resignation. However, on the suggestion of Lord Hailsham, the government agreed to suspend the principle of collective responsibility and allow the free-traders to publicly oppose the introduction of tariffs without giving up membership in the government. This unprecedented move had the effect of keeping the National Government together at this stage, but Chamberlain would have preferred to force the Liberals' resignations from the government, despite his reluctance to lose Snowden. Nevertheless, when he announced the policy in the House of Commons on 4 February 1932, he considered it "the greatest day of his life". For effect, he used his father's former dispatch box from his time at the Colonial Office and made great play in his speech of the rare moment when a son was able to complete his father's work. At the end of his speech, Austen walked down from the back benches and shook Neville's hand amid great applause. Later that year, Chamberlain travelled to Ottawa, Canada, with a delegation of Cabinet ministers who intended to negotiate free trade within the Empire. The resulting Ottawa Agreement did not live up to expectations, most Dominion governments were reluctant to allow British goods in their markets. A series of bilateral agreements increased the tariffs on goods from outside the Empire even further, but there was still little direct increase in internal trade. The agreement was sufficient, however, to drive Snowden and the Liberals out of the National Government; Chamberlain welcomed this, believing that all the forces supporting the government would eventually combine into a single "National Party". During his tenure as Chancellor, Chamberlain emerged as the most active minister of the government. In successive budgets he sought to undo the harsh budget cuts of 1931; he also took a lead in ending war debts, which were finally cancelled at a conference at Lausanne in 1932. In June 1933, Britain hosted the World Monetary and Economic Conference. Describing the event as the "most crucial gathering since Versailles", top U.S. newsmagazine Time featured Chamberlain on its cover, referring to him as "that mighty mover behind British Cabinet scenes, lean, taciturn, iron-willed... It is no secret that Scot MacDonald remains Prime Minister by Prime Mover Chamberlain's leave." In 1934, he declared that economic recovery was under way, stating that the nation had "finished Hard Times and could now start reading Great Expectations." However, from 1935 on, financial strains grew as the government proceeded on a programme of rearmament. Chamberlain, aware of the strain this was placing on the Exchequer, found himself being attacked on two fronts: Winston Churchill accused him of being excessively frugal with defence expenditure, but the Labour Party attacked him as a warmonger in the 1935 general election. In the 1937 budget, Chamberlain proposed one of his most controversial taxes, the National Defence Contribution, which would raise revenue from excessive profits in industry. The proposal produced a massive storm of disapproval, and some political commentators speculated that Chamberlain might leave the Exchequer, not for 10 Downing Street but for the back benches. Despite these attacks from the Labour Party and Churchill, Chamberlain had adopted a policy that would serve to be vital to Britain during wartime. This process was called rationalisation. Under this policy the government bought old factories and mines. This was a gradual process as the depression had hit Britain hard. Then the factories were destroyed. Gradually, newer and better factories were built in their place. They were not to be used when Britain was in a state of depression. Rather, Chamberlain was preparing Britain for the time when Britain would emerge out of the depression. By 1938, Britain was in the best position for rearmament, and thanks to this policy Britain had the most efficient factories in the world with the newest technology. This meant that Britain was able to produce the best weaponry quickly, and they had the best technology available. Premiership Despite financial controversies, when Baldwin retired after the abdication of Edward VIII and the Coronation of George VI, it was Chamberlain who was invited to "kiss hands" and succeed him. He became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 28 May 1937, and leader of the Conservative Party a few days later. Some historians have claimed that Chamberlain was not even a Conservative at all, arguing that his technocratic approach to government, commitment to social reform through state interventionism, and disdain for benign paternalism place him beyond even that strand of radical Conservatism associated with Benjamin Disraeli. In many areas, his outlook was similar to that of the Fabians. Chamberlain himself never liked to use the term "Conservative", preferring the term "Unionist", which had been more commonplace when he first entered politics and which recalled the Liberal Unionist Party of his father. Chamberlain was a Unitarian and did not accept the basic trinitarian belief of the Church of England, the first Prime Minister to officially reject this doctrine since the Duke of Grafton. This did not bar him from advising the King on appointments in the established church. Chamberlain's ministerial selections were notable for his willingness to appoint without regard for balancing the parties supporting the National Government. He was also notable for maintaining a core of ministers close to him who were in strong agreement with his goals and methods, and for appointing a significant number of ministers with no party political experience, choosing those with experience from the outside world. Such appointments included the Law Lord Lord Maugham as Lord Chancellor, the former First Sea Lord Lord Chatfield as Minister for Coordination of Defence, the businessman Andrew Duncan as President of the Board of Trade, the former Director-General of the BBC Sir John Reith as Minister of Information and the department store owner Lord Woolton as Minister of Food. Even when appointing existing MPs, Chamberlain often ignored conventional choices based on service and appointed MPs who had not been in the House of Commons very long, such as the former civil servant and Governor of Bengal Sir John Anderson, who became the Minister in charge of Air Raid Precautions; or the former President of the National Farmers Union Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, who was made Minister of Agriculture. Domestic policy Chamberlain's domestic policy, which receives very little attention from historians today, was considered highly significant and radical at the time. Achievements included the Factory Act 1937, which consolidated and tightened many existing measures and sought to improve working conditions by limiting the number of hours that minors and women could work and setting workplace regulation standards. The Housing Act 1938 provided subsidies that encouraged slum clearance and the relief of overcrowding, as well as maintaining rent controls for cheap housing. The Physical Training Act 1937 promoted exercise and good dieting and aimed for a compulsory medical inspection of the population. The Coal Act 1938 nationalised mining royalties and allowed for the voluntary amalgamation of industries. Passenger air services were made into a public corporation in 1939. The Holidays with Pay Act 1938 gave paid holidays to over eleven million workers and empowered the Agricultural Wages Boards and Trade Boards to ensure that holidays were fixed with pay. In many of these measures Chamberlain took a strong personal interest. One of his first actions as Prime Minister was to request two-year plans from every single department, and during his premiership he would make many contributions. Few aspects of domestic policy gave Chamberlain more trouble than agriculture. For years, British farming had been a depressed industry; vast sections of land went uncultivated while the country became increasingly dependent upon cheap foreign imports. These concerns were brought to the forefront by the National Farmers Union, which had considerable influence on MPs with rural constituencies. The union called for better protection of tariffs, for trade agreements to be made with the consent of the industry, and for the government to guarantee prices for producers. In support, Lord Beaverbrook's Daily Express launched a major campaign for the country to "Grow More Food", highlighting the "idle acres" that could be used. In 1938, Chamberlain gave a speech at Kettering in which he dismissed the Beaverbrook campaign, provoking an adverse reaction from farmers and his parliamentary supporters. In late 1938, Chamberlain and his Minister of Agriculture William Shepherd Morrison proposed a Milk Industry Bill that would set up ten trial areas with district monopolies of milk distribution, create a Milk Commission, cut or reduce subsidies for quality milk, butter, and cheese, and grant local authorities the power to enforce pasteurisation. Politicians and the milk industry reacted unfavourably to the bill, fearing the level of state control involved and the possible impact on small dairies and individual retailers. The Milk Marketing Board declared itself in favour of amendments to the bill, a rare move; at the start of December, the government agreed to radically redraft the bill so as to make it a different measure. Early in 1939, Chamberlain moved Morrison away from the Ministry of Agriculture and appointed as his successor Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, MP for Petersfield and a former president of the National Farmers Union. Dorman-Smith was hailed as bringing greater expertise to the role, but developments were slow; after war broke out there were many who still felt the country was not producing sufficient food to overcome the problem of restricted supplies. Other proposed domestic reforms were cancelled outright when the war began, such as raising the school leaving age to 15, which would have otherwise commenced on 1 September 1939, were it not for the outbreak of World War II. The Home Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, proposed a radical reform of the criminal justice system, including abolition of flogging, which was also put on hold. Had peace continued and a general election been fought in 1939 or 1940, it seems likely that the government would have sought to radically extend the provision of pensions and health insurance while introducing family allowances. Relations with Ireland When Chamberlain became Prime Minister, relations between the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State had been very strained for some years. The government of Éamon de Valera, seeking to transform the country into an independent republic, proposed a new constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann. The constitution was adopted at the end of 1937, renaming the Free State "Ireland", an internally republican state which only retained the monarchy as an organ for external relations. The British government accepted the changes, formally stating that it did not regard them as fundamentally altering the position of Ireland within the British Commonwealth. De Valera also sought to overturn other aspects of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, most notably the issue of partition, as well as seeking to reclaim control of the three "Treaty Ports" which had remained in British control. Chamberlain, mindful of the deteriorating European situation, the desirability of support from a friendly neutral Irish state in time of war, and the difficulty of using the ports for defence if the state of Ireland was opposed, wished to achieve peaceful relations between the two countries. The United Kingdom was also claiming compensation from the state of Ireland, a claim whose validity the latter strongly disputed. Chamberlain, Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs Malcolm MacDonald, and de Valera held a conference starting in January 1938 in an attempt to resolve the other conflicts between their countries. De Valera hoped to secure, at the very least, the British government's neutrality on the matter of ending partition, but the devolved government of Northern Ireland was implacably opposed to any attempt to create a United Ireland. In February 1938, a Northern Ireland general election gave Lord Craigavon's government an increased majority, strengthening the Unionists' hand and making it difficult for the government to make any concessions. Despite this, de Valera proved willing to discuss the other points of contention. The result of the conference was a strong and binding trade agreement between the two countries. The United Kingdom agreed to hand over the Treaty Ports to the Irish state's control, while the Irish state agreed to pay the United Kingdom £10 million with wider claims cancelled. This was strongly derided by Winston Churchill in the House of Commons (who had built the treaty ports into the 1921 agreement precisely for the reason of possible submarine warfare against Germany). No settlement on partition was reached, and Chamberlain's hopes of being able to establish munitions factories in the Irish state were not realised during the Second World War, but the two countries also issued a formal expression of friendship. Chamberlain had forged a strong relationship with de Valera, as evidenced by the latter's letter upon Chamberlain's resignation: I would like to testify that you did more than any former British Statesman to make a true friendship between the peoples of our two countries possible, and, if the task has not been completed, that it has not been for want of goodwill on your part. The agreement was criticised at the time and subsequently by Winston Churchill, but he was the lone voice of dissent; the Diehard wing of the Conservative Party was no longer willing to fight over the issue of Ireland. Others have pointed out that the issue's resolution resulted in the Irish state taking a stance of benevolent neutrality during the Second World War (known in the Republic of Ireland as The Emergency). However, after the invasion of France, the UK made a qualified offer of Irish unity in June 1940, without reference to those living in Northern Ireland. The Irish state would effectively join the allies against Germany by allowing British ships to use its ports, arresting Germans and Italians, setting up a joint defence council and allowing overflights. In return, arms would be provided to independent Ireland and British forces would cooperate in defending against a German invasion. London would declare that it accepted 'the principle of a United Ireland' in the form of an undertaking 'that the Union is to become at an early date an accomplished fact from which there shall be no turning back.' Eds. O'Day A. & Stevenson J., Irish Historical Documents since 1800 (Gill & Macmillan, Dublin 1992) p.201. ISBN 0-7171-1839-8 Despite De Valera's strong and lifelong support of a united Ireland policy, the offer was refused mainly due to the exceptional military situation in mid-1940. The revised final terms were signed by Chamberlain on 28 June 1940 and sent to Éamon de Valera. On their rejection, neither the London nor Dublin governments publicised the matter. Palestine White Paper One of the greatest controversies of Chamberlain's premiership concerned the government's policy on the future of the British Mandate of Palestine. After successive commissions and talks had failed to achieve a consensus, the government argued that the statements in the Balfour Declaration (1917) (that it "viewed with favour" a "national home" for Jews in Palestine) now had been achieved, since over 450,000 Jews had emigrated there. The MacDonald White Paper of 1939, so named after the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Malcolm MacDonald, was then introduced. It proposed a quota of 75,000 further immigrants for the first five years, with restrictions on the purchase of land. The White Paper caused a massive outcry, both in the Jewish world and in British politics. Many supporting the National Government were opposed to the policy on the grounds that they claimed it contradicted the Balfour Declaration. Many government MPs either voted against the proposals or abstained, including Cabinet Ministers such as the Jew Leslie Hore-Belisha. European policy As with many in Europe who had witnessed the horrors of the First World War and its aftermath, Chamberlain was committed to peace. The theory was that dictatorships arose where peoples had grievances, and that by removing the source of these grievances, the dictatorship would become less aggressive. It was a popular belief that the Treaty of Versailles was the underlying cause of Adolf Hitler's grievances. Chamberlain, as even his political detractors admitted, was an honourable man, raised in the old school of European politics. His attempts to deal with Nazi Germany through diplomatic channels and to quell any sign of dissent from within, particularly from Churchill, were called by Chamberlain "The general policy of appeasement" (30 June 1934). A major structural problem that Chamberlain confronted at the beginning of his Prime Ministership, and to be a major factor in his foreign policy was the problem of worldwide defense commitments coupled with an insufficient economic-financial basis to sustain those commitments. A report by the British Chiefs of Staff in 1937 that had much influence on Chamberlain read: "Even today we could face without apprehension an emergency either in the Far East or the Mediterranean, provided that we were free...to concentrate sufficient strength in one or other of these areas...But the outstanding feature of the present situation is the increasing probability that a war started in any one of these three areas [the third being Western Europe] may extend to one or both of the other two...we cannot foresee the time when our defense forces will be strong enough to safeguard our territory, trade, and vital interests against Germany, Italy and Japan simultaneously. We cannot, therefore, exaggerate the importance, from the point of view of Imperial defense, of any political or international action that can be taken to reduce the numbers of our potential enemies or to gain the support of potential allies" Dunbabin, John "The British Military Establishment and the Policy of Appeasement" pages 174-196 from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement edited by Wolfgang Mommsen and Lothar Kettenacker George Allen & Unwin: London, United Kingdom, 1983 page 176. . Moreover, the economic capability to provide for a sufficient military force to meet all these worldwide defense commitments did not exist, which meant a greater reliance on diplomacy would be needed to reduce potential enemies. Kennedy, Paul & Imlay, Talbot "Appeasement" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999 page 126 As such, there were two options, not mutually exclusive that were open to Chamberlain: 1) reduce potential enemies by appeasing their grievances (as long as these grievances were understood to be limited in nature and justified) and 2) augment Britain's strength by forming alliances with other states. In 1937-38, a greater emphasis was placed upon the former and in 1939-40 upon the latter. A necessary adjunct to this strategy was rearmament, which was intended to ensure that Britain could negotiate from a position of strength, deter a potential enemy from choosing war as an option, and finally for the worst case scenario of war breaking out, to ensure that Britain was prepared Aster, Sidney “‘Guilty Man” pages 62-77 from The Origins of The Second World War edited by Patrick Finney Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 1997 page 70 . In particular, Chamberlain put great emphasis upon the RAF. In October 1936, as Chancellor of the Exchequer Chamberlain had told the Cabinet "Air power was the most formidable deterrent to war that could be devised". Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain, London: Arnold, 2001 page 171 As both Chancellor and Prime Minister, Chamberlain greatly expanded the R.A.F's budget. The importance of the R.A.F. to Chamberlain can be seen when we consider that its budget rose from £16.78 million pounds in 1933 to £105.702 million pounds in 1939, surpassing the Army's budget in 1937 and the Royal Navy's in 1938. Levy, James Appeasement & Rearmament , Rowman & Littlefield Inc: Lanham, 2006 page 69 By the 1930s, a long economic decline accelerated by the Great Slump had led to the British economy contracting to such a point that there was simply not enough factories, machine tools, skilled workers and money to built up simultaneously a larger R.A.F., a Royal Navy of such size to fight two wars in two oceans at once, and an Army capable of fighting a major European power, which led to Chamberlain favoring the R.A.F at the expense of both the Royal Navy, and even more so the Army Kennedy, Paul & Imlay, Talbot “Appeasement” from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, Routledge: London, 1999 page 125 . In 1937, Chamberlain introduced the strategic doctrine of "limited liability", in which Britain would avoid the supposed mistakes of the First World War by limiting her efforts to war on the sea and the air Caputi, Robert Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement, Associated University Press: Cranbury, 2000 page 132; Bond, Brian “The Continental Commitment In British Strategy in the 1930s” pages 197-208 from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement edited by Wolfgang Mommsen & Lothar Kettenacker, George Allen & Unwin: London, 1983 page 201 . Under the "limited liability" doctrine, the Army suffered massive cuts while the Navy, and above all the RAF experienced a massive expansion. Rearmament entailed major problems for the British economy. The huge increase in military spending in the late 1930s threatened the balance of payments, reserves of American dollars and gold, inflation, and ultimately the government's creditworthiness. Dutton, David Simon page 242 Because of a lack of indigenous sources, much of the steel, instruments, aircraft, and machine tools needed for rearmament had to be purchased abroad while at the same time, increased military production reduced the number of factories devoted to exports, leading to a serious balance of payments problem. Kennedy, Paul & Imlay, Talbot “Appeasement” from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered by Gordon Martel, Routledge: London, 1999 page 126 Moreover, the increased taxes to pay for rearmament hampered economic growth, while heavy borrowing to pay for rearmament damaged perceptions of British credit, leading to strong pressure being put on the pound sterling. Kennedy, Paul & Imlay, Talbot “Appeasement” from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered by Gordon Martel, Routledge: London, 1999 page 126 By 1939 Chamberlain's government was devoting well over half of its revenues to defense. Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, London: Macmillan 1989 page 99 Chamberlain's policy of rearmament faced much domestic opposition from the Labour Party, which favored a policy of disarmament and until late 1938 always voted against increases in the defence budget (afterwards Labour merely switched towards a policy of abstention on defence votes). Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 53; Weinberg, Gerhard "Reflections on Munich After Sixty Years" pages 1-12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, Frank Cass: London 1999 pages 5-6 Labour repeatedly condemned Chamberlain for engaging in an arms race with Germany, and instead urged that Britain simply be disarmed out of the expectation that this example would inspire all of the other powers to do likewise. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 53; Weinberg, Gerhard "Reflections on Munich After Sixty Years" pages 1-12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, Frank Cass: London 1999 pages 5-6 Throughout the 1930s, Labour frequently disparaged Chamberlain as a crazed war-monger who preferred high levels of military spending to high levels of social spending Weinberg, Gerhard "Reflections on Munich After Sixty Years" pages 1-12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, Frank Cass: London 1999 page 5 . A major problem for Chamberlain was that Britain lacked the industrial infrastructure and financial strength to win an arms race with Germany, Italy and Japan at once. Provided that one or two of the Axis states could be persuaded to re-align themselves from the Axis, Britain could win the arms race with the remaining members of the Axis. Hence, Chamberlain attached great importance to detaching either Germany or Italy (Japan was considered to be hopelessly intransigent). Chamberlain was indifferent to whether Italy detached from Germany, or Germany from Italy, just as long as the list of potential enemies was shortened to enable Britain to win the arms race with the remaining members of the Axis. In a letter written in June 1937, Chamberlain summed up his views when he wrote: "If only we could get on terms with the Germans I wouldn't care a rap for Musso [Benito Mussolini]" Goldstein, Erik "Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis" pages 271-292 from The Munich Crisis edited by Erik Goldstein & Igor Lukes, Frank Cass: London, 1999 page 281 . Later, Chamberlain was to write in his diary in January 1938: "From the first I have been trying to improve relations with the two storm centres Berlin & Rome. It seemed to me that we were drifting into worse & worse positions with both with the prospect of having ultimately to face 2 enemies at once" Goldstein, Erik "Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis" pages 271-292 from The Munich Crisis edited by Erik Goldstein & Igor Lukes, Frank Cass: London, 1999 page 281 . Further reinforcing Chamberlain’s initial determination to focus on attempting to win over potential enemies as opposed to building alliances that might augment British power was a pessimistic assessment of potential allies. Chamberlain was consistently advised by Britain's top military experts that the Red Army was a fighting force of dubious value, which led him to place a low value on the Soviet Union as a potential ally Herndon, James “British Perceptions of Soviet Military Capability, 1935-39” from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement edited by Wolfgang Mommsen & Lothar Kettenacker, George Allen & Unwin: London, 1983 page 309 . The series of Neutrality Acts passed by the American Congress in the mid-1930s had the effect of convincing Chamberlain that no help could be expected from the United States in the event of a war. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 54 The tendency of Sir Eric Phipps, the British Ambassador to France to offer a highly negative assessment in his dispatches of his host country led to a downgrading of France as a potential ally. As part of the process of winning German acceptance of the existing European order with suitable modifications and concessions to the Reich was the idea of the "general settlement". A major goal of Chamberlain’s early foreign policy was to seek a “general settlement” that would settle all of Germany’s grievances that he considered justified, and thus guarantee the peace of Europe. In May 1937, during the talks with Reichsbank President Dr. Hjalmar Schacht during his visit to London the British drew up an paper listing their demands as an German return to the League of Nations, an non-aggression pact for Western Europe, a treaty limiting armaments, and "Measures by Germany, in treaty form or otherwise, which will satisfy the governments of Central and Eastern Europe with regard...to respect the territorial integrity and sovereign independence of all Central and Eastern European states". Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 73 Most importantly, the general settlement was to be negotiated from position of strength, and thus for Chamberlain, it was preferable to complete British rearmament before undertaking such talks. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 81 The emphasis was put on Germany because as a the Defense Requirements Committee (DRC) (which Chamberlain had helped to write as Chancellor of the Exchequer) report of February 28, 1934 called Germany "the ultimate potential enemy against whom our `long-range' defense policy must be directed". Post, Gaines Dilemmas of Appeasement Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993 page 31 The emphasis upon Germany was due to an assessment of German power and had nothing to do with friendly feelings towards Germany on Chamberlain's part; Chamberlain's feelings towards Germans were well summarised in a letter he wrote to one of his sisters in 1930 where he stated ""On the whole I hate Germans". Caputi, Robert Neville Chamberlain and Appeasement Associated University Press: Cranbury, New Jersey, United States of America, 2000 page 46 Under this policy, Chamberlain's cabinet slowly dismantled the powers of the Non-Intervention Committee for the Spanish Civil War in 1937, and was silent in relation to the gradual ostracism of leftist Juan Negrín's government from the organisation. Peace and Pirates, TIME Magazine, September 27, 1937 Because of the very noisy agitation of the Reichskolonialbund (Reich Colonial League) for the return of the former German colonies in Africa, Chamberlain had concluded by 1937 that it was the colonial issue that was Germany's most importance grievance. In January 1938 Chamberlain informed the Foreign Policy Committee that he intended to place the colonial issue "in the forefront", though Chamberlain noted "the examination of the colonial question could only be undertaken as a part and parcel of a general settlement". Crozier, Andrew Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1988 page 236 Chamberlain's scheme called for an international regime comprising all of the leading European powers to administer a vast area of central Africa. Crozier, Andrew Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1988 page 236 In exchange for participating in the proposed African administration, Hitler was to promise never to use violence to change the frontiers of Germany. Chamberlain's plan foundered on 3 March 1938 when Sir Nevile Henderson, the British Ambassador in Berlin presented the Chamberlain's proposal to Hitler, the Führer rejected the idea under the grounds that Germany should not have to negotiate at all for any piece of Africa, and announced that he was prepared to wait ten years or longer for a unilateral return of the former colonies. Crozier, Andrew Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1988 page 239 Chamberlain's African scheme was intended to the first act towards achieving a "general settlement" that would comprehensively resolve all of Germany's grievances, and Hitler's rejection of Chamberlain's plan largely threw the latter's scheme for orderly talks for a general settlement off the rails. Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1989 pages 84-85 The first crisis of Chamberlain's tenure was over the annexation of Austria. The Nazi regime had already been behind the assassination of one Chancellor of Austria, Engelbert Dollfuss, and was pressuring another to surrender. Informed of Germany's objectives, Chamberlain's government decided it was unable to stop events, and acquiesced to what later became known as the Anschluss. The second crisis came over the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia, which was home to a large German minority. Under the guise of seeking self-determination for the ethnic Germans of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, Adolf Hitler planned to launch a war of aggression under the codename of Fall Grün (Case Green) on October 1, 1938. Carr, William Arms, Autarky and Aggression London: Edward Arnold, 1972 pages 88-89 Through Chamberlain would have preferred to avoid a war over the Sudeten issue and Britain had no defense obligations to Czechoslovakia beyond the Covenant of the League of Nations, the Franco-Czechoslovak alliance of 1924 meant any German attack on Czechoslovakia would automatically become a Franco-German war, and since it was an unacceptable change in the balance of power to have France defeated by Germany, Britain would have no other choice, but to intervene to avoid a French defeat Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, London: Macmillan, 1989 page 86 . In addition, the vague British statement of March 19, 1936 issued following the Rhineland remilitarisation linking British and French security would created a strong moral case for France to demand British intervention should a Franco-German war begin. In an effort to defuse the looming crisis, Chamberlain followed a strategy of pressuring Prague to make concessions to the ethnic Germans, while warning Berlin about the dangers of war. The problems of the tight wire act were well summarised by the Chancellor the Exchequer, Sir John Simon in a diary entry during the May Crisis of 1938: “We are endeavoring at one & the same time, to restrain Germany by warning her that she must not assume we could remain neutral if she crossed the frontier; to stimulate Prague to make concessions; and to make sure that France will not take some rash action such as mobilization (when has mobilization been anything but a prelude to war?), under the delusion that we would join her in defense of Czechoslovakia. We won’t and can’t-but an open declaration to this effect would only give encouragement to Germany’s intransigence” (emphasis in the original) Goldstein, Erik ”Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis” from The Munich Crisis, London: Frank Cass, 1999 page 286. . In a letter to his sister, Chamberlain wrote that he would contact Hitler to tell him “The best thing you [Hitler] can do is tell us exactly what you want for your Sudeten Germans. If it is reasonable we will urge the Czechs to accept and if they do, you must give assurances that you will let them alone in the future”. Kee, Robert MunichHamish Hamilton: London, 1988 page 122 As part of the preparations for a possible, if undesired war, Chamberlain ordered the Bomber Command of the RAF was told to start drawing up a list of possible targets in Germany, and a two-division force was to start preparing for a possible deployment to France Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago, 1980 page 427 . A major factor that influenced Chamberlain's conduct of the Czechoslovak crisis in 1938 were highly exaggerated fears which were both promoted and endorsed by leading military experts of the effects of a German bombing offensive against British cities. In early 1938, the Committee of Imperial Defence (C.I.D) informed Chamberlain that if a German strategic bombing offensive was launched against Britain that it could be reasonably expected that German bombing would result in half-million civilian deaths within the first three weeks Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 2001 page 170 . For the first week alone, the CID's estimated death rate from bombing was 150,000 dead (in fact, the 150,000 dead were close to the entire British dead from bombing during all of World War II) Adams, R.J.Q. British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement, Stanford University Press: Stanford, California, United States of America, 1993 page 58 . In 1938, General Sir Edmund Ironside wrote in his diary of an government whose chief fear was, "of a war being finished in an few weeks by the annihilation of Great Britain. They can see no other kind of danger than air attack." Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 2001page171 Ironside himself shared these fears as he noted in diary in September 1938 that "We have not the means of defending ourselves and he [Chamberlain] knows it...We cannot expose ourselves to a German attack. We simply commit suicide if we do" (emphasis in the original) Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 2001 pages 173-174 . At the same time, General Sir Hastings Ismay of the C.I.D. informed the government in September 1938 that "From the military point of view, time is in our favor...if war with Germany has to come, it would be better to fight her in say 6-12 months' time than to accept the present challenge" Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, London: Macmillan, 1989 page 90 . In Ismay's opinion, more time to rearm would leave Britain better prepared to fight a possible war with Germany Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, London: Macmillan, 1989 page 90 . Another factor that influenced Chamberlain's policy during the Czechoslovak crisis was the attitude of the Dominions. With the partial exception of New Zealand, all of the Dominions, particularly Canada and South Africa were entirely in favor of concessions to avert a war in Central Europe that they felt did not concern them, and were quietly critical of Chamberlain for running what they regarded as unacceptable risks of war for a cause that they did not care about Fry, Michael Graham "The British Dominions and the Munich Crisis" pages 293-341 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Erik Goldstein and Igor Lukes, London: Frank Cass, 1999 pages 320-325 . The Dominion attitudes had great influence with Chamberlain, as he believed that Britain could not fight, let alone win a war without the support of the entire Commonwealth Weinberg, Gerhard "Reflections on Munich After Sixty Years" pages 1-12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, Frank Cass: London 1999 pages 6-7 . Ever since the Chanak Crisis of 1922, it had understood in London that Britain could not count on the automatic support of the Dominions, and it was quite possible for a situation to occur where the Dominions might declare neutrality rather than fight for Britain Weinberg, Gerhard "Reflections on Munich After Sixty Years" pages 1-12 from The Munich Crisis, 1938 edited by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, Frank Cass: London 1999 pages 6-7 . The editor of the London Times, Geoffrey Dawson, later recalled that: "No one who sat in this place, as I did during the autumn of '38, with almost daily visitations from eminent Canadians and Australians, could fail to realize that war with Germany at that time would have been misunderstood and resented from end to end of the Empire. Even in this country there would have been no unity behind it". Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 2001 page 208 During the summer of 1938, the British government received several messages from members of the anti-Nazi opposition in Germany such as Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin seeking to use the Czechoslovak crisis as the pretext for a putsch. Chamberlain was generally indifferent to these proposals, and refused British support for the proposed putsch. The American historian Gerhard Weinberg, has argued that the three visits to London in the summer of 1938 by three different messengers from the opposition, each bearing the same message that if only a firm British stand was made in favor of Czechoslovakia, then a putsch would remove the Nazi regime, and each ignorant of the other messengers' existence presented a picture of a group of people apparently not very well organised, and that it is unreasonable for historians to have expected Chamberlain to stake all in the crucial questions of war and peace upon the uncorroborated words of such a badly disorganised group. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, 1980 page 396. Starting in August 1938, information reached London that Germany was beginning to mobilise reservists, together with information leaked by anti-war elements in the German military that the war against Czechoslovakia was scheduled for sometime in September. Kee, Robert Munich page 147 Finally, as a result of intense French, and especially British diplomatic pressure, President Edvard Beneš unveiled on September 5, 1938, the “Fourth Plan” for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which granted most of the demands for Sudeten autonomy made by Konrad Henlein in his Karlsbad speech of April 1938, and threatened to deprive the Germans of their pretext for aggression. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago, 1980 pages 418-419 Henlein’s supporters promptly responded to the offer of “Fourth Plan” by having a series of violent crashes with the Czechoslovak police, culminating in major clashes in mid-September that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts. Kee, Robert Munich pages 149-150; Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 419 In a response to the threatening situation, in late August, Chamberlain had conceived of Plan Z, namely to fly to Germany, meet Hitler, and then work out an agreement that could end the crisis. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II pages 425-426; Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War pages 87-88 At the time when the airplane was a relatively new invention, the prospect of the Prime Minister, who had never flown before, flying on a dramatic peace mission to Germany was a gesture that was seen as highly bold and daring Goldstein, Erik ”Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis” from The Munich Crisis, 1938 page 283 . As a public relations move, Plan Z was a great success, though it deprived the British delegation of expert advice and advance preparation Goldstein, Erik ”Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis” from The Munich Crisis, 1938 pages 283-284 . What finally led to Chamberlain making his offer to fly to Germany on September 13, 1938 was erroneous information supplied by the German opposition, that the invasion of Czechoslovakia was due to start anytime after September 18. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 428 Through Adolf Hitler was not happy with Chamberlain’s offer, he agreed to see the British Prime Minister, most probably because to refuse Chamberlain’s offer would put to the lie his repeated claims that he was a man of peace driven reluctantly to war because of Beneš’s intractability Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 431 . In a summit at Berchtesgaden, Chamberlain promised to pressure Prague into agreeing to Hitler's publicly stated demands about allowing the Sudetenland to join Germany, in return for a reluctant promise by Hitler to postpone any military action until Chamberlain had given a chance to fulfill his promise. Middlemas, Keith Diplomacy of Illusion pages 340-341 Under very heavy Anglo-French pressure, Beneš agreed to ceding the Sudetenland region to Germany. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 pages 432 & 447 Hitler had agreed to the postponement out of the expectation that Chamberlain would fail to secure Prague’s consent to transferring the Sudetenland, and was by all accounts, most disappointed when Franco-British pressure secured just that. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II pages 432 & 447 Most damaging to Czechoslovakia, Chamberlain had implicitly agreed to Hitler’s demand that all districts with an 50% or more ethnic German population should be transferred, as opposed to the 80% ethnic German bar the British had previously been willing to consider, thus considerably widening the area to be transferred to Germany Middlemas, Keith Diplomacy of Illusion Weidenfeld and Nicolson: London, 1972 page 342 . The talks between Chamberlain and Hitler in September 1938 were made difficult by their innate differing concepts of what Europe should look like, with Hitler aiming to use the Sudeten issue as an pretext for war and Chamberlain genuinely striving for a peaceful solution. Hildebrand, Klaus The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, London: Batsford, 1973 page 72 Upon his return to London after his Berchtesgaden summit, Chamberlain told his Cabinet though Hitler’s aims were “strictly limited” to the Sudetenland, he felt it was quite possible to avoid war provided everyone played their part. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 438 When Chamberlain returned to Germany on September 22, 1938 to present his peace plan for the transfer of the Sudetenland at a summit with Hitler at Bad Godesberg, the British delegation were most unpleasantly surprised to have Hitler reject his own terms which he had presented at Berchtesgaden as now unacceptable. Middlemas, Keith Diplomacy of Illusion, Weidenfeld and Nicolson: London, 1972 page 364 To put an end to Chamberlain’s peace-making efforts once and for all, Hitler demanded the Sudetenland be ceded to Germany no later then September 28, 1938 with no negotiations between Prague and Berlin and no international commission to oversee the transfer; no plebiscites to be held in the transferred districts until after the transfer; and for good measure, that Germany would not forsake war as a option until all the claims against Czechoslovakia by Poland and Hungary had been satisfied Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 447 . The differing views between the two leaders was best symbolised when Chamberlain was presented with Hitler’s new demands, protested at being presented with a ultimatum, leading Hitler in his turn to state that because the document stating his new demands was entitled “Memorandum”, it could not possibly be a ultimatum Dilks, David “`We Must Hope For The Best and Prepare For The Worse’” from The Origins of The Second World War edited by Patrick Finney, London: Arnold, 1997 page 44. . Though Chamberlain was inclined to give the most hopeful impressions on the post Bad Godesberg situation, the majority of the Cabinet led by the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, who was himself influenced in his Damascene Road conversion by the Permanent Under-Secretary of the Foreign Office, Sir Alexander Cadogan, by now alienated by the German response to concessions by upping their demands, were for rejecting the Bad Godesberg ultimatum as unacceptable, which it formally was on September 25, 1938 Middlemas, Keith Diplomacy of Illusion, Weidenfeld and Nicolson: London, 1972 page 368; Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II page 448 . To further underline the point, Sir Horace Wilson, the British government’s Chief Industrial Advisor, and a close associate of Chamberlain was dispatched to Berlin to inform Hitler that if the Germans attacked Czechoslovakia, then France would honor her commitments under the Franco-Czechoslovak treaty of 1924 and “then England would feel honor bound, to offer France assistance.” Overy, Richard “Germany and the Munich Crisis: A Mutilated Victory?” from The Munich Crisis 1938, London: Frank Cass, 1999 page 208 . Thus, as Chamberlain himself noted after September 25, 1938 the world was about to be plunged into war over the question of the timing of the change-over of the frontier posts. Hitler insisted in his Bad Godesberg ultimatum that the Sudetenland be ceded to Germany no later then October 1, 1938 whereas the Anglo-French plan Chamberlain had presented, and Hitler had rejected called for the ceding of the Sudetenland within the next six months. In reference to question of the timing of the turnover of the Sudetenland and trenches being dug in a London central park, Chamberlain infamously declared in a radio broadcast on 27 September 1938: "How horrible, fantastic it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas-masks here because of a quarrel in a far away country between people of whom we know nothing. I am myself a man of peace from the depths of my soul". Initially, determined to continue with Fall Grün the attack against Czechoslovakia planned for October 1, 1938, sometime between September 27 and September 28, Hitler changed his mind, and asked to take up a suggestion of, and through the intercession of Mussolini, for a conference to be held in Munich on September 30 to be attended by himself, Chamberlain, Mussolini, and the French Premier Edouard Daladier to discuss the Czechoslovak situation. Since London had already agreed to the idea of a transfer of the disputed territory, the Munich Conference mostly comprised discussions in one day of talks on technical questions about how the transfer of the Sudetenland would take place, and featured the relatively minor concessions from Hitler that the transfer would take place over a ten day period in October overseen by a international commission and Germany could wait until Hungarian and Polish claims were settled. Kee, Robert Munich Hamish Hamilton: London, 1988 pages 198-200 At the end of the conference, Chamberlain had Hitler sign a declaration of Anglo-German friendship, to which Chamberlain attached great importance and Hitler none at all. Kee, Robert Munich Hamish Hamilton: London, 1988 pages 201-202 The Munich Agreement, engineered by the French and British governments, effectively allowed Hitler to annex the country's defensive frontier, leaving its industrial and economic core within a day's reach of the Wehrmacht. Chamberlain flew to Munich to negotiate the agreement, and received an ecstatic reception upon his return to Britain on 30 September 1938. At Heston Aerodrome, west of London, he made the now famous "Peace for our time" speech and waved the Anglo-German Declaration to a delighted crowd. When Hitler invaded and seized the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Chamberlain felt betrayed by the breaking of the Munich Agreement and decided to take a much harder line against the Nazis, declaring war against Germany upon their invasion of Poland. The repeated failures of the Baldwin government to deal with rising Nazi power are often laid, historically, on the doorstep of Chamberlain, since he presided over the final collapse of peace. However, it is also true that by the time of his premiership, dealing with the Nazi Party in Germany was an order of magnitude more difficult. Germany had begun general conscription previously, and had already amassed an air arm. Chamberlain, caught between the bleak finances of the depression era and his own abhorrence of war – and a Kriegsherr who would not be denied a war – gave ground and entered history as a political scapegoat for what was a more general failure of political will and vision which had begun with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The policy of keeping the peace had broad support; had the Commons wanted a more aggressive prime minister, Winston Churchill would have been the obvious choice. Even after the outbreak of war, it was not clear that the invasion of Poland need lead to a general conflict. What convicted Chamberlain in the eyes of many commentators and historians was not the policy itself, but his manner of carrying it out and the failure to hedge his bets. Many of his contemporaries viewed him as stubborn and unwilling to accept criticism, an opinion backed up by his dismissal of cabinet ministers who disagreed with him on foreign policy. If accurate, this assessment of his personality would explain why Chamberlain strove to remain on friendly terms with the Third Reich long after many of his colleagues became convinced that Hitler could not be restrained. Chamberlain believed passionately in peace for many reasons (most of which are discussed in the article Appeasement), thinking it his job as Britain's leader to maintain stability in Europe; like many people in Britain and elsewhere, he thought that the best way to deal with Germany's belligerence was to treat it with kindness and meet its demands. He also believed that the leaders of people are essentially rational beings, and that Hitler must necessarily be rational as well. Most historians believe that Chamberlain, in holding to these views, pursued the policy of appeasement far longer than was justifiable, but it is not exactly clear whether any course could have averted war, and whether the outcome would have been any better had armed hostilities begun earlier, given that France, as well, was unwilling to commit its forces, and there were no other effective allies: Italy had joined the Pact of Steel, the USSR had signed a non-aggression pact, and the United States was still officially isolationist. During the winter of 1938-39, Chamberlain's attitude to Germany noticeably hardened. In part this was due to the violent anti-British propaganda campaign Hitler launched in November 1938, and in part due to information supplied by anti-Nazis such as Carl Friedrich Goerdeler that German armament priorities were being shifted towards preparing for a war with Britain Watt, D.C. How War Came Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 90-91 . In particular, Chamberlain was concerned with information that Hitler regarded the Munich Agreement as a personal defeat, together with hints from Berlin in December 1938 that the Germans were planning to renounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, regarded in London as the "barometer" of Anglo-German relations in the near-future. Watt, D.C. How War Came Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 90-92 An additional factor that influenced Chamberlain was the reports relayed by the German opposition of Hitler’s secret speech of November 10, 1938 to a group of German journalists complaining that his peace propaganda of the previous five years had been too successful with the German people, and what was required was a new phrase of propaganda intended to promote hatred of other countries, and Britain in particular. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 516 In response to the worsening relations with Berlin, Chamberlain decided in a major volte-face that it was now too dangerous for Britain to accept the Balkans as an exclusive German economic zone, and ordered a British "economic offensive" in the winter of 1938-39 intended to subsidise Balkan economics to resist German economic supremacy. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, 1980 pages 517-518 The plans for an “economic offensive” in which Britain would subsidise the purchase of products that would otherwise be brought by the Germans was not without its comic aspects. There was a considerable debate within Whitehall about whatever or not it was right to have British smokers having to use Greek tobacco (regarded as inferior in Britain); finally Chamberlain ruled that the sake of keeping Greece out of the German economic sphere of influence that British smokers would just have to endure Greek tobacco. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany Starting World War II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 page 517 A trivial incident that reflected the deteriorating state of Anglo-German relations occurred in December 1938 when Chamberlain addressed the correspondents of the German News Agency at a formal dinner in London, and warned of the "futility of ambition, if ambition leads to the desire for domination" Maiolo, Joseph The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany Macmillan Press: London, 1998 page 169 . The implied rebuke to Hitler led to Herbert von Dirksen, the German Ambassador to Court of St. James walking out of the dinner in protest. Moreover, reports from the Chiefs of Staff (COS) in late 1938 that within a year's time, British air defenses would be strong enough to resist and repel any German attempt at a "knock-out blow" from the air, the fear of which was a major factor in British policy in 1938 Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War, Oxford: Clardeon Press, 1990 page 680. . The assurances provided by the COS that Britain could repel and survive a German attempt at "knock out blow" in 1939 played a more significant role in the change in emphasis in Chamberlain's foreign policy that year. At the same time, in late 1938 the Chancellor the Exchequer Sir John Simon reported to the Cabinet that the increased military spending Chamberlain had brought through in 1937-38 was leading to inflation, high interest rates, an balance of payments crisis, and the danger that British financial reserves (the so-called “Fourth arm of the defense) would be used up, leading to an situation where "we should have lost the means of carrying on a long struggle altogether. Dutton, David Simon Aurum Press: London, United Kingdom, 1992 page 262 At same time, Simon expressed concern to Chamberlain about the international repercussions of where "...defense plans should be openly seen to have been frustrated by the financial and economic situation". Dutton, David Simon Aurum Press: London, United Kingdom, 1992 page 262 In late January 1939, the British government was thrown into a state of panic by the so-called "Dutch War Scare". The Chief of the Abwehr, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris planted false information that the Germans were planning to invade the Netherlands in February 1939 with the aim of using Dutch airfields to launch a strategic bombing offensive intended to achieve a "knock-out blow" against Britain by razing British cities to the ground Watt, D.C. How War Came Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 102-103 . Since France was the only country capable of stopping a German offensive from overrunning the Netherlands, and the French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet had indicated that France would do nothing to stop such an offensive unless Britain made a major step for his country, Chamberlain was reluctantly forced to make the "continental commitment" (i.e. commit to sending a large expeditionary force to Europe). Watt, D.C. How War Came Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 102-103 Chamberlain's response to the "Dutch war scare" was to order full Staff talks with France, issuing a public declaration that any German move into the Low Countries would be regarded as grounds for an immediate declaration of war, and ordering a major expansion to the size of the Army with the idea of peace-time conscription being seriously considered for the first time. Watt, D.C. How War Came Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 102-103 On 6 February 1939 Chamberlain informed the House of Commons that any German attack on France would automatically be regarded as an attack on Britain Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste France and the Nazi Threat, New York: Enigma Books, 2004 pages 331-332 . Besides for guarantee of France, between 26 January- 20 February 1939 Chamberlain also issued guarantees of Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands, believing through such diplomatic devices he could block Hitler from waging aggression in Western Europe. Strang,Bruce Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 733 In February 1939, Chamberlain announced that the British Army's size was to be massively increased, the Territorial Army (reserve army) was increased in size from 13 to 26 divisions, and in April 1939, peaceful conscription for the first time in British history was ordered with the first conscripts to be called up in the summer Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War, Oxford: Clardeon Press, 1990 page 680. . Chamberlain's reluctant embrace of the "continental commitment" in February 1939 meant the end of the “limited liability" doctrine, and massively increased the economic problems of British rearmament. However, given the concerns caused by anti-British propaganda campaign unleashed by Hitler in November 1938 coupled with reports from intelligence sources of the huge increase in Kriegsmarine construction caused by the Plan Z, plus the fears caused by the "Dutch War Scare", and reports from the Paris Embassy that Georges Bonnet was attempting to achieve a Franco-German understanding left Chamberlain in a situation where he felt he had other choice then to make the "continental commitment". Following the German coup of 15 March 1939 that saw the destruction of the rump state of Czecho-Slovakia led in part to a change of emphasis on Chamberlain's part, and led to the "containment" strategy being adopted. On 17 March 1939 Chamberlain gave a speech in Birmingham where he stated Britain would oppose any German effort to dominate the world, by war if necessary Watt, D.C. How War Came, Heinemann: London, 1989 page 723 . Speaking before the Cabinet on 18 March 1939, the minutes record that: "The Prime Minister said that up till a week ago we had proceeded on the assumption that we should be able to continue with our policy of getting on to better terms with the Dictator Powers, and that although those powers had aims, those aims were limited...He had now come definitely to the conclusion that Herr Hitler's attitude made it impossible to continue on the old basis...No reliance could be placed on any of the assurances given by the Nazi leaders...he regarded his speech [in Birmingham of March 17] as a challenge to Germany on the issue whether or not Germany intended to dominate Europe by force. It followed that if Germany took another step in the direction of dominating Europe, she would be accepting the challenge". Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, 1980 page 542 In mid-March 1939, Chamberlain's government was rocked by the so-called "Romanian War Scare" (also known as the "Tilea Affair"). The Romanian minister in London, Virgil Tilea reported falsely to the British government that his country was under the verge of an immediate German attack, which led to a U-turn on British policy of resisting commitments in Eastern Europe Watt, D.C. How War Came, Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 168-176 . In fact, there was no German attack planned on Romania in March 1939, but major delays within the German synthetic oil program had vastly increased the importance of Romanian oil, and the German delegation from Hermann Göring's Four Year Plan organisation conducting talks in Bucharest was applying strong pressure on the Romanians to essentially turn over control of the Romanian oil industry to Germany Watt, D.C. How War Came, Heinemann: London, 1989 page 175 . Faced with troops from Romania's arch-enemy Hungary concentrating on the border, and German efforts to secure control of their country's oil industry, the Romanian government had concluded that there was a danger of a Hungarian-German invasion, and had exaggerated the danger level in order to secure British support Watt, D.C. How War Came, Heinemann: London, 1989 pages 175-176 . Whatever Tilea was deliberately exaggerating the German threat to Romania as a way of gaining British support against the German demands to surrender the control of their oil industry as claimed by the British historian D.C. Watt, or if the Romanians genuinely believed that their country was under the verge of a German invasion in March 1939 as claimed by the American historian Gerhard Weinberg is still unclear. From Chamberlain's point of view, it was desirable to keep Romania and its oil out of German hands; since Germany had hardly any natural supplies of oil, the ability of the Royal Navy to successfully impose a blockade represented a British trump card both to deter war, and if necessary, win a war Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II 1937-1939, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, 1980 page 547; Murray, Williamson The Change in the European Balance of Power, 1938-1939 The Path to Ruin, Princeton University Press: Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America, 1984 page 286 . For Chamberlain, the "guarantee" of Polish independence he issued on 31 March 1939 was intended both to tie Poland to the West (the Polish Foreign Minister Colonel Józef Beck was widely, if mistakenly believed to be pro-German), and of ensuring a pro quid quo thereby Poland would commit itself to protecting Romania and its oil from a German attack Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 736-737 . The decision to announce the “guarantee” of Poland in March 1939 was a momentous change in British foreign policy as it was the first time that a British government had made a direct security commitment in Eastern Europe. Ever since 1919, it had been British policy to refuse any security commitments in Eastern Europe as the region was regarded as too unstable, and hence likely to involve Britain in unwanted wars. In 1925, Chamberlain’s half-brother, the British Foreign Secretary, Sir Austen Chamberlain had famously stated in public that the Polish Corridor was "not worth the bones of a single British grenadier". Arthur Harris used the same phrase in 1945 and the historian Frederick Taylor on page 432 in Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945 mentions that it was a deliberate echo of a famous sentence used by Bismarck "The whole of the Balkans is not worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier." A major historiographical debate about Chamberlain's foreign policy was triggered in 1976 by the American historian Simon K. Newman's book March 1939. Newman denied there was ever a policy of appeasement as popularly understood. Newman, Simon March 1939, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976 page 31 Newman maintained that British foreign policy under Chamberlain aimed at denying Germany a "free hand" anywhere in Europe, and to the extent that concessions were offered they were due to military weaknesses, compounded by the economic problems of rearmament. Newman, Simon March 1939, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976 pages 30-31 Most controversially, Newman contended that the British guarantee to Poland in March 1939 was motivated by the desire to have Poland as a potential anti-German ally, thereby blocking the chance for an German-Polish settlement of the Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland) question by encouraging what Newman claimed was Polish obstinacy over the Danzig issue, and thus causing World War II. Newman, Simon March 1939, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976 pages 203-204 & 221 Newman argued that German-Polish talks on the question of returning Danzig had been going well until Chamberlain's guarantee, and that it was Chamberlain's intention to sabotage the talks as a way of causing an Anglo-German war Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 . In Newman's opinion, the guarantee of Poland was meant by Chamberlain as a "deliberate challenge" to start a war with Germany in 1939. Newman, Simon March 1939, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976 pages 5-7 In this way, Newman argued that World War II, far from being a case of German aggression was really just an Anglo-German struggle for power. Newman wrote that World War II was not "Hitler's unique responsibility..." and rather contended that "Instead of a German war of aggrandizement, the war become one of Anglo-German rivalry for power and influence, the culmination of the struggle for the right to determine the future configuration of Europe" Newman, Simon March 1939, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976 page 6 . The "Newman controversy" caused much historical debate about what were Chamberlain's reasons for the "guarantee" of Poland in March 1939, with some reviewers arguing that Newman had failed to support his case with sufficient evidence Eubank, Keith, Slavic Review, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December, 1977), pp. 700-701; Robertson, James C., The Outbreak of the Second World War The Historical Journal, Vol. 21, No. 4 (December, 1978), pp. 1001-1007; Strang, G. Bruce, Once More unto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939 Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 31, No. 4 (October, 1996), 748 , whilst the Polish historian Anna Cienciala described Newman's views as wrong, and argued the British and French wanted to avoid war by pressuring the Poles to make concessions Poland in British and French Policy in 1939: Determination to Fight, or Avoid War?, Cienciala, Polish Review XXXIV 3 (1989), Other historians expressed differing views on the reasons for the "guarantee" of Poland. The British historians Martin Gilbert and Richard Gott asserted in their 1963 book The Appeasers that the guarantee was given only in response to domestic objections to appeasement following the German destruction of Czecho-Slovakia on 15 March 1939 Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 . Wesley Wark has maintained that the guarantee was an intermediate stage between the commitments Chamberlain made to defend Western Europe in early 1939 for reasons of British national security and the moral crusade to destroy National Socialism that began with the outbreak of war in September 1939. Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 The American historian Anna M. Cienciala contended the guarantee was merely another form of appeasement, arguing that Chamberlain's motive in making the guarantee was to apply pressure on the Poles to consent to return of the Free City of Danzig to the Reich. Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 D.C. Watt, Andrew Roberts and Anita J. Prazmowska maintained that the guarantee was only an ineffectual and ill-thought out deterrent meant to discourage Hitler from aggression Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 . Maurice Cowling made a Primat der Innenpolitik ("primacy of domestic politics") argument by claiming the guarantee reflected domestic British party maneuvering between the Conservatives and Labour parties, and had nothing to do with the foreign policy considerations Strang, G. Bruce "Once more onto the Breach" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 722 Additional reasons for the guarantee were suggested by the Canadian historian Bruce Strang. Strang argued that Chamberlain was increasing convinced by March 1939 that as he disliked the prospect, that a war with Germany was appearing increasing inevitable, which meant that Britain would need at minimum massive American economic support Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 728-729 . Hints from the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt suggested that he only considering revising American neutrality laws if Britain were seen be carrying out a more confrontational foreign policy Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 728-729 . Simultaneously, the French, especially the Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet skillfully gave the impression of an country whose morale was rapidly collapsing and needed an firmer British commitment to restore it, while at the same time the British were attempting to persuade the French to make concessions to Italy to move Mussolini away from Hitler Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 733-735 . A major crisis in Franco-Italian relations had started on 30 November 1938 when Benito Mussolini ordered the deputies in the Italian Chamber of Deputies to stage "spontaneous" demonstrations demanding that France cede Nice, Corsica, Tunisia and French Somaliland Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste France and the Nazi Threat, New York: Enigma Books, 2004 page 323 . To remove a potential enemy from the Axis camp, Chamberlain had generally urged the French to give in to the Italian demands, and met much opposition from the French Premier Édouard Daladier on this point. For Chamberlain, the Polish guarantee tied the French towards opposing Germany and allowed freedom to continue pressure on the French to make concessions to the Italians Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 page 735 . In addition, Strang argued that widespread rumors in March 1939 of an imminent German move somewhere in Eastern Europe led to the need for some sort of dynamic British counter-move to forestall another German coup like those of 15 March against Czecho-Slovakia and 23 March that saw a German ultimatum to Lithuania to return the Memelland at once Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 730-731 . Finally, Strang noted that the most important reasons for the Polish guarantee were the exaggerated reports of German plans for an invasion of Romania spread by Tilea, which led to fears that the seizure of oil-rich Rumania would uncut any British blockade of Germany, and that a Poland tied to both Britain and Romania would deter a German move into the Balkans. Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996 pages 736-737 Chamberlain was much influenced by advice from the British military experts that Poland had the strongest army in Eastern Europe, and could pose a major block on German expansionism. Confirming Chamberlain on his "containment" policy of Germany in 1939 was information supplied by Carl Friedrich Goerdeler to the effect that the German economy under the weight of heavy military spending was on the verge of collapse Wheeler-Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power, London: Macmillan, 1967 pages 436-437 . In addition, Goerdeler reported Hitler could be deterred from war by a forceful British diplomatic stand in favour of Poland Wheeler-Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power, London: Macmillan, 1967 pages 436-437 . According to Goerdeler's analysis's, provided Hitler was deterred from war, his regime would collapse on its own accord when the German economy disintegrated Wheeler-Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power, London: Macmillan, 1967 pages 436-437 . Goerdeler's arguments had much influence on Chamberlain when dealing with Hitler in 1939 Wheeler-Bennett, John The Nemesis of Power, London: Macmillan, 1967 pages 441-442 . In the so-called "X documents" (Goerdeler's codename was "X") detailing the German economic situation, Goerdeler painted a dire picture Overy, Richard "Germany, ‘Domestic Crisis’ and War in 1939” pages 97-128 from The Third Reich: The Essential Readings edited by Christian Leitz, Blackwell: Oxford, 1999 page 104 . In a typical report, Goerdeler told his contract with British intelligence, the industrialist A.P. Young that: "Economic and financial situation gravely critical. Inner situation desperate. Economic conditions getting worse" Overy, Richard "Germany, ‘Domestic Crisis’ and War in 1939” pages 97-128 from The Third Reich: The Essential Readings edited by Christian Leitz, Blackwell: Oxford, 1999 page 104 . In February 1939, Goerdeler's assessement of the German economic situation was contradicted by Fredrick Ashton-Gwatkin, the Foreign Office's economic expert who reported to the Cabinet after visiting Germany that through Germany was suffering from serious economic problems, the situation was nowhere near as desperate as portrayed by Goerdeler in the "X documents". Overy, Richard "Germany, ‘Domestic Crisis’ and War in 1939” pages 97-128 from The Third Reich: The Essential Readings edited by Christian Leitz, Blackwell: Oxford, 1999 pages 107-108 As the British historian Richard Overy observed, Chamberlain much preferred Goerdeler's assessement of German economic problems over Ashton-Gwatkin's, whose views were ignored by the Prime Minister in 1939 Overy, Richard "Germany, ‘Domestic Crisis’ and War in 1939” pages 97-128 from The Third Reich: The Essential Readings edited by Christian Leitz, Blackwell: Oxford, 1999 page 108 . Just how accurate was Goerdeler's information has been the subject of much historical debate, with some historians arguing that Goerdeler exaggerated the extent of German economic problems while other historians have maintained that Goerdeler's information was correct, and that it was Soviet economic support together with plundering occupied countries that saved the German economy from collapse in 1939-41. The "containment" strategy comprised building a "peace front" of alliances linking Western and Eastern European states to serve as "tripwire" meant to deter any act of German aggression. Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War page 695. The essence of the "containment" strategy was a policy of deterrence, which comprised firm warnings against aggression, and an attempt to form interlocking network of alliances that would block German aggression in any direction. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II page 544 Initially beginning with an proposal by Chamberlain in March 1939 following advice from the Chiefs of Staff for talks between Britain, the Soviet Union, Poland and France to offer support for any state that felt its independence threatened by Hitler, at French suggestion, the proposal was stiffened to include action. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 231 The Poles were invited into the proposed Four Power Pact as the state best placed to aid Romania, and the East European state Romania was most likely to accept aid from. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 232 Poland was at first conceived as merely one part of the anti-German East European bloc, but rumors presented by the newspaperman Ian Colvin, most likely planted by anti-Nazi elements within the Abwehr of an impending German attack against Poland in late March led to the specific unilateral guarantee of Poland. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 234 Pointedly, the guarantee was of Polish independence, not frontiers, leaving open the possibility of territorial revision in Germany's favor. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 235 Though it was not practical for Britain to offer any aid to Poland in the event of an German attack, the principle motive was to deter an German attack against Poland, and if such an attack should come, as an means of tying down German troops. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 236 Through Chamberlain envisioned the return of Danzig as the part of the ultimate solution to the German-Polish dispute, he also made very clear that the survival of a Polish state, albeit within truncated borders were seen as part of the solution. Greenwood, Sean "The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939" from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered edited by Gordon Martel, London: Routledge, 1999 page 238 A additional factor that influenced Chamberlain's conduct of foreign policy in 1939 was the state of the British economy and the financial problems of paying the colossal costs of rearmament. By May 1939, Simon was warning the Cabinet that under the economic strain of rearmament that "We shall find ourselves in a position, when we should be unable to wage any war other than a brief one" Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1989 page 99 . Given the economic strains caused by rearmament, Chamberlain very much wanted to an end to the endless crises gripping Europe before the arms race bankrupted Britain. A major crisis which preoccupied Chamberlain in the summer of 1939 was the Tientsin Incident. Following the British refusal to hand over to the Japanese four Chinese nationalists accused of murdering a Japanese collaborator, the British concession in Tianjin, China was blockaded by the Japanese Army on June 14, 1939 Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 354 . In particular, reports in the British press of the maltreatment by the Japanese of British subjects wishing to leave or enter the concession, especially the strip-searching in public of British women at bayonet-point by Japanese soldiers enraged British public opinion, and led to much pressure on the government to take action against Japan Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 pages 354-355 . Chamberlain considered the crisis to be so important that he ordered the Royal Navy to give greater attention to a possible war with Japan then with a war with Germany Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 356 . On June 26, 1939 the Royal Navy reported that the only way of ending the blockade was to send the main British battle fleet to the Far East, and that given the current crisis in Europe with Germany threatening Poland that this was militarily inadvisable Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 356 . In addition, Chamberlain faced strong pressure from the French not to weaken British naval strength in the Mediterranean, given the danger that Benito Mussolini might honor the Pact of Steel should war break out in Europe Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 356 . Following an unsuccessful effort to obtain a promise of American support (who informed the British that the United States would not risk a war with Japan for purely British interests), Chamberlain ordered Sir Robert Craigie, the British Ambassador in Tokyo to find any way of ending the crisis without too much loss of British prestige Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 356-357 . The crisis ended with the British handing over the Chinese suspects to be executed by the Japanese in August 1939, through Craigie did succeeded in persuading the Japanese to drop their more extreme demands such as the British turning over all Chinese silver in British banks to the Japanese Watt, D.C. How War Came, New York: Pantheon, 1939 page 359 . By the summer of 1939, if Chamberlain did not welcome the prospect of war, there was a feeling now was the best time to have either force Hitler into a settlement, and if that proved impossible and that war was inevitable, then now was the best time to have an war because of the economic problems associated with rearmament meant from the British point of view, 1939 was the best time for a war. Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1989 page 99 The Board of Trade's Oliver Stanley advised his Cabinet colleagues in July 1939 that "There would, therefore, come a moment which, on a balance of our financial strength and strength in armaments, was the best time for war to break out". Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1989 page 99 Through being firm in the determination to resist aggression, the prospect of appeasement and peaceful revision had not been abandoned by Chamberlain; in the talks in London between the British Government's Chief Industrial Advisor, Sir Horace Wilson (who was a close friend and associate of Chamberlain) and Helmut Wohlat of the Four Year Plan Office in July 1939, Wilson made clear that provided Hitler abandoned his aggressive course against Poland, London would be willing to discuss the peaceful return of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, colonial restoration, economic concessions, disarmament and an Anglo-German commitment to refrain from war against one another, all of which was of absolutely no significance to Hitler<ref>Messerschmidt, Manfred "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War" from Germany and the Second World War pages 706-707</ref>. In the summer of 1939, there were desperate attempts to avert a war by various amateur diplomats such as Göring's deputy Wohltat, Chamberlain's friend the Chief Industrial Advisor Sir Horace Wilson, the newspaper proprietor Lord Kemsley, together with would be peace-makers like the Swedish businessmen Axel Wenner-Gren and Birger Dahlerus, who served as couriers between Hermann Göring (who had some private doubts about the wisdom of Hitler's policies, and was anxious to see a compromise solution) and various British officials. Watt, D.C. How War Came, London: Heinemann, 1989 pages 394-407 All efforts at a compromise solution were doomed because Chamberlain demanded as the precondition that Hitler abandoned war against Poland as an option, and Hitler was absolutely determined to have a war with Poland. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II pages 620-621 For Chamberlain, war remained the worst case outcome to the Polish crisis, but he was determined to make an forceful British stand in favor of Poland, leading hopefully to a German resort to an negotiated settlement of the Danzig crisis, which would result in a British diplomatic victory that would hopefully deter Hitler from an policy of force" Overy, Richard & Wheatcroft, Andrew The Road To War, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1989 page 101 At the same time as Chamberlain attempted to broker a German-Polish compromise, he also struck to his deterrence strategy of repeatedly warning Hitler that Britain would declare war on Germany if he attacked Poland. On August 27, 1939 Chamberlain sent the following letter to Hitler intended to counter-act reports Chamberlain had heard from intelligence sources in Berlin that the German Foreign Joachim von Ribbentrop had convinced Hitler that the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact would ensure that Britain would abandon Poland. In his letter to Hitler, Chamberlain wrote: “Whatever may prove to be the nature of the German-Soviet Agreement, it cannot alter Great Britain’s obligation to Poland which His Majesty’s Government have stated in public repeatedly and plainly and which they are determined to fulfill. It has been alleged that, if His Majesty’s Government had made their position more clear in 1914, the great catastrophe would have been avoided. Whether or not there is any force in that allegation, His Majesty’s Government are resolved that on this occasion there shall be no such tragic misunderstanding. If the case should arise, they are resolved, and prepared, to employ without delay all the forces at their command, and it is impossible to foresee the end of hostilities once engaged. It would be a dangerous illusion to think that, if war once starts, it will come to an early end even if a success on any one of the several fronts on which it will be engaged should have been secured” Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II page 623 Chamberlain, who was nicknamed "Monsieur J'aime Berlin" (French for Mr. I love Berlin) just before the outbreak of hostilities, remained hopeful up until Germany's invasion of the Low Countries that the war could be ended without serious fighting Murray, Williamson & Millet, Alan A War to Be Won, Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2000 pages 51-52 . It was Chamberlain's hope that the British blockade would cause the collapse of the German economy, and hence the Nazi regime Murray, Williamson & Millet, Alan A War to Be Won, Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2000 pages 51-52 . Once a new government was installed in Germany, it would be possible to make peace over issues "that we don't really care about". This policy was widely criticised both at the time and since; but given that the French General Staff was determined not to attack Germany but instead remain on the strategic defensive, what alternatives Chamberlain could have pursued are not clear. It is true that he used the months of the Phoney War to complete development of the Spitfire and Hurricane, and to strengthen the RDF or Radar defense grid in Britain. Both of these priorities would pay crucial dividends in the Battle of Britain. Outbreak of war On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Once it become clear that it was an invasion, and not the outbreak of border fighting (as it was by the middle of September 1), Chamberlain wished to declare war on Germany at once. For the sake of Allied concord, Chamberlain wanted the British declaration of war to be linked to a French one. The outbreak of war caused a serious crisis within the French Cabinet as a ferocious power struggle broke out between those in the French Cabinet led by the Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet who were opposed to going to war with Germany vs. those by the Premier Édouard Daladier who wanted to go to war with Germany. France's intentions were unclear at that point as the Bonnet-Daladier power struggle played out, and the government could only give Germany an ultimatum: if Hitler withdrew his troops within two days, Britain would help to open talks between Germany and Poland. When Chamberlain announced this in the House on 2 September, there was a massive outcry. The prominent Conservative former minister Leo Amery, believing that Chamberlain had failed in his responsibilities, famously called on the acting Leader of the Opposition Arthur Greenwood to "Speak for England, Arthur!" Chief Whip David Margesson told Chamberlain that he believed the government would fall if war was not declared. After bringing further pressure on the French, who agreed to parallel the British action, Britain declared war on 3 September 1939. In Chamberlain's radio broadcast to the nation, he said: In Parliament on the same day Chamberlain (not a man to show his emotions) appeared devastated: "This is a sad day for all of us, and to none is it sadder than for me. Everything that I have worked for, everything that I hoped for, everything I have believed in during my public life has crashed into ruins." (Hansard, 5th series, Vol CCCLI, p. 292) As part of the preparations for conflict, Chamberlain asked all his ministers to "place their offices in his hands" so that he could carry out a full-scale reconstruction of the government. The most notable new recruits were Winston Churchill and the former Cabinet Secretary Maurice Hankey, now Baron Hankey. Much of the press had campaigned for Churchill's return to government for several months, and taking him aboard looked like a good way to strengthen the government, especially as both the Labour Party and Liberal Party declined to join. Initially, Chamberlain intended to make Churchill a minister without portfolio (possibly with the sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal) and include him in a War Cabinet of just six members, with the service ministers outside it. However, he was advised that it would be unwise not to give Churchill a department, so Churchill instead became First Lord of the Admiralty. Chamberlain's inclusion of all three service ministers in the War Cabinet drew criticism from those who argued that a smaller cabinet of non-departmental ministers could take decisions more efficiently. War premiership The first eight months of the war are often described as the "Phoney War", for the relative lack of action. Throughout this period, the main conflicts took place at sea, raising Churchill's stature; however, many conflicts arose behind the scenes. The Soviet invasion of Poland and the subsequent Soviet-Finnish War (the "Winter War") led a call for military action against the Soviets, but Chamberlain believed that such action would only be possible if the war with Germany were concluded peacefully, a course of action he refused to countenance. The Moscow Peace Treaty in March 1940 brought no consequences in Britain, though the French government led by Édouard Daladier fell after a rebellion in the Chamber of Deputies. It was a worrying precedent for an allied prime minister. Problems grew at the War Office as the Secretary of State for War, Leslie Hore-Belisha, became an ever more controversial figure. Hore-Belisha's high public profile and reputation as a radical reformer who was turning the army into a modern fighting force made him attractive to many, but he and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Lord Gort, soon lost confidence in each other in strategic matters. Hore-Belisha had also proved a difficult member of the War Cabinet, and Chamberlain realised that a change was needed; the Minister of Information, Lord Macmillan, had also proved ineffective, and Chamberlain considered moving Hore-Belisha to that post. Senior colleagues raised the objection that a Jewish Minister of Information would not benefit relations with neutral countries, and Chamberlain offered Hore-Belisha the post of President of the Board of Trade instead. The latter refused and resigned from the government altogether; since the true nature of the disagreement could not be revealed to the public, it seemed that Chamberlain had folded under pressure from traditionalist, inefficient generals who disapproved of Hore-Belisha's changes. When Germany invaded Norway in April 1940, an expeditionary force was sent to counter them, but the campaign proved difficult, and the force had to be withdrawn. The naval aspect of the campaign in particular proved controversial and was to have repercussions in Westminster. Chamberlain's war policy was the subject of impassioned debate, to such an extent that he is one of the very few Prime ministers to have appeared in popular songs. The 1940 song "God Bless you Mr Chamberlain" expresses support : God bless you, Mr Chamberlain, we're all mighty proud of you. You look swell holding your umbrella, all the world loves a wonderful fellow... Fall and resignation Following the debacle of the British expedition to Norway, Chamberlain found himself under siege in the House of Commons. During the Norway Debate of 7 May, Leo Amery – who had been one of Chamberlain's personal friends – delivered a devastating indictment of Chamberlain's conduct of the war. In concluding his speech, he quoted the words of Oliver Cromwell to the Rump Parliament: When the vote came the next day, over 40 government backbenchers voted against the government and many more abstained. Although the government won the vote, it became clear that Chamberlain would have to meet the charges brought against him. He initially tried to bolster his government by offering to appoint some prominent Conservative rebels and sacrifice some unpopular ministers, but demands for an all-party coalition government grew louder. Chamberlain set about investigating whether or not he could persuade the Labour Party to serve under him and, if not, then who should succeed him. Two obvious successors soon emerged: Lord Halifax, then Foreign Minister, and Winston Churchill. Halifax would have proved acceptable to almost everyone, but he was deeply reluctant to accept, arguing that it was impossible for a member of the House of Lords to lead an effective government. Over the next 24 hours, Chamberlain explored the situation further. That afternoon he met with Halifax, Churchill and Margesson, who determined that if Labour should decline to serve under Chamberlain then Churchill would have to try to form a government. Labour leaders Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood were unable to commit their party and agreed to put two questions to the next day's meeting of the National Executive Committee: Would they join an all-party government under Chamberlain? If not, would they join an all-party government under "someone else"? The next day, Germany invaded the Netherlands, Belgium and France. At first, Chamberlain believed it was best for him to remain in office for the duration of the crisis, but opposition to his continued premiership was such that, at a meeting of the War Cabinet, Lord Privy Seal Sir Kingsley Wood told him clearly that it was time to form an all-party government. Soon afterwards, a response came from the Labour National Executive – they would not serve with Chamberlain, but they would with someone else. On the evening of 10 May 1940, Chamberlain tendered his resignation to the King and formally recommended Churchill as his successor. Lord President of the Council and death Despite his resignation as Prime Minister, Chamberlain remained leader of the Conservative Party and retained a great deal of support. Some, such as Rab Butler, would at times toast him as "the King over the water". Although Churchill was pressured by some of his own supporters and some Labour MPs to exclude Chamberlain from the government, he remembered the mistake that Lloyd George made in marginalising Asquith during the First World War and realised the importance of retaining the support of all parties in the Commons. Churchill had first planned to make Chamberlain Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons, but so many Labour and Liberal leaders were reluctant to serve in such a government that Churchill instead appointed him as Lord President of the Council. Chamberlain still wielded power within government as the head of the main home affairs committees, most notably the Lord President's Committee. He served loyally under Churchill, offering much constructive advice. Despite preconceived notions, many Labour ministers found him to be a helpful source of information and support. In late May 1940, the War Cabinet had a rapid series of meetings over proposals for peace from Germany which threatened to split the government. Churchill, supported by the Labour members Clement Attlee and Arthur Greenwood, was against the proposals, which were favoured by Lord Halifax. Chamberlain was initially inclined to accept the terms, but this division threatened to bring down the government. Over the course of three days, Churchill, aided by Greenwood and the Liberal leader Sir Archibald Sinclair, gradually persuaded Chamberlain to oppose the terms, and Britain remained in the war. At this stage, Chamberlain still retained the support of most Conservative MPs. This was most visible in the House of Commons, where Conservatives would cheer Chamberlain, while Churchill only received the support of Labour and Liberal members. Realising that this created the impression of a weak government, Chamberlain and the Chief Whip, David Margesson, took steps to encourage the formation of a Conservative power base that would support Churchill. Despite this, there were many outside Parliament who wished to see Chamberlain removed from the government. In the summer of 1940, a highly damning polemic entitled Guilty Men was released by "Cato" – a pseudonym for three journalists (including future Labour leader Michael Foot) from the Beaverbrook publishing stable. The piece, which attacked the record of the National Government and called for the removal of Chamberlain and other ministers who had allegedly contributed to the British disasters, sold phenomenally well, going into twenty-one editions in the first few months despite not being carried by several major bookshops. Similar criticisms appeared in the press, and at one point Chamberlain felt compelled to ask Churchill to bring pressure on the critics. At first, Chamberlain, like many others, regarded Churchill as a mere caretaker premier and looked forward to a return to 10 Downing Street after the war. By midsummer, however, Chamberlain's health was deteriorating; in July he underwent an operation for stomach cancer. He made several efforts to recover, but by the end of September he felt that it was impossible to continue in government, and he formally resigned as both Lord President and Leader of the Conservative Party. By special consent of Churchill and the King, Chamberlain continued to receive state papers for his remaining months so that he could keep himself informed of the situation. He retired to Highfield Park, near Heckfield in Hampshire, where he died of bowel cancer on the 9th of November, 1940 at the age of 71, having lived for precisely six months after his resignation as Premier. He was cremated at the Golders Green Crematorium and his ashes are at Westminster Abbey. Neville Chamberlain's estate was probated at 84,013 pounds sterling on 15 April 1941. Churchill's eulogy Churchill eulogised Chamberlain's character in the House of Commons: It fell to Neville Chamberlain in one of the supreme crises of the world to be contradicted by events, to be disappointed in his hopes, and to be deceived and cheated by a wicked man. But what were these hopes in which he was disappointed? What were these wishes in which he was frustrated? What was that faith that was abused? They were surely among the most noble and benevolent instincts of the human heart--the love of peace, the toil for peace, the strife for peace, the pursuit of peace, even at great peril, and certainly to the utter disdain of popularity or clamour. Whatever else history may or may not say about these terrible, tremendous years, we can be sure that Neville Chamberlain acted with perfect sincerity according to his lights and strove to the utmost of his capacity and authority, which were powerful, to save the world from the awful, devastating struggle in which we are now engaged. This alone will stand him in good stead as far as what is called the verdict of history is concerned. Legacy Neville Chamberlain remains one of the most controversial politicians in the history of Britain. His policy on Europe has dominated most writings to such an extent that many histories and biographies devote almost all coverage of his premiership to this single area of policy. Written criticism of Chamberlain was given its first early boost in the 1940 polemic Guilty Men, which offered a deeply critical view of the politics of the 1930s, most notably the Munich Agreement and steps taken towards rearmament. Together with Churchill's post-war memoirs The Second World War, texts like Guilty Men heavily condemned and vilified appeasement. The post-war Conservative leadership was dominated by individuals such as Churchill, Eden, and Harold Macmillan who had made their names opposing Chamberlain. Some even argued that Chamberlain's foreign policy was in stark contrast to the traditional Conservative line of interventionism and a willingness to take military action. In recent years, a revisionist school of history has emerged to challenge many assumptions about appeasement, arguing that it was a reasonable policy given the limitations of British arms available, the scattering of British forces across the world, and the reluctance of Dominion governments to go to war. Some have also argued that Chamberlain's policy was entirely in keeping with the Conservative tradition started by Lord Derby between 1846 and 1868 and followed in the Splendid Isolation under Lord Salisbury in the 1880s and 1890s. The production of aircraft was greatly increased at the time of the Munich agreement. Had war begun instead, the Battle of Britain might have had a much different dynamic with bi-planes instead of Spitfires meeting the Germans. More likely, however, German aircraft would have been fully engaged against France and Czechoslovakia. We can only guess how long would the war last if the numerous weapon factories of Czechoslovakia were not offered to Hitler on a silver plate. The emphasis on foreign policy has overshadowed Chamberlain's achievements in other spheres. His achievements as Minister of Health have been much praised by social historians, who have argued that he did much to improve conditions and brought the United Kingdom closer to the Welfare State of the post-war world. A generally unrecognised aspect of Chamberlain is his role in the inception of and drawing up of a remit for the Special Operations Executive. His eagerness to avoid another Great War was, once war was a fact, matched by the ferocity of the SOE (Special Operations Executive) charter, which he drew up. Chamberlain was, to an extent, unfortunate in his biography; when his widow commissioned Keith Feiling to write an official life in the 1940s, the government papers were not available for consultation. As a result, Feiling was unable to tackle criticisms by pointing to the government records in a way that later biographers could. Feiling filled the gap with extensive use of Chamberlain's private papers and produced a book that many consider to be the best account of Chamberlain's life, but which was unable to overcome the negative image of him at the time. Later historians have done much more, both emphasising Chamberlain's achievements in other spheres and making strong arguments in support of appeasement as the natural policy, but a new clear consensus has yet to be reached. The papers of Neville Chamberlain are housed in the University of Birmingham Special Collections. Notes References Chamberlain, Neville. Norman Chamberlain: A Memoir. John Murray, 1923. Chamberlain, Neville. In Search of Peace: Speeches (1937-1938). National Book Association, Hutchinson & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., 1938. Chamberlain, Neville. The Struggle for Peace. Hutchinson, 1939. Biographies Aster, Sidney “‘Guilty Man: the Case of Neville Chamberlain’” pages 62–77 from The Origins of The Second World War edited by Patrick Finney, Edward Arnold: London, United Kingdom, 1997, ISBN 034067640X Aster, Sidney "Viorel Virgil Tilea and the Origins of the Second World War: An Essay in Closure" pages 153–174 from Diplomacy and Statecraft, Volume 13, Issue 3 September 2002 Crozier, Andrew Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies, Macmillan Press: London, United Kingdom, 1988, ISBN 0312015461. Bond, Brian “The Continental Commitment In British Strategy in the 1930s” pages 197-208 from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement edited by Wolfgang Mommsen and, Lothar Kettenacker, George Allen & Unwin: London, United Kingdom, 1983, ISBN 0-04-940068-1. Dilks, David. Neville Chamberlain, volume 1: Pioneering and Reform, 1869-1929 Cambridge University Press, 1984. Dutton, David. Neville Chamberlain. Hodder Arnold, 2001 Feiling, Keith. The Life of Neville Chamberlain. Macmillan & Co. Ltd, 1946. Gilbert, Martin. The Roots of Appeasement. New American Library, 1966. Goldstein, Erik ”Neville Chamberlain, The British Official Mind and the Munich Crisis” pages 276-292 from The Munich Crisis 1938 Prelude to World War II edited by Erik Goldstein and Igor Lukes , Frank Cass: London, 1999, ISBN 0714680567 Greenwood, Sean “The Phantom Crisis: Danzig, 1939” pages 225-246 from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999, ISBN 0415163250. Herndon, James “British Perceptions of Soviet Military Capability, 1935-39” pages 297-319 from The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement edited by Wolfgang Mommsen and, Lothar Kettenacker, George Allen & Unwin: London, United Kingdom, 1983, ISBN 0-04-940068-1. Kennedy, Paul & Imlay, Talbot “Appeasement” pages 116-134 from The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians edited by Gordon Martel Routledge: London, United Kingdom, 1999, ISBN 0415163250 McDonough, Frank, Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement and the British Road to War, Manchester University Press, 1998. McDonough, Frank McDonough, Hitler, Chamberlain and Appeasement, Cambridge University Press, 2001. Middlemas, Keith Diplomacy of Illusion The British Government and Germany, 1937-39, Weidenfeld and Nicolson: London, United Kingdom, 1972 Newman, Simon March 1939: The British Guarantee to Poland A Study in the Continuity of British Foreign Policy, Claredon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1976, ISBN 0198225326. Parker, RAC, Chamberlain and Appeasement, Palgrave Macmillan, 1994. Self, Robert. Neville Chamberlain: A Biography. Ashgate, 2006 Stewart, Graham. Burying Caesar : Churchill, Chamberlain, and the Battle for the Tory Party Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1999, and revised edition, Phoenix, 2000 Strang, Bruce "Once more onto the Breach: Britain's Guarantee to Poland, March 1939" pages 721-752 from Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 31, 1996. Watt, D.C. How War Came The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 Heinemann: London, 1989, ISBN 039457916X. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II 1937-1939, University of Chicago Press: Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, 1980, ISBN 0-226-88511-9. Wheeler-Bennett, John Munich : Prologue to Tragedy, New York : Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948.The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' External links University of Birmingham Special Collections The political papers of Neville Chamberlain Downing Street website The Struggle for Peace by Neville Chamberlain |- |- | Neville_Chamberlain |@lemmatized arthur:8 neville:42 chamberlain:317 march:40 november:7 british:124 conservative:35 politician:4 prime:24 minister:58 united:55 kingdom:39 best:18 know:6 appeasement:35 foreign:58 policy:93 particular:7 regard:14 signing:1 munich:40 agreement:19 concede:1 sudetenland:13 region:4 czechoslovakia:16 germany:120 containment:5 culminate:2 declare:11 war:218 september:29 work:6 business:4 local:7 government:103 short:1 spell:1 director:3 national:29 service:6 follow:13 father:11 old:7 half:7 brother:8 become:29 member:12 parliament:6 general:30 election:17 age:8 decline:8 junior:2 ministerial:3 position:17 remain:16 backbencher:3 appoint:9 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1,933 | Demographics_of_India | This article is about the demographic features of the population of India, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The demographics of India is remarkably diverse. India's population of approximately 1.17 billion people (estimate for July, 2009) comprises approximately one-sixth of the world's population. India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as a language isolate (the Nihali language spoken in parts of Maharashtra). Further complexity is lent by the great variation that occurs across this population on social parameters such as income and education. Only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, genetic and cultural diversity of the nation of India. India, a Country Study United States Library of Congress, Note on Ethnic groups Genetics Y-chromosome DNA Y-Chromosome DNA Y-DNA represents the male lineage, The Indian Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows where haplogroups R1a, H, R2, L & NOP comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes. Hammer et al. 2005, S. Sahoo et al. 2006, R. Trivedi et al. 2007, Zhao et al. 2008 H ~ 30% R1a ~ 20% R2 ~ 15% L ~ 10% NOP ~ 10% Other Haplogroups 15% Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA represents the female lineage The Indian mitochondrial DNA which is primarily made up of Haplogroup M Semino et al. 2000, Kivisild et al. 2003, Metspalu et al. 2004, Rajkumar et al. 2005, Chandrasekar et al. 2007, Gonzalez et al. 2007 Haplogroup M ~ 60% Haplogroup UK ~ 15% Haplogroup N ~ 25% (Excluding UK) Salient features India occupies 2.4% of the world's land area and supports over 17.5% of the world's population. India has more arable land area than any country except the United States, GM Crops Around the World – an accurate picture GM Freeze, Table 3 and more water area than any country except Canada and the United States. Indian life, therefore revolves mostly around agriculture and allied activities in small villages, where the overwhelming majority of Indians live. As per the 2001 census, 72.2% of the population Rural-Urban distribution Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. lives in about 638,000 villages Number of Villages Census of India: Number of Villages Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. and the remaining 27.8% Rural-Urban distribution Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations. Urban Agglomerations and Towns Census of India: Urban Agglomerations and Towns. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. Census The most recent census of India was conducted in 2001 with the reference date of March 1 of that year. Census of India, Govt. of India - Ministry of Home Affairs, Official web-site| We also count people in India It was the 14th census in an unbroken series, and the 6th after independence in 1947 (with the exception that census could not be held for Assam in the 1981 and Jammu & Kashmir in 1951 and 1991). Eight censuses were performed under the British Raj, the first one was carried out throughout the 1860s and completed in 1872 (The first non-synchronous census). After this, there has been a census every decade starting in 1881 (First synchronous census). The total population as on 1 March 2001 was 1,027,015,247, making the 2001 census the first to count more than a billion Indians. Indian Census The population had risen by 21.34% compared to the 1991 total. The proportion of female population had increased by 0.3 percentage points to 48.4% during 1991-2001. Religious demographics + Table 1: 2001 Religious Data Composotion Religious CompositionPopulation(%)Hindus827,578,86880.5%Muslims138,188,24013.4%Christians24,080,0162.3%Sikhs19,215,7301.9%Buddhists7,955,2070.8%Jains4,225,0530.4%Other Religions & Persuasions6,639,6260.6%Religion not stated727,5880.1%Total*1,028,610,328100.0% * Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao Maram and Purul sub-districts of Senapati district of Manipur state. India is home to the third-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia(209m)& Pakistan(169 m). India also contains the majority of the world's Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Jains and Bahá'í. Other religious groups include Jews. Religious majorities vary greatly by state. Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep are Muslim majority states; Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya are Christian majority; Punjab is mostly Sikh; Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim are mainly Buddhist. The table below summarizes the findings of the 2001 census with regards to religion in India: All figures in %. Gender Ratio*: no of females/1000 males Others including Bahá'ís, Jews, and Parsis. Tribal Animists (and non religious) are grouped under Others after 1926 (1931 census onwards) + Table 2: Census information for 2001 Composition Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhist Jains Others % total of population 2005 80.4% 13.4% 2.3% 1.9% 1.1% 0.4% 0.5% 10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01) 20.3% 29.5% 22.6% 18.2% 24.5% 26.0% 103.1% Sex ratio* (avg. 944) 935 940 1009 895 955 940 100 Literacy rate (avg. 79.9) 75.5 60.0 90.3 70.4 73.0 95.0 50.0 Work Participation Rate 40.4 31.3 39.7 37.7 40.6 32.9 48.4 Rural sex ratio 944 953 1001 895 958 937 995 Urban sex ratio 922 907 1026 886 944 941 966 Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs) 925 950 964 786 942 870 976 </small></div> α. The data excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur β. The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir Linguistic demographics 40% of the Hindus speak Hindi while the rest speak Bangla, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Gujarati, Kannada and other languages. Almost 45% of the Muslims speak Urdu while the rest speak Bangla,Hindi, Kashmiri, Telugu, Malayalam, Tamil, Gujarati and other languages. About one-third of the Christians speak Malayalam, one-sixth speak Tamil while the rest speak a variety of languages. In total, there are 1,652 languages and dialects spoken in India. Mother Tongues of India According to the 1961 Census + Table: Ordered by number of native speakers RankLanguage2001 census(total population 1,004.59 million) SpeakersPercentage 1Hindi dialects includes Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Bihari languages, Rajasthani languages and Pahari languages. 422,048,64241.03% 2Bengali83,369,7698.11% 3Telugu74,002,8567.37% 4Marathi71,936,8946.99% 5Tamil60,793,8145.91% 6Urdu51,536,1115.01% 7Gujarati46,091,6174.48% 8Kannada37,924,0113.69% 9Malayalam33,066,3923.21% 10Oriya33,017,4463.21% 11Punjabi29,102,4772.83% 12Assamese13,168,4841.28% 13Maithili12,179,1221.18% 14Santali6,469,6000.63% 15Kashmiri5,527,6980.54% 16Nepali2,871,7490.28% 17Sindhi2,535,4850.25% 18Konkani2,489,0150.24% 19Dongri2,282,5890.22% 20Meitei (Manipuri)1,466,705*0.14% 21Bodo1,350,4780.13% 22Sanskrit14,135N * Excludes figures of Paomata, Mao-Maram and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur for 2001. ** The percentage of speakers of each language for 2001 has been worked out on the total population of India excluding the population of Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati district of Manipur due to cancellation of census results. N - Stands for negligible. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Chart showing the Total Fertility Rate of Indian states (SRS survey 1996-98) National Population Policy of India Total Population 1,166,079,217 (July 2009 est. CIA) CIA World Factbook - India 1,028.7 million (2001 Census final figures, March 1 enumeration and estimated 124,000 in areas of Manipur that could not be covered in the enumeration) Map showing the population density of each district in India Rural Population 72.2%, male: 381,668,992, female: 360,948,755 (2001 Census) Urban Population Age structure: 0–14 years: 30.8%, male: 188,208,196, female: 171,356,024 15–64 years: 64.3%, male: 386,432,921, female: 364,215,759 65+ years: 4.9%, male: 27,258,259, female: 30,031,289 (2007 est.) The median age of Indians is 25.1 years. Population growth rate 1.548% (2009 est.) Birth rate 22.22 births/1,000 population (2009 est.) Death rate 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.) Map showing the literacy rate of each district in India Literacy rate 61.0% Percent of the population under the poverty line 22% (2006 est.) Unemployment Rate 7.8% Net migration rate − -0.05 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.12 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.098 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 1.061 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.908 male(s)/female total population: 1.064 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 30.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) male: 34.61 deaths/1,000 live births female: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth total population: 69.89 years male: 67.46 years female: 72.61 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 2.72 children born/woman (2009 est.) The TFR (Total number of children born per women ) according to Religion in 2001 was : Hindus - 2.0, Muslims - 2.4, Sikhs - 1.6, Christians - 2.1, Buddhists - 2.1, Jains - 1.4 , Animists and Others - 2.99, Tribals - 3.16, Scheduled Castes - 2.89. Nationality noun: Indian(s) adjective: Indian Religions Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.8%, Buddhists 0.8%, Jains 0.4%, others 0.7%, unspecified 0.1% (2001 Census) Religious Composition Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. International Religious Freedom Report 2007-India International Religious Freedom Report 2007. U.S. Department of State. CIA's The World Factbook - India . Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs - Background Note: India Scheduled Castes and Tribes Scheduled Castes: 16.2% (2001 Census) Scheduled Tribes: 8.2% (2001 Census) Languages: See Languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers. There are 216 languages with more than 10,000 native speakers in India. The largest of these is Hindi with some 337 million (the second largest being Bangla with some 207 million). 22 languages are recognized as official languages. In India, there are 1,652 languages and dialects in total. Mother Tongues of India According to the 1961 Census Rupert Goodwins. Smashing India's language barriers. ZDNet UK. 2025 Estimate Table 2: Population Projections (in millions) YearUnder 1515-6465+Total20003616044510102005368673511093201037074758117520153728196512562020373882761331 Source: Based on P.N. Mari Bhat, "Indian Demographic Scenario 2025", Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi, Discussion Paper No. 27/2001. Ethnic groups Unlike the United States, United Kingdom, Australian or Census in Canada and Phillipines Censuses, the national Census of India does not recognize racial or ethnic groups within India, Kumar, Jayant. Census of India. 2001. September 4, 2006. Indian Census but recognizes many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes (see list of Scheduled Tribes in India). It should be noted that Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic are mainly linguistic terms and denote speakers of these linguistic groups. For a list of ethnic groups in the Republic of India (as well as neighboring countries) see ethnic groups of the Indian subcontinent or the tree diagram above. Further reading See also List of most populous cities in India List of most populous metropolitan areas in India List of states and union territories of India by population Ethnic groups of India Indian diaspora Geography of India Racial groups of India External links Census of India; Govt. site with detailed data from 2001 census Census of India map generator; generates maps based on 2001 census figures Census-2001 Religion wise data Demographic data for India; provides sources of demographic data for India Peopling of India Kokrajhar District Information Gateway - Census 2001 Population Explosion in West Bengal: A Survey A Study by South Asia Research Society, Calcutta indianchild.com - Population of India District Level Estimates of Fertility from India’s 2001 Census References | Demographics_of_India |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:9 feature:2 population:32 india:61 include:4 density:2 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:2 health:1 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:11 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1,934 | Epistle_to_the_Colossians | In the New Testament, Colossians is an epistle written, according to the text itself, by Paul the Apostle. The epistle addresses the church in Colossae, a rather insignificant Phrygian city near Ephesus in Asia Minor. "Colossians, Epistle to the." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Members of the congregation had incorporated pagan elements into their practice, including worship of elemental spirits. Paul declared Christ's supremacy over the entire created universe and exhorted Christians to lead godly lives. The letter is in two parts, first a doctrinal section, then a second regarding conduct. In both sections, Paul opposes false teachers who have been spreading error in the congregation. In the doctrinal sections, Paul explains that there can be no need to worship anyone or anything but Christ because Christ is supreme over all creation. All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is sustained by him. God had chosen for his complete being to dwell in Christ. The "cosmic powers" revered by the false teachers had been "discarded" and "led captive" at Christ's death. Christ is the master of all angelic forces and the head of the church. Christ is the only mediator between God and humanity, the unique agent of cosmic reconciliation. Further, Paul also denounces the ascetic practices or avoiding certain foods because Christ's death put an end to such distinctions. Believers are one in Christ, not divided between circumcised and uncircumcised, slave and free, and so on. He then calls on his audience to fulfill all domestic and social obligations. The letter ends with customary prayer, instruction, and greetings. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Colossians" p. 337-338 During the first generation after Jesus, Paul's epistles to various churches helped establish early Christian theology. Written in the 60s while Paul was in prison, Colossians is similar to Ephesians, also written at this time. May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. Increasingly, critical scholars ascribe the epistle to an early follower writing as Paul. The epistle's description of Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some scholars, as representing an advanced christology not present during Paul's lifetime. Defenders of Pauline authorship cite the work's similarities to Philemon, broadly accepted as authentic. Content of the letter Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists of two parts: a doctrinal part and a practical part. The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. His main theme is developed in chapter 2. He warns them against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fullness of the deity (2:9), and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more? Paul could see that they had grown spiritually because of their love for all the set-apart ones in Christ (1:4 & 8). He knowing this wanted them to grow in wisdom and knowledge that their love might be principled love and not sentimentality (1:9-11). "Christ in you is your hope of glory!" (1:27) The practical part of the epistle (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man (3:5-14). Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. Tychicus was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the Ephesians and to Philemon, and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange this letter with that he had sent to the neighbouring Laodicean Church. (The apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans is almost universally believed to be a forgery based on this instruction.) He then closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation. There is a remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians. Historical context Date The letter is supposed (or intended) to be written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there (Acts 28:16, 30), probably in the spring of AD 57, or, as some scholars think, 62, soon after he had written his Epistle to Ephesians. If the letter is not considered to be an authentic part of the Pauline corpus it might be dated during the late first century, possible as late as the 80's Mack, Burton L. Who Wrote the New Testament? San Francisco:Harper Collins, 1996. Occasion of writing Like some of his other epistles (e.g., those to Corinth), this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there by Epaphras(1:4-8). Its object was to counteract false teaching. A large part of it is directed against certain speculatists who attempted to combine the doctrines of Eastern mysticism and asceticism with Christianity, thereby promising believers enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of spirits. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in Christ they had all things. He sets forth the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the "new moon" and "sabbath days" (2:16) shows that Gnostic ascetics were judging the body of Christ for "eating and drinking" and observing the "feasts, New Moons, and Sabbaths." In response, Paul commands the saints to "let no one judge you...but the body of Christ," i.e. the Church itself, which was observing these biblical holy days (Matt. 5:17-19; Rom. 3:31). Paul focuses much of his epistle to the Colossians in combating the teachings of the early Gnostic sects, particularly ascetics (see Col. 2:4-23). Authorship The letter's author claims to be Paul, a view that was uncontested until the development of critical exegesis in the 1800s. “The earliest evidence for Pauline authorship, aside from the letter itself ... is from the mid to late 2d cent. (Marcionite canon; Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.14.1; Muratorian canon). As with several epistles attributed to Paul, scholars disagree over whether Paul wrote Colossians and when it was written. This traditional view stood unquestioned until 1838, when E. T. Mayerhoff denied the authenticity of Col, claiming that it was full of non-Pauline ideas and dependent on Eph. Thereafter others have found additional arguments against Pauline authorship." New Jerome Biblical Commentary Paul's authorship is also confirmed by many of the church's early key figures such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen of Alexandria, and Eusebius, though most of these references are much later than Paul, and several of them have proved unreliable for other identifications. MacArthur, John. The MacArthur Bible Handbook. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2003. Most contemporary scholars, however, conclude that Paul did not write Colossians. “The cumulative weight of the many differences from the undisputed Pauline epistles has persuaded most modern scholars that Paul did not write Col ... Those who defend the authenticity of the letter include Martin, Caird, Houlden, Cannon, and Moule. Some... describe the letter as Pauline but say that it was heavily interpolated or edited. Schweizer suggests that Col was jointly written by Paul and Timothy. The position taken here is that Col is Deutero-Pauline; it was composed after Paul’s lifetime, between AD 70 (Gnilka) and AD 80 (Lohse) by someone who knew the Pauline tradition. Lohse regards Col as the product of a Pauline school tradition, probably located in Ephesus.” [TNJBC 1990 p. 877] The epistle's language seems not to match Paul's, as 48 words appear in Colossians that appear nowhere else in the Pauline corpus, of which 33 occur nowhere else in the N.T. Koester, Helmut. History and Literature of Early Christianity, Introduction to the New Testament Vol 2. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co, 1982,1987. The epistle features a strong use of liturgical-hyminic style which appears nowhere else in Paul's work as extensively. Kummel, Georg Werner. Introduction To The New Testament, Revised English Edition, Translated by Howard Kee. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1973,1975 . The epistle's themes related to Christ, eschatology, and the church have no parallel in Paul's undisputed works. “The theological areas usually singled out for comparison are christology, eschatology, and ecclesiology. The christology of Col is built on the traditional hymn in 1:15-20, according to which Christ is the image of the invisible God... These themes are developed throughout the letter, and other christological statements that have no parallel in the undisputed Pauline writings are added: that Christ is the mystery of God... that believers have been raised with Christ ... that Christ forgives sins... that Christ is victorious over the principalities and powers..." New Jerome Biblical Commentary Compared to undisputed Pauline epistles, in which Paul looks forward to an imminent Second Coming, Colossians presents a completed eschatology, in which baptism relates to the past (a completed salvation) rather than to the future. “The eschatology of Col is described as realized. There is a lessening of eschatological expectation in Col, whereas Paul expected the parousia in the near future (I Thes 4:15; 5:23; I Cor 7:26)... The congregation has already been raised from the dead with Christ ... whereas in the undisputed letters resurrection is a future expectation... The difference in eschatological orientation between Col and the undisputed letters results in a different theology of baptism... Whereas in Rom 6:1-4 baptism looks forward to the future, in Col baptism looks back to a completed salvation. In baptism believers have not only died with Christ but also been raised with him.” The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Union Theological Seminary, New York; NY, Maurya P. Horgan (Colossians); Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm. (emeritus) The Divinity School, Duke University, Durham, NC, with a foreword by His Eminence Carlo Maria Cardinal Martini, S.J.; Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990 1990 p. 876 However, the differences between these elements in this letter and one commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g. 1 Thessalonians) are explained by advocates of Pauline authorship by human variability, and the apparent use of a secretary (or amanuensis) in composition. See also Textual variants in the Epistle to the Colossians References Bibliography N.T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon, Tyndale IVP 1986 (ISBN 0-8028-0309-1) TIB = The Interpreter’s Bible, The Holy Scriptures in the King James and Revised Standard versions with general articles and introduction, exegesis, [and] exposition for each book of the Bible in twelve volumes, George Arthur Buttrick, Commentary Editor, Walter Russell Bowie, Associate Editor of Exposition, Paul Scherer, Associate Editor of Exposition, John Knox Associate Editor of New Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Samuel Terrien, Associate Editor of Old Testament Introduction and Exegesis, Nolan B. Harmon Editor, Abingdon Press, copyright 1955 by Pierce and Washabaugh, set up printed, and bound by the Parthenon Press, at Nashville, Tennessee, Volume XI, Philippians, Colossians [Introduction and Exegesis by Francis W. Beare, Exposition by G. Preston MacLeod], Thessalonians, Pastoral Epistles [The First and Second Epistles to Timothy, and the Epistle to Titus] , Philemon, Hebrews TNJBC = The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Union Theological Seminary, New York; NY, Maurya P. Horgan [Colossians]; Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm. (emeritus) The Divinity School, Duke University, Durham, NC, with a foreword by His Eminence Carlo Maria Cardinal Martini, S.J.; Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990 A.C.= The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. The text carefully printed from the most correct copies of the present Authorized Version. Including the marginal readings and parallel texts. With a Commentary and Critical Notes. Designed as a help to a better understanding of the sacred writings. By Adam Clarke, LL.D. F.S.A. M.R.I.A. With a complete alphabetical index. Royal Octavo Stereotype Edition. Vol. II. [Vol. VI together with the O.T.] New York, Published by J. Emory and B. Waugh, for the Methodist Episcopal Church, at the conference office, 13 Crosby-Street. J. Collord, Printer. 1831. External links Online translations of the Epistle to the Colossians: Online Bible at GospelHall.org World English Bible version online at WikiChristian Collection of translations and commentary on Colossians Related articles: http://www.americanoblate.com/americanoblatepage2.html WikiChristian - Epistle to the Colossians | Epistle_to_the_Colossians |@lemmatized new:20 testament:7 colossian:16 epistle:26 write:13 accord:2 text:3 paul:31 apostle:2 address:1 church:10 colossae:1 rather:2 insignificant:1 phrygian:1 city:1 near:2 ephesus:2 asia:1 minor:1 cross:1 f:2 l:3 ed:1 oxford:3 dictionary:1 christian:5 york:4 university:3 press:4 member:2 congregation:3 incorporate:1 pagan:1 element:2 practice:2 include:3 worship:2 elemental:1 spirit:2 declare:1 christ:25 supremacy:1 entire:1 create:2 universe:2 exhort:2 lead:2 godly:1 live:1 letter:15 two:3 part:8 first:6 doctrinal:4 section:3 second:3 regard:2 conduct:1 opposes:1 false:3 teacher:2 spread:1 error:1 explain:2 need:2 anyone:1 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1,935 | Cedar_Falls,_Iowa | Cedar Falls is a city in Black Hawk County, Iowa, United States, and it is home to one of Iowa's three public universities, the University of Northern Iowa. The population was 36,145 at the 2000 census. It has the smaller population of the two principal cities in the Cedar Falls-Waterloo, Iowa Metropolitan Statistical Area. History Cedar Falls was founded in 1845 by William Sturgis. It was originally named Sturgis Falls, for the first family who settled the site. The Sturgis family moved on within a few years and the city was renamed Cedar Falls because of its proximity to the Cedar River. However the city's founders are honored each year with a three day community-wide celebration named in their honor - the Sturgis Falls Celebration. Because of the availability of water power, Cedar Falls developed as a milling and industrial center prior to the Civil War. The establishment of the Civil War Soldiers' Orphans Home in Cedar Falls changed the direction in which the city developed when, following the war, it became the first building on the campus of the Iowa State Normal School (now the University of Northern Iowa). Geography Cedar Falls is located at (42.523520, -92.446402). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 28.9 square miles (74.8 km²), of which, 28.3 square miles (73.3 km²) of it is land and 0.6 square miles (1.5 km²) of it (2.08%) is water. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 36,145 people, 12,833 households, and 7,558 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,277.2 people per square mile (493.1/km²). There were 13,271 housing units at an average density of 468.9/sq mi (181.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 95.14% White, 1.57% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 1.61% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.41% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. 1.08% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 12,833 households out of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.1% were non-families. 25.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.91. In the city the population was spread out with 18.0% under the age of 18, 30.6% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females there were 88.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $70,226, and the median income for a family was $85,158. Males had a median income of $60,235 versus $50,312 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,140. About 5.6% of families and 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over. Library The Cedar Falls Public Library is housed in the Adele Whitenach Davis building located at 524 Main Street. The 47,000 square foot (4,400 m²) structure, designed by Struxture Architects, replaced the Carniege-Dayton building in early 2004. As of the 2005 fiscal year, the library's holdings included 2,176 audio recordings, 2,292 videos, 253 periodicals, 96 miscellaneous titles, and 115,757 books for a grand total of 120,574 items. Patrons made more than 220,000 visits which took advantage of circulation services, adult, teen, and youth programming. The library also provides public access to more than 30 public computers which provide Internet access, office software suites, high resolution color printing, and various games. The mission of the Cedar Falls Public Library is to promote literacy and provide open access to resources which facilitate lifelong learning. The library is a member of the Cedar Valley Library Consortium(CVLC). Consortium members share an Integrated Library System(ILS) server which resides in the Rod Library of the University of Northern Iowa. Library management is provided by Sheryl Groskurth MLS, Joint Director of the Cedar Falls and Waterloo Public Libraries. Culture In 1986, the City of Cedar Falls established the Cedar Falls Art and Culture Board, which oversees the operation of the City's Cultural Division and the James & Meryl Hearst Center for the Arts. Media Video Game Design 8monkey Labs Phantom EFX FM Radio 88.1 KBBG 88.9 KWVI 89.5 KHKE 90.9 KUNI (FM) 92.3 KKHQ 94.5 KULT 96.1 KCVM 97.7 KCRR 98.5 KOEL 99.3 KWAY-FM 100.1 KBOL 101.9 KNWS-FM 105.7 KOKZ 107.9 KFMW AM Radio 600 WMT 640 WOI 850 KXGM 950 KOEL 1040 WHO 1090 KNWS 1250 KDNZ 1330 KWLO 1540 KXEL 1650 KCNZ Analog Television 2 KGAN 2 (CBS) - Located in Cedar Rapids 7 KWWL 7 (NBC, WX+ on DT2) 9 KCRG 9 (ABC) - Located in Cedar Rapids 12 KIIN 12 (PBS/IPTV) - Located in Iowa City 17 K17ET 17 / K44FK 44 (TBN) 20 KWKB 20 (The CW/MNTV) - Located in Iowa City 22 KWWF 22 (RTN) 28 KFXA 28 (Fox) - Located in Cedar Rapids 32 KRIN 32 (PBS/IPTV) 40 KFXB 40 (CTN) - Located in Dubuque Print The Courier, daily newspaper The Cedar Falls Times, weekly newspaper Music The underground music scene in the Cedar Falls area from 1977-2007 is documented on The Secret History of the Cedar Valley, a collaborative history of the bands, record labels, and music venues involved in the Cedar Falls music scene. Notable natives Actors Annabeth Gish -- actress Gary Kroeger -- actor, Saturday Night Live 1982-1985 Mark Steines -- co-host, Entertainment Tonight, alumnus of the University of Northern Iowa Joe Trotter -- actor/comedian, Andersonville Tracy Ryan -- adult film star Athletes Kurt Warner -- NFL quarterback, played for the St. Louis Rams and New York Giants, currently on the Arizona Cardinals; a University of Northern Iowa alumnus Aaron Kampman -- NFL defensive end with the Green Bay Packers Don Denkinger -- umpire that made a controversial call in the 1985 World Series Bryce Paup-- NFL Musicians Stone Sour -- a Hard Rock Band Karen Holvik -- classical soprano, currently on the faculty of the Eastman School of Music, former professor at UNI House of Large Sizes -- an alternative rock band Bill Stewart -- jazz drummer and composer, attended UNI Bob Dorr -- founder, The Blue Band. Bob Dorr also produces a rock music history program called Backtracks for KUNI (FM) April Dahm --- founder of Twin Cities Rockers Politicians Jon Crews -- Current Mayor of Cedar Falls Chuck Grassley -- Current U.S. Senator, attended UNI Gil Gutknecht -- Former Minnesota congressman Roger Jepsen -- Former U.S. Senator Writers Bess Streeter Aldrich (1881-1954) -- author of several novels R.V. Cassill -- novelist and short story writer Nancy Price -- author of Sleeping With the Enemy Leland Sage -- Professor at UNI and famous writer Robert James Waller -- author of The Bridges of Madison County Misc. Marc Andreessen -- Co-founder, Netscape Corporation Randy & Vicki Weaver -- Parents, John Deere Employee, Ruby Ridge incident Rev Zendik -- Artist, born Marcus Andrew Colburn, son of Michael and Mary Colburn and nephew of Mayor Jon Crews Education University of Northern Iowa's Lang Hall Besides holding one of the three Iowa public universities, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls is home to three high schools. The Northern University High School, a private school run by the university, Valley Lutheran High School, a private Christian school, and Cedar Falls High School, which is part of the public school district, Cedar Falls Community Schools, which also includes two junior high schools and six elementary schools. In 2000, the for-profit Hamilton College established its sixth campus of seven in Cedar Falls by acquiring the American Institute of Commerce. Points of interest University of Northern Iowa University of Northern Iowa Teaching and Research Greenhouse The Cedar Falls/Waterloo metro area boasts an amazing 80+ miles of paved bike trails. References Brian C. Collins. Images of America: Cedar Falls, Iowa. Arcadia Publishing, Inc. 1998. ISBN 0-7524-1358-9 ISBN 0-7385-4582-1 External links Official City Website Cedar Falls Tourism and Visitors Bureau Cedar Falls Public Library Cedar Falls Chamber of Commerce Cedar Falls Historical Society Cedar River Environmental Group John Page: Cedar River Series | Cedar_Falls,_Iowa |@lemmatized cedar:34 fall:28 city:17 black:2 hawk:1 county:2 iowa:17 united:2 state:3 home:3 one:2 three:4 public:9 university:13 northern:10 population:6 census:3 small:1 two:3 principal:1 waterloo:3 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:4 history:4 found:1 william:1 sturgis:4 originally:1 name:2 first:2 family:7 settle:1 site:1 move:1 within:1 year:6 rename:1 proximity:1 river:3 however:1 founder:4 honor:2 day:1 community:2 wide:1 celebration:2 availability:1 water:2 power:1 develop:2 milling:1 industrial:1 center:2 prior:1 civil:2 war:3 establishment:1 soldier:1 orphan:1 change:1 direction:1 follow:1 become:1 building:3 campus:2 normal:1 school:12 geography:1 locate:8 accord:1 bureau:2 total:2 square:5 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1,936 | Hawker_Harrier | The Hawker Harrier was an experimental biplane torpedo bomber aircraft built by Hawker Aircraft to a specification issued in the 1920s for the RAF. Development In , the British air ministry laid down specifications for a high altitude bomber to replace the Hawker Horsley and for a coastal torpedo bomber (Specifications 23/25 and 24/25). As these specifications were similar, the Air Ministry announced that a single competition would be held to study aircraft submitted for both specifications. Mason 1994, p.193. Sydney Camm of Hawker Aircraft designed the Harrier to meet the requirements of Specification 23/25, with the prototype (J8325) first flying in February , the first of the competitors to the two specifications to . The Harrier was a two seat biplane with single bay wings powered by a geared Bristol Jupiter VIII. It was armed with one .303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine gun and one .303 in (7.7 mm) Lewis gun carrying a maximum of 1,000 lb (454 kg) of bombs. Lewis 1980, p.162. The prototype Harrier was tested at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A & AEE) at Martlesham Heath in November 1927, where, while it met the requirements of Specification 23/25, and had satisfactory handling, the geared engine meant that it was underpowered, and it had an inferior bombload to the Hawker Horsley, the aircraft it was meant to replace. It was therefore modified to carry a torpedo. On testing the modified aircraft, however, it was found to still be underpowered, being incapable of taking off with torpedo, gunner and a full fuel load. It was therefore not considered further, the competition ultimately being won by the Vickers Vildebeest. Mason 1994, p.200. The prototype was used by Bristol as an engine testbed, flying with the 870 hp (649 kW) Bristol Hydra and the 495 hp Bristol Orion engines. Specifications (Harrier (Bomber)) See also References External links British Aircraft Directory | Hawker_Harrier |@lemmatized hawker:5 harrier:5 experimental:2 biplane:2 torpedo:4 bomber:4 aircraft:7 build:1 specification:9 issue:1 raf:1 development:1 british:2 air:2 ministry:2 lay:1 high:1 altitude:1 replace:2 horsley:2 coastal:1 similar:1 announce:1 single:2 competition:2 would:1 hold:1 study:1 submit:1 mason:2 p:3 sydney:1 camm:1 design:1 meet:2 requirement:2 prototype:3 first:2 fly:2 february:1 competitor:1 two:2 seat:1 bay:1 wing:1 power:1 geared:1 bristol:4 jupiter:1 viii:1 arm:1 one:2 mm:2 vickers:2 machine:1 gun:2 lewis:2 carry:2 maximum:1 lb:1 kg:1 bomb:1 test:2 aeroplane:1 armament:1 establishment:1 aee:1 martlesham:1 heath:1 november:1 satisfactory:1 handling:1 gear:1 engine:3 meant:1 underpowered:2 inferior:1 bombload:1 mean:1 therefore:2 modify:2 however:1 find:1 still:1 incapable:1 take:1 gunner:1 full:1 fuel:1 load:1 consider:1 far:1 ultimately:1 win:1 vildebeest:1 use:1 testbed:1 hp:2 kw:1 hydra:1 orion:1 see:1 also:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 directory:1 |@bigram torpedo_bomber:2 lb_kg:1 hp_kw:1 external_link:1 |
1,937 | Recreational_use_of_dextromethorphan | For general information on this drug, including medical usage, see dextromethorphan. Dextromethorphan or DXM, an active ingredient found in most cough suppressant cold medicines, is commonly used as a recreational drug. While having almost no psychoactive effects at medically-recommended doses, dextromethorphan has euphoric, hallucinogenic, and dissociative properties when administered in doses well above those which are considered therapeutic medically for cough suppression. Dextromethorphan (DXM) | CESAR An online essay first published in 1995 by William E. White, entitled "The DXM FAQ", was possibly the first source of specific scientific details regarding dextromethorphan's potential for recreational use. This may have led to a number of "underground" websites in existence today, devoted to the topic of dextromethorphan as a recreational drug. Due to its recreational use and theft concerns, many retailers in the US have moved dextromethorphan-containing products behind the counter so that one must ask a pharmacist to receive them or be 18 years (19 in NJ and AL) or older to purchase them. Some retailers also give out printed recommendations about the potential for abuse with the purchase of products containing dextromethorphan. Classification At high doses, dextromethorphan is classified as a dissociative anesthetic and hallucinogen, similar to the controlled substances ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP). DEXTROMETHORPHAN (Street Names: DXM, CCC, Triple C, Skittles, Robo, Poor Man’s PCP) Also like those drugs, dextromethorphan is an NMDA receptor antagonist. http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/research_chems/research_chems_law3.pdf Erowid DXM Vault : Effects Dextromethorphan generally does not produce withdrawal symptoms characteristic of physically addictive substances, but there have been cases of psychological addiction. Drug Abuse Help: DXM Information :: Cough Syrup and Dextromethorphan (DXM) Addiction and Abuse - Drug Rehab Information :: Legality Antitussive preparations containing dextromethorphan are legal to purchase from most pharmacies worldwide. Since dextromethorphan's use as a recreational drug usually involves only the ingestion of large quantities of an over-the-counter medication, no legal distinction currently exists between medical and recreational use, sale, or purchase, though some states, such as Illinois, now require signatures to purchase dextromethorphan medications and limit the purchase to two packages at a time. The sale of dextromethorphan in its pure powder form may incur penalties in the United States, although no explicit law exists prohibiting its sale. There have been cases of individuals incurring time in prison and other penalties for selling pure dextromethorphan in this form, due to the incidental breaking of related drug laws — such as resale of a medication without proper warning labels. Dextromethorphan was excluded from the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970 and was specifically excluded from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Dextromethorphan is still excluded from the CSA (as of 2008), however officials have warned that it could still be added if increased abuse warrants its scheduling. Dextromethorphan is generally available over the counter in most countries, with three exceptions being Hong Kong, Sweden and Denmark. Erowid DXM Vault : Legal Status Effects Dextromethorphan, when consumed in low "recreational doses" (usually around or slightly more than 200 mg, or around 1.5 to 2.5 mg/kg), is described as having a euphoric effect. With middle doses (about 400 mg, or 2.5 to 7.5 mg/kg), intense euphoria (or dysphoria), vivid imagination, and closed-eye hallucinations may occur. With high doses (600 mg, or 7.5 mg/kg and over), profound alterations in consciousness have been noted, and users often report out-of-body experiences or temporary psychosis. Frequent and long-term usage at very high doses could possibly lead to toxic psychosis and other permanent psychological problems. Most users find such high doses to be extremely uncomfortable and are unwilling to repeat them. Flanging (speeding up or slowing down) of sensory input is also a characteristic effect of recreational use. There may also be a marked difference between dextromethorphan hydrobromide, contained in most cough suppressant preparations, and dextromethorphan polistirex, contained in the brand name preparation Delsym. Polistirex is polymer that is bonded to the dextromethorphan that requires more time for the stomach to digest it as it requires that an ion exchange reaction take place prior to its dissolution into the blood. Because of this, dextromethorphan polistirex takes considerably longer to absorb, resulting in more gradual and longer lasting effects reminiscent of time release pills. As a cough suppressant, the polistirex version lasts up to 12 hours, so this duration may also hold true when used recreationally. In 1981, a paper by Gosselin estimated the lethal dose to be between 50 and 500 mg/kg. Doses as high as 15-20 mg/kg are taken by some recreational users. It is suggested by a single case study that the antidote to dextromethorphan overdose is naloxone, administered intravenously. In addition to producing PCP-like mental effects, high doses may cause a false-positive result for PCP and opiates in some drug tests. Erowid DXM Vault : Drug Tests Risks associated with use Most risks result from abusing multi-symptom cold medications, rather than using a cough suppressant whose sole active ingredient is dextromethorphan. Recreational use of medications with multiple active ingredients can produce negative psychological and physiological effects and is highly unsafe. Multi-symptom cold medicines contain other active ingredients, such as acetaminophen, chlorphenamine, and phenylephrine, any of which can cause permanent bodily damage, or even death, if taken on the generally-accepted recreational dosing scale of dextromethorphan. Guaifenesin, an expectorant commonly accompanying dextromethorphan in cough preparations, while not generally fatal if taken on dextromethorphan's recreational dosing scale, it can cause unpleasant symptoms including vomiting, nausea, and headache. Erowid DXM Vault : Guide to DXM in Non-Prescription Drugs Combining dextromethorphan with other substances can compound risks. CNS stimulants such as amphetamine and/or cocaine can cause a dangerous rise in blood pressure and heart rate. CNS depressants such as ethanol (drinking alcohol) will have a combined depressant effect, which can cause a decreased respiratory rate. Combining dextromethorphan with other CYP2D6 substrates can also cause both drugs to build to dangerous levels in the bloodstream. Drugs and Human Performance FACT SHEETS - Dextromethorphan Erowid DXM Vault : DXM FAQ - Side Effects Dextromethorphan has been shown to cause vacuolization, also known as Olney's lesions, in rats' brains. However, oral administration of dextromethorphan does not cause vacuolization in rats' brains. Furthermore, it should be noted that the occurrence of Olney's lesions in humans has not been proven or disproven, and critics claim that animal testing is not a reliable predictor of the effects of dextromethorphan or dissociative substances in general on humans. The "DXM FAQ" A document entitled "The DXM FAQ," by William E. White, classifies dextromethorphan's high-dose effects into four or five plateaus, each defined by a dosing range. The dosages are specified in ratios of milligrams (of the drug) per kilogram (of one's body mass). According to the FAQ, the plateaus occur as follows: Erowid DXM Vault : DXM FAQ - The Experience First plateau: At a dosage of 1.5 to 2.5 mg/kg, effects include a sensation of alertness, stimulant effects such as restlessness, increased heartbeat, and increased body temperature, intensification of emotions, general euphoria, euphoria linked to music, alteration of sensations of gravity, loss of balance, and slight intoxication. Second plateau: At 2.5 to 7.5 mg/kg, effects include the same effects of the first plateau, with added choppy sensory input, entering a dreamlike state of consciousness, increasing detachment from outside world, a heavier "stoned" feeling than with first plateau, and/or closed-eye hallucinations. Third plateau: At 7.5 to 15.0 mg/kg, effects include flanging of visual effects, difficulty recognizing people or objects, chaotic blindness, dreamlike vision, inability to comprehend language, abstract hallucinations, delayed reaction time, decision making impairment, feelings of peace and quiet, near complete loss of motor coordination, short-term memory impairment, and/or feelings of rebirth. Fourth plateau: At 15.0 mg/kg or more, an individual may experience a perceived loss of contact and control with their own body, changes in visual perception, out-of-body experiences, perceptions of contact with "superior," supernatural, or other archetypal beings (ie. gods, aliens, vampires, etc.), other miscellaneous delusions, lack of movement or desire to move, rapid heart rate, complete blindness, increased hearing, and intensification of third plateau effects. Plateau Sigma: 2.5-7.5 mg/kg every three hours for 9–12 hours; There are some reports that suggest this fifth plateau occurs by prolonging dosage, rather than increasing it, ingesting small to moderate doses over time. White characterizes Plateau Sigma as bona-fide psychosis, a complete disconnection from reality, with prevalent, realistic, vivid open-eye visual and auditory hallucinations. For example, users have reported entirely realistic and vividly-recalled encounters with aliens and gods. Users have also reported a disconnection from emotion, such that inclinations and urges become auditory hallucinations of vocal commands to which the user is entirely obedient — as in, rather than simply feeling tired and sitting down, a user would hear a voice saying, "sit down now, you're tired," and feel inclined to obey. White says that of all the reports of Plateau Sigma experiences he received, over half were described as unpleasant, and users said they were unwilling to repeat the experience. Pharmacology Dextromethorphan's hallucinogenic and dissociative effects can be attributed largely to dextrorphan (DXO), a metabolite produced when dextromethorphan metabolizes within the body. Both dextrorphan and dextromethorphan are NMDA receptor antagonists, Cat.Inist just like the dissociative hallucinogenic drugs ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP); however for that purpose, dextrorphan is more potent than dextromethorphan. Comparison of the Effects of Dextromethorphan, Dextrorphan, and Levorphanol on the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis - Pechnick and Poland 309 (2): 515 - Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics Just like all NMDA receptor antagonists, dextrorphan and dextromethorpan inhibit a neurotransmitter called glutamate from activating receptors in the brain. This can effectively slow or even shut down certain neural pathways, preventing areas of the brain from communicating with each other. This leaves the user feeling dissociated (disconnected) or potentially "out-of-body." Dextromethorphan's euphoric effects have sometimes been attributed to the triggering of an increase in dopamine levels, since such an increase generally correlates to a pleasurable response to a drug, as is observed with recreational drugs. However the effect of dextrorphan and dextromethorphan on dopamine levels is a disputed subject. Studies show that some NMDA receptor antagonists, like ketamine and PCP, do raise dopamine levels. NMDA receptor antagonists ketamine and PCP have direct effects on the dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2receptorsimplications for models of schizophrenia Other studies show that dizocilpine, another NMDA receptor antagonist, has no effect on dopamine levels. Some findings even suggest that dextromethorphan actually counters the dopamine increase caused by morphine. Due to these conflicting results, the actual effect of dextromethorphan on dopamine levels is yet to be determined. See also Dissociative drug Dextrorphan Dextromethorphan Ketamine Nitrous oxide Phencyclidine (PCP) Hallucinogen NMDA receptor antagonist Psychedelic Sigma agonist References External links Dextroverse Dextromethorphan FAQ at third-plateau.org Erowid Dextromethorphan User Forums at Fourth-plateau.org | Recreational_use_of_dextromethorphan |@lemmatized general:3 information:3 drug:19 include:5 medical:2 usage:2 see:2 dextromethorphan:50 dxm:17 active:4 ingredient:4 find:2 cough:7 suppressant:4 cold:3 medicine:2 commonly:2 use:10 recreational:13 almost:1 psychoactive:1 effect:26 medically:2 recommended:1 dos:11 euphoric:3 hallucinogenic:3 dissociative:6 property:1 administer:2 well:1 consider:1 therapeutic:2 suppression:1 cesar:1 online:1 essay:1 first:5 publish:1 william:2 e:2 white:4 entitled:1 faq:7 possibly:2 source:1 specific:1 scientific:1 detail:1 regard:1 potential:2 may:7 lead:2 number:1 underground:1 website:1 existence:1 today:1 devote:1 topic:1 due:3 theft:1 concern:1 many:1 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1,938 | Apollo_13 | Original crew photo.Left to right: Lovell, Mattingly, Haise. Apollo 13 was the third manned mission by NASA intended to land on the moon, but a mid-mission technical malfunction forced the lunar landing to be aborted. The crewmembers were Commander James A. Lovell, Command Module pilot John L. "Jack" Swigert, and Lunar Module pilot Fred W. Haise. The mission launched on April 11, 1970 at 13:13 CST. Two days later, while the mission was en route to the moon, a fault in the electrical system of one of the Service Module's oxygen tanks produced an explosion that caused both oxygen tanks to fail and also led to a loss of electrical power. The command module remained functional on its own batteries and oxygen tank, which were only designed to support the vehicle during the last hours of flight. The crew shut down the Command Module and used the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat" during the return trip to earth. Despite great hardship caused by limited power, loss of cabin heat, and a shortage of potable water, the crew returned safely to Earth, and the mission was termed a "successful failure." Apollo 13 - A Successful Failure A radio transmission by Lovell, "Houston, we've had a problem", has become widely misquoted in popular culture as, "Houston, we have a problem". Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each person before and including this mission. James A. Lovell, Jr. (4) - Commander John L. Swigert (1) - Command Module pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr. (1) - Lunar Module pilot Ken Mattingly was originally slated to be the Command Module pilot. After being exposed to rubella (German measles) contracted by backup Lunar Module pilot Charles Duke a disease to which Mattingly was not immune he was replaced by Swigert eight days before launch. Mattingly never contracted rubella, and he later flew as CMP of Apollo 16. Backup crew John W. Young - Commander John L. Swigert - Command Module Pilot Charles M. Duke, Jr - Lunar Module Pilot Support crew Vance D. Brand Jack R. Lousma Joseph P. Kerwin Flight directors Gene Kranz (lead) Apollo 13 Mission Operations Report - White Team Milt Windler - Maroon Team Glynn Lunney - Black Team Gerry Griffin - Gold Team Mission parameters Mass: CM 28,945 kg; LM 15,235 kg Perigee: 181.5 km Apogee: 185.6 km Inclination: 33.5° Period: 88.07 min Oxygen tank rupture April 14, 1970, 03:07:53 UTC Apollo 13 Timeline {April 13, 21:07:53 CST} 321,860 km from Earth Closest approach to Moon April 15, 1970, 00:21:00 UTC 254.3 km (possibly a record distance; see Mission notes below) Mission highlights The Apollo 13 mission was to explore the Fra Mauro formation, or Fra Mauro highlands, named after the 80-kilometer-diameter Fra Mauro crater located within it. It is a widespread, hilly geological (or selenological) area thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium. The cost of the mission was $4.4 billion. The next Apollo mission, Apollo 14, eventually made a successful flight to Fra Mauro. The mission began with a lesser-known malfunction: during second-stage boost, the center (inboard) engine shut down two minutes early due to dangerous pogo oscillations that might have torn the second stage apart. The engine experienced 68g vibrations at 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by . The four outboard engines burned longer to compensate. Apollo 14 Launch Operations (comments on Apollo 13 pogo), Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations, NASA Thrust chamber pressure fluctuations caused a sensor to trigger an engine shutdown. Pogo, Jim Fenwick, Threshold - Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne’s engineering journal of power technology, Spring 1992 Smaller pogo oscillations had been seen on previous Titan and Saturn flights, but on Apollo 13 they were amplified by an unexpected interaction with turbopump cavitation. Mitigating Pogo on Liquid-Fueled Rockets, Aerospace Corporation Crosslink magazine, Winter 2004 edition Later missions implemented anti-pogo modifications that had already been under development. They added a helium gas reservoir to the center engine liquid oxygen line to dampen pressure oscillations and an automatic cutoff as a backup. The propellant valves of all five second-stage engines were simplified. Explosion Apollo 13's damaged Service Module, as photographed from the Command Module after being jettisoned. |The Lunar Module "Aquarius," which served as the crew's lifeboat, is jettisoned as they near earth Apollo 13 service module and lunar lander reentering and breaking up in the atmosphere. En route to the Moon, at a distance of 321,860 kilometers (200,000 mi) from Earth, the number two oxygen tank, one of two in the Service Module (SM), exploded. The report of the Apollo 13 review board does not refer to this incident as an "explosion". The oxygen tanks had rupture disks and other safety measures to prevent a catastrophic explosion, but they were unable to relieve tank pressure quickly enough to prevent rupture. See findings 26 and 27 on page 195 (5-22) of the NASA report. Mission Control had asked the crew to stir the hydrogen and oxygen tanks, destratifying the contents and increasing the accuracy of their quantity readings. Damaged insulation on the Teflon wires to the stirrer motor in oxygen tank 2 allowed them to short and ignite the insulation. The resulting fire rapidly increased pressure beyond its nominal 1,000 PSI (7 MPa) limit and either the tank or the tank dome failed. The cause was unknown at the time and the crew initially thought that a meteoroid might have struck the Lunar Module (LM). The failure also damaged either the number one oxygen tank or its plumbing. Its contents leaked over the next several hours, entirely depleting the SM supply. Because the service module fuel cells combined hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity and water, they shut down and left the command module on limited battery power. The crew was forced to shut down the CM completely and to use the LM, still attached to the CSM, as a "lifeboat". This had been suggested during an earlier training simulation but had not been considered a likely scenario. Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. Apollo 13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. 83-87 Without the LM, the accident would certainly have been fatal. The damage to the Odyssey made a lunar landing impossible. Instead, the Moon's gravity was used to return to Earth. Apollo 13 had initially been on a free return trajectory that would have automatically resulted in a return to earth with no additional engine firings, but landing at Fra Mauro required leaving the free return trajectory early in the mission. Returning to the free return trajectory required a significant change that would have been a small burn with the SM Service Propulsion System engine but its condition was unknown. After extensive discussion, the return to a free return trajectory was performed with the LM descent propulsion system within hours of the accident. The descent engine was fired again two hours after pericynthion (closest approach to the moon) for a PC+2 burn to speed the return. One more descent engine burn was later required for a minor course correction. Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from the crew, flight controllers and support personnel for the safe return. Much of the world watched the developing drama on television. Because electrical power was severely limited, no more live TV broadcasts were made; TV commentators used models and animated footage as illustrations. Low power levels even made voice communications difficult. Interior of the Lunar Module, showing the "mailbox" built to adapt the Command Module's Lithium Hydroxide canisters (designed to reduce build-up of carbon dioxide) to fit the LM's environmental systems as most of the LM's supply of canisters were stored outside the cabin where they would ordinarily be retrieved during EVA. The "mailbox" at Mission Control during the Apollo 13 mission. The LM "lifeboat" consumables were intended only to sustain two people for two days, not three people for four days. However, oxygen was the least critical consumable because the LM carried enough to repressurize the LM after each surface EVA. Unlike the CSM, which was powered by fuel cells that produced water as a byproduct, the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries so electrical power and especially water were critical consumables. To keep the LM life support and communication systems going until re-entry, the LM was powered down to the lowest levels possible. Another serious limitation was lithium hydroxide (LiOH) for removing carbon dioxide. The LM's internal stock of LiOH canisters would not support the crew until return, and the remainder was stored in the descent stage, out of reach. The CM had an adequate supply of canisters that were incompatible with those used by the LM. Ground controllers improvised a way to use the cube-shaped CM canisters on the LM by drawing air through them with a suit return hose. The astronauts called the jury-rigged device "the mailbox." The thermal design of the spacecraft assumed normal operating power levels, so the survival power level caused internal temperatures to drop considerably. Water condensed in the CM, causing concern this might damage electrical systems when it was reactivated. This turned out to not be a problem, partly because of the extensive CM safeguards instituted after the Apollo 1 fire. As Apollo 13 neared Earth, the crew first jettisoned the Service Module so pictures could be taken for later analysis. The crew reported that the Sector 3 panel enclosing the fuel cells, hydrogen and oxygen tanks was missing for the entire length of the SM. After jettisoning Aquarius, command module Odyssey splashed down safely in the Pacific. The crew was in good condition except for Haise who was suffering from a serious urinary tract infection because of insufficient water intake. To avoid altering the trajectory of the spacecraft, the crew had been instructed to temporarily stop urine dumps. A misunderstanding prompted the crew to store all urine for the rest of the flight. Account of Apollo 13 by James Lovell, NASA website Although the explosion aborted the mission, it fortunately happened on the way to the moon when the LM was still available with its full complement of consumables. Had the explosion occurred after the landing or on the return to earth after the LM had been jettisoned, the crew would not have survived. The crew's lives may have been saved by the same malfunction. At around 46h 40m into the mission, the oxygen tank 2 quantity gauge went "off-scale high" (reading over 100%) and stayed there, possibly due to the damaged internal insulation. To assist in determining the cause, the crew was asked to perform cryo-tank stirs more often than originally planned. In the original mission plan, the stir that ruptured the tank would not have been done until after the lunar landing. "THE STIR THAT SAVED THE LIVES OF APOLLO 13's CREW", Jerry Woodfill, retrieved 27 January 2007 Cause of the accident The crew of Apollo 13 onboard the USS Iwo Jima following splashdown The explosion on Apollo 13 led to a lengthy investigation. From detailed manufacturing records and logs, the cause of the tank failure was tracked to an unlikely chain of events. Tanks storing cryogens such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen require either venting, extremely good insulation, or both to avoid excessive pressure buildup from vaporization. The Service Module oxygen tanks were so well insulated that they could safely contain supercritical hydrogen and oxygen for years. Each oxygen tank held several hundred pounds for breathing and the production of electricity and water. However, tank construction made internal inspection impossible. The tank contained several components relevant to the accident: a quantity sensor; a fan to stir the tank contents for more accurate quantity measurements; a heater to vaporize liquid oxygen as needed; a thermostat to protect the heater; a temperature sensor; and fill and drain valves and piping. The heater and protection thermostat were originally designed for the command module's 28-volt DC bus. However, their specifications were changed to allow a 65 volt ground supply to pressurize the tanks more rapidly. The tank subcontractor Beechcraft never upgraded the thermostat to handle the higher voltage. The temperature sensor could not read above the highest operational temperature of the heater, about . Ordinarily this was not a problem because the thermostat was designed to open at . The oxygen shelf carrying the oxygen tanks was originally installed in the Apollo 10 service module. It was removed to fix a potential electromagnetic interference problem. During removal, the shelf was accidentally dropped about because a retaining bolt had not been removed. The tank appeared undamaged but a loosely fitting filling tube was apparently damaged, and photographs suggested that the close-out cap on the top of the tank may have hit the fuel cell shelf. The report of the Apollo 13 review board considers the probability of tank damage during this incident to be "rather low". report of the Apollo 13 review board After the tank was filled for ground testing, it could not be emptied through the normal drain line. To avoid delaying the mission to replace the tank, the heater was connected to 65V ground power to boil off the oxygen. Lovell signed off on this procedure. It should have taken a few days at the thermostatic opening temperature of . However, when the thermostat opened, the 65-volt supply fused its contacts closed and the heater remained powered. This raised the temperature of the heater to an estimated . A chart recorder on the heater current showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, as it should have been if the thermostat was functioning correctly, but no one noticed it at the time. Because the temperature sensor could not read higher than , the monitoring equipment did not register the true temperature inside the tank. The Apollo 13 Accident The gas evaporated in hours rather than days. The sustained high temperatures melted the Teflon insulation on the fan power supply wires and left them exposed. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. During the "cryo stir" procedure, fan power passed through the bare wires which apparently shorted, producing sparks and igniting the Teflon. This in turn boiled liquid oxygen faster than the tank vent could remove it. The other oxygen tank or its piping, located near the failed tank, was damaged allowing it to leak as well. Design fixes included moving the tanks farther apart, adding a third tank and an emergency battery to another sector in the service module. Mission notes The crew of Apollo 13 with President Richard Nixon after being awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom By the standard crew rotation in place during the Apollo program, the prime crew for Apollo 13 should have been the backup crew for Apollo 10 with Mercury and Gemini veteran L. Gordon Cooper in command. That crew was composed of the following astronauts: L. Gordon Cooper, Jr - Commander Donn F. Eisele - Command Module Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell - Lunar Module Pilot However, Deke Slayton recollected in his memoirs that Cooper and Eisele were never intended to rotate to another mission as both were out of favor with NASA management for various reasons (Cooper for his lax attitude towards training and Eisele for incidents aboard Apollo 7 and an extra-marital affair) and were assigned to the backup crew simply because of a lack of flight-qualified manpower in the Astronaut Office at the time the assignment needed to be made. Cooper, Slayton noted, had a very small chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command if he did an outstanding job with the assignment, which he didn't. Eisele, despite his issues with management, was always intended for future assignment to the Apollo Applications Program (which was eventually cut down to only the Skylab component) and not a lunar mission. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 236 Thus, the original assignment for this flight submitted by Slayton to his superiors was: Alan B. Shepard, Jr - Commander Stuart A. Roosa - Command Module Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell - Lunar Module Pilot However, for the first time ever, Slayton's recommendation was rejected by management because they felt that Shepard, who had only recently benefited from experimental surgery to correct an inner ear disorder and had not flown since 1961 needed more time to properly train for a lunar flight. Thus, Lovell's crew, backup for the historic Apollo 11 mission, which had been targeted for (by virtue of the rotation) Apollo 14, was swapped for Shepard's crew. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 237 Eight days before the launch, Apollo 13 backup Lunar Module pilot Charlie Duke contracted German measles from one of his children. Although Lovell and Haise had rubella as children, command module pilot Ken Mattingly had not, and the flight surgeons replaced him with his backup, Jack Swigert. Mattingly never developed rubella, and later flew on Apollo 16, STS-4, and STS-51-C, retiring from both NASA and the U.S. Navy with the rank of Rear Admiral. During the emergency, Mattingly and flight controller John Aaron used the CSM simulator to work up a plan to revive Odyssey using the ship's limited power supply. Plaque that was to be attached to Aquarius Also, the original lunar plaque on Aquarius bore Mattingly’s name, so the crew was given a replacement with Swigert’s name on it. Aquarius never landed on the moon, however, so Lovell kept the plaque. In his book Lost Moon (later renamed Apollo 13), Lovell states that apart from the Apollo 13 plaque and a couple of other pieces, the only other memento he possesses is a letter from Charles Lindbergh. As a result of following the free return trajectory, the altitude of Apollo 13 over the lunar far side was approximately 100 km greater than the orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. It made the all-time altitude record for human spaceflight. The variation in distance between Earth and the Moon, however, is much larger than 100 km, so it is not certain whether the actual distance from Earth was greater than that of other Apollo missions. The Guinness Book of Records lists this flight as holding the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, thus Lovell and crew should have received a certificate attesting to this record. The splashdown point was , SE of American Samoa and from the recovery ship, USS Iwo Jima. Superstitious people have associated the belief that 13 is an unlucky number with the mission. The mission began on April 11, 1970 (4/11/70, the individual numbers adding to 13) at 13:13 CST from Complex 39 (three times thirteen). The mission's problems began on April 13, and the mission itself was called Apollo 13. Other coincidental appearances of the number 13 connected to the mission included the explosion occurring at 19:13 CST, and a post-flight estimate that, had the explosion occurred on the ground, repairing the damage would have cost $13 million. In a feature on the making of the Apollo 13 film, Jim Lovell pointed out that NASA has never had another spacecraft numbered 13. However, in NASA's preliminary schedule for the return to the moon, an upcoming spaceflight is to be called Orion 13. The A7L spacesuit intended to be worn on the lunar surface by Lovell would have been the first to feature red bands on the arms, legs, lunar EVA helmet assembly, and the life-support backpack. This came about because Mission Control personnel watching the video feeds of Apollos 11 and 12 had trouble distinguishing the astronauts while both had their helmet sunshades down. The red bands were a feature for the remaining Apollo flights and are used on the Extravehicular Mobility Units worn by the astronauts of the Space Shuttle program and on the International Space Station (ISS). The Apollo 13 mission has been called "a successful failure" in that the astronauts were brought home despite not landing on the moon and the dire nature of their aborted mission. The crew and the Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team were awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom for their actions during the mission. The Cold Cathode Gauge Experiment (CCGE), which was part of the ALSEP on Apollo 13 was never flown again. It was a version of the Cold Cathode Ion Gauge (CCIG) which featured on Apollo 12, Apollo 14, and Apollo 15. The CCGE was designed as a standalone version of the CCIG. On other missions, the CCIG was connected as part of the Suprathermal Ion Detector (SIDE). Because of the aborted landing, this experiment was never actually deployed. Other experiments included on Apollo 13's ALSEP included the Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), the Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE), and the Charged Particle Lunar Environment Experiment (CPLEE). Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP) Towing fees Grumman Aerospace Corporation, the builder of the Lunar Module, issued an invoice for $312,421.24 to North American Rockwell, Invoice from Grumman Aerospace for towing the North American built CM the builder of the Command Module (CM), for "towing" the crippled ship most of the way to the Moon and back. The invoice was drawn up by Grumman pilot Sam Greenberg as a gag following Apollo 13's successful splashdown. He had earlier helped with the strategy for re-routing power from the LM to the crippled CM. The invoice included a 20% commercial discount, as well as a further 2% discount if North American were to pay in cash. North American politely declined payment, noting that they had ferried Grumman LMs to the Moon on three previous occasions with no such reciprocal charges. Insignia The Apollo 13 crew patch featured three flying horses as Apollo's 'chariot' across space. Given Lovell's Navy background, the logo also included the mottoes “Ex luna, scientia” (from the Moon, knowledge), borrowed from the U.S. Naval Academy's motto, and "Ex scientia tridens," (from knowledge, sea power). The mission number appeared in Roman numerals as Apollo XIII. It is one of two Apollo insignia—the other being Apollo 11—not to include the names of the crew. (This was fortunate, considering that original crew member Ken Mattingly was replaced two days before the mission began.) It was designed by artist Lumen Winter, who based it on a mural he had done for the St. Regis Hotel in New York. The mural was later purchased by actor Tom Hanks, who portrayed Lovell in the movie Apollo 13, and now is on the wall of a restaurant in Chicago owned by Lovell's son. Spacecraft location A view of the controls in the command module on display at the Cosmosphere. The command module shell was formerly at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, in Paris. The interior components were removed during the investigation of the accident and reassembled into BP-1102A, the water egress training module, and were subsequently on display at the Museum of Natural History and Science in Louisville, Kentucky, until 2000. The command module and the internal components were reassembled, and Odyssey is currently on display at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center, Hutchinson, Kansas. The lunar module burned up in Earth's atmosphere on April 17, 1970, having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a SNAP 27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) on board. (Had the mission proceeded as planned, the RTG would have been used to power the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package, and then remained on the Moon.) The RTG survived re-entry (as designed) and landed in the Tonga Trench. While it will remain radioactive for approximately 2,000 years, it does not appear to be releasing any of its 3.9 kg of radioactive plutonium. Jim Lovell's lunar space suit helmet is located at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago. Popular culture Portions of the events surrounding the Apollo 13 mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "We Interrupt This Program". The story is presented from the perspective of television reporters competing for coverage of the mission. Apollo 13, a film based on Lost Moon, Jim Lovell's and Jeffrey Kluger's book about the event, was released in 1995. It was directed by Ron Howard and starred Tom Hanks as Jim Lovell, Bill Paxton as Fred Haise, Kevin Bacon as Jack Swigert, Ed Harris as flight director Gene Kranz, Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Lovell and Gary Sinise as Ken Mattingly. Jim Lovell, Gene Kranz, and other principals have stated that this film depicted the events of the mission with reasonable accuracy, though some dramatic license was taken. Technical inaccuracies have also been noted. The film is among several to misquote Lovell's famous statement, "Houston, we've had a problem". However, the filmmakers purposely changed the line because the original quote made it seem that the problem had already passed. Overall, though, the film is praised for being both extremely accurate and a cinematic masterpiece. The film was a critical and box office success, and was nominated for several Academy Awards including Best Picture, Best Supporting Actor (Harris) and Best Supporting Actress (Quinlan). The film engendered new interest in the history of the Apollo program and American space flight in general. The 1974 movie Houston, We've Got a Problem, while set around the Apollo 13 incident, is a fictional drama about the crises faced by ground personnel, when the emergency disrupts their work schedules and places additional stress on their lives; only a couple of news clips and a narrator's solemn voice deal with the actual problems. Notes External links Apollo 13 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica Apollo 13 Original reports from The Times NASA NSSDC Master Catalog APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA) The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Apollo 13 Characteristics – SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK Original Apollo 13 Lunar Exploration and Photography Summary Plan (PDF), February 1970 Apollo 13 Spacecraft Incident Investigation, (PDF) NASA June 1970 Report of Apollo 13 Review Board, (PDF) NASA June 1970 Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription, April 1970, 765 pages (PDF, 20.4 MB) (Swigert/Lovell call in the problems on page 167.) Apollo 13, We Have a Solution: Rather than hurried improvisation, saving the crew of Apollo 13 took years of preparation Houston, We've Had a Problem Audio of the Apollo 13 mission during its first moments of trouble Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (1994). Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-67029-2. Lattimer, Dick (1985). All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. 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1,939 | Constitutional_monarchy | A constitutional monarchy is a form of constitutional government, where either an elected or hereditary monarch is the head of state, unlike in an absolute monarchy, where in the king or the queen is the sole source of political power, as he or she is not legally bound by the constitution. Most constitutional monarchies have a parliamentary system (Australia, Belgium, Cambodia, Canada, Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, United Kingdom) in which the monarch is the head of state, but a directly- or indirectly-elected prime minister is head of government. Although contemporary constitutional monarchies mostly are representative, parliamentary systems, or constitutional democratic monarchies, they have co-existed with fascist and quasi-fascist constitutions (Italy, Spain) and with military dictatorships. Constitutional monarchies and absolute monarchies Constitutional monarchy in the European tradition In Britain, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 led to a constitutional monarchy restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, although limits on the power of the monarch ('A Limited Monarchy') are much older than that. Constitutional monarchy occurred in continental Europe after the French revolution. General Napoleon Bonaparte is considered the first monarch proclaiming himself as embodiment of the nation, rather than as a divinely-appointed ruler; this interpretation of monarchy is basic to continental constitutional monarchies. G.W.F. Hegel, in Philosophy of Right (1820) justified it philosophically, according well with evolving contemporary political theory and with the Protestant Christian view of Natural Law. Hegel forecast a constitutional monarch of limited powers, whose function is embodying the national character and constitutional continuity in emergencies, per the development of constitutional monarchy in Europe and Japan. Moreover, the ceremonial office of president (e.g. European and Israeli parliamentary democracies), is a contemporary type of Hegel's constitutional monarch (whether elected or appointed), yet, his forecast of the form of government suitable to the modern world might be perceived as prophetic. The Russian and French presidents, with their stronger powers, might be Hegelian, wielding power suited to the national will embodied. Modern constitutional monarchy As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was quite a powerful figure, head of the executive branch even though his or her power was limited by the constitution and the elected parliament. Some of the framers of the US Constitution may have conceived of the president as being an elected constitutional monarch, as the term was understood in their time, following Montesquieu's account of the separation of powers in the United Kingdom Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws. Legal Classics Library, 1984. , it was the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the prime minister, who had become those who exercised power. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, while still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of "servants of the people" to reflect the new, egalitarian view. In present terms, the difference between a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy, and one that is a republic, is considered more a difference of detail than of substance, particularly in the common case in which the head of state serves the traditional role of embodying and representing the nation. This is reflected, for example, in all but the most die-hard Spanish Republicans accepting their country's returning to constitutional monarchy after the death of Francisco Franco. Constitutional monarchies today Today constitutional monarchies are mostly associated with Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein, and Sweden. In such cases it is the prime minister who holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the King or Queen (or other monarch, such as a Grand Duke, in the case of Luxembourg, or Prince in the case of Monaco and Liechtenstein) retains only minor to no powers. Different nations grant different powers to their monarchs. In the Netherlands, Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the Monarch formally appoints a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election, while in Norway the King chairs special meetings of the cabinet. In nearly all cases, the monarch is still the nominal chief executive, but is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet. Only a few monarchies (most notably Japan and Sweden) have amended their constitutions so that the monarch is no longer even the nominal chief executive. The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the world today are the sixteen Commonwealth realms under Elizabeth II. Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and her Governors-General in the Commonwealth Realms hold significant "reserve" or "prerogative" powers, to be wielded in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crises usually to uphold parliamentary government. An instance of a Governor General exercising his power was during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, when the Australian Prime Minister of the time, Gough Whitlam, was effectively fired from his position. This led to much speculation as to whether this use of the Governor General's reserve powers was appropriate, and whether Australia should become a republic. Constitutional monarchies with representative parliamentary systems are shown in red. Other constitutional monarchies are shown in violet. In both the United Kingdom and elsewhere, a common debate centres around when it is appropriate for a monarch to use his or her political powers. When a monarch does act, political controversy can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is seen to be compromised in favour of a partisan goal. While political scientists may champion the idea of an "interventionist monarch" as a check against possible illegal action by politicians, the monarchs themselves are often driven by a more pragmatic sense of self-preservation, in which avoiding political controversy can be seen as an important way to retain public legitimacy and popularity. There also exist today several federal constitutional monarchies. In these countries, each subdivision has a distinct government and head of government, but all subdivisions share a monarch who is head of state of the federation as a united whole. The latest country that was completely transformed from 'an absolute monarchy' to 'a constitutional democratic monarchy' is Bhutan. List of current reigning monarchies StateLast constitution establishedType of monarchyMonarch selected by1993Co-PrincipalitySelection of Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and election of French President2002KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1831Kingdom; popular monarchy Belgium is the only existing popular monarchy — a system in which the monarch's title is linked to the people rather than a state. The title of Belgian kings is not King of Belgium, but instead King of the Belgians. Another unique feature of the Belgian system is that the new monarch does not automatically assume the throne at the death or abdication of his predecessor; he only becomes monarch upon taking a constitutional oath. Hereditary succession directed by constitution2007KingdomHereditary succession1959Sultanate; Islamic absolute monarchyHereditary succession 1993KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1953KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1946EmpireHereditary succession directed by constitution1952KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1962EmirateHereditary succession directed approval of al-Sabah family and majority of National Assembly1993KingdomHereditary succession directed approval of College of Chiefs1862PrincipalityHereditary succession directed by constitution1868Grand duchyHereditary succession directed by constitution1957Elective monarchySelected from nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay states1911PrincipalityHereditary succession directed by constitution1962KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1815KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1814KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1996Sultanate; Islamic absolute monarchyHereditary succession 2003Emirate; absolute monarchyHereditary succession1992Kingdom; Islamic absolute monarchyHereditary succession 1978KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1968Kingdom; absolute monarchyHereditary succession 1974KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution2007KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1970KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1971Elective monarchyChosen by Federal Supreme Council from rulers of Abu DhabiTheocratic elective monarchyChosen by College of Cardinals1688KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1981KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1901KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1973KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1966KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1981KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1982KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1974KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1962KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1907KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1975KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1983KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1979KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1979KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1978KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution1978KingdomHereditary succession directed by constitution Previous monarchies The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed after the Union of Lublin in 1569 and lasting until the final partition of the state in 1795, operated much like many modern European constitutional monarchies. The legislators of the unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as a republic under the presidency of the King. Poland-Lithuania also followed the principle of "Rex regnat et non gubernat", had a bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern United Kingdom. The King was elected, and had the duty of maintaining the people's rights. The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was a brief period in the history of Corsica (1794-1796) when the island broke with Revolutionary France and sought military protection from Great Britain. Corsica became an independent kingdom under George III of England, but with its own elected parliament and a written constitution guaranteeing local autonomy and democratic rights. France, several times during the 19th century. Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in what was ostensibly a constitutional monarchy, though modern historians often class his reign as a military dictatorship. The Bourbon Restoration (under Louis XVIII and Charles X), the July Monarchy (under Louis-Philippe), and the Second Empire (under Napoleon III) were also constitutional monarchies, although the power of the monarch varied considerably between them. The German Empire from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German Empire. Prior to the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Iran was a constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, which had been originally established during the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1906. Portugal until 1910 when Manuel II was overthrown by a military coup. Kingdom of Serbia, until 1918, when it merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into the unitary Yugoslav Kingdom, that was led by the Serbian dynasty of Karadjordjevic Mexico was twice an Empire. First from July 21, 1822 to March 19, 1823 with Agustín de Iturbide serving as emperor. Then, with the help of the Austrian and Spanish crowns, Napoleon III of France installed Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico. This attempt to create a European-style monarchy lasted three years, from 1864 to 1867. Brazil from 1815 (United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves) until 1822, with the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of Brazil by Pedro I of Brazil. The empire ended in 1889, when Pedro II was deposed by a military coup. Hawaii was a constitutional monarchy from the unification of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oahu, Maui, Molokai, Lānai, and the Hawaii (or the "Big Island") in 1810 until the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani in 1893 by conspirators from United States. The Grand Duchy of Finland was a constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, was simultaneously an autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia. The Kingdom of Hungary in 1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary. In the interwar period (1920–1944) Hungary remained a constitutional monarchy without a reigning monarch. The Korean Empire from 1897 to 1910. Montenegro until 1918 when it merged with Serbia and other areas to form Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia until 1945 when Peter II was deposed by the communist government. Romania until 1947 when Michael I was forced to abdicate at gunpoint by the communists. Bulgaria until 1946 when Tsar Simeon was deposed by the communist assembly. Greece until 1967 when Constantine II was deposed by the military government. The decision was formalised by a plebiscite in 05/04/1974. Italy until 1947 when a referendum proclaimed the end of the Kingdom and the begin of the Republic. Many Commonwealth republics were constitutional monarchies for some period after their independence. Nepal until May 28, 2008, when King Gyanendra was deposed, and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was declared. Other situations Andorra is the only monarchy where the head of state is vested jointly in two individuals (conversely, San Marino is the only republic where the head of state is vested jointly in two individuals: the Captains Regent). Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein are the only countries with a reigning Prince. Japan is the only country with a reigning emperor. Luxembourg is the only country with a reigning Grand Duke. See also Figurehead Notes References G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Allen W. Wood, ed., H.B. Nisbet, trans.) Cambridge University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-521-34438-7 (originally published as Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, Philosophie des Rechts, 1820). John Locke, Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration. (Ian Shapiro, ed., with essays by John Dunn, Ruth W. Grant and Ian Shapiro.) New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003 (Two Treatises first pub. 1690). 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1,940 | Lutheranism | Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation. The reactions of governmental and churchly authorities to the international spread of his writings, beginning with the 95 Theses, divided Christianity. MSN Encarta, s.v. "Lutheranism" by George Wolfgang Forell; Christian Cyclopedia, s.v. "Reformation, Lutheran" by Lueker, E. et. al. The split between Lutherans and the Roman Catholic Church arose mainly over the doctrine of Justification before God. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone because of Christ alone," which contradicted the Roman view of "faith formed by love", or "faith and works". Unlike the Reformed Churches, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church. Lutheran theology differs considerably from Reformed theology in a variety of ways, including Christology, the purpose of God's Law, divine grace, whether one is "once saved always saved," and predestination. History Lutheranism started when Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German Augustinian priest, sought to reform the Catholic Church and return it to what he thought should be its biblical foundation. How Lutherans Got Started Lutherans, biblehistory.com Martin Luther Biography - Martin Luther Childhood, Life & Timeline Reformation: Martin Luther He objected to practices such as indulgences. Luther intended to reform the Church, not to create a different Christian denomination. Catholic Church called on to revoke Luther's excommunication That Martin Luther? He wasn’t so bad, says Pope -Times Online Nonetheless, he was excommunicated by the Catholic Church. The Start of the Reformation Diet of Augsburg Spread into Scandinavia Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the sixteenth century, as the monarch of Denmark-Norway (also ruling Iceland) and the monarch of Sweden (also ruling Finland) adopted Lutheranism. The Reformation in Sweden began with Olaus and Laurentius Petri, brothers that took the Reformation to Sweden after studying in Germany. They led Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, to Lutheranism. The pope's refusal to allow the replacement of an archbishop that supported the invading forces opposing Gustav Vasa during the Stockholm Bloodbath led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy in 1523. Chapter 12 The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia, Renaissance and Reformation by William Gilbert. Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools. While this effectively granted official sanction to Lutheran ideas, Lutheranism did not become official until 1593, when the Uppsala Synod declared Holy Scripture the sole guideline for faith, with four documents accepted as faithful and authoritative explanations of it: the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the unaltered Augsburg Confession of 1530. N.F. Lutheran Cyclopedia, article, "Upsala, Diet of", New York: Schrivner, 1899. p. 528-9. Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, the most significant being Hans Tausen. During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark. Schmalkaldic War Martin Luther used his political influence to prevent war, but recognized the right of rulers to defend their lands in the event of an invasion. Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 3:199-228. Luther died in 1546. In 1547, the Schmalkaldic War started out as a conflict between two Lutheran rulers, but soon, Holy Roman Imperial forces joined the battle and conquered the members of the Schmalkaldic League, oppressing and exiling many Lutherans as they enforced the terms of the Augsburg Interim until religious freedom was secured for Lutherans through the Peace of Passau of 1552 and the Peace of Augsburg of 1555. Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 425 Concordia: doctrinal harmony Religious disputes between the Crypto-Calvinists, Philippists, Sacramentarians, Ubiquitarians, and the Gnesio-Lutherans raged within Lutheranism during the Adiaphoristic Controversy, Majoristic Controversy (Nicolaus von Amsdorf, Nicolaus Gallus), The Second Antinomian Controversy, (Andreas Poach, Anton Otto) Synergistic Controversy, (Matthias Flacius, Nicolaus Gallus) Osiandrian Controversy and the Crypto-Calvinist Controversy. Large numbers of politically and religiously influential leaders met together, debated, and resolved these topics on the basis of Scripture, resulting in the Formula of Concord, which over 8,000 leaders signed. The Book of Concord of 1580 replaced earlier, incomplete collections of doctrine, unifying all German Lutherans with identical doctrine and beginning the period of Lutheran orthodoxy. Early orthodoxy (1580-1600) The Book of Concord gave inner unity to Lutheranism, which had many controversies, mostly between Gnesio-Lutherans and Philippists, in Roman Catholic outward pressure, and in alleged "crypto-Calvinistic" influence. Theology became now more like stable theoretical defining. High orthodoxy (1600-1685) Lutheran scholasticism developed gradually, especially for the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it was finally established by Johann Gerhard. Abraham Calovius represents the climax of the scholastic paradigm in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians were Martin Chemnitz, Aegidius Hunnius, Leonhard Hutter, Nicolaus Hunnius, Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand, Salomo Glassius, Johann Hülsemann, Johann Conrad Dannhauer, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, Johann Friedrich König and Johann Wilhelm Baier. Near the end of the utter devastation that marked the Thirty Years' War the compromising spirit seen in Philip Melanchthon rose up again in Helmstedt School and especially in theology of Georgius Calixtus, causing the Syncretistic Controversy. Another theological issue was the Crypto-Kenotic Controversy. Lutheran Theology after 1580 article in Christian Cyclopedia Late orthodoxy (1685 -1730) Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from rationalism, philosophy based on reason, and Pietism, a revival movement in Lutheranism that sought to emphasis the importance of personal devotion, morality, emotions, and the study of Scripture. After a century of vitality, the Pietist theologians Philipp Jakob Spener and August Hermann Francke warned that Lutheran orthodoxy degenerated life, changing Scriptural truth into meaningless intellectualism and Formalism. Pietism increased at the expense of orthodoxy, but orthodox Lutherans charged that Pietist emphasis on personal morality and sanctification came at the expense of the doctine of justification. The Pietisitic focus on stirring up devout emotions was susceptible to the arguments of rationalist philosophy. Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 426 The last famous orthodox Lutheran theologian before the Enlightenment and Neology was David Hollatz. Late orthodox theologian Valentin Ernst Löscher took part in the controversy against Pietism. Medieval mystical traditions continued in works of Martin Moller, Johann Arndt and Joachim Lütkemann. Pietism became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some orthodox devotional literature; for example, Arndt's, Scriver's and Prätorius' which have later often been mixed with Pietistic literature. Rationalism Rationalist philosophers from France and England had an enormous impact during the 18th century, along with the German Rationalists Christian Wolff, Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant. Instead of faith in God and trust in the promises of the Bible, people were taught to trust their own reason and senses. At the most, rationalism left behind a belief in a vague supernaturalism. Morality and church-going plummeted together. Genuine piety was found almost solely in small Pietist gatherings. However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, postils, and devotional writings, including those written by Johann Gerhard, Heinrich Müller, and Christian Scriver. Devotional Literature Project Aside from that, however, Lutheranism was extinguished during the course of the 18th century. Revivals Napoleon's invasion of Germany promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology in the face of the Rationalist threat. This "Erweckung", or "Awakening" argued that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experience. Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Suelflow, Roy A. Walking With Wise Men. Milwaukee: South Wisconsin District (LCMS), 1967. p.10 Members of this movement eventually took to restoring the traditional liturgy and doctrine of the Lutheran church in the Neo-Lutheran movement. In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the Evangelical Church of the Prussian Union. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked a great deal of controversy. Many Lutherans, termed "Old Lutherans," chose to leave the established churches and form independent church bodies, or "free churches." Many left for the United States and Australia. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism. . Eventually, the fascist German Christian movement forced the final national merger of Lutherans and Reformed into a single Evangelical Church in Germany in July 1933. The Bible (source of doctrine) Lutherans hold the holy Bible of the Old and New testaments to be the only divinely inspired book and the only source of divinely revealed knowledge. For the traditional Lutheran view of the Bible, see . For an overview of the doctrine of verbal inspiration in Lutheranism, see Inspiration, Doctrine of in the Christian Cyclopedia. Scripture alone is the formal principle of the faith, the final authority for all matters of faith and morals because of its inspiration, authority, clarity, effectiveness, and sufficiency. , Characteristics Inspiration Orthodox Lutheranism affirms that the Bible does not merely contain the Word of God, but every word of it is, because of verbal inspiration, the direct, immediate word of God. , , , , , , , , , , As Lutherans confess in the Nicene Creed, the Holy Spirit "spoke through the prophets". The Apology of the Augsburg Confession identifies Holy Scripture with the Word of God "God's Word, or Holy Scripture" from the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article II, of Original Sin and calls the Holy Spirit the author of the Bible. "the Scripture of the Holy Ghost." Apology to the Augsburg Confession, Preface, 9 Because of this, Lutherans confess in the Formula of Concord, "we receive and embrace with our whole heart the prophetic and apostolic Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the pure, clear fountain of Israel." The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, "Rule and Norm", 3. The apocryphal books were not written by the prophets, by inspiration; they contain errors (Tobit 6, 71; 2 Macc. 12, 43 f.; 14, 411), were never included in the Palestinian Canon that Jesus used, See Bible, Canon in the Christian Cyclopedia and therefore are not a part of Holy Scripture. The prophetic and apostolic Scriptures are authentic as written by the prophets and apostles. A correct translation of their writings is God's Word because it has the same meaning as the original Hebrew and Greek. A mistranslation is not God's word, and no human authority can invest it with divine authority. Divine authority Orthodox Lutherans maintain that Holy Scripture, the Word of God, carries the full authority of God. Every single statement of the Bible calls for instant and unqualified acceptance. , , , , , , , , Every doctrine of the Bible is the teaching of God and therefore requires full agreement. , , , , , , , , , , , Every promise of the Bible calls for unshakable trust in its fulfillment. , , , , , Every command of the Bible is the directive of God himself and therefore demands willing observance. , , , , , , Clarity Orthodox Lutherans understand the Bible to present all doctrines and commands of the Christian faith clearly. , , , , , , , , , , , , God's Word is freely accessible to every reader or hearer of ordinary intelligence, without requiring any special education. , Of course, one must understand the language God's Word is presented in, and not be so preoccupied by contrary thoughts so as to prevent understanding. As a result of this, no one needs to wait for any clergy, and pope, scholar, or ecumenical council to explain the real meaning of any part of the Bible. Effectiveness Orthodox Lutherans confess that Scripture is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching. , , , This teaching produces faith and obedience. Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it. , , , , ,, , Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith. , , , , , As the Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word." Smalcald Articles, part 8, "Of Confession" Sufficiency Lutherans are confident that the Bible contains everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life. , , , , There are no deficiencies in Scripture that need to be filled with by tradition, pronouncements of the Pope, new revelations, or present-day development of doctrine. , , , , Law and Gospel Lutherans understand the Bible as containing two distinct types of content, termed Law and Gospel (or Law and Promises). Apology of the Augsburg Confession IV, 5 Properly distinguishing between Law and Gospel prevents the Gospel teaching of justification by grace through faith alone from being obscured. Walther, C. F. W. The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel. W. H. T. Dau, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1929. Through history The authority of the Scriptures has been challenged during the history of Lutheranism. Martin Luther taught that the Bible was the Word of God, and the only reliable guide for faith and practice. He held that every passage of Scripture has one meaning, the literal sense as interpreted by other Scripture. Braaten, Carl E. (1983). Principles of Lutheran Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, p. 9 This belief was accepted during the orthodox Lutheranism of the 17th century. During the 18th century, Rationalism advocated reason rather than the authority of the Bible as the final source of knowledge, but most of the laity did not accept this Rationalist position. . In the nineteenth century, a confessional revival reemphasized the authority of the Bible and agreement with the Lutheran Confessions. Today, Lutherans disagree about the inspiration and authority of the Bible. Theological conservatives use the historical-grammatical method of Biblical interpretation, while theological liberals use the higher critical method. <center>Title Page from the 1580 Dresden Book of Concord<center> Lutheran Confessions (doctrinal standard) The Book of Concord, published in 1580, contains ten documents which some Lutherans believe are faithful and authoritative explanations of Holy Scripture. Besides the three Ecumenical Creeds, which date to Roman times, the Book of Concord contains seven credal documents articulating Lutheran theology in the Reformation era. The doctrinal positions of Lutheran churches are not uniform because the Book of Concord does not hold the same position in all Lutheran churches. For example, the state churches in Scandinavia consider only the Augsburg Confession as a "summary of the faith" in addition to the three ecumenical Creeds. F.E. Mayer, The Religious Bodies of America. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1954, p. 184. For further information, see The Formula of Concord in the History of Swedish Lutheranism by Seth Erlandsson Lutheran pastors, congregations, and church bodies in Germany and the Americas usually agree to teach in harmony with the entire Lutheran Confessions. Some Lutheran church bodies require this pledge to be unconditional because they believe the confessions correctly state what the Bible teaches. Others allow their congregations to do so "insofar as" the Confessions are in agreement with the Bible. Summary of doctrine Justification (central teaching) The key doctrine, or material principle, of Lutheranism is the doctrine of justification. Lutherans believe that humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone (Sola Fide). Lutherans believe that this grace is granted for the sake of Christ's merit alone (Solus Christus). Orthodox Lutheran theology holds that God made the world, including humanity, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge, and wisdom. Paul R. Sponheim, "The Origin of Sin," in Christian Dogmatics, Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, eds. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 385–407. Francis Pieper, "Definition of Original Sin," in Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1953), 1:538. Consequently, people are saddled with original sin, born sinful and unable to avoid committing sinful acts. Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 335-455, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin. For Lutherans, original sin is the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins." Formula of Concord, Original Sin. Lutherans teach that sinners, while capable of doing works that are outwardly "good," are not capable of doing works that satisfy God's justice. Rom. 7:18, 8:7 1 Cor. 2:14, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 639-52, "The Third Question: Whether the Good Works of the Regenerate in This Life Are So Perfect that They Fully, Abundantly, and Perfectly Satisfy the Divine Law". Every human thought and deed is infected with sin and sinful motives. Gen. 6:5, 8:21, Mat. 7:17, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 388-90, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin, Thesis VII The Results, Section ii Positive. Because of this, all humanity deserves eternal damnation in hell. Dt. 27:26,Rom. 5:12,2 Th. 1:9 Rom. 6:23, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 38-41, Part VIII. "Sin" God in eternity has turned His Fatherly heart to this world and planned for its redemption because he loves all people and does not want anyone to be eternally damned. 1 Tim. 2:4, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 43-44, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 55. By God's grace, made known and effective in the person and work of Jesus Christ, a person is forgiven, adopted as a child and heir of God, and given eternal salvation. Rom. 10:4, Gal. 4:4–5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 42, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 52. For this reason, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the grace of God made manifest in the birth, life, suffering, death, and resurrection, and continuing presence by the power of the Holy Spirit, of Jesus Christ. Gal. 3:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 43, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 54. Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation through faith alone. Augsburg Confession, Article 4, "Of Justification" Saving faith is the knowledge of , ,, , and refer to faith in terms of knowledge. , acceptance of refers to acceptance of the truth of Christ's teaching, while notes the rejection of his teaching. , and trust , , , speak of trust, confidence, and belief in Christ. notes belief in the name of Christ, and notes belief in the gospel. in the promise of the Gospel. Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 54-5, Part XIV. "Sin" Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians Ps. 51:10, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78. by the work of the Holy Spirit through the Word John 17:20, Rom. 10:17, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.101 Part XXV. "The Church", paragaph 141. and Baptism. Titus 3:5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.87 Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118. Faith is seen as an instrument that receives the gift of salvation, not something that causes salvation. Eph. 2:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragaph 78. Thus, Lutherans reject the "decision theology" which is common among modern evangelicals. The Trinity Lutherans are Trinitarian; they confess in the Athanasian Creed, "we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Substance. For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one: the glory equal, the majesty coeternal". Athanasian Creed , Book of Common Prayer translation, used in the Triglot ed. of the Book of Concord Lutherans reject the idea that the Father and the Son are merely faces of the same person, stating that both the Old Testament and the New Testament show them to be two distinct persons. Is. 63:8-9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 158-160, section "The Doctrine of God", part 5. "The Holy Trinity Revealed in the Old Testament",Heb. 1:5, see Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 33-36, Part VI. "The Trinity". Lutherans believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. The Nicene Creed and the Filioque: A Lutheran Approach by Rev. David Webber for more information The Chi Rho, a symbol for Christ Christ Lutherans believe Jesus Christ is both by nature God and by nature man in one person, as they confess in Luther's Small Catechism that he is "true God begotten of the Father from eternity and also true man born of the Virgin Mary". Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed, Second Article, Sacraments Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution. , , , , , Whenever they are properly administered by the use of the physical component commanded by God , , , , along with the divine words of institution, , , , God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component. , , , He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament , , forgiveness of sins , , , , , , , and eternal salvation. , , He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession. , , Lutherans are not dogmatic about the number of the sacraments. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 2: "We believe we have the duty not to neglect any of the rites and ceremonies instituted in Scripture, whatever their number. We do not think it makes much difference if, for purposes of teaching, the enumeration varies, provided what is handed down in Scripture is preserved" (cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 211). In line with Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism some speak of only two sacraments, Luther's Large Catechism IV, 1: "We have now finished the three chief parts of the common Christian doctrine. Besides these we have yet to speak of our two Sacraments instituted by Christ, of which also every Christian ought to have at least an ordinary, brief instruction, because without them there can be no Christian; although, alas! hitherto no instruction concerning them has been given" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 733). Baptism and Holy Communion, although later in the same work he calls Confession and Absolution John 20:23, and Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 112-3, Part XXVI "The Ministry", paragraph 156. "the third sacrament." Luther's Large Catechism IV, 74-75: "And here you see that Baptism, both in its power and signification, comprehends also the third Sacrament, which has been called repentance, as it is really nothing else than Baptism" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 751). The definition of sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession lists Absolution as one of them. The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 3, 4: "If we define the sacraments as rites, which have the command of God and to which the promise of grace has been added, it is easy to determine what the sacraments are, properly speaking. For humanly instituted rites are not sacraments, properly speaking, because human beings do not have the authority to promise grace. Therefore signs instituted without the command of God are not sure signs of grace, even though they perhaps serve to teach or admonish the common folk. Therefore, the sacraments are actually baptism, the Lord’s Supper, and absolution (the sacrament of repentance)" (cf. Tappert, 211). Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article 13, Of the Number and Use of the Sacraments Children born to practicing Lutheran families are baptized shortly after birth. Baptism Lutherans hold that Baptism is a saving work of God, 1 Pet. 3:21, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 491-496, section "The Doctrine of Baptism", part 4. "Baptism a True Means of Grace", and Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 87, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118. mandated and instituted by Jesus Christ. Martin Luther, Small Catechism 4 Baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration" in which infants and adults are reborn. Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same. Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare." Therefore, Lutherans administer Baptism to both infants Mat. 19:14, Acts 2:38–39, Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122. and adults. 1 Cor. 1:14, Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122. In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism, Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit. Lord's Supper Lutherans hold that within Holy Communion, also referred to as the Sacrament of the Altar or the Lord's Supper, the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ "in, with, and under the form" of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it, 1 Cor. 10:16, 11:20, 27, Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131. a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the sacramental union. The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper Some Lutherans use the term Eucharist to refer to Communion, noting its use in the Book of Concord; however, others reject the term on the basis that the word Eucharist ("thanksgiving") puts the emphasis on the human response to the sacrament, which is contrary to the Lutheran emphasis on God's omnipotence and human powerlessness. They note that in almost every case, the use of the term in the Book of Concord refers to doctrinal statements that are part of the Roman Catholic tradition. Conversion In Lutheranism, conversion or regeneration in the strict sense of the term is the work of divine grace , , , and power , , , , by which man, born of the flesh, and void of all power to think, , , , to will, , , or to do , , , any good thing, and dead in sin , is, through the gospel and holy baptism, , , , , , taken , , from a state of sin and spiritual death under God's wrath , , , , , , , into a state of spiritual life of faith and grace, , , , , , rendered able to will and to do what is spiritually good and, especially, led to accept the benefits of the redemption which is in Christ Jesus. , , , , , Augustus Lawrence Graebner, Lutheran Cyclopedia p. 136, "Conversion" During conversion, one is moved from impenitence to repentance. The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors." Augsburg Confession, Article XII: Of Repentance Predestination Lutherans adhere to divine monergism, the teaching that salvation is by God's act alone, and therefore reject the idea that humans in their fallen state have a free will concerning spiritual matters. 1 Cor. 2:14, 12:3, Rom. 8:7, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 409-53, "Seventh Topic, Concerning Free Will: From the Decree of the Sixth Session of the Council of Trent". Lutherans believe that although humans have free will concerning civil righteousness, they cannot work spiritual righteousness without the Holy Spirit, since righteousness in the heart cannot be wrought in the absence of the Holy Spirit. Augsburg Confession, Article 18, Of Free Will. Lutherans believe that the elect are predestined to salvation. Acts 13:48, Eph. 1:4–11, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 585-9, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 1. The Definition of the Term", and Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 124-8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 176. Lutherans believe Christians should be assured that they are among the predestined. 2 Thess. 2:13, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 589-593, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 2. How Believers are to Consider Their Election, and Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127-8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 180. Lutherans believe that all who trust in Jesus alone can be certain of their salvation, for it is in Christ's work and his promises in which their certainty lies. Rom. 8:33, Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127-8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 179., Engelder, T.E.W., The Certainty of Final Salvation. The Lutheran Witness 2(6). English Evangelical Missouri Synod: Baltimore. 1891, pp. 41ff. According to Lutheranism, the central final hope of the Christian is "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting" as confessed in the Apostles' Creed rather than predestination. Lutherans disagree with those that make predestination the source of salvation rather than Christ's suffering, death, and resurrection. Unlike Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation. 1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, and Engelder's Popular Symbolics, Part XXXI. The Election of Grace, pp. 124-8. Instead, Lutherans teach eternal damnation is a result of the unbeliever's sins, rejection of the forgiveness of sins, and unbelief. Hos. 13:9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 637, section "The Doctrine of the Last Things (Eschatology), part 7. "Eternal Damnation", and Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 135-6, Part XXXIX. "Eternal Death", paragraph 196. Divine providence According to Lutherans, God preserves his creation, cooperates with everything that happens, and guides the universe. Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House. 1934. pp. 189-195 and Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 635 and Christian Cyclopedia article on Divine Providence. For further reading, see The Proof Texts of the Catechism with a Practical Commentary, section Divine Providence, p. 212, Wessel, Louis, published in Theological Quarterly, Vol. 11, 1909. While God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, with evil deeds he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, but not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but he does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effect. Mueller, Steven P.,Called to Believe, Teach, and Confess. Wipf and Stock. 2005. pp. 122-123. Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growth. Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House: 1934. pp. 190 and Edward. W. A.,A Short Explanation of Dr. Martin Luther's Small Catechism. Concordia Publishing House. 1946. p. 165. and Divine Providence and Human Adversity by Markus O. Koepsell In Luther's Small Catechism, the explanation of the first article of the Apostles' Creed declares that everything good that people have is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things. Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God." Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should look not down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world. Good works Good works are the fruit of saving faith, John 15:5, Tit. 2:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 62-3, Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 88 The New Obedience Is The Fruit Of Conversion, The Product Of Faith. and always and in every instance spring spontaneously from true faith. 2 Cor. 9:8, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 313-4, Part D Confession of the Conservative Reformation: II, Secondary Confessions: Book of Concord, Formula of Concord, Part IV The Doctrinal Result, 2, Section iv, Of Good Works. Any true good works have their true origin in God, Phil 2:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 74, Part XIX. "Preservation in Faith", paragraph 102. not in the fallen human heart or in human striving; Rom. 7:18 Heb 11:6, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 39-40, Part VIII. "Sin", paragraph 46 “Original Sin”. their absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent. Mat. 7:15–16, Tit. 1:16. Augsburg Confession, Article 20, Of Good Works The Athanasian Creed teaches that unless one holds the faith "whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly." Final Judgment Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day. John 18:36, Augsburg Confession, Article 17, Of Christ's Return to Judgment. Lutherans teach that, at death, the souls of Christians are immediately taken into the presence of Jesus, Luke 23:42-43, 2 Cor. 5:8, Engelder, T.E.W., <cite>Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 130, Part XXXIV. "The State of the Soul in the Interval Between Death and the Resurrection", paragraph 185. where they await the second coming of Jesus on the last day.<ref>1 Cor. 15:22–24, Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 505-515; Heinrich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 624-632; John Mueller, Christian Dogmatics, 616-619</cite></ref> On the last day, , all the dead will be resurrected. , , , , Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying. , , , , , , , The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment, , , those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory. , , , , , , , After the resurrection of all the dead, , , and the change of those still living, , all nations shall be gathered before Christ, , , , , and he will separate the righteous from the wicked. , Christ will publicly judge , , , all people by the testimony of their deeds, , , , the good works , , of the righteous in evidence of their faith, , , , , , and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief. , , , He will judge in righteousness , , in the presence of all people and angels, , and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous. , , , Practices Luther composed hymns and hymn tunes, including "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God" ("Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott"). Liturgy Many Lutherans place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services; although there have always been substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the Hauge Lutherans from Norway. Music forms a large part of Lutheran services. Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales. Lutheran hymnody is reputed for its doctrinal, didactic, and musical richness. Many Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally carillon groups that ring bells in a bell tower. Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed music for the Lutheran church. Many Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of Communion (or the Lord's Supper), emphasizing the sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called Real Presence or Sacramental Union and is different from consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or memorial. They confess in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession: "...we do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other festivals, when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things." (Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article XXIV.1)Lutheran youth are confirmed after they learn the Small Catechism. Besides the Divine Service, congregations also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include Matins, Vespers, Compline, and Easter Vigil. Private or family offices include the Morning and Evening Prayers from Luther's Small Catechism. See Luther's Small Catechism, Daily Prayers Meals are blessed with the Common Table Prayer, , or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with . In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small daily devotionals, for example, Portals of Prayer, to large breviaries, including the Breviarium Lipsiensae and Treasury of Daily Prayer. In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelical outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those that preferred contemporary worship music. Today, some Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation, rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations. Principle examples of this in the ELCA include Family of God, Cape Coral FL., The Well, Charlotte NC, Hosanna! of Lakeville, Minnesota, and Church of the Apostles, Seattle WA.. In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the Metal Mass, in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. The Lutheran World Federation has strongly recommended in the Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture that Lutherans of the world make every effort to bring their services into a more contextually sensitive position. "A given culture's values and patterns, insofar as they are consonant with the values of the Gospel, can be used to express the meaning and purpose of Christian worship. Contextualization is a necessary task for the Church's mission in the world, so that the Gospel can be ever more deeply rooted in diverse local cultures." The Nairobe Statement Lutheran churches use a number of hymnals as well as electronic projection media. The most widely used among English speaking congregations are: The Lutheran Book of Worship (1978), The Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006, ELCA and ELCIC), Lutheran Worship (1982, LCMS), Christian Worship (WELS), and The Lutheran Hymnal (1941, LCMS, WELS & CLC). In 2006, both the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the LCMS, the two largest Lutheran denominations, released new hymnals: Evangelical Lutheran Worship (ELCA) and Lutheran Service Book (LCMS). In Australia, the official hymnal is the 'Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement' of 1986, which includes a supplement to the 'Lutheran Hymnal' of 1973, itself a replacement for the 'Australian Lutheran Hymn Book' of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran Churches in Australia (which amalgamated in 1966) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language. Education Catechism, especially children's, is considered fundamental in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and some host or maintain Lutheran schools, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school or university level. Life-long study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur. preface to Luther's Large and preface to Luther's Small Catechism. With the emphasis on proper life-long catechesis, Lutherans have a heritage of not only learned theologians, but also theologically adept laypeople. Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Greek and Hebrew so that they can refer directly to the canonical Christian scriptures in the original language. All Lutheran pastors may marry and have families. Most Lutheran denominations, with the exception of the confessional-conservative synods, allow women pastors. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the parish. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in German, Finnish, or Norwegian, but this custom, which attracted unfavorable attention during World War I, has been in significant decline since the early/middle 20th century. Church fellowship Lutherans were divided about the issue of church-fellowship for the first thirty years after Luther's death. Philipp Melanchthon and his Philippist party felt that Christians of many different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the Gnesio-Lutherans, led by Matthias Flacius and the faculty at Jena. They condemned the Philippist position for indifferentism, describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy. Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia, 1977. p.16 Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the Formula of Concord of 1577. Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia. p.18 Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided ecumenical fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not join together for the Lord's Supper or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, Georgius Calixtus began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the Syncretistic Controversy. In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. John Robinson, Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although Svedberg of Skara and Gezelius, Bishop of Turku (Finland) were in favor. . In the 19th century, Samuel Simon Schmucker attempted to lead the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the Augsburg Confession in favor of his compromising Definite Platform failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the General Council, including Charles Porterfield Krauth. Their alternative approach was “Lutheran pulpits are for Lutheran ministers only, and Lutheran altars are for Lutheran communicants only.” Presently, Lutherans are divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Typically, conservative Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10) For a historical example, see Robert Preus, To Join or Not To Join. North Dakota District of The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, 1968. before pastors can share each other pulpits or communicants commune at each other's altars. On the other hand, liberal Lutherans are willing to share communion and to allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits. While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in Freemasonry. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading Unitarianism, as the Brief Statement of the Missouri Synod reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges." See http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=564 Brief Statement was adopted as Missouri Synod doctrine in 1932, and from time to time has been adopted by other Lutherans A 1958 report from the publishing house of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former." Report of the Lutheran Church, The Northwestern Lutheran, page 281, August 31, 1988. The Lutheran World Federation and the Missouri Synod have been in official dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church since shortly after the Second Vatican Council. In 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church when they jointly issued a statement, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, that stated that the LWF and the Roman Catholic churches agreed about the basics of Justification and lifted certain Roman Catholic anathemas formerly applying to the LWF member churches.. The Missouri Synod has participated in every series of talks, except that which produced the Joint Declaration and to which they were not invited. While some Lutheran theologians saw the Joint Declaration as a sign that the Roman Catholic Church was essentially adopting the Lutheran position, some Lutheran theologians disagreed, claiming that, considering the public documentation of the Catholic Church's position, this assertion does not hold up. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America has been actively involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations (the ELCA is one of the members of the LWF that signed the JDDJ). Recently, the ELCA has declared full communion with several American Churches: the Moravian Church, the Episcopal Church, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Reformed Church in America, and the United Church of Christ. Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the megachurches of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common, particularly among more theologically conservative Lutherans. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals." These influences are sharply criticized by confessional Lutherans (and some liberals) as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs. See scholarly articles on the from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library and Implications of the Church Growth Movement for Lutherans: Possibilities and Concerns by Harold L. Senkbeil as examples of criticism from confessional Lutherans The Porvoo Communion is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, Church of Sweden also has declared full communion with the Philippine Independent Church and the United Methodist Church. Throughout the world Christ Lutheran Church, Narsapur, India Today, millions belong to Lutheran churches, which are present on all populated continents. Lutheran World Federation, "Slight Increase Pushes LWF Global Membership to 66.2 Million", The Lutheran World Federation, http://www.lutheranworld.org/ (accessed May 18, 2006). However, some Lutherans disagree with the way the Lutheran World Federation arrives at this number, as millions of them actually come from bodies that are largely Reformed, but include some Lutherans. For more information on this, see William Schumacher, "Theological Observer: How Many Lutherans?", Concordia Journal April 2005, http://www.csl.edu/CJApril05.pdf/ Lutheranism is the largest religious group in Denmark, Estonia, Norway, Finland, Faroe Islands, Germany, Greenland, Iceland, Latvia, Namibia and Sweden. Lutheranism is also the dominant form of Christianity in the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache nations. In addition, Lutheranism is the dominant Protestant denomination but not the largest religious group in Austria, Croatia, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Papua New Guinea, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, and Tanzania. Encyclopedia Britannica, [Dominant Protestant Denomination Per Country], 1995. Although Namibia is the only country outside Europe to have a Lutheran majority, there are sizable Lutheran communities in many other countries, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia (notably among the Orang Batak), Madagascar, and the United States. Lutheran missions have also been established in many African countries like Sierra Leone. The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation, the International Lutheran Council, and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference. These organizations together include the great majority of Lutheran denominations around the globe. The Lutheran World Federation supports the activities of Lutheran World Relief, a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries. The LCMS and the LCC are members of the International Lutheran Council (ILC). The WELS and ELS are members of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference. Many Lutheran churches exist throughout the world which are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC, such as those affiliated with Augsburg Lutheran Churches or Church of the Lutheran Confession which are especially active in Africa and India; and those affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church (UAC)or Church of the Lutheran Brethren, which are especially active elsewhere in Asia. The Lutheran World Federation (LWF)-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. For that reason, a number of doctrinally diverse LWF denominations, now largely separated from state control, are declaring fellowship and joint statements of agreement with other Lutheran and non-Lutheran Christian denominations. By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as many unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing "fake ecumenism" by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching. see Ecumenism: Facts and Illusions by Kurt E. Marquart for a short explanation of the modern ecumenism movement from a Confessional Lutheran perspective See also Confessional Lutheran High Church Lutheranism History of Lutheranism Laestadianism List of Lutheran denominations Lutheran Evangelical Catholicism Lutheran views of homosexuality Print sources CLC Perspective: Confessional & Historical Perspective: Günther Gassmann & Scott Hendrix. Fortress Introduction to the Lutheran Confessions. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3162-5. ELCA Perspective: General Council Historical Perspective: LCMS Perspective: LCMS Perspective: LCMS Perspective: LCR Perspective: Neo-Lutheran Historical Perspective: Slovak Synod Historical Perspective: WELS Perspective: Footnotes External links International Bodies Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference (CELC) International Lutheran Council (ILC) Lutheran World Federation (LWF) Church Bodies Augustana Evangelical Catholic Communion (AECC) The American Association of Lutheran Churches (TAALC) Augsburg Lutheran Churches (ALC) The Church of Sweden The Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC, GCEPC) CLC Lutheran Missions in Africa and India Concordia Lutheran Conference Evangelical Community Church-Lutheran (ECCL) The Old Lutheran Church (OLC) Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brazil (IECLB) Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) The Evangelical 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1,941 | Cutter_Expansive_Classification | The Cutter Expansive Classification system is a library classification system devised by Charles Ammi Cutter. It uses all letters to designate the top categories of books. This is in contrast to the Dewey Decimal Classification, which uses only numbers, and the Library of Congress classification, which uses a mixture of letters and numbers. The system was the basis for the top categories of the Library of Congress classification. "No one, perhaps, can remember it all; it cannot be learned, even in part, very quickly; but those who use the library much will find that they become familiar in time unconsciously with all that they have much occasion to use." from How to Get Books by C.A. Cutter, 1882 History of the Cutter classification Charles Ammi Cutter (1837–1903), inspired by the decimal classification of his contemporary Melvil Dewey, originally developed his own classification scheme for the collections of the Boston Athenaeum, at which he served as librarian for two dozen years. He began work on it about 1880 and published the first schedules in the early 1890s. His five-volume catalogue of the Athenaeum collection is a classic in bibliographic history. The Cutter classification, although adopted by comparatively few libraries, mostly in New England, has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the 20th century. Outline of the Cutter classification Like the LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter, however, will find the subject headings more general than those of the LC system. A General works (encyclopedias, periodicals, society publications) B–D Philosophy, Psychology, Religion E, F, G Biography, History, Geography and travels H–J, K Social sciences, Law L–T Science and technology U–VS Military, Sports, Recreation VT, VV, W Theatre, Music, Fine arts X Philology (expanded by language) Y Literature (expanded by language, and in English form—e.g., YY is English and American literature, YYP is poetry in English) Z Book arts, Bibliography How Cutter call numbers are constructed Most call numbers in the Cutter classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Cutter system are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order. Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //). For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States—hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city. The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number—e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors. On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English—other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines. Cutter Numbers One of the features adopted by other systems, including Library of Congress, is the Cutter number. It is an alphanumeric device to code text so that it can be arranged in alphabetical order using the least amount of characters. It contains one or two initial letters and Arabic numbers, treated as a decimal. To construct a Cutter number, a cataloguer consults a Cutter table as required by the classification rules. Although Cutter numbers are mostly used for coding the names of authors, the system can be used for titles, subjects, geographic areas, and more. References Bliss, Henry Evelyn. The Organization of Knowledge in Libraries: and the Subject-Approach to Books, 2nd ed. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939. Cutter, Charles A. Rules for a Dictionary Catalog. W. P. Cutter, ed. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. London: The Library Association, 1962. Cutter, William Parker. Charles Ammi Cutter. Chicago: American Library Association, 1931. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1969. Foster, William E. "Charles Ammi Cutter: A Memorial Sketch". Library Journal 28 (1903): 697-704. Hufford, Jon R. "The Pragmatic Basis of Catalog Codes: Has the User Been Ignored?". Cataloging and Classification Quarterly 14 (1991): 27-38. Immroth, John Philip. "Cutter, Charles Ammi". Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, ed. 47 vols. New York, M. Dekker [1968- ] Slavis, Dobrica. "CUTT-x: An Expert System for Automatic Assignment of Cutter Numbers". Cataloging and Classification Quarterly. Vol 22, no. 2, 1996. Tauber, Maurice F., and Edith Wise. "Classification Systems". Ralph R. Shaw, ed.. The State of the Library Art. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Graduate School of Library Service, 1961. 1-528. External links The Boston Athenaeum's Guide to the Cutter System Forbes Library's Outline of Cutter Classification Rules for a dictionary catalog, by Charles A. Cutter, fourth edition, hosted by the UNT Libraries Digital Collections Library of Congress Guidelines for using the LC Online Shelflist and formulating a literary author number: Cutter Table LC Cutter Tables | Cutter_Expansive_Classification |@lemmatized cutter:29 expansive:1 classification:20 system:12 library:17 devise:1 charles:7 ammi:5 use:10 letter:10 designate:1 top:2 category:2 book:7 contrast:1 dewey:3 decimal:4 number:17 congress:5 mixture:1 basis:3 one:5 perhaps:2 remember:1 cannot:1 learn:1 even:1 part:1 quickly:1 much:2 find:2 become:1 familiar:1 time:1 unconsciously:1 occasion:1 get:1 c:3 history:5 inspire:1 contemporary:1 melvil:1 originally:1 develop:1 scheme:1 collection:4 boston:2 athenaeum:3 serve:2 librarian:1 two:3 dozen:1 year:1 begin:2 work:5 publish:1 first:5 schedule:1 early:1 five:1 volume:2 catalogue:1 classic:1 bibliographic:1 although:2 adopt:2 comparatively:1 mostly:2 new:4 england:1 call:3 logical:1 scholarly:2 american:3 outline:3 also:1 take:1 feature:2 catch:1 die:1 completely:1 finish:1 make:1 provision:1 kind:1 development:1 necessary:1 bound:1 knowledge:2 expand:5 emphasis:1 change:1 throughout:1 century:1 like:1 lc:4 text:2 organize:1 subject:8 user:2 however:1 heading:1 general:2 encyclopedias:1 periodical:2 society:2 publication:2 b:2 philosophy:1 psychology:1 religion:1 e:5 f:2 g:3 biography:1 geography:1 travel:2 h:2 j:1 k:1 social:1 science:3 law:1 l:1 technology:1 u:6 v:1 military:1 sport:1 recreation:1 vt:1 vv:1 w:3 theatre:1 music:1 fine:1 art:3 x:2 philology:1 language:3 literature:2 english:5 form:2 yy:1 yyp:1 poetry:1 z:1 bibliography:2 construct:2 follow:4 convention:1 offer:1 clue:1 line:7 represent:4 second:3 author:7 title:5 third:2 fourth:2 date:1 edition:2 indication:1 translation:3 critical:1 particular:2 shelve:1 order:2 size:1 indicate:5 point:1 plus:2 slash:1 numerical:1 geographical:2 subdivision:1 stand:2 united:1 state:2 hence:1 politics:1 painting:1 often:1 far:1 decimally:2 specific:1 area:2 sometimes:2 capital:4 city:1 usually:1 name:2 arrange:2 may:2 low:1 case:1 printing:1 appropriate:1 criticism:2 dictionary:3 atlas:1 map:1 university:2 different:1 apply:1 single:1 four:1 include:1 alphanumeric:1 device:1 code:2 alphabetical:1 least:1 amount:1 character:1 contain:1 initial:1 arabic:1 treat:1 cataloguer:1 consult:1 table:3 require:1 rule:3 cod:1 geographic:1 reference:1 bliss:1 henry:1 evelyn:1 organization:1 approach:1 ed:5 york:2 wilson:1 catalog:4 p:1 washington:1 government:1 print:1 office:1 london:1 association:2 william:2 parker:1 chicago:1 ann:1 arbor:1 mi:1 microfilm:1 foster:1 memorial:1 sketch:1 journal:1 hufford:1 jon:1 r:2 pragmatic:1 ignore:1 cataloging:1 quarterly:2 immroth:1 john:1 philip:1 encyclopedia:1 information:1 allen:1 kent:1 harold:1 lancour:1 vols:1 dekker:1 slavis:1 dobrica:1 cutt:1 expert:1 automatic:1 assignment:1 vol:1 tauber:1 maurice:1 edith:1 wise:1 ralph:1 shaw:1 brunswick:1 nj:1 rutgers:1 graduate:1 school:1 service:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 forbes:1 host:1 unt:1 digital:1 guideline:1 online:1 shelflist:1 formulate:1 literary:1 |@bigram charles_ammi:5 ammi_cutter:4 dewey_decimal:1 alphabetical_order:1 ann_arbor:1 brunswick_nj:1 external_link:1 |
1,942 | Economy_of_Latvia | Until the middle of 2008 Latvia had the fastest growing economy in Europe. It has had high GDP growth since 2000. In 2003, GDP growth was 7.5% and inflation was 2.9%. Unemployment was 8.8% in 2003, almost unchanged compared to the previous two years. Privatization is mostly complete, except for some of the large state-owned utilities. On May 1, 2004, Latvia joined the European Union. Economic history Real GDP growth in Latvia 1996-2006. For centuries under Hanseatic and German influence and then during its inter-war independence, Latvia used its geographic location as an important East-West commercial and trading center. Industry served local markets, while timber, paper and agricultural products were Latvia's main exports. Conversely, the years of Russian and Soviet occupation tended to integrate Latvia's economy to serve those empires' large internal industrial needs. Since reestablishing its independence, Latvia has proceeded with market-oriented reforms, albeit at a measured pace. Its freely traded currency, the lat, was introduced in 1993 and has held steady, or appreciated, against major world currencies. Inflation was reduced from 958.6% in 1992 to 25% by 1995 and 1.4% by 2002. In 2007, inflation was 16% - the highest inflation rate in the European Union. After contracting substantially between 1991-93, the economy steadied in late 1994, led by recovery in light industry and a boom in commerce and finance. This recovery was interrupted twice, first by a banking crisis and the bankruptcy of Banka Baltija, Latvia's largest bank, in 1995 and second by a severe crisis in the financial system of neighbouring Russia in 1998. After 2000, Latvian GDP grew by 6-8% a year for 4 consecutive years. Latvia's state budget was balanced in 1997 but the 1998 Russian financial crisis resulted in large deficits, which were reduced from 4% of GDP in 1999 to 1.8% in 2003. These deficits were smaller than in most of the other countries joining the European Union in 2004. Replacement of the centrally planned system imposed during the Soviet period with a structure based on free-market principles has been occurring spontaneously from below much more than through consistently applied structural adjustment. Official statistics tend to understate the booming private sector, suggesting that the Latvian people and their economy are doing much better than is reflected statistically. Two-thirds of employment and 60% of GDP is now in the private sector. Recovery in light industry and Riga's emergence as a regional financial and commercial center have offset shrinkage of the state-owned industrial sector and agriculture. The official unemployment figure has held steady in the 7%-10% range. Privatisation Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been successfully privatized, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. In particular, the country's main energy company, Latvenergo remains state-owned and there are no plans to privatize it. The government also holds minority shares in Ventspils Nafta oil transit company and the country's main telecom company Lattelecom but it plans to sell those. Despite a bad image based on loosely controlled privatization efforts in the early days, as well as the difficulties of privatizing the utilities, Latvian privatization efforts have led to the development of a dynamic and prosperous private sector, which accounted for nearly 68% of GDP in 2000. Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including land sales to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia's total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995 with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation. Energy With Lithuania, Poland, and Estonia, Latvia is considering participating in the Visaginas nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant. Latvia faces a potential energy famine because in 2009 Lithuania will shut down Ignalina. Without any other policy, Latvia will have to rely more heavily on Russian gas and other sources of electricity. Economic contraction 2008 The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic inflation of real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%. Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column for December 15th, 2008: "The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina " Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $35,684 billion (2006) GDP - real growth rate: 11.90% (2006) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $16,000 (2006 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4.4% industry: 24.8% services: 70.8% (2006 est.) Population below poverty line: N/A Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.9% highest 10%: 25.9% (1998) Income equality (Gini index): 30.9 (2003) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 16.0% (2007) Labor force: 1.17 million (2004 est.) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture and forestry 15%, industry 25%, services 60% (2000) Unemployment rate: 7.5% (2005 est.) Budget: revenues: $4.231 billion expenditures: $4.504 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.) Industries: synthetic fibers, agricultural machinery, fertilizers, radios, electronics, pharmaceuticals, processed foods, textiles, timber; note - dependent on imports for energy and raw materials Industrial production growth rate: 8.5% (2004 est.) Electricity - production: 4,547 GWh (2002) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 29.1% hydro: 70.9% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001) Electricity - consumption: 5,829 GWh (2002) Electricity - exports: 1,100 GWh (2002) Electricity - imports: 2,700 GWh (2002) Agriculture - products: grain, potatoes, vegetables; beef, milk, eggs; fish Exports: $3.569 billion (f.o.b., 2004) Exports - commodities: wood and wood products, machinery and equipment, metals, textiles, foodstuffs Exports - partners: UK 22.1%, Germany 9.9%, US 8.2%, Sweden 7.3%, France 6.6%, Lithuania 6.4%, Estonia 5.2%, Denmark 4.2%, Russia 4.1% (2004) Imports: $5.97 billion (f.o.b., 2004) Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, vehicles Foreign direct investments in Latvia: Lursoft statistics on remaining amount of investments at the end of each year. Imports - partners: Germany 16.1%, Russia 14.4%, Lithuania 7.6%, Finland 6.5%, Sweden 5.6%, Estonia 5.1%, Italy 4.2%, Poland 4% (2004) Debt - external: $36 billion (2007 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $96.2 million (1995) Currency: 1 Latvian lat (LVL) = 100 santims Exchange rates: lati per US dollar - 0.44 (2008) 0.5402 (2004), 0.57 (2003), 0.62 (2002), 0.63 (2001), 0.61 (2000), 0.59 (1999), 0.590 (1998), 0.581 (1997), 0.551 (1996), 0.528 (1995) Fiscal year: calendar year Packet of 20 cigarettes: 0.70 - 2.00 LVL. Most Western brands (Marlboro, etc.) are about 1.50 LVL. See also Economy of Europe Latvia References | Economy_of_Latvia |@lemmatized middle:1 latvia:21 fast:1 grow:2 economy:7 europe:5 high:3 gdp:12 growth:5 since:2 inflation:7 unemployment:3 almost:2 unchanged:1 compare:2 previous:1 two:2 year:10 privatization:3 mostly:1 complete:2 except:1 large:5 state:8 owned:1 utility:2 may:1 join:3 european:4 union:4 economic:4 history:1 real:3 century:1 hanseatic:1 german:1 influence:1 inter:1 war:1 independence:2 use:1 geographic:1 location:1 important:1 east:1 west:1 commercial:2 trading:1 center:2 industry:6 serve:2 local:1 market:3 timber:2 paper:1 agricultural:2 product:3 main:3 export:6 conversely:1 russian:3 soviet:2 occupation:2 tend:2 integrate:1 empire:1 internal:1 industrial:3 need:1 reestablish:1 proceed:1 orient:1 reform:1 albeit:1 measured:1 pace:1 freely:1 trade:3 currency:3 lat:3 introduce:1 hold:3 steady:3 appreciate:1 major:1 world:2 reduce:2 rate:6 contract:1 substantially:1 late:1 lead:2 recovery:3 light:2 boom:1 commerce:1 finance:1 interrupt:1 twice:1 first:1 banking:1 crisis:5 bankruptcy:1 banka:1 baltija:1 bank:1 second:2 severe:1 financial:3 system:2 neighbour:1 russia:3 latvian:5 consecutive:1 budget:2 balance:1 result:1 deficit:3 small:4 country:3 replacement:1 centrally:1 plan:3 impose:1 period:3 structure:1 base:3 free:1 principle:1 occur:1 spontaneously:1 much:2 consistently:1 apply:1 structural:1 adjustment:1 official:2 statistic:3 understate:1 booming:1 private:3 sector:5 suggest:1 people:1 good:2 reflect:1 statistically:1 third:1 employment:1 riga:1 emergence:1 regional:1 offset:1 shrinkage:1 agriculture:4 figure:1 range:1 privatisation:2 virtually:1 previously:1 medium:1 company:6 successfully:1 privatize:3 leave:1 number:1 politically:1 sensitive:1 particular:1 energy:4 latvenergo:1 remain:2 government:1 also:2 minority:1 share:2 ventspils:1 nafta:1 oil:1 transit:1 telecom:1 lattelecom:1 sell:2 despite:1 bad:1 image:1 loosely:1 control:1 effort:2 early:1 day:1 well:1 difficulty:1 development:1 dynamic:1 prosperous:1 account:2 nearly:1 foreign:3 investment:5 still:1 modest:1 level:1 north:1 central:1 law:1 expand:1 scope:1 land:2 include:2 sale:1 foreigner:1 pass:1 represent:2 total:1 direct:2 american:1 invest:1 million:5 united:2 service:3 import:6 eager:1 western:2 institution:1 like:1 organization:1 oecd:1 sign:2 agreement:1 eu:1 transition:1 treaty:1 intellectual:1 property:1 protection:1 avoidance:1 double:1 taxation:1 lithuania:5 poland:2 estonia:3 consider:1 participate:1 visaginas:1 nuclear:3 power:4 plant:2 replace:1 ignalina:2 face:1 potential:1 famine:1 shut:1 without:1 policy:1 rely:1 heavily:1 gas:1 source:2 electricity:6 contraction:2 enter:1 phase:1 fiscal:2 half:1 extended:1 credit:1 speculation:1 unrealistic:1 estate:1 value:1 national:1 example:1 run:1 paul:1 krugman:1 nobel:1 laureate:1 economics:1 write:1 new:2 york:1 time:1 op:1 ed:1 column:1 december:1 acute:1 problem:1 periphery:1 many:1 experience:1 strongly:1 reminiscent:1 past:1 latin:1 america:1 asia:1 argentina:1 purchasing:2 parity:2 billion:6 per:2 caput:1 est:7 composition:1 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 n:1 household:1 income:2 consumption:2 percentage:1 low:1 equality:1 gini:1 index:1 consumer:1 price:1 labor:2 force:2 forestry:1 revenue:1 expenditure:2 capital:1 na:1 synthetic:1 fiber:1 machinery:3 fertilizer:1 radio:1 electronics:1 pharmaceutical:1 process:1 food:1 textile:2 note:1 dependent:1 raw:1 material:1 production:3 gwh:4 fossil:1 fuel:2 hydro:1 grain:1 potato:1 vegetable:1 beef:1 milk:1 egg:1 fish:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:2 wood:2 equipment:2 metal:1 foodstuff:1 partner:2 uk:1 germany:2 u:2 sweden:2 france:1 denmark:1 chemical:1 vehicle:1 lursoft:1 amount:1 end:1 finland:1 italy:1 debt:1 external:1 aid:1 recipient:1 lvl:3 santims:1 exchange:1 dollar:1 calendar:1 packet:1 cigarette:1 brand:1 marlboro:1 etc:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram centrally_plan:1 structural_adjustment:1 estonia_latvia:1 rely_heavily:1 real_estate:1 paul_krugman:1 nobel_laureate:1 gdp_purchasing:1 purchasing_power:2 per_caput:1 caput_purchasing:1 household_income:1 gini_index:1 agriculture_forestry:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 raw_material:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_gwh:1 import_gwh:1 gwh_agriculture:1 export_commodity:1 commodity_machinery:1 |
1,943 | History_of_Mozambique | Mozambique was a Portuguese colony, overseas province and then a member state of Portugal. It became independent from Portugal in 1975. Pre-colonial History Mozambique's first inhabitants were the San hunters and gatherers, ancestors of the Khoisani peoples. Between the first and fourth centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking peoples migrated from the north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. The Bantu were farmers and ironworkers. When Vasco da Gama, exploring for Portugal, reached the coast of Mozambique in 1498, Arab trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries, and political control of the coast was in the hands of a string of local sultans. Muslims had actually lived in the region for quite some time; the famous Arab historian and geographer, Al-Masudi, reported Muslims amongst Africans in the land of Sofa in 947 (modern day Mozambique, itself a derivative of the name of the Arab Shiekh who ruled the area at the time when the Portuguese arrived, Musa bin Ba'ik). Zahoor, Akram, Muslim History: 570-1950 C.E. (Gaitherburg, Maryland: 2000), AZP publishing, p79 Most of the local people had embraced Islam. The region lay at the southernmost end of a traditional trading world that encompassed the Red Sea, the Hadhramaut coast of Arabia and the Indian coast, described in the 1st-century coasting guide that is called the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Colonial History From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east. Mozambique first described a small coral island at the mouth of Mossuril Bay, then the fort and town on that island, São Sebastião de Moçambique, and later extended to the whole of the Portuguese colonies on the east coast of Africa. The square fort at the northern extremity of the island was built in 1510 entirely of ballast stone brought from Portugal. With the decline of Portuguese power, especially during the period when the crown of Portugal was combined with the crown of Spain (1580-1640), the Portuguese coastal settlements were ignored and fell into a ruinous condition. Afterwards, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonization of Brazil. Into the 19th century, a system prevailed of dividing the land into prazos (large agricultural estates) which the natives cultivated for the benefit of the European leaseholders, who were also tax-collector for each district and claimed the tax either in labour or produce, a system that kept the sharecropping farmers in a state of serfdom. Direct Portuguese influence was limited. On the coast between several native ports of call and Madagascar a large surreptitious trade in slaves was carried on until 1877, supplying slaves for Arabia and the Ottomans. European traders and prospectors barely penetrated the interior regions, until the Transvaal gold rush. The commercial and political importance of Mozambique was eclipsed by Lourenço Marques. In 1891 the Portuguese shifted the administration of much of the country to a large private company, under a charter granting sovereign rights for 50 years to the Companhia de Moçambique, which, though it had its headquarters at Beira, was controlled and financed mostly by the British. The 'Mozambique Company' issued postage stamps and established railroad lines to neighboring countries. It supplied cheap – and often forced – African labor to the goldmines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. Because policies were designed to benefit white settlers and the Portuguese homeland, little attention was paid to the integration of Mozambique's indigenous population, its economic infrastructure, or the skills of its indigenous rural population. However, the period between the 1920s and the independence in 1975, was marked by a gradual promotion of several economic and social developments in the Portugal-administered territory, which included a great expansion of commercial, industrial, agricultural, educational, transportation, and health care infrastructure, that generated notable growth rates in the entire territory. Teresa Maria da Cruz e Silva, Moçambique: um perfil, Centro de Estudos Sociais (CES), University of Coimbra Guerra Colonial - Economia, guerracolonial.org Independence After World War II, while many European nations were granting independence to their colonies, Portugal's Estado Novo regime headed by António de Oliveira Salazar issued a decree officially renaming Mozambique and other Portuguese possessions as overseas provinces of the mother country, and emigration to the colonies soared (Mozambique's ethnic Portuguese resident population was about 300,000 in 1973, which excludes the Portuguese military sent from the mainland and mulatto population). The drive for Mozambican independence developed apace, and in 1962 several anti-colonial political groups formed the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which initiated an armed campaign against Portuguese colonial rule in September 1964. This conflict, along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies of Angola and Portuguese Guinea, became part of the so-called Portuguese Colonial War. Mozambique became independent after ten years of sporadic warfare in Mozambique and Portugal's return to democracy through a leftist military coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974 (partially as a result of the expenses from the wars in the overseas territories in Africa). FRELIMO took complete control of the territory after a transition period, as agreed in the Lusaka Accord which recognized Mozambique's right to independence and the terms of the transfer of power. Within a year of the Portuguese coup, almost all Portuguese population had left the African territory – some expelled by the new government of independent Mozambique, some fleeing in fear. Mozambique became independent from Portugal on June 25, 1975. Portuguese population's rapid exodus left Mozambique with few skilled human resources. As a result, the Mozambican economy collapsed. Some history texts claim the country was left with fewer than five engineers after June 1975. In any event, as late as 2001, the economic outcome could still be seen in cities like Beira. Once a thriving vacation city on the coast, it is still the second largest city in Mozambique, with a population of 300,000. Many of these people live as squatters in unfinished 1970s era luxury hotels facing the Indian Ocean. FRELIMO responded to their lack of resources and the Cold War politics of the mid-1970s by moving into alignment with the Soviet Union and its allies. FRELIMO established a one-party Socialist state, and quickly received substantial international aid from Cuba and the Soviet bloc nations. Civil War Formed in 1975, the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO), an anti-communist group sponsored by the Rhodesian Intelligence Service, and sponsored by the apartheid government in South Africa as well as the United States after Zimbabwe's independence, launched a series of attacks on transport routes, schools and health clinics, and the country descended into civil war. In 1984, Mozambique negotiated the Nkomati Accord with P. W. Botha and the South African government, in which Mozambique was to expel the African National Congress in exchange for South Africa stopping support of Renamo. At first both sides complied but it soon became evident that infringements were taking place on both sides and the war continued. In 1986, Mozambican President Samora Machel died in an air crash in South African territory. Although unproven, many suspect the South African government of responsibility for his death. Machel was replaced by Joaquim Chissano as president. In 1990, with apartheid crumbling in South Africa, and support for RENAMO drying up in South Africa and in the United States, the first direct talks between the FRELIMO government and Renamo were held. In November 1990 a new constitution was adopted. Mozambique was now a multiparty state, with periodic elections, and guaranteed democratic rights. On 4 October 1992, the Rome General Peace Accords, negotiated by the Community of Sant'Egidio with the support of the United Nations, were signed in Rome between President Chissano and RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama, which formally took effect on the October 15 1992. A UN Peacekeeping Force (ONUMOZ) oversaw a two-year transition to democracy. The last ONUMOZ contingents departed in early 1995. Democracy Mozambique held elections in 1994, which were accepted by most parties as free and fair while still contested by many nationals and observers alike. FRELIMO won, under Joaquim Chissano, while RENAMO, led by Afonso Dhlakama, ran as the official opposition. In 1995, Mozambique joined the Commonwealth of Nations, becoming the only member nation that was never part of the British Empire. By mid-1995, over 1.7 million refugees who had sought asylum in neighboring countries had returned to Mozambique, part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa. An additional four million internally displaced persons had returned to their homes. In December 1999, Mozambique held elections for a second time since the civil war, which were again won by FRELIMO. RENAMO accused FRELIMO of fraud, and threatened to return to civil war, but backed down after taking the matter to the Supreme Court and losing. Indicating in 2001 that he would not run for a third term, Chissano criticized leaders who stayed on longer than he had, which was generally seen as a reference to Zambian president Frederick Chiluba, who at the time was considering a third term, and Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe, then in his fourth term. Presidential and National Assembly elections took place on December 1-2, 2004. FRELIMO candidate Armando Guebuza won with 64% of the popular vote. His opponent, Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO, received 32% of the popular vote. FRELIMO won 160 seats in Parliament. A coalition of RENAMO and several small parties won the 90 remaining seats. Armando Guebuza was inaugurated as the President of Mozambique on February 2, 2005. In early 2000 a cyclone caused widespread flooding in the country, killing hundreds and devastating the already precarious infrastructure. There were widespread suspicions that foreign aid resources have been diverted by powerful leaders of FRELIMO. Carlos Cardoso, a journalist investigating these allegations, was murdered but his death was not satisfactorily explained. Much of the economic recovery which has followed the end of the Mozambican Civil War (1977-1992) is being led by investors and tourists from neighbour South Africa and from East Asia. A number of returning Portuguese nationals have also invested in the country as well as some Italian organizations. However, the country remains as one of the poorest in the world. References External links Background Note: Mozambique History of Mozambique - article with an early 20th Century Catholic viewpoint | History_of_Mozambique |@lemmatized mozambique:28 portuguese:20 colony:6 overseas:3 province:2 member:2 state:6 portugal:9 become:7 independent:4 pre:1 colonial:6 history:5 first:5 inhabitant:1 san:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 ancestor:1 khoisani:1 people:4 fourth:2 century:5 ad:1 wave:1 bantu:2 speaking:1 migrate:1 north:1 zambezi:1 river:1 valley:1 gradually:1 plateau:1 coastal:2 area:2 farmer:2 ironworker:1 vasco:1 da:2 gama:1 explore:1 reach:1 coast:9 arab:3 trading:3 settlement:2 exist:1 along:2 outlying:1 island:4 several:5 political:3 control:3 hand:1 string:1 local:2 sultan:1 muslim:3 actually:1 live:2 region:3 quite:1 time:4 famous:1 historian:1 geographer:1 al:1 masudi:1 report:1 amongst:1 african:7 land:2 sofa:1 modern:1 day:1 derivative:1 name:1 shiekh:1 rule:2 arrive:1 musa:1 bin:1 ba:1 ik:1 zahoor:1 akram:1 c:1 e:2 gaitherburg:1 maryland:1 azp:1 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1,944 | Kalahari_Desert | Kalahari by NASA World Wind The Kalahari Desert (shown in maroon) & Kalahari Basin (orange) Kalahari in Namibia The Kalahari Desert is a large, arid desert area in southwestern Sub-Saharan Africa extending 900,000 km² (225,000 sq. mi.), covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia. It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains. Climate Derived from the Tswana word Kgala, meaning "the great thirst", or Khalagari, Kgalagadi or Kalagare, meaning "a waterless place" Mary Sadler-Altena, "Kalahari: Introduction": Kalahari climate/reserves and history , the Kalahari has vast areas covered by red sand without any permanent surface water. Drainage is by dry valleys, seasonally inundated pans, and the large salt pans of the Makgadikgadi Pan in Botswana and Etosha Pan in Namibia. However, the Kalahari is not a true desert. Parts of the Kalahari receive over 250 mm (9.8") of erratic rainfall annually and are quite well vegetated; it is only truly arid in the southwest with under 175 mm (6.9") of rain annually, making the Kalahari a fossil desert. Summer temperatures in the Kalahari range from 20 to 45°C (68–113°F). The Kalahari Desert was once a much wetter place. The ancient Lake Makgadikgadi dominated the area, covering the Makgadikgadi Pan and other areas, until its final drainage some 10,000 years ago. It may have once covered as much as 275,000 km² and was approximately 30 m deep. Ecology Despite its aridity, the Kalahari supports a variety of fauna and flora. The native flora includes acacia trees and many other herbs and grasses. Martin Leipold, Plants of the Kalahari Some of the areas within the Kalahari are seasonal wetlands, such as the Makgadikgadi Pans of Botswana. This area, for example, supports numerous halophilic species, and in the rainy season, tens of thousands of flamingos visit these pans. C. Michael Hogan (2008) Makgadikgadi, Megalithic Portal, ed. A.Burnham Game reserves A meerkat in the Kalahari The endangered African Wild Dog in CKGR The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffes, warthogs, jackals, several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of birds and reptiles. Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias, but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon, or Tsamma melon). Camel rides flourish when it rains Population The San people, or Bushmen, have lived in the Kalahari for 20,000 years as hunter-gatherers. That means they survive by hunting wild game with bows and arrows and gathering edible plants, such as berries, melons and nuts, as well as insects. Bushmen rarely drink water; they get most of their water requirements from plant roots and desert melons found on or under the desert floor. They often store water in the blown-out shells of ostrich eggs. The San have their own characteristic language that includes clicking sounds. These Bushmen live in huts built from local materials—the frame is made of branches, and the roof is thatched with long grass. The Bantu-speaking Tswana, Kgalagadi, and Herero and a small number of European settlers also live in the Kalahari. Settlements within the Kalahari Botswana Ghanzi Tshane Tshabong Orapa Namibia Gobabis Mariental South Africa Rietfontein Noenieput Severn The Kalahari desert in popular culture A Far Off Place, film, starring Reese Witherspoon and Ethan Randall, based on the books A Story Like the Wind and A Far Off Place by Laurens Van Der Post The Gods Must Be Crazy, film Meerkat Manor, television series documenting the Kalahari Meerkat Project Survivorman, survival television series Top Gear, British television series, featuring an episode following a desert challenge in which Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond, and James May attempt to drive three old cars across Botswana, including the Kalahari Desert The Power of the Sword, novel by Wilbur Smith "Lions of the Kalahari", song by Sam Roberts The Lost World of The Kalahari, novel by Laurens van der Post See also De Beers Morokweng crater List of deserts by area Meerkat Manor Notes External links "Cry of the Kalahari" Dream an electronic dream of the Kalahari Kalahari desert's forgotten influence on carbon levels Kalahari Desert Tours and Safaris ''''' == | Kalahari_Desert |@lemmatized kalahari:32 nasa:1 world:3 wind:2 desert:14 show:1 maroon:1 basin:1 orange:1 namibia:4 large:3 arid:2 area:8 southwestern:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:2 extend:1 sq:1 mi:1 cover:4 much:3 botswana:5 part:2 huge:1 tract:1 excellent:1 grazing:1 good:1 rain:3 climate:2 derive:1 tswana:2 word:1 kgala:1 mean:3 great:1 thirst:1 khalagari:1 kgalagadi:3 kalagare:1 waterless:1 place:4 mary:1 sadler:1 altena:1 introduction:1 reserve:5 history:1 vast:1 red:1 sand:1 without:1 permanent:1 surface:1 water:4 drainage:2 dry:1 valley:1 seasonally:1 inundated:1 pan:7 salt:1 makgadikgadi:5 etosha:1 however:1 true:1 receive:1 mm:2 erratic:1 rainfall:1 annually:2 quite:1 well:2 vegetate:1 truly:1 southwest:1 make:2 fossil:1 summer:1 temperature:1 range:1 c:2 f:1 wet:1 ancient:1 lake:1 dominate:1 final:1 year:2 ago:1 may:2 approximately:1 deep:1 ecology:1 despite:1 aridity:1 support:2 variety:1 fauna:1 flora:2 native:1 include:6 acacia:2 tree:1 many:2 herb:1 grass:3 martin:1 leipold:1 plant:4 within:2 seasonal:1 wetland:1 example:1 numerous:1 halophilic:1 specie:4 rainy:1 season:1 ten:1 thousand:1 flamingos:1 visit:1 michael:1 hogan:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 ed:1 burnham:1 game:5 meerkat:5 endanger:1 african:1 wild:3 dog:1 ckgr:2 number:2 central:1 second:1 protect:1 khutse:1 transfrontier:1 park:1 animal:1 live:4 region:1 brown:1 hyena:1 lion:2 giraffe:1 warthog:1 jackal:1 several:1 antelope:1 eland:1 gemsbok:1 springbok:1 hartebeest:1 steenbok:1 kudu:1 duiker:1 bird:1 reptile:1 vegetation:1 consist:1 mainly:1 identified:1 present:1 watermelon:1 tsamma:1 melon:3 camel:1 ride:1 flourish:1 population:1 san:2 people:1 bushman:3 hunter:1 gatherer:1 survive:1 hunt:1 bow:1 arrow:1 gather:1 edible:1 berry:1 nut:1 insect:1 rarely:1 drink:1 get:1 requirement:1 root:1 find:1 floor:1 often:1 store:1 blown:1 shell:1 ostrich:1 egg:1 characteristic:1 language:1 click:1 sound:1 hut:1 build:1 local:1 material:1 frame:1 branch:1 roof:1 thatch:1 long:1 bantu:1 speaking:1 herero:1 small:1 european:1 settler:1 also:2 settlement:1 ghanzi:1 tshane:1 tshabong:1 orapa:1 gobabis:1 mariental:1 south:1 rietfontein:1 noenieput:1 severn:1 popular:1 culture:1 far:2 film:2 star:1 reese:1 witherspoon:1 ethan:1 randall:1 base:1 book:1 story:1 like:1 laurens:2 van:2 der:2 post:2 god:1 must:1 crazy:1 manor:2 television:3 series:3 document:1 project:1 survivorman:1 survival:1 top:1 gear:1 british:1 feature:1 episode:1 follow:1 challenge:1 jeremy:1 clarkson:1 richard:1 hammond:1 james:1 attempt:1 drive:1 three:1 old:1 car:1 across:1 power:1 sword:1 novel:2 wilbur:1 smith:1 song:1 sam:1 roberts:1 lost:1 see:1 de:1 beer:1 morokweng:1 crater:1 list:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 cry:1 dream:2 electronic:1 forgotten:1 influence:1 carbon:1 level:1 tour:1 safaris:1 |@bigram kalahari_desert:7 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 sq_mi:1 makgadikgadi_pan:3 erratic_rainfall:1 fauna_flora:1 rainy_season:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 hunter_gatherer:1 bow_arrow:1 ostrich_egg:1 bantu_speaking:1 van_der:2 jeremy_clarkson:1 external_link:1 |
1,945 | Flood_fill | recursive flood-fill with 4 directions Flood fill, also called seed fill, is an algorithm that determines the area connected to a given node in a multi-dimensional array. It is used in the "bucket" fill tool of paint programs to determine which parts of a bitmap to fill with color, and in puzzle games such as Minesweeper, Puyo Puyo, Lumines, Samegame and Magical Drop for determining which pieces are cleared. When applied on an image to fill a particular bounded area with color, it is also known as Boundary fill. The algorithm recursive flood-fill with 8 directions The flood fill algorithm takes three parameters: a start node, a target color, and a replacement color. The algorithm looks for all nodes in the array which are connected to the start node by a path of the target color, and changes them to the replacement color. There are many ways in which the flood-fill algorithm can be structured, but they all make use of a queue or stack data structure, explicitly or implicitly. One implicitly stack-based (recursive) flood-fill implementation (for a two-dimensional array) goes as follows: Flood-fill (node, target-color, replacement-color): 1. If the color of node is not equal to target-color, return. 2. If the color of node is equal to replacement-color, return. 3. Set the color of node to replacement-color. 4. Perform Flood-fill (one step to the west of node, target-color, replacement-color). Perform Flood-fill (one step to the east of node, target-color, replacement-color). Perform Flood-fill (one step to the north of node, target-color, replacement-color). Perform Flood-fill (one step to the south of node, target-color, replacement-color). 5. Return. Alternative implementations Though easy to understand, the implementation of the algorithm used above is impractical in languages and environments where stack space is severely constrained (e.g. Java applets). An explicitly queue-based implementation is shown in the pseudo-code below. This implementation is not very efficient, but can be coded quickly, does not use a stack, and it is easy to debug: Flood-fill (node, target-color, replacement-color): 1. Set Q to the empty queue. 2. If the color of node is not equal to target-color, return. 3. Add node to the end of Q. 4. While Q is not empty: 5. Set n equal to the first element of Q 6. If the color of n is equal to target-color, set the color of n to replacement-color. 7. Remove first element from Q 8. If the color of the node to the west of n is target-color, set the color of that node to replacement-color, add that node to the end of Q. 9. If the color of the node to the east of n is target-color, set the color of that node to replacement-color, add that node to the end of Q. 10. If the color of the node to the north of n is target-color, set the color of that node to replacement-color, add that node to the end of Q. 11. If the color of the node to the south of n is target-color, set the color of that node to replacement-color, add that node to the end of Q. 12. Return. Most practical implementations use a loop for the west and east directions as an optimization to avoid the overhead of stack or queue management: Flood-fill (node, target-color, replacement-color): 1. Set Q to the empty queue. 2. If the color of node is not equal to target-color, return. 3. Add node to Q. 4. For each element n of Q: 5. If the color of n is equal to target-color: 6. Set w and e equal to n. 7. Move w to the west until the color of the node to the west of w no longer matches target-color. 8. Move e to the east until the color of the node to the east of e no longer matches target-color. 9. Set the color of nodes between w and e to replacement-color. 10. For each node n between w and e: 11. If the color of the node to the north of n is target-color, add that node to Q. If the color of the node to the south of n is target-color, add that node to Q. 12. Continue looping until Q is exhausted. 13. Return. Adapting the algorithm to use an additional array to store the shape of the region allows generalization to cover "fuzzy" flood filling, where an element can differ by up to a specified threshold from the source symbol. Using this additional array as an alpha channel allows the edges of the filled region to blend somewhat smoothly with the not-filled region. Fixed memory method (right-hand fill method) A method exists that uses essentially no memory for four-connected regions by pretending to be a painter trying to paint the region without painting themselves into a corner. This is also a method for solving mazes. The four pixels making the primary boundary are examined to see what action should be taken. The painter could find themselves in one of several conditions: 1. All four boundary pixels are filled. 2. Three of the boundary pixels are filled. 3. Two of the boundary pixels are filled. 4. One boundary pixel is filled. 5. Zero boundary pixels are filled. Where a path or boundary is to be followed, the right-hand rule is used. The painter follows the region by placing their right-hand on the wall (the boundary of the region) and progressing around the edge of the region without removing their hand. For case #1, the painter paints (fills) the pixel the painter is standing upon and stops the algorithm. For case #2, a path leading out of the area exists. Paint the pixel the painter is standing upon and move in the direction of the open path. For case #3, the two boundary pixels define a path which, if we painted the current pixel, may block us from ever getting back to the other side of the path. We need a "mark" to define where we are and which direction we are heading to see if we ever get back to this exact same pixel. If we already created such a "mark", then we preserve our previous mark and move to the next pixel following the right-hand rule. A mark is used for the first 2-pixel boundary that is encountered to remember where the passage started and in what direction the painter was moving. If the mark is encountered again and the painter is traveling in the same direction, then the painter knows that it is safe to paint the square with the mark and to continue in the same direction. This is because (through some unknown path) the pixels on the other side of the mark can be reached and painted in the future. The mark is removed for future use. If the painter encounters the mark but is going in a different direction, then some sort of loop has occurred which caused the painter to return to the mark. This loop must be eliminated. The mark is picked up and the painter then proceeds in the direction indicated previously by the mark using a left-hand rule for the boundary (similar to the right-hand rule but using the painter's left hand). This continues until an intersection is found (with three or more open boundary pixels). Still using the left-hand rule the painter now searches for a simple passage (made by two boundary pixels). Upon finding this two-pixel boundary path, that pixel is painted. This breaks the loop and allows the algorithm to continue. For case #4, we need to check the opposite 8-connected corners to see if they are filled or not. If either or both are filled, then this creates a many-path intersection and cannot be filled. If both are empty, then the current pixel can be painted and the painter can move following the right-hand rule. The algorithm trades time for memory. For simple shapes it is very efficient. However, if the shape is complex with many features, the algorithm spends a large amount of time tracing the edges of the region trying to ensure that all can be painted. This algorithm was first available commercially in 1981 on a Vicom Image Processing system manufactured by Vicom Systems, Inc. The classic recursive flood fill algorithm was also available on this system as well. Scanline fill The algorithm can be sped up by filling lines. Instead of pushing each potential future pixel coordinate into the stack, it inspects the neighbour lines (previous and next) to find adjacent segments that may be filled in a future pass; the coordinates (either the start or the end) of the line segment are pushed on the stack. In most cases this scanline algorithm is at least an order of magnitude faster than the per-pixel one. Vector implementations Version 0.46 of Inkscape includes a bucket fill tool, giving output similar to ordinary bitmap operations and indeed using one: the canvas is rendered, a flood fill operation is performed on the selected area and the result is then traced back to a path. It uses the concept of a boundary condition. Large scale behaviour 4-way floodfill using a queue for storage 4-way floodfill using a stack for storage Most floodfill applications use a queue as their internal pixel store; this yields an expanding lozenge-shaped fill. Some applications (particularly older 8-bit computer games) instead use a stack as the store - this exhibits a characteristic "leave gaps and then return to fill them later" behaviour. See also Connected Component Labeling Dijkstra's algorithm External links Sample implementations for recursive and non-recursive, classic and scanline flood fill, by Lode Vandevenn. C implementation of Flood/Seed Fill Algorithm from Graphics Gems; BSD(ish) license, by Paul Heckbert. Flash flood fill implementation, by Emanuele Feronato. QuickFill: An efficient flood fill algorithm., by John R. Shaw. | Flood_fill |@lemmatized recursive:6 flood:20 fill:41 direction:10 also:5 call:1 seed:2 algorithm:18 determine:3 area:4 connect:5 give:2 node:38 multi:1 dimensional:2 array:5 use:20 bucket:2 tool:2 paint:11 program:1 part:1 bitmap:2 color:62 puzzle:1 game:2 minesweeper:1 puyo:2 lumines:1 samegame:1 magical:1 drop:1 piece:1 clear:1 apply:1 image:2 particular:1 bounded:1 know:2 boundary:16 take:2 three:3 parameter:1 start:4 target:22 replacement:17 look:1 path:10 change:1 many:3 way:3 structure:2 make:3 queue:7 stack:9 data:1 explicitly:2 implicitly:2 one:9 base:2 implementation:10 two:5 go:2 follow:5 equal:8 return:9 set:11 perform:5 step:4 west:5 east:5 north:3 south:3 alternative:1 though:1 easy:2 understand:1 impractical:1 language:1 environment:1 space:1 severely:1 constrain:1 e:6 g:1 java:1 applet:1 show:1 pseudo:1 code:1 efficient:3 cod:1 quickly:1 debug:1 q:15 empty:4 add:8 end:6 n:13 first:4 element:4 remove:3 practical:1 loop:5 optimization:1 avoid:1 overhead:1 management:1 w:5 move:6 longer:2 match:2 continue:4 exhaust:1 adapt:1 additional:2 store:3 shape:4 region:9 allow:3 generalization:1 cover:1 fuzzy:1 filling:1 differ:1 specify:1 threshold:1 source:1 symbol:1 alpha:1 channel:1 edge:3 filled:1 blend:1 somewhat:1 smoothly:1 fix:1 memory:3 method:4 right:6 hand:10 exist:2 essentially:1 four:3 pretend:1 painter:15 try:2 without:2 corner:2 solve:1 maze:1 pixel:22 primary:1 examine:1 see:4 action:1 could:1 find:4 several:1 condition:2 zero:1 rule:6 place:1 wall:1 progress:1 around:1 case:5 stand:2 upon:3 stop:1 lead:1 open:2 define:2 current:2 may:2 block:1 u:1 ever:2 get:2 back:3 side:2 need:2 mark:12 head:1 exact:1 already:1 create:2 preserve:1 previous:2 next:2 encounter:3 remember:1 passage:2 travel:1 safe:1 square:1 unknown:1 reach:1 future:4 different:1 sort:1 occur:1 cause:1 must:1 eliminate:1 pick:1 proceed:1 indicate:1 previously:1 left:2 similar:2 leave:2 intersection:2 still:1 search:1 simple:2 break:1 check:1 opposite:1 either:2 cannot:1 trade:1 time:2 however:1 complex:1 feature:1 spend:1 large:2 amount:1 trace:2 ensure:1 available:2 commercially:1 vicom:2 processing:1 system:3 manufacture:1 inc:1 classic:2 well:1 scanline:3 speed:1 line:3 instead:2 push:2 potential:1 coordinate:2 inspect:1 neighbour:1 adjacent:1 segment:2 pas:1 least:1 order:1 magnitude:1 faster:1 per:1 vector:1 version:1 inkscape:1 include:1 output:1 ordinary:1 operation:2 indeed:1 canvas:1 render:1 select:1 result:1 concept:1 scale:1 behaviour:2 floodfill:3 storage:2 application:2 internal:1 yield:1 expand:1 lozenge:1 particularly:1 old:1 bit:1 computer:1 exhibit:1 characteristic:1 gap:1 later:1 component:1 label:1 dijkstra:1 external:1 link:1 sample:1 non:1 lode:1 vandevenn:1 c:1 graphic:1 gem:1 bsd:1 ish:1 license:1 paul:1 heckbert:1 flash:1 emanuele:1 feronato:1 quickfill:1 john:1 r:1 shaw:1 |@bigram explicitly_implicitly:1 java_applet:1 stack_queue:1 external_link:1 |
1,946 | George_Fox | George Fox (July 1624 – 13 January 1691) was an English Dissenter and a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends. The son of a weaver from rural England, Fox was apprenticed to a cobbler. Living in a time of great social upheaval and war, he rebelled against the religious and political consensus by proposing an unusual and uncompromising approach to the Christian faith. Abandoning his trade, he toured Britain as a dissenting preacher, for which he was often persecuted by the authorities who disapproved of his beliefs. Fox married Margaret Fell, the widow of one of his wealthier supporters; she was a leading Friend. His ministry expanded and he undertook tours of North America, and the Low Countries, between which he was imprisoned for over a year. He spent the final decade of his life working in London to organize the expanding Quaker movement. Though his movement attracted disdain from some, others such as William Penn and Oliver Cromwell viewed Fox with respect. His journal, first published after his death, is known even among non-Quakers for its vivid account of his personal journey. Early life Memorial to Fox's birthplace, situated on George Fox Lane in Fenny Drayton, England George Fox was born in the strongly puritan village of Drayton-in-the-Clay, Leicestershire, England (now known as Fenny Drayton), 15 miles (24 km) west-south-west of Leicester. He was the eldest of four children of Christopher Fox, a successful weaver, called "Righteous Christer" Fox in Nickalls, p.1 by his neighbours, and his wife, Mary née Lago. Christopher Fox was a churchwarden and was relatively wealthy; when he died in the late 1650s he was able to leave his son a substantial legacy. Ingle (2004) From childhood, Fox was of a serious, religious disposition. There is no record of any formal schooling but he learned to read and write. "When I came to eleven years of age," he said, "I knew pureness and righteousness; for, while I was a child, I was taught how to walk to be kept pure. The Lord taught me to be faithful, in all things, and to act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and outwardly to man." Fox in Nickalls, p.1–2 and Jones, chapter 1 As he grew up, his relatives "thought to have made me a priest" but he was instead apprenticed to a local shoemaker and grazier, George Gee of Mancetter. Nickalls, p.2 and Ingle (2004) This suited his contemplative temperament, and he became well-known for his diligence among the wool traders who had dealings with his master. A constant obsession for Fox was the pursuit of "simplicity" in life, meaning humility and the abandonment of luxury, and the short time he spent as a shepherd was important to the formation of this view. Toward the end of his life, he wrote a letter for general circulation pointing out that Abel, Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Moses and David were all keepers of sheep or cattle, and that a learned education should not therefore be seen as a qualification for ministry. Marsh 1847, p. 364 George Fox knew people who were "professors" (followers of the standard religion), but by the age of nineteen he had begun to look down on their behaviour, in particular their drinking of alcohol. He records that in prayer one night, after leaving two acquaintances at a drinking session, he heard an inner voice saying, "Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; thou must forsake all, young and old, keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all." Fox in Nickalls, p.3 and Jones, chapter 1 First travels For this reason, Fox left Drayton-in-the-Clay in September 1643, moving toward London in a state of mental torment and confusion. The English Civil War had begun and troops were stationed in many of the towns through which he passed. While in Barnet, where he was torn by depression (perhaps from the temptations of this resort town near London), Fox would alternately shut himself in his room for days at a time, or go out alone into the countryside. After almost a year, he returned to Drayton, where he engaged Nathaniel Stephens, the clergyman of his hometown, in long discussions on religious matters. Fox in Nickalls, p.5 Stephens considered Fox a gifted young man, but the two disagreed on so many issues that he later called Fox mad and spoke against him. Fox in Nickalls, p.48 Over the next few years, Fox continued to travel around the country as his particular religious beliefs took shape. At times, he actively sought the company of clergy, but found no comfort from them, as they too seemed unable to help with the matters that were troubling him. One clergyman in Warwickshire advised him to take tobacco (which Fox disliked) and sing psalms; another, in Coventry, lost his temper when Fox accidentally stood on a flower in his garden; a third suggested bloodletting. Fox in Nickalls, pp.5–6 He became fascinated by the Bible, which he studied assiduously. Fox in e.g. Nickalls, p.9 Unique beliefs begin to form Fox had more than a little experience among "English Dissenters", groups of people who had broken away from practices of the state church because of their divergent beliefs. He had hoped that the dissenters would help his spiritual understanding, as those in the established church could not, but they did not: he fell out with one group, for example, because he maintained that women had souls. Fox in Nickalls, pp.8–9, 11 From this comes the passage from his journal: But as I had forsaken the priests, so I left the separate preachers also, and those esteemed the most experienced people; for I saw there was none among them all that could speak to my condition. And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor could tell what to do, then, oh, then, I heard a voice which said, "There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition"; and when I heard it my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give Him all the glory; for all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence who enlightens, and gives grace, and faith, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let hinder or prevent it? And this I knew experimentally. Quaker Faith and Practice §19.02 Fox in Nickalls, p.11 A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London He thought intensely about Jesus's temptation in the desert, which he compared to his own spiritual condition, but drew strength from his conviction that God would support and preserve him. Fox in Nickalls, p.12 In prayer and meditation, he came to a greater understanding of the nature of his faith and what it required from him; this process he called "opening". He also came to what he deemed a deep inner understanding of standard Christian beliefs. Among his ideas were: Rituals can be safely ignored, as long as one experiences a true spiritual conversion. The qualification for ministry is given by the Holy Spirit, not by ecclesiastical study. This implies that anyone has the right to minister, assuming the Spirit guides them, including women and children. God "dwelleth in the hearts of his obedient people": religious experience is not confined to a church building. Indeed, Fox refused to apply the word "church" to a building, using instead the name "steeple-house", a usage maintained by many Quakers today. Fox would just as soon worship in fields and orchards, believing that God's presence could be felt anywhere. Fox in e.g. Nickalls, pp.8, 24, 40, 85, 126 Though Fox used the Bible to support his views, Fox reasoned that, because God was within the faithful, believers could follow their own inner guide rather than rely on a strict reading of Scripture or the word of clerics. See e.g. Fox in Nickalls, pp.145, 159 As the Bible makes no mention of the Trinity, Fox also made no clear distinction between Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Religious Society of Friends takes shape In 1647, Fox began to preach publicly: Fox in Nickalls, pp.18–19 in market-places, in fields, in appointed meetings of various kinds, or even sometimes in "steeple-houses" after the priests had finished. His preaching was powerful, and he began to attract a minority following. It is not clear at what point the Society of Friends was formed but there was certainly a group of people who often travelled together. At first, they called themselves "Children of the Light" or "Friends of the Truth", and later simply "Friends". Fox seems, however, to have had no desire to found a sect, but only to proclaim what he saw as the pure and genuine principles of Christianity in their original simplicity—though he afterward showed great prowess as a religious legislator, in the organization which he gave to the new society. At the time, there were a great many rival Christian denominations holding very diverse opinions; the atmosphere of dispute and confusion gave Fox an opportunity to put forward his own beliefs through his personal sermons. Fox's preaching was grounded in scripture, but was mainly effective because of the intense personal experience he was able to project. He was scathing about contemporary immorality, especially deceit and the exacting of tithes, and urged his listeners to lead lives without sin Fox in e.g. Nickalls, p.91 —avoiding the Ranter (or Antinomian) view that all acts of a believer became automatically sinless. By 1651 he had gathered other talented preachers around him, and continued to roam the country seeking out new converts. They continued to do this despite a harsh reception from some listeners, who would whip and beat them to drive them away. See e.g. Fox in Nickalls, pp.44, 48, 97–98, 120, 127–131 The worship of Friends, in the form of silent waiting, seems to have been well-established by this time, Fox in Nickalls, p.79 though it is not recorded how this came to be. An interest in social justice was slowly developing, marked by Fox's complaints to judges about decisions he considered morally wrong—for example, his letter on the case of a woman due to be executed for theft. Fox in Nickalls, p.66 Oppression by the powerful was a very real concern for the English people, in the turmoil of the English Civil War following the reign of Charles I (executed in 1649) and the beginnings of the Commonwealth of England. He campaigned against the paying of tithes, which funded the established church and often went into the pockets of absentee landlords or religious colleges far away from the paying parishioners. In his view, as God was everywhere and anyone could preach, the established church was unnecessary and a university qualification irrelevant for a preacher. Fox's conflict with civil authority was inevitable. Imprisonment Fox was imprisoned several times, the first at Nottingham in 1649. Fox in Nickalls, pp.40–43 At Derby in 1650 he was imprisoned for blasphemy; a judge mocked Fox's exhortation to "tremble at the word of the Lord", calling him and his followers "Quakers"—now the common name of the Society of Friends. Fox in Nickalls, pp.52–58 and Jones, chapter 4 He suffered harsh treatment in prison; following his refusal to fight against the return of the monarchy (or indeed to take up arms for any reason), his sentence was doubled. Fox in Nickalls, pp.64–65 The beginnings of persecution forced Fox to develop his position on oaths and violence. Previously implicit in his teaching, the refusal to swear or take up arms came to be a much more important part of his public statements: he was determined that neither he nor his followers would give in under pressure. In a letter of 1652 (That which is set up by the sword), he urged Friends not to use "carnal weapons" but "spiritual weapons", saying "let the waves [the power of nations] break over your heads". In June 1652, Fox felt that God led him to walk up Pendle Hill. There he had a vision of many souls coming to Christ. From there he travelled to Sedbergh in Westmorland, where he heard a group of Seekers were meeting. He preached to a meeting of over a thousand people on the nearby Firbank Fell and convinced many, including Francis Howgill, to accept his teachings on Christ being able to speak to people directly. Nickalls, pp.103–108 At the end of the month he stayed at Swarthmoor Hall, near Ulverston, the home of Thomas Fell, vice-chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and his wife, Margaret. Margaret became a Quaker, and although Thomas Fell himself did not convert, his familiarity with the Friends proved influential when Fox was arrested for blasphemy in October. Fell was one of three presiding judges and had the charges dismissed on a legal technicality. At around this time the ad hoc meetings of the Friends began to be formalized, and a monthly meeting was set up in County Durham. Fox remained at Swarthmoor until summer 1653, when he left for Carlisle, where he was arrested again for blasphemy; it was even proposed to put him to death, but Parliament requested his release rather than have "a young man … die for religion". Fox in Nickalls, pp.159–164 and Jones, chapter 7 Further imprisonments came at London in 1654, Launceston in 1656, Lancaster in 1660, Leicester in 1662, Lancaster and Scarborough in 1664–66, and Worcester in 1673–75. The various charges included causing a disturbance and travelling without a pass. Quakers fell foul of laws forbidding unauthorized worship, though these were very irregularly enforced. Actions motivated by belief in social equality—refusing to use or acknowledge titles, take hats off in court or bow to those who considered themselves socially superior—were seen as disrespectful. Fox in e.g. Nickalls, pp.36–37, 243–244 Refusal to take oaths meant that Quakers could be prosecuted under laws compelling subjects to pledge allegiance, as well as making testifying in court problematic. While imprisoned at Launceston, Fox wrote, "Christ our Lord and master saith. 'Swear not at all, but let your communications be yea, yea, and nay, nay, for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil.' ... the Apostle James saith, 'My brethren, above all things swear not, neither by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other oath. Lest ye fall into condemnation.'" Fox in e.g. Nickalls, pp.244–245 Even in prison, George Fox continued writing and preaching. He felt that a benefit of being imprisoned was that it brought him into contact with people who needed his help—the jailers as well as his fellow prisoners. He also sought to set an example by his actions there, turning the other cheek when being beaten and refusing to show his captors any dejected feelings. Encounters with Oliver Cromwell Cromwell was sympathetic to Fox and almost agreed to follow his teaching—but persecution of Quakers continued. The Commonwealth grew suspicious of monarchist plots, and fearful that the group travelling with Fox aimed to overthrow the government—by this time, his meetings were regularly attracting crowds of over a thousand. In early 1655, he was arrested at Whetstone, Leicestershire and taken to London under armed guard. In March Ingle (2004) says 9 March; Nickalls, p.199 says 6 March. he was brought before the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. After affirming that he had no intention of taking up arms, Fox was able to speak with Cromwell for most of the morning about the differences between Friends and members of the traditional denominations, and advised him to listen to God's voice and obey it. He records that on leaving, Cromwell "with tears in his eyes said, 'Come again to my house; for if thou and I were but an hour of a day together, we should be nearer one to the other'; adding that he wished [Fox] no more ill than he did to his own soul." Fox was at liberty again. Fox in Jones, chapter 8 and Nickalls, p.199 This episode was later recalled as an example of "speaking truth to power", a preaching technique by which subsequent Quakers hoped to influence the powerful. Tolles, Frederick Barnes (1956). The Ward Lecture 1956: Quakerism and Politics. Quaker Pamphlets. Although not used until the 20th century, the phrase is related to the ideas of plain speech and simplicity which Fox practiced, but motivated by the more worldly goal of eradicating war, injustice and oppression. Fox petitioned Cromwell over the course of 1656, asking him to alleviate the persecution of Quakers. Fox in Nickalls, pp.220–221, 254 Later that year, they met for a second time at Whitehall. On a personal level, the meeting went well; despite disagreements between the two men, they had a certain rapport. Fox felt moved to invite Cromwell to "lay down his crown at the feet of Jesus"—which, however, Cromwell declined to do. Fox in Nickalls, p.274 and Jones, chapter 10 Fox met Cromwell again twice in March 1657. Fox in Nickalls, p.289 Their last meeting was in 1658 at Hampton Court, though they could not speak for long or meet again because of the Protector's worsening illness—Fox even wrote that "he looked like a dead man". Fox in Jones, chapter 12 and Nickalls, p.350 Cromwell died in September of that year. James Nayler One early Quaker convert, the Yorkshireman James Nayler, arose as a prominent preacher in London around 1655. A breach began to form between Fox's and Nayler's followers. As Fox was held prisoner at Launceston, Nayler moved south-westwards towards Launceston intending to meet Fox and heal any rift. On the way he was arrested himself and held at Exeter. After Fox was released from Launceston gaol in 1656, he preached throughout the West Country. Arriving at Exeter late in September, Fox was reunited with Nayler. Nayler and his followers refused to remove their hats while Fox prayed, which Fox took as both a personal slight and a bad example. When Nayler refused to kiss Fox's hand, Fox told Nayler to kiss his foot instead. Nayler was offended and the two parted acrimoniously. Fox wrote, "there was now a wicked spirit risen amongst Friends". Ingle (2004) and Fox in Nickalls, p.268 After Nayler's own release later the same year he rode into Bristol triumphantly playing the part of Jesus Christ in a re-enactment of Palm Sunday. He was arrested and taken to London, where Parliament defeated a motion to execute him by 96–82. Instead, they ordered that he be pilloried and whipped through both London and Bristol, branded on his forehead with the letter B (for blasphemer), bored through the tongue with a red-hot iron and imprisoned in solitary confinement with hard labour. Jones, footnote 125, chapter 10 Nayler was released in 1659, but he was a broken man. On meeting Fox in London, he fell to his knees and begged Fox's forgiveness. Shortly afterward, Nayler was attacked by thieves while travelling home to his family, and died. Suffering and growth 19th century engraving of George Fox, based on a painting of unknown date The persecutions of these years—with about a thousand Friends in prison by 1657—hardened George Fox's opinions of traditional religious and social practices. In his preaching, he often emphasized the Quaker rejection of baptism by water; this was a useful way of highlighting how the focus of Friends on inward transformation differed from what he saw as the superstition of outward ritual. It was also deliberately provocative to adherents of those practices, providing opportunities for Fox to argue with them on matters of scripture. This pattern was also found in his court appearances: when a judge challenged him to remove his hat, Fox riposted by asking where in the Bible such an injunction could be found. The Society of Friends became increasingly organized towards the end of the decade. Large meetings were held, including a three-day event in Bedfordshire, the precursor of the present Britain Yearly Meeting system. Fox in Nickalls, p.339 Fox commissioned two Friends to travel around the country collecting the testimonies of imprisoned Quakers, as evidence of their persecution; this led to the establishment in 1675 of Meeting for Sufferings, which has continued to the present day. Quaker Faith and Practice §7 The 1650s, when the Friends were most confrontational, was one of the most creative periods of their history. During the Commonwealth, Fox had hoped that the movement would become the major church in England. Disagreements, persecution and increasing social turmoil, however, led Fox to suffer from a severe depression, which left him deeply troubled at Reading for ten weeks in 1658 or 1659. Nickalls, pp.353–355 and Ingle (2004) In 1659, he sent parliament his most politically radical pamphlet, Fifty nine Particulars laid down for the Regulating things, but the year was so chaotic that it never considered them; the document was not reprinted until the 21st century. The Restoration With the restoration of the monarchy, Fox's dreams of establishing the Friends as the dominant religion seemed at an end. He was again accused of conspiracy, this time against Charles II, and fanaticism—a charge he resented. He was imprisoned in Lancaster for five months, during which he wrote to the king offering advice on governance: Charles should refrain from war and domestic religious persecution, and discourage oath-taking, plays, and maypole games. These last suggestions reveal Fox's Puritan leanings, which continued to influence Quakers for centuries after his death. Once again, Fox was released after demonstrating that he had no military ambitions. At least on one point, Charles listened to Fox. The seven hundred Quakers who had been imprisoned under Richard Cromwell were released, though the government remained uncertain about the group's links with other, more violent, movements. A revolt by the Fifth Monarchists in January 1661 led to the suppression of that sect and the repression of other nonconformists, including Quakers. Fox in Nickalls, pp.394–395 and Jones, chapter 14 In the aftermath of this attempted coup, Fox and eleven other Quakers issued a broadside proclaiming what became known among Friends in the 20th century as the "peace testimony": they committed themselves to oppose all outward wars and strife as contrary to the will of God. Not all his followers accepted this statement; Isaac Penington, for example, dissented for a time arguing that the state had a duty to protect the innocent from evil, if necessary by using military force. Despite the testimony, persecution against Quakers and other dissenters continued. Penington and others, such as John Perrot and John Pennyman, were uneasy at Fox's increasing power within the movement. Like Nayler before them, they saw no reason why men should remove their hats for prayer, arguing that men and women should be treated as equals and if, as according to the apostle Paul, women should cover their heads, then so could men. Perrot and Penington lost the argument. Perrot emigrated to the New World, and Fox retained leadership of the movement. Parliament enacted laws which forbade non-Anglican religious meetings of more than five people, essentially making Quaker meetings illegal. Fox counseled his followers to openly violate laws that attempted to suppress the movement, and many Friends, including women and children, were jailed over the next two and a half decades. Meanwhile, Quakers in New England had been banished (and some executed), and Charles was advised by his councillors to issue a mandamus condemning this practice and allowing them to return. Fox in Nickalls, pp.411–414 Fox was able to meet some of the New England Friends when they came to London, stimulating his interest in the colonies. Fox was unable to travel there immediately: he was imprisoned again in 1664 for his refusal to swear the oath of allegiance, and on his release in 1666 was preoccupied with organizational matters—he normalized the system of monthly and quarterly meetings throughout the country, and extended it to Ireland. Visiting Ireland also gave him the opportunity to preach against what he saw as the excesses of the Roman Catholic Church, in particular the use of ritual. More recent Quaker commentators have noted points of contact between the denominations: both claim the actual presence of God in their meetings, and both allow the collective opinion of the church to augment Biblical teaching. Fox, however, did not perceive this, brought up as he was in a wholly Protestant environment hostile to "Popery". Fox married Margaret Fell of Swarthmoor Hall, a lady of high social position and one of his early converts, on 27 October 1669 at a meeting in Bristol. She was ten years his senior and had eight children (all but one of them Quakers) by her first husband, Thomas Fell, who had died in 1658. She was herself very active in the movement, and had campaigned for equality and the acceptance of women as preachers. As there were no priests at Quaker weddings to perform the ceremony, the union took the form of a civil marriage approved by the principals and the witnesses at a meeting. Ten days after the marriage, Margaret returned to Swarthmoor to continue her work there while George went back to London. Margaret wrote in her testimony, published in Ellwood's 1694 edition of Fox's journal, "we were very willing, both of us, to live apart for some years upon God's account and his Truth's service, and to deny ourselves of that comfort which we might have had in being together, for the sake and service of the Lord and his Truth. And if any took occasion, or judged hard of us because of that, the Lord will judge them; for we were innocent." Their shared religious work was at the heart of their life together, and they later collaborated on a great deal of the administration the Society required. Shortly after the marriage, Margaret was imprisoned at Lancaster; Fox in Nickalls, p.557 George remained in the south-east of England, becoming so ill and depressed that for a time he lost his sight. Fox in Nickalls, pp.569–571 Travels in America and Europe By 1671 Fox had recovered and Margaret had been released by order of the King. Fox resolved to visit the English settlements in America and the West Indies, remaining there for two years, possibly to counter any remnants of Perrot's teaching there. After a voyage of seven weeks, during which dolphins were caught and eaten, the party arrived in Barbados on 3 October 1671. Diary of John Hull, quoted in Nickalls, pp.580–592 From there, Fox sent an epistle to Friends spelling out the role of women's meetings in the Quaker marriage ceremony, a point of controversy when he returned home. One of his proposals suggested that the prospective couple should be interviewed by an all-female meeting prior to the marriage to determine whether there were any financial or other impediments. Though women's meetings had been held in London for the last ten years, this was an innovation in Bristol and the north-west of England, which many there felt went too far. Fox wrote a letter to the governor and assembly of the island in which he refuted charges that Quakers were stirring up the slaves to revolt and tried to affirm the orthodoxy of Quaker beliefs. After a stay in Jamaica, Fox's first landfall on the North American continent was at Maryland, where he participated in a four-day meeting of local Quakers. He remained there while various of his English companions travelled to the other colonies, because he wished to meet some Native Americans who were interested in Quaker ways—though he relates that they had "a great dispute" among themselves about whether to participate in the meeting. Fox was impressed by their general demeanour, which he said was "courteous and loving". Fox in Nickalls, p.618; Jones, chapter 18, using alternate sources, has "a great debate" and "carried themselves very courteously and lovingly". He resented the suggestion (from a man in North Carolina) that "the Light and Spirit of God ... was not in the Indians", a proposition which Fox refuted. Fox in Jones, chapter 18; Nickalls, p.642, has more complicated wording but the same meaning. Fox left no record of encountering slaves on the mainland. Elsewhere in the colonies, Fox helped to establish organizational systems for the Friends, along the same lines as he had done in Britain. Fox in Nickalls, p.621 He also preached to many non-Quakers, some but not all of whom were converted. Fox established a Yearly Meeting in Amsterdam for Friends in the Netherlands and German states. Following extensive travels around the various American colonies, George Fox returned to England in June 1673 confident that his movement was firmly established there. Back in England, however, he found his movement sharply divided among provincial Friends (such as William Rogers, John Wilkinson and John Story) who resisted establishment of women's meetings and the power of those who resided in or near London. With William Penn and Robert Barclay as allies of Fox, the challenge to Fox's leadership was eventually put down. But in the midst of the dispute, Fox was imprisoned again for refusing to swear oaths after being captured at Armscote, Worcestershire. Though now in Warwickshire, until the re-arrangement of county boundaries in the twentieth century Armscote was in an outlying part of Worcestershire. His mother died shortly after hearing of his arrest and Fox's health began to suffer. Fox in Nickalls, pp.666–676 Margaret Fell petitioned the king for his release, Fox in Nickalls, p.701 which was granted, Fox in Nickalls, p.705 but Fox felt too weak to take up his travels immediately. Recuperating at Swarthmoor, he began dictating what would be published after his death as his journal and devoted his time to his written output: letters, both public and private, as well as books and essays. Cadbury, Henry J. (1952) "George Fox's Later Years" in Nickalls, pp.713–756 Much of his energy was devoted to the topic of oaths, having become convinced of its importance to Quaker ideas. By refusing to swear, he felt that he could bear witness to the value of truth in everyday life, as well as to God, who he associated with truth and the inner light. For three months in 1677 and a month in 1684, Fox visited the Friends in the Netherlands, and organized their meetings for discipline. The first trip was the more extensive, taking him into what is now Germany, proceeding along the coast to Friedrichstadt and back again over several days. Meanwhile, Fox was participating in a dispute among Friends in Britain over the role of women in meetings, a struggle which took much of his energy and left him exhausted. Returning to England, he stayed in the south in order to try to end the dispute. He followed the foundation of the colony of Pennsylvania, where Penn had given him over of land, with interest. Persecution continued, with Fox arrested briefly in October 1683. Fox's health was becoming worse, but he continued his activities—writing to leaders in Poland, Denmark, Germany, and elsewhere about his beliefs, and their treatment of Quakers. In the last years of his life, Fox continued to participate in the London Meetings, and still made representations to Parliament about the sufferings of Friends. The new King, James II, pardoned religious dissenters jailed for failure to attend the established church, leading to the release of about 1500 Friends. Though the Quakers lost influence after the Glorious Revolution, which deposed James II, the 1689 Act of Toleration put an end to the uniformity laws under which Quakers had been persecuted, permitting them to assemble freely. Death and legacy Two days after preaching, as usual, at the Gracechurch Street Meeting House in London, George Fox died between 9 and 10 p.m. on 13 January 1691. He was interred in the Quaker burying ground at Bunhill Fields in London three days later in the presence of thousands of mourners. Robert Barrow's account quoted in Nickalls, p.760 estimates four thousand; Ellwood says "a very great number"; Ingle (2004) says "thousands" George Fox's marker in Bunhill Fields, next to the Meeting House "Eleventh month 1690" is "January 1691" in modern reckoning. In the Old Style calendar used at the time, the new year started on 25 March, and Quakers numbered the months to avoid using "heathen" names. His journal was first published in 1694, after editing by Thomas Ellwood—a friend and associate of John Milton—with a preface by William Penn. Like most similar works of its time the journal was not written contemporaneously to the events it describes, but rather compiled many years later, much of it dictated. Parts of the journal were not in fact by Fox at all but are constructed by its editors from diverse sources and written as if by him. See for example, Nickalls, pp.536, 580, 594 The dissent within the movement and the contributions of others to the development of Quakerism are largely excluded from the narrative. Fox portrays himself as always in the right and always vindicated by God's interventions on his behalf. As a religious autobiography, Rufus Jones compared it to such works as Augustine's Confessions and John Bunyan's Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. It is, though, an intensely personal work with little dramatic power that only succeeds in appealing to readers after substantial editing. Historians have used it as a primary source because of its wealth of detail on ordinary life in the 17th century, and the many towns and villages which Fox visited. Jones, Rufus M. (1908) "Preface" in Jones's version of Fox's journal Hundreds of Fox's letters—mostly intended for wide circulation, along with a few private communications—were also published. Written from the 1650s onwards, with such titles as Friends, seek the peace of all men or To Friends, to know one another in the light, they give enormous insight into the detail of Fox's beliefs, and show his determination to spread them. These writings, in the words of Henry Cadbury, Professor of Divinity at Harvard University and a leading Quaker, "contain a few fresh phrases of his own, [but] are generally characterized by an excess of scriptural language and today they seem dull and repetitious". Cadbury, Henry J. (1967). "Fox, George". Collier's Encyclopedia. Crowell Collier and Macmillan, Inc. Vol.10 p.243 Others point out that "Fox's sermons, rich in biblical metaphor and common speech, brought hope in a dark time." George Fox University (19 March 2008). "Spiritual Leadership of George Fox". Accessed 12 May 2008. Fox's aphorisms have found an audience beyond Quakers, with many other church groups using them to illustrate principles of Christianity. Fox is described by Ellwood as "graceful in countenance, manly in personage, grave in gesture, courteous in conversation". Penn says he was "civil beyond all forms of breeding". We are told that he was "plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in prayer", "a discerner of other men's spirits, and very much master of his own", skilful to "speak a word in due season to the conditions and capacities of most, especially to them that were weary, and wanted soul's rest"; "valiant in asserting the truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for it, immovable as a rock". 1694 Journal front matter Fox's influence on the Society of Friends was of course tremendous, and his beliefs have largely been carried forward by that group. Perhaps his most significant achievement, other than his predominant influence in the early movement, was his leadership in overcoming the twin challenges of government prosecution after the Restoration and internal disputes that threatened its stability during the same period. Not all of his beliefs were welcome to all Quakers: his Puritan-like opposition to the arts Fox in e.g. Nickalls, pp.37–38 and rejection of theological study, forestalled development of these practices among Quakers for some time. The name of George Fox is often invoked by traditionalist Friends who dislike modern liberal attitudes to the Society's Christian origins. At the same time, Quakers and others can relate to Fox's religious experience, and even those who disagree with him regard him as a pioneer. Walt Whitman, who was raised by parents inspired by Quaker thought, later wrote: "George Fox stands for something too—a thought—the thought that wakes in silent hours—perhaps the deepest, most eternal thought latent in the human soul. This is the thought of God, merged in the thoughts of moral right and the immortality of identity. Great, great is this thought—aye, greater than all else." Whitman, Walt (1892). Essay in November. Prose Works. Philadelphia: David McKay George Fox University in Oregon, founded as Pacific College in 1891, was renamed for him in 1949. Fox's relationship with Margaret Fell is novelized in Jan de Hartog's The Peaceable Kingdom: An American Saga. See also Christian anarchism List of people on stamps of Ireland Christian mystics Notes and sources References Primary sources Various editions of Fox's journal have been published from time to time since the first printing in 1694. Jones, Rufus M. (editor). 1908. George Fox – An Autobiography, an annotated and slightly abridged text, is also available in print (e.g. Friends United Press, 2006; ISBN 0-913408-24-7 and Kessinger Publishing, 2006; ISBN 1425496369) and online ( ). Nickalls, John L. (editor). 1952. The Journal of George Fox. Cambridge University Press. (Reprinted by the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting; ISBN 0-941308-05-7) Ross, Hugh McGregor (editor). 2008. Fox: A Christian mystic]. Cathair na Mart: Evertype. ISBN 1-904808-17-6 Secondary sources Barclay, Robert (1678). An Apology for the True Christian Divinity. A systematic treatment of Quaker theology at the end of the seventeenth century; available online. Emerson Wildes, Harry (1965). Voice of the Lord: A Biography of George Fox (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press). Ingle, H. Larry (1994; repr. 1996). First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism (Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-510117-0). First scholarly biography, showing how Fox's used his influence within the Society of Friends to ensure conformity to his views and the survival of the group. Ingle, H. Larry (2004). "Fox, George (1624–1691)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press). Accessed 13 May 2008. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10031 (Subscription required) Marsh, Josiah (1847). A Popular Life of George Fox (London: Charles Gilpin). Somewhat biased but thorough biography of Fox. [http://quakersfp.live.poptech.coop/qfp/contents.html Quaker Faith and Practice'', Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. (ISBN 0-85245-307-8 [1999 revision]). Shows a modern Quaker view of Fox, and a great deal of historical information about Friends and their institutions. External links The Writings and Life of George Fox. The Journal and the Epistles, edited and with commentary by Hall Worthington and Joan Worthington The life's work of George Fox @ Ward's Book of Days House of Commons Journal Volume 8, 21 May 1660, see entry under Geo. Fox, &c., Order by the House that George Fox & Rob. 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1,947 | Hungarian_language | Hungarian (magyar nyelv ) is a Uralic language (more specifically a Ugric language) unrelated to most other languages in Europe. It is mainly spoken in Hungary and by the Hungarian minorities in the seven neighbouring countries. The Hungarian name for the language is magyar (). There are about 14.5 million native speakers, of whom 9.5–10 million live in modern-day Hungary. A further two million speakers live outside present-day Hungary, but in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (1920). Of these, the largest group lives in Romania, where there are approximately 1.4 million Hungarians (see Hungarian minority in Romania). Hungarian-speaking people are also to be found in Slovakia, Serbia, Ukraine, Croatia, Austria, and Slovenia, as well as about a million people scattered in other parts of the world (see Geographic distribution). As with many European languages, there are a few hundred thousand speakers of Hungarian in the United States as well. History Classification Hungarian is a Uralic language, more specifically an Ugric language; the most closely related languages are Mansi and Khanty of western Siberia. Connections between the Ugric and Finnic languages were noticed in the 1670s and established, along with the entire Uralic family in 1717, although the classification of Hungarian continued to be a matter of political controversy into the 18th and even 19th centuries. Today the Uralic family is considered one of the best demonstrated large language families, along with Indo-European and Austronesian. The name of Hungary could be a corruption of Ungrian/Ugrian, and the fact that the Eastern Slavs referred to them as Ǫgry/Ǫgrove (sg. Ǫgrinŭ) seemed to confirm that Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. Les Nomades: Les peuples nomades de la steppe des origines aux invasions mongoles. Paris: Errance, 2003: p. 191 . As to the source of this ethnonym in the Slavic languages, current literature favors the hypothesis that it comes from the name of the Turkic tribe Onogur (which means "ten arrows" or "ten tribes") Sugar, P.F..A History of Hungary. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996: p. 9 Maxwell, A.Magyarization, Language Planning and Whorf: The word Uhor as a Case Study in Linguistic RelativismMultilingua 23: 319, 2004. Marcantonio, Angela. The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. Blackwell Publishing, 2002: p. 19 . There are numerous regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian corresponds to Khanty in certain positions, and Hungarian corresponds to Khanty , while Hungarian final corresponds to Khanty final . For example, Hungarian ház () "house" vs. Khanty xot () "house", and Hungarian száz () "hundred" vs. Khanty sot () "hundred". The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondences are also regular. See also: Regular sound correspondences between Hungarian and other Uralic languages Antiquity and the early Middle Ages As Uralic linguists claim, Hungarian separated from its closest relatives approximately 3000 years ago, so the history of the language begins around 1000 BC. The Hungarians gradually changed their way of living from settled hunters to nomadic cattle-raising, probably as a result of early contacts with Iranian nomads. Their most important animals included sheep and cattle. There are no written resources on the era, thus only a little is known about it. However, research has revealed some extremely early loanwords, such as szó ('word'; from the Turkic languages) and daru ('crane', from the related Permic languages.) The Turkic languages later, especially between the 5th and the 9th centuries, had a great influence on the language. Most words related to agriculture , to state administration or even to family relations have such backgrounds. Interestingly, Hungarian syntax and grammar was not influenced in a similarly dramatic way during this 300 years. The Funeral Sermon and Prayer The Hungarians migrated to the Carpathian Basin around 896 and came into contact with Slavic peoples – as well as with speakers of Romance languages –, borrowing many words from them (for example tégla – "brick", mák – "poppy", or karácsony – "Christmas"). In exchange, the neighbouring Slavic languages also contain some words of Hungarian origin (such as Croatian čizma (csizma) – "boot", or Serbian ašov (ásó) – "spade"). The first written accounts of Hungarian, mostly personal and place names, are dated back to the 10th century. Hungarians also had their own writing system, the Old Hungarian script, but no significant texts remained from the time due to, as researchers say, Stephen I of Hungary, who gave an order to burn the written sticks. Since the foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was founded in 1000, by Stephen I of Hungary (Hungarian: I. (Szent) István király). The country was a western-styled Christian (Roman Catholic) state, and Latin held an important position, as was usual in the Middle Ages. Additionally, the Latin alphabet was adopted to write the Hungarian language. Therefore, Hungarian was also heavily influenced by Latin. The first extant text of the language is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, written once in the 1190s. The earliest example of Hungarian religious poetry is the Old Hungarian 'Lamentations of Mary', a poem about the afflictions of Mary when she saw the death of her son. More extensive literature in the Hungarian language arose after 1300. The first Bible translation is the Hussite Bible from the 1430s. The language lost its diphthongs, and several postpositions transformed into suffixes, such as reá 'onto' 1055: utu rea 'onto the way'; later: útra). Vowel harmony was also developed. At one time, Hungarian used six verb tenses; today, only two (the future not being counted as one, as it is formed with an auxiliary verb). The first printed Hungarian book was published in Kraków in 1533, by Benedek Komjáti. The work's title is Az Szent Pál levelei magyar nyelven (In original spelling: Az zenth Paal leueley magyar nyeluen), i.e. The letters of Saint Paul in the Hungarian language. In the 17th century, the language was already very similar to its present-day form, although two of the past tenses were still used. German, Italian and French loans also appeared in the language by these years. Further Turkish words were borrowed during the Ottoman occupation of much of Hungary between 1541 and 1699. In the 18th century, the language was incapable of clearly expressing scientific concepts, and several writers found the vocabulary a bit scant for literary purposes. Thus, a group of writers, most notably Ferenc Kazinczy, began to compensate for these imperfections. Some words were shortened (győzedelem > győzelem, 'triumph' or 'victory'); a number of dialectal words spread nationally (e. g. cselleng 'dawdle'); extinct words were reintroduced (dísz 'décor'); a wide range of expressions were coined using the various derivative suffixes; and some other, less frequently used methods of expanding the language were utilized. This movement was called the 'language reform' (Hungarian: nyelvújítás), and produced more than ten thousand words, many of which are used actively today. The reforms led to the installment of Hungarian as the official language over Latin in the multiethnic country in 1844. The 19th and 20th centuries saw further standardization of the language, and differences between the mutually already comprehensible dialects gradually lessened. In 1920, by signing the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost 71% of its territories, and along with these, 33% of the ethnic Hungarian population. Today, the language is official in Hungary, and regionally also in in Romania, in Slovakia, and in Serbia. Geographic distribution Regions in Europe where the Hungarian language is spoken. Based on recent censuses and on the CIA World Factbook 2006 Hungarian language in Vojvodina, Serbia (2002 census) Hungarian is spoken in the following countries as a mother tongue: CountrySpeakersHungary10,177,223 (2001 census)Romania(mainly Transylvania) 1,443,970 (census 2002)Slovakia520,528 (census 2001)Serbia(mainly Vojvodina)293,299 (census 2002)Ukraine (mainly Zakarpattia)149,400 (census 2001)United States117,973 (census 2000)Canada75,555 (census 2001)Israel70,000Austria (mainly Burgenland)22,000Croatia16,500Slovenia(mainly Prekmurje)9,240Total 12,5-13 million (in Carpathian Basin) Source: National censuses, Ethnologue About a million more Hungarian speakers live in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, the Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Venezuela and in other parts of the world. Official status Areas of Romania (Transylvania) where Hungarian has co-official status. Official usage of Hungarian language in Vojvodina, Serbia Hungarian is the official language of Hungary, and thus an official language of the European Union. Hungarian is also one of the official languages of Vojvodina and an official language of three municipalities in Slovenia: Hodoš, Dobrovnik and Lendava, along with Slovene. Hungarian is officially recognized as a minority or regional language in Austria, Croatia, Romania, Bukovina, Zakarpattia in Ukraine, and Slovakia. In Romania it is an official language at local level in all communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic Hungarian population of over 20%. Dialects The dialects of Hungarian identified by Ethnologue are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian. These dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible. The Hungarian Csángó dialect, which is not listed by Ethnologue, is spoken mostly in Bacău County, Romania. The Csángó minority group has been largely isolated from other Hungarians, and they therefore preserved a dialect closely resembling medieval Hungarian. Phonology Hungarian vowels Hungarian has 14 vowel phonemes and 25 consonant phonemes. The vowel phonemes can be grouped as pairs of long and short vowels, e.g. o and ó. Most of these pairs have a similar pronunciation, only varying in their duration; the pairs <a>/<á> and <e>/<é> differ both in closedness and length, however. +Consonant phonemes of Hungarian BilabialLabio-dentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarGlottalNasal Plosive Affricate Fricative Trill Approximant Consonant length is also distinctive in Hungarian. Most of the consonant phonemes can occur as geminates. The sound voiced palatal plosive , written <gy>, sounds similar to 'd' in British English 'duty' (in fact, more similar to 'd' in French 'dieu', or to the Macedonian phoneme 'ѓ' as in 'ѓакон'). It occurs in the name of the country, "Magyarország" (Hungary), pronounced . Primary stress is always on the first syllable of a word, as with its cousin Finnish and neighboring languages, Slovak (Standard dialect) and Czech. There is sometimes secondary stress on other syllables, especially in compounds, e.g. viszontlátásra ("goodbye") pronounced . Elongated vowels in non-initial syllables can also seem to be stressed to the ear of an English speaker, since length and stress correlate in English. Front-back vowel harmony is an important feature of Hungarian phonology. See the Hungarian phonology article for more details. Single /r/s are tapped, like the Spanish pero; double /r/s are trilled, like the Spanish perro. Grammar and syntax Hungarian is an agglutinative language – it uses a number of different affixes, including suffixes, prefixes and a circumfix to define the meaning or the grammatical function. Instead of prepositions, which are common in English, Hungarian uses only postpositions. There are two types of article in Hungarian: definite: a before words beginning with consonants and az before vowels (in a phonological sense, behaving just like the indefinite article ’a(n)’ in English) indefinite: egy, literally ‘one’. Nouns have as many as eighteen cases. Of these, some are grammatical, e.g. the unmarked nominative (for example, az alma ‘the apple’), and the accusative marked with the suffix –t (az almát). The latter is used when the noun in question is used as the object of a verb. Hungarian does not have a genitive case (the dative case is used instead), and numerous English prepositions are equivalent not to an affix, but to a postposition, as in az alma mellett ‘next to the apple’. Plurals are formed using the suffix –k (az almák ‘the apples’). Adjectives precede nouns, e. g. a piros alma ‘the red apple’. They have three degrees, including base (piros ‘red’), comparative (pirosabb ‘redder’), and superlative (legpirosabb ‘reddest’). If the noun takes the plural or a case, the adjective, used attributively, does not agree with it: a piros almák ‘the red apples’. However, when the adjective is used in a predicative sense, it must agree with the noun: az almák pirosak ‘the apples are red’. Adjectives also take cases when they are used without nouns: Melyik almát kéred? - A pirosat. 'Which apple would you like? - The red one.' Verbs developed a complex conjugation system during the centuries. Every Hungarian verb has two conjugations (definite and indefinite), two tenses (past and present-future), and three moods (indicative, conditional and imperative), two numbers (singular or plural), and three persons (first, second and third). Out of these features, the two different conjugations are the most characteristic: the "definite" conjugation is used for a transitive verb with a definite object. The "indefinite" conjugation is used for an intransitive verb or for a transitive verb with an indefinite object. These rules, however, do not apply everywhere. The following examples demonstrate this system: John lát. ‘John can see.’ (indefinite: he has the ability of vision)John lát egy almát. ‘John sees an apple.’ (indefinite: it does not matter which apple)John látja az almát. ‘John sees the apple.’ (definite: John sees the specific apple that was talked about earlier) See also: Definite and indefinite conjugations. Present tense is unmarked, while past is formed using the suffix –t or sometimes –tt: lát 'sees'; látott 'saw', past. Futurity is often expressed with the present tense, or using the auxiliary verb fog ‘will’. The first most commonly applies when the sentence also defines the time of the future event, for example John pénteken moziba megy – literally ‘John on Friday into cinema goes’, i.e. ‘On Friday, John will go to the cinema.’ In the other case, the verb’s infinitive (formed using –ni) and the ‘fog’ auxiliary verb is used: John moziba fog menni – ‘John will go to the cinema.’ This is sometimes counted as a tense, especially by non-specialist publications. Indicative mood is used in all tenses; the conditional only in the present and the past, finally the imperative just in the present. Indicative is always unmarked. Verbs also have verbal prefixes. Most of them define movement direction (lemegy – goes down, felmegy – goes up), but some of them give an aspect to the verb, such as the prefix meg-, which defines a finite action. Hungarian word order is often mentioned as free, the truth is that Hungarian word order is more semantical than syntactical. For example because of marking the object using –t, it is not necessary to place the subject before the verb, and the object after it, as in English. This feature makes Hungarian able to focus on particular sections of the sentence – generally, the word before the verb contains the most important information: John lát egy almát. ‘John sees an apple.’ (when it is important to stress that it's John, not someone else, who sees an apple; or when no special stress is required)John egy almát lát. (or even Egy almát lát John) ‘John sees an apple.’ (when it is important that it's an apple John sees, and not something else. The same emphasis could be translated as 'What John sees is an apple.') Politeness There exists a four-tiered system for expressing levels of politeness in the Hungarian language. Ön (önözés): Use of this form in speech shows respect towards the person addressed, but it is also the common way of speaking in official texts and business communications. Here "you", the second person, is grammatically addressed in the third person. Maga (magázás, magázódás): Use of this form serves to show that the speaker wishes to distance himself/herself from the person he/she addresses. A boss could also address a subordinate as "maga". Aside from the different pronoun it is grammatically the same as "önözés". Néni/bácsi (tetszikezés): Children are supposed to address adults they're not close friends with using "tetszik" ("you like") as some kind of an auxiliary verb with all other verbs. "Hogy vagy?" ("How are you?") here becomes "Hogy tetszik lenni?" ("How do you like to be?"). The elderly are generally addressed this way, even by adults. Whoever uses this way of speaking will not use normal greetings, but can only say "(kezét) csókolom" ("I kiss (your hand)"). This way of speaking is perceived as somewhat awkward and often creates impossible grammatical structures, but is still widely in use. Te (tegezés, tegeződés or pertu, per tu from latin): Used generally, i.e. with persons with whom none of the above forms of politeness is required. Interestingly, the highest rank, the king was traditionally addressed "per tu" by all, be it a peasant or a nobleman, although Hungary not having any crowned king since 1918 this notion survives only in folk tales and children's stories. Use of "tegezés" in media and advertisements has become more frequent since the early 1990s. It is informal and is normally used in families, among friends, colleagues, among young people, adults speaking to children; can be compared to addressing somebody by their first name in English. The four-tiered system was already somewhat eroded between 1947 and 1989, when communist rule mandated that all people call each other "elvtárs" (comrade) and the current expansion of "tegeződés" may also threaten its long-term survival. Lexicon + Example with ad Hungarian EnglishDerived terms ad gives adás transmission adó tax or transmitter or transmitting adóhivatal tax/revenue office adózik pays tax adózó taxpayer adós debtor adósság debt adalék additive (ingredient) adag dose, portionWith verbal prefixes megad repays (debt); call (poker) eladó for sale, salesperson hozzáad augments, adds toAs part of compounds rádióadó radio station/radio transmitter adomány / from the Latin dominum=dominyum word integration/ donation adoma anecdote Giving an exact estimate for the total word count is difficult, since it is hard to define what to call "a word" in agglutinating languages, due to the existence of affixed words and compound words. To have a meaningful definition of compound words, we have to exclude such compounds whose meaning is the mere sum of its elements. The largest dictionaries from Hungarian to another language contain 120,000 words and phrases A nyelv és a nyelvek ("Language and languages"), edited by István Kenesei. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-05-7959-6, p. 77) (but this may include redundant phrases as well, because of translation issues). The new desk lexicon of the Hungarian language contains 75,000 words and the Comprehensive Dictionary of Hungarian Language (to be published in 18 volumes in the next twenty years) will contain 110,000 words. The first two volumes of the 20-volume series were introduced on 13 November, 2006, at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (in Hungarian) The default Hungarian lexicon is usually estimated to comprise 60,000 to 100,000 words. "Hungarian is not difficult" (interview with Ádám Nádasdy) (Independently of specific languages, speakers actively use at most 10,000 to 20,000 words A nyelv és a nyelvek ("Language and languages"), edited by István Kenesei. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-05-7959-6, p. 86) , with an average intellectual using 25-30 thousand words.) However, all the Hungarian lexemes collected from technical texts, dialects etc. would all together add up to 1,000,000 words. A nyelv és a nyelvek ("Language and languages"), edited by István Kenesei. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-05-7959-6, pp. 76 and 86) Hungarian words are built around so-called word-bushes. (See an example on the right.) Thus, words with similar meaning often arise from the same root. The basic vocabulary shares a couple of hundred word roots with other Uralic languages like Finnish, Estonian, Mansi and Khanty. Examples of such include the verb él 'live' (Finnish elä ), the numbers kettő 'two', három 'three', négy 'four' (cf. Mansi китыг kitig, хурум khurum, нила nila, Finnish kaksi, kolme, neljä, Estonian kaks, kolm, neli, ), as well as víz 'water', kéz 'hand, arm', vér 'blood', fej 'head' (cf. Finnish and Estonian vesi, käsi, veri, Finnish pää, Estonian pea or 'pää). The proportion of the word roots in Hungarian lexicon is as follows: Finno-Ugric 21%, Slavic 20%, German 11%, Turkic 9.5%, Latin and Greek 6%, Romance 2.5%, other of known origin 1%, others of uncertain origin 30%. A nyelv és a nyelvek ("Language and languages"), edited by István Kenesei. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-05-7959-6, p. 134) Except for a few Latin and Greek loan-words, these differences are unnoticed even by native speakers; the words have been entirely adopted into the Hungarian lexicon. There are an increasing number of English loan-words, especially in technical fields. [N.B.] The reliability of these figures may be in question as these percentages add up to 101%; checking the original quoted source shows that it is also in error. Another source The Structure and Development of the Finnish Language, The Uralic and Altaic Series: 1960-1993 V.1-150, By Denis Sinor, John R. Krueger, Lauri Hakulinen, Gustav Bayerle, Translated by John R. Krueger, Compiled by Gustav Bayerle, Contributor Denis Sinor, Published by Routledge, 1997 ISBN 0700703802, 9780700703807, 383 pages. p. 307 differs in that loanwords in Hungarian are held to constitute about 45% of bases in the language. Although the lexical percentage of native words in Hungarian is 55%, their use accounts for 88.4% of all words used (the percentage of loanwords used being just 11.6%). Therefore, due to the nature of the language making many words out of native word roots, we find the situation of Hungarian speakers tending more to create new words from the original bases, whilst still having developed as many terms from neighboring languages in the lexicon. Word formation Words can be compound (as in German) and derived (with suffixes). Compounds Compounds have been present in the language since the Proto-Uralic era. Numerous ancient compounds transformed to base words during the centuries. Today, compounds play an important role in vocabulary. A good example is the word arc: orr (nose) + száj (mouth) → orca (face) (colloquial until the end of the 19th century and still in use in some dialects) → arc (face) It's written in chapter Testrészek Compounds are made up of two base words: the first is the prefix, the latter is the suffix. A compound can be subordinative: the prefix is in logical connection with the suffix. If the prefix is the subject of the suffix, the compound is generally classified as a subjective one. There are objective, determinative, and adjunctive compounds as well. Some examples are given below: Subjective: menny (heaven) + dörög (thunder) → mennydörög (thundering) nap (Sun) + sütötte (baked) → napsütötte (sunlit) Objective: fa (tree, wood) + vágó (cutter) → favágó (lumberjack, literally "woodcutter") Determinative: új (new) + já (modification of -vá, -vé a suffix meaning "making it to something") + építés (construction) → újjáépítés (reconstruction, literally "making something to be new by construction") Adjunctive: sárga (yellow) + réz (copper) → sárgaréz (brass) According to current orthographic rules, a subordinative compound word has to be written as a single word, without spaces; however, if the length of a compound of three or more words (not counting one-syllable verbal prefixes) is seven or more syllables long (not counting case suffixes), a hyphen must be inserted at the appropriate boundary to ease the determination of word boundaries for the reader. Other compound words are coordinatives: there is no concrete relation between the prefix and the suffix. Subcategories include word duplications (to emphasise the meaning; olykor-olykor'really occasionally'), twin words (where a base word and a distorted form of it makes up a compound: gizgaz, where the suffix 'gaz' means 'weed' and the prefix giz is the distorted form; the compound itself means 'inconsiderable weed'), and such compounds which have meanings, but neither their prefixes, nor their suffixes make sense (for example, hercehurca 'long-lasting, frusteredly done deed'). A compound also can be made up by multiple (i.e., more than two) base words: in this case, at least one word element, or even both the prefix and the suffix is a compound. Some examples: elme [mind; standalone base] + (gyógy [medical] + intézet [institute]) → elmegyógyintézet (asylum) (hadi [militarian] + fogoly [prisoner]) + (munka [work] + tábor [camp]) → hadifogoly-munkatábor (work camp of prisoners of war) Noteworthy lexical items Points of the compass Hungarian words for the points of the compass are directly derived from times of day. North = észak (from "éj(szaka)", 'night'), as the Sun never shines from the North South = dél ('noon'), as the Sun shines from the South at noon East = kelet ('rise'), as the Sun rises in the East West = nyugat ('set'), as the Sun sets in the West Hungary is in the Northern Hemisphere, so its vocabulary corresponds to the Sun's appearances there. – The above can be observed with the Latin word meridies, which means 'noon' and 'South' alike. Two words for "red" There are two basic words for "red" in Hungarian: "piros" and "vörös" (variant: "veres"; compare with Estonian 'verev' or Finnish 'veres'). (They are basic in the sense that one is not a sub-type of the other, as the English "scarlet" is of "red".) The word "vörös" is related to "vér", meaning "blood". When they refer to an actual difference in colour (as on a colour chart), "vörös" usually refers to the deeper hue of red. While many languages have multiple names for this colour, Hungarian is special in having two distinct "basic" colour words for red. Berlin, B and Kay, P (1969). "Basic Color Terms." Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press However, the two words are also used independently of the above in collocations. "Piros" is learned by children first, as it is generally used to describe inanimate, artificial things, or things seen as cheerful or neutral, while "vörös" typically refers to animate or natural things (biological, geological, physical and astronomical objects), as well as serious or emotionally charged subjects. When the rules outlined above are in contradiction, typical collocations usually prevail. In some cases where a typical collocation doesn't exist, the use of either of the two words may be equally adequate. Examples: Expressions where "red" typically translates to "piros": a red road sign, red traffic lights, the red line of Budapest Metro, red (now called express) bus lines in Budapest, a holiday shown in red in the calendar, ruddy complexion, the red nose of a clown, some red flowers (those of a neutral nature, e.g. tulips), red peppers and paprika, red card suits (hearts and diamonds), red stripes on a flag, etc. Expressions where "red" typically translates to "vörös": Red Army, red wine, red carpet (for receiving important guests), red hair or beard, red lion (the mythical animal), the Red Cross, the novel The Red and the Black, the Red Sea, redshift, red giant, red blood cells, red oak, some red flowers (those with passionate connotations, e.g. roses), red fox, names of ferric and other red minerals, red copper, rust, red phosphorus, the colour of blushing with anger or shame, etc. Kinship terms In Hungarian there exist separate words for brothers and sisters depending on relative age: youngerelderunspecifiedrelative agebrotheröcsbátyfivér orfiútestvérsisterhúgnővérnővér orlánytestvérunspecifiedgender kistestvér (nagytestvér) testvér (There existed a separate word for "elder sister", néne, but it has become obsolete [except to mean "aunt" in some dialects] and has been replaced by the generic word for "sister".) Besides, separate prefixes exist for up to the 6th ancestors and descendants (although there are ambiguities and dialectical differences affecting the prefixes for the 4th (and above) ancestors): parentgrandparentgreat-grandparentgreat-great-grandparentgreat-great-great-grandparentszülőnagyszülődédszülőükszülőszépszülő(OR ük-ükszülő)childgrandchildgreat-grandchildgreat-great-grandchildgreat-great-great-grandchildgyer(m)ekunokadédunokaükunokaszépunoka(OR ük-ükunoka)Ősszülő or ószülő, as well as óunoka might be used for the great-great-great- great-grandparent or child, respectively. On the other hand, no lexical items exist for "son" and "daughter", but the words for "boy" and "girl" are applied with possessive suffixes. Nevertheless, the terms are differentiated with different declension or lexemes: boy/girl(his/her)son/daughter(his/her)lover, partnermalefiúfiafiúja/barátjafemalelánylányabarátnőjeFia is only used in this, irregular possessive form; it has no nominative on its own. However, the word fiú can also take the regular suffix, in which case the resulting word (fiúja) will refer to a lover or partner (boyfriend), rather than a male offspring. The word fiú (boy) is also often noted as an extreme example of the ability of the language to add suffixes to a word, by forming fiaiéi, adding vowel-form suffixes only, where the result is quite a frequently used word: fiú boy fia his/her son fiai his/her sons fiáé his/her son's (singular object) fiáéi his/her son's (plural object) fiaié his/her sons' (singular object) fiaiéi his/her sons' (plural object) Extremely long wordsmegszentségteleníthetetlenségeskedéseitekért Partition to root and suffixes with explanations: meg- verb prefix; in this case, it means "completed" szent holy (the word root) -ség like English "-ness", as in "holiness" -t(e)len variant of "-tlen", noun suffix expressing the lack of something; like English "-less", as in "useless" -ít constitutes a transitive verb from an adjective -het expresses possibility; somewhat similar to the English auxiliaries "may" or "can" -(e)tlen another variant of "-tlen" -ség (see above) ‑es constitutes an adjective from a noun; like English "-y" as in "witty" -ked attached to an adjective (e.g. "strong"), produces the verb "to pretend to be (strong)" -és constitutes a noun from a verb; there are various ways this is done in English, e.g. "-ance" in "acceptance" -eitek plural possessive suffix, second person plural (e.g. "apple" -> "your apples", where "your" refers to multiple people) -ért approximately translates to "because of", or in this case simply "for" Translation: "for your [plural] repeated pretending to be undesecratable" The above word is often considered to be the longest word in Hungarian, although there exist longer words like: legeslegmegszentségteleníttethetetlenebbjeitekkéntleg|es|leg|meg|szent|ség|telen|ít|tet|het|etlen|ebb|je|i|tek|ként"like those of you that are the very least possible to get desecrated" These words are not used in practice, but when spoken they are easily understood by natives. They were invented to show, in a somewhat facetious way, the ability of the language to form long words. They are not compound words – they are formed by adding a series of one and two-syllable suffixes (and a few prefixes) to a simple root ("szent", saint). There is virtually no limit for the length of words, but when too many suffixes are added, the meaning of the word becomes less clear, and the word becomes hard to understand, and will work like a riddle even for native speakers. An example:töredezettségmentesítőtleníttethetetlenségtelenítőtlenkedhetnétek tör - ed - ez - ett - ség - mentes - ít - ő - tlen - ít - tet - het - etlen - ség - telen - ítő - tlen - ked(ik) - het - né - tek "you [plural] could constantly mention the lack [of a thing] that makes it impossible to make someone make something defragmenter-free" See also: Hungarian tongue-twisters. Writing system The oldest surviving words written in Hungarian, from the founding declaration of the Benedictine Abbey of Tihany, 1055 Medieval Hungarian book (a copy of the Hussite Bible), 1466 The Hungarian language was originally written in Old Hungarian script, a script reminiscent of runic writing systems. When Stephen I of Hungary established the Kingdom of Hungary in the year 1000, the old system was gradually discarded in favour of the Latin alphabet. Although not now used at all in everyday life, the old script is still known and practiced by some enthusiasts. Modern Hungarian is written using an expanded Latin alphabet, and has a phonemic orthography, i.e. pronunciation can generally be predicted from the written language. In addition to the standard letters of the Latin alphabet, Hungarian uses several modified Latin characters to represent the additional vowel sounds of the language. These include letters with acute accents (á,é,í,ó,ú) to represent long vowels, and umlauts (ö and ü) and their long counterparts ő and ű to represent front vowels. Sometimes (usually as a result of a technical glitch on a computer) ô or õ is used for ő and û for ű. This is often due to the limitations of the Latin-1 / ISO-8859-1 code page. These letters are not part of the Hungarian language, and are considered misprints. Hungarian can be properly represented with the Latin-2 / ISO-8859-2 code page, but this code page is not always available. (Hungarian is the only language using both ő and ű.) Unicode includes them, and so they can be used on the Internet. Additionally, the letter pairs <ny>, <ty>, and <gy> represent the palatal consonants , , and (a little like the "d+y" sounds in British "duke" or American "would you") - a bit like saying "d" with your tongue pointing to your upper palate. Hungarian uses <s> for and <sz> for /s/, which is the reverse of Polish usage. The letter <zs> is and <cs> is . These digraphs are considered single letters in the alphabet. The letter <ly> is also a "single letter digraph", but is pronounced like /j/ (English <y>), and appears mostly in old words. The letters <dz> and <dzs> are exotic remnants and are hard to find even in longer texts. Some examples still in common use are madzag ("string"), edzeni ("to train (athletically)") and dzsungel ("jungle"). Hungarian distinguishes between long and short vowels, with long vowels written with acutes. It also distinguishes between long and short consonants, with long consonants being doubled. For example, lenni ("to be"), hozzászólás ("comment"). The digraphs, when doubled, become trigraphs: <sz>+<sz>=<ssz>, e.g. művésszel ("with an artist"). But when the digraph occurs at the end of a line, all of the letters are written out. For example ("with a bus"): ... busz-szal... When the first lexeme of a compound ends in a digraph and the second lexeme starts with the same digraph, both digraphs are written out: lány + nyak = lánynyak ("girl's neck"). Usually a trigraph is a double digraph, but there are a few exceptions: tizennyolc ("eighteen") is a concatenation of tizen + nyolc. There are doubling minimal pairs: tol ("push") vs. toll ("feather" or "pen"). While to English speakers they may seem unusual at first, once the new orthography and pronunciation are learned, written Hungarian is almost completely phonemic. Order of words Basic rule is that the order is from general to specific. This is a typical analytical approach and is used generally in Hungarian. Name order The Hungarian language uses the so-called eastern name order, in which the family name (general, deriving from the family) comes first and the given name (specific, relates to the person) comes last. Hungarian names in foreign languages For clarity, in foreign languages Hungarian names are usually represented in the western name order. Sometimes, however, especially in the neighboring countries of Hungary – where there is a significant Hungarian population (see Treaty of Trianon for causes) – the Hungarian name order is retained as it causes less confusion there. For an example of foreign use, the birth name of the Hungarian-born physicist, the "father of the hydrogen bomb" was Teller Ede, but he became known internationally as Edward Teller. Prior to the mid-20th century, given names were usually translated along with the name order; this is no longer as common. For example, the pianist uses András Schiff when abroad, not Andrew Schiff (in Hungarian Schiff András). Foreign names in Hungarian In modern usage, foreign names retain their order when used in Hungarian. Therefore: Amikor Kiss János Los Angelesben volt, látta John Travoltát.The Hungarian name Kiss János is in the Hungarian name order (János means John), but the foreign name John Travolta remains in the western name order. Before the 20th century, not only was it common to reverse the order of foreign personalities, they were also "Hungarianized": Goethe János Farkas (originally Johann Wolfgang Goethe). This usage sounds odd today, when only a few well-known personalities are referred to using their Hungarianized names, including Verne Gyula (Jules Verne), Marx Károly (Karl Marx), Kolumbusz Kristóf (Christopher Colombus, note that it is also translated in English). Some native speakers disapprove of this usage; the names of certain religious personalities (including popes), however, are always Hungarianized by practically all speakers, such as Luther Márton (Martin Luther), Husz János (Jan Hus), Kálvin János (John Calvin); just like the names of monarchs, for example the king of Spain, Juan Carlos I is referred to as I. János Károly or the queen of the UK, Elizabeth II is referred to as II. Erzsébet. Date and time The Hungarian convention on date and time is: 2004. január 5. 16:32 The order is big endian (going from generic to specific): 1. year, 2. month, 3. day, 4. hour, 5. minute. Addresses Although address formatting is increasingly being influenced by Indo-European conventions, traditional Hungarian style is: 1052 Budapest, Deák tér 1. So the order is 1. postcode, 2., city (most general) 3., street (more specific) 4., house number (most specific) Vocabulary examplesNote: The stress is always placed on the first syllable of each word. The remaining syllables all receive an equal, lesser stress. All syllables are pronounced clearly and evenly, even at the end of a sentence, unlike in English.Hungarian (person, language): magyar Hello!: Formal, when addressing a stranger: "Good day!": Jó napot (kívánok)! Informal, when addressing someone you know very well: Szia! (it sounds almost exactly like American colloquialism "See ya!" with a shorter "ee".) Good-bye!: Viszontlátásra! (formal) (see above), Viszlát! (semi-informal), Szia! (informal: same stylistic remark as for "Hello!" ) Excuse me: Elnézést! Please:Kérem (szépen) (This literally means "I'm asking (it/you) nicely", as in German Danke schön, "I thank (you) nicely". See next for a more common form of the polite request.)Legyen szíves! (literally: "Be (so) kind!") I would like ____, please: Szeretnék ____ (this example illustrates the use of the conditional tense, as a common form of a polite request) Sorry!: Bocsánat! Thank you: Köszönöm that/this: az , ez How much?: Mennyi? How much does it cost?: Mennyibe kerül? Yes: Igen No: Nem I don't understand: Nem értem I don't know: Nem tudom Where's the toilet?:Hol van a vécé? (vécé/veːtseː is the Hungarian pronouncation of the English abbreviation of "Water Closet")Hol van a mosdó? – more polite (and word-for-word) version generic toast: Egészségünkre! (literally: "To our health!") juice: gyümölcslé water: víz wine: bor beer: sör tea: tea milk: tej Do you speak English?: Tud(sz) angolul? Note that the fact of asking is only shown by the proper intonation: continually rising until the penultimate syllable, then falling for the last one. I love you: Szeretlek Help!: Segítség! It is needed: kellI need to go: Mennem kell Controversy over origins Mainstream linguistics holds that Hungarian is part of the Uralic family of languages, related ultimately to languages such as Finnish and Estonian. For many years (from 1869), it was a matter of dispute whether Hungarian was a Finno-Ugric/Uralic language, or was more closely related to the Turkic languages, a controversy known as the "Ugric-Turkish war", or whether indeed both the Uralic and the Turkic families formed part of a superfamily of "Ural-Altaic languages". Hungarians did absorb some Turkic influences during several centuries of co-habitation. For example, it appears that the Hungarians learned animal breeding techniques from the Turkic Chuvash, as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin. There was also a strong Chuvash influence in burial customs. Furthermore, all Ugric languages, not just Hungarian, have Turkic loanwords related to horse riding. Nonetheless, the science of linguistics shows that the basic wordstock and morphological patterns of the Hungarian language are solidly based on a Uralic heritage. A theory also well-known (still in dispute) is that the Hungarian language is a descendant of the Sumerian. Some linguists and historians (like Ida Bobula, Ferenc Badiny Jós, dr Tibor Baráth and others) had been working hard for decades and had published many detailed works (e.g. , ), and, purportedly, also there are some significant archaeological findings in this matter (like the Tartaria tablets). However mainstream linguists reject the Sumerian theory as pseudoscience. Hungarian has often been claimed to be related to Hunnish, since Hungarian legends and histories show close ties between the two peoples; also, the name Hunor is preserved in legends and (along with a few Hunnic-origin names, such as Attila) is still used as a given name in Hungary. Many people share the belief that the Székelys, a Hungarian ethnic group living in Romania, are descended from the Huns. However, the link with Hunnish has no linguistic foundation since most scientists consider the Hunnic language as being part of the Turkic language family. There have been attempts, dismissed by mainstream linguists, to show that Hungarian is related to other languages including Hebrew, Egyptian, Etruscan, Basque, Persian, Pelasgian, Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, English, Tibetan, Magar, Quechua, Armenian and at least 42 other Asian, European and even American languages. Zsirai Miklós: Őstörténeti csodabogarak. Budapest, 1943. See Pseudoscientific language comparison. Comparison of some Finno-Ugric words http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Swadesh_lists_for_Finno-Ugric_languages Hungarian Estonian Mordvinic (Erzya dialect) Komi-Permyak Englishmeaning # by the Swadesh-list Finnish én (if not written, is indicated by the -*m suffix) mina мон mon ме me I, myself, me 1 minä te sina тон ton тэ te you/thou 2 sinä mi meie, me минь min ми mi we 4 me ti teie, te тынь tün ти ti you (plural) 5 te ez/itt see те te тайö tayö this/here 7tämä/täällä az/ott too што sto сійö siyö that/there 8 tuo/tuolla ki? kes? кие? kie? коді? kodi? who? 11 kuka? mi? mis? мезе? meze? мый? müy? what? 12 mikä? egy üks вейке veyke öти öti one 22 yksi kettő kaks кавто kavto кык kük two 23 kaksi három kolm колмо kolmo куим kulm three 24 kolme négy neli ниле nile нёль nöl four 25 neljä öt viis вете vete вит vit five 26 viisi nej naine ни ni гöтыр götür wife 40 vaimo anya ema (тиринь) ава (tirin) ava мам mam mother 42 äiti fa puu чувто chuvto пу pu tree, wood 51 puu vér veri верь ver вир vir blood 64 veri haj juuksed черь cher юрси yursi hair 71 hius, hiukset fej pea пиле pile пель pel head 73pää szem silm сельме selme син sin eye 74 silmä orr nina судо sudo ныр nür nose 75nenä száj suu курго kurgo вом vom mouth 76suu fog hammas пей pey пинь pin tooth 77 hammas láb jalg пильге pilge кок kok foot 80 jalka kéz käsi кедь ked ки ki hand 83 käsi szív/szűny süda седей sedey сьöлöм sölöm heart 90 sydän inni jooma симемс simems юны yunü to drink 92 juoda tudni teadma содамс sodams тöдны tödnü to know 103 tietää élni elama эрямс eryams овны ovnü to live 108 elää víz vesi ведь ved ва va water 150 vesi kő kivi кев kev из iz stone 156 kivi ég/menny taevas менель menel енэж enezh sky/heaven 162 taivas szél tuul варма varma тöв töv wind 163 tuuli tűz tuli тол tol би bi fire 167 tuli éj öö ве ve вой voy night 177 yö See also Hungarian grammar Hungarian alphabet Old Hungarian script Hungarian phonology Hungarian literature List of English words of Hungarian origin. Hungary History of the Hungarian language Hungarian people Old Hungarian 'Lamentations of Mary' - The first Hungarian written poem from the 14th century Hungarian Cultural Institute Bibliography CoursesColloquial Hungarian - The complete course for beginners. Rounds, Carol H.; Sólyom, Erika (2002). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-242584. This book gives an introduction to the Hungarian language in 15 chapters. The dialogues are available on cassette or CDs.Teach Yourself Hungarian - A complete course for beginners. Pontifex, Zsuzsa (1993). London: Hodder & Stoughton. Chicago: NTC/Contemporary Publishing. ISBN 0-340-56286-2. This is a complete course in spoken and written Hungarian. The course consists of 21 chapters with dialogues, culture notes, grammar and exercises. The dialogues are available on cassette.Hungarolingua 1 - Magyar nyelvkönyv. Hoffmann, István; et al. (1996). Debreceni Nyári Egyetem. ISBN 963-472-083-8Hungarolingua 2 - Magyar nyelvkönyv. Hlavacska, Edit; et al. (2001). Debreceni Nyári Egyetem. ISBN 963-036-698-3Hungarolingua 3 - Magyar nyelvkönyv. Hlavacska, Edit; et al. (1999). Debreceni Nyári Egyetem. ISBN 963-472-083-8 These course books were developed by the University of Debrecen Summer School program for teaching Hungarian to foreigners. The books are written completely in Hungarian. There is an accompanying 'dictionary' for each book with translations of the Hungarian vocabulary in English, German, and French. "NTC's Hungarian and English Dictionary" by Magay and Kiss. ISBN 0-8442-4968-8 (You may be able to find a newer edition also. This one is 1996.) Grammars A practical Hungarian grammar (3rd, rev. ed.). Keresztes, László (1999). Debrecen: Debreceni Nyári Egyetem. ISBN 963-472-300-4.Practical Hungarian grammar: [a compact guide to the basics of Hungarian grammar]. Törkenczy, Miklós (2002). Budapest: Corvina. ISBN 963-13-5131-9.Hungarian verbs and essentials of grammar: a practical guide to the mastery of Hungarian (2nd ed.). Törkenczy, Miklós (1999). Budapest: Corvina; Lincolnwood, [Ill.]: Passport Books. ISBN 963-13-4778-8.Hungarian: an essential grammar. Rounds, Carol (2001). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-22612-0.Hungarian: Descriptive grammar. Kenesei, István, Robert M. Vago, and Anna Fenyvesi (1998). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02139-1. Hungarian Language Learning References (including the short reviews of three of the above books)Noun Declension Tables - HUNGARIAN. Budapest: Pons. Klett. ISBN 9789639641044Verb Conjugation Tables - HUNGARIAN. Budapest: Pons. Klett. ISBN 9789639641037 References External links Hungarian - A Strange Cake on the Menu - article by Nádasdy Ádám'' Ethnologue report for Hungarian Introduction to Hungarian Hungarian Profile "The Hungarian Language: A Short Descriptive Grammar" by Beáta Megyesi (PDF document) A very good list of formative suffixes in Hungarian The old site of the Indiana University Institute of Hungarian Studies (various resources) Hungarian Language Learning References on the Hungarian Language Page (short reviews of useful books) Hungarian Language Review at How-to-learn-any-language.com One of the oldest Hungarian texts - A Halotti Beszéd (The Funeral Oration) Live stream of Hungarian news radio station InfoRádió - example of Hungarian speech Hungarian Reference (a grammatical guide) A short English-Hungarian-Japanese phraselist(renewal) incl.sound file free-dictionary-translation - English <-> Hungarian, African, Chinese, Dutch, French, Gealic, German, Greek, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latin, Portuguese, Polish, Russian, Swedish, Spanish, Czech, Turkish, Vietnamese Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica Introduction to the History of the Language; The Pre-Hungarian Period; The Early Hungarian Period; The Old Hungarian Period The Linguistic Records of the Early Old Hungarian Period; The Linguistic System of the Age The Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language of the Old Hungarian Period The Late Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language The First Half of the Middle Hungarian Period; Turkish Loan Words Dictionaries Hungarian Dictionary: from Webster's Dictionary Hungarian ↔ English created by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences - Computer and Automation Research Institute MTA SZTAKI (also includes dictionaries for the following languages to and from Hungarian : German, French, Italian, Dutch, and Polish) English-Hungarian-Finnish - three language freely editable online dictionary Collection of Hungarian Technical Dictionaries Hungarian-English False friends (False friend) Hungarian slang Hungarian bilingual dictionaries Magyar szótár - A Dictionary of the Hungarian Language (a book review) Online translators Free English->Hungarian translation service - does not translate texts longer than 500 characters Free Dictionary Translation - English - Hungary altogether 136056 entries. Online language courses Online Hungarian Language Courses A Hungarian Language Course by Aaron Rubin Online course hungarotips.com Study Hungarian! (AFS.com) Hungarian Phrase Guides Magyaróra: New paths to the Hungarian language Hungarian Language Lessons - Puzzles, Quizzes, Sound Files We learn Hungarian - wiki based learning group be-x-old:Вугорская мова | Hungarian_language |@lemmatized hungarian:201 magyar:9 nyelv:5 uralic:14 language:102 specifically:2 ugric:10 unrelated:1 europe:2 mainly:6 speak:6 hungary:23 minority:4 seven:2 neighbouring:1 country:6 name:31 million:7 native:7 speaker:14 live:7 modern:3 day:6 two:20 outside:1 present:8 area:2 part:9 kingdom:5 treaty:3 trianon:3 large:3 group:6 romania:9 approximately:3 see:26 speaking:4 people:9 also:36 find:5 slovakia:3 serbia:5 ukraine:3 croatia:2 austria:2 slovenia:2 well:11 scatter:1 world:3 geographic:2 distribution:2 many:11 european:5 hundred:4 thousand:3 united:3 state:4 history:6 classification:2 closely:3 related:2 mansi:3 khanty:7 western:4 siberia:1 connection:2 finnic:2 notice:1 establish:2 along:6 entire:1 family:11 although:8 continue:1 matter:4 political:1 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1,948 | Cleveland_Indians | The Cleveland Indians are a professional baseball team based in Cleveland, Ohio. They are in the Central Division of Major League Baseball's American League. Since , they have played in Progressive Field (formerly Jacobs Field). The team's spring training facility is in Goodyear, Arizona. Since their establishment in 1901, the Indians have won two World Series championships, in 1920 and 1948. The "Indians" name originates from a request by the club owner to decide a new name, following the 1914 season. In reference to the Boston Braves (now the Atlanta Braves), the media chose "the Indians". They are nicknamed "the Tribe" and "the Wahoos". The latter is a reference to the mascot which appears in the team's logos, Chief Wahoo. One of the American League's eight charter franchises, the club was founded in Cleveland in . The team actually began play in 1900 as the Lake Shores, when the AL was officially a minor league. Then called the Cleveland Blues, the team played in League Park until moving permanently to Cleveland Municipal Stadium in . At the end of the 2008 season, they had a regular season franchise record of 8,557–8,178 (.511). The Indians' most recent postseason visit came in 2007, when they won their seventh AL Central title, the most in the division. Franchise history Forest City club Open professional baseball began in Cleveland during the 1869 season and one team was hired on salary for 1870, as in several other cities following the success of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first fully professional team. The leading Cleveland baseball club was Forest City, a nickname of the city itself. In the newspapers before and after 1870, the team was often called the Forest Citys, in the same generic way that the team from Chicago was sometimes called The Chicagos. The Forest City club was formed about 1865, when baseball club organization and "national" association membership boomed following the Civil War. In 1871 the Forest Citys joined the new National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, the first professional league, as did the Forest Citys of Rockford, Illinois. New York and Philadelphia had been the home cities of most top baseball clubs before the league era, but only one club from each joined the professional National Association, whose nine-city circuit was made up by four western clubs and eastern rivals in Washington, D.C., Troy, New York and Boston. Ultimately, two of the western clubs went out of business during the first season and the Chicago Fire left that city's White Stockings impoverished, unable to field a team again until 1874. Cleveland was thus the NA's western outpost in 1872 and the Forest City's failed, playing a full schedule to July 19 followed only by two games versus Boston in mid-August. National League era In 1876, the National League supplanted the N.A. as the major professional league. Cleveland was not among its charter members, but by 1879 the league was looking for new entries and the city returned to a major circuit. The Cleveland Blues played mainly in the middle of the pack for six seasons and was ruined by trade war with the Union Association in 1884, when its three best players moved for the money: Fred Dunlap, Jack Glasscock, and Jim McCormick. St Louis from the U.A. took its place for 1885. Cleveland went without major league ball for only two seasons, joining the American Association in 1887, after that league's Allegheny club had jumped to the N.L. Cleveland followed suit in 1889, as the Association began to crumble. (It folded after 1891, and the National League acquired four of its franchises to swell to 12 teams.) With the unique nickname Spiders, supposedly inspired by their "skinny and spindly" players, Cleveland slowly became a power in the league. The Spiders survived a challenge for fans from the Cleveland Infants, an entry in the one-season Players' League in 1890. The next year the Spiders moved into League Park, which would become the home of Cleveland professional ball for the next 55 years. Led by native Ohioan Cy Young, the Spiders became a contender in the mid-1890s, when they played in the Temple Cup Series (that era's World Series) twice, winning it in 1895. The team began to fade after that, and was dealt a severe blow under the ownership of the Robison brothers. The Robisons, despite already owning the Spiders, were allowed to also acquire a controlling interest in the St. Louis Cardinals franchise in 1899. They proceeded to strip the Cleveland team of its best players (including Young) to help fill the St. Louis roster. The St. Louis team improved to finish above .500. The Spiders were left with essentially a minor league lineup, and began to lose games at a record pace. Drawing almost no fans at home, they ended up playing most of their season on the road, and became known as "The Wanderers", finally falling to 12th place, 84 games out of first place, with an all-time worst record of 20 wins and 134 losses. Bob Diskin, Special to ESPN.com, A pitcher worthy of a trophy Following the 1899 season, the National League disbanded the Cleveland franchise along with three other teams in Washington, Baltimore, and Louisville. The disastrous 1899 season would actually be a step toward a new future for Cleveland fans the next year. 1901–1946: Early to middle history of the franchise Old Cleveland Indians logo Seeking to capitalize on general public disillusionment with the National League, Ban Johnson changed the name of his minor league, the Western League, to the American League and shifted the WL's Grand Rapids club to Cleveland, taking over League Park in 1900 as the Cleveland Lake Shores. Kirk Kenney, San Diego Union Tribune, Baseball's moving experience, June 20, 2005 Although still a minor league, the new organization was ready to make its move. In 1901 the American League broke with the National Agreement and declared itself a competing Major League. The Cleveland franchise was among its eight charter members. The new team was owned by coal magnate Charles Somers and tailor Jack Kilfoyl. Somers, a wealthy industrialist and also co-owner of the Boston Americans, lent money to other team owners, including Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, to keep them and the new league afloat. The team was originally nicknamed the "Bluebirds," but the players didn't think the nickname was suitable for a baseball team. Writers frequently shortened it to "Blues" due to the players' all-blue uniforms, but the players didn't like this name either. They tried to change the name themselves to "Bronchos," but this name never caught on. The Blues suffered from financial problems in their first two seasons. This led Somers to seriously consider moving to either Pittsburgh or Cincinnati. Relief came in as a result of the conflict between the National and American Leagues. In 1901, Napoleon "Nap" Lajoie, the Philadelphia Phillies star second baseman, jumped to the A's after his contract was capped at $2,400 per year—one of the highest-profile players to jump to the upstart AL. The Phillies subsequently filed an injunction to force Lajoie's return, which was granted by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. The injunction appeared to doom any hopes of an early settlement between the warring leagues. However, a lawyer discovered that the injunction was only enforceable in the state of Pennsylvania. Mack, partly to thank Somers for his past financial support, agreed to trade Lajoie to the then-moribund Blues, who offered $25,000 salary over three years. Due to the injunction, however, Lajoie had to sit out any games played against the A's in Philadelphia. Lajoie arrived in Cleveland on June 4 and was an immediate hit, drawing 10,000 fans to League Park. Soon afterward, he was named team captain, and the team was renamed the "Naps" after a newspaper conducted a write-in contest. Lajoie was named manager in , and the team's fortunes improved somewhat. They finished half a game short of the pennant in 1908. However, the success did not last and Lajoie resigned during the 1909 season as manager but remained on as a player. After that, the team began to unravel, leading Kilfoyl to sell his share of the team to Somers. Cy Young who returned to Cleveland in 1909, was ineffective for most of his three remaining years and Addie Joss died from tubercular meningitis prior to the season. Despite a strong lineup anchored by the potent Lajoie and Shoeless Joe Jackson, poor pitching kept the team below third place for most of the next decade. One reporter referred to the team as the Napkins, "because they fold up so easily" while others called them the "Molly McGuires" as a play on their manager's name, Deacon McGuire. The team hit bottom in 1914 and 1915, finishing in the cellar both years. 1915 brought significant changes to the team. Lajoie, nearly 40 years old was no longer a top hitter in the league, batting only .258 in 1914. With Lajoie engaged in a feud with manager Joe Birmingham, the team sold Lajoie back to Philadelphia. With Lajoie gone, the Naps now needed a new nickname. Somers asked the local newspapers to come up with a new name, and they chose "Indians". Legend has it that the team honored Louis Sockalexis when it assumed its current name in 1915. Sockalexis, a Native American, had played in Cleveland 1897–99. Research indicates that this legend is mostly untrue, and that the new name was a play on the name of the Boston Braves, then known as the "Miracle Braves" after going from last place on July 4 to a sweep in the 1914 World Series. Proponents of the name acknowledged that the Cleveland Spiders of the National League had sometimes been informally called the "Indians" during Sockalexis' short career there, a fact which merely reinforced the new name. At the same time, Somers' business ventures began to fail, leaving him deeply in debt. With the Indians playing poorly, attendance and revenue suffered. Somers decided to trade Jackson midway through the 1915 season for two players and $31,500, one of the largest sums paid for a player at the time. By , Somers was at the end of his tether and sold the team to a syndicate headed by Chicago railroad contractor James C. "Jack" Dunn. Manager Lee Fohl, who had taken over in early 1915, acquired two minor league pitchers, Stan Coveleski and Jim Bagby and traded for center fielder Tris Speaker, who was engaged in a salary dispute with the Red Sox. All three would ultimately become key players in bringing a championship to Cleveland. Speaker took over the reins as player-manager in , and would lead the team to a championship in 1920. On August 16, the Indians were playing the Yankees at the Polo Grounds in New York. Shortstop Ray Chapman, who often crowded the plate, was batting against Carl Mays, who had an unusual underhand delivery. It was also was late in the afternoon and the infield would have been in shadow with the center field area (the batters' background) bathed in sunlight. In any case, Chapman did not move reflexively when Mays' pitch came his way. The pitch hit Chapman in the head, fracturing his skull. Chapman died the next day, becoming the only player to sustain a fatal injury from a pitched ball. Report of Chapman's Death, New York Times, 8/18/1920 The Indians, who at the time were locked in a tight three-way pennant race with the Yankees and White Sox, were not slowed down by the death of their teammate. Rookie Joe Sewell hit .329 after replacing Chapman in the lineup. In September 1920, the Black Sox Scandal came to a boil. With just a few games left in the season, and Cleveland and Chicago neck-and-neck for first place at 94–54 and 95–56 respectively, the Chicago owner suspended eight players. The White Sox lost 2 of 3 in their final series, while Cleveland won 4 and lost 2 in their final two series. Cleveland finished 2 games ahead of Chicago and 3 games ahead of the Yankees to win its first pennant, led by Speaker's .388 hitting, Jim Bagby's 30 victories and solid performances from Steve O'Neill and Stan Coveleski. Cleveland went on to defeat the Brooklyn Robins 5–2 in the World Series for their first title, winning four games in a row after the Robins took a 2–1 Series lead. The Series included three memorable "firsts", all of them in Game 5 at Cleveland, and all by the home team. In the first inning, right fielder Elmer Smith hit the first Series grand slam. In the fourth inning, Jim Bagby hit the first Series home run by a pitcher. And in the top of the fifth inning, second baseman Bill Wambsganns executed the first (and only, so far) unassisted triple play in World Series history, in fact the only Series triple play of any kind. The team would not reach the heights of 1920 again for 28 years. Speaker and Coveleski were aging and the Yankees were rising with a new weapon: Babe Ruth and the home run. They managed two second-place finishes but spent much of the decade in the cellar. In 1927 Dunn's widow, Mrs. George Pross (Dunn had died in 1922), sold the team to a syndicate headed by Alva Bradley. The Indians were a middling team by the 1930s, finishing third or fourth most years. brought Cleveland a new superstar in 17-year old pitcher Bob Feller, who came from Iowa with a dominating fastball. That season, Feller set a record with 17 strikeouts in a single game and went on to lead the league in strikeouts from 1938–1941. By , Feller, along with Ken Keltner, Mel Harder and Lou Boudreau led the Indians to within one game of the pennant. However, the team was wracked with dissension, with some players (including Feller and Mel Harder) going so far as to request that Bradley fire manager Ossie Vitt. Reporters lampooned them as the Cleveland Crybabies. Feller, who had pitched a no-hitter to open the season and won 27 games, lost the final game of the season to unknown pitcher Floyd Giebell of the Detroit Tigers. The Tigers won the pennant and Giebell never won another major league game. Cleveland entered 1941 with a young team and a new manager; Roger Peckinpaugh had replaced the despised Vitt; but the team regressed, finishing in fourth. Cleveland would soon be depleted of two stars. Hal Trosky retired in 1941 due to migraine headaches and Bob Feller enlisted in the Navy two days after the Attack on Pearl Harbor. Starting third baseman Ken Keltner and outfielder Ray Mack were both drafted in 1945 taking two more starters out of the lineup. 1947–1959 In Bill Veeck formed an investment group that purchased the Cleveland Indians from Bradley's group for a reported $1.6 million. Among the investors was Bob Hope, who had grown up in Cleveland and former Tigers slugger, Hank Greenberg. A former owner of a minor league franchise in Milwaukee, Veeck brought to Cleveland a gift for promotion. At one point, Veeck hired rubber-faced Max Patkin, the "Clown Prince of Baseball" as a coach. Patkin's appearance in the coaching box was the sort of promotional stunt that delighted fans but infuriated the American League front office. Recognizing that he had acquired a solid team, Veeck soon abandoned the aging, small and lightless League Park to take up full-time residence in massive Cleveland Municipal Stadium. Prior to 1947 the Indians played most of their games at League Park, and occasionally played weekend games at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. League Park was demolished in 1951, although a portion of the original ticket booth remains. Making the most of the cavernous stadium, Veeck had a portable center field fence installed, which he could move in or out depending on how the distance favored the Indians against their opponents in a given series. The fence moved as much as between series opponents. Following the 1947 season, the American League countered with a rule change that fixed the distance of an outfield wall for the duration of a season. The massive stadium did, however, permit the Indians to set the then record for the largest crowd to see a Major League baseball game. On Otober 10, 1948, Game 5 of the World Series against the Boston Braves drew over 84,000. The record stood until the Los Angeles Dodgers drew a crowd in excess of 92,500 to watch Game 5 of the 1959 World Series at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum against the Chicago White Sox. Under Veeck's leadership, one of Cleveland's most significant achievements was breaking the color barrier in the American League by signing Larry Doby, formerly a player for the Negro League's Newark Eagles in , eleven weeks after Jackie Robinson signed with the Dodgers. Similar to Robinson, Doby battled racism on and off the field but posted a .301 batting average in 1948, his first full season. A power-hitting center fielder, Doby led the American League twice in homers. In 1948, needing pitching for the stretch run of the 1948 pennant race, Veeck turned to the Negro League again and signed pitching great Satchel Paige amid much controversy. Barred from Major League Baseball during his prime, Veeck's signing of the aging star in 1948 was viewed by many as another publicity stunt. At an official age of 42, Paige became the oldest rookie in Major League baseball history, and the first black pitcher. Paige soon proved he could still pitch and ended the year with a 6–1 record with a 2.48 ERA, 45 strikeouts and two shutouts. In , veterans Boudreau, Keltner, and Joe Gordon had career offensive seasons, while newcomers Larry Doby and Gene Bearden also had standout seasons. The team went down to the wire with the Boston Red Sox, winning a one-game playoff, the first in American League history, to go to the World Series. In the series, the Indians defeated the Boston Braves four games to two for their first championship in 28 years. Boudreau won the American League MVP Award. The Indians would appear in a film the following year titled The Kid From Cleveland, in which Veeck had an interest. The film portrayed the team helping out a "troubled teenaged fan" and featured many members of the Indians organization. However, filming during the season cost the players valuable rest days leading to fatigue towards the end of the season. That season, Cleveland again contended before falling to third place. On September 23, 1949, Bill Veeck and the Indians buried their 1948 pennant in center field the day after they were mathematically eliminated from the pennant race. Later in 1949, Veeck's first wife (who had a half-stake in Veeck's share of the team) divorced him. With most of his money tied up in the Indians, Veeck was forced to sell the team to a syndicate headed by insurance magnate Ellis Ryan. Ryan was forced out in in favor of Myron Wilson, who in turn gave way to William Daley in . Despite this turnover in the ownership, a powerhouse team composed of Feller, Doby, Minnie Miñoso, Luke Easter, Bobby Avila, Al Rosen, Early Wynn, Bob Lemon, and Mike Garcia continued to contend through the early 1950s. However, Cleveland only won a single pennant in the decade, finishing second to the New York Yankees five times. The best season in franchise history came in , when the Indians finished the season with a record of 111-43 (.721). That mark set an American League record for wins which stood for 47 years until the Seattle Mariners won 116 games in 2001. The Indians 1954 winning percentage of .721 is still an American League record. The Indians returned to the World Series to face the New York Giants. The team could not bring home the title, however, ultimately being upset by the Giants in a sweep. The series was notable for Willie Mays' famous over-the-shoulder catch off the bat of Vic Wertz in Game 1. 1960–1993: The 30-year slump From 1960 to 1993, the Indians managed one third-place and five fourth-place finishes but spent the rest of the time in the American League cellar. The Indians hired General Manager Frank Lane, known as "Trader" Lane away from St. Louis in 1957. Lane had gained a reputation as a GM who loved to make deals over the years. With the White Sox, Lane made over 100 trades involving over 400 players in seven years. In a short stint in St. Louis, he traded away Red Schoendienst and Harvey Haddix. Lane summed up his philosophy when he said that the only deals he regretted were the ones that he didn't make. Arriving after the 1957 season, one of Lane's early trades was to send Roger Maris to Kansas City in the middle of 1958. Indians executive Hank Greenberg was not happy about the trade and neither was Maris, who said that he couldn't stand Lane. After Maris broke Babe Ruth's home run record, Lane defended himself by saying he still would have done the deal because Maris was unknown and he received good ballplayers in exchange. After the Maris trade, Lane acquired 25-year old Norm Cash from the White Sox for Minnie Miñoso and then traded him to Detroit before he ever played a game for the Indians. Cash went on to hit over 350 home runs for the Tigers. The Indians received Steve Demeter in the deal, who would have only five at bats for Cleveland. The curse of Rocky Colavito In 1960, Lane made the trade that would define his tenure in Cleveland when he dealt slugging right fielder and fan favorite Rocky Colavito. Just before Opening Day in , Colavito was traded to the Detroit Tigers for Harvey Kuenn. It was a blockbuster trade that swapped the AL home run co-champion (Colavito) for the AL batting champion (Kuenn). After the trade, Colavito hit over 30 home runs four times and made three All Star Teams for Detroit, and later the Kansas City Athletics, before returning to Cleveland in . Kuenn, on the other hand, would play only one season for the Indians before departing in a trade for an aging Johnny Antonelli and Willie Kirkland. Akron Beacon Journal columnist Terry Pluto documented the decades of woe that followed the trade in his book The Curse of Rocky Colavito. Despite being attached to the curse, Colavito said that he never placed a curse on the Indians but that the trade was prompted by a salary dispute with Lane. Lane also engineered a unique trade of managers in mid-season 1960, sending Joe Gordon to the Tigers in exchange for Jimmy Dykes. Lane left the team in 1961, but the trades continued. In 1965, the Indians traded pitcher Tommy John, who would go on to win 288 games in his career, and 1966 Rookie of the Year Tommy Agee to the White Sox to get Colavito back. Lou Piniella, the 1969 Rookie of the Year and Luis Tiant, who was selected to two All-Star games after leaving, both left. At one point, Cleveland even traded Harry Chiti to the New York Mets, only to receive him back as the player to be named later after 15 days. The 1970s were little better with the Indians trading away several future stars, including Graig Nettles, Dennis Eckersley, Buddy Bell and 1971 Rookie of the year Chris Chambliss, for a number of players who made no impact. Constant ownership changes did not help the Indians. In 1963, Daley's syndicate sold the team to a group headed by general manager Gabe Paul. Three years later, Paul sold the Indians to Vernon Stouffer, of the Stouffer's frozen-food empire. Prior to Stouffer's purchase, the team was rumored to be relocated due to poor attendance. Despite the potential for a financially strong owner, Stouffer had some non-baseball related financial setbacks and consequently, the team was cash-poor. In order to solve some financial problems, Stouffer had made an agreement to play a minimum of 30 home games in New Orleans with a possible move there. After rejecting an offer from George Steinbrenner and former Indian Al Rosen, Stouffer sold the team in 1972 to a group led by Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Barons owner Nick Mileti. Steinbrenner went on to buy the New York Yankees in 1973. Only five years later, Mileti's group sold the team for $11 million to a syndicate headed by trucking magnate Steve O'Neill and which included Gabe Paul, who had been an executive with the Indians, Reds and Yankees. O'Neill's death in 1983 led to the team going on the market once more. His son, Patrick O'Neill, did not find a buyer until real estate magnates Richard and David Jacobs purchased the team in 1986. The team was unable to move out of the cellar with losing seasons between 1969 and 1975. One highlight was the acquisition of Gaylord Perry in . The Indians traded fireballer 'Sudden Sam' McDowell for Perry, who became the first Indian pitcher to win the Cy Young Award. In , Cleveland broke another color barrier with the hiring of Frank Robinson as Major League Baseball's first African American manager. Robinson served as player-manager and would provide a franchise highlight when he hit a pinch hit home run on Opening Day. But the high profile signing of Wayne Garland, a 20-game winner in Baltimore, proved to be a disaster after Garland suffered from shoulder problems and went 28–48 over five years. The team failed to improve with Robinson as manager and he was fired in . In 1977, pitcher Dennis Eckersley threw a no-hitter against the California Angels. The next season, he would be dealt to the Boston Red Sox where he won 20 games in 1978 and another 17 in 1979. The 1987 Sports Illustrated "Indian Uprising" cover The 1970s also featured the infamous Ten Cent Beer Night at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. The ill-conceived promotion at a game against the Texas Rangers ended in a riot by fans and a forfeit by the Indians. There were more bright spots in the 1980s. In May 1981, Len Barker threw a perfect game against the Toronto Blue Jays, joining Addie Joss as the only other Indian pitcher to do so. "Super Joe" Charbonneau won the American League Rookie of the Year award. Unfortunately, Charboneau was out of baseball by 1983 after falling victim to back injuries and Barker, who was also hampered by injuries, never became a consistently dominant starting pitcher. Eventually, the Indians traded Barker to the Atlanta Braves for Brett Butler and Brook Jacoby, who would become mainstays of the team for the remainder of the decade. Butler and Jacoby were joined by Joe Carter, Mel Hall, Julio Franco and Cory Snyder, which brought new hope to fans in the late 1980s. After a rare winning season in , Sports Illustrated, with Carter and Snyder pictured on the cover, boldly predicted the Indians to win the American League East in . Instead, the team went on to lose 101 games and finish with the worst record in baseball, a fate attributed to the Sports Illustrated cover jinx. Cleveland's struggles over the 30-year span were highlighted in the 1989 film Major League, which depicted a comically hapless Cleveland ball club going from worst to first by the end of the film. Organizational turnaround Throughout the 1980s, Indians owners had pushed for a new stadium. Cleveland Stadium had been a symbol of the Indians' glory years in the 1940s and 1950s. However, during the lean years even crowds of 40,000 were swallowed up by the cavernous environment. The old stadium was not aging gracefully; chunks of concrete were falling off in sections and the old wooden pilings now petrified. In 1984, a proposal for a $150 million domed stadium was defeated in a referendum 2–1. Finally, in May 1990, Cuyahoga County voters passed an excise tax on sales of alcohol and cigarettes in the county. The tax proceeds would be used to finance the building of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex which would include Jacobs Field and Gund Arena for the Cleveland Cavaliers basketball team. The team had new ownership and a new stadium on the way. They now needed a winning team. The team's fortunes started to turn in , ironically with a very unpopular trade. The team sent power-hitting outfielder Joe Carter to the San Diego Padres for two unproven players, Sandy Alomar, Jr. and Carlos Baerga. Alomar made an immediate impact, not only being elected to the All-Star team but also winning Cleveland's fourth Rookie of the Year award and a Gold Glove. Baerga would become a three-time All-Star with consistent offensive production. Indians general manager John Hart made a number of moves that would finally bring success to the team. In , he hired former Indian Mike Hargrove to manage and traded catcher Eddie Taubensee to the Houston Astros who, with a surplus of outfielders, were willing to part with Kenny Lofton. Lofton finished second in AL Rookie of the Year balloting with a .285 average and 66 stolen bases. The Indians were named "Organization of the Year" by Baseball America in 1992, in response to the appearance of offensive bright spots and an improving farm system. The team suffered a tragedy during spring training of , when a boat carrying pitchers Steve Olin, Tim Crews, and Bob Ojeda crashed into a pier. Olin and Crews were killed, and Ojeda was seriously injured. (Ojeda missed most of the season, and would retire the following year). By the end of the 1993 season, the team was in transition, leaving Cleveland Stadium and fielding a talented nucleus of young players. Many of those players came from the Indians' new AAA farm team, the Charlotte Knights, who won the International League title that year. 1994–2000: A new beginning Then-Jacobs Field Indians General Manager John Hart and team owner Richard Jacobs managed to turn the team's fortunes around. The Indians opened Jacobs Field in 1994 with the aim of improving on the prior season's sixth-place finish. The Indians were only one game behind the division-leading Chicago White Sox on August 12 when a players strike wiped out the rest of the season. The strike also led to an absurdity: The Minnesota Twins traded Dave Winfield to the Cleveland Indians for a player to be named later just before the season was officially canceled, so no player was named. To settle the deal, the executives of the teams went out to dinner, and Cleveland picked up the tab, meaning that the future Hall-of-Famer had been dealt for dinner. 1995 season: A first since 1954 Having contended for the division in the aborted 1994 season, Cleveland sprinted to a 100–44 record (18 games were lost to player/owner negotiations) in 1995 winning its first ever divisional title. Veterans Dennis Martinez, Orel Hershiser and Eddie Murray combined with a young core of players including Albert Belle, Jim Thome, Manny Ramírez and Charles Nagy to lead the league in team batting average as well as team ERA. After defeating the Boston Red Sox in the Division Series and the Seattle Mariners in the ALCS, Cleveland clinched a World Series berth, for the first time since 1954. The World Series ended in disappointment with the Indians falling in six games to the Atlanta Braves. The Indians repeated as AL Central champions in , but lost to the Baltimore Orioles in the Division Series. Notably in 1996, tickets for every home game for the Indians sold out within 10 minutes of going on sale. 1997 season: Two outs away In 1997 Cleveland started slow but finished with an 86–75 record. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Indians defeated the heavily-favored New York Yankees in the Division Series, 3–2. After defeating the Baltimore Orioles in the ALCS, Cleveland went on to face the Florida Marlins in the World Series which featured the coldest game in World Series history. With the series tied after game six, the Indians went into the ninth inning of Game 7 with a 2–1 lead, but closer Jose Mesa allowed the Marlins to tie the game. In the eleventh inning, Edgar Rentería drove in the winning run giving the Marlins their first championship. Cleveland became the first team to lose the World Series after carrying the lead into the bottom of the ninth inning of the seventh game. In his 2002 autobiography, Indians shortstop Omar Vizquel blamed Jose Mesa for the loss, which led to a feud between the players. 1998-2000 In , the Indians made the playoffs for the fourth straight year. After defeating the wild-card Boston Red Sox three games to one in the first round of the playoffs, Cleveland lost the 1998 ALCS in six games to the New York Yankees, who had come into the playoffs with 114 wins in the regular season. For the season, Cleveland added relief pitcher Ricardo Rincón and Roberto Alomar, brother of catcher Sandy Alomar, and won the Central Division title for its fifth consecutive playoff appearance. The team scored 1,009 runs, becoming the first (and to date only) team since the 1950 Boston Red Sox to score more than 1,000 runs in a season. This time, Cleveland did not make it past the first round, losing the Division Series to the Red Sox, despite taking a two-games-to-none lead in the series. In game three, Indians starter Dave Burba went down with an injury in the 4th inning. Four pitchers, including presumed game four starter Jaret Wright, surrendered nine runs in relief. Without a long reliever or emergency starter on the playoff roster, Hargrove started both Bartolo Colón and Charles Nagy in games four and five on only three days rest. The Indians lost game four 23–7 and game five 12–8. Four days later, longtime manager Mike Hargrove was dismissed, due in large part to the team's failure to win the World Series. In , the Indians had a 44–42 start, but caught fire after the All Star break and went 46–30 the rest of the way to finish 90–72. The team had one of the league's best offenses that year and a defense that yielded three gold gloves. However, they ended up five games behind the Chicago White Sox in the Central division and missed the wild card by one game to the Seattle Mariners. Mid-season trades brought Bob Wickman and Jake Westbrook to Cleveland, and free agent Manny Ramírez departed for Boston after the season. The Indians set a Major League record for most pitchers used in a single season. Colon, Burba, and Chuck Finley posted strong seasons, and the bullpen was solid. But with Jaret Wright and Charles Nagy spending months on the disabled list, the team could not solidify the final two spots in the rotation. Other starting pitchers that season combined for a total of 346 2/3 innings and 265 earned runs for an ERA of 6.88. In 2000, Larry Dolan bought the Indians for $320 million from Richard Jacobs, who, along with his late brother David, had paid $45 million for the club in 1986. The sale set a record at the time for the sale of a baseball franchise. 2001–present: The Shapiro years 2001 saw a return to the playoffs. After the departures of Manny Ramírez and Sandy Alomar, Jr., the Indians signed former MVP Juan González, who helped the Indians win the Central division with a 91–71 record. One of the highlights came on August 5, 2001, when the Indians completed the biggest comeback in MLB History. Cleveland rallied to close a 14–2 deficit in the sixth inning to defeat the Seattle Mariners 15–14 in 11 innings. The Mariners, who won a record 116 games that season, had a strong bullpen, and Indians manager Charlie Manuel had already pulled many of his starters with the game seemingly out of reach. Seattle and Cleveland met in the first round of the playoffs, with the Indians taking a two-games-to-one lead. However, with Freddy Garcia, Jamie Moyer and a strong bullpen, the Mariners won Games 4 and 5 to deny the Indians their first playoff series victory since 1998. In the 2001 offseason, GM John Hart resigned and his assistant Mark Shapiro took the reins. Shapiro moved to rebuild by dealing aging veterans for younger talent. He traded Roberto Alomar to the New York Mets for a package that included outfielder Matt Lawton and prospects Alex Escobar and Billy Traber. When the team fell out of contention in mid-, Shapiro fired manager Charlie Manuel and traded pitching ace Bartolo Colón for prospects Brandon Phillips, Cliff Lee, and Grady Sizemore; acquired Travis Hafner from the Rangers for Ryan Drese and Einar Diaz; and picked up Coco Crisp from the St. Louis Cardinals for aging starter Chuck Finley. Jim Thome left after the season, going to the Phillies for a larger contract. 2002–2006 Young Indians teams finished far out of contention in 2002 and under new manager Eric Wedge. They posted strong offensive numbers in , but continued to struggle with a bullpen that blew more than 20 saves. A highlight of the season was a 22–0 victory over the New York Yankees on August 31, one of the worst defeats suffered by the Yankees in team history. In early , the offense got off to a poor start. After a brief July slump, the Indians caught fire in August, and cut a 15.5 game deficit in the Central Division down to 1.5 games. However, the season came to a end as the Indians went on to lose six of their last seven games, five of them by one run, missing the playoffs by only two games. The next season, the club made several roster changes, while retaining its nucleus of young players. The off-season was highlighted by the acquisition of top prospect Andy Marté from the Boston Red Sox. The Indians had a solid offensive season, led by career years from Travis Hafner and Grady Sizemore. Hafner, despite missing the last month of the season, tied the single season grand slam record of six, which was set in by Don Mattingly. Despite the solid offensive performance, the bullpen struggled with 23 blown saves (a Major League worst), and the Indians finished a disappointing fourth. 2007: Division champions Indians fans celebrate as the team clinches the 2007 division title In , Shapiro signed veteran help for the bullpen and outfield in the offseason. Veterans Aaron Fultz, and Joe Borowski joined Rafael Betancourt in the Indians bullpen. Shapiro also signed right fielder Trot Nixon and left fielder David Dellucci to short-term contracts for veteran leadership. The Indians improved significantly over the prior year and went into the All-Star break in second place. The team brought back Kenny Lofton for his third stint with the team in late July. The Indians finished with a 96–66 record for their seventh Central Division title in 13 years and their first post-season trip since 2001. The Indians began their playoff run by defeating the New York Yankees in the American League Division Series three games to one, and jumped out to a three-games-to-one lead over the Red Sox in the American League Championship Series. The season ended in disappointment when Boston swept the final three games to advance to the 2007 World Series. Despite the loss, Cleveland players took home a number of awards. Grady Sizemore, who had a .995 fielding percentage and only two errors in 405 chances, won the Gold Glove award, Cleveland's first since 2001. Indians Pitcher CC Sabathia won the second Cy Young Award in team history with a 19–7 record, a 3.21 ERA and an MLB-leading 241 innings pitched. Eric Wedge was awarded the first Manager of the Year Award in team history. 2008-Present The Indians struggled during the 2008 season. Injuries to sluggers Travis Hafner and Victor Martinez, as well as starting pitchers Jake Westbrook and Fausto Carmona led to a poor start. The Indians, falling to last place for a short time in June and July, traded CC Sabathia to the Milwaukee Brewers. However, amid the mediocrity, some key players, such as shortstop Jhonny Peralta and catcher Kelly Shoppach, who took over starting duties after Martinez was injured, began to shine. Pitcher Cliff Lee went 22-3 with an ERA of 2.54 and earned the AL Cy Young Award. Grady Sizemore had a career year, winning a Gold Glove and Silver Slugger, and the Indians finished with a record of 81-81. Season-by-season results Uniforms The Indians' home uniform is white with navy piping around the neck and down either side of the buttons on the front of the jersey; the navy piping is also located around each sleeve. Across the front of the jersey in script font is the word "Indians" in red with a blue and white outline. The jersey has the Chief Wahoo logo on the left sleeve. The home cap is navy with a red bill and features the Chief Wahoo logo on the front. The road uniform is gray with identical piping to the home jersey. The word "Cleveland" in red script font is placed on the front of the jersey, also with a blue and white outline. Like the home uniform, the Chief Wahoo logo is located on the left sleeve. The road cap is entirely navy with the Chief Wahoo logo on the front. The alternate home uniform is new for the 2008 season. It is cream in color with "Indians" across the front in red block lettering with a dark navy outline. The Chief Wahoo logo is located on the left sleeve. This jersey is the only Indians jersey to not have the players' names on the back. The alternate home cap is dark navy with a red block "C" on the front. This uniform is worn during weekend and holiday home games. The alternate road jersey is blue with white piping around the neck and down either side of the buttons on the front of the jersey; the white piping is also located around each sleeve. Script "Indians" is located across the front of the jersey in the same fashion as the home uniform; the Chief Wahoo logo is on the left sleeve. The alternate road cap is navy with a script "I" on the front. The blue jersey is also worn during Tuesday home games with the standard home cap. For the 2009 season, the team will wear a patch on the right sleeve of their uniform jerseys in tribute of Herb Score. The former pitcher turned broadcaster died on November 11, 2008. Fan support Sellout streak On June 12, 1995, the Indians began a record-breaking 455-game home sellout streak that did not end until April 4, 2001, almost six years later. The streak would span parts of seven MLB seasons, extend over 2,100 days, and would draw a total of 19,324,248 fans to Jacobs (now Progressive) Field. The demand for tickets was so great that all 81 home games were sold out before Opening Day on at least three separate occasions. The 455 straight home game sellouts remained a Major League Baseball record, until broken by the Boston Red Sox on September 8, 2008. The team's success during the late 1990s would even lead comedian and Cleveland native Drew Carey to quip, "Finally it's your team that sucks!" As a thank-you to their fans, the Indians honored them with a retired number – 455, signifying the length of the streak. Celebrity fans Bob Hope, entertainer, once part-owner of the team http://www.bobhope.com/bob8.htm Drew Carey, actor, comedian, host of The Price is Right Jay Crawford, ESPN sportscaster Tom Hanks, actor, director, producer Jim Jarmusch, director Jerry Lawler, color commentator/wrestler of WWE Raw Martin Mull, actor, comedian Chris Rose, sportscaster, host of the Best Damn Sports Show Period Fred Willard, actor, comedian The interview: Fred Willard Nickname and Logo Controversy The club nickname and its cartoon logo have been criticized for perpetuating Indian stereotypes. In 1997, during the team's most recent World Series appearance, three Indian protesters were arrested, but later acquitted. Radio and television The Indians' flagship radio station is WTAM, a news/talk station located at 1100 AM. Tom Hamilton and Mike Hegan are the radio announcers, with Jim Rosenhaus serving as pregame host, producer/engineer, and fill-in whenever Hamilton or Hegan take time off. Select games can be heard on hot talk/rock station WMMS 100.7 FM when there is a conflict with Cleveland Cavaliers basketball games, which also air on WTAM. If the Cavaliers are in the playoffs, all conflicted Indians games go to WMMS. The television rights are held by SportsTime Ohio (STO), a network launched in by the Indians. Matt Underwood and Rick Manning form the announcing team, with Al Palowski as the pregame and postgame host and update anchor during the game. Palowski also serves as a fill-in when Underwood or Manning take time off. Twenty games a year are shown on over the air TV, originating on NBC affiliate WKYC Channel 3, (STO will also air the WKYC games via simulcast). Broadcast games are also carried on WWHO 53, Columbus; WLIO 35 Lima; WICU-TV 12 (or WSEE-TV 35) Erie, PA; WKBW-DT 7.2, Buffalo, NY; MY-YTV (WYTV-DT) 33.2, Youngstown; and BCSN Toledo. For the first time ever in 2009, every Indians regular season game, home and away, is scheduled to be televised. Past Indians broadcasters include Tom Manning, Jack Graney (the first ex-baseball player to become a play-by-play announcer), Jack Corrigan (now with the Colorado Rockies), Jimmy Dudley who received the Ford Frick Award in 1997, Ken Coleman, Joe Castiglione, Van Patrick, Joe Tait, Bruce Drennan, Jim "Mudcat" Grant, Harry Jones, Rocky Colavito and Herb Score, who called Indians' baseball for 34 seasons. Baseball Hall of Famers Nap Lajoie on a 1911 baseball card Retired numbers <b>The Fans Retired 2001<b>Bob FellerSP, CoachRetired 1957<b>Earl AverillCFRetired 1975<b>Larry DobyCF, CoachRetired 1994<b>Bob Lemon3B, SP, CoachRetired 1998<b>Lou BoudreauSS, MRetired 1970<b>Mel HarderSP, CoachRetired 1990<b>Jackie Robinson2BRetired 1997 Jackie Robinson's number 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball. The number 455 was honored after the Indians sold out 455 consecutive games between 1995 and 2001, which was an MLB record until it was surpassed by the Boston Red Sox on September 8, 2008. Current roster Minor league affiliations AAA: Columbus Clippers, International League AA: Akron Aeros, Eastern League Advanced A: Kinston Indians, Carolina League A: Lake County Captains, South Atlantic League Short Season A: Mahoning Valley Scrappers, New York-Penn League Rookie: AZL Indians, Arizona League Rookie: DSL Indians, Dominican Summer League See also Cleveland Indians award winners and league leaders Cleveland Indians managers and ownership Cleveland Indians seasons Cleveland Indians team records List of sports team names and mascots derived from indigenous peoples Native American mascot controversy References External links Official site Cleveland Indians 1998 Annual Report, the last filed with the SEC Sports E-Cyclopedia World Series Championship Navigation Boxes | Cleveland_Indians |@lemmatized cleveland:82 indian:93 professional:8 baseball:24 team:96 base:3 ohio:2 central:9 division:16 major:15 league:76 american:23 since:8 play:21 progressive:2 field:12 formerly:2 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1,949 | Heaven | Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest Heaven; from Gustave Doré's illustrations to the Divine Comedy. Heaven may refer to the physical heavens, the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the universe beyond. This is the traditional literal meaning of the term in English, however since at least AD 1000, it is typically also used to refer to an afterlife plane of existence (often held to exist in another realm) in various religions and spiritual philosophies, often described as the holiest possible place, accessible by people according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith etc. Etymology The modern English word Heaven derives from the word heven around 1150, which developed from the Old English heofon around 1000 referring to the Christianized "place where God dwells" but earlier meaning "sky, firmament" The Anglo-Saxons knew the concept of Paradise, which they expressed with words such as neorxnawang, lit. (place of) no toil nor worries. (attested from around 725 in Beowulf); this is cognate with other Germanic languages - Old Saxon heƀan "sky, heaven", Middle Low German heven "sky", Old Icelandic himinn "sky, heaven", Gothic himins, and existed in variation with a related word having an -l suffix: Old Frisian himel, himul "sky, heaven", Old Saxon/Old High German himil, Dutch hemel, and modern German Himmel, all of which derive from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic *Hemina-. Barnhart (1995:357). Basic concepts While there are abundant and varied sources for conceptions of Heaven, the typical believer's view appears to depend largely on his religious tradition and particular sect. Some religions conceptualize Heaven as pertaining to some type of peaceful life after death related to the immortality of the soul. Heaven is generally construed as a place of happiness, sometimes eternal happiness. A psychological reading of sacred religious texts across cultures and throughout history would describe it as a term signifying a state of "full aliveness" or wholeness. In ancient Judaism, the belief in Heaven and afterlife was connected with that of Sheol (mentioned in Isaiah 38:18, Psalms 6:5 and Job 7:7-10). Some scholars asserted that Sheol was an earlier concept, but this theory is not universally held. One later Jewish sect that maintained belief in a Resurrection of the dead was known as the Pharisees. Opposed to them were the Sadducees who denied the doctrine of Resurrection (Matt. 22:23). In most forms of Christianity, belief in the afterlife is professed in the major Creeds, such as the Nicene Creed, which states: "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come." Examples of the different terminology referencing the concept of "heaven", in the Christian Bible are: the kingdom of heaven (Matthew 5:3), the kingdom of the Father (Matthew 13:43), life (Matthew 7:14), life everlasting (Matthew 19:16), the joy of the Lord (Matthew 25:21), great reward (Matthew 5:12), the kingdom of God (Mark 9:45), the kingdom of Christ (Luke 22:30), the house of the Father (John 14:2), city of God, the heavenly Jerusalem (Hebr., xii), the holy place (Hebrews 9:12; D. V. holies), paradise (2 Corinthians 12:4), incorruptible crown (1 Corinthians 9:25), crown of life (James 1:12), crown of justice (II Timothy iv, 8), crown of glory (1 Peter 5:4) In Buddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part of Samsara (illusionary reality). Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn (but no soul actually goes through rebirth; see anatta) in one of them. However, their stay in the heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo a different rebirth into another realm, as humans, animals, or other beings. Because Heaven is temporary and part of Samsara, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reaching enlightenment (Nirvana). In the native Chinese Confucian traditions Heaven (Tian) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example. Some faiths teach that one enters heaven at the moment of death, while others teach that this occurs at a later time. Some of Christianity along with other major religions maintain that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the form of this world has passed away." (*JPII) Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the "resurrection of the body", which is exclusively of Biblical origin, as contrasted with "the immortality of the soul", which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the last judgement or the "end of time" when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on another plane immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the end of the world.(*JPII, also see eschatology, afterlife) In some early religions (such as the Ancient Egyptian faith), Heaven was a physical place far above the Earth in a "dark area" of space where there were no stars, basically beyond the Universe. Departed souls would undergo a literal journey to reach Heaven, along the way to which there could exist hazards and other entities attempting to deny the reaching of Heaven. One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from heaven". Several works of written and filmed science fiction have plots in which Heaven can be reached by the living through technological means. An example is Disney film The Black Hole, in which a manned spacecraft found both Heaven (or another dimension) and Hell located at the bottom of a black hole. Does The Black Hole still suck? Movie review by Joshua Moss, June 2, 2000. In Christianity it is believed that Heaven is a spiritual place, unreachable by humans and only to be entered after death, although it can hold physical things, such as the Ascension or Assumption. Many of today's Biblical scholars, such as N. T. Wright, in tracing the concept of Heaven back to its Jewish roots, see Earth and Heaven as overlapping or interlocking. Heaven is known as God's space, his dimension, and is not a place that can be reached by human technology. This belief states that Heaven is where God lives and reigns whilst being active and working alongside people on Earth. One day when God restores all things, Heaven and Earth will be forever combined into the 'New Heavens' and 'New Earth'. Entrance into Heaven Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it, typically in the afterlife. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a "good life" (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable exception to this is the 'sola fide' belief of many mainstream Protestant sects, which teaches that one does not have to live a perfectly "good life," but that one must accept Jesus Christ as his/her savior, and then Jesus Christ will assume the guilt of his/her sins; believers are believed to be forgiven regardless of any good or bad 'works' one has participated in. Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place "without the presence of God", Hell, which is eternal (see annihilationism). Some religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell, such as Purgatory. One religion, universalism, believes that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the soul. Many people who come close to death and have near death experiences report meeting relatives or entering "the Light" in an otherworldly dimension, which share similarities with the religious concept of Heaven. Even though there are also reports of distressing experiences and negative life-reviews, which share some similarities with the concept of Hell, the positive experiences of meeting or entering 'the Light' is reported as an immensely intense feeling state of love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this intensely positive feeling state, people who have near death experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened state of awareness is at the heart of the experience of 'Heaven'. Jorgensen, Rene. Awakening After Life BookSurge, 2007 ISBN 1-4196-6347-X In the Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic. The Bahá'í writings describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely hell is seen as a state of remoteness from God. Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them. For Bahá'ís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy. Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother." The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Bahá'í view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Bahá'ís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life. The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current Manifestations of God, which Bahá'ís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved." The Bahá'í teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware of, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person. In Buddhism According to Buddhist Cosmology the universe is undergoing cycles and beings are spread over a number of existential "planes" in which this human world is only one (though important) "realm" of life. In Buddhism the gods are not immortal, though they may live much longer than the earthly beings. They also are subject to decay and change, and the process of becoming. The intensity and the manner in which these processes take place however may be different and involve longer periods of time. But like any other beings, they are with a beginning and an end. However, all heavenly beings are regarded as inferior in status to the Arhats who have attained Nirvana. The gods were also from the lower worlds originally, but slowly and gradually graduated themselves into higher worlds by virtue of their past deeds and cultivation of virtuous qualities. Since there are many heavens and higher worlds of Brahma, these gods may evolve progressively from one heaven to another through their merit or descend into lower worlds due to some misfortune or right intention. One notable Buddhist paradise is the Pure Land of Pure Land Buddhism. The gods of Buddhism are therefore not immortal. Neither their position in the heavens is permanent. They may however live for longer durations of time. One of the Buddhist Sutras states that a hundred years of our existence is equal to one day and one night in the world of the thirty-three gods. Thirty such days add up to their one month. Twelve such months become their one year, while they live for a thousand such years. In Chinese Faiths Chinese Zhou Dynasty Oracle script for Tian, the character for Heaven or sky. Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of Shangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Chinese term for Heaven, Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou Dynasty. After their conquest of the Shang Dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity Tian to be identical with the Shang supreme deity Shangdi, much as the Romans identified the Greek Zeus with their Jupiter. Herrlee Creel "The Origin of the Deity T'ien" (1970:493-506) The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for Heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all men. Heaven is affected by man's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it. Joseph Shih, "The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese Religion," Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp 99-138, Brill: 1969 Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with Confucius asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." Joseph Shih, "The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese Religion," Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp 99-138, Brill: 1969 Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as Mozi took an even more theistic view of Heaven, believing that Heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of Heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of Heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising that Mohism championed a concept called "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼愛), which taught that Heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others. Homer Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol 9, No 3/4, pp 163-172, University of Hawaii Press: 1960. In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he writes: Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius. By the time of the later Han Dynasty, however, under the influence of Xunzi, the Chinese concept of Heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside. Worship of Heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as sacrifice. In Christianity Historically, Christianity has taught "Heaven" as a place of eternal life, in that it is a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the late 19th century, Christendom was divided between the Roman Catholic view, the Orthodox view, the Coptic view, the Jacobite view, the Abyssinian view and Protestant views. See also Christian denominations. Roman Catholics believe that entering Purgatory after death (physical rather than ego death) cleanses one of sin (period of suffering until one's nature is perfected), which makes one acceptable to enter heaven. This is valid for venial sin only, as mortal sins can be forgiven only through the act of reconciliation and repentance while on earth Roman Catholic Catechism section #982 . Some within the Anglican Communion, notably Anglo-Catholics, also hold to this belief, despite their separate history. However, in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, it is only God who has the final say on who enters heaven. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, heaven is understood as union (Theosis) and communion with the Triune God (reunion of Father and Son through love). In Protestant Christian sects, eternal life depends upon the sinner receiving God's grace (unearned and undeserved blessing stemming from God's love) through faith in Jesus' death for their sins, see atonement, his resurrection as the Christ, and accepting his Lordship (authority and guidance) over their lives. Some Protestant sects also teach that a physical baptism, or obligatory process of transformation or experience of spiritual rebirth, is further required. Also, Protestantism is divided into groups who believe in the doctrine of eternal security (once a person becomes a Christian, s/he remains one forever, also referred to by the slogan "once saved, always saved") and those who believe that a person who sins continually without any repentance or penetance was never saved in the first place. Some sects do believe that those who continually sin can lose their salvation, though it is generally believed that it shows that the individual was not fully committed in the first place. According to the website "Religioustolerance.org", "Conservative and mainline Protestant denominations tend to base their belief in heaven on the literal interpretation of certain passages of the Bible, and symbolic interpretations of others. They arrive at very different beliefs because they select different passages to read literally." What Christian groups say about the afterlife: Heaven, Hell, Purgatory, Reincarnation... at Religioustolerance.org. Early Christian writing From the early second century, we have a fragment of one of the lost volumes of Papias, a Christian bishop, who expounded that "heaven" was separated into three distinct layers. He referred to the first as just "heaven", the second as "paradise", and the third as "the city". Papias taught that "there is this distinction between the habitation of those who produce a hundredfold, and that of those who produce sixty-fold, and that of those who produce thirty-fold". In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus (a Greek bishop) wrote that not all who are saved would merit an abode in heaven itself. Christians in the first century, such as Paul of Tarsus, believed that the Kingdom of God was coming to earth within their lifetimes. Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, USA. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530013-0 They looked forward to a divine future on earth. After the Kingdom of God did not arrive, Christians gradually refined their hopes, so that they came to look forward to a reward in heaven after death rather than to a reward in an imminent, divine kingdom on earth; while continuing to use the major creeds' statements of belief in the Resurrection. In Orthodox Christianity Eastern Orthodox icon depicting Christ enthroned in heaven, surrounded by the ranks of angels and saints. At the bottom is Paradise with the Bosom of Abraham (left), and the Good Thief (right). The teachings of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox communions regarding the Kingdom of Heaven, or Kingdom of God, is basically taken from scripture, and thus many elements of this belief are held in common with other scriptural faiths and denominations. Some specific descriptions of this Kingdom as given in the canon of scripture include— (this list is by no means comprehensive): Peaceful Conditions on a New Earth—Is. 2:2–4, 9:7, 11:6–9, 27:13, 32:17–18, 33:20–21, 60:17–18, Ez. 34:25–28, 37:26, Zech 9:10, Matt. 5:3–5, Rev. 21 Eternal Rule by a Messiah–King—Ps. 72, Jer 31:33–34, Zech 2:10–11, 8:3, 14:9, Matt 16:27, Rev 21:3–4 an heir of David, Is. 9:6–7, 11:1–5 Bodily perfection—No hunger, thirst, death, or sickness; a pure language, etc. – Is. 1:25, 4:4, 33:24, 35:5–6, 49:10, 65:20–24, Jer. 31:12–13, Ez. 34:29, 36:29–30, Micah 4:6–7, Zeph. 3:9–19, Matt 13:43 Ruined cities inhabited by people and flocks of sheep—Is. 32:14, 61:4–5, Ez. 36:10,33–38, Amos 9:14 Eastern Orthodox cosmology Eastern Orthodox cosmology perceives heaven as having different levels (), the lowest of which is Paradise. At the time of creation, paradise touched the earth at the Garden of Eden. After the Fall of man, paradise was separated from the earth, and mankind forbidden entry, lest he partake of the Tree of Life and live eternally in a state of sinfulness (). At his death on the Cross, the Orthodox believe Jesus opened the door to Paradise to mankind again (), and the Good Thief was the first to enter. Various saints have had visions of heaven (). The Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the prayers for the dead: "…a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away." Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead, trans. Father Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY), p. 77. In Roman Catholicism The Roman Catholic Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and also the books of the apocrypha and collected church wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed Trinity, the Blessed Virgin Mary (also called the Queen of Heaven), the angels Treated extensively in C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964). and the saints See discussion at http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510, where a.o. Hebrews 12:22-24 is quoted. . According to the dogma of Assumption of the Virgin Mary, the Virgin Mary "having completed the course of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory", which implies that heaven must have some facility to support human bodies as well as souls or that the experience of heaven is to be understood as a spiritual (soul) experience while still on earth. The essential joy of heaven is called the beatific vision, which is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God, and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the Last Judgment, when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also known as paradise in some cases. The Great Gulf separates heaven from hell. The Roman Catholic teaching regarding Heaven is found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Those who die (generally understood as physical death as opposed to "body level," ego identity) in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified, live forever (defined as immortality of the body as opposed to eternal aliveness in the psychological sense). This perfect (divine) life with [God] (Father Deity rather than concept of "perfect goodness") is called heaven. [It] is the ultimate end and fulfilment of the deepest human longings, the state of supreme, definitive happiness, full aliveness. The Catholic Church teaches that only those baptized by water (symbol of purification/internal cleansing), blood (symbol of martyrdom), or desire (explicit or implicit desire for purification) may enter heaven and those who have died in a state of grace may enter heaven. "The Necessity of Baptism". Catholic Answers. Retrieved on May 07, 2008. Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the particular judgement" where its own afterlife is decided (i.e. Heaven after Purgatory, straight to Heaven, or Hell.) This is different from "the general judgement" also known as "the Last judgement" which will occur when Christ returns to judge all the living and the dead. It is a common Roman Catholic belief that St. Michael the Archangel carries the soul to Heaven. The belief that Saint Peter meets the soul at the "Pearly Gates" is an artistic application of the belief that Christ gave Peter, believed by Catholics to be the first Pope, the keys to Heaven. As Heaven is a place where only the pure are permitted, no person who dies in a state of sin can enter Heaven. "Those who die in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live for ever with Christ. They are like God for ever, for they "see Him as he is," face to face." (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1023) "Those who die in God's grace and friendship imperfectly purified, although they are assured of their eternal salvation, undergo a purification after death, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of God." (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1054) If one were baptized validly and then died, one would go directly to heaven (in the Roman Catholic belief, the sacrament of baptism dissolves the eternal and temporal punishment of all sins). If one never committed a mortal sin and were absolved of all his venial sins just before death, one would go directly to Heaven. Most people who would enter Heaven do so through Purgatory (or "process of purification"). In Purgatory, a soul pays off all temporal punishment one deserved for the sins he committed in life. This does not always happen though. If one receives the Sacrament of Penance validly, as well as gains a plenary indulgence, and dies, one would directly go to heaven. There are many ways to get an indulgence, in various Papal decrees or publications For example, see http://www.zenit.org/english/visualizza.phtml?sid=64735 and http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=40979. . To receive a plenary indulgence, one must receive the sacrament of Confession validly, do one's penance, validly receive Communion, say some specified number of Lord's Prayers, Angelic Salutations and Minor Doxologies for the intentions of the Pope, and then perform some act of gaining the indulgence. Of course, one must remain free from all sin, mortal and venial, while doing all these things. In Protestant Christianity The intermediate state (between death and the resurrection) is understood in diverse ways in Protestant Christian thought (see the article on soul sleep), but the following is generally concluded about the eternal life which Jesus promised those who believe in him: The term Heaven (which differs from "The Kingdom of Heaven" see note below) is applied by the Biblical authors to the realm in which God currently resides. Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoilt and perfect creation, which can be termed Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently with his people, as seen in . There will no longer be any separation between God and man. The believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no tears. Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after Adam and Eve disobeyed God (see original sin) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of sin and thus a state of separation from God. Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct periods: first, the Millennial Reign of Christ (the one thousand years) on this earth, referred to in ; secondly, the New Heavens and New Earth, referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a revival of a strong tradition in the Early Church that was dismissed by Augustine of Hippo and the Roman Catholic Church after him. Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a New Jerusalem which comes from Heaven to the New Earth, which is a seen to be a symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another. 'Heaven' will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the way that the designer planned, each believer 'loving the Lord their God with all their heart and with all their soul and with all their mind' and 'loving their neighbour as themselves'(adapted from Matthew 22:37-38) —a place of great joy, without the negative aspects of earthly life. (The Greek "hê basileia ton ouranon", usually translated as "the Kingdom of Heaven", is indeed more literally "the rule of the skies (or heavens)", with "the skies (or heavens)" being a codeword for God, reflecting the respect shown for God's name in first century Judaism.) Within Christianity, there are several notable belief structures on the means by which Man may enter heaven. See: Arminianism Calvinism Seventh-day Adventist The Seventh-day Adventist understanding of heaven is based on Biblical writings which set out the following: That heaven is a material place where God resides. That earth and all the animate and inanimate things therein and within its celestial space are products of God's creative work. That God sent His Son, Jesus Christ to earth to live as a human being, but who "perfectly exemplified the righteousness and love of God. By His miracles He manifested God's power and was attested as God's promised Messiah. He suffered and died voluntarily on the cross for our sins and in our place, was raised from the dead, and ascended to minister in the heavenly sanctuary in our behalf." General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Adventist Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 4: The Son, 2006 . That Christ promises to return as a Saviour at which time He will resurrect the righteous dead and gather them along with the righteous living to heaven. The unrighteous will die at Christ's second coming. General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Adventist Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 26: Death and Resurrection, 2006 . That after Christ's second coming there will exist a period of time known as the Millennium during which Christ and His righteous saints will reign and the unrighteous will be judged. At the close of the Millennium, Christ and His angels return to earth to resurrect the dead that remain, to issue the judgements and to forever rid the universe of sin and sinners. General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Adventist Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 27: Millennium and the End of Sin, 2006 . "On the new earth, in which righteousness dwells, God will provide an eternal home for the redeemed and a perfect environment for everlasting life, love, joy, and learning in His presence. For here God Himself will dwell with His people, and suffering and death will have passed away. The great controversy will be ended, and sin will be no more. All things, animate and inanimate, will declare that God is love; and He shall reign forever." General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Adventist Fundamental Beliefs, Fundamental Belief # 28: New Earth, 2006 . It is at this point that heaven is established on the new earth. Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses hold the belief that Heaven is the dwelling place of Jehovah God and all of His spirit creatures, the seat of His power as Sovereign of the Universe, and the place where 144,000 chosen faithful followers of Christ will reside ruling over the resurrected Earth alongside the anointed King, Jehovah's son Jesus Christ. Revelation 14:1, 3: And I saw, and look! the Lamb standing upon the Mount Zion, and with him a hundred and forty-four thousand having his name and the name of his Father written on their foreheads..... And they are singing as if a new song before the throne and before the four living creatures and the elders; and no one was able to master that song but the hundred and forty-four thousand, who have been bought from earth. Not all good people go to heaven and the ones who remain on earth can look forward to a happy life in paradise on earth. Acts 2:34: “David [whom the Bible refers to as being ‘a man agreeable to Jehovah God’s heart’] did not ascend to the heavens.” Matt. 11:11: “Truly I say to you people, Among those born of women there has not been raised up a greater than John the Baptist; but a person that is a lesser one in the kingdom of the heavens is greater than he is.” (So John did not go to heaven when he died.) Ps. 37:9, 11, 29: “Evildoers themselves will be cut off, but those hoping in Jehovah are the ones that will possess the earth . . . The meek ones themselves will possess the earth, and they will indeed find their exquisite delight in the abundance of peace. The righteous themselves will possess the earth, and they will reside forever upon it.” Rev. 21:1-4: “I saw a new heaven and a new earth . . . I heard a loud voice from the throne say: ‘Look! The tent of God is with mankind, and he will reside with them, and they will be his peoples. And God himself will be with them. And he will wipe out every tear from their eyes, and death will be no more, neither will mourning nor outcry nor pain be anymore. The former things have died.’” Mic. 4:3, 4: “They will not lift up sword, nation against nation, neither will they learn war anymore. And they will actually sit, each one under his vine and under his fig tree, and there will be no one making them tremble; for the very mouth of Jehovah of armies has spoken it.” Matt. 5:5: “Happy are the mild-tempered ones, since they will inherit the earth.” Matt. 6:9, 10: “Our Father in the heavens, let your name be sanctified. Let your kingdom come. Let your will take place, as in heaven, also upon earth.” The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The view of heaven according to the Latter Day Saint movement is based on Section 76 of the Doctrine and Covenants as well as 1 Corinthians Chapter 15 in the King James version of the Bible. The afterlife is divided first into two levels until the Last Judgement; afterwards it is divided into four levels, the upper three of which are referred to as "degrees of glory" that, for illustrative purposes, are compared to heavenly bodies. Before the Last Judgment, spirits separated from their bodies at death go either to Paradise or to Spirit Prison based on their merits earned in life. Paradise is a place of rest while its inhabitants continue learning in preparation for the Last Judgement. Spirit Prison is a place of anguish and suffering for the wicked and unrepentant; however, missionary efforts done by spirits from Paradise enable those in Spirit Prison to repent, accept the Gospel and the atonement and receive baptism through the practice of baptism for the dead. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Doctrine and Covenants 128:18 After the resurrection and Last Judgement, people are sent to one of four levels: The Celestial Kingdom is the highest level, with its power and glory comparable to the sun. Here, faithful and valiant disciples of Christ who accepted the fullness of His Gospel and kept their covenants with Him through following the prophets of their dispensation are reunited with their families and with God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit for all eternity. Those who would have accepted the Gospel with all their hearts had they been given the opportunity in life (as judged by Christ and God the Father) are also saved in the Celestial Kingdom. Latter-Day Saint movements do not believe in the concept of original sin, but believe children to be innocent through the atonement. Therefore, all children who die before the age of accountability inherit this glory. Men and women who have entered into celestial marriage are eligible, under the tutelage of God the Father, to eventually become gods and goddesses as joint-heirs with Jesus Christ. The Terrestrial Kingdom's power and glory is comparable to that of the moon, and is reserved for those who understood and rejected the full Gospel in life but lived good lives; those who did accept the Gospel but failed to keep their covenants through continuing the process of faith, repentance, and service to others; those who "died without law" (D & C 76:72) but accepted the full Gospel and repented after death due to the missionary efforts undertaken in Spirit Prison. God the Father does not come into the Terrestrial Kingdom, but Jesus Christ visits them and the Holy Spirit is given to them. The Telestial Kingdom is comparable to the glory of the stars. Those placed in the Telestial Kingdom suffered the pains of Hell after death because they were liars, murderers, adulterers, whoremongers, etc. They are eventually rescued from Hell by being redeemed through the power of the atonement at the end of the Millennium. Despite its far lesser condition in eternity, the Telestial Kingdom is described as being more comfortable than Earth in its current state. Suffering is a result of a full knowledge of the sins and choices which have permanently separated a person from the utter joy that comes from being in the presence of God and Jesus Christ, though they have the Holy Spirit to be with them. Perdition, or outer darkness, is the lowest level and has no glory whatsoever. It is reserved for Satan, his angels, and those who have committed the unpardonable sin. This is the lowest state possible in the eternities, and one that very few people born in this world attain, since the unpardonable sin requires that a person know with a perfect knowledge that the Gospel is true and then reject it and fight defiantly against God. The only known son of Perdition is Cain, but it is generally acknowledged that there are probably more scattered through the ages. In Hinduism According to Hindu cosmology, above the earthly plane are six heavenly planes: Bhuva Loka Swarga Loka, a heavenly paradise of pleasure, where all the 330 million Hindu gods (Deva) reside along with the king of gods, Indra. Mahar Loka Jana Loka Tapa Loka Satya Loka Below the earthly plane are seven nether planes: Atala Vitala Sutala Talatala Mahatala Rasatala Pataal Below these are 28 hellish planes (according to Bhagavata Purana), below which is the Garbhodaka ocean with waters of devastation. Depending on good and bad activities (karma) on an earthly plane, a soul either ascends up to enjoy heavenly delights or goes down to fiery hellish planes depending on sins performed which are judged by the god of death & justice, Yama, who presides along the 28 hells. After the results of good and bad deeds (karma) are delivered, souls return to the earthly plane again as human or animal depending on desires and karma. Thus the cycle of birth and death. Eternal liberation or freedom from the cycle of birth and death is called Moksha, which can be obtained only in human life by turning attention inwards for uniting the soul with the Supreme Being (Parabrahman, Bhagavan, Ishvar, Krishna) through Yoga - Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga etc. Liberation (Moksha) is of five types as described in Puranas: Sayujya: Merging into the oneness with the impersonal aspect of the Lord, and hence freedom from all material anxiety. Salokya: Attaining residence in the eternal abode of the Lord, called Vaikuntha, beyond material universal creation, beyond the six material heavens, a place where only surrendered devotees of the Lord go. Saristi: Attaining same opulences as the Lord in His abode. Sarupya: Attaining same beautiful form as the Lord in His abode. Samipya: Attaining close association of the Lord in His abode. This abode of Lord is briefly described in the Bhagavad Gita (15.6), "That supreme abode of Mine is not illumined by the sun or moon, nor by fire or electricity. Those who reach it never return to this material world". Further descriptions of Vaikuntha are in the Puranas where the Lord's devotees reside eternally in loving relationship with the Lord. Furthermore, Vaikuntha residency has following categories: Shanta Rasa: In neutral relationship of great awe, reveration and constant thinking of the Lord. Dasya Rasa: Serving the Lord personally to please the Lord as master and soul as servant. Sakhya Rasa: Serving the Lord as an intimate friend (formal, informal, and many other types). Vatsalya Rasa: Serving the Lord from a superior position as a caretaker (like motherly or fatherly relations). Madhurya/Sringara Rasa: Serving the Lord as an intimate conjugal lover including all previous rasas, the most sweet of all, with many further categories. The Lord lovingly relates to every soul in a multitude of modes and varieties of relationships as desired by the soul. The Lord from there sometimes descends into material universe, along with His associates, to redeem suffering souls and perform His pastimes. He comes either Personally (Svayam Bhagavan) or as His part incarnations (kala, amsha) or sends His messengers/prophets. There are many incarnations of the Lord mentioned in scriptures, 10 of which are famous, the most popular ones are Rama Avatar and Krishna Avatar. In Islam The Qur'an contains many references to an afterlife in Eden for those who do good deeds. Heaven itself is commonly described in the Qu'ran in verse 35 of Surah Al-Ra’d: "The parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised! Beneath it flow rivers. Perpetual is the fruits thereof and the shade therein. Such is the End of the Righteous; and the end of the unbelievers is the Fire." Since Islam rejects the concept of original sin, Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. In Islam, therefore, a child who dies automatically goes to heaven, regardless of the religion of his or her parents. The highest level of heaven is Firdaws (فردوس)- Pardis (پردیس), which is where the prophets, the martyrs and the most truthful and pious people will dwell. Although sharing some similarities, the concept of heaven in Islam is different in many respects to that found in Judaism and Christianity. Chiefly, Heaven (Jannat) is described in physical terms, using jewellery, and food. The Islamic texts describes life for its immortal inhabitants, one that is happy — without hurt, sorrow, fear or shame — where every wish is fulfilled. Traditions relate that inhabitants will be of the same age (32 years for men as the same age when Jesus ascended), and of the same stature. Their life is including: wearing costly robes, bracelets, perfumes; partaking in exquisite banquets, served in priceless vessels by immortal youths; reclining on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Other foods mentioned include fruits, milk, poultry, scented wine and clear drinks bringing neither drunkenness nor rousing quarreling. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, wives, and children (provided they were admitted to paradise) — conversing and recalling the past. Texts also relate "pure consorts" (houris), created in perfection, with whom carnal joys are shared — "a hundred times greater than earthly pleasure". Name and level of Heaven: Firdaus or Paradise 'Adn Na'iim Na'wa Darussalaam Daarul Muaqaamah Al-Muqqamul Amin Khuldi In Judaism Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must die - beyond that we can only guess." Nicholas de Lange, Judaism, Oxford University Press, 1986 While the concept of heaven (malkuth hashamaim מלכות השמים, the Kingdom of Heaven) is well-defined within the Christian and Islamic religions, the Jewish concept of the afterlife, sometimes known as olam haba, the World-to-come, is not so precise. The Torah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought, is that of the immortal soul which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin, is that of resurrection. The Mishnah says, "This world is like a lobby before the World-To-Come. Prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." Jewish writings refer to a "new earth" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas of immortality and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the resurrection. This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at the subsequent resurrection. In Kabbalah Jewish mysticism Jewish mysticism recognizes seven heavens. In order from lowest to highest, the seven Heavens are listed alongside the angels who govern them: Shamayim: The first Heaven, governed by Archangel Gabriel, is the closest of heavenly realms to the Earth; it is also considered the abode of Adam and Eve. Raquie: The second Heaven is dually controlled by Zachariel and Raphael. It was in this Heaven that Moses, during his visit to Paradise, encountered the angel Nuriel who stood "300 parasangs high, with a retinue of 50 myriads of angels all fashioned out of water and fire." Also, Raquia is considered the realm where the fallen angels are imprisoned and the planets fastened. The Legends of the Jews I, 131, and II, 306. Shehaqim: The third Heaven, under the leadership of Anahel, serves as the home of the Garden of Eden and the Tree of Life; it is also the realm where manna, the holy food of angels, is produced. The Legends of the Jews V, 374. The Second Book of Enoch, meanwhile, states that both Paradise and Hell are accommodated in Shehaqim with Hell being located simply " on the northern side." Machen: The fourth Heaven is ruled by the Archangel Michael , and according to Talmud Hagiga 12, it contains the heavenly Jerusalem, the Temple, and the Altar. Machon: The fifth Heaven is under the administration of Samael, an angel referred to as evil by some, but who is to others merely a dark servant of God. Zebul: The sixth Heaven falls under the jurisdiction of Sachiel. Araboth: The seventh Heaven, under the leadership of Cassiel, is the holiest of the seven Heavens provided the fact that it houses the Throne of Glory attended by the Seven Archangels and serves as the realm in which God dwells; underneath the throne itself lies the abode of all unborn human souls. It is also considered the home of the Seraphim, the Cherubim, and the Hayyoth. In Polynesia In the creation stories of Polynesian mythology are found various concepts of the heavens and the underworld. These differ from one island to another. What they share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of Dante's Divine Comedy, but the number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another. Māori Among the Māori, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus: Kiko-rangi, presided over by the god Toumau Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the god Maru rules Hau-ora, where the spirits of new-born children originate Nga-Tauira, home of the servant gods Nga-atua, which is ruled over by the hero Tawhaki Autoia, where human souls are created Aukumea, where spirits live Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over by Rehua The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as in Hawai'i). In one Tahitian legend, heaven is supported by an octopus. Tuamotus An 1869 illustration by a Tuomatuan chief portraying nine heavens. The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by a Tuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by Rata. In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born. Heaven in fiction Works of fiction, especially in the modern fantasy genre, have included numerous different conceptions of Heaven and Hell. C. S. Lewis offers one example of Heaven at the end of his Narnia sequence in the 'Last Battle'. Piers Anthony in his series 'Incarnations of Immortality' portrays examples of Heaven and Hell via Death, Fate, Nature, War, Time, Good-God and Evil-Devil. Robert Heinlein offers in his book 'Job' a Yin-Yang version of Hell where there is still some good within. Heinlein also offers the Schrödinger-type of Heaven, Hell and Universe which is entirely the creation of the mind and thereby infinitely changeable in 'The Cat who walks through Walls' and others. Lois McMaster Bujold suggests five Gods 'Father, Mother, Son, Daughter and Bastard in her 'Chalion' series with a mention of Heaven and a more graphic version of The Bastard's Hell as formless chaos. Michael Moorcock is one of many who offer Chaos-Evil(-Hell) and Uniformity-Good(-Heaven) as equally unacceptable extremes which must be held in balance; most evidently in the Elric and Eternal Champion series. Criticism of the belief in Heaven Atheists reject the existence of heaven. Some atheists have viewed the notion of heaven as an "opiate of the masses"—tool employed by humans to cope with their lives' misery—or "opiate for the masses"—a tool employed by authorities to bribe their subjects into a certain way of life by promising a reward after death. Animal Farm Character Profiles at Charles' George Orwell Links. The anarchist Emma Goldman expressed this view when she wrote, "Consciously or unconsciously, most atheists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell; reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment." Goldman, Emma. "The Philosophy of Atheism". Mother Earth, February 1916. Many people consider George Orwell's use of Sugarcandy Mountain in his novel Animal Farm to be a literary expression of this view. In the book, the animals were told that after their miserable lives were over they would go to a place in which "it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was in season all the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake grew on the hedges". Opinions: Essays: Orwell's Political Messages by Rhodri Williams. Background information for George Orwell's Animal Farm at Charles' George Orwell Links. Fantasy author Phillip Pullman echoes this idea in the fantasy series His Dark Materials, in which the characters finally come to the conclusion that people should make life better on Earth rather than wait for heaven (this idea is known as the Republic of Heaven). Some atheists have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral behavior while alive The Atheist Philosophy Quote by Albert Einstein at Quote DB. , arguing that "It is rather more noble to help people purely out of concern for their suffering than it is to help them because you think the Creator of the Universe wants you to do it, or will reward you for doing it, or will punish you for not doing it. [The] problem with this linkage between religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to help other human beings when good reasons are available." Sam Harris at the 2006 Beyond Belief conference (watch here). Notes References Print Barnhart, Robert K. (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology. HarperCollins ISBN 0062700847 Bunyan, John. The Strait Gate: Great Difficulty of Going to Heaven Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1846856716. Bunyan, John. No Way to Heaven but By Jesus Christ Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1846857805. Craig, Robert D. Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology. Greenwood Press: New York, 1989. ISBN 0313258902. Page 57. Ginzberg, Louis. Henrietta Szold (trans.). The Legends of the Jews. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1909–38. ISBN 0801858909. Hahn, Scott. The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth. New York: Doubleday, 1999. ISBN 978-0385496599. Jorgensen, Rene. "Awakening After Life - A Firsthand Guide through Death into the Purpose of Life". BookSurge, 2007, ISBN 1-4196-6347-X / ISBN 978-1419663475 Moody, D.L. Heaven. Liskeard, Cornwall: Diggory Press, 2007. ISBN 978-1846858123. Young, J.L. "The Paumotu Conception of the Heavens and of Creation", Journal of the Polynesian Society, 28 (1919), 209–211. Documentaries Heaven: Beyond the Grave. A&E Network. (IMDB) Mysteries of the Bible: "Heaven and Hell". A&E Network. External links Catechism of the Catholic Church I believe in Life Everlasting Explanation of Catholic teaching about Heaven, Hell & Purgatory. Salvation Versus Liberation, A Buddhist View of the Paradise or Heavenly Worlds. Everlasting Life in Paradise according to Qu'ran Seven Steps rising to the heavens. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven and Hell. 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1,950 | Julian_(emperor) | Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331/332 Tougher, 12, citing Bouffartigue: L'Empereur Julien et la culture de son temps p. 30 for the argument for 331; A.H. Jones, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris "Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I" p.447 (Iulianus 29) argues for May or June 332. – 26 June 363), was Roman Emperor (Caesar, November 355 to February 360; Augustus, February 360 to June 363), last of the Constantinian dynasty. Julian was a man of "unusually complex character": he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters". Glanville Downey, "Julian the Apostate at Antioch", Church History, Vol. 8, No. 4 (December, 1939), pp. 303-315. See p.305. Julian was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire and it was his desire to bring the empire back to its ancient Roman values in order to save it from "dissolution". Athanassiadi, p.88. He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the cost of Christianity. His rejection of Christianity in favour of Neo-Platonic paganism caused him to be called Julian the Apostate by the church, as Edward Gibbon wrote: {{cquote|The triumph of the party which he deserted and opposed has fixed a stain of infamy on the name of Julian; and the unsuccessful apostate has been overwhelmed with a torrent of pious invectives, of which the signal was given by the sonorous trumpet of Gregory Nazianzen. "Decline and Fall" chapter 23 }} In 363, after a reign of only 19 months as absolute ruler of the Roman Empire, Julian died in Persia during a campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Life Early life Julian solidus, c. 361. The reverse depicts an armed Roman soldier bearing a military standard in one hand and subduing a captive with the other, a reference to the military strength of the Roman Empire, and spells out VIRTVS EXERCITVS ROMANORVM, "the bravery/virtue of the Roman army" Flavius Claudius Julianus, born in May or June 332 or 331 in Constantinople, was the son of Julius Constantius (consul in 335), half brother of Emperor Constantine I, and his second wife, Basilina, both Christians. His paternal grandparents were Western Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora. His maternal grandfather was Julius Julianus, praetorian prefect of the Orient under emperor Licinius from 315 to 324. The name of Julian's maternal grandmother is unknown. In the turmoil after the death of Constantine in 337, in order to establish himself as sole emperor, Julian's zealous Arian Christian cousin Constantius II led a massacre of Julian's family. Constantius II ordered the murders of many descendants from the second marriage of Constantius Chlorus and Theodora, leaving only Constantius and his brothers Constantine II and Constans I, and their cousins, Julian and Gallus (Julian's half-brother), as the surviving males related to Emperor Constantine. Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II were proclaimed joint emperors, each ruling a portion of Roman territory. Julian and Gallus were excluded from public life and given a strictly Arian Christian education. Initially growing up in Bithynia, raised by his maternal grandmother, at the age of seven he was under the guardianship of Eusebius of Nicomedia, the semi-Arian Christian Bishop of Nicomedia, and taught by Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, whom Julian wrote warmly of later. After Eusebius died in 342, both Julian and Gallus were exiled to the imperial estate of Macellum in Cappadocia. Here Julian met the Christian bishop George of Cappadocia, who lent him books from the classical tradition. At the age of 18, the exile was lifted and he dwelt briefly in Constantinople and Nicomedia. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp.44-45. He became a lector, a minor office in the Christian church, and his later writings show a detailed knowledge of the Bible, likely acquired in his early life. Boardman, p. 44, citing Julian to the Alexandrians, Wright's letter 47, of November or December 362. Spanheim 434D. Twelve would be literal, but Julian is counting inclusively. (Looking back on his life in 362, Julian wrote, in his thirty-first year, that he had spent twenty years in the way of Christianity and twelve in the true way (ie the way of Helios). Letter 47, Wright, v.3, p.149. ) Julian studied Neoplatonism in Asia Minor in 351, at first under Aedesius, the philosopher, and then Neoplatonic theurgy from Aedesius' student, Maximus of Ephesus. He was summoned to Constantius' court in Milan in 354 and kept there for a year; in the summer and fall of 355, he was permitted to study in Athens. While there, Julian became acquainted with two men who later became both bishops and saints: Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil the Great; in the same period, Julian was also initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, which he would later try to restore. Constantine II died in 340 when he attacked his brother Constans. Constans in turn fell in 350 in the war against the usurper Magnentius. This left Constantius II as the sole remaining emperor. In need of support, in 351 he made Julian's half-brother, Gallus, Caesar of the East, while Constantius II himself turned his attention westward to Magnentius, whom he defeated decisively that year. In 354 Gallus, who had imposed a rule of terror over the territories under his command, was executed. Julian was summoned to court, and held for a year, under suspicion of treasonable intrigue, first with his brother and then with Claudius Silvanus; he was cleared, in part because the Empress Eusebia intervened on his behalf, and he was sent to Athens. (Julian expresses his gratitude to the empress Eusebia in his third oration. R. Browning, The Emperor Julian (London, 1975), pp. 74-5. However, Shaun Tougher, "The Advocacy of an Empress: Julian and Eusebia" (The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 48, No. 2 (1998), pp. 595-599), argues that the kind Eusebia of Julian's panegyric is a literary creation and that she was doing the bidding of her husband in bringing Julian around to doing what Constantius had asked of him. See especially p.597. ) Caesar in Gaul After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Sylvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in Gaul. Julian was thus summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum (Milan) and, on 6 November 355, he was made Caesar of the West and married Constantius' sister, Helena. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue and Constantius' prefects in Gaul would keep him in check. Julian, however, had other ideas, taking every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul. David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180-395, p.499. In the following years Julian learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the Germanic tribes that had settled on both sides of the Rhine. Campaigns against the Germanic tribes Julian in military dress. Despite having received no military education, Julian proved to be an able military commander, obtaining an important victory in Gaul and leading a Roman army under the walls of the Sassanid Empire's capital. In 356 during his first campaign he led an army to the Rhine, engaged the barbarians and won back several towns that had fallen into Frankish hands, including Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of Senon near Verdun to await the spring. Most sources give the town as Sens, which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213-496, OUP Oxford 2007, p.220. This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general Marcellus deigned to lift the siege. There seem to have been poor relations between Julian and Marcellus. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as magister equitum by Severus. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.49. David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180-395, p.501. The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic tribes that had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his magister peditum Barbatio was to come from Milan and amass forces at Augst (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from Reims. However, while Julian was in transit, a group of Laeti attacked Lyon ("Lugdunum") and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in Alamanni territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic tribes. David S. Potter, p.501. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp.50-51. With Barbatio safely out of the picture, king Chnodomarius led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus in a battle that took place in the vicinity of Strasbourg. The Romans were heavily outnumbered Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, Res Gestae, 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate -- see David S. Potter, p.501. and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted, D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58-66", Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August, 1997), p. 479. yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in Milan. David S. Potter, pp.501-502. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.51. Ammianus, who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55 and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him Augustus, an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor. Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 16.12.64-65 Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul, but at the Mainz bridge he crossed over and made a sudden foray into Alamanni territory, where Roman forces had not been seen for many years, forcing three kings to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks that had taken control of some abandoned forts along the Meuse River. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.51. John F. Drinkwater, The Alamanni and Rome 213-496, p.240-241. In 358, Julian gained victories over the Salian Franks on the Lower Rhine, settling them in Toxandria in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of Tongeren, and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to Hamaland. Taxation and administration At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect Florentius and personally took charge of the province of Belgica Secunda. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as Caesar and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the Rhine frontier. However, he sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. He therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy. Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his Caesar, which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser Saturninius Secundus Salutius from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius". Athanassiadi, p.69. Rebellion in Paris In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the Sassanid Emperor, Shapur II, invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of Amida after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to his eastern army, the orders by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the Petulantes, who had no desire to leave Gaul. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was usually never far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius. Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C. Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius. Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 20.4.1-2 The troops proclaimed Julian emperor in Paris, and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks. Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae, 20.10.1-2 Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, pp.56-57. In November Julian began openly using the title "Augustus" even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games. David S. Potter, p.506. In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, Vadomarius. (Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius encouraging him to raid the borders of Raetia.) Cambridge Ancient History v.13, p.58. Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war. Cambridge Ancient History v.13, p.59. (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him [Constantius] merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms..." In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v.3, p.27. ) However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of Aquileia on the north Adriatic coast, an event which threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Early Centuries, 89 All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety). Cambridge Ancient History v.13, p.60. Civil war was avoided only by the death on November 3 of Constantius, who, in his last will, recognized Julian as his rightful successor. The new emperor and his administration The Church of the Holy Apostles, where Julian brought Constantius II to be buried. On December 11, 361, Julian entered Constantinople as sole emperor and, despite his rejection of Christianity, his first political act was to preside over Constantius' Christian burial, escorting the body to the Church of the Apostles, where it was placed alongside that of Constantine. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.60. This act was a demonstration of his lawful right to the throne. Athanassiadi, p.89. The new emperor rejected the style of administration of his immediate predecessors. He blamed Constantine for the state of the administration and for having abandoned the traditions of the past. He made no attempt to restore the tetrarchal system begun under Diocletian. Nor did he seek to rule as an absolute autocrat. His own philosophic notions led him to idealize the reigns of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. In his first panegyric to Constantius, Julian described the ideal ruler as being essentially primus inter pares ("first among peers"), operating under the same laws as his subjects. While in Constantinople therefore it was not strange to see Julian frequently active in the senate, participating in debates and making speeches, placing himself at the level of all the members of the senate and thus embodying the first among peers. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.63-4. He viewed the royal court of his predecessors as inefficient, corrupt, and expensive. Thousands of servants, eunuchs, and superfluous officials were therefore summarily dismissed. He set up the Chalcedon tribunal to deal with the corruption of the previous administration under the supervision of magister militum Arbitio. Several high-ranking officials under Constantius including the chamberlain Eusebius were found guilty and executed. (Julian was conspicuously absent from the proceedings, perhaps signaling his displeasure at their necessity.) Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.61. He continually sought to reduce what he saw as a burdensome and corrupt bureaucracy within the Imperial administration whether it involved civic officials, the secret agents, or the imperial post service. Another effect of Julian's political philosophy was that the authority of the cities was expanded at the expense of the imperial bureaucracy as Julian sought to reduce direct imperial involvement in urban affairs. For example, city land owned by the imperial government was returned to the cities, city council members were compelled to resume civic authority, often against their will, and the tribute in gold by the cities called the aurum coronarium was made voluntary rather than a compulsory tax. Additionally, arrears of land taxes were cancelled. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13, p.65. While he ceded much of the authority of the imperial government to the cities, Julian also took more direct control himself. For example, new taxes and corvées had to be approved by him directly rather than left to the judgement of the bureaucratic apparatus. Julian certainly had a clear idea of what he wanted Roman society to be, both in political as well as religious terms. The terrible and violent dislocation of the 3rd century meant that the Eastern Mediterranean had become the economic locus of the empire. If the cities were treated as relatively autonomous local administrative areas, it would simplify the problems of imperial administration, which as far as Julian was concerned, should be focused on the administration of the law and defense of the empire's vast frontiers. In replacing Constantius's political and civil appointees, Julian drew heavily from the intellectual and professional classes, or kept reliable holdovers, such as the rhetorician Themistius. His choice of consuls for the year 362 was more controversial. One was the very acceptable Claudius Mamertinus, previously the Praetorian Prefect of Illyricum. The other, more surprising choice was Nevitta, Julian's trusted Frankish general. This latter appointment made overt the fact that an emperor's authority depended on the power of the army. Julian's choice of Nevitta appears to have been aimed at maintaining the support of the Western army which had acclaimed him. Clash with Antiochenes After five months of dealings at the capital, Julian left Constantinople in May and moved to Antioch, arriving in mid-July and staying there for nine months before launching his fateful campaign against Persia in March 363. Antioch was a city favored by splendid temples along with a famous oracle of Apollo in nearby Daphne, which may have been cause for him choosing to reside there. It had also been used in the past as a staging place for amassing troops, a purpose which Julian intended to follow. Bowersock, p.95. His arrival on 18 July was well received by the Antiochenes, though it coincided with the celebration of the Adonia, a festival which marked the death of Adonis, so there was wailing and moaning in the streets—not a good omen for an arrival. Cambridge Ancient History, v.13 p.69. Bowersock, p.96. Julian soon discovered that wealthy merchants were causing food problems, apparently by hoarding food and selling it at high prices. He hoped that the curia would deal with the issue for the situation was headed for a famine. When the curia did nothing, he spoke to the city's leading citizens, trying to persuade them to take action. Thinking that they would do the job, he turned his attention to religious matters. Bowersock, p.96. He tried to resurrect the ancient oracular spring of Castalia at the temple of Apollo at Daphne. After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the god, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.8 - 22.13.3 Socrates of Constantinople, Historia ecclesiastica, 3.18 When the curia still took no substantial action in regards to the food shortage, Julian intervened, fixing the prices for grain and importing more from Egypt. Then landholders refused to sell theirs, claiming that the harvest was so bad that they had to be compensated with fair prices. Julian accused them of price gouging and forced them to sell. Various parts of Libanius' orations may suggest that both sides were justified to some extent Libanius, Orations, 18.195 & 16.21 Libanius, Orations, 1.126 & 15.20 while Ammianus blames Julian for "a mere thirst for popularity". Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.1 Julian's ascetic lifestyle was not popular either, since his subjects were accustomed to the idea of an all-powerful emperor who placed himself well above them. Nor did he improve his dignity with his own participation in the ceremonial of bloody sacrifices. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.14.3 As David S. Potter says: He then tried to address public criticism and mocking of him by issuing a satire ostensibly on himself, called Misopogon or "Beard Hater". There he blames the people of Antioch for preferring that their ruler have his virtues in the face rather than in the soul. The Persian Campaign Julian's rise to Augustus—it should be remembered—was the result of military insurrection eased by Constantius's sudden death. This meant that, while he could count on the wholehearted support of the Western army which had aided his rise, the eastern army was an unknown quantity originally loyal to the emperor he had risen against, and he had tried to woo it through the Chalcedon Tribunal. However, to solidify his position in the eyes of the eastern army, he needed to lead its soldiers to victory and a campaign against the Persians offered such an opportunity. An audacious plan was formulated whose goal was to lay siege on the Sassanid capital city of Ctesiphon and definitively secure the eastern border. Yet the full motivation for this ambitious operation is, at best, unclear. There was no direct necessity for an invasion, as the Sassanids sent envoys in the hope of settling matters peacefully. Julian rejected this offer. Libanius, Oration 12, 76-77 Ammianus states that Julian longed for revenge on the Persians and that a certain desire for combat and glory also played a role in his decision to go to war. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.12.1-2 Illustration from The Fall of Princes by John Lydgate (which is a translation of De Casibus Virorum Illustribus by Giovanni Boccaccio) depicting "the skyn of Julyan". There is no evidence that Julian's corpse was skinned and displayed, and it is likely that the illustrator simply confused the fate of Julian's body with that of emperor Valerian Into enemy territory On 5 March 363, despite a series of omens against the campaign, Julian departed from Antioch with about 80,000 - 90,000 men, Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p.108. and headed north toward the Euphrates. On route he was met by embassies from various small powers offering assistance, none of which he accepted. He did order the Armenian king Arsaces to muster an army and await instructions. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.2.1-2 He crossed the Euphrates near Hierapolis and moved eastward to Carrhae, giving the impression that his chosen route into Persian territory was down the Tigris. Ridley, Notes, p.318. For this reason it seems he sent a force of 30,000 soldiers under Procopius and Sebastianus further eastward to devastate Media in conjunction with Armenian forces. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p.110. This was where two earlier Roman campaigns had concentrated and where the main Persian forces were soon directed. David S, Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p.517. Julian's strategy lay elsewhere, however. He had had a fleet built of over 1,000 ships at Samosata in order to supply his army for a march down the Euphrates and of 50 pontoon ships to facilitate river crossings. Procopius and the Armenians would march down the Tigris to meet Julian near Ctesiphon. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p.110. Julian's ultimate aim seems to have been "regime change" by replacing king Shapur II with his brother Hormisdas. Libanius, Epistulae, 1402.2 David S, Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p.517. After feigning a march further eastward, Julian's army turned south to Circesium at the confluence of the Khabur ("Abora") and the Euphrates arriving at the beginning of April. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate, p.110. Passing Dura on April 6, the army made good progress, bypassing towns after negotiations or besieging those which chose to oppose him. At the end of April the Romans captured the fortress of Pirisabora, which guarded the canal approach from the Euphrates to Ctesiphon on the Tigris. Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p.203. As the army marched toward the Persian capital, the enemy broke the dikes which crossed the land, turning it into marshland, so the army's progress was slowed. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.3.10-11. Ctesiphon By mid May, the army had reached the vicinity of the heavily fortified Persian capital, Ctesiphon, where Julian partially unloaded some of the fleet and had his troops ferried across the Tigris by night. Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p.204. Before the gates of the city the Romans defeated the Persians (Battle of Ctesiphon), driving them back into the city. Cambridge Ancient History, p.75. In the council of war which followed, Julian's generals persuaded him not to mount a siege against the city, given the impregnability of its defenses and the fact that Shapur would soon arrive with a large force. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.7.1. Julian not wanting to give up what he had gained and probably still hoping for the arrival of the column under Procopius and Sebastianus, set off east into the Persian interior, ordering the destruction of the fleet. Cambridge Ancient History, p.75. This proved to be a hasty decision, for they were on the wrong side of the Tigris with no clear means of retreat and the Persians had begun to harass them from a distance, burning any food in the Romans' path. A second council of war on 16 June 363 decided that the best course of action was to lead the army back to the safety of Roman borders, not through Mesopotamia, but northward to Corduene. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 24.8.1-5. Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p.205. Death Detail from a Sassanian relief on the incoronation of Ardashir showing a defeated Julian. During the withdrawal Julian's forces suffered several attacks from Sassanid forces. Dodgeon & Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, p.205. In one such engagement on 26 June 363, the indecisive Battle of Samarra near Maranga, Julian was wounded when the Sassanid army raided his column. In the haste of pursuing the retreating enemy, Julian chose speed rather than caution, taking only his sword and leaving his coat of mail. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 25.3.3 He received a wound from a spear that reportedly pierced the lower lobe of his liver, the peritoneum and intestines. The wound was not immediately deadly. Julian was treated by his personal physician, Oribasius of Pergamum, who seems to have made every attempt to treat the wound. This probably included the irrigation of the wound with a dark wine, and a procedure known as gastrorrhaphy, the suturing of the damaged intestine. On the third day a major hemorrhage occurred and the emperor died during the night. Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361-363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615-619. See p.618. As Julian wished, his body was buried outside Tarsus, though it was later removed to Constantinople. Grant, Michael. The Roman Emperors. (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1997), pp. 254. In 364, Libanius stated that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers; Libanius, Orations, 18.274 this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians. John Malalas reports that the supposed assassination was commanded by Basil of Caesarea. Joannes Malalas, Chronographia, 333-334. Patrologia Graeca XCII, col. 496. . Fourteen years later, Libanius said that Julian was killed by a Saracen and this may have been confirmed by Julian's doctor Oribasius who, having examined the wound, said that it was from a spear used by a group of Saracen auxiliaries in Persian service. evidence preserved by Philostorgius, see David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay AD180-395, p.518 Later Christian historians propagated the tradition that Julian was killed by a saint. Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica, 6.2 Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian who reestablished Christianity's privileged position throughout the Empire. Libanius says in his epitaph of the deceased emperor (18.304) that "I have mentioned representations (of Julian); many cities have set him beside the images of the gods and honour him as they do the gods. Already a blessing has been besought of him in prayer, and it was not in vain. To such an extent has he literally ascended to the gods and received a share of their power from him themselves." However, no similar action was taken by the Roman central government, which would be more and more dominated by Christians in the ensuing decades. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were νενίκηκάς με, Γαλιλαῖε, or Vicisti, Galilaee ("You have won, Galilean"), First recorded by Theodoret, (Historia Ecclesiastica, 3.25) in the 5th century. supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion. The phrase introduces the 1866 poem Hymn to Proserpine, which was Algernon Swinburne's elaboration of what a philosophic pagan might have felt at the triumph of Christianity. Julian and religious issues Julian's beliefs Julian's personal religion was both pagan and philosophical; he viewed the traditional myths as allegories, in which the ancient gods were aspects of a philosophical divinity. The chief surviving sources are his works To King Helios and To the Mother of the Gods, which were written as panegyrics, not theological treatises. While there are clear resemblances to other forms of Late Antique religion, it is controversial as to which variety it is most similar to. He learned theurgy from Maximus of Ephesus, a student of Iamblichus; The emperor's study of Iamblichus and of theurgy are a source of criticism from his primary chronicler, Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.13.6-8 and 25.2.5 his system bears some resemblance to the Neoplatonism of Plotinus; Polymnia Athanassiadi has brought new attention to his relations with Mithraism, although whether he was initiated into it remains debatable; and certain aspects of his thought (such as his reorganization of paganism under High Priests, and his fundamental monotheism) may show Christian influence. Some of these potential sources have not come down to us, and all of them influenced each other, which adds to the difficulties. Tougher, p.27ff., 58f. According to one theory (that of G.W. Bowersock in particular), Julian's paganism was highly eccentric and atypical because it was heavily influenced by an esoteric approach to Platonic philosophy sometimes identified as theurgy and also Neoplatonism. Others (Rowland Smith, in particular) have argued that Julian's philosophical perspective was nothing unusual for a "cultured" pagan of his time, and, at any rate, that Julian's paganism was not limited to philosophy alone, and that he was deeply devoted to the same gods and goddesses as other pagans of his day. Because of his Neoplatonist background Julian accepted the creation of humanity as described in Plato's Timaeus. Julian writes, "when Zeus was setting all things in order there fell from him drops of sacred blood, and from them, as they say, arose the race of men." Julian, "Letter to a Priest", 292. Transl. W.C. Wright, v.2, p.307. Further he writes, "they who had the power to create one man and one woman only, were able to create many men and women at once...." As above. Wright, v.2, p.305. His view contrasts with the Christian belief that humanity is derived from the one pair, Adam and Eve. Elsewhere he argues against the single pair origin, indicating his disbelief, noting for example, "how very different in their bodies are the Germans and Scythians from the Libyans and Ethiopians." Julian, "Against the Galilaeans", 143. Transl. W.C. Wright, v.3, p.357. Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America, 1963 (Southern Methodist University Press)/1997 (Oxford University Press, USA), p. 8. The Christian historian Socrates Scholasticus was of the opinion that Julian believed himself to be Alexander the Great "in another body" via transmigration of souls, "in accordance with the teachings of Pythagoras and Plato". Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, iii, 21. Restoration of Paganism and tolerance of the cults Julian the Apostate presiding at a conference of sectarians, by Edward Armitage, 1875 After gaining the purple, Julian started a religious reformation of the state, which was intended to restore the lost strength of the Roman State. He supported the restoration of Hellenic paganism as the state religion. His laws tended to target wealthy and educated Christians, and his aim was not to destroy Christianity but to drive the religion out of "the governing classes of the empire — much as Buddhism was driven back into the lower classes by a revived Confucian mandarinate in 13th century China." Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, p. 93. He restored pagan temples which had been confiscated since Constantine's time, or simply appropriated by wealthy citizens; he repealed the stipends that Constantine had awarded to Christian bishops, and removed their other privileges, including a right to be consulted on appointments and to act as private courts. He also reversed some favors that had previously been given to Christians. For example, he reversed the declaration that Majuma, the port of Gaza, was a separate city. Majuma had a large Christian congregation while Gaza was still predominantly pagan. On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion. This edict proclaimed that all the religions were equal before the law, and that the Roman Empire had to return to its original religious eclecticism, according to which the Roman State did not impose any religion on its provinces. Practically however, it had as its purpose the restoration of paganism at the expense of Christianity. Coptic icon showing Saint Mercurius killing Julian. According to a tradition, Saint Basil (an old school-mate of Julian) had been imprisoned at the start of Julian's Sassanid campaign. Basil prayed to Mercurius to help him, and the saint appeared in a vision to Basil, claiming to have speared Julian to death. Juventinus and Maximus The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches retell a story concerning two of Julian's bodyguards who were Christian. When he came to Antioch, he prohibited the veneration of the relics. The two bodyguards opposed the edict, and were executed at Julian's command. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches remember them as saints Juventinus and Maximus. Since the persecution of Christians by past Roman Emperors had seemingly only strengthened Christianity, many of Julian's actions were designed to harass and undermine the ability of Christians to organize resistance to the re-establishment of paganism in the empire. Julian, Epistulae, 52.436A ff. Julian's preference for a non-Christian and non-philosophical view of Iamblichus' theurgy seems to have convinced him that it was right to outlaw the practice of the Christian view of theurgy and demand the suppression of the Christian set of Mysteries. See Theourgia-Demiourgia John P Anton. In his School Edict Julian required that all public teachers be approved by the Emperor; the state paid or supplemented much of their salaries. Ammianus Marcellinus explains this as intending to prevent Christian teachers from using pagan texts (such as the Iliad, which was widely regarded as divinely inspired) that formed the core of classical education: "If they want to learn literature, they have Luke and Mark: Let them go back to their churches and expound on them", the edict says. This was an attempt to remove some of the power of the Christian schools which at that time and later used ancient Greek literature in their teachings in their effort to present the Christian religion as being superior to paganism. The edict was also a severe financial blow, because it deprived Christian scholars, tutors and teachers of many students. In his Tolerance Edict of 362, Julian decreed the reopening of pagan temples, the restitution of confiscated temple properties, and the return from exile of dissident Christian bishops. The latter was an instance of tolerance of different religious views, but it may also have been seen as an attempt by Julian to foster schisms and divisions between different Christian sects, since conflict between rival Christian sects was quite fierce. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 22.5.4. His care in the institution of a pagan hierarchy in opposition to that of the Christians was due to his wish to create a society in which every aspect of the life of the citizens was to be connected, through layers of intermediate levels, to the consolidated figure of the Emperor - the final provider for all the needs of his people. Within this project, there was no place for a parallel institution, such as the Christian hierarchy or Christian charity. See Roberts and DiMaio. Charity Because Christian charities were beneficial to all, including pagans, it put this aspect of the Roman citizens lives out of the control of the Imperial authority and under that of the Church. Many historians agree that prior to the advent of Christianity, there was a distinct lack of love-motivated charity in the ancient world, and indeed in the Roman Empire. That is not to say that there was no philanthropy in the history of the Empire - patricians long before Julian's time had been expected to finance the baths and public buildings, for example. However, this was "dictated much more by policy than by benevolence" (WEH Lecky); because love was rare in the pagan philanthropic environment, it was "alien to human nature", and part of the reason why Julian's project failed was because of the inspiration of Christian agape in charity: Julian himself ultimately "conceded that the Christians outshone the pagans in their devotion to charitable work." (Thomas Woods). Sources: Gerhard Uhlhorn, Christian Charity in the Ancient Church, (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883), 2-44 Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7 WEH Lecky, History of European Morals From Augustus to Charlemagne Thus Julian envisioned the institution of a Roman philanthropic system, and cared for the behaviour and the morality of the pagan priests, in the hope that it would mitigate the reliance of pagans on Christian charity: Julian's Column in Ankara, built on the occasion of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 Church martyrs Although Julian was responsible for temporarily stopping factional struggles between Arian and orthodox Christians, the following martyrs have traditionally been dated to his reign: Artemius Saint Basil of Ancyra Saint Eupsychios of Caesarea Saint Dorotheus of Tyre John and Paul Cyril of Heliopolis Attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered the Temple rebuilt. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2-3. A personal friend of his, Ammianus Marcellinus, wrote this about the effort: The failure to rebuild the Temple has been ascribed to an earthquake, common in the region, and to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time. See "Julian and the Jews 361-363 CE" and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple". Julian's support of Jews, coming after the hostility of many earlier Emperors, meant that Jews called him Julian the Hellene. A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews, Avner Falk Ancestry Ancestors of Julian Works Julian wrote several works in Greek, some of which have come down to us. BudéDateWorkCommentWrightI356/7 Athanassiadi, p.61. Panegyric In Honour Of ConstantiusWritten to reassure Constantius that he was on side.III~June 357 Athanassiadi, p.61. Panegyric In Honour Of EusebiaExpresses gratitude for Eusebia's support.IIIIII357/8 Athanassiadi, p.62-3. The Heroic Deeds Of ConstantiusIndicates his support of Constantius, while being critical. (Sometimes called "second panegyric to Constantius".)IIIV359 Athanassiadi, p.69. Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius The manuscript tradition uses the name "Sallustius", but see Bowersock, p.45 (footnote #12), and Athanassiadi, p.20. Grapples with the removal of his close advisor in Gaul.VIIIV361 Athanassiadi, p.85. Letter To The Senate And People of AthensAn attempt to explain the actions leading up to his rebellion.–VIearly 362 Athanassiadi, p.90. Letter To Themistius The PhilosopherResponse to an ingratiating letter from Themistius, outlining J.'s political reading–VIIMarch 362 Athanassiadi, p.131. To The Cynic HeracleiosAttempt to set Cynics straight regarding their religious responsibilities.VIIVIII~March 362 Athanassiadi, p.141, "at the same time" as To The Cynic Heracleios. Hymn To The Mother Of The GodsA defense of Hellenism and Roman tradition.VIX~May 362 Athanassiadi, p.137. To the Uneducated CynicsAnother attack on Cynics who he thought didn't follow the principles of Cynicism.VIXDecember 362 Athanassiadi, p.197, written for the Saturnalia festival, which began December 21. The CaesarsSatire describing a competition between Roman emperors as to who was the best. Strongly critical of Constantine.–XIDecember 362 Athanassiadi, p.148, doesn't supply a clear date. Bowersock, p.103, dates it to the celebration of Sol Invictus, December 25, shortly after the Caesars was written. Hymn To King HeliosAttempt to describe the Roman religion as seen by Julian.IVXIIearly 363 Athanassiadi, p.201, dates it "towards the end of his stay in Antioch". Misopogon, Or, Beard-HaterWritten as a satire on himself, while attacking the people of Antioch for their shortcomings.––362/3 Athanassiadi, p.161. Against the GalilaeansPolemic against Christians, which now only survives as fragments.––362 Not dealt with in Athanassiadi, or dated by Bowersock, but reflects a time when Julian was emperor, and he had other issues to deal with later. Fragment Of A Letter To A PriestAttempt to counteract the aspects that he thought were positive in Christianity.––359-363LettersBoth personal and public letters from much of his career.––?EpigramsSmall number of short verse works.– Budé indicates the numbers used by Athanassiadi given in the Budé edition (1963 & 1964) of Julian's Opera. Julian's Opera, edited by J.Bidez, G.Rochefort, and C.Lacombrade, with French translations of all the principal works except Against the Galilaeans, which is only preserved in citations in a polemic work by Cyril. Wright indicates the oration numbers provided in W.C.Wright's edition of Julian's works. The religious works contain involved philosophical speculations, and the panegyrics to Constantius are formulaic and elaborate in style. The Misopogon (or "Beard Hater") is a light-hearted account of his clash with the inhabitants of Antioch after he was mocked for his beard and generally scruffy appearance for an emperor. The Caesars is a humorous tale of a contest between some of the most notable Roman emperors: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine, and also interestingly Alexander the Great. This was a satiric attack upon the recent Constantine, whose worth, both as a Christian and as the leader of the Roman Empire, Julian severely questions. One of the most important of his lost works is his Against the Galileans, intended to refute the Christian religion. The only parts of this work which survive are those excerpted by Cyril of Alexandria, who gives extracts from the three first books in his refutation of Julian, Contra Julianum. These extracts do not give an adequate idea of the work: Cyril confesses that he had not ventured to copy several of the weightiest arguments. These have been edited and translated several times since the Renaissance, most often separately; but all are translated in the Loeb Classical Library edition of 1913, edited by Wilmer Cave Wright. In fiction Julian's life inspired the play Emperor and Galilean by Henrik Ibsen. Julian's life and reign were the subject of the novel The Death of the Gods (Julian the Apostate) (1895) in the trilogy of historical novels entitled "Christ and Antichrist" (1895-1904) by the Russian Symbolist poet, novelist and literary theoretician Dmitrii S. Merezhkovskii. The opera Der Apostat (1924) by the composer and conductor Felix Weingartner is about Julian. Julian was the subject of a detailed, carefully researched novel, Julian (1964), by Gore Vidal, describing his life and times. It is notable for, among other things, its scathing critique of Christianity. Julian appeared in Gods and Legions, by Michael Curtis Ford (2002). Julian's tale was told by his closest companion, the Christian saint, Caesarius and accounts for the transition from a Christian philosophy student in Athens to a pagan Roman Augustus of the old nature. Julian's letters are an important part of the symbolism of Michel Butor's novel La Modification. The fantasy alternate history The Dragon Waiting by John M. Ford, while set in the time of the Wars of the Roses, uses the reign of Julian as its point of divergence. His reign not being cut short, he was successful in disestablishing Christianity and restoring a religiously eclectic societal order which survived the fall of Rome and into the Renaissance. Julian's rise and fall, as narrated by his physician Oribasius, are portrayed in Who Killed Apollo and Julian Augustus, a novel (2006) by Reynold Spector, based on a Greek manuscript the author discovered. Julian's life served as the basis for the novella Julian: A Christmas Story by Robert Charles Wilson, which was nominated for a Hugo Award in 2007. Julian appears in Warrior Nun Areala as supervillain Julian Salvius. There he is portrayed as having survived into modern times and as seeking revenge against the Church for having been cursed by the Christians. The novel Julian'' by Gore Vidal is a fictional account of his life. Notes Footnotes Sources Julian's writings English translations available on the web: Oration upon the Sovereign Sun. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Oration upon the Mother of the Gods. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. The Caesars. Transl. W.C. Wright, 1913. Misopogon. Transl. W.C. Wright, 1913. Against the Galileans: remains of the 3 books, excerpted from Cyril of Alexandria, Contra Julianum. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Two Orations of the Emperor Julian, at sacred-texts, translated by Thomas Taylor, 1793. The Greek text and English translations of Julian's writings are available in Wright, W.C., The Works of the Emperor Julian, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1913/1980, 3 Volumes. About Julian Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, Libri XV-XXV (books 15-25). See J.C. Rolfe, Ammmianus Marcellinus, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., 1935/1985. 3 Volumes. Claudius Mamertinus, "Gratiarum actio Mamertini de consulato suo Iuliano Imperatori", Panegyrici Latini, panegyric delivered in Constantinople in 362, also as a speech of thanks at his assumption of the office of consul of that year Gregory Nazianzen, Orations, "First Invective Against Julian", "Second Invective Against Julian". Both transl. C.W. King, 1888. Libanius, Monody — Funeral Oration for Julian the Apostate. Transl. C.W. King, 1888. Secondary sources Roberts, Walter E., and Michael DiMaio, "Julian the Apostate (360-363 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis (2002) Athanassiadi, Polymnia. Julian. An Intellectual Biography Routledge, London, 1992. ISBN 0-415-07763-X Bowersock, Glen Warren. Julian the Apostate. London, 1978. ISBN 0-674-48881-4 Browning, Robert. The Emperor Julian, London, 1975. Dodgeon, Michael H. & Samuel N.C. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226-363, Routledge, London, 1991. ISBN 0-203-42534-0 Drinkwater, John F., The Alamanni and Rome 213-496 (Caracalla to Clovis), OUP Oxford 2007. ISBN 0199295689 Hunt, David. "Julian". In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 13 (Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey editors). CUP, Cambridge, 1998. ISBN 0-521-30200-5 Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361-363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615-619 Lenski, Noel Emmanuel Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century AD UC Press: London, 2003 Lieu, Samuel N.C. & Dominic Montserrat: editors, From Constantine to Julian: A Source History Routledge: New York, 1996. ISBN 0-203-42205-8 Murdoch, Adrian. The Last Pagan: Julian the Apostate and the Death of the Ancient World, Stroud, 2005, ISBN 0-7509-4048-4 Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD180-395, Routledge, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Ridley, R.T., "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1973, pp. 317–330 Rohrbacher, David. Historians of Late Antiquity. Routledge: New York, 2002. ISBN 0-415-20459-3 Rosen, Klaus. Julian. Kaiser, Gott und Christenhasser. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 2006. Smith, Rowland. Julian's gods: religion and philosophy in the thought and action of Julian the Apostate, London, 1995. ISBN 0-415-03487-6 See also Anbar, the ancient town of Perisabora destroyed by Julian in 363. Diodore of Tarsus Julian (historical novel), a popular historical novel about Julian the Apostate written by Gore Vidal External links Laws of Julian. Two laws by Constantius II, while Julian was Caesar. Imperial Laws and Letters Involving Religion, some of which are by Julian relating to Christianity. A 4th century chalcedony portrait of Julian, Saint Petersburg, The State Hermitage Museum. Statue of Julian the Apostate. Marble. Paris, Louvre Museum. Julian the Apostate, son of (Julius) Constantius. Marble. Rome, Capitoline Museums. Julian's Spin Doctor: The Persian Mutiny, Article by Adam J. Bravo. Rowland Smith's "Julian's Gods", Review by Thomas Banchich. Excerpt from by Adrian Murdoch, The Last Pagan at the California Literary Review. The Julian Society. 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1,951 | Amerigo_Vespucci | Amerigo Vespucci (March 9, 1454 – February 22, 1512) was an Italian explorer, navigator and cartographer. It has long been the notion that the continents of America derives its name from the feminized Latin version of his first name (However this theory has later been dismissed by many, see Naming of America). Arciniegas, Germán. Amerigo and the New World: The Life & Times of Amerigo Vespucci. Translated by Harriet de Onís. New York: Octagon Books, 1978. . Vespucci participated as observator in several voyages that explored the east coast of South America between 1499 to 1502. On the first of these voyages he was in the ship that discovered that South America extended much further (the Indies). Vespucci's voyages became widely known in Europe after two accounts attributed to him were published between 1502 and 1504. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the new continent America after Vespucci's first name, Amerigo. In an accompanying book, Waldseemüller published one of the Vespucci accounts, which led to criticism that Vespucci was trying to usurp Christopher Columbus' glory . However, the rediscovery in the 18th century of other letters by Vespucci, primarily the Soderini Letter, has led to the view that the early published accounts were fabrications, not by Vespucci, but by others. Life Amerigo Vespucci was born and brought up by his uncle in the Republic of Florence in what is now Italy. Amerigo Vespucci worked for Lorenzo de' Medici and his brother, Giovanni. In 1492 they sent him to work at their agency in Seville, Spain. In 1508, after only two voyages to the Americas, the position of chief of navigation of Spain (piloto mayor de Indias) was created for Vespucci, with the responsibility of planning navigation for ocean voyages. Two letters attributed to Vespucci were published during his lifetime. Mundus Novus (New World) was a Latin translation of a lost Italian letter sent from Lisbon to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. It describes a voyage to South America in 1501-1502. Mundus Novus was published in late 1502 or early 1503 and soon reprinted and distributed in numerous European countries. Formisano, Luciano (Ed.) (1992). Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America. New York: Marsilio. ISBN 0-941419-62-2. Pp. xix-xxvi. Lettera di Amerigo Vespucci delle isole nuovamente trovate in quattro suoi viaggi (Letter of Amerigo Vespucci concerning the isles newly discovered on his four voyages), known as Lettera al Soderini or just Lettera, was a letter in Italian addressed to Piero Soderini. Printed in 1504 or 1505, it claimed to be an account of four voyages to the Americas made by Vespucci between 1497 and 1504. A Latin translation was published by the German Martin Waldseemüller in 1507 in Cosmographiae Introductio, a book on cosmography and geography, as Quattuor Americi Vespuccij navigationes (Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci). In 1508, King Ferdinand made Vespucci chief navigator of Spain at a huge salary and commissioned him to start a school for navigators out of his home to standardize and modernize navigation techniques used by Spanish sea captains exploring the world. Vespucci even developed a rudimentary, but fairly accurate method of determining longitude (which only more accurate chronometers would later improve upon). In the 18th century three unpublished familiar letters from Vespucci to Lorenzo de' Medici were rediscovered. One describes a voyage made in 1499-1500 which corresponds with the second of the "four voyages". Another was written from Cape Verde in 1501 in the early part of the third of the four voyages, before crossing the Atlantic. The third letter was sent from Lisbon after the completion of that voyage.` Some have suggested that Vespucci, in the two letters published in his lifetime, was exaggerating his role and constructed deliberate fabrications. However, many scholars now believe that the two letters were not written by him but were fabrications by others based in part on genuine letters by Vespucci. It was the publication and widespread circulation of the letters that might have led Martin Waldseemüller to name the new continent America on his world map of 1507 in Lorraine. Vespucci used a Latinised form of his name, Americus Vespucius, in his Latin writings, which Waldseemüller may have used as a base for the new name, taking the feminine form America.(See also Naming of America.) Amerigo itself is an Italian form of the medieval Latin Emericus (see also Saint Emeric of Hungary), which through the German form Heinrich (in English, Henry) derived from the Germanic name Haimirich. But it might be Waldseemüller named the continent after Richard Ameryk, who was the principal owner of John Cabot's ship Matthew during his voyage of exploration to North America in 1497. The two disputed letters claim that Vespucci made four voyages to America, while at most two can be verified from other sources. At the moment there is a dispute between historians on when Vespucci visited mainland the first time. Some historians like German Arciniegas and Gabriel Camargo Perez think that his first voyage was done in June 1497 with the Spanish Juan de la Cosa. Vespucci's real historical importance may well be more in his letters, whether he wrote them all or not, than in his discoveries. From these letters, the European public learned about the newly discovered continent of the Americas for the first time; its existence became generally known throughout Europe within a few years of the letters' publication. He died of malaria on February 22, 1512 in Seville, Spain. Voyages Second Voyage About the 1499–1500, Vespucci joined an expedition in the service of Spain, with Alonso de Ojeda (or Hojeda) as the fleet commander. The intention was to sail around the southern end of the African mainland into the Indian Ocean. After hitting land at the coast of what is now Guyana, the two seem to have separated. Vespucci sailed southward, discovering the mouth of the Amazon River and reaching 6°S, before turning around and seeing Trinidad and the Orinoco River and returning to Spain by way of Hispaniola. The letter, to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, claims that Vespucci determined his longitude celestially On a clear night with calm seas, stars could be identified near the horizon to judge latitude/longitude celestially. Although South America's continental shelf drops quickly into the deep ocean beyond the Orinoco River, the mouth is on the shelf, avoiding the ocean swells and waves which hinder visibility of stars near the horizon. Seamen who could navigate from Europe to America and back could chart stars on the horizon, especially for a cartographer like Vespucci. on August 23, 1499, while on this voyage. However, that claim may be fraudulent, which could cast doubt on the letter's credibility. Third voyage The last certain voyage of Vespucci was led by Gonçalo Coelho in 1501–1502 in the service of Portugal. Departing from Lisbon, the fleet sailed first to Cape Verde where they met two of Pedro Álvares Cabral's ships returning from India. In a letter from Cape Verde, Vespucci says that he hopes to visit the same lands that Álvares Cabral had explored, suggesting that the intention is to sail west to Asia, as on the 1499-1500 voyage. On reaching the coast of Brazil, they sailed south along the coast of South America to Rio de Janeiro's bay. If his own account is to be believed, he reached the latitude of Patagonia before turning back, although this also seems doubtful, since his account does not mention the broad estuary of the Río de la Plata, which he must have seen if he had gotten that far south. Portuguese maps of South America, created after the voyage of Coelho and Vespucci, do not show any land south of present-day Cananéia at 25° S, so this may represent the southernmost extent of their voyages. After the first half of the expedition, Vespucci mapped Alpha and Beta Centauri, as well as the constellation Crux, the Southern Cross. Although these stars had been known to the ancient Greeks, gradual precession had lowered them below the European skyline so that they were forgotten. Dinwiddie, Robert (2005). Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary. DK Adult Publishing, p. 396. On his return to Lisbon, Vespucci wrote in a letter to de' Medici that the land masses they explored were much larger than anticipated and different from the Asia described by earlier Europeans and, therefore, must be a New World, that is, a previously unknown fourth continent, after Europe, Asia, and Africa. Fourth voyage Little is known of his last voyage in 1503–1504 or even whether it actually took place. See also Naming of America Notes References Amerigo: the Man Who Gave His Name to America by Fernández-Armesto, Felipe; Weidenfeld & Nicolson [2006] (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-84802-X) External links Canaday, James A. The Life of Amerigo Vespucci. Vespucci, Amerigo. "Account of His First Voyage 1497 (Letter to Pier Soderini, Gonfalonier of the Republic of Florence)". Internet Modern History Sourcebook-Fordham University (U.S.) Mason, Wyatt, 'I am America. (And So?)' 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1,952 | Massively_multiplayer_online_role-playing_game | Massively multiplayer online role-playing game (commonly abbreviated MMORPG) is a genre of computer role-playing games in which a large number of players interact with one another within a virtual game world. The term MMORPG was coined by Richard Garriott, the creator of Ultima Online, the game credited with popularizing the genre in 1997. Game Entertainment Europe IGN: Ultima Online: Kingdom Reborn Preview As in all RPGs, players assume the role of a fictional character (often in a fantasy world), and take control over many of that character's actions. MMORPGs are distinguished from single-player or small multi-player CRPGs by the number of players, and by the game's persistent world, usually hosted by the game's publisher, which continues to exist and evolve while the player is away from the game. MMORPGs are very popular throughout the world. Chart of Subscriber Growth, http://www.mmogchart.com Worldwide revenues for MMORPGs exceeded half a billion dollars in 2005, and Western revenues exceeded US$1 billion in 2006. In 2007 and 2008 the virtual goods buying and trading has taken an amazing increase. Next to the more traditional subscription model, virtual goods are a second source of revenues for publishers. In 2008, Western consumer spending on subscription MMOGs grew to $1.4 billion. The most popular MMORPG, World of Warcraft, has over 11 million paying subscribers as of 2009. Common features Although modern MMORPGs sometimes differ dramatically from their antecedents, many of them share some basic characteristics. These include several common themes: some form of progression, social interaction within the game, in-game culture, system architecture, and character customization. Characters can often be customized quite extensively, both in the technical and visual aspects, with new choices often added over time by the developers. Many games also offer some form of modding in order to allow for even greater flexibility of choice. Character abilities are often very specific due to this. Depending on the particular game, the specialties might be as basic as simply having a greater affinity in one statistic, gaining certain bonuses of in-game resources related in-game race, job, etc. Themes The majority of popular MMORPGs are based on traditional fantasy themes, often occurring in an in-game universe comparable to that of Dungeons & Dragons. Some employ hybrid themes that either merge or substitute fantasy elements with those of science fiction, sword and sorcery, or crime fiction. Still others use more obscure themes, including American comic books, the occult, and other recognizable literary genres. Often these elements are developed using similar tasks and scenarios involving quests, monsters, and loot. Progression A highly skilled character from EverQuest 2, with their mount. In nearly all MMORPGs, the development of the player's character is a primary goal. Many MMORPGs feature a character progression system in which players earn experience points for their actions and use those points to reach character "levels", which makes them better at whatever they do. Traditionally, combat with monsters and completing quests for NPCs, either alone or in groups, are the primary ways to earn experience points. The accumulation of wealth (including combat-useful items) is also a way to progress in many titles, and again, this is traditionally best accomplished via combat. The cycle produced by these conditions, combat leading to new items allowing for more combat with no change in gameplay, is sometimes pejoratively referred to as the level treadmill, or 'grinding'. The role-playing game Progress Quest was created as a parody of this trend. Also, traditional in the genre is the eventual demand on players to team up with others in order to progress at the optimal rate. This sometimes forces players to change their real-world schedules in order to "keep up" within the game-world. Social Interaction MMORPGs almost always allow players to communicate with one another. Depending on the other interactions allowed by the game, other social expectations will be present. Teamwork Part of a large bombing mission, bombers and fighter escort teamwork to destroy a factory, while defenders coordinate an interception. View though bombsight of another He111 in World War II Online game. Many MMORPGs exploit their players' social skills and offer support for in-game guilds or clans (though these will usually form whether the game supports them or not). As a result, many players will find themselves as either a member or a leader of such a group after playing an MMORPG for some time. These organizations will likely have further expectations for their members (such as intra-guild assistance). Even if players never join a formal group, they are still usually expected to be a part of a small team during game play, and will probably be expected to carry out a specialized role (such as healing). In combat-based MMORPGs, usual roles include the "tank", a character who absorbs enemy blows and protects other members of the team, the "healer", a character responsible for keeping up the health of the party, the "DPS (Damage Per Second)," a character specializing in inflicting damage, and sometimes the "CC (Crowd Control)," a character who temporarily controls the opponent, such as the "NPC" (Non-Player Character), and making the opponent lose its control of actions and abilities. Other common roles include being a dedicated "buffer" or "debuffer", using abilities that affect the team or the opponents in other ways. Any given MMORPG might allow players to take on all of these roles, additional hybrid roles, or none of them. Despite the variability, some players might enjoy one role over others and continue to play it through many different MMORPG titles. Roleplaying Some MMORPGs also may expect players to roleplay their characters – that is, to speak and act in the way their character would act, even if it means shying away from other goals such as wealth or experience. However, as this behavior is far from being the norm, most MMORPG players never actually play the roles of their characters. Still, MMORPGs may offer "RP-only" servers for those who wish to immerse themselves in the game in this way. MMORPG's generally have Game Moderators or Game Masters (frequently abbreviated to GM), which may be paid employees or unpaid volunteers who attempt to supervise the world. Some GMs may have additional access to features and information related to the game that are not available to other players and roles. Culture Since MMORPGs have so many elements in common, and those elements are experienced by so many people, a common culture of MMORPGs has developed which exists in addition to the culture present within any given game. For example, since MMORPGs often feature many different character "classes", the games must be balanced in order to be fair to all players, and this has led players of many games to expect "buffing" or "nerfing", which is a term describing the strengthening or weakening of a subset of players, respectively. As another example, in many older MMORPGs the fastest way to progress was simply by killing the same monsters over and over again, and as this is still common in the genre all MMORPG players know the process as "grinding", or "camping" (sitting at a monster's spawn point in order to attack it as soon as it respawns). The importance of grinding in MMORPGs, and how much "fun" it contributes to the experience, is constantly debated. Many MMORPGs have taken steps to eliminate or reduce grinding, but few such attempts have met with success, and it is generally accepted by players and developers alike that some amount of 'grind' is required to maintain a stable playing experience. MMORPG addiction, which has been a source of concern for parents, Indystar on game addiction also affects the culture. Some players might look down on those who invest huge amounts of time and or money into a game, while others might scorn those who can't put in the time to "play properly.". The validity of such viewpoints is heavily debated, with both sides of the issue being discussed frequently on most games' forums. System architecture Most MMORPGs are deployed using a client-server system architecture. The software that generates and persists the "world" runs continuously on a server, and players connect to it via client software. The client software may provide access to the entire playing world, or further 'expansions' may be required to be purchased to allow access to certain areas of the game. EverQuest and World of Warcraft are two examples of games that use such a format. Players generally must purchase the client software for a one-time fee, although an increasing trend is for MMORPGs to work using pre-existing "thin" clients, such as a web browser. Some MMORPGs require payment of a monthly subscription to play. By nature, "massively multiplayer" games are always online, and most require some sort of continuous revenue (such as monthly subscriptions and advertisements) for maintenance and development. Some games, such as Guild Wars, have disposed of the 'monthly fee' model entirely, and recover costs directly through sales of the software and associated expansion packs. Depending on the number of players and the system architecture, a MMORPG might actually be run on multiple separate servers, each representing an independent world, where players from one server cannot interact with those from another; World of Warcraft is a prominent example, with each separate server housing several thousand players. In many MMORPGs the number of players in one world is often limited to around a few thousand, but a notable example of the opposite is EVE Online which accommodated around 20,000 players in the same world as of August 2007 and 51,675 users online in February 2009. Some games allow characters to appear on any world, but not simultaneously (such as Seal Online: Evolution), others limit each character to the world in which it was created. History MUD, an early multi-user roleplaying game Although MMORPGs, as defined today, have only existed since the early 1990s, all MMORPGs can trace a lineage back to the earliest multi-user games which started appearing in the late 1970s. The first of these was Mazewar, though more would soon be developed for the PLATO system. 1984 saw a roguelike (semi-graphical) multi-user game, called Islands of Kesmai. The first "truly" graphical multi-user RPG was Neverwinter Nights, which was delivered through America Online in 1991 and was personally championed by AOL President Steve Case. Other early proprietary graphical MMORPGs include three on The Sierra Network: The Shadow of Yserbius in 1992, The Fates of Twinion in 1993, and The Ruins of Cawdor in 1995. When NSFNET restrictions were lifted in 1995, the Internet was opened up to developers, which allowed for the first really "massive" titles. The first success after this point was Meridian 59, which also featured first-person 3D graphics, although The Realm Online appeared nearly simultaneously and may be credited with bringing the genre to a wider player-base. Ultima Online, released in 1997, may be credited with first popularizing the genre, though Nexus: The Kingdom of the Winds was primarily responsible for mainstream attention throughout Asia which was released in 1996, about a year earlier than Ultima Online. It was EverQuest that brought MMORPGs to the mainstream in the West. These early titles' financial success has ensured competition in the genre since that time. MMORPG titles now exist on consoles and in new settings, and their players enjoy higher-quality gameplay. The current market for MMORPGs has Blizzard Entertainment's World of Warcraft dominating as the largest pay-to-play MMORPG , alongside earlier such titles like Final Fantasy XI and Phantasy Star Online, though an additional market exists for free-to-play MMORPGs, which are supported by advertising and purchases of in-game items. This free-to-play model is particularly common in Korean MMORPGs such as MapleStory and Rohan: Blood Feud. Also, there are some free-to-play games, such as Runescape, where only about half the game is free and you would have to pay monthly to play the full version. Guild Wars is an exception. It avoids competition with other MMORPGs by only requiring the initial purchase of the game to play. Psychology Since the interactions between MMORPG players are real, even if the environments are virtual, psychologists and sociologists are able to use MMORPGs as tools for academic research. Sherry Turkle, a clinical psychologist, has conducted interviews with computer users including game-players. Turkle found that many people have expanded their emotional range by exploring the many different roles (including gender identities) that MMORPGs allow a person to explore. Sherry Turkle (1997), Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet, ISBN 0-684-83348-4 Nick Yee has surveyed more than 35,000 MMORPG players over the past several years, focusing on psychological and sociological aspects of these games. Recent findings included that 15% of players become a guild-leader at one time or another, but most generally find the job tough and thankless; and that players spend a considerable amount of time (often a third of their total time investment) doing things that are external to gameplay but part of the metagame. Many players report that the emotions they feel while playing a MMORPG are very strong, to the extent that 8.7% of male and 23.2% of female players in a statistical study have had an online wedding. Other researchers have found that the enjoyment of a game is directly related to the social organization of a game, ranging from brief encounters between players to highly organized play in structured groups. Nardi, Harris (2006), Strangers and Friends: Collaborative Play in World of Warcraft, Proceedings of the 2006 20th anniversary conference on Computer supported cooperative work In a study by Zaheer Hussain and Mark D. Griffiths, it was found that just over one in five gamers (21%) said they preferred socializing online to offline. Significantly more male gamers than female gamers said that they found it easier to converse online than offline. It was also found that 57% of gamers had created a character of the opposite gender, and it is suggested that the online female persona has a number of positive social attributes. Hussain, Zaheer (2008), Gender Swapping and Socializing in Cyberspace: An Exploratory Study Richard Bartle classified multiplayer RPG-players into four primary psychological groups. His classifications were then expanded upon by Erwin Andreasen, who developed the concept into the thirty-question Bartle Test that helps players determine which category they are associated with. With over 200,000 test responses as of 2006, this is perhaps the largest ongoing survey of multiplayer game players. Bartle Test of Gamer Psychology, http://www.gamerdna.com/bartle.php In World of Warcraft, a temporary design glitch attracted the attention of psychologists and epidemiologists across North America, when the "Corrupted Blood" disease of a monster began to spread unintentionally—and uncontrollably—into the wider game world. The Center for Disease Control used the incident as a research model to chart both the progression of a disease, and the potential human response to large-scale epidemic infection. Economics A user browsing the market for items in EVE Online Many MMORPGs feature living economies. Virtual items and currency have to be gained through play and have definite value for players. Such a virtual economy can be analyzed (using data logged by the game) and has value in economic research; more significantly, these "virtual" economies can have an impact on the economies of the real world. One of the early researchers of MMORPGs was Edward Castronova, who demonstrated that a supply-and-demand market exists for virtual items and that it crosses over with the real world. Castronova, Edward. Synthetic Worlds: The Business and Culture of Online Games. ISBN 0-226-09626-2, University Of Chicago Press This crossover has some requirements of the game: The ability for players to sell an item to each other for in-game (virtual) currency. Bartering for items between players for items of similar value. The purchase of in-game items for real-world currency. Exchanges of real-world currencies for virtual currencies. The creation of meta-currencies such as DKP, or Dragon kill points, to distribute in-game rewards. Castronova (2007), Dragon Kill Points: a Summary White Paper, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=958945 The idea of attaching real-world value to "virtual" items has had a profound effect on players and the game industry, and even the courts. Castronova's first study in 2002 found that a highly liquid (if illegal) currency market existed, with the value of Everquest'''s in-game currency exceeding that of the Japanese yen. Some people even make a living by working these virtual economies; these people are often referred to as gold farmers, and may be employed in game sweatshops. Game publishers usually prohibit the exchange of real-world money for virtual goods, but others actively promote the idea of linking (and directly profiting from) an exchange. In Second Life and Entropia Universe, the virtual economy and the real-world economy are directly linked. This means that real money can be deposited for game money and vice versa. Real-world items have also been sold for game money in Entropia, and some players of Second Life have generated revenues in excess of $100,000. Some of the issues confronting online economies include: The use of "bots" or automated programs, that assist some players in accumulating in-game wealth to the disadvantage of other players. Robert Shapiro (2003), How online games teach us about economics, http://www.slate.com/id/2078053/ The use of unsanctioned auction sites, which has led publishers to seek legal remedies to prevent their use based on intellectual-property claims. Blizzard Goes to War, http://terranova.blogs.com/terra_nova/2004/12/blizzard_goes_t.html The emergence of virtual crime, which can take the form of both fraud against the player or publisher of an online game, and even real-life acts of violence stemming from in-game transactions. BBC News (2005), Game Theft led to Fatal Attack, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4397159.stm Linking real-world and virtual economies is rare in MMORPGs, as it is generally believed to be detrimental to gameplay. If real-world wealth can be used to obtain greater, more immediate rewards than skillful gameplay, the incentive for strategic roleplay and real game involvement is diminished. It could also easily lead to a skewed hierarchy where richer players gain better items, allowing them to take on stronger opponents and level up more quickly than less wealthy but more committed players. Development Players interacting in Ultima Online, a classic MMORPG. The cost of developing a competitive commercial MMORPG title often exceeds $10 million. Adam Carpenter (2003), Applying Risk-Based Analysis to Play Balance RPGs, Gamasutra, http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20030611/carpenter_01.shtml These projects require multiple disciplines within game design and development such as 3D modeling, 2D art, animation, user interfaces, client/server engineering, database architecture, and network infrastructure. Jon Radoff (2007), "Anatomy of an MMORPG," PlayerVox, http://radoff.com/blog/2008/08/22/anatomy-of-an-mmorpg/ The front-end (or client) component of a commercial, modern MMORPG features 3D graphics. As with other modern 3D games, the front-end requires expertise with implementing 3D engines, real-time shader techniques and physics simulation. The actual visual content (areas, creatures, characters, weapons, spaceships and so forth) is developed by artists who typically begin with two-dimensional concept art, and later convert these concepts into animated 3D scenes, models and texture maps. Frank Luna (2006), "3D Game Programming with DirectX 9.0c, a Shader Approach," Worldware Publishing, ISBN 1-59822-016-0 Developing an MMOG server requires expertise with client/server architecture, network protocols, security, and relational database design. MMORPGs include reliable systems for a number of vital tasks. The server must be able to handle and verify a large number of connections, prevent cheating, and apply changes (bug fixes or added content) to the game. A system for recording the game's data at regular intervals, without stopping the game, is also important. Jay Lee (2003), Gamasutra, Relational Database Guidelines for MMOGs, http://www.gamasutra.com/resource_guide/20030916/lee_01.shtml Maintenance requires sufficient servers and bandwidth, and a dedicated support staff. Insufficient resources for maintenance lead to lag and frustration for the players, and can severely damage the reputation of a game, especially at launch. Care must also be taken to ensure that player population remains at an acceptable level by adding or removing servers ("shards"). Peer-to-peer MMORPGs could theoretically work cheaply and efficiently in regulating server load, but practical issues such as asymmetrical network bandwidth and CPU-hungry rendering engines make them a difficult proposition. Additionally, they would probably become vulnerable to other problems including new possibilities for cheating. The hosted infrastructure for a commercial-grade MMORPG requires the deployment of hundreds (or even thousands) of servers. Developing an affordable infrastructure for an online game requires developers to scale to large numbers of players with less hardware and network investment. GDC Proceedings 2005, Online Game Architecture: Back-End Strategies, http://www.gamasutra.com/gdc2005/features/20050310/esbensen_01.shtml In addition, the development team will need to have expertise with the fundamentals of game design: world-building, lore and game mechanics, Chris Crawford (2003), Chris Crawford on Game Design, New Riders Games, ISBN 0-13-146099-4 as well as what makes games fun. Koster and Wright (2004), "A Theory of Fun for Game Design," Paraglyph Press, ISBN 1-932111-97-2 Non-corporate development Though the vast majority of MMORPGs are produced by companies, many small teams of programmers and artists have contributed to the genre. As shown above, the average MMORPG development project requires enormous investments of time and money, and running the game can be a long-term commitment. As a result, non-corporate (or independent, or "indie") development of MMORPGs is less common compared with other genres. Still, many independent MMORPGs do exist, representing a wide spectrum of genres, gameplay types, and revenue systems. Some independent MMORPG projects are completely open source, while others like PlaneShift feature proprietary content made with an open-source game engine. The developers of Endless Online have also released development information with details about their coding. The WorldForge project has been active since 1998 and formed a community of independent developers who are working on creating framework for a number of open-source MMORPGs. The Multiverse Network is also creating a network and platform specifically for independent MMOG developers. Trends as of 2008 As there are a number of wildly different titles within the genre, and since the genre develops so rapidly, it is difficult to definitively state that the genre is heading in one direction or another. Still, there are a few obvious developments. One of these developments is the raid group quest, or "raid", which is an adventure designed for large groups of players (often twenty or more). Instance dungeons Another is the use of instance dungeons. These are game areas that are "copied" for individual groups, which keeps that group separated from the rest of the game world. This reduces competition, and also has the effect of reducing the amount of data that needs to be sent to and from the server, which reduces lag. Final Fantasy XI pioneered instanced dungeons with the BCNM and KSNM system (Burning Circle or Kindred Seal, Notorious Monster) for smaller groups (2-18 people), Limbus & Dynamis for larger alliances (6-64 people), as well as Instanced PvP in Brenner and Ballista. World of Warcraft's "raids", mentioned above, are often instance dungeons, as are all of the combat areas in Guild Wars. Also the creators of Ragnarok Online introduced an instanced dungeon called "Endless Tower". This is, however, the only instanced dungeon in the game. Dungeon Runners is, like Guild Wars, instanced, excluding Player vs Player areas. Solo play Although these games are multiplayer, and intended to be played in groups for the best experience, most now provide solo content, or adventures a player character can do on their own. It can be difficult to find a group to adventure with, and this allows people to play the game without waiting around in safe areas like cities for a long period of time. This change turned out to be popular, and some of the older MMORPGs such as Dungeons & Dragons Online were retrofitted to make solo play easier. Adding to the popularity is a side effect: some people prefer to solo. To encourage players to continue grouping, many games reward grouping by giving grouped players bonuses such as more experience points than they would otherwise get soloing. Player-created content Increased amounts of "Player-created content" may be another trend. Jon Radoff (March 20, 2007), Gamasutra, Five Prescriptions for Viral Games, http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20070320/radoff_01.shtml From the beginning, the Ultima Online world included blank 30-page books that players could write in, collect into personal libraries and trade; in later years players have been able to design and build houses from the ground up. Some non-combat-based MMORPGs rely heavily on player-created content, including everything from simple animations to complete buildings using player-created textures and architecture like A Tale in the Desert. However, these games are very different from the far more popular "standard" MMORPGs revolving around combat and limited character trade skills. Player-created content in these games would be in the form of areas to explore, monsters to kill, quests to carry out and specific in-game items to obtain. The Saga of Ryzom was the first of these "standard" MMORPGs to offer players the ability to create this type of content. Use of licenses The use of licenses, common in other video game genres, has also appeared in MMORPGs. 2007 saw the release of The Lord of the Rings Online, based on J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth. Other licensed MMORPGs include The Matrix Online, based on the Matrix trilogy of films, Warhammer Online, based on Games Workshop's table top game, Star Trek Online, Star Wars Galaxies, Champions Online and Age of Conan. Additionally, several licenses from television have been optioned for MMORPGs, for example Stargate Worlds, which is currently in development. The process is also apparently being applied in reverse, with James Cameron designing an MMORPG that will precede the film (Project 880) to which it is tied. James Cameron's Game Theory, Business Week (February 13, 2006) http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_07/b3971073.htm Console-based MMORPGs The first console-based MMORPG was Phantasy Star Online for the Sega Dreamcast, however, anticipation of the game at its time was known by few. In some parts of the world, Broadband communication was still a dream, a fact that didn't help in spreading the genre. Although console-based MMORPGs are considered more difficult, the platform is gaining more attention. Funcom's Age of Conan'' is to be released on the Xbox 360 in 2009, Turbine, Inc. announced they are working on a console-based MMO, and Sony Online Entertainment is working on DC Universe Online for the PC and PS3. Final Fantasy XI was originally released for PlayStation 2 and PC, but was later extended to Xbox 360, and later emulated as a PlayStation 2 game on the PlayStation 3. Also, Cryptic Studios will release Star Trek Online and Champions Online to both PC and console. ] See also History of MMORPGs List of MMORPGs List of free MMOGs List of text-based MMORPGs Comparison of MMORPGs Online game MOG MMOG MMOFPS MMORTS Private server References External links The Daedalus Project – Nick Yee's ongoing survey study of MMORPG players. Demographics, narratives and essays. 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1,953 | Constantine_the_Great | Caesar Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus In (Latin Constantine's official imperial title was IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS, Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated. After 312, he added MAXIMVS ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced ("undefeated") with VICTOR, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God. (27 February c. 272 Birth dates vary but most modern historians use c. 272". Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59. – 22 May 337), commonly known in English as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Christians) Saint Constantine (/'kɒnstɛntaɪn/), was Roman emperor from 306, and the undisputed holder of that office from 324 until his death in 337. Best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine reversed the persecutions of his predecessor, Diocletian, and issued (with his co-emperor Licinius) the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious toleration throughout the empire. The Byzantine liturgical calendar, observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine rite, lists both Constantine and his mother Helena as saints. Although he is not included in the Latin Church's list of saints, which does recognize several other Constantines as saints, he is revered under the title "The Great" for his contributions to Christianity. Constantine also transformed the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium into a new imperial residence, Constantinople, which would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over one thousand years. Sources As the emperor who empowered Christianity throughout the Roman Empire and moved the Roman capital to the banks of the Bosphorus, Constantine was a ruler of major historical importance, but he has always been a controversial figure. Barnes, CE, 272. The fluctuations in Constantine's reputation reflect the nature of the ancient sources for his reign. These are abundant and detailed, Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 14; Cameron, 90–91; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3. but have been strongly influenced by the official propaganda of the period, Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 23–25; Cameron, 90–91; Southern, 169. and are often one-sided. Cameron, 90; Southern, 169. There are no surviving histories or biographies dealing with Constantine's life and rule. Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 14; Corcoran, Empire of the Tetrarchs, 1; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 2–3. The nearest replacement is Eusebius of Caesarea's Vita Constantini, a work that is a mixture of eulogy and hagiography. Barnes, CE, 265–68. Written between 335 and circa 339, Drake, "What Eusebius Knew," 21. the Vita extols Constantine's moral and religious virtues. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; Odahl, 3. The Vita creates a contentiously positive image of Constantine, Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 5; Storch, 145–55. and modern historians have frequently challenged its reliability. Barnes, CE, 265–71; Cameron, 90–92; Cameron and Hall, 4–6; Elliott, "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini"", 162–71. The fullest secular life of Constantine is the anonymous Origo Constantini. Lieu and Montserrat, 39; Odahl, 3. A work of uncertain date, Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26; Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3. the Origo focuses on military and political events, to the neglect of cultural and religious matters. Lieu and Montserrat, 40; Odahl, 3. Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum, a polemical Christian pamphlet on the reigns of Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, provides valuable but tendentious detail on Constantine's predecessors and early life. Barnes, CE, 12–14; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Mackay, 207; Odahl, 9–10. The ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret describe the ecclesiastic disputes of Constantine's later reign. Barnes, CE, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 28–29; Odahl, 4–6. Written during the reign of Theodosius II (408–50), a century after Constantine's reign, these ecclesiastic historians obscure the events and theologies of the Constantinian period through misdirection, misrepresentation and deliberate obscurity. Barnes, CE, 225; Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 26–29; Odahl, 5–6. The contemporary writings of the Orthodox Christian Athanasius and the ecclesiastical history of the Arian Philostorgius also survive, though their biases are no less firm. Odahl, 6, 10. The epitomes of Aurelius Victor (De Caesaribus), Eutropius (Breviarium), Festus (Breviarium), and the anonymous author of the Epitome de Caesaribus offer compressed secular political and military histories of the period. Although pagan, the epitomes paint a favorable image of Constantine, but omit reference to Constantine's religious policies. Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 27–28; Lieu and Montserrat, 2–6; Odahl, 6–7; Warmington, 166–67. The Panegyrici Latini, a collection of panegyrics from the late third and early fourth centuries, provide valuable information on the politics and ideology of the tetrarchic period and the early life of Constantine. Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 24; Odahl, 8. Contemporary architecture, like the Arch of Constantine in Rome and palaces in Gamzigrad and Córdoba, Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 20–21; Johnson, "Architecture of Empire" (CC), 288–91; Odahl, 11–12. epigraphic remains, and the coinage of the era complement the literary sources. Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), 17–21; Odahl, 11–14. Early life Constantine, named Flavius Valerius Constantinus, was born in the Moesian military city of Naissus (Niš, Serbia) on the 27th of February of an uncertain year, Barnes, CE, 3, 39–42; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Odahl, 15; Pohlsander, "Constantine I"; Southern, 169, 341. probably near 272. Barnes, CE, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 39–42; Elliott, "Constantine's Conversion," 425–6; Elliott, "Eusebian Frauds," 163; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Jones, 13–14; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59; Odahl, 16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14; Rodgers, 238; Wright, 495, 507. His father was Flavius Constantius, a native of Moesia Superior (later Dacia Ripensis). Barnes, CE, 3; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 16–17. Constantius was a tolerant and politically skilled man. Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3; Barnes, CE, 13, 290. Constantine probably spent little time with his father. MacMullen, Constantine, 21. Constantius was an officer in the Roman army in 272, part of the Emperor Aurelian's imperial bodyguard. Constantius advanced through the ranks, earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian, another of Aurelian's Illyrian companions, in 284 or 285. Constantine's mother was Helena, a Bithynian Greek of humble origin. It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine. Barnes, CE, 3; Barnes, New Empire, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 17; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59, 83; Odahl, 16; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14. In July 285, Diocletian declared Maximian, another colleague from Illyricum, his co-emperor. Each emperor would have his own court, his own military and administrative faculties, and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant. Barnes, CE, 8–14; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 41–54; Odahl, 46–50; Treadgold, 14–15. Maximian ruled in the West, from his capitals at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy) or Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany), while Diocletian ruled in the East, from Nicomedia (İzmit, Turkey). The division was merely pragmatic: the Empire was called "indivisible" in official panegyric, Bowman, 70; Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65. and both emperors could move freely throughout the Empire. Potter, 283; Williams, 49, 65. In 288, Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul. Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289. Barnes, CE, 3; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 20; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 47, 299; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 14. Diocletian divided the Empire again in 293, appointing two Caesars (junior emperors) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West. Each would be subordinate to their respective Augustus (senior emperor) but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands. This system would later be called the Tetrarchy. Diocletian's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius; his second was Galerius, a native of Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad, Serbia). According to Lactantius, Galerius was a brutal, animalistic man. Although he shared the paganism of Rome's aristocracy, he seemed to them an alien figure, a semi-barbarian. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; Barnes, CE, 13, 290. On 1 March, Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar, and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus. Barnes, CE, 3, 8; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 40–41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 20; Odahl, 46–47; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 8–9, 14; Treadgold, 17. In spite of meritocratic overtones, the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege, Barnes, CE, 8–9; Corcoran, "Before Constantine" (CC), 42–43, 54. and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position. Constantine left the Balkans for the court of Diocletian, where he lived as his father's heir presumptive. Barnes, CE, 3; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 59–60; Odahl, 56–7. In the East Constantine received a formidable education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy. Barnes, CE, 73–74; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 72, 301. The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open, fluid and socially mobile, and Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian. He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius, a Christian scholar of Latin in the city. Barnes, CE, 47, 73–74; Fowden, "Between Pagans and Christians," 175–76. Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius—none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues—Constantine was held as something of a hostage, a tool to ensure Constantius' best behaviour. Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court: he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia, and served in a variety of tribunates; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296, and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria (297) and under Galerius in Mesopotamia (298–99). Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum, 16.2; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 29–30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 72–73. By late 305, he had become a tribune of the first order, a tribunus ordinis primi. Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; Odahl, 72–74, 306; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15. Contra: J. Moreau, Lactance: "De la mort des persécuteurs", Sources Chrétiennes 39 (1954): 313; Barnes, CE, 297. Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian's "Great Persecution", the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history. Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 30; Odahl, 73. In late 302, Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11; Barnes, CE, 21; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 35–36; MacMullen, Constantine, 24; Odahl, 67; Potter, 338. Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned, when Diocletian accepted his court's demands for universal persecution. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52; Barnes, CE, 21; Odahl, 67, 73, 304; Potter, 338. On 23 February 303, Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia's new church, condemned its scriptures to the flame, and had its treasures seized. In the months that followed, churches and scriptures were destroyed, Christians were deprived of official ranks, and priests were imprisoned. Barnes, CE, 22–25; MacMullen, Constantine, 24–30; Odahl, 67–69; Potter, 337. It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. MacMullen, Constantine, 24–25. In his later writings he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian's "sanguinary edicts" against the "worshipers of God", Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25; Odahl, 73. but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time. Drake, "The Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 126; Elliott, "Constantine's Conversion," 425–26. Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions, it remained a political liability throughout his life. Drake, "The Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 126. On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–5, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan, Maximian did the same. Barnes, CE, 25–27; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60; Odahl, 69–72; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15; Potter, 341–42. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius' allies in the imperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening to Diocletian's resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius (Maximian's son) as his successors. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6; Barnes, CE, 26; Potter, 342. It was not to be: Severus and Maximin were appointed, while Constantine and Maxentius were ignored. Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 60–61; Odahl, 72–74; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15. Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine's life in the months following Diocletian's abdication. They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube, made him enter into single combat with a lion, and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars. Constantine always emerged victorious: the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius' feet. Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; MacMullen, Constantine, 32; Odahl, 73. It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted. Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61. In the West Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' court, where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. Odahl, 75–76. In the late spring or early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son, to help him campaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted the request. Constantine's later propaganda describes how Constantine fled the court in the night, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode from post-house to post-house at high speed, mutilating every horse in his wake. Barnes, CE, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39–40; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; MacMullen, Constantine, 32; Odahl, 77; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16; Potter, 344–5; Southern, 169–70, 341. By the time Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to be caught. MacMullen, Constantine, 32. Constantine joined his father in Gaul, at Bononia (Boulogne) before the summer of 305. Barnes, CE, 27; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39–40; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61; Odahl, 77; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16; Potter, 344–45; Southern, 169–70, 341. From Bononia they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum (York), capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Barnes, CE, 27, 298; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 39; Odahl, 77–78, 309; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16. Constantius's campaign, like that of Septimius Severus before it, probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success. Mattingly, 233–34; Southern, 170, 341. Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum (York). Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full Augustus. The Alamannic king Chrocus, a barbarian taken into service under Constantius, then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus. The troops loyal to Constantius' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule; Barnes, CE, 27–28; Jones, 59; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61–62; Odahl, 78–79. Iberia, which had been in his father's domain for less than a year, rejected it. Jones, 59. Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius's death and his own acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus. Barnes, CE, 28–29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; Odahl, 79–80. The portrait was wreathed in bay. Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39. He requested recognition as heir to his father's throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army, claiming they had "forced it upon him". Treadgold, 28. Galerius was put into a fury by the message; he almost set the portrait on fire. His advisers calmed him, and argued that outright denial of Constantine's claims would mean certain war. Barnes, CE, 28–29; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; Odahl, 79–80; Rees, 160. Galerius was compelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title "Caesar" rather than "Augustus" (The latter office went to Severus instead). Barnes, CE, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Jones, 59; MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 79–80. Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor's traditional purple robes. Odahl, 79–80. Constantine accepted the decision, knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy. Barnes, CE, 29. Early rule Constantine's share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. He therefore commanded one of the largest Roman armies, stationed along the important Rhine frontier. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 16–17. After his promotion to emperor, Constantine remained in Britain, and secured his control in the northwestern dioceses. He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father's rule, and ordered the repair of the region's roadways. Odahl, 80–81. He soon left for Augusta Treverorum (Trier) in Gaul, the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire. Odahl, 81. The Franks, after learning of Constantine's acclamation, invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306–7. MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 81–82. Constantine drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured two of their kings, Ascaric and Merogaisus. The kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier's amphitheater in the adventus (arrival) celebrations that followed. Barnes, CE, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine, 39–40; Odahl, 81–83. Constantine began a major expansion of Trier. He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates, and began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city. To the south of his palace, he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall, and a massive imperial bathhouse. Constantine sponsored many building projects across Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West, especially in Augustodunum (Autun) and Arelate (Arles). Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12. According to Lactantius, Constantine followed his father in following a tolerant policy towards Christianity. Although not yet a Christian, he probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution, Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–11. and a way to distinguish himself from the "great persecutor", Galerius. Odahl, 86. Constantine decreed a formal end to persecution, and returned to Christians all they had lost during the persecutions. Barnes, CE, 28. Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him, he relied on his father's reputation in his early propaganda: the earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father's deeds as to those of Constantine himself. Rodgers, 236. Constantine's military skill and building projects soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities between father and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a "renewal, as it were, in his own person, of his father's life and reign". Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238. Constantinian coinage, sculpture and oratory also shows a new tendency for disdain towards the "barbarians" beyond the frontiers. After Constantine's victory over the Alemanni, he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen—"The Alemanni conquered"—beneath the phrase "Romans' rejoicing". MacMullen, Constantine, 40. There was little sympathy for these enemies. As his panegyrist declared: "It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe." Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine, 40. Maxentius' rebellion Following Galerius' recognition of Constantine as emperor, Constantine's portrait was brought to Rome, as was customary. Maxentius mocked the portrait's subject as the son of a harlot, and lamented his own powerlessness. Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine, 39. Maxentius, jealous of Constantine's authority, Barnes, CE, 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346. seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306. Galerius refused to recognize him, but failed to unseat him. Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius, but during the campaign, Severus' armies, previously under command of Maxentius's father Maximian, defected, and Severus was seized and imprisoned. Barnes, CE, 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–49. Maximian, brought out of retirement by his son's rebellion, left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307. He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine, and elevate him to Augustan rank. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and offer support to Maxentius' cause in Italy. Constantine accepted, and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307. Constantine now gave Maxentius his meager support, offering Maxentius political recognition. Barnes, CE, 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16. Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict, however. Over the spring and summer of 307, he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil; Barnes, CE, 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87. now, instead of giving Maxentius military aid, he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine. In 308, he raided the territory of the Bructeri, and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium (Cologne). In 310, he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks. When not campaigning, he toured his lands advertising his benevolence, and supporting the economy and the arts. His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people, and strengthened his power base in the West. Barnes, CE, 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16. Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8, but soon fell out with his son. In early 309, after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius' title, Maximian returned to Constantine's court. Barnes, CE, 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93. On 11 November 308, Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria) to resolve the instability in the western provinces. In attendance were Diocletian, briefly returned from retirement, Galerius, and Maximian. Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar. Licinius, one of Galerius' old military companions, was appointed Augustus of the west. The new system did not last long: Constantine refused to accept the demotion, and continued to style himself as Augustus on his coinage, even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a Caesar on theirs. Maximin was frustrated that he had been turned over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of Augustus, and demanded that Galerius promote him. Galerius offered to call both Maximin and Constantine "sons of the Augusti", Barnes, CE, 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–50; Treadgold, 29. but neither accepted the new title. By the spring of 310, Galerius was referring to both men as Augusti. Barnes, CE, 33; Jones, 61. Maximian's rebellion In 310, a dispossessed and power-hungry Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine's army, in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine was dead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine's army remained loyal to their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soon heard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marched his army up the Rhine. Barnes, CE, 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352. At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône), he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone. He disembarked at Lugdunum (Lyon). Barnes, CE, 34. Maximian fled to Massilia (Marseille), a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made little difference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted some clemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations, Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father's devoted son after his death. Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20. He began minting coins with his father's deified image, proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian's death. Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, CE, 40–41, 305. In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. Barnes, CE, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68. The death of Maximian necessitated a shift in Constantine's public image. He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian, and needed a new source of legitimacy. Potter, 352. In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, the orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II, a third-century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away from tetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine's ancestral prerogative to rule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine's right to rule. Panegyrici Latini 6(7); Barnes, CE, 35–37, 301; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66; Odahl, 94–95, 314–15; Potter, 352–53. Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors: "No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made you emperor," the orator declares to Constantine. Panegyrici Latini 6(7)1. Qtd. in Potter, 353. The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy, with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules. Instead, the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign. In the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted "rule of the whole world", Panegyrici Latini 6(7).21.5. as the poet Virgil had once foretold. Virgil, Ecologues 4.10. The oration's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine's coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron. From 310 on, Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus, a god conventionally identified with Apollo. Barnes, CE, 36–37; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 67; Odahl, 95. There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction, but their proclamation strengthened Constantine's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul. Barnes, CE, 36–37; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 50–53; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 66–67; Odahl, 94–95. Civil wars War against Maxentius By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316. As his last political act, Galerius decided to rescind his failed policies of persecution. In a letter to his provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, Galerius proclaimed an end to the persecutions, and a resumption of official religious toleration. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.17; Barnes, CE, 304; Jones, 66. He died soon after. Barnes, CE, 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the tetrarchic system. Barnes, CE, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. Maximin mobilized against Licinius, and seized Asia Minor. Licinius and Maximin arranged a temporary peace on the Bosphorus soon thereafter. Barnes, CE, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44; Odahl, 96. While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war. Odahl, 96. He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius. Barnes, CE, 38; Odahl, 96. Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage; Barnes, CE, 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, Constantine, 62. and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa. Barnes, CE, 37. By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported, Barnes, CE, 37–39. even among Christian Italians. Barnes, CE, 38–39; MacMullen, Constantine, 62. In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". Barnes, CE, 40; Curran, 66. To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius, Barnes, CE, 41. Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–12, and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximin considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support. Maxentius accepted. Barnes, CE, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day". Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, Constantine, 65. Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius; Barnes, CE, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71. even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavorable omens. Panegyrici Latini 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67. Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance, Curran, 67. ignored all these cautions. MacMullen, Constantine, 70–71. Early in the spring of 312, Barnes, CE, 41; Odahl, 101. Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000. Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, CE, 41; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101. The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town, and advanced with them into northern Italy. At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. Barnes, CE, 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 101–2. In the ensuing battle Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious. Panegyrici Latini 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 102, 317–18. Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead. Barnes, CE, 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102. Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia (Brescia). Barnes, CE, 41–42; Odahl, 103. Brescia's army was easily dispersed, Barnes, CE, 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103. and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona, where a large Maxentian force was camped. Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 103. Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect, Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. was in a strong defensive position, since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force, but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. Barnes, CE, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103. Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately-fought encounter that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed. Barnes, CE, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–4. Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by Aquileia, Barnes, CE, 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, Constantine, 71; Odahl, 104. Mutina (Modena), Jones, 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 71. and Ravenna. MacMullen, Constantine, 71. The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine. Barnes, CE, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71. Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. Barnes, CE, 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105. He still controlled Rome's praetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly-impregnable Aurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods, Jones, 71. and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge. Odahl, 104. Constantine progressed slowly Barnes, CE, 42. along the Via Flaminia, MacMullen, Constantine, 72; Odahl, 107. allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible. Barnes, CE, 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–8. Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. Barnes, CE, 42–43; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.8; Barnes, CE, 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108. Maxentius organized his forces—still twice the size of Constantine's—in long lines facing the battle plain, with their backs to the river. Odahl, 108. Constantine's army arrived at the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or its soldiers' shields. Barnes, CE, 43; Digeser, 122; Jones, 72; Odahl, 106. According to Lactantius, Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the battle, wherein he was advised "to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers...by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he marked Christ on their shields." Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 44.4–6, tr. J.L. Creed, Lactantius: De Mortibus Persecutorum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), qtd. in Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71. Eusebius describes another version, where, while marching at midday, "he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the cross arising from the light of the sun, carrying the message, 'Conquer By This'"; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.28, tr. Odahl, 105. Barnes, CE, 43; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113; Odahl, 105. in Eusebius's account, Constantine had a dream the following night, in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign, and told him to make a standard, the labarum, for his army in that form. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.27–29; Barnes, CE, 43, 306; Odahl, 105–6, 319–20. Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place, Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 113. but it enters his narrative before the war against Maxentius begins. Cameron and Hall, 208. Eusebius describes the sign as Chi (Χ) traversed by Rho (Ρ), or ☧. Barnes, CE, 306; MacMullen, Constantine, 73; Odahl, 319. The Eusebian description of the vision has been explained as a "solar halo", a meteorological phenomenon which can produce similar effects. Barnes, CE, 306; Cameron and Hall, 206–7; Drake, "Impact of Constantine on Christianity" (CC), 114; Nicholson, 311. The earliest material evidence for Constantine's use of the labarum (i.e. the standard bearing the Chi-Rho), however, dates from 317. John Holland Smith, Constantine the Great (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1971), 104. See also: Cameron and Hall, 208–211; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 71; MacMullen, Constantine, 73. Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius' line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius' cavalry. He then sent his infantry against Maxentius' infantry, pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief: Barnes, CE, 43; Curran, 68. Maxentius' troops were broken before the first charge. MacMullen, Constantine, 78. Maxentius' horse guards and praetorians initially held their position, but broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode with them, and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed by the mass of his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber, and drowned. Barnes, CE, 43; Curran, 68; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. In Rome Constantine entered Rome on 29 October. Barnes, CE, 44; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 108. He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met with popular jubilation. Cameron, 93; Curran, 71–74; Odahl, 110. Maxentius' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. His head was paraded through the streets for all to see. Barnes, CE, 44; Curran, 72; Jones, 72; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70; MacMullen, Constantine, 78; Odahl, 108. After the ceremonies, Maxentius' disembodied head was sent to Carthage, after which Africa gave no further resistance. Barnes, CE, 44–45. Unlike his predecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. Barnes, CE, 44; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 111. Cf. also Curran, 72–75. He did, however, choose to honor the Senatorial Curia with a visit, Barnes, CE, 45; Curran, 72; MacMullen, Constantine, 81; Odahl, 109. where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government: there would be no revenge against Maxentius' supporters. Barnes, CE, 45–46; Odahl, 109. In response, the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant his name would be listed first in all official documents, Barnes, CE, 46; Odahl, 109. and acclaimed him as "the greatest Augustus". Barnes, CE, 46. He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius, recalling political exiles, and releasing Maxentius' imprisoned opponents. Barnes, CE, 44. An extensive propaganda campaign followed, during which Maxentius' image was systematically purged from all public places. Maxentius was written up as a "tyrant", and set against an idealized image of the "liberator", Constantine. Eusebius, in his later works, is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda. Barnes, CE, 45–47; Cameron, 93; Curran, 76–77; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 70. Maxentius' rescripts were declared null and void, and the honors Maxentius had granted to leaders of the Senate were invalidated. Barnes, CE, 45. Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius' influence on Rome's urban landscape. All structures built by Maxentius were re-dedicated to Constantine, including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius. Curran, 80–83. At the focal point of the basilica, a stone statue of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand was erected. Its inscription bore the message the statue had already made clear: By this sign Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant. Barnes, CE, 47. Where he did not overwrite Maxentius' achievements, Constantine upstaged them: the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its total seating capacity was twenty-five times larger than that of Maxentius' racing complex on the Via Appia. Curran, 83–85. Maxentius' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard (equites singulares) were disbanded. Barnes, CE, 45; Curran, 76; Odahl, 109. Their tombstones were ground up and put to use in a basilica on the Via Labicana. Curran, 101. Early in Constantine's reign, the former base of the Imperial Horse Guard was chosen for redevelopment into the Lateran Basilica. Art historian Richard Krautheimer has dated the event to 9 November 312—barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city. Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romanorum, 5.90, cited in Curran, 93–96. The Legio II Parthica was removed from Alba (Albano Laziale), Barnes, CE, 45. and the remainder of Maxentius' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine. Odahl, 109. Wars against Licinius In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan (which, in its surviving forms, was neither an edict nor issued in Milan), officially granting full tolerance to all religions in the Empire. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 24. The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. It repudiates past methods of religious coercion, accepting religious plurality and using only general terms to refer to the gods—"Divinity" and "Supreme Divinity", summa divinitas. Drake, "Impact," 121–3. The conference was cut short, however, when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximin had crossed the Bosporus and invaded Licinian territory. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, though, and either in 314 or 316, Constantine and Licinius fought against one another in the war of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again in the Battle of Campus Ardiensis in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made caesars. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 38–39. In the year 320, Licinius reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 41–42. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient Pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martius Martinianus, the commander of his bodyguard, as Caesar, but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont, and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 42–43. Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged; Licinius's son (the son of Constantine's half-sister) was also eradicated. Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, 215. Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. MacMullen, Constantine. Later rule Foundation of Constantinople Licinius' defeat represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginning of the role of the Eastern Roman Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinopolis ("Constantine's City" or Constantinople in English), and issued special commemorative coins in 330 to honor the event. He provided the "Second Rome" with a Senate and civic offices similar to those of Rome. The new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics, though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city. Sardonyx cameo depicting constantine the great crowned by Constantinople, 4th century AD at "The Road to Byzantium: Luxury Arts of Antiquity". The Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House (30 March 2006 – 3 September 2006) The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism. Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision led Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. The capital would often be compared to the 'old' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the "New Rome of Constantinople". According to the Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum, vol. 164 (Stuttgart: A. Hiersemann, 2005), column 442, there is no evidence for the tradition that Constantine officially dubbed the city "New Rome" (Nova Roma or Nea Rhome). Commemorative coins that were issued during the 330s already refer to the city as Constantinopolis (Michael Grant, The Climax of Rome (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), 133). It is possible that the emperor called the city "Second Rome" (Deutera Rhome) by official decree, as reported by the 5th century church historian Socrates of Constantinople. Religious policy Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor; his reign was certainly a turning point for the Christian Church. In 313 Constantine announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan, which removed penalties for professing Christianity (under which many had been martyred in previous persecutions of Christians) and returned confiscated Church property. Though a similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius, then senior emperor of the Tetrarchy, Galerius' edict granted Christians the right to practice their religion but did not restore any property to them. See Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 34–35. Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena's Christianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 55 . Constantine however maintained the title of Pontifex Maximus until his death; emperors bore the title as heads of the pagan priesthood. According to Christian writers, Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian , by writing to Christians to make clear that he believed he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone Peter Brown, The Rise of Christendom 2nd edition (Oxford, Blackwell Publishing, 2003) p. 60 Throughout his rule, Constantine supported the Church financially, built various basilicas, granted privileges (e.g. exemption from certain taxes) to clergy, promoted Christians to high ranking offices, and returned property confiscated during the Great Persecution of Diocletian. R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) pp. 55-56 His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and Old Saint Peter's Basilica. Constantine didn't give his favouritism exclusively to Christianity. After gaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, a triumphal arch - the Arch of Constantine - was built to celebrate; the arch is decorated with images of Victoria and sacrifices to gods like Apollo, Diana, or Hercules, but contains no Christian symbolism. The rebuilt Milvian Bridge itself was dedicated in homage to Mithras, and was covered in associated imagery, but nothing Christian. Its inscription carefully avoids the mention of any specific god. In 321 Constantine instructed that Christians and non-Christians should be united in observing the venerable day of the sun, referencing the esoteric eastern sun-worship which Aurelian had helped introduce, and his coinage still carried the symbols of the sun-cult until 324. Even after the pagan gods had disappeared from the coinage, Christian ones appear only as Constantine's personal attributes: the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum, but never on the coin itself Cf. Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien, 163 . Even when Constantine dedicated the new capital of Constantinople, which became the seat of Byzantine Christianity for a millennium, he did so wearing the Apollonian sun-rayed Diadem. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the emperor in the Christian Church. Constantine himself disliked the risks to societal stability, that religious disputes and controversies brought with them, preferring where possible to establish an orthodoxy. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14-15 The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) q. 15 The emperor saw it as his duty to ensure that God was properly worshipped in his empire; what proper worship consisted of was for the Church to determine. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16 In 316, Constantine acted as a judge in a North African dispute concerning the validity of Donatism; after making a decision against the Donatists, Constantine led an army of Christians against the Donatist Christians. After 300 years of pacifism, this was the first intra-Christian persecution. More significantly, in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea, effectively the first Ecumenical Council (unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified, Pre Ecumenical councils include the Council of Rome 155 AD, Second Council of Rome 193 AD, Council of Ephesus 193 AD, Council of Carthage 251 AD, Council of Iconium 258 AD, Councils of Antioch, 264 AD, Council of Elvira 306 AD, Council of Carthage 311 AD, Council of Ancyra 314 AD, Council of Arles 314 AD and the Council of Neo-Caesarea 315 AD), Nicaea was to deal mostly with the heresy of Arianism. Constantine also enforced the prohibition of the First Council of Nicaea against celebrating Easter on the day before the Jewish Passover (14 Nisan) (see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy). Life of Constantine Vol. III Ch. XVIII by Eusebius; The Epistle of the Emperor Constantine, concerning the matters transacted at the Council, addressed to those Bishops who were not present Constantine made new laws regarding the Jews. They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Jews were forbidden to proselytize or accept converts to Judaism. Any Jew found converting a Christian to Judaism by force would be burned alive. Barnes, CE, 252. Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy. Cameron, 107. Congregations for religious services were restricted, but Jews were allowed to enter Jerusalem on one day each year. Itinerarium Burdigalense 591.4ff, cited in Barnes, CE, 252, 392 n.73. Constantine also supported conversion efforts in Judaea. He raised Josephus of Tiberias (a Jewish convert to Christianity) the rank of comes and gave him the money to build churches in the largely Jewish towns of Galilee. Barnes, CE, 252. Executions of Crispus and Fausta On some date between 15 May and 17 June 326, Constantine had his eldest son Crispus, by Minervina, seized and put to death by "cold poison" at Pola (Pula, Croatia). Guthrie, 325–6. In July, Constantine had his wife, the Empress Fausta, killed at the behest of his mother, Helena. Fausta was left to die in an over-heated bath. Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 70–72. Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions, references to their lives in the literary record were erased, and the memory of both was condemned. Eusebius, for example, edited praise of Crispus out of later copies of his Historia Ecclesiastica, and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all. Guthrie, 326; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 72. Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events; those few that do offer unconvincing rationales, are of later provenance, and are generally unreliable. At the time of the executions, it was commonly believed that the Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus, or was spreading rumors to that effect. A popular myth arose, modified to allude to Hippolytus–Phaedra legend, with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities. Guthrie, 326–27. One source, the largely fictional Passion of Artemius, probably penned in the eighth century by John of Damascus, makes the legendary connection explicit. Art. Pass 45; Woods, "Death of the Empress," 71–72. As an interpretation of the executions, the myth rests on only "the slimmest of evidence": sources that allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta are late and unreliable, and the modern suggestion that Constantine's "godly" edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected rests on no evidence at all. An additional story, propagated by the historian Charles Matson Odahl, goes that Fausta wanted to kill Crispus to ensure that her own children would receive the Imperial throne. Therefore she told Constantine that Crispus had attempted to rape her, and bribed several senators to corroborate the story. Constantine was obligated by Roman law to execute his son, as these charges were as serious as treason in Roman times. Hence, Constantine reluctantly, and sadly, executed his son. Later, his mother Helena heard of what had taken place, and investigated the event. She discovered that Fausta had bribed the senators, and told Constantine. Fausta was locked in a bath and left to die (this method would have caused her to pass out before expiring). After this entire event Constantine was so depressed that he never returned to the western half of the empire in his lifetime. Odahl, 206–7. The earliest authority to support the charges in Odahl's account is Zosimus, and the wording of Zosimus's account could also suggest that Fausta made advances on Crispus. To use such a late source, one reviewer remarked, seems uncouth. It is plausible that "the further away from the events people were writing, the more fanciful the stories became". John Moorhead, review of Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl, Journal of Religious History 30:2 (2006), 228–29. Other reviewers of Odahl's work have criticized its credulous use of the narrative sources (Elzabeth Digeser, review of Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl, Journal of Early Christian Studies 13:4 (2005), 527–28; Tarmo Toom, review of Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl, Reviews in Religion and Theology 13:1 (2006), 28–31), and his narrative given to flights of "a whimsical character that borders on the speculative if not the fictional" (Mark Humprhies, review of Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl, The Classical Review 56:2 (2006), 450). Later campaigns Constantine considered Constantinople as his capital and permanent residence. He lived there for a good portion of his later life. He rebuilt Trajan's bridge across the Danube, in hopes of reconquering Dacia, a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths. The weather and a lack of food did the Goths in; nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Roman lordship. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate. Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in the Balkans and Italy, and conscripted the rest into the army. Constantine took the title Dacius maximus in 336. Barnes, CE, 250. In the last years of his life Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia. In a letter written to the king of Persia, Shapur, Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well. Eusebius, VC 4.9ff, cited in Barnes, CE, 259. The letter is undatable. In response to border raids, Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335. In 336, prince Narseh invaded Armenia (a Christian kingdom since 314) and installed a Persian client on the throne. Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia himself. He treated the war as a Christian crusade, calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere. Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia. Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336–7, seeking peace, but Constantine turned them away. The campaign was called off however, when Constantine fell sick in the Spring of 337. Barnes, CE, 258–59. See also: Fowden, "Last Days", 146–48, and Wiemer, 515. Sickness and death Constantine had known death would soon come. Within the Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.58–60; Barnes, CE, 259. It came sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.61; Barnes, CE, 259. He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother's city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit. There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, he prayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he became a catechumen, and attempted a return to Constantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62. He summoned the bishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan, where Christ was written to have been baptized. He requested the baptism right away, promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness. The bishops, Eusebius records, "performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom". Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.62.4. He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of the city where he lay dying, as his baptizer. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 75–76; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. In postponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until old age or death. Because he was so old, he could not be submerged in water to be baptised, and therefore, the rules of baptism were changed to what they are today, having water placed on the forehead alone. In this period infant baptism, though practiced (usually in circumstances of emergency) had not yet become a matter of routine in the west. Thomas M. Finn, Early Christian Baptism and the Catechumenate: East and West Syria (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press/Michael Glazier, 1992); Philip Rousseau, "Baptism," in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Post Classical World, ed. G.W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, and Oleg Grabar (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999). It was thought Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible. Marilena Amerise, 'Il battesimo di Costantino il Grande." Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directly following Easter, on 22 May 337. Eusebius, Vita Constantini 4.64; Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine," 147; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 82. Although Constantine's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius's account, most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle. Emperor Julian, writing in the mid-350s, observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill-deeds, because Constantine died "in the middle of his preparations for war". Julian, Orations 1.18.b. Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini, an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living, and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia; Origo Constantini 35. the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor, written in 361, which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians; Sextus Aurelius Victor, Historiae abbreviatae XLI.16. and the Breviarium of Eutropius, a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens, which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia. Eutropius, Breviarium X.8.2. From these and other accounts, some have concluded that Eusebius's Vita was edited to defend Constantine's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign. Fowden, "Last Days of Constantine," 148–9. Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 75–76. He was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius, notably Constantine's nephews Dalmatius (who held the rank of Caesar) and Hannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters, Constantina and Helena, wife of Emperor Julian. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 71, figure 9. Legacy Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" ("Μέγας") from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. In addition to reuniting the Empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306–8, the Franks again in 313–14, the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 72. The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him among the venerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it had become a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a "new Constantine". Ten emperors, including the last emperor of Byzantium, carried the name. Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 91. Monumental Constantinian forms were used at the court of Charlemagne to suggest that he was Constantine's successor and equal. Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against "heathens". The motif of the Romanesque equestrian, the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor, came to be used as a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors. The name "Constantine" itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Seidel, 237–39. Most Eastern Christian churches consider Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, Saint Constantine). Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 83–87. In the Byzantine Church he was called isapostolos (Ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος)—an equal of the Apostles. Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 305. During his life and those of his sons, Constantine was presented as a paragon of virtue. Even pagans like Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius showered him with praise. When the last of his sons died in 361, however, his nephew Julian the Apostate wrote the satire Symposium, or the Saturnalia, which denigrated Constantine, calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors, and given over to luxury and greed. Barnes, CE, 272–23. Following Julian, Eunapius of Sardis began a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the Empire through his indulgence to the Christians. Barnes, CE, 273. In medieval times, when the Roman Catholic Church was dominant, Catholic historians presented Constantine as an ideal ruler, the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured. Barnes, CE, 273; Odahl, 281. The Renaissance rediscovery of anti-Constantinian sources prompted a re-evaluation of Constantine's career. The German humanist Johann Löwenklau, discoverer of Zosimus' writings, published a Latin translation thereof in 1576. In its preface, he argued that Zosimus' picture of Constantine was superior to that offered by Eusebius and the Church historians, and damned Constantine as a tyrant. Johannes Leunclavius, Apologia pro Zosimo adversus Evagrii, Nicephori Callisti et aliorum acerbas criminationes (Defence of Zosimus against the Unjustified Charges of Evagrius, Nicephorus Callistus, and Others) (Basel, 1576), cited in Barnes, CE, 273, and Odahl, 282. Cardinal Caesar Baronius, a man of the Counter-Reformation, criticized Zosimus, favoring Eusebius' account of the Constantinian era. Baronius' Life of Constantine (1588) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince. Caesar Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici 3 (Antwerp, 1623), cited in Barnes, CE, 274, and Odahl, 282. Edward Gibbon, aiming to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship, offered a portrait of Constantine built on the contrasted narratives of Eusebius and Zosimus. Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 18, cited in Barnes, CE, 274, and Odahl, 282. See also Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6–7. , as for Gibbon Constantine was a "good" Roman emperor (i.e., a military man of good upbringing) who had his mind corrupted into an autocrat by Christianity. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, V.1, pg.256 Modern interpretations of Constantine's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt's The Age of Constantine the Great (1853). Burckhardt's Constantine is a scheming secularist, a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power. Jacob Burckhardt, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (Basel, 1853; revised edition, Leipzig, 1880), cited in Barnes, CE, 274; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. Henri Grégoire, writing in the 1930s, followed Burckhardt's evaluation of Constantine. For Grégoire, Constantine only developed an interest in Christianity after witnessing its political usefulness. Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius' Vita, and postulated a pseudo-Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7. Otto Seeck, in Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (1920–23), and André Piganiol, in L'empereur Constantin (1932), wrote against this historiographic tradition. Seeck presented Constantine as a sincere war hero, whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 7–8. Piganiol's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist, a child of his era's religious syncretism. Barnes, CE, 274. Related histories by A.H.M. Jones (Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (1949)) and Ramsay MacMullen (Constantine (1969)) gave portraits of a less visionary, and more impulsive, Constantine. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8. These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity. Beginning with Norman H. Baynes' Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (1929) and reinforced by Andreas Alföldi's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (1948), a historiographic tradition developed which presented Constantine as a committed Christian. T. D. Barnes's seminal Constantine and Eusebius (1981) represents the culmination of this trend. Barnes' Constantine experienced a radical conversion, which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 8–9; Odahl, 283. Charles Matson Odahl's recent Constantine and the Christian Empire (2004) takes much the same tack. Odahl, 283; Mark Humphries, "Constantine," review of Constantine and the Christian Empire, by Charles Odahl, Classical Quarterly 56:2 (2006), 449. In spite of Barnes' work, arguments over the strength and depth of Constantine's religious conversion continue. Averil Cameron, "Introduction," in Constantine: History, Historiography, and Legend, ed. Samuel N.C. Lieu and Dominic Montserrat (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3. Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliott's The Christianity of Constantine the Great (1996), which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood. Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 10. , or in Paul Veyne's Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien (2007), which presents Constantine as an autocrat of genius and a religious revolutionary and as such a forerunner of the bolsheviks Paul Veyne, Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien, 96/97 . Niš airoport is named Constantine the Great in honor of his birth in Naissus. Donation of Constantine Latin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, viewing it as a snub to the authority of the Papacy. Hence, by the early fourth century, a legend had emerged that Pope Sylvester I (314–35) had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was soon baptized, and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Palace. Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 298–301. In the eighth century, most likely during the pontificate of Stephen II (752–7), a document called the Donation of Constantine first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over "the city of Rome and all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy and the Western regions" to Stephen and his successors. Constitutum Constantini 17, qtd. in Lieu, "Constantine in Legendary Literature" (CC), 301–3. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope's temporal power, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III Henry Charles Lea, "The 'Donation of Constantine'". The English Historical Review 10: 37 (1895), 86–7. and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a forgery. Fubini, 79–86; Lenski, "Introduction" (CC), 6. Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor on the territory of Great Britain, Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the Welsh writer Geoffrey of Monmouth published a fictional work called Historia Regum Britanniae, in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the Trojan War, King Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of King Cole, the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Geoffrey also said that Constantine was proclaimed King of the Britons at York, rather than Roman emperor. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, 132–33. See also Colossus of Constantine Constantinian shift References Primary sources Athanasius, Apologia conta Arianos (Defence against the Arians) ca. 349. Athanasius, Epistola de Decretis Nicaenae Synodi (Letter on the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) ca. 352. Athanasius, Historia Arianorum (History of the Arians) ca. 357. Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus (Book on the Caesars) ca. 361. Epitome de Caesaribus (Epitome on the Caesars) ca. 395. Eunapius, History from Dexippus first edition ca. 390, second edition ca. 415. Eusebius of Caesarea, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) first seven books ca. 300, eighth and ninth book ca. 313, tenth book ca. 315, epilogue ca. 325. Eusebius of Caesarea, Oratio de Laudibus Constantini (Oration in Praise of Constantine) 336. Eusebius of Caesarea, Vita Constantini (The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine) ca. 336–39. Eutropius, Breviarium ab Urbe Condita (Abbreviated History from the City's Founding) ca. 369. Ruffus Festus, Breviarium Festi (The Abbreviated History of Festus) ca. 370. Jerome, Chronicon (Chronicle) ca. 380. Jordanes, De origine actibusque Getarum (The Origin and Deeds of the Goths) ca. 551. Lactantius, Liber De Mortibus Persecutorum (Book on the Deaths of the Persecutors) ca. 313–15. Libanius, Oratio (Orations) ca. 362–65. Optatus, Libri VII de Schismate Donatistarum (Seven Books on the Schism of the Donatists) first edition ca. 365–67, second edition ca. 385. Origo Constantini Imperiatoris (The Lineage of the Emperor Constantine) ca. 340–90. Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII (Seven Books of History Against the Pagans) ca. 417. XII Panegyrici Latini (Twelve Latin Panegyircs) relevant panegyrics dated 289, 291, 297, 298, 307, 310, 311, 313 and 321. Philostorgius, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) ca. 433. Praxagoras of Athens, Historia (History of Constantine the Great) ca. 337. Socrates of Constantinople (Socrates Scholasticus), Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) ca. 443. Sozomen, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) ca. 445. Theodoret, Historia Ecclesiastica (Church History) ca. 448. Codex Theodosianus (Theodosian Code) 439. Zosimus, Historia Nova (New History) ca. 500. This list of primary sources is based principally on the summary in Odahl, 2–11 and further lists in Odahl, 372–76. See also Bruno Bleckmann, "Sources for the History of Constantine" (CC), "Sources for the History of Constantine," in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, trans. Noel Lenski, ed. Noel Lenski (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 14–31; and Noel Lenski, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 411–17. Secondary sources Alföldi, Andrew. The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome. Translated by Harold Mattingly. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1948. Arjava, Antii. Women and Law in Late Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-19-815233-7 Armstrong, Gregory T. "Church and State Relations: The Changes Wrought by Constantine." Journal of Bible and Religion 32 (1964): 1–7. Armstrong, Gregory T. "Constantine's Churches: Symbol and Structure." The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 33 (1974): 5–16. Barnes, Timothy D. "Lactantius and Constantine." The Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973): 29–46. Barnes, Timothy D. Constantine and Eusebius (CE in citations). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981. ISBN 978-0674165311 Barnes, Timothy D. The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982. ISBN 0783722214 Barnes, Timothy D. "Constantine and the Christians of Persia." The Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985): 126–136. Bowman, Alan K. "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy." In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, edited by Alan Bowman, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, 67–89. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 Cameron, Averil. "The Reign of Constantine, A.D. 306–337." In The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, edited by Alan Bowman, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, 90–109. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-30199-8 Cameron, Averil and Stuart G. Hall. Life of Constantine. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. Hardcover ISBN 0-19-814917-4 Paperback ISBN 0-19-814924-7 Corcoran, Simon. The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. ISBN 019815304X Curran, John. Pagan City and Christian Capital. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000. Hardcover ISBN 0-19-815278-8 Paperback ISBN 0-19-925420-6 Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma. The Making of A Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome. London: Cornell University Press, 2000. ISBN 0801435943 Downey, Glanville. "Education in the Christian Roman Empire: Christian and Pagan Theories under Constantine and His Successors." Speculum 32 (1957): 48–61. Drake, H. A. "What Eusebius Knew: The Genesis of the "Vita Constantini"." Classical Philology 83 (1988): 20–38. Drake, H. A. "Constantine and Consensus." Church History 64 (1995): 1–15. Drake, H. A. "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance." Past & Present 153 (1996): 3–36. Drake, H. A. Constantine and the Bishops: The Politics of Intolerance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8018-6218-3 Elliott, T. G. "Constantine's Conversion: Do We Really Need It?" Phoenix 41 (1987): 420–438. Elliott, T. G. "Eusebian Frauds in the "Vita Constantini"." Phoenix 45 (1991): 162–171. Elliott, T. G. The Christianity of Constantine the Great . Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996. ISBN 0-940866-59-5 Fowden, Garth. "Between Pagans and Christians." The Journal of Roman Studies 78 (1988): 173–182. Fowden, Garth. "The Last Days of Constantine: Oppositional Versions and Their Influence." The Journal of Roman Studies 84 (1994): 146–170. Fubini, Riccardo. "Humanism and Truth: Valla Writes against the Donation of Constantine." Journal of the History of Ideas 57:1 (1996): 79–86. Gibbon,Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1952 ("Great Books" collection), in 2 volumes. Grant, Robert M. "Religion and Politics at the Council at Nicaea." The Journal of Religion 55 (1975): 1–12. Guthrie, Patrick. "The Execution of Crispus." Phoenix 20: 4 (1966): 325–331. Harries, Jill. Law and Empire in Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-41087-8 Paperback ISBN 0-521-42273-6 Hartley, Elizabeth. Constantine the Great: York's Roman Emperor. York: Lund Humphries, 2004. ISBN 978-0853319283. Heather, Peter J. "Foedera and Foederati of the Fourth Century." In From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms, edited by Thomas F.X. Noble, 292–308. New York: Routledge, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-32741-5 Paperback ISBN 0-415-32742-3 Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173-337." Church History 43 (June 1974): 149–163. Jones, A.H.M. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1978 [1948]. Jordan, David P. "Gibbon's "Age of Constantine" and the Fall of Rome" History and Theory 8:1 (1969), 71–96. Lenski, Noel, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover ISBN 0-521-81838-9 Paperback ISBN 0-521-52157-2 Lieu, Samuel N.C. and Dominic Montserrat. From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views; A Source History. New York: Routledge, 1996. Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." Classical Philology 94:2 (1999): 198–209. MacMullen, Ramsay. Constantine. New York: Dial Press, 1969. ISBN 0709946856 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0300036428 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-300-07148-5 Mattingly, David. An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire. London: Penguin, 2007. ISBN 978-0-140-14822-0 Nicholson, Oliver. "Constantine's Vision of the Cross." Vigiliae Christianae 54:3 (2000): 309–323. Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-17485-6 Paperback ISBN 0-415-38655-1 Pears, Edwin. "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 324." The English Historical Review 24:93 (1909): 1–17. Pohlsander, Hans. "Crispus: Brilliant Career and Tragic End". Historia 33 (1984): 79–106. Pohlsander, Hans. The Emperor Constantine. London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-31937-4 Paperback ISBN 0-415-31938-2 Pohlsander, Hans. "Constantine I (306 - 337 A.D.)." De Imperatoribus Romanis (2004b). Accessed December 16, 2007. Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover ISBN 0-415-10057-7 Paperback ISBN 0-415-10058-5 Rees, Roger. Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric: AD 289–307. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-924918-0 Rodgers, Barbara Saylor. "The Metamorphosis of Constantine." The Classical Quarterly 39 (1989): 233–246. Seidel, Lisa. "Constantine 'and' Charlemagne." Gesta 15 (1976): 237–239. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-23944-3 Storch, Rudolph H. "The "Eusebian Constantine"." Church History 40 (1971): 1–15. Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8047-2630-2 Veyne, Paul.Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien, Paris: Albin Michel, 2007. ISBN 978-2-226-17609-7 , Warmington, Brian. "Some Constantinian References in Ammianus." In The Late Roman World and its Historian: Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus, edited by Jan Willem Drijvers and David Hunt, 166–177. London: Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-20271-X Weiss, Peter. "The Vision of Constantine." Translated by A.R. Birley in Journal of Roman Archaeology 16 (2003): 237–59. Wiemer, Hans-Ulrich. "Libanius on Constantine." The Classical Quarterly 44 (1994): 511–524. Williams, Stephen. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery. New York: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0-415-91827-8 Woods, David. "On the Death of the Empress Fausta." Greece & Rome 45 (1988): 70–86. Woods, David. "Where Did Constantine I Die?" Journal of Theological Studies 48:2 (1997): 531–535. Wright, David H. "The True Face of Constantine the Great." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 41 (1987): 493–507 Notes Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine are marked with a "(CC)". External links Letters of Constantine: Book 1, Book 2, & Book 3 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Constantine I 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of Stony Brook School (grades 7–12). 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine. Constantine I in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Constantine the Great A site about Constantine the Great and his brass coins emphasizing history using coins, with many resources including reverse types issued and reverse translations. House of Constantine bronze coins Illustrations and descriptions of coins of Constantine the Great and his relatives. BBC North Yorkshire's site on Roman York, Yorkshire and Constantine the Great This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Constantine I relating to Christianity. Professor Edwin Judge discusses Constantine's legacy for a Centre for Public Christianity vodcast The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev Constantine's time in York on the 'History of York' be-x-old:Канстантын Вялікі | Constantine_the_Great |@lemmatized caesar:17 flavius:4 valerius:2 aurelius:6 constantinus:2 augustus:11 latin:8 constantine:506 official:8 imperial:13 title:11 imperator:2 flavivs:1 constantinvs:1 pivs:1 felix:2 invictvs:1 avgvstvs:1 pious:1 fortunate:1 undefeated:2 add:1 maximvs:1 great:29 replace:3 victor:6 invictus:3 remind:1 sol:2 sun:6 god:12 february:3 c:4 birth:2 date:6 vary:1 modern:4 historian:11 use:10 lenski:61 reign:60 cc:82 may:5 commonly:2 know:6 english:4 among:5 eastern:10 orthodox:5 coptic:1 oriental:1 byzantine:11 catholic:5 christian:68 saint:7 kɒnstɛntaɪn:1 roman:44 emperor:77 undisputed:1 holder:1 office:7 death:21 best:4 first:16 reverse:3 persecution:16 predecessor:3 diocletian:29 issue:8 co:2 licinius:23 edict:9 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1,954 | Khoisan_languages | The Khoisan languages (also known as the Khoesan or Khoesaan languages) are the click languages of Africa, which do not belong to other language families. They include languages indigenous to southern and eastern Africa, though some such, as the Khoi languages, appear to have moved to their current locations not long before the Bantu expansion. In southern Africa their speakers are the Khoi and Bushmen (Saan), in east Africa the Sandawe and Hadza. Many people were exposed to a Khoisan language through the actor Nǃxau in the 1980 film The Gods Must Be Crazy. Prior to the Bantu expansion, it is likely that Khoisan languages, or languages like them, were spread throughout southern and eastern Africa. Today they are restricted to the Kalahari Desert, primarily in Namibia and Botswana, and to the Rift Valley in central Tanzania. Barnard, A. (1988) 'Kinship, language and production: a conjectural history of Khoisan social structure', Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 58 (1), 29-50. Most of the languages are endangered, and several are moribund or extinct. Most have no written record. The only widespread Khoisan language is Nama of Namibia, with a quarter of a million speakers; Sandawe in Tanzania is second in number with about 40,000, some monolingual; and the Juu language cluster of the northern Kalahari is spoken by some 30,000 people. Khoisan languages are best known for their use of click consonants as phonemes. These are typically written with letters such as ǃ and ǂ. The Juǀʼhoan language has some 30 click consonants, not counting clusters, among perhaps 90 phonemes, which include strident and pharyngealized vowels and four tones. The ǃXóõ and ǂHõã languages are similarly complex. Grammatically, the southern Khoisan languages are generally fairly isolating, with word order being more widely used to indicate grammatical relations than is inflection. By contrast, the languages of Tanzania have large numbers of inflectional suffixes. Validity Khoisan was proposed as one of the four families of African languages in Greenberg's classification (1949-1954, revised in 1963). However, few linguists who study Khoisan languages today accept their unity, and the name "Khoisan" is used by them as a term of convenience without any implication of linguistic validity, much as "Papuan" and "Australian" are. Bonny Sands (1998) Eastern and Southern African Khoisan: Evaluating Claims of Distant Linguistic Relationships. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne Gerrit Dimmendaal (2008) "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent", in Language and Linguistics Compass 2/5 It has been suggested that the similarities of the Tuu and Juu (or Juu-ǂHoan) families are due to a southern African Sprachbund rather than a genealogical relationship, whereas the Khoe (or perhaps Kwadi-Khoe) family is a more recent migrant to the area, and may be related to Sandawe in East Africa. Güldemann, Tom and Edward D. Elderkin (forthcoming) 'On external genealogical relationships of the Khoe family.' In Brenzinger, Matthias and Christa König (eds.), Khoisan languages and linguistics: the Riezlern symposium 2003. Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 17. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. E.O.J. Westphal is particularly known for his denial that the Khoisan languages constitute a language family (Starostin 2003). Bonny Sands (1998) concludes that the family is not demonstrable with current evidence. Dimmendaal (2008) summarizes the general view with, "it has to be concluded that Greenberg’s intuitions on the genetic unity of Khoisan could not be confirmed by subsequent research. Today, the few scholars working on these languages treat the three [southern groups] as independent language families that cannot or can no longer be shown to be genetically related" (p. 841). Linguists who continue to accept that Khoisan represents a genetic unity include Christopher Ehret (1986, 2003), Anthony Traill (1986), Henry Honken (1988, 1998), and George Starostin (2003, 2008). Classification The putative branches of Khoisan are often considered independent families, in the absence of a demonstration that they are related according to the standard comparative method. See Khoe languages for speculations on the linguistic history of the region. Hadza With about 800 speakers in Tanzania, Hadza appears to be unrelated to any other language; genetically, the Hadza people are unrelated to the Khoisan peoples of Southern Africa, and their closest relatives may be among the Pygmies of Central Africa. Sandawe There is some indication that Sandawe (about 40,000 speakers in Tazania) may be related to the Khoe-Kwadi family, such as a congruent pronominal system and some good Swadesh-list matches, but not enough to establish regular sound correspondences. The Sandawe are not related to the Hadza, despite their proximity. Khoe The Khoe family is both the most numerous and diverse family of Khoisan languages, with seven living languages and over a quarter million speakers. Although little data is available, proto-Kwadi-Khoe reconstructions have been made for pronouns and some basic vocabulary. However, the Kwadi connection is not accepted by all Khoesanists. ? Kwadi-Khoe Kwadi. Extinct, Angola. Khoe Khoekhoe This branch appears to have been affected by the Juu-Tuu sprachbund. Nama (250,000 speakers. Ethnonyms Khoekhoen, Nama, Damara. A dialect cluster including ǂAakhoe and Haiǁom) Eini (Extinct.) South Khoekhoe Korana (6+ speakers. Moribund.) Xiri (90 speakers. Moribund. A dialect cluster.) Tshu-Khwe (or Kalahari) Many of these languages have undergone partial click loss. East Tshu-Khwe (East Kalahari) Shua (6000 speakers. A dialect cluster including Deti, Tsʼixa, ǀXaise, and Ganádi) Tsoa (9300 speakers. A dialect cluster including Cire Cire and Kua) West Tshu-Khwe (West Kalahari) Kxoe (11,000 speakers. A dialect cluster including ǁAni and Buga) Naro (14,000 speakers. A dialect cluster.) Gǁana-Gǀwi (4500 speakers. A dialect cluster including Gǁana, Gǀwi, and ǂHaba) A Haiǁom language is listed in most Khoisan references. A century ago the Haiǁom people spoke a Ju dialect, probably close to ǃKung, but they now speak a divergent dialect of Nama. Thus their language is variously said to be extinct or to have 16,000 speakers, to be Ju or to be Khoe. (Their numbers have been included under Nama above.) They are known as the Saa by the Nama, and this is the source of the word San. Tuu The Tuu family consists of two language clusters, which are related to each other at about the distance of Khoekhoe and Tshukhwe within Khoe. They are typologically very similar to the Juu languages (below), but have not been demonstrated to be related to them genealogically. (The similarities may be an areal feature.) Tuu Taa ǃXóõ (4200 speakers. A dialect cluster.) Lower Nossob (Two dialects, ǀʼAuni and ǀHaasi. Extinct.) ǃKwi Nǁng (A dialect cluster. Moribund, with 8 Nǀu speakers.) ǀXam (A dialect cluster. Extinct.) ǂUngkue (A dialect cluster. Extinct.) ǁXegwi (Extinct.) Juu-ǂHoan The Juu-ǂHoan family is a distant relationship, only recently proposed, that is being increasingly accepted. Juu-ǂHoan ǂHõã (200 speakers, Botswana. Moribund.) Juu (also ǃKung, formerly Northern Khoisan) is a single dialect cluster. (~45,000 speakers.) Well known dialects are ǃKung (ǃXũũ), Juǀʼhoan, and ǂKxʼauǁʼein. Other "Click Languages" Not all languages using clicks as phonemes are considered Khoisan. Most are neighboring Bantu languages in southern Africa: the Nguni languages Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi, Phuthi, and Ndebele; Sotho; Yeyi in Botswana; and Mbukushu, Kwangali, and Gciriku in the Caprivi Strip. Of these, Xhosa, Zulu, and Yeyi have intricate systems of click consonants; the others, despite the click in the name Gciriku, more rudimentary ones. There is also the South Cushitic language Dahalo in Kenya, which has dental clicks in a few score words, and an extinct northern Australian ritual language called Damin, which had only nasal clicks. The Bantu languages adopted the use of clicks from neighboring, displaced, or absorbed Khoisan populations, often through intermarriage, while the Dahalo are thought to have retained clicks from an earlier language when they shifted to speaking a Cushitic language; if so, the pre-Dahalo language may have been something like Hadza or Sandawe. Damin is an invented ritual language, and has nothing to do with Khoisan. Notes Bibliography Barnard, A. 1988. "Kinship, language and production: a conjectural history of Khoisan social structure." In Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 58.1, 29-50. Ehret, Christopher. 1986. "Proposals on Khoisan reconstruction." In African Hunter-Gatherers (international symposium), edited by Franz Rottland & Rainer Vossen, 105-130. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, special issue 7.1. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. Ehret, Christopher. 2003. "Toward reconstructing Proto-South Khoisan." In Mother Tongue 8. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Reprints, with minor corrections, a series of eight articles published in the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology from 1949 to 1954.) Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.) Bloomington: Indiana University Press. (From the same publisher: second, revised edition, 1966; third edition, 1970. All three editions simultaneously published at The Hague by Mouton & Co.) Güldemann, Tom and Rainer Vossen. 2000. "Khoisan." In African Languages: An Introduction, edited by Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, 99-122. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hastings, Rachel. 2001. "Evidence for the genetic unity of Southern Khoesan." In Cornell Working Papers in Linguistics 18, 225-245. Honken, Henry. 1988. "Phonetic correspondences among Khoisan affricates." In New Perspectives on the Study of Khoisan, edited by Rainer Vossen, 47-65. Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung 7. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1988. Honken, Henry. 1998. "Types of sound correspondence patterns in Khoisan languages." In Language, Identity and Conceptualization among the Khoisan, edited by Mathias Schladt, 171-193. Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung/Research in Khoisan studies 15. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Köhler, O. 1971. "Die Khoe-sprachigen Buschmänner der Kalahari." In Forschungen zur allgemeinen und regionalen Geschichte (Festschrift Kurt Kayser), 373–411. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. Sands, Bonny. 1998. Eastern and Southern African Khoisan: Evaluating Claims of Distant Linguistic Relationships. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Sands, Bonny. 1998. "Comparison and classification of Khoisan languages." In Language History and Linguistic Description in Africa, edited by Ian Maddieson and Thomas J. Hinnebusch, 75-85. Trenton: Africa World Press. Schladt, Mathias (editor). 1998. Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Starostin, George. 2003. "A lexicostatistical approach towards reconstructing Proto-Khoisan." (Originally published in Mother Tongue 8 (2003), 81-126.) Starostin, George. 2008. "From modern Khoisan languages to Proto-Khoisan: The value of intermediate reconstructions." (Originally published in Aspects of Comparative Linguistics 3 (2008), 337-470, Moscow: RSUH Publishers.) Traill, Anthony. 1986. "Do the Khoi have a place in the San? New data on Khoisan linguistic relationships." In African Hunter-gatherers (international symposium), Franz Rottland and Rainer Vossen, 407-430. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, special issue 7.1. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. Treis, Yvonne. 1998. "Names of Khoisan languages and their variants." In Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan, edited by Matthias Schladt. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 463–503. Vossen, Rainer. 1997. Die Khoe-Sprachen. Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte Afrikas. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. Westphal, E.O.J. 1971. "The click languages of Southern and Eastern Africa." In Current Trends in Linguistics, Volume 7: Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by T.A. Sebeok. Berlin: Mouton, 367–420. Winter, J.C. 1981. "Die Khoisan-Familie." In Die Sprachen Afrikas, edited by Bernd Heine, Thilo C. Schadeberg, and Ekkehard Wolff. Hamburg: Helmut Buske, 329–374. External links Khoisan language family tree at Ethnologue (does not correspond to the views of many Khoisanists) "Khoesan languages" at Web Resources for African Languages by Jouni Filip Maho | Khoisan_languages |@lemmatized khoisan:46 language:60 also:3 know:5 khoesan:3 khoesaan:1 click:13 africa:16 belong:1 family:15 include:9 indigenous:1 southern:12 eastern:5 though:1 khoi:3 appear:3 move:1 current:3 location:1 long:1 bantu:4 expansion:2 speaker:18 bushman:1 saan:1 east:4 sandawe:7 hadza:6 many:3 people:5 expose:1 actor:1 nǃxau:1 film:1 god:1 must:1 crazy:1 prior:1 likely:1 like:2 spread:1 throughout:1 today:3 restrict:1 kalahari:6 desert:1 primarily:1 namibia:2 botswana:3 rift:1 valley:1 central:2 tanzania:4 barnard:2 kinship:2 production:2 conjectural:2 history:4 social:2 structure:2 journal:3 international:4 african:12 institute:2 endanger:1 several:1 moribund:5 extinct:9 write:2 record:1 widespread:1 nama:6 quarter:2 million:2 second:2 number:3 monolingual:1 juu:9 cluster:15 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1,955 | Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis | The weak and the strong Cosmic Censorship Hypotheses are two mathematical conjectures about the structure of singularities arising in general relativity. Singularities that arise in the solutions of Einstein's equations are typically hidden within event horizons, and therefore cannot be seen from the rest of spacetime. Singularities which are not so hidden are called naked. The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis conjectures that no naked singularities other than the Big Bang singularity exist in the universe. The hypothesis was conceived by Roger Penrose in 1969. Basics Since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be observed from the rest of spacetime, causality may break down, and physics may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems, singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe is deterministic — it's possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe (possibly excluding some finite regions of space hidden inside event horizons of singularities), knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a spacelike 3-dimensional hypersurface, called the Cauchy surface). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is impossible to predict the behavior of space-time in the causal future of a singularity. Cosmic censorship is not merely a problem of formal interest; some form of it is assumed whenever black hole event horizons are mentioned. The hypothesis was first formulated by Roger Penrose in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable and that can be proved to be true or false (and that is sufficiently general to be interesting). Weak and strong cosmic censorship hypothesis The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypothesis are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes. The Weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole. Mathematically, the conjecture states that, for generic initial data, the maximal Cauchy development possesses a complete future null infinity. The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that, generically, general relativity is a deterministic theory, in the same sense that classical mechanics is a deterministic theory. In other words, the classical fate of all observers should be predictable from the initial data. Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally inextendible as a regular Lorentzian manifold. It should be noted that the two conjectures are mathematically independent, as there exist spacetimes for which the weak cosmic censorship is valid but the strong cosmic censorship is violated and reciprocally, there exists spacetimes for which the weak cosmic censorship is violated but the strong cosmic censorship is valid. Example Using the Kerr Metric, corresponding to a black hole of mass M and angular momentum J, can be used to derive the effective potential for particle orbits restricted to the equator (as defined by rotation). This potential looks like: James B Hartle, Gravity in chapter 15: Rotating Black Holes. (2003. ISBN 0-8053-8662-9) Where is the coordinate radius, and are the test-particle's conserved energy and angular momentum respectively (constructed from the killing vectors). To preserve cosmic censorship, the black hole is restricted to the case of . For there to exist an event horizon around the singularity, the requirement: must be satisfied:. This amounts to the angular momentum of the black hole being constrained to below a critical value, outside of which the horizon would disappear. The following thought experiment is reproduced from Hartle's Gravity: Imagine specifically trying to violate the censorship conjecture. This could be done by somehow imparting an angular momentum upon the black hole, making it exceed the critical value (assume it starts infinitesimally below it). This could be done by sending a particle of angular momentum . Because this particle has angular momentum, it can only be captured by the black hole if the maximum potential of the black hole is less than . Solving the above effective potential equation for the maximum under the given conditions results in a maximum potential of exactly ! Testing other values shows that no particle with enough angular momentum to violate the censorship conjecture would be able to enter the black hole, because they have too much angular momentum to fall in. Problems with the concept There are a number of difficulties in formalizing the hypothesis: There are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity. It is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not "physically reasonable;" the canonical example of such a spacetime is perhaps the "superextremal" Reissner-Nordstrom solution, which contains a singularity at that is not surrounded by a horizon. A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations. Caustics may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded. Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypothesis. In 1991, John Preskill and Kip Thorne bet against Stephen Hawking that the hypothesis was false. Hawking conceded the bet in 1997, due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned, which he characterized as "technicalities". Hawking later reformulated the bet to exclude those technicalities. The revised bet is still open, the prize being "clothing to cover the winner's nakedness". Counter-example An exact solution to the scalar-Einstein equations which forms a counter example to many formulations of the cosmic censorship hypothesis was found by Mark D. Roberts in 1985 where is a constant. References Earman, John: Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Spacetimes (1995), see especially chapter 2 (ISBN 0-19-509591-X) Roberts, Mark D. : Scalar Field Counter-Examples to the Cosmic Censorship Hypothesis. Gen.Rel.Grav.21(1989)907-939. Penrose, Roger: "The Question of Cosmic Censorship", Chapter 5 in Black Holes and Relativistic Stars, Robert Wald (editor), (1994) (ISBN 0-226-87034-0) Penrose, Roger: "Singularities and time-asymmetry", Chapter 12 in General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey (Hawking and Israel, editors), (1979), see especially section 12.3.2, pp. 617-629 (ISBN 0-521-22285-0) Shapiro, S. L., and Teukolsky, S. A.: "Formation of Naked Singularities: The Violation of Cosmic Censorship", Physical Review Letters 66, 994-997 (1991) Wald, Robert, General Relativity'', 299-308 (1984) (ISBN 0-226-87033-2) Footnotes: See also Black hole information paradox Chronology protection conjecture External links The old bet (conceded in 1997) The new bet | Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis |@lemmatized weak:7 strong:6 cosmic:17 censorship:19 hypothesis:15 two:3 mathematical:1 conjecture:9 structure:1 singularity:22 arise:3 general:6 relativity:5 solution:3 einstein:3 equation:3 typically:1 hidden:2 within:1 event:5 horizon:7 therefore:1 cannot:2 see:4 rest:2 spacetime:3 call:2 naked:6 singularities:1 big:1 bang:2 exist:4 universe:3 conceive:1 roger:4 penrose:5 basic:1 since:2 physical:2 behavior:2 unknown:1 observe:1 causality:1 may:3 break:1 physic:1 lose:1 predictive:1 power:1 issue:1 avoid:1 accord:1 hawk:5 theorem:1 inevitable:1 physically:3 reasonable:3 situation:3 still:2 absence:1 deterministic:3 possible:1 predict:2 entire:1 evolution:1 possibly:1 exclude:5 finite:1 region:1 space:2 hide:2 inside:1 know:1 condition:2 certain:1 moment:1 time:3 precisely:1 everywhere:1 spacelike:1 dimensional:1 hypersurface:1 cauchy:3 surface:1 failure:2 lead:2 determinism:1 impossible:1 causal:1 future:3 merely:1 problem:2 formal:4 interest:1 form:2 assume:2 whenever:1 black:12 hole:12 mention:2 first:1 formulate:1 state:3 completely:1 way:1 sense:2 research:2 program:1 proposal:1 part:1 find:2 proper:1 statement:2 prove:1 true:1 false:2 sufficiently:1 interesting:1 concern:1 global:1 geometry:1 spacetimes:5 assert:2 visible:1 null:2 infinity:3 word:2 need:4 observer:2 mathematically:3 generic:2 initial:3 data:3 maximal:2 development:2 possess:1 complete:1 generically:1 theory:2 classical:2 mechanic:1 fate:1 predictable:1 compact:1 asymptotically:1 flat:1 locally:1 inextendible:1 regular:1 lorentzian:1 manifold:1 note:1 independent:1 valid:2 violate:4 reciprocally:1 example:5 use:3 kerr:1 metric:1 correspond:1 mass:1 angular:8 momentum:8 j:1 derive:1 effective:2 potential:5 particle:5 orbit:1 restrict:2 equator:1 define:1 rotation:1 look:1 like:1 james:1 b:1 hartle:2 gravity:2 chapter:4 rotating:1 isbn:5 coordinate:1 radius:1 test:2 conserve:1 energy:1 respectively:1 construct:2 kill:1 vector:1 preserve:1 case:2 around:1 requirement:1 must:1 satisfy:1 amount:1 constrain:1 critical:2 value:3 outside:1 would:2 disappear:1 following:1 thought:1 experiment:1 reproduce:1 imagine:1 specifically:1 try:1 could:2 somehow:1 impart:1 upon:1 make:1 exceed:1 start:1 infinitesimally:1 send:1 capture:1 maximum:3 less:1 solve:1 give:1 result:1 exactly:1 show:2 enough:1 able:1 enter:1 much:1 fall:1 concept:1 number:1 difficulty:2 formalize:2 technical:1 properly:1 notion:1 difficult:1 canonical:1 perhaps:1 superextremal:1 reissner:1 nordstrom:1 contain:1 surround:1 set:1 caustic:1 occur:1 simple:1 model:4 gravitational:2 collapse:2 appear:1 simplified:1 bulk:1 matter:1 nothing:1 computer:1 rely:1 special:3 circumstance:2 spherical:1 symmetry:1 john:2 preskill:1 kip:1 thorne:1 bet:6 stephen:1 concede:2 due:1 discovery:1 characterize:1 technicality:2 later:1 reformulate:1 revised:1 open:1 prize:1 clothing:1 cover:1 winner:1 nakedness:1 counter:3 exact:1 scalar:2 many:1 formulation:1 mark:2 robert:3 constant:1 reference:1 earman:1 crunch:1 whimper:1 shriek:1 acausalities:1 relativistic:2 especially:2 x:1 roberts:1 field:1 gen:1 rel:1 grav:1 question:1 star:1 wald:2 editor:2 asymmetry:1 centenary:1 survey:1 israel:1 section:1 pp:1 shapiro:1 l:1 teukolsky:1 formation:1 violation:1 review:1 letter:1 footnote:1 also:1 information:1 paradox:1 chronology:1 protection:1 external:1 link:1 old:1 new:1 |@bigram cosmic_censorship:17 censorship_hypothesis:9 big_bang:1 bang_singularity:1 roger_penrose:2 naked_singularity:4 black_hole:12 angular_momentum:8 external_link:1 |
1,956 | Gilgamesh | Gilgamesh, also known as Bilgames in the earliest text, The Epic of Gilgamesh, translated by Andrew Goerge 1999, Penguin books Ltd, Harmondsworth, p. 141 ISBN 13579108642 was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II, first dynasty of Uruk), ruling circa 2700 BC, according to the Sumerian king list. He became the central character in the Epic of Gilgamesh, one of the best known works of early literature, which says that his mother was Ninsun (whom some call Rimat Ninsun), a goddess. Gilgamesh is described as two-thirds god and one-third human. According to the Tummal Inscription, The Tummal Inscription, an expanded king-list, was one of the standard Old Babylonian copy-texts; it exists in numerous examples, from and Nippur. Gilgamesh, and eventually his son Urlugal, rebuilt the sanctuary of the goddess Ninlil, located in Tummal, a sacred quarter in her city Nippur. In Mesopotamian mythology, Gilgamesh is credited with having been a demigod of superhuman strength who built a great city wall to defend his people from external threats. Cuneiform references In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is credited with the building of the legendary walls of Uruk. An alternative version has Gilgamesh, towards the end of the story, boasting to Urshanabi, the ferryman, that the city's walls were built by the Seven Sages. In historical times, Sargon of Akkad claimed to have destroyed these walls to prove his military power. Fragments of an epic text found in Me-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that Gilgamesh was buried under the waters of a river at the end of his life. The people of Uruk diverted the flow of the Euphrates River crossing Uruk for the purpose of burying the dead king within the riverbed. In April 2003, a German expedition discovered what is thought to be the entire city of Uruk—including the former bed of the Euphrates, the last resting place of its King, Gilgamesh. Despite the lack of direct evidence, most scholars do not object to consideration of Gilgamesh as a historical figure, particularly after inscriptions were found confirming the historical existence of other figures associated with him: kings Enmebaragesi and Aga of Kish. If Gilgamesh was a historical king, he probably reigned in about the 26th century BC. Some of the earliest Sumerian texts spell his name as Bilgames. Initial difficulties in reading cuneiform resulted in Gilgamesh making his re-entrance into world culture in 1891 as "Izdubar". In Alfred Jeremias, Izdubar-Nimrod, eine altbabylonische Heldensage (1891). In most texts, Gilgamesh is written with the determinative for divine beings (DINGIR) - but there is no evidence for a contemporary cult, and the Sumerian Gilgamesh myths suggest the deification was a later development (unlike the case of the Akkadian god kings). With this deification, however, would have come an accretion of stories about him, some potentially derived from the real lives of other historical figures, in particular Gudea, the Second Dynasty ruler of Lagash (2144–2124 BC). N.K. Sandars, introduction to The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin, 1972:16). Whether based on a historical prototype or not, Gilgamesh became a legendary protagonist in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name Gilgamesh appears once in Greek, as "Gilgamos" (Γίλγαμος). The story is a variant of the Perseus myth: The King of Babylon determines by oracle that his grandson Gilgamos will kill him, and throws him out of a high tower. An eagle breaks his fall, and the infant is found and raised by a gardener. Walter Burkert: The Orientalizing Revolution, citing Aelian, On animals 12.21; Burkert's citation as Varia historia is an editing error. See also Epic of Gilgamesh History of Sumer Uruk Sumerian king list Mesopotamian mythology Gilgamesh flood myth Adaptations of the Epic of Gilgamesh Notes References George, Andrew [1999], The Epic of Gilgamesh: the Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian, Harmondsworth: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1999 (published in Penguin Classics 2000, reprinted with minor revisions, 2003. ISBN 0-14-044919-1 George, Andrew, The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic - Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2 volumes, 2003. Hammond, D. & Jablow, A. [1987], "Gilgamesh and the Sundance Kid: the Myth of Male Friendship", in Brod, H. (ed.), The Making of Masculinities: The New Men's Studies, Boston, 1987, pp.241-258. Glossary, Appendices, Appendix (Chapter XII=Tablet XII). A line-by-line translation (Chapters I-XI). External links Original cuneiform text Original cuneiform text of the XI tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh (standard Babylonian version) Text translations Sumerian texts: ETCSL Gilgamesh and Humbaba, version A (the adventure of the cedar forest) Gilgamesh and Humbaba, version B Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven Gilgamesh and Aga Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the nether world The death of Gilgamesh The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/), Oxford 1998-. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/GILG.HTM The Epic of Gilgamesh: A Spiritual Biography Comparison of The Epic of Gilgamesh to the Genesis flood Translations for several legends of Gilgamesh in the Sumerian language have been written by: Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Stephen Mitchell Stripped Books: Stephen Mitchell on Gilgamesh - a comic-book adaptation of a talk by Stephen Mitchell about the epic poem. Mitchell's translation was also adapted as a radio play for Radio 3 by Jeremy Howe, first broadcast on Sunday 11 June 2006 from 19:30-21:30 Robson, E., Zólyomi, G., |- | Gilgamesh |@lemmatized gilgamesh:37 also:3 know:1 bilgames:2 early:4 text:12 epic:15 translate:1 andrew:3 goerge:1 penguin:4 book:3 ltd:1 harmondsworth:2 p:1 isbn:2 son:2 lugalbanda:1 fifth:1 king:10 uruk:7 dynastic:1 ii:1 first:2 dynasty:2 ruling:1 circa:1 bc:3 accord:2 sumerian:8 list:3 become:2 central:1 character:1 one:3 best:1 known:1 work:1 literature:2 say:1 mother:1 ninsun:2 call:1 rimat:1 goddess:2 describe:1 two:1 third:2 god:2 human:1 tummal:3 inscription:3 expand:1 standard:2 old:1 babylonian:4 copy:1 exist:1 numerous:1 example:1 nippur:2 eventually:1 urlugal:1 rebuild:1 sanctuary:1 ninlil:1 locate:1 sacred:1 quarter:1 city:4 mesopotamian:2 mythology:2 credit:2 demigod:1 superhuman:1 strength:1 build:2 great:1 wall:4 defend:1 people:2 external:2 threat:1 cuneiform:5 reference:2 building:1 legendary:2 alternative:1 version:4 towards:1 end:2 story:3 boast:1 urshanabi:1 ferryman:1 seven:1 sage:1 historical:6 time:1 sargon:1 akkad:1 claim:1 destroy:1 prove:1 military:1 power:1 fragment:1 find:3 turan:1 modern:1 tell:1 haddad:1 relate:1 bury:2 water:1 river:2 life:2 divert:1 flow:1 euphrates:2 cross:1 purpose:1 dead:1 within:1 riverbed:1 april:1 german:1 expedition:1 discover:1 think:1 entire:1 include:1 former:1 bed:1 last:1 resting:1 place:1 despite:1 lack:1 direct:1 evidence:2 scholar:1 object:1 consideration:1 figure:3 particularly:1 confirm:1 existence:1 associate:1 enmebaragesi:1 aga:2 kish:1 probably:1 reign:1 century:1 spell:1 name:2 initial:1 difficulty:1 read:1 result:1 make:1 entrance:1 world:2 culture:1 izdubar:2 alfred:1 jeremias:1 nimrod:1 eine:1 altbabylonische:1 heldensage:1 write:2 determinative:1 divine:1 dingir:1 contemporary:1 cult:1 myth:4 suggest:1 deification:2 late:1 development:1 unlike:1 case:1 akkadian:2 however:1 would:1 come:1 accretion:1 potentially:1 derive:1 real:1 particular:1 gudea:1 second:1 ruler:1 lagash:1 n:1 k:1 sandars:1 introduction:2 whether:1 base:1 prototype:1 protagonist:1 appear:1 greek:1 gilgamos:2 γίλγαμος:1 variant:1 perseus:1 babylon:1 determines:1 oracle:1 grandson:1 kill:1 throw:1 high:1 tower:1 eagle:1 break:1 fall:1 infant:1 raise:1 gardener:1 walter:1 burkert:2 orientalize:1 revolution:1 cite:1 aelian:1 animal:1 citation:1 varia:1 historia:1 edit:1 error:1 see:1 history:1 sumer:1 flood:2 adaptation:2 note:1 george:2 poem:2 allen:1 lane:1 press:2 publish:1 classic:1 reprint:1 minor:1 revision:1 critical:1 edition:1 oxford:3 university:1 volume:1 hammond:1 jablow:1 sundance:1 kid:1 male:1 friendship:1 brod:1 h:1 ed:1 making:1 masculinity:1 new:1 men:1 study:1 boston:1 pp:1 glossary:1 appendix:2 chapter:2 xii:2 tablet:2 line:2 translation:4 xi:2 link:1 original:2 etcsl:2 humbaba:2 adventure:1 cedar:1 forest:1 b:1 bull:1 heaven:1 enkidu:1 nether:1 death:1 electronic:1 corpus:1 http:2 www:2 orient:1 ox:1 ac:1 uk:1 wsu:1 edu:1 dee:1 meso:1 gilg:1 htm:1 spiritual:1 biography:1 comparison:1 genesis:1 several:1 legend:1 language:1 black:1 j:1 cunningham:1 g:2 fluckiger:1 hawker:1 e:2 stephen:3 mitchell:4 strip:1 comic:1 talk:1 adapt:1 radio:2 play:1 jeremy:1 howe:1 broadcast:1 sunday:1 june:1 robson:1 zólyomi:1 |@bigram epic_gilgamesh:11 mesopotamian_mythology:2 superhuman_strength:1 sargon_akkad:1 resting_place:1 walter_burkert:1 varia_historia:1 penguin_classic:1 gilgamesh_epic:1 sundance_kid:1 appendix_appendix:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 ox_ac:1 |
1,957 | Callitrichidae | The Callitrichinae (synonym Hapalinae) are a subfamily within the family Cebidae, one of the four families of New World monkeys. The subfamily includes several genera, including the marmosets and tamarins. Until recently this group of animals were regarded as a separate family, called the Callitrichidae, and this classification will still be encountered in much current literature. This taxon was traditionally thought to be a primitive stem lineage, from which all the larger bodied platyrrhines evolved (see Hershkovitz, 1977). However, Dr Susan Ford has argured quite convincingly that callitrichids are actually a dwarfed lineage. The ancestral callitrichid would likely have been a "normal" sized cebid that was dwarfed through evolutionary time. This may exemplify a rare example of insular dwarfing in a mainland context, with the "islands" being formed by the extensive river networks in the Amazon Basin, which form effective biogeographic barriers. All callitrichines are arboreal. They are the smallest of the anthropoid (i.e. simian) primates. They eat insects, fruit, and the sap or gum from trees; occasionally they will take small vertebrates. The marmosets rely quite heavily on exudates, with several species (Callithrix jacchus and Cebuella pygmaea) considered obligate exudativores. Callitrichines typically live in small, territorial groups of about 5 or 6 animals. They are the only primate group that regularly produce twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied. Unlike other male primates, male hapalines generally provide as much parental care as females, more in some cases. Typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young. Studies in captivity, and the first field studies, suggested that the breeding group was invariably a single monogamous pair; subsequent field work on Brown-mantled Tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis), has shown that many of the groups involve multiple males, and polyandry seems to be the commonest arrangement, though monogamous pairs do occur, and so, though rarely, does polygyny. In polyandrous groups, both (or all) the mature males regularly copulate with the female, and all contribute equally to parental care. It is now thought that this flexible system, with a tendency towards polyandry, may be the typical mating system among hapalines, though until field studies on more species have been completed any generalisation must be tentative. Species list Subfamily Callitrichinae Genus Callithrix Common Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus Black-tufted Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata Wied's Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii White-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi Buffy-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps Buffy-tufted Marmoset, Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita Rio Acari Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) acariensis Manicore Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) manicorensis Silvery Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) argentata White Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) leucippe Emilia's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) emiliae Black-headed Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps Marca's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) marcai Black-tailed Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) melanura Santarem Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera Maués Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) mauesi Gold-and-white Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca Hershkovitz's Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) intermedia Satéré Marmoset, Callithrix (Mico) saterei Roosmalens' Dwarf Marmoset, Callithrix (Callibella) humilis Pygmy Marmoset, Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea Genus Leontopithecus Golden Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus rosalia Golden-headed Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas Black Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysopygus Superagui Lion Tamarin, Leontopithecus caissara Genus Saguinus Red-handed Tamarin, Saguinus midas Black Tamarin, Saguinus niger Black-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus nigricollis Graells's Tamarin, Saguinus graellsi Brown-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus fuscicollis White-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus melanoleucus Golden-mantled Tamarin, Saguinus tripartitus Moustached Tamarin, Saguinus mystax Red-capped Tamarin, Saguinus pileatus White-lipped Tamarin, Saguinus labiatus Emperor Tamarin, Saguinus imperator Pied Tamarin, Saguinus bicolor Martins's Tamarin, Saguinus martinsi Cottontop Tamarin or Pinché Tamarin, Saguinus oedipus Geoffroy's Tamarin, Saguinus geoffroyi White-footed Tamarin, Saguinus leucopus Mottle-faced Tamarin, Saguinus inustus Genus Callimico Goeldi's Marmoset, Callimico goeldii References Goldizen, A. W. (1988). Tamarin and marmoset mating systems: Unusual flexibility. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 3, 36-40. 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1,958 | Northern_Hemisphere | Northern hemisphere highlighted in yellow. Northern hemisphere from above the North Pole. The Northern Hemisphere Merriam Webster's Online Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.) 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc. is the half of a planet that is north of the equator—the word hemisphere literally means 'half sphere'. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator. Earth's northern hemisphere contains most of its land area and most of its human population (about 90%). Geography and climate See also Arctic, Temperate zone, Tropics, Seasons and Climate Due to the Earth's axial tilt, winter lasts from the winter solstice (typically December 22) to the vernal equinox (typically March 20) while summer lasts from the summer solstice (typically June 21) through to the autumnal equinox (typically September 21). The Arctic is the region north of the Arctic Circle. Its climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences some days in summer on which the sun never sets, and some days in winter on which the sun never rises. The duration of these phases varies from one day for places right on the Arctic Circle to several months near the North Pole itself. Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer lies the Northern Temperate Zone. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. However, a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather. Tropical regions (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator) are generally hot all year round and tend to experience a rainy season during the 'summer' months, and a dry season during the 'winter' months. In the northern hemisphere, objects moving across or above the surface of the Earth tend to turn to the right because of the Coriolis effect. As a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres north of the Equator. These are best seen in ocean circulation patterns in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. South of the Equator, the directions are reversed. For the same reason, flows of air down toward the northern surface of the Earth tend to spread across the surface in a clockwise pattern. Thus, clockwise air circulation is characteristic of high pressure weather cells in the northern hemisphere. Conversely, air rising from the northern surface of the Earth (creating a region of low pressure) tends to draw air toward it in a counterclockwise pattern. Hurricanes and tropical storms (massive low-pressure systems) spin anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere (by contrast, they spin clockwise in the southern hemisphere). The shadow of a sun dial moves clockwise in the northern hemisphere (opposite of the southern hemisphere). During the day the sun tends to raise to its maximum at a southerly position, whereas in the southern hemisphere it raises to a maximum that is northerly in position (as it tends towards the direction of the equator). In both hemispheres the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Also the Moon appears "upside down" compared to a view from the southern hemisphere and the view of the stars is much different. The North Pole faces away from the galactic centre of the Milky Way, this results in there being far fewer and less bright visible stars in the northern hemisphere compared to the southern hemisphere, making the northern hemisphere more suitable for deep-space observation as it is not 'blinded' by the Milky Way. List of continents and countries Continents entire Europe entire North America Almost all of Asia A small part of South America, north of the mouth of the Amazon River About 2/3 of Africa, north of the arc of the Congo River South American countries Wholly French Guiana Guyana Suriname Venezuela Mostly Colombia Partly Brazil Ecuador Oceania Countries primarily in the northern hemisphere Marshall Islands Micronesia Palau See also North Pole Arctic Circle Tropic of Cancer Equator Seasons Solstice and equinox Southern Hemisphere References | Northern_Hemisphere |@lemmatized northern:14 hemisphere:18 highlight:1 yellow:1 north:13 pole:4 merriam:2 webster:2 online:1 dictionary:1 base:1 collegiate:1 vol:1 ed:1 springfield:1 inc:1 half:3 planet:1 equator:7 word:1 literally:1 mean:1 sphere:2 also:4 celestial:2 earth:5 contain:1 land:1 area:1 human:1 population:1 geography:1 climate:4 see:3 arctic:7 temperate:3 zone:2 tropic:4 season:4 due:1 axial:1 tilt:1 winter:6 last:2 solstice:3 typically:4 december:1 vernal:1 equinox:3 march:1 summer:6 june:1 autumnal:1 september:1 region:4 circle:4 characterize:1 cold:2 cool:1 precipitation:1 mostly:2 come:1 form:2 snow:1 experience:2 day:4 sun:5 never:2 set:2 rise:3 duration:1 phase:1 varies:1 one:1 place:1 right:2 several:1 month:3 near:1 cancer:3 lie:1 change:1 generally:2 mild:1 rather:1 extreme:1 hot:2 however:1 unpredictable:1 weather:2 tropical:2 year:1 round:1 tend:7 rainy:1 dry:1 object:1 move:2 across:2 surface:4 turn:1 coriolis:1 effect:1 result:2 large:1 scale:1 horizontal:1 flow:2 air:5 water:1 clockwise:6 turning:1 gyre:1 best:1 ocean:2 circulation:2 pattern:3 atlantic:1 pacific:1 south:3 direction:2 reverse:1 reason:1 toward:2 spread:1 thus:1 characteristic:1 high:1 pressure:3 cell:1 conversely:1 create:1 low:2 draw:1 counterclockwise:1 hurricane:1 storm:1 massive:1 system:1 spin:2 anti:1 contrast:1 southern:6 shadow:1 dial:1 opposite:1 raise:2 maximum:2 southerly:1 position:2 whereas:1 northerly:1 towards:1 hemispheres:1 east:1 west:1 moon:1 appear:1 upside:1 compare:2 view:2 star:2 much:1 different:1 face:1 away:1 galactic:1 centre:1 milky:2 way:2 far:1 less:1 bright:1 visible:1 make:1 suitable:1 deep:1 space:1 observation:1 blind:1 list:1 continent:2 country:3 entire:2 europe:1 america:2 almost:1 asia:1 small:1 part:1 mouth:1 amazon:1 river:2 africa:1 arc:1 congo:1 american:1 wholly:1 french:1 guiana:1 guyana:1 suriname:1 venezuela:1 colombia:1 partly:1 brazil:1 ecuador:1 oceania:1 primarily:1 marshall:1 island:1 micronesia:1 palau:1 reference:1 |@bigram northern_hemisphere:11 merriam_webster:2 celestial_sphere:1 celestial_equator:1 temperate_zone:2 axial_tilt:1 winter_solstice:1 vernal_equinox:1 summer_solstice:1 autumnal_equinox:1 tropic_cancer:3 temperate_climate:1 rainy_season:1 pacific_ocean:1 tropical_storm:1 southern_hemisphere:6 milky_way:2 french_guiana:1 guyana_suriname:1 solstice_equinox:1 |
1,959 | John_Climacus | Saint John Climacus ( c. 525 – March 30 606), also known as John of the Ladder, John Scholasticus and John Sinaites, was a 6th century Christian monk at the monastery on Mount Sinai. He is revered as a saint by the Roman Catholic, Oriental Orthodox , Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches. St. John was born in Syria (though other sources say Constantinople), and came to Saint Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai and became a novice when he was about 16 years old, and was taught about the spiritual life by the Igumen (abbot) Martyrius. After the death of Martyrius, John, wishing to practice greater asceticism, withdrew to a hermitage at the foot of the mountain. In this isolation he lived for some twenty years, constantly studying the lives of the saints and thus becoming one of the most learned Church Fathers. In 600, when he was about seventy-five years of age, the monks of Sinai persuaded him to become their Igumen. He acquitted himself of his functions as abbot with the greatest wisdom, and his reputation spread so far that pope Gregory the Great wrote to recommend himself to his prayers, and sent him a sum of money for the hospital of Sinai, in which the pilgrims were wont to lodge. Four years later he resigned his charge and returned to his hermitage to prepare for death. St. John wrote a number of instructive books, the Climax () or Ladder of Divine Ascent, composed at the request of John, Abbot of Raithu, a monastery situated on the shores of the Red Sea; and his shorter work To the Pastor (Latin: Liber ad Pastorem). Often these two are found printed together. Thirteenth century icon of St. John Claimacus, to either side are Saint George and Saint Blaise (Novgorod School). The Ladder describes how to raise one's soul and body to God, as if on a ladder, the goal of which is theosis (mystical union with God). This book is one of the most widely-read among Orthodox Christians, especially during the season of Great Lent which immediately precedes Pascha (Easter). It is often read in the trapeza (refectory) in Orthodox monasteries, and in some places it is read in church as part of the Daily Office on Lenten weekdays. Climacus uses the analogy of Jacob's Ladder as the framework for his spiritual teaching. Each chapter is referred to as a "step", and deals with a separate spiritual subject. There are thirty steps of the ladder, which correspond with the age of Jesus at his baptism and the beginning of his earthly ministry. The first 23 steps give instruction on overcoming the vices and the remainder speak of building of the virtues. The Ladder holds dispassionateness (apatheia) as the ultimate contemplative and mystical good in a Christian. One should be advised that reading this book is usually reserved for Monastics or laymen who have progressed far enough spiritually, this book also should only be read with the permission and guidance of a Spiritual Father. The Ladder of Divine Ascent, 12th century icon (St. Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai). An icon known by the same title, Ladder of Divine Ascent, depicts a ladder extending from earth to heaven (cf. ) Several monks are depicted climbing a ladder; at the top is Jesus, prepared to receive them into Heaven. Also shown are angels helping the climbers, and demons attempting to shoot with arrows or drag the climbers down, no matter how high up the ladder they may be. Most versions of the icon show at least one person falling. Often, in the lower right corner St. John Climacus himself is depicted, gesturing towards the ladder, with rows of monastics behind him. St. John's feast day is March 30 in both the East and West. The Eastern Orthodox Church additionally commemorates him on the Fourth Sunday of Great Lent. Many churches are dedicated to him in Russia, including a church and belltower in the Moscow Kremlin. John Climacus was also known as "Scholasticus," but he is not to be confused with St. John Scholasticus, Patriarch of Constantinople. There is in existence an ancient life of the saint by a monk named Daniel of Raithu monastery. The translation of the Ladder by Arnauld d'Andilly (Paris, 1688) is preceded by a life of the saint by Le Maistre de Sacy. Several translations into English have been made, including one by Holy Transfiguration Monastery (Boston, 1979). This volume contains the Life of St. John by Daniel, The Ladder of Divine Ascent, and To the Pastor, and provides footnotes explaining many of the concepts and terminology used from an Orthodox perspective, as well as a General Index. See also The Uncondemning Monk; also commemorated 30 March Søren Kierkegaard, who published several works under the pseudonym "Johannes Climacus" References External links Excerpts from John Climacus "St. John Climacus" article from The Catholic Encyclopedia St John Climacus (of the Ladder) Orthodox icon and synaxarion for Fourth Sunday of Great Lent Venerable John Climacus of Sinai, Author of "the Ladder" March 30 feast | John_Climacus |@lemmatized saint:8 john:18 climacus:9 c:1 march:4 also:6 know:3 ladder:17 scholasticus:3 sinaites:1 century:3 christian:3 monk:5 monastery:7 mount:3 sinai:6 revere:1 roman:1 catholic:3 oriental:1 orthodox:7 eastern:3 church:6 st:10 bear:1 syria:1 though:1 source:1 say:1 constantinople:2 come:1 catherine:2 become:3 novice:1 year:4 old:1 teach:1 spiritual:4 life:5 igumen:2 abbot:3 martyrius:2 death:2 wish:1 practice:1 great:6 asceticism:1 withdraw:1 hermitage:2 foot:1 mountain:1 isolation:1 live:1 twenty:1 constantly:1 study:1 thus:1 one:6 learned:1 father:2 seventy:1 five:1 age:2 persuade:1 acquit:1 function:1 wisdom:1 reputation:1 spread:1 far:2 pope:1 gregory:1 write:2 recommend:1 prayer:1 send:1 sum:1 money:1 hospital:1 pilgrim:1 wont:1 lodge:1 four:1 later:1 resign:1 charge:1 return:1 prepare:1 number:1 instructive:1 book:4 climax:1 divine:4 ascent:4 compose:1 request:1 raithu:2 situate:1 shore:1 red:1 sea:1 shorter:1 work:2 pastor:2 latin:1 liber:1 ad:1 pastorem:1 often:3 two:1 find:1 printed:1 together:1 thirteenth:1 icon:5 claimacus:1 either:1 side:1 george:1 blaise:1 novgorod:1 school:1 describe:1 raise:1 soul:1 body:1 god:2 goal:1 theosis:1 mystical:2 union:1 widely:1 read:5 among:1 especially:1 season:1 lent:3 immediately:1 precede:2 pascha:1 easter:1 trapeza:1 refectory:1 place:1 part:1 daily:1 office:1 lenten:1 weekday:1 use:2 analogy:1 jacob:1 framework:1 teaching:1 chapter:1 refer:1 step:3 deal:1 separate:1 subject:1 thirty:1 correspond:1 jesus:2 baptism:1 beginning:1 earthly:1 ministry:1 first:1 give:1 instruction:1 overcome:1 vice:1 remainder:1 speak:1 building:1 virtue:1 hold:1 dispassionateness:1 apatheia:1 ultimate:1 contemplative:1 good:1 advise:1 usually:1 reserve:1 monastic:2 layman:1 progress:1 enough:1 spiritually:1 permission:1 guidance:1 title:1 depict:3 extend:1 earth:1 heaven:2 cf:1 several:3 climb:1 top:1 prepared:1 receive:1 show:2 angels:1 help:1 climber:2 demon:1 attempt:1 shoot:1 arrow:1 drag:1 matter:1 high:1 may:1 version:1 least:1 person:1 fall:1 low:1 right:1 corner:1 gesture:1 towards:1 row:1 behind:1 feast:2 day:1 east:1 west:1 additionally:1 commemorate:2 fourth:2 sunday:2 many:2 dedicate:1 russia:1 include:2 belltower:1 moscow:1 kremlin:1 confuse:1 patriarch:1 existence:1 ancient:1 name:1 daniel:2 translation:2 arnauld:1 andilly:1 paris:1 le:1 maistre:1 de:1 sacy:1 english:1 make:1 holy:1 transfiguration:1 boston:1 volume:1 contain:1 provide:1 footnote:1 explain:1 concept:1 terminology:1 perspective:1 well:1 general:1 index:1 see:1 uncondemning:1 søren:1 kierkegaard:1 publish:1 pseudonym:1 johannes:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 excerpt:1 article:1 encyclopedia:1 synaxarion:1 venerable:1 author:1 |@bigram mount_sinai:3 oriental_orthodox:1 eastern_orthodox:2 pope_gregory:1 divine_ascent:4 saint_blaise:1 pascha_easter:1 jacob_ladder:1 moscow_kremlin:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 søren_kierkegaard:1 external_link:1 icon_synaxarion:1 |
1,960 | Fair_Isle | West cliffs, looking southwest towards Malcolm's Head. Sunset over the South Lighthouse Fair Isle (from Old Norse Frjóey) Scottish Gaelic Eileann nan Geansaidh is an island off Scotland, lying around halfway between Shetland and the Orkney Islands. 4.8 kilometres (3 miles) in length and 2.4 kilometres (1.5 miles) wide, it has an area of 768 hectares (3 square miles), making it the tenth largest of the Shetland Islands. The island is situated around 40 kilometres (25 miles) south-west of Sumburgh Head on the Mainland of Shetland. Although it is marginally closer to North Ronaldsay Orkney, Fair Isle is administratively part of Shetland. It gives its name to one of the British Sea Areas. It is the most remote inhabited island in the United Kingdom. "Fair Isle" fairisle.org.uk Retrieved 9 February 2008 The majority of the seventy islanders live in the crofts on the southern half of the island, with the northern half consisting of rocky moorland. The western coast consists of cliffs of up to 200 metres (660 feet) in height. The population has been decreasing steadily from around four hundred in around 1900. There are no pubs or restaurants on the island, but there is a single primary school. After the age of eleven, children must attend secondary school in Lerwick and stay in a hostel there in term time. History Fair Isle (Feedero) on the Carta Marina in 1539 Fair Isle has been occupied since the Bronze Age which is remarkable because of the lack of raw materials on the island, although it is surrounded by rich fishing waters. On August 20, 1588 the flagship of the Spanish Armada, El Gran Grifón, was shipwrecked in the cove of Stroms Heelor, forcing its 300 sailors to spend six weeks living with the islanders. The wreck was discovered in 1970. Bird observatory Fair Isle has had a permanent bird observatory since 1948 because of its importance as a bird migration watchpoint and this provides most of the accommodation on the island. The first Director of the observatory was Kenneth Williamson. "The History of Fair Isle Bird Observatory" fairislebirdobs.co.uk. Retrieved 1 August 2008. It is unusual amongst bird observatories in providing catered, rather than hostel-style, accommodation. Many rare species of bird have been found on the island, and it is probably the best place in western Europe to see skulking Siberian passerines like Pechora Pipit, Lanceolated Warbler and Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler. In Spring 2008 a Calanda Lark in April, in May a Caspian Plover was observed, only the fourth such record for the UK. Hughes, Mark (5 May 2008) "Rare bird sends twitchers on a wild plover chase". Edinburgh. The Scotsman. In June 6th A Citril Finch was spotted and identified by Tommy H Hyndman in his Auld Haa Guest House Garden a 1st record for British Ornithology. September was highlighted by Brown Flycather, Red-Flanked Bluetail and Siberian Thrush to name a few. Fair Isle can claim the Best place to find rare Birds in Britain with at least 27 1st for Britain. Spring 2009 is starting well with notable birds White-Tailed Eagle, American Green Winged Teal, Red Rumped Swallow and a American Brown Headed Cowbird (2nd for Britain) Check out Fair Isle"s latest sightings list http://www.fairislebirdobs.co.uk/latest.htm The island is home to an endemic subspecies of Winter Wren, the Fair Isle Wren Troglodytes troglodytes fridariensis. Fair Isle was bought by the National Trust for Scotland in 1954 from George Waterson, the founder of the bird observatory. "Case Study: Wind Power on Fair Isle" NTS. Retrieved 7 May 2008. Nicolson, James R. (1972) Shetland. Newton Abbot. David & Charles p. 27. Economy Croft houses Fair Isle is famous for its knitted jumpers, with knitting forming an important source of income for the women of the islands. The principal activity for the male islanders is crofting. Since 1982, two thirds of the community's power has been supplied by wind turbines, and just one third by diesel generators. The island has a distinctive double electrical network. Standard electricity service is provided on one network, and electric heating is delivered by a second set of cables. The electric heating is mainly served by excess electricity from the two wind turbines that would otherwise have had to be dumped. Remote frequency-sensitive programmable relays control individual water heaters and storage heaters in the buildings of the community. Ward Hill (715ft) played host to a hastily built RAF radar station during WWII, the ruins of which are still present today. There are also substantial sections of a crashed Heinkel He 111. On January 29, 2004, Fair Isle was granted Fairtrade Island status. Fair Isle jumper done in the traditional style, from Fair Isle. Transport Fair Isle Airport serves the island with flights to Lerwick and Kirkwall (Kirkwall only seasonal). The Good Shepherd IV plies between Fair Isle and Grutness. See also Foula List of Shetland islands Footnotes External links Fair Isle community website Fair Isle bird observatory Fair Isle Electricity Company Ltd Details of its airport Photographic tour of the island Examples of Fair Isle Knitting | Fair_Isle |@lemmatized west:2 cliff:2 look:1 southwest:1 towards:1 malcolm:1 head:3 sunset:1 south:2 lighthouse:1 fair:22 isle:22 old:1 norse:1 frjóey:1 scottish:1 gaelic:1 eileann:1 nan:1 geansaidh:1 island:15 scotland:2 lie:1 around:4 halfway:1 shetland:6 orkney:2 islands:2 kilometre:3 mile:4 length:1 wide:1 area:2 hectare:1 square:1 make:1 tenth:1 large:1 situate:1 sumburgh:1 mainland:1 although:2 marginally:1 closer:1 north:1 ronaldsay:1 administratively:1 part:1 give:1 name:2 one:3 british:2 sea:1 remote:2 inhabited:1 united:1 kingdom:1 fairisle:1 org:1 uk:4 retrieve:3 february:1 majority:1 seventy:1 islander:3 live:2 croft:2 southern:1 half:2 northern:1 consist:1 rocky:1 moorland:1 western:2 coast:1 consists:1 metre:1 foot:1 height:1 population:1 decrease:1 steadily:1 four:1 hundred:1 pub:1 restaurant:1 single:1 primary:1 school:2 age:2 eleven:1 child:1 must:1 attend:1 secondary:1 lerwick:2 stay:1 hostel:2 term:1 time:1 history:2 feedero:1 carta:1 marina:1 occupy:1 since:3 bronze:1 remarkable:1 lack:1 raw:1 material:1 surround:1 rich:1 fishing:1 water:2 august:2 flagship:1 spanish:1 armada:1 el:1 gran:1 grifón:1 shipwreck:1 cove:1 stroms:1 heelor:1 force:1 sailor:1 spend:1 six:1 week:1 wreck:1 discover:1 bird:11 observatory:7 permanent:1 importance:1 migration:1 watchpoint:1 provide:3 accommodation:2 first:1 director:1 kenneth:1 williamson:1 fairislebirdobs:2 co:2 unusual:1 amongst:1 cater:1 rather:1 style:2 many:1 rare:3 specie:1 find:2 probably:1 best:2 place:2 europe:1 see:2 skulk:1 siberian:2 passerine:1 like:1 pechora:1 pipit:1 lanceolated:1 warbler:2 pallas:1 grasshopper:1 spring:2 calanda:1 lark:1 april:1 may:3 caspian:1 plover:2 observe:1 fourth:1 record:2 hughes:1 mark:1 send:1 twitchers:1 wild:1 chase:1 edinburgh:1 scotsman:1 june:1 citril:1 finch:1 spot:1 identify:1 tommy:1 h:1 hyndman:1 auld:1 haa:1 guest:1 house:2 garden:1 ornithology:1 september:1 highlight:1 brown:2 flycather:1 red:2 flank:1 bluetail:1 thrush:1 claim:1 britain:3 least:1 start:1 well:1 notable:1 white:1 tailed:1 eagle:1 american:2 green:1 wing:1 teal:1 rumped:1 swallow:1 cowbird:1 check:1 late:2 sighting:1 list:2 http:1 www:1 htm:1 home:1 endemic:1 subspecies:1 winter:1 wren:2 troglodytes:1 troglodyte:1 fridariensis:1 buy:1 national:1 trust:1 george:1 waterson:1 founder:1 case:1 study:1 wind:3 power:2 nt:1 nicolson:1 james:1 r:1 newton:1 abbot:1 david:1 charles:1 p:1 economy:1 famous:1 knitted:1 jumper:2 knit:2 form:1 important:1 source:1 income:1 woman:1 principal:1 activity:1 male:1 crofting:1 two:2 third:2 community:3 supply:1 turbine:2 diesel:1 generator:1 distinctive:1 double:1 electrical:1 network:2 standard:1 electricity:3 service:1 electric:2 heating:2 deliver:1 second:1 set:1 cable:1 mainly:1 serve:2 excess:1 would:1 otherwise:1 dump:1 frequency:1 sensitive:1 programmable:1 relay:1 control:1 individual:1 heater:2 storage:1 building:1 ward:1 hill:1 play:1 host:1 hastily:1 build:1 raf:1 radar:1 station:1 wwii:1 ruin:1 still:1 present:1 today:1 also:2 substantial:1 section:1 crashed:1 heinkel:1 january:1 grant:1 fairtrade:1 status:1 traditional:1 transport:1 airport:2 flight:1 kirkwall:2 seasonal:1 good:1 shepherd:1 iv:1 ply:1 grutness:1 foula:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 company:1 ltd:1 detail:1 photographic:1 tour:1 example:1 |@bigram scottish_gaelic:1 shetland_islands:1 raw_material:1 spanish_armada:1 http_www:1 endemic_subspecies:1 wind_turbine:2 grant_fairtrade:1 external_link:1 |
1,961 | Amputation | Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. A special case is the congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where foetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation of the hands or feet is or was used as a form of punishment for people who committed crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. Unlike some non-mammalian animals (such as lizards that shed their tails), once removed, human extremities do not grow back. A transplant or a prosthesis are the only options for recovering the loss. History Origins of the word The word amputation " is derived from the Latin amputare, "to cut away", from ambi- ("about", "around") and putare ("to prune"). The Latin word has never been recorded in a surgical context, being reserved to indicate punishment for criminals. The English word "amputation" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th century French texts tended to use extirper), "disarticulation," and "dismemberment" (from the Old French desmembrer and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term. Overview The history of amputation can be divided into a number of periods. Initially, limb loss was usually the result of trauma or 'nonsurgical' removal. This was followed by the hesitant beginnings of surgical intervention, mainly on gangrenous limbs or those already terribly damaged, which developed through to surgical amputations around the 15th century; the distinction is marked by the choice of the patient and the aim of saving a life and achieving a healed stump, despite the difficulties with infection and the lack of effective control for pain or blood loss. Improvements in surgical techniques were married with better haemorrhage control in the 19th century and in the 1840s with anaesthesia and around twenty years later efficient infection control. The 20th century noted marked improvements in surgical techniques and also a move to increasingly sophisticated prosthetic limbs. Types Types of amputation include: leg amputation of digits partial foot amputation (Chopart, Lisfranc, Ray) ankle disarticulation (Syme, Pyrogoff) below-knee amputation (transtibial e.g. Burgess, Kingsley Robinson) knee-bearing amputation (knee disarticulation, e.g. Gritti or Gritti-Stokes) above knee amputation (transfemoral) Van-ness rotation/rotationplasty (Foot being turned around and reattached to allow the ankle joint to be used as a knee.) hip disarticulation hemipelvectomy/hindquarter amputation arm amputation of digits metacarpal amputation wrist disarticulation forearm amputation (transradial) elbow disarticulation above-elbow amputation (transhumeral) shoulder disarticulation and forequarter amputation Krukenberg procedure teeth The avulsion of some teeth (mainly incisives) is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa). Hemicorporectomy, or amputation at the waist, is the most radical amputation. Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease. As a rule, partial amputations are preferred to preserve joint function, but in oncological surgery, disarticulation is favored. Reasons for amputation Circulatory disorders Diabetic foot infection or gangrene (the most common reason for non-traumatic amputation) Sepsis with peripheral necrosis Neoplasm Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, osteochondroma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma) Melanoma Trauma Severe limb injuries in which the limb cannot be spared or attempts to spare the limb have failed Traumatic amputation (Amputation occurs usually at scene of accident, where the limb is partially or wholly severed). This would be the case of a trapped limb with no other way to extract without harm to other parts of the body. Amputation in utero (Amniotic band) Punishment/Torture (e.g. in some countries theft is prevented by the threat of amputation of a hand, although the practice is highly controversial and some Islamic authorities are calling for a moratorium upon it, Islam Online- News Section pending developments in Islamic law. Tariq Ramadan : Do you trust this man? - People, News - Independent.co.uk ) Deformities Deformities of digits and/or limbs Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g. polydactyly) Infection Bone infection (osteomyelitis) Other Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance. Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance. RTE: Aussie Rules star has finger removed Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed. SportsAustralia.com: Tawake undergoes surgery to remove finger NFL safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his pinky finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season. Method Curved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations. The first step is ligating the supplying artery and vein, to prevent hemorrhage. The muscles are transected, and finally the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis. Self-amputation In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated his own limb: In 2007, 66-year-old Al Hill amputated his leg below the knee using his pocketknife after the leg got stuck beneath a fallen tree he was cutting in California. Man Pinned Under Tree Amputates His Leg In 2003, 27-year-old Aron Ralston amputated his forearm using his pocketknife and breaking and tearing the two bones, after the arm got stuck under a boulder when hiking in Utah. Also in 2003, an Australian coal miner amputated his own arm with a Stanley knife after it became trapped when the front-end loader he was driving overturned three kilometers underground. smh.com.au - The Sydney Morning Herald In the 1990s, a crab fisherman got his arm caught in the winch during a storm and had to amputate it at the shoulder, as reported in The New Englander. Even rarer are cases where self-amputation is performed for criminal or political purposes: About 50 people in Vernon, Florida, collected insurance claims for loss-of-limb accidents in the late 1950s and early 1960s; this was more than two-thirds of all such claims in the United States during that time. Life: Dismembered again Errol Morris: Profiles On March 7 1998, Daniel Rudolph, the elder brother of the 1996 Olympics bomber Eric Robert Rudolph, videotaped himself cutting off one of his own hands with an electric saw in order to "send a message to the FBI and the media." CNN - Bombing suspect's brother cuts hand off with saw - March 9, 1998 Body Integrity Identity Disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed. After-effects The individual may experience psychological trauma as well as emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations. A large proportion of amputees (50-80%) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome). A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head. In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis. Another side-effect can be heterotopic ossification, especially when a bone injury is combined with a head injury. The brain signals the bone to grow instead of scar tissue to form, and nodules and other growth can interfere with prosthetics and sometimes require further operations. This type of injury has been especially common among soldiers wounded by improvised explosive devices in the Iraq war. Notable amputees Dave Allen—Irish comedian; lost his left index finger as a child. Rick Allen—drummer for the band Def Leppard; lost his left arm in a car accident. Walid bin 'Attash—member of Al-Qaeda; lost his right leg fighting the Northern Alliance in 1997. Douglas Bader—Royal Air Force fighter pilot during World War II; lost both legs performing low-flying aerobatics, but continued to fly and even engaged in escape attempts as a POW of the Germans. Lucien Bouchard—Canadian politician and Quebec nationalist; lost a leg to necrotizing fasciitis. Mariana Bridi da Costa—Brazilian model and beauty queen; suffered several amputations in a failed attempt to save her life. Died at age 20 on January 24, 2009 of septicemia resulting from Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection that quickly spread throughout her body. Roberto Carlos—Brazilian singer; had the lower half of his left leg slashed off by a train wheel in his teenage years. Lars Grael—Brazilian windsurfing champion; his right leg was sliced off by a private boat's chopper engine in a sea accident. Wagner Montes—Brazilian journalist and politician; his motorbike crushed the lower half of his right leg against a lamppost. Ronald D. Castille—Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania State Supreme Court and former Philadelphia District Attorney; lost his leg in the Vietnam War. Max Cleland—former U.S. Senator; lost both legs and right forearm following injuries inflicted by a fellow soldier's grenade in the Vietnam War. Richard Collier—American Football Player; lost left leg after a shooting incident in Jacksonville, Florida. Denzil Connick the co-founder and secretary of the South Atlantic Medal Association formed in 1997. He served with 3 PARA during the 1982 Falklands War and lost a leg during the Battle of Mount Longdon. Dadullah—Taliban military commander; lost a leg fighting against Soviet occupation in the 1980s. James Doohan —Canadian actor, best known as "Scotty" on Star Trek; lost finger during D-Day landing. Dave Dravecky—Major League Baseball pitcher with the San Diego Padres and San Francisco Giants; lost left arm to cancer complications. Tammy Duckworth—American politician; lost both legs in the Iraq War. Graham Edwards—Australian politician; lost both legs in the Vietnam War. Rahm Emanuel—U.S. Congressman; lost part of his finger to a meat slicer while an employee at Arby's as a teenager. Terry Fox—Canadian athlete and cancer treatment activist; lost a leg to cancer. Jerry Garcia—American folk-rock singer,musician, and founder of The Greateful Dead; lost 2/3 of his middle finger as a young child. Zach Gowen—American professional wrestler; lost a leg to cancer as a child. Bethany Hamilton—American surfer; lost an arm to a shark attack. Burkhard Heim—German theoretical physicist; lost both hands in a laboratory explosion. Lord Uxbridge—British; lost his leg during the Battle of Waterloo Kenny Hotz—Canadian; as a child, lost the tip of his right index finger in a bicycle accident. Daniel Ken Inouye—Medal of Honor recipient, U.S. Senator; World War II war hero; lost his right arm due to battle wounds. Tony Iommi—guitarist for Black Sabbath; lost the tips of middle and ring fingers in an industrial accident at 17. Stonewall Jackson—Confederate general during the American Civil War; had his left arm amputated by Dr. Hunter McGuire on May 2, 1863 only to die eight days later on May 10, 1863. Matthias Lanzinger—Austrian Alpine skier; lost leg after fracturing his shin and fibula during a World Cup Super-G run at Kvitfjell, Norway. Bruce Marshall—Scottish novelist and author; lost leg as a result of wounds suffered in WWI. Heather Mills—ex-wife of former Beatle Paul McCartney as well as an activist and former model; lost left leg six inches below the kneecap in an accident where she was hit by a police motorcycle. Aimee Mullins—American model and athlete; lost both legs due to congenital disease. Oscar Pistorius—South African sprinter; lost both legs due to a congenital disorder. Daniel Scioli—Argentine politician; lost right arm during a boat race. Darío Silva—Uruguayan footballer; lost his right leg after a car accident. Deke Slayton—Mercury Seven astronaut; lost a finger as a child in a farming accident. Edward Teller — Physicist; lost his leg from the knee down after he jumped from a train station platform trying to catch a train. John Tester —U.S. Senator; as a child, lost the middle, index, and ring finger on his left hand in an accident while working with a meat grinder. Lee Van Cleef—actor; lost the tip of his middle finger while building a playhouse for his daughter, although there were rumors that it happened in a road accident or a bar fight. Pyotr Nikolayevich Vlasov—Russian photographer; lost his left thumb, index finger, and middle finger, as well as an inch of his right index finger, when dynamite exploded in his hands in the coal mine where he worked as a teenager during World War II. Alex Zanardi—Italian car racing driver; lost both legs in a CART car accident at Lausitzring then returned to race in the World Touring Car Championship. Horatio Nelson (England) British Naval commander during Napoleonic war. Lost right arm and eye during various sea battles. Defeated Villanueva during the Battle of Trafalgar. See also Tourniquet Autotomy Amputee Soccer Championship, Central America Amputee fetishism Congenital amputation References External links Amputation from Cooper's 1835 "Practice of Surgery" | Amputation |@lemmatized amputation:38 removal:5 body:9 extremity:2 trauma:4 surgery:6 surgical:6 measure:2 use:9 control:4 pain:6 disease:3 process:2 affected:1 limb:26 malignancy:1 gangrene:2 case:7 carry:1 individual:5 preventative:1 problem:1 special:1 congenital:5 disorder:4 foetal:1 cut:6 constrictive:1 band:3 country:2 hand:7 foot:4 form:3 punishment:3 people:3 commit:1 crime:1 also:7 tactic:1 war:13 act:1 terrorism:1 culture:3 religion:1 minor:1 mutilation:2 consider:1 ritual:2 accomplishment:1 unlike:1 non:3 mammalian:1 animal:1 lizard:1 shed:1 tail:1 remove:7 human:1 grow:2 back:1 transplant:1 prosthesis:4 option:1 recover:1 loss:6 history:2 origin:1 word:5 derive:2 latin:2 amputare:1 away:1 ambi:1 around:4 putare:1 prune:1 never:1 record:1 context:1 reserve:1 indicate:1 criminal:2 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1,962 | Magic_Lantern_(software) | Magic Lantern is keystroke logging software developed by the United States' Federal Bureau of Investigation. Magic Lantern was first reported in a column by Bob Sullivan of MSNBC on 20 November 2001 and by Ted Bridis of the Associated Press. Ted Bridis. "FBI Develops Eavesdropping Tools," Washington Post, November 22, 2001. How it works Magic Lantern can reportedly be installed remotely, via an e-mail attachment or by exploiting common operating system vulnerabilities, unlike previous keystroke logger programs used by the FBI. FBI's Secret Spyware Tracks Down Teen Who Made Bomb Threats July 18, 2007 Wired Magazine [Threat of Terrorism On U.S. Infrastructure December 31, 2001 The New York Times It has been variously described as a virus and a Trojan horse. It is not known how the program might store or communicate the recorded keystrokes. Purpose In response to a Freedom of Information Act request filed in 2000 by the Electronic Privacy Information Center, the FBI released a series of unclassified documents relating to Carnivore, which included the "Enhanced Carnivore Project Plan". Sullivan's confidential source said that redacted portions of that document mention "Cyber Knight", Spokesmen for the FBI soon confirmed the existence of a program called Magic Lantern. They denied that it had been deployed, and they declined to comment further. Article in the Village Voice, 24 May 2002 Antivirus Vendor Cooperation The public disclosure of the existence of Magic Lantern sparked a debate as to whether anti-virus companies could or should detect the FBI's keystroke logger. Network Associates, McAfee products Bridis reported that at least some anti-virus companies, including Network Associates (maker of McAfee anti-virus products), had contacted the FBI following the press reports about Magic Lantern to ensure their anti-virus software would not detect the program. AP story about Magic Lantern, 22 November 2001 Network Associates issued a statement denying cooperation with U.S. legal authorities within a week, fueling speculation as to which anti-virus products might or might not detect government trojans. Article in Wired, 29 November 2001 CNET News has surveyed 13 security companies about their contacts with and level of cooperation with law enforcement authorities. CNET News - Security firms on police spyware, in their own words, 17 July 2007 Symantec The FBI confirmed the active development of Magic Lantern, a keylogger intended to obtain passwords to encrypted e-mail as part of a criminal investigation. Magic Lantern was first reported in the media by Bob Sullivan of MSNBC on 20 November 2001 and by Ted Bridis of the Associated Press. Ted Bridis. "FBI Develops Eavesdropping Tools," Washington Post, November 22, 2001. The FBI intends to deploy Magic Lantern in the form of an e-mail attachment. When the attachment is opened, it installs a trojan horse on the suspect's computer. The trojan horse is activated when the suspect uses PGP encryption, often used to increase the security of sent e-mail messages. When activated, the trojan horse will log the PGP password, which allows the FBI to decrypt user communications. Symantec and other major antivirus vendors have whitelisted Magic Lantern, rendering their antivirus products, including Norton Internet Security, incapable of detecting Magic Lantern. Concerns include uncertainties about Magic Lantern's full potential and whether hackers could subvert it for purposes outside the jurisdiction of the law. Graham Cluley, a technology consultant from Sophos, said "We have no way of knowing if it was written by the FBI, and even if we did, we wouldn’t know whether it was being used by the FBI or if it had been commandeered by a third party". Another reaction from this came from Marc Maiffret, chief technology officer and cofounder of eEye Digital Security who states: "Our customers are paying us for a service, to protect them from all forms of malicious code. It is not up to us to do law enforcement's job for them so we do not, and will not, make any exceptions for law enforcement malware or other tools." FBI spokesman Paul Bresson, in response if Magic Lantern needed a court order to deploy, "Like all technology projects or tools deployed by the FBI it would be used pursuant to the appropriate legal process." Proponents of Magic Lantern argue the technology would allow law enforcement to efficiently and quickly decrypt messages protected by encryption schemes. Implementing Magic Lantern does not require physical access to a suspect's computer, unlike Carnivore, a predecessor to Magic Lantern, since physical access to a computer would require a court order. See also Backdoor (computing) Policeware CIPAV ECHELON Computer and Internet Protocol Address Verifier References Further reading Amanda So and Christopher Woo. "The Case for Magic Lantern: September 11 Highlights the Need for Increased surveillance," Harvard Journal of Law and Technology. v15, p521. (discusses the legal framework surrounding the use of keystroke loggers in law enforcement) External links EPIC site Carnivore questions CNBC - first press story about Magic Lantern Early wire report (AP) on USA Today, 21 November 2001 Article from San Francisco Chronicle, 28 November 2001 CNET News - Feds use key logger to thwart PGP, Hushmail | Magic_Lantern_(software) |@lemmatized magic:19 lantern:19 keystroke:5 log:2 software:2 develop:1 united:1 state:2 federal:1 bureau:1 investigation:2 first:3 report:5 column:1 bob:2 sullivan:3 msnbc:2 november:8 ted:4 bridis:5 associated:2 press:4 fbi:15 develops:2 eavesdrop:2 tool:4 washington:2 post:2 work:1 reportedly:1 instal:1 remotely:1 via:1 e:4 mail:4 attachment:3 exploit:1 common:1 operating:1 system:1 vulnerability:1 unlike:2 previous:1 logger:4 program:4 use:7 secret:1 spyware:2 track:1 teen:1 make:2 bomb:1 threat:2 july:2 wire:2 magazine:1 terrorism:1 u:4 infrastructure:1 december:1 new:1 york:1 time:1 variously:1 describe:1 virus:6 trojan:5 horse:4 know:3 might:3 store:1 communicate:1 recorded:1 purpose:2 response:2 freedom:1 information:2 act:1 request:1 file:1 electronic:1 privacy:1 center:1 release:1 series:1 unclassified:1 document:2 relate:1 carnivore:4 include:4 enhance:1 project:2 plan:1 confidential:1 source:1 say:2 redact:1 portion:1 mention:1 cyber:1 knight:1 spokesman:2 soon:1 confirm:2 existence:2 call:1 deny:2 deploy:4 decline:1 comment:1 far:2 article:3 village:1 voice:1 may:1 antivirus:3 vendor:2 cooperation:3 public:1 disclosure:1 spark:1 debate:1 whether:3 anti:5 company:3 could:2 detect:4 network:3 associate:3 mcafee:2 product:4 least:1 maker:1 contact:2 follow:1 ensure:1 would:4 ap:2 story:2 issue:1 statement:1 legal:3 authority:2 within:1 week:1 fuel:1 speculation:1 government:1 wired:1 cnet:3 news:3 survey:1 security:5 level:1 law:7 enforcement:5 firm:1 police:1 word:1 symantec:2 active:1 development:1 keylogger:1 intend:2 obtain:1 password:2 encrypt:1 part:1 criminal:1 medium:1 form:2 open:1 install:1 suspect:3 computer:4 activate:2 pgp:3 encryption:2 often:1 increase:1 sent:1 message:2 allow:2 decrypt:2 user:1 communication:1 major:1 whitelisted:1 render:1 norton:1 internet:2 incapable:1 concern:1 uncertainty:1 full:1 potential:1 hacker:1 subvert:1 outside:1 jurisdiction:1 graham:1 cluley:1 technology:5 consultant:1 sophos:1 way:1 write:1 even:1 commandeer:1 third:1 party:1 another:1 reaction:1 come:1 marc:1 maiffret:1 chief:1 officer:1 cofounder:1 eeye:1 digital:1 customer:1 pay:1 service:1 protect:2 malicious:1 code:1 job:1 exception:1 malware:1 paul:1 bresson:1 need:2 court:2 order:2 like:1 pursuant:1 appropriate:1 process:1 proponent:1 argue:1 efficiently:1 quickly:1 scheme:1 implement:1 require:2 physical:2 access:2 predecessor:1 since:1 see:1 also:1 backdoor:1 compute:1 policeware:1 cipav:1 echelon:1 protocol:1 address:1 verifier:1 reference:1 read:1 amanda:1 christopher:1 woo:1 case:1 september:1 highlight:1 increased:1 surveillance:1 harvard:1 journal:1 discuss:1 framework:1 surround:1 external:1 link:1 epic:1 site:1 question:1 cnbc:1 early:1 usa:1 today:1 san:1 francisco:1 chronicle:1 fed:1 key:1 thwart:1 hushmail:1 |@bigram magic_lantern:19 bureau_investigation:1 ted_bridis:4 keystroke_logger:3 trojan_horse:4 cnet_news:3 pgp_encryption:1 decrypt_message:1 external_link:1 san_francisco:1 |
1,963 | Economy_of_Greece | Prior to the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, Greece had managed to achieve a fast-growing economy after the implementation of stabilization policies in recent years. It remains a net importer of industrial and capital goods, foodstuffs, and petroleum. Leading exports are manufactured goods, food and beverages, petroleum products, cement, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. The people of Greece enjoy a high standard of living, reflected by the country's high Human Development Index (the world's 18th highest) and Quality-of-Life Index. Recent economic history The development of the modern Greek economy began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the adoption of social and industrial legislation and protective tariffs and the creation of the first industrial enterprises. Industry at the turn of the 20th century consisted primarily of food processing, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of textiles and simple consumer products. The evolution of the Greek economy during the 19th century (a period that transformed a large part of the world due to the Industrial revolution) has been little researched. Recent research K. Kostis and S. Petmezas (ed.), I anaptixi tis Ellinikis oikonomias ton 19o aiona (Development of the Greek economy in the 19th century), Alexandria publications, Athens (2006) examines the gradual development of industry and further development of shipping in a predominantly agricultural economy, calculating an average rate of per capita GDP growth between 1833 and 1911 that was only slightly lower than that of Western European nations. Other studies support this view, providing comparative measures of standard of living. The per capita income (in purchasing power terms) of Greece was 65% that of France in 1850, 56% in 1890, 62% in 1938, Paul Bairoch, Europe's GNP 1800-1975, J. of European Economic History, 5, pp. 273-340 (1976) Angus Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD (1995) 75% in 1980 and 90% in 2007 Eurostat, including updated data since 1980 and data released in April, 2008 , while it stood at 100.3% in 2008 according to CIA Factbook (February 2009 data). After the end of the Greek Civil War in 1949 and for more than two decades Greece achieved the second highest economic growth rate in the world after Japan, resulting in a dramatic improvement of living standards (the "Greek economic miracle"). In the mid-1970s, Greece suffered declines in its GDP growth rate, ratio of investment to GDP, and productivity, and real labor costs and oil prices rose. In 1981, protective barriers were removed when Greece joined the European Community on January 1, 1981 and cohesion funds have contributed considerably to the country's economic development. Although by 1989 Greece belonged to a group of 23 "advanced economies", the 1980s was a period of serious economic problems. The government pursued expansionary policies, which fueled inflation and caused balance-of-payment difficulties. Growing public sector deficits were financed by borrowing. In October 1985, supported by a 1.7 billion European Currency Unit (ECU) loan from the European Union (EU), the government implemented a two-year "stabilization" program with limited success. Public sector inefficiency and excessive spending caused government borrowing to increase; by the end of 1992, general government debt exceeded 100% of GDP. Greece continued to rely on foreign borrowing to finance its deficits. Public sector external debt was $32 billion at the end of 1998, only ¼ of the total. The general government debt was $119 billion at the end of 1998, or 105.5% of GDP. Greece, as a member of the European Union, strived to reduce its budget deficit and inflation rate in order to meet the prerequisites for the Economic and Monetary Union. Although growth remained above the convergence program guidelines, high budget deficits and deficient infrastructure continued to dampen the economy's long-term potential growth rate. In May 1994, the Bank of Greece successfully managed a currency crisis triggered by the lifting of currency restrictions on short-term capital movements. The bank contained speculative attacks on the drachma by tightening its monetary policy and raising interest rates dramatically: For a few days, interest rates pushed as high as 180%. In less than 2 months, with speculation on the drachma no longer a threat, interest rates returned to normal levels. A similar wave of speculation was beaten back in the fall of 1997, following the Asian financial crisis. One of the successes of recent Greek economic policy has been the reduction of inflation rates. For more than 20 years, inflation hovered in the double digits, reaching 23% in the early 1990s. But a combination of fiscal consolidation, wage restraint, and strong drachma policies resulted in lowered inflation. Inflation fell to 2.0% by mid-1999. High interest rates have been historically a significant problem. The government's strong drachma policy and Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) made the lowering of interest rates difficult, but progress was made in 1997-99 and rates gradually declined in line with inflation and the rest of the Eurozone. In 2001 Greece joined the Economic and Monetary Union (eurozone). Interest rate policy is now in the hands of the European Central Bank. Due to the more stable macroeconomic framework and lower interest rates, growth has picked up significantly. The Greek Economy has been growing continuously since 1994 and above the EU25 average since 1996. In 2004 the Greek economy grew at an estimated rate of 4.7%, the fastest in the EU15. A part of this has been sustained by the investment in infrastructure in the run up to the Summer Olympic Games 2004 that were held in Athens. As a result, real incomes have risen from 85% of EU27 average in 1997 to almost 100% in 2007 (revised data, source Eurostat, 21 April 2007). In 2004, Eurostat, the statistical arm of the European Commission (after an audit performed by the New Democracy government) revealed that the budgetary statistics, on the basis of which Greece joined the European monetary union, had been massively underreported by the previous Greek government (mostly by not recording a large share of military expenses). However, even according to the revised numbers calculated according to the methodology in force at the time of Greece's application for entry into the Eurozone, the criteria for entry had been met. Recent economic performance has been satisfying. However, there are two challenges for policymakers: a)to avoid an economic slump after the enthusiasm of the Games has gone and the EU farm subsidies get cut in 2006 and b) to proceed with lala structural economic reforms, especially in the areas of social insurance, welfare, and the labour market which will encourage further investments, lower the country's high unemployment and promote growth and economic stability. The first step was taken on the 30 June 2005 with substantial reforms of the insurance system for bank employees against fierce opposition from the unions and the main opposition political party PASOK with laws liberalising working hours in retail trade and employment and providing for public/private financing initiatives of public works and services to follow over the summer. During the third quarter of 2006, Greece experienced a strong 4.4% growth rate, while in the same period of the previous year, the growth rate was 3.8%. This is among the highest rates in the EU and the Eurozone, where the average growth rates for these periods were estimated to stand as 2.7% and 1.7% respectively. Current challenges include the further reduction of unemployment which currently stands at 8.8%, the reform of the social security system, the further privatization of the public sector, the overhauling of the tax system and the further reduction of certain bureaucratic inefficiencies. Reduction of the fiscal deficit to the Eurozone target of 3% of GDP had also become a key issue. Under a negotiated agreement, the EU had given Greece a two year deadline (budgets of 2005 and 2006) in order to bring the deficit in line with the criteria of the EU's stability pact, namely below 3%. In 2005, the deficit stood at 5.5% of GDP, while in 2006 the deficit fell below 3%, standing at 2.6% (figure approved by Eurostat in April 2007). Based on this figure and forecasts for the following years, EU's Excessive Deficit Procedure for Greece officially ended on June 5, 2007. Following European Union rules, Greece revised its GDP in October 2007 upwards by 9.6% (a much smaller revision than the one originally planned in 2006). In contrast to other member states, Greece had not revised its base of measuring its GDP for several years. On 9 October 2008, as a response to the subprime mortgage crisis, Greece introduced a 100,000 Euro guarantee for the 230 billion Euro bank deposits in the country for three years, well above the EU-wide Ecofin-mandated minimum of 50,000 Euro for one year, and gave assurances that the Greek banking system is stable, while the Greek central bank announced a drop in the expected growth of the Greek economy to 3.3% (from 4%) because of decreased consumption caused by high petrol and food prices. (ekathimerini), (ekathimerini), (Forbes), (Wikinews). Although remaining above the euro area average, economic growth will turn negative in 2009 for the first time since 1993. European Commission, Economic Forecast – Spring 2009, 65 Household debt The explosion of borrowing and lending was that they emerged after the banking deregulation and the falling interest rates caused Greece to have among the highest lending growth rates in the EU. Between January and July, the business and household debts to the banks, including corporate bonds issued by enterprises reached 189.9 billion euro or 91% of GDP, showing an increase of 20.6% over the corresponding period last year. Household debt in mortgage and consumer loans increased by 23.9% to 89.3 billion euro. Foreclosures of debtors who could not repay their loans, have reached 55,000. Indicative of the 'trend' of over-loaning in recent years is the fact that the ratio exceeded deposits for lending in the first half of the 100 units, suggesting that the allocations are now more than deposits. EU membership Greece realigned its economy as part of EU membership that began in 1981. Greek businesses are adjusting to competition from EU firms and successive governments have had to liberalize their economic and commercial regulations and practices. However, Greece had been granted waivers from certain aspects of the EU's 1992 single market program. Historically, Greece has been a net beneficiary of the EU budget. Net payments to Greece totaled $4.9 billion in 1998, representing 4.2% of GDP. Net inflows were estimated at about $5 billion in 1998. Greece received substantial support from the EU through the Delors II package. In July 1994, the Greek government and the EU agreed on a final plan which provided Greece 16.6 billion ECU for the period, of which 14 billion ECU was from the Community Support Framework and 2.6 billion ECU was from the Cohesion Fund. That level of assistance continued in 1999 financing major public works and economic development projects, competitiveness and human resources programs, the improvement of living conditions and also addressed disparities between poorer and more developed regions of the country. Greece is set to receive 20.1 billion euros of funds from the EU's budget, or approximately 1.8% of GDP. References See also OECD's Greece country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Greece Companies of Greece Economic history of Greece and the Greek world Economy of Europe Greece Agriculture in Greece Tourism in Greece Social Insurance Institute | Economy_of_Greece |@lemmatized prior:1 global:1 financial:2 crisis:4 greece:34 manage:2 achieve:2 fast:2 grow:4 economy:13 implementation:1 stabilization:2 policy:7 recent:6 year:11 remain:3 net:4 importer:1 industrial:4 capital:2 good:2 foodstuff:1 petroleum:2 leading:1 export:1 manufacture:2 food:3 beverage:1 product:2 cement:1 chemical:1 pharmaceutical:1 people:1 enjoy:1 high:11 standard:3 living:4 reflect:1 country:6 human:2 development:7 index:2 world:5 quality:1 life:1 economic:19 history:3 modern:1 greek:15 begin:2 late:1 early:2 century:4 adoption:1 social:4 legislation:1 protective:2 tariff:1 creation:1 first:4 enterprise:2 industry:2 turn:2 consist:1 primarily:1 processing:1 shipbuilding:1 textile:1 simple:1 consumer:2 evolution:1 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1,964 | Jeff_Lynne | Jeffrey Lynne (born 30 December 1947 in Shard End, Birmingham) is a two-time Ivor Novello Award recipient and Grammy Award-winning English songwriter, composer, arranger, singer, guitarist and record producer who gained fame as the leader of Electric Light Orchestra and was a co-founder and member of The Traveling Wilburys. Traveling Wilburys Lynne has produced recordings for artists such as The Beatles, Roy Orbison, Del Shannon & Tom Petty. He has co-written songs with Petty and also with George Harrison whose 1987 album Cloud Nine was co produced by Lynne and Harrison. His compositions include "Evil Woman", "Telephone Line", "Livin' Thing", "Mr. Blue Sky", "Don't Bring Me Down" and "Sweet Talkin' Woman". In 2008, The Washington Times named Lynne the fourth greatest record producer in music history. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/jul/04/top-5-98304083/ Musical career Early career In 1963, Jeff Lynne, Robert Reader and David Walsh formed a group using little more than Spanish guitars and cheap electrical instruments to produce music. They were originally named "The Rockin' Hellcats" before changing to "The Handicaps" and finally to "The Andicaps". They practiced at Shard End Community Centre and performed weekly. However, in 1964, Robert Reader and David Walsh left the band and Lynne brought in replacements. At the end of 1964, Lynne decided to leave the band to replace Mick Adkins of the local band "The Chads". Brumbeat: The Andicaps biography In 1966, Lynne joined the line-up of The Nightriders as guitarist. The band would soon change their name to the The Idle Race, a name allegedly given to them sarcastically by his grandmother Evelyn Lynne who probably disapproved of pop music as not being a proper job. Despite recording two critically acclaimed albums with the band and producing the second, success eluded him. In 1970, Lynne accepted a lifeline from friend Roy Wood to join the line up of the more successful band The Move. The Electric Light Orchestra (1970 - 1986) Lynne contributed songs to The Move's last two albums while formulating, with Roy Wood and Bev Bevan, a band built around a fusion of rock and European classical music, a project which would eventually become the highly successful Electric Light Orchestra (ELO). Problems led to Wood's departure in 1972, after the band's eponymous first album, leaving Jeff Lynne as the band's dominant creative force. Thereafter followed a succession of band personnel changes and increasingly popular albums: 1973's ELO II and On The Third Day, 1974's Eldorado and 1975's Face the Music. By A New World Record, Lynne had almost completely abandoned the roots of the group for a dense and unique pop-rock sound mixed with studio strings and layered vocals and tight, catchy pop singles. Jeff Lynne's now almost complete creative dominance as producer, songwriter, arranger, lead singer and guitarist could make ELO appear to be an almost solo effort. However, the ELO sound and the focus of Lynne's writing was also indelibly shaped by Louis Clark's co-arranging (notably the large string sections), Bev Bevan's driving, primitivist drumming, and Richard Tandy's integration of then-novel keyboard technology. Some believe the pinnacle of ELO's chart success and worldwide popularity was the expansive 1977 double album Out of the Blue, which was largely conceived in a Swiss chalet during a two-week writing marathon. ELO Remaster Series - OUT OF THE BLUE - SLEEVE NOTES The band's 1978 world tour featured an elaborate "space ship" set and laser light show. In order to recreate the complex instrumental textures of their albums, the band used pre-recorded supplemental backing tracks in live performances. Although that practise has now become commonplace, it caused considerable derision in the press of the time. Jeff Lynne Song Database - Electric Light Orchestra - Out Of The Blue / The Big Night Tour Jeff Lynne has often stated that he prefers the creative environment of the studio to the rigours and tedium of touring. In 1979, Lynne followed up the success of Out of the Blue with Discovery, an album primarily associated with its two disco-flavored singles ("Shine a Little Love" and "Last Train to London") and with a title that was a word play on "disco" and "very" Appreciation - Jeff Lynne, A Symphony by The Light Shines On In … Eldorado . However, the remaining seven non-disco tracks on the album reflected Lynne's range as a pop-rock songwriter, including a heavy, mid-tempo rock anthem ("Don't Bring Me Down") that, despite its use of a drum loop, could be considered the antithesis of disco. In an April 2008 interview, Lynne fondly recalled his forays into dance music: In 1979, Lynne rejected an offer for ELO to headline the Knebworth Concert in the UK, allowing Led Zeppelin to headline instead. In the absence of any touring to support Discovery, Lynne had time to contribute five tracks to the soundtrack for the 1980 movie musical Xanadu (film). The score yielded a pair of top-40 singles, with "Xanadu" reaching number one in the UK. Nevertheless, Lynne was not integrated into the development of the film and his material subsequently had only superficial attachment to the plot. Despite its later resurgence as a cult favourite, Xanadu performed weakly at the box-office. Lynne subsequently disavowed his limited contribution to the project, Xanadu Movie -The 80s Rewind « although he later re-recorded the title song (with his lead vocal) for the 2000 box-set Flashback. In 2007, the film was loosely adapted into a successful Broadway musical, incorporating almost all of the songs from the original film, and also using two other ELO hits: Strange Magic and Evil Woman. In 1981, Lynne took the band in a somewhat different direction with the science-fiction themed album Time, reaching number one for two weeks in the UK, producing the second Top 3 single in less that two years, jettisoning the strings in favour of heavily synthesised textures. Following a marginally successful tour, Lynne kept this general approach with 1983's Secret Messages and a final contractually-obligated ELO album Balance of Power in 1986. Although ELO could still get a hit single into the Top 40, Lynne is assumed to have tired of the artistic constraints and promotional demands imposed by the ELO concept. Lynne discusses the contractually-obligated nature of the final albums on the short interview included with the 'Zoom' DVD. With only three remaining official members (Lynne, Bevan and Tandy) and the trending of pop music toward a new generation of video-friendly acts, ELO had run its course and Lynne began devoting his full energy to producing. During his time in the Electric Light Orchestra, Lynne did manage to release a few recordings under his own name. In 1976, Lynne covered The Beatles songs "With a Little Help from My Friends" and "Nowhere Man" for All This and World War II. In 1977, Lynne released his first ever solo single, the disco-flavoured "Doin' That Crazy Thing"/"Goin' Down To Rio". Despite ELO's high profile at that time, it received little airplay and failed to chart. In 1984 Lynne and ELO keyboardist Richard Tandy contributed two original songs "Video!" and "Let It Run" to the film Electric Dreams (he also provided a third song, "Sooner or Later", which was released as the b-side of "Video!"). Lynne also wrote the song "The Story of Me" which was recorded by the Everly Brothers on their comeback album EB84. The 1980s Even before the official end of ELO, Lynne began his move toward focusing almost exclusively on studio production work. Lynne produced and wrote the 1983 top-40 hit "Slipping Away" for Dave Edmunds and played on sessions (with Richard Tandy) for Edmund's album, Information. Lynne also produced six tracks on Edmund's follow-up album in 1984, Riff Raff. In contrast to the dense, boomy, baroque sound of ELO, Lynne's post-ELO studio work has tended toward more minimal, acoustic instrumentation and a sparse, "organic" quality that generally favours light room ambience and colouration over artificial reverb, especially on vocals. Lynne's recordings also often feature the jangling compressed acoustic guitar sound pioneered by Roger McGuinn and a heavily gated snare drum sound. Lynne's influence by the Beatles was clearly evident in his ELO work and the connection to the Beatles was strengthened when Lynne produced George Harrison's Cloud Nine, a successful comeback album for the ex-Beatle, released in 1987, featuring the popular singles "Got My Mind Set on You," "When We Was Fab" (where Lynne played the violin in the video), and "This Is Love," two of the three songs co-written by Lynne. Jeff Lynne's association with Harrison led to the 1988 formation of the Traveling Wilburys, a studio "supergroup" that included George Harrison, Tom Petty, Bob Dylan and Roy Orbison (as well as Lynne himself), and resulted in two albums (Vol. 1 and Vol. 3), both co-produced by Lynne. In 1988 Lynne also worked on Roy Orbison's album Mystery Girl co-writing and producing Orbison's last major hit, "You Got It", plus two other tracks on that album. For Rock On, the final Del Shannon album, Jeff Lynne co-wrote "Walk Away" and finished off several tracks after Shannon's death. In 1989, Lynne co-produced Full Moon Fever by Tom Petty, which included the hit singles "Free Fallin'," "I Won't Back Down," and "Runnin' Down a Dream," all co-written by Lynne. This album and Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 both received nominations for the Grammy Award for Best Album of the Year in 1989. Lynne's song "One Way Love" was released as a single by Agnetha Faltskog and appeared on her second post-ABBA album, Eyes of a Woman. Lynne co-wrote and produced the track "Let It Shine" for Beach Boys founder Brian Wilson's first solo album in 1988. Lynne also contributed three tracks to an album by Duane Eddy and "Falling In Love" on Land of Dreams for Randy Newman. The 1990s In 1990, Lynne collaborated on the Wilburys' follow up Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3 and shortly after that released his first solo album Armchair Theatre, with old friends George Harrison and Richard Tandy featuring the singles "Every Little Thing" and "Lift Me Up". The album received some positive critical attention but little commercial success. Lynne also provided the song "Wild Times" to the motion picture soundtrack Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves in 1991. In 1991, Lynne returned to the studio with Petty, co-writing and producing the album Into the Great Wide Open for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, which featured the singles "Learning to Fly" and "Into the Great Wide Open". The following year he produced Roy Orbison's posthumous album King of Hearts, featuring the single "I Drove All Night". In February 1994, Lynne fulfilled a lifelong dream by working with the three surviving Beatles on the Anthology album series. At George Harrison's request, Lynne was brought in to assist in reevaluating John Lennon's original studio material. The songs "Free as a Bird" and "Real Love" were created by digitally processing Lennon's demos for the songs and overdubbing the three surviving band members to form a virtual Beatles reunion that the band had mutually eschewed during Lennon's lifetime. Lynne has also produced records for Ringo Starr and worked on Paul McCartney's album Flaming Pie. Lynne's work in the 1990s also includes production of a 1993 album for singer/songwriter Julianna Raye entitled Something Peculiar and production or songwriting contributions to albums by Roger McGuinn (Back from Rio), Joe Cocker (Night Calls), Aerosmith (Lizard Love), Tom Jones (Lift me Up), Bonnie Tyler (Time Mends a Broken Heart), the film Still Crazy, Hank Marvin (Wonderful Land and Nivram), Et Moi (Drole De Vie), and the Tandy Morgan Band (Action). In 1996, Lynne was officially recognised by his peers when he was awarded the Ivor Novello Award for "Outstanding Contributions to British Music" for a second time. The 2000s Following legal action to get the ELO name back SongBook | The Electric Light Orchestra from Bevan's touring group ELO Part II, Lynne released a new album in 2001 under the ELO moniker entitled Zoom. Although the album featured guest appearances by Ringo Starr, George Harrison and original ELO keyboardist Richard Tandy, it was essentially a second Jeff Lynne solo album, with Lynne multi-tracking a majority of the instruments and vocals. The album received positive reviews but had no hit singles. Despite bearing little sonic relationship to the halcyon ELO days of the late 1970s, it was marketed as a "return to the classic ELO sound" allmusic ((( Zoom > Overview ))) in an attempt to connect with a loyal body of fans and jump-start a planned concert tour (with Lynne and Tandy as the only returning original ELO members). While a live performance was taped at CBS Television City over two consecutive nights and shown on PBS (with subsequent DVD release), the tour itself was cancelled. Speculation remains rife as to the reason (or reasons), for the cancellation of this tour. Certainly, initial ticket sales were disappointing, with publicity for the concerts minimal. Although often cited by fans as a reason for the tour cancellation, the events and aftermath of 11 September occurred subsequent to the official cancellation of the tour. Greg Bissonette (ELO drummer), when asked, described it as "... the greatest tour I never went on!" Earlier in 2001, Lynne began working with George Harrison on what would turn out to be Harrison's final album, Brainwashed. After Harrison's death from cancer on 29 November 2001, Lynne returned to the studio in 2002 to help finish the uncompleted album. Lynne was also heavily involved in the memorial Concert for George, held at London's Royal Albert Hall in November 2002, and subsequently produced the Surround Sound audio mix for the Concert For George DVD released in November 2003. The DVD received a Grammy. Lynne reunited in 2006 with Tom Petty to produce his third solo release, Highway Companion. ASCAP honored Jeff Lynne with the Golden Note Award during their Expo on 24 April 2009. http://blogs.reuters.com/fanfare/2009/04/21/heart-jeff-lynne-to-be-honored-by-music-biz-in-hollywood/ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g154Uig4tb0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCAPbstoV7Y http://www.eskimo.com/~noanswer/showdown.html Lynne said in an article on 23 April 2009, that he has finally been working on the long awaited follow-up to his 1990 solo debut album Armchair Theatre with a possible tentative release date of "later this year". http://uk.reuters.com/article/email/idUKTRE53M62R20090423?sp=true Discography See also The Idle Race The Move Electric Light Orchestra Traveling Wilburys Jeff Lynne and The Beatles References External links Jeff Lynne Song Database Official information service for the Electric Light Orchestra and related artists Discovery - welcome to the show ELO & Jeff Lynne information page ELO Forever Forum ELO España | Jeff_Lynne |@lemmatized jeffrey:1 lynne:77 born:1 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1,965 | Internetwork_Packet_Exchange | Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is the OSI-model Network layer protocol in the IPX/SPX protocol stack. The IPX/SPX protocol stack is supported by Novell's NetWare network operating system. Because of Netware's popularity through the late 1980s into the mid 1990s, IPX became a popular internetworking protocol. Novell derived IPX from Xerox Network Services' IDP protocol. IPX usage is in general decline as the boom of the Internet has made TCP/IP nearly universal. Computers and networks can run multiple network protocols, so almost all IPX sites will be running TCP/IP as well to allow for Internet connectivity TechRepublic - Do you still support IPX/SPX on your Windows servers? . It is also now possible to run Novell products without IPX, as they have supported both IPX and TCP/IP since NetWare reached version 5 Maintaining IPX Compatibility During a Migration to TCP/IP on a NetWare Network in late 1998. Support The following operating systems do not natively support IPX Windows Vista, both 32-bit and 64-bit versions Windows XP 64-bit Microsoft Technet Windows Server 2003 64-bit Mac OS later than 9.2.2 Blizzard Support - Installing the IPX network protocol on the Macintosh OpenBSD later than 4.1 OpenBSD 4.2 ChangeLog IPX addressing Logical networks are assigned a unique 32-bit hexadecimal address in the range of 0x1 - 0xFFFFFFFE. Hosts have a 48-bit node address which by default is set to the network interface card's MAC address. The node address is appended to the network address to create a unique identifier for the host on the network. Network number 00:00:00:00 means current network Broadcast address is FF:FF:FF:FF Similarities with IP The IPX network address is conceptually identical to the network part of the IP address (the parts with netmask bits set to 1); the node address then has the same meaning as the bits of IP address with netmask bits set to 0. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of the network adapter, the Address Resolution Protocol is not needed. For routing, the entries in the IPX routing table are similar to IP routing tables; routing is done by network address, and for each network address a network:node of the next router is specified in a similar fashion an IP address/netmask is specified in IP routing tables. IPX over Ethernet IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 encapsulation types: 802.3 (raw) is used in legacy systems and involves IPX data starting immediately after 802.3 frame header. The packet starts with Destination Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Source Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Frame Length (2 bytes) followed by IPX data. Latter always starts with two 0xFF bytes (Checksum field), and this can be used to differentiate this type of IPX encapsulation from next two types. 802.2 (Novell) comprises 802.3 frame header (destination, source, length) followed by LLC header (3 bytes - 0xE0, 0xE0, 0x03) followed by IPX data. 0xE0 fields of LLC header stand for 'Novell' protocol. 802.2 (SNAP) comprises 802.3 frame header, LLC header (3 bytes - 0xAA, 0xAA, 0x03), SNAP header (5 bytes - 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x81, 0x37) and IPX data. 0xAA fields of LLC header stand for 'SNAP' protocol. First three bytes of SNAP header are OUI followed by 2 bytes of IPX EtherType. Ethernet II comprises Ethernet II frame header (Destination, Source, EtherType) followed by IPX data. 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1,966 | Finlandization | Finlandization (; ; ) is the influence that one powerful country may have on the policies of a smaller neighboring country. It is generally considered to be pejorative, originating in West German political debate of the late 1960s and 1970s. As the term was used in Germany and other NATO countries, it meant the process of turning into a country which, although maintaining national sovereignty, in foreign politics resolves not to challenge a more powerful neighbour. Commonly in reference to Finland's policies vis-à-vis the Soviet Union during the Cold War, but could refer to similar international relations, such as Denmark's attitude toward Germany between 1871 and 1940. Origin and international usage In Germany, the term was used mainly by proponents of closer adaptation to US policies, chiefly Franz Josef Strauss, but was initially coined in scholarly debate, and made known by the German political scientists Walther Hallstein and Richard Löwenthal, reflecting feared effects of withdrawal of US troops from Germany. It came to be used in the debate of the NATO countries in response to Willy Brandt's attempts to normalize relations with East Germany, and the following widespread scepticism in Germany against NATO's Dual-Track Decision. Later, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the term has been used in Finland for the post-1968 radicalization in the latter half of the Urho Kekkonen era. Finnish perception In Finland, the use (by others) of the term "Finlandization" was perceived as blunt criticism, stemming from an inability to understand the practicalities of how a small nation might hope to make a deal with a culturally and ideologically alien superpower, without losing its sovereignty. It is said that the purpose of Finlandization was primarily Realpolitik: to survive. On the other hand, the threat of the Soviet Union was used also in Finland's domestic politics in a way that possibly deepened Finlandization (so called idänkortti, "east card"). Finland cut such a deal with Joseph Stalin's government in the late 1940s, and it was largely respected by both parties — and to the gain of both parties — until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. While the Finnish political and intellectual elite mostly understood the term to refer more to foreign policy problems of other countries, and meant mostly for domestic consumption in the speaker's own country, many ordinary Finns considered the term highly offensive. Historical background Finland's foreign politics before this deal had been varied: independence from Imperial Russia with support of Imperial Germany in 1917; participation in the Russian Civil War (without official declaration of war) alongside the Triple Entente 1918–1920; a non-ratified alliance with Poland in 1922; association with the neutralist and democratic Scandinavian countries in the 1930s ended by the Winter War (1939); and finally in 1940, a rapprochement with Nazi Germany, the only power able to protect Finland against the expansionist Soviet Union, leading to the Continuation War in 1941. The Wehrmacht's defeat in the Battle of Stalingrad led Finland to basically revert to its 19th century traditions, which had been perceived as highly successful until the Russification of Finland (1899–1905). Finland's leaders realized that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible. No international power was able to give the necessary support. Nazi Germany, Finland's chief supporter against Russia, was losing the war. Sweden was not big enough, and its leadership was wary of confronting Russia. The western powers were allied with the Soviet Union. Thus Finland had to face its big neighbour on its own, without any greater power's protection. As in the 19th century, Finland chose not to challenge the Soviet Union's foreign policy, but exerted caution to keep its independence. Paasikivi doctrine After the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, Finland succeeded in retaining democracy and parliamentarism, despite the heavy political pressure on Finland's foreign and internal affairs by the Soviet Union. Finland's foreign relations were guided by the doctrine formulated by Juho Kusti Paasikivi, emphasizing the necessity to maintain a good and trusting relationship with the Soviet Union. To this end, Finland signed an Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union in April 1948. Under this pact, Finland was obliged to resist armed attacks by "Germany or its allies" against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, ask for Soviet military aid to do so. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland's desire to remain outside great power conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of neutrality during the Cold War. As a consequence, Finland did not participate in the Marshall Plan, and took neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives. By keeping very cool relations to NATO, and to western military powers in general, Finland could fend off Soviet preludes for affiliation to the Warsaw Pact. Self-censorship and excessive Soviet adaptation However, from the political scene following the post-1968 radicalization, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of mass media, sparking strong forms of self-control, self-censorship and pro-Soviet attitudes. Most of the élite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favour and approve, developing into a self-imposed Finlandization that often is argued to have exceeded Soviet expectations. Civil servants, politicians and journalists accepted the practice that, if they cared about their careers, they did not talk about injustices such as the Soviets' assaults leading to the Winter War, or contemporary Soviet political repressions, such as the fate of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Such discussions were sanitized in the name of maintaining a working relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union. Only after the ascendancy of Mikhail Gorbachev to Soviet leadership in 1985 did mass media in Finland gradually begin to criticize the Soviet Union more. Human rights violations associated with Finlandization Finlandization caused numerous human rights violations in Finland. During the period of Finlandization freedom of speech was limited. Public libraries removed from circulation books, more than 1,700 titles, that were deemed anti-Soviet and bookstores were given catalogs of banned books. The Finnish Board of Film Classification likewise banned movies that it considered to be anti-Soviet. Banned movies included The Manchurian Candidate, directed by John Frankenheimer in 1962, and Born American by Finnish director Renny Harlin in 1986. One aspect of Finlandization was the participation of Finnish authorities in human rights violations perpetrated against Soviet citizens. According to the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights political refugees have a right to asylum. Finnish authorities denied this right to Soviet citizens by forcibly returning defectors into to the hands of Soviet authorities. Recently, the Finnish journalists Katja Boxberg and Taneli Heikka have written "Lumedemokratia" / (tr. 'Placebo democracy'), publ. via the Barrikadi series of WSOY, one of Finland's biggest publishers. Their opus argues that democracy in Finland is dead, Parlia-"mentality" does not work, Finland is not part of the West, and the same names and faces that wreaked havoc under the pro-Soviet Finlandization period are still in power today to some extent (Tarja Halonen is President, etc.) and uphold a culture of silence over socio-political issues in general and their own legacy in particular. Criticism United States foreign policy experts consistently feared that Western Europe and Japan would be Finlandized, leading to a situation in which these key allies no longer automatically supported the US against the Soviet Union. The theory of bandwagoning provided support for the idea that if the US wasn't able to provide strong and credible support for the anticommunist positions of its allies, NATO and the US-Japan alliance could collapse. But foreign policy scholars such as Eric Nordlinger in his book "Isolationism Reconfigured" Isolationism Reconfigured: American Foreign Policy for a New Century: The Independent Review: The Independent Institute have argued that "A vision of Finlandization in America's absence runs up squarely against the European states' long-standing Communist antipathies and wariness of Moscow's peaceful wiles, valued national traditions and strong democratic institutions, as well as their size and wherewithal." Authorities on the foreign relations of Finland often argue that proponents of the term "Finlandization" persistently failed to recognize that Finland had achieved its negotiating position after successfully fending off military attacks of the Soviet Union in the Winter War (1939) and the Continuation War (1941). Trivia Paraphrasing president Paasikivi, the Finnish political cartoonist Kari Suomalainen (1920-1999) defined Finlandization as "The art of bowing to the East so carefully that it could not be considered mooning the West." Finlandization is often compared to Oriental concept of ketman, which is similar Realpolitik-oriented adaptation to disfavourable circumstances. See also Appeasement History of Post-war Finland Balkanization Middle-easternisation Satellite state Notes External links and references Finland's Relations with the Soviet Union, 1940-1986 by Peter Botticelli After the War: Finland's relations with the Soviet Union 1944 - 1991 presented at the web site of the Finnish foreign ministry Three cheers for Balkanization! by Bruce Walker, re-evaluating the Finlandization concept The Silenced Media: The Propaganda War between Russia and the West in Northern Europe - review by Jussi M. Hanhimäki of a book by Esko Salminen The Silent Estate? - review by David McDuff of the same book by Esko Salminen | Finlandization |@lemmatized finlandization:15 influence:1 one:3 powerful:2 country:9 may:1 policy:9 small:2 neighboring:1 generally:1 consider:4 pejorative:1 originate:1 west:4 german:2 political:9 debate:3 late:2 term:7 use:6 germany:10 nato:5 mean:2 process:1 turn:1 although:1 maintain:3 national:2 sovereignty:2 foreign:11 politics:4 resolve:1 challenge:2 neighbour:2 commonly:1 reference:2 finland:34 vi:2 à:1 soviet:35 union:17 cold:2 war:13 could:4 refer:2 similar:2 international:3 relation:7 denmark:1 attitude:3 toward:1 origin:1 usage:1 mainly:1 proponent:2 close:1 adaptation:4 u:5 chiefly:1 franz:1 josef:1 strauss:1 initially:1 coin:1 scholarly:1 make:2 know:1 scientist:1 walther:1 hallstein:1 richard:1 löwenthal:1 reflect:1 fear:2 effect:1 withdrawal:1 troop:1 come:1 response:1 willy:1 brandt:1 attempt:1 normalize:1 east:3 following:1 widespread:1 scepticism:1 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1,967 | Emperor_Richū | was the 17th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 24-25; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 111. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Richū is considered to have ruled the country during the early-5th century, but there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. According to Nihonshoki and Kojiki, he was the first son of Emperor Nintoku. He succumbed to disease in his sixth year of reign. His tomb is in Kawachi province, in the middle of present-day Osaka prefecture. He was succeeded by his younger brother Emperor Hanzei; none of his sons succeeded to the throne, although two grandsons would eventually ascend as Emperor Kenzō and as Emperor Ninken. Some scholars identify him with King San in the Book of Song. King San sent messengers to the Song Dynasty at least twice in 421 and 425, died before 438 and was succeeded by his younger brother. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 301-311. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Richū |@lemmatized emperor:8 japan:6 accord:2 traditional:1 order:1 succession:1 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:2 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 p:1 firm:1 date:1 assign:1 life:1 reign:2 richū:1 consider:1 rule:1 country:1 early:2 century:1 paucity:1 information:1 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 nihonshoki:1 kojiki:1 first:1 son:2 nintoku:1 succumb:1 disease:1 sixth:1 year:1 tomb:1 kawachi:1 province:1 middle:1 present:1 day:1 osaka:1 prefecture:1 succeed:3 young:2 brother:2 hanzei:1 none:1 throne:1 although:1 two:1 grandson:1 would:1 eventually:1 ascend:1 kenzō:1 ninken:1 scholar:1 identify:1 king:2 san:2 book:3 song:2 send:1 messenger:1 dynasty:1 least:1 twice:1 die:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 chronicle:2 time:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 brown:1 delmer:1 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 jien:1 c:1 gukanshō:2 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 imperial:2 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 society:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 sovereign:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 cult:1 |@bigram succession_titsingh:1 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 paucity_information:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 brown_delmer:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
1,968 | Blues | Blues is a music genre based on the use of the blues chord progressions and the blue notes. Though several blues forms exist, the twelve-bar blues chord progressions are the most frequently encountered. Blue notes are sung or played at a slightly lower pitch than that of the major scale for expressive purposes. Blues emerged at the end of the 19th century as an accessible form of self-expression in African-American communities of the United States from spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts and chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads. The use of blue notes and the prominence of call-and-response patterns in the music and lyrics are indicative of African influences. The blues influenced later American and Western popular music, as the blues form became a basic pattern of jazz, rhythm and blues, bluegrass and rock and roll. In the 1960s and 1970s, blues evolved into a hybrid form called blues rock. In the 1990s, punk blues appeared as an outgrowth of the blues rock and punk movements. The term "the blues" refers to the "the blue devils", meaning melancholy and sadness; an early use of the term in this sense is found in George Colman's one-act farce Blue Devils (1798). The "Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé" provides this etymology to the word blues and George Colman's farce as the first appearance of this term in the English language, see http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/fast.exe?mot=blues Though the use of the phrase in African American music may be older, it has been attested to since 1912, when Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" became the first copyrighted Blues composition. Davis, Francis. The History of the Blues. New York: Hyperion, 1995. Eric Partridge, A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, 2002, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0-415-29189-5 In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood. Tony Bolden, Afro-Blue: Improvisations in African American Poetry and Culture, 2004, University of Illinois Press, ISBN 0-252-02874-0 Musical style During the first decades of the twentieth century, blues music was not clearly defined in terms of a chord progression. There were many blues in 8-bar form, such as "How Long Blues", "Trouble in Mind", and Big Bill Broonzy's "Key to the Highway". Idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as with the 9-bar progression in "Sitting on Top of the World". The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a standard harmonic progression of twelve bars in 4/4 or (rarely) 2/4 time. Slow blues are often played in 12/8 (4 beats per measure with 3 subdivisions per beat). By the 1930s, twelve-bar blues became the standard. There would also be 16 bar blues, as in Ray Charles's instrumental "Sweet 16 Bars" and in Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man". The blues chords associated to a twelve-bar blues are typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme: I I or IV I I7 IV IV I I7 V V or IV I I or V where the Roman numbers refer to the degrees of the progression. For example, if played in C, the chords would be as follows: C C or F C C7 F F C C7 G G or F C C or G When the IV chord is played in bar 2, the blues is called a "Quick-Change" blues. In this example, C is the tonic chord, F the subdominant. Much of the time, some or all of these chords are played in the harmonic seventh (7th) form. Frequently, the last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, marking the transition to the beginning of the next progression. In this example, G is the turnaround. The use of the harmonic seventh interval is characteristic of blues and is popularly called the "blues seven" . At a 7:4 ratio, it is not close to any interval on the conventional Western diatonic scale . Through convenience or necessity it is often approximated by a minor seventh interval or a dominant seventh chord. A minor pentatonic scale; The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords. The final beat, however, is almost always strongly grounded in the dominant seventh (V7), to provide tension for the next verse. Sheet music from "St. Louis Blues" (1914) In melody, blues is distinguished by the use of the flattened third, fifth and seventh of the associated major scale. Ewen, pg. 143 These specialized notes are called the blue or bent notes. These scale tones may replace the natural scale tones, or they may be added to the scale, as in the case of the minor pentatonic blues scale, in which the flattened third replaces the natural third, the flattened seventh replaces the natural seventh and the flattened fifth is added between the natural fourth and natural fifth. While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of the flattened third, flattened seventh, and even flattened fifth in the melody, together with crushing—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time (i.e., diminished second)—and sliding, similar to using grace notes. Grace notes were common in the Baroque and Classical periods, but they acted as ornamentation rather than as part of the harmonic structure. For example, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 21 has a flatted fifth in the dominant. In these periods, this was a technique for building tension for resolution into the perfect fifth; in contrast, a blues melody uses the flatted fifth as part of the scale. The blue notes allow for key moments of expression during the cadences, melodies, and embellishments of the blues. Where the three line verses end, for example, there is a falling cadence that approaches just shy of the tonic, combining the falling of a speaking voice with the shape of the blues scale in a unique, expressive way. This melodic fall, placed at the turnaround, is employed most clearly in the modern Chicago blues sound. A similar sound, melisma, occurs in gospel and R&B, but not to the same effect. Whereas a classical musician will generally play a grace note distinctly, a blues singer or harmonica player will glissando, "crushing" the two notes and then releasing the grace note. In blues chord progressions, the tonic, subdominant and dominant chords are often played as harmonic seventh chords. (NB: While the harmonic seventh may be voiced easily on equally tempered instruments like the guitar, it is approximated by means of a minor seventh, which is a third of a semitone higher.) Blues is occasionally played in a minor key, such as in the style of Paul Butterfield. The scale differs little from the traditional minor, except for the occasional use of a flatted fifth in the tonic, often sung or played by the singer or lead instrument with the perfect fifth in the harmony. Janis Joplin's rendition of "Ball and Chain", accompanied by Big Brother and the Holding Company, provides an example of this technique. Minor-key blues is often structured in sixteen bars rather than twelve, in the style of gospel music, as in "St. James Infirmary Blues" and Trixie Smith's "My Man Rocks Me". Blues shuffles reinforce the trance-like rhythm and call-and-response, and they form a repetitive effect called a groove. The simplest shuffles, used in many postwar electric blues, rock and roll, or early bebops, were a three-note riff on the bass strings of the guitar. When this riff was played over the bass and the drums, the groove "feel" is created. The walking bass is another device that helps to create a groove. The last bar of the chord progression is usually accompanied by a turnaround. Shuffle rhythm is often vocalized as "dow, da dow, da dow, da" or "dump, da dump, da dump, da": David Hamburger, Acoustic Guitar Slide Basics, 2001, ISBN 1-890490-38-5. it consists of uneven, or "swung," eighth notes. On a guitar this may be played as a simple steady bass or it may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from the fifth to the sixth of the chord and back. An example is provided by the following guitar tablature for the first four bars of a blues progression in E: Wilbur M. Savidge, Randy L. Vradenburg, Everything About Playing the Blues, 2002, Music Sales Distributed, ISBN 1-884848-09-5, pg. 35 E7 A7 E7 E7 E |--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------| B |--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------| G |--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------| D |--------------------|2--2-4--2-5--2-4--2-|--------------------|--------------------| A |2--2-4--2-5--2-4--2-|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--2-|2--2-4--2-5--2-4--2-|2--2-4--2-5--2-4--2-| E |0--0-0--0-0--0-0--2-|--------------------|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--2-|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--2-| Blues in jazz is much different from blues in other types of music. Jazz blues normally stays on the V chord through bars 9 and 10, emphasizing the dominant-tonic resolution over the subdominant-tonic structure of traditional blues. This final V-I cadence lends itself to many variations, the most basic of which is the ii-V-I progression in bars 9, 10 and 11. From that point, both the dominant approach (ii-V) and the resolution (I) can be altered and "substituted" in a variety of ways, even including abandonment of the I chord altogether (bars 9–12: ii | V | iii, vi | ii, V |). In this case, bars 11 and 12 function as an extended turnaround to the next chorus. Lyrics Robert Johnson, an influential Delta blues musician The traditional blues verse was probably a single line, repeated four times. It was only later that the current, most common structure of a line, repeated once and then followed by a single line conclusion, became standard. Ferris, pg. 230 Two of the first published blues songs, however, Dallas Blues (1912) and St. Louis Blues (1914), each featured lines repeated twice, followed by an "answer" line, played over 12 bars of music. W.C. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times. Father of the Blues: An Autobiography. by W.C. Handy, edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941) page 143. no ISBN in this first printing These lines were often sung following a pattern closer to a rhythmic talk than to a melody. Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative. The singer voiced his or her "personal woes in a world of harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of white folk, [and] hard times." Ewen, pgs. 142–143 Typical authority figures often include train conductor, judge, landlord/lady, captain (boss), and chief of police. Author Ed Morales has claimed that Yoruba mythology played a part in early blues, citing Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues" as a "thinly veiled reference to Eleggua, the orisha in charge of the crossroads". Morales, pg. 277 However, many seminal blues artists such as Charley Patton, or Skip James had in their repertoire several religious songs or spirituals. Reverend Gary Davis and Blind Willie Johnson are examples of artists often categorized as blues musicians for their music but whose lyrics clearly belong to the spirituals. Although the blues gained an association with misery and oppression, the blues could also be humorous and raunchy as well: Komara, pg. 476 "Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me, Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me, It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me." From Big Joe Turner's "Rebecca", a compilation of traditional blues lyrics Hokum blues celebrated both comedic lyrical content and a boisterous, farcical performance style. Tampa Red's classic "Tight Like That" is a sly wordplay with the double meaning of being "tight" with someone coupled with a more salacious physical familiarity. Lyrical content of music became slightly simpler in post war-blues in which focus was often almost exclusively on singer's relationship woes or sexual worries. Many lyrical themes that frequently appeared in pre-war blues such as economic depression, farming, devils, gambling, magic, floods and dry periods were less common post war blues. History Origins The first publication of blues sheet music was Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues" in 1912; W. C. Handy's "Memphis Blues" followed in the same year. The first recording by an African American singer was Mamie Smith's 1920 rendition of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues". But the origins of the blues date back to some decades earlier, probably during the late 19th century. They are very poorly documented, due in part to discrimation within American society, including academic circles, Kunzler, pg. 130 and to the low alphabetization of the rural African American community. Bruce Bastin, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 206 A testimony of blues music as it was before the 1920s is given by the recordings of artists such as Lead Belly or Henry Thomas. They show many different structures distinct of the twelve-, eight-, or sixteen-bar structure based on tonic (I), subdominant (IV) and dominant chords (V), which became later the most common forms. Garofalo, pgs. 46–47 What is now recognizable as the standard 12-bar blues form is documented from oral history and sheet music appearing in African American communities throughout the region along the lower Mississippi River, in Memphis, Tennessee's Beale Street, and by white bands in New Orleans. The social and economic reasons for the appearance of the blues are not fully known. Philip V. Bohlman, "Immigrant, folk, and regional music in the twentieth century", in The Cambridge History of American Music, ed. David Nicholls, 1999, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-45429-8, pg. 285 The first appearance of the blues is not well defined and is often dated after the Emancipation Act in 1863, Kunzler, pg. 130 between 1870 and 1900, a period that coincides with Emancipation and, later, the development of juke joints as places where Blacks went listening to music, dancing and often gambling after a hard day's work, . This period corresponds to the transition from slavery to sharecropping, small-scale agricultural production and the expansion of railroads in the southern United States. Several scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. They argue that the development of the blues is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the enslaved people. According to Lawrence Levine, "there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of Booker T. Washington's teachings, and the rise of the blues." Levine states that "psychologically, socially, and economically, African-Americans were being acculturated in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did." Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom, Oxford University Press, 1977, ISBN 0-19-502374-9, pg. 223 There are few characteristics common to all blues music, because the genre took its shape from the idiosyncrasies of individual performances. Southern, pg. 333 However, there are some characteristics that were present long before the creation of the modern blues. An early form of blues-like music were call-and-response shouts, which were a "functional expression... style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure." Garofalo, pg. 44 A form of this pre-blues was heard in slave ring shouts and field hollers, expanded into "simple solo songs laden with emotional content". Ferris, pg. 229 Blues has evolved from an unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of African-American slaves (imported from West Africa; principally present day Mali, Senegal, the Gambia and Ghana) The rough guide to African Blues CD booklet Blues imported from West-Africa and rural blacks into a wide variety of styles and subgenres, with regional variations across the United States. Though blues, as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European harmonic structure and the African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of voice and guitar, Morales, pg. 276 Morales attributes this claim to John Storm Roberts in Black Music of Two Worlds, beginning his discussion with a quote from Roberts: "There does not seem to be the same African quality in blues forms as there clearly is in much Caribbean music." the blues form itself bears no resemblance to the melodic styles of the West African griots, and the influences are faint and tenuous. Samuel Charters, in Nothing But the Blues, page 25 In particular, no specific African musical form can be identified as the single direct ancestor of the blues. However many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to the music of Africa. The Diddley bow, a homemade one-stringed instrument found in parts of the American South in the early twentieth century, and the banjo are African-derived instruments that may have helped in the transfer of African performance techniques into the early blues instrumental vocabulary. The banjo seems to be directly imported from the western African music. It is analogous to the musical instrument that griots played and which was called halam or konting by African peoples such as the Wolof, Fula and Madinka. Samuel Charters, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 14-15 However in the 1920s, at the time country blues began to get recorded, the use of the banjo in blues music was quite marginal and limited to individuals such as Papa Charlie Jackson and later Gus Cannon. Samuel Charters, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 16 Blues music also adopted elements from the "Ethiopian airs", minstrel shows and Negro spirituals, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment. Garofalo, pg. 44 Gradually, instrumental and harmonic accompaniment were added, reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact. Garofalo cites other authors that also mention the "Ethiopian airs" and "Negro spirituals". The style also was closely related to ragtime, which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved "the original melodic patterns of African music". Schuller, cited in Garofalo, pg. 27 The musical forms and styles that are now considered the "blues" as well as modern "country music" arose in the same regions during the nineteenth century in the southern United States. Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called "race music" and "hillbilly music" to sell music by blacks for blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between "blues" and "country," except for the ethnicity of the performer, and even that was sometimes documented incorrectly by record companies. Garofalo, pgs. 44–47 "As marketing categories, designations like race and hillbilly intentionally separated artists along racial lines and conveyed the impression that their music came from mutually exclusive sources. Nothing could have been further from the truth... In cultural terms, blues and country were more equal than they were separate." Garofalo claims that "artists were sometimes listed in the wrong racial category in record company catalogues." Though musicologists can now attempt to define “the blues” narrowly in terms of certain chord structures and lyric strategies thought to have originated in West Africa, audiences originally heard the music in a far more general way: it was simply the music of the rural south, notably the Mississippi Delta. Black and white musicians shared the same repertoire and thought of themselves as “songsters” rather than “blues musicians.” The notion of blues as a separate genre arose during the black migration from the countryside to urban areas in the 1920s and the simultaneous development of the recording industry. “Blues” became a code word for a record designed to sell to black listeners. The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community, the spirituals. The origins of the religious music of the Afro-Americans are much older than the blues and are usually dated to the mid of the 18th century when the slaves were Christianized and began to sing and play Christian hymns, in particular those of Isaac Watts which were very popular. Mark A. Humphrey in Nothing but the blues, pg. 110 When the blues appeared, before blues gained its formal definition in terms of chord progressions, the blues was defined as the secular counter part of the spirituals. It was the low-down music played by the rural Blacks. Depending on the religious community a musician belonged to, it was more or less considered as a sin to play this low-down music: blues was the devil's music. Musicians were therefore segregated into two categories: gospel and blues singers, guitar preachers and songsters. However, at the time rural Black music began to get recorded in the 1920s, both categories of musicians used very similar techniques: call-and-response patterns, blue notes, slide guitars. Gospel music was nevertheless using music forms compatible with Christian hymns and therefore less marked by the blues form than its secular counter part. Mark A. Humphrey in Nothing but the blues Prewar Blues The American sheet music publishing industry produced a great deal of ragtime music. By 1912, the sheet music industry published three popular blues-like compositions, precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blues elements: "Baby Seals' Blues" by "Baby" F. Seals (arranged by Artie Matthews), "Dallas Blues" by Hart Wand and "The Memphis Blues" by W. C. Handy. Garofalo, pg. 27; Garofalo cites Barlow in "Handy's sudden success demonstrated [the] commercial potential of [the blues], which in turn made the genre attractive to the Tin Pan Alley acks, who wasted little time in turning out a deluge of imitations." (parentheticals in Garofalo) Handy was a formally trained musician, composer and arranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcribing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolific composer, and billed himself as the "Father of the Blues"; however, his compositions can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime; Garofalo, pg. 27 Handy's signature work was the "St. Louis Blues". In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music, reaching white audiences via Handy's arrangements and the classic female blues performers. The blues evolved from informal performances in bars to entertainment in theaters. Blues performances were organized by the Theater Owners Bookers Association in nightclubs such as the Cotton Club and juke joints such as the bars along Beale Street in Memphis. This evolution led to a notable diversification of the styles and to a clearer division between blues and jazz. Several record companies, such as the American Record Corporation, Okeh Records, and Paramount Records, began to record African American music. As the recording industry grew, country blues performers like Bo Carter, Blind Lemon Jefferson, Lonnie Johnson, Tampa Red and Blind Blake became more popular in the African American community. Kentucky-born Sylvester Weaver was in 1923 the first to record the slide guitar style, in which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade or the sawed-off neck of a bottle. The slide guitar became an important part of the Delta blues. Clarke, pg. 138 The first blues recordings from the 1920s are categorized as a traditional, rural country blues and a more polished 'city' or urban blues. Country blues performers often improvised, either without accompaniment or with only a banjo or guitar. Regional styles of country blues varied widely in the early 20th century. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy sparse style with passionate vocals accompanied by slide guitar. The little-recorded Robert Johnson Clarke, pg. 141 combined elements of urban and rural blues. In addition to Robert Johnson, influential performers of this style included his predecessors Charley Patton and Son House. Singers such as Blind Willie McTell and Blind Boy Fuller performed in the southeastern "delicate and lyrical" Piedmont blues tradition, which used an elaborate ragtime-based fingerpicking guitar technique. Georgia also had an early slide tradition Clarke, pg. 139 with George Carter, Curley Weaver, Tampa Red, "Barbecue Bob" Hicks and James "Kokomo" Arnold as representatives of this style. The lively Memphis blues style, which developed in the 1920s and 1930s near Memphis, Tennessee, was influenced by jug bands such as the Memphis Jug Band or the Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers. Performers such as Frank Stokes, Blind Old Tom Anderson, Sleepy John Estes, Robert Wilkins, Big Boy Brazier, Joe McCoy and Memphis Minnie used a variety of unusual instruments such as washboard, fiddle, kazoo or mandolin. Memphis Minnie was famous for her virtuoso guitar style. Pianist Memphis Slim began his career in Memphis, but his distinct style was smoother and had some swing elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late 1930s or early 1940s and became part of the urban blues movement, which blended country music and electric blues. Bessie Smith, an early blues singer, was known for her powerful voice. City or urban blues styles were more codified and elaborate as a performer was no longer within their local, immediate community and had to adapt to a larger, more varied audience's aesthetic. Garofalo, pg. 47 Classic female urban and vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s, among them Mamie Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie Smith, more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the first African-American to record a blues in 1920; her second record, "Crazy Blues", sold 75,000 copies in its first month. Hawkeye Herman, General background on African American Music, Blues Foundation, Essays: What is the blues?http://www.blues.org/blues/essays.php4?Id=3 Ma Rainey, the "Mother of Blues", and Bessie Smith each "[sang] around center tones, perhaps in order to project her voice more easily to the back of a room." Smith would "...sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was unsurpassed." Clarke, pg. 137 Urban male performers included popular black musicians of the era, such Tampa Red, Big Bill Broonzy and Leroy Carr. Before WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as "the Guitar Wizard". Carr accompanied himself on the piano with Scrapper Blackwell on guitar, a format that continued well into the 50s with people such as Charles Brown, and even Nat "King" Cole. A typical boogie-woogie bassline Boogie-woogie was another important style of 1930s and early 1940s urban blues. While the style is often associated with solo piano, boogie-woogie was also used to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos. Boogie-Woogie style was characterized by a regular bass figure, an ostinato or riff and shifts of level in the left hand, elaborating each chord and trills and decorations in the right hand. Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based Jimmy Yancey and the Boogie-Woogie Trio (Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson and Meade Lux Lewis). Chicago boogie-woogie performers included Clarence "Pine Top" Smith and Earl Hines, who "linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand." The smooth Louisiana style of Professor Longhair and, more recently, Dr. John blends classic rhythm and blues with blues styles. Another development in this period was big band blues. The "territory bands" operating out of Kansas City, the Benny Moten orchestra, Jay McShann, and the Count Basie Orchestra were also concentrating on the blues, with 12-bar blues instrumentals such as Basie's "One O'Clock Jump" and "Jumpin' at the Woodside" and boisterous "blues shouting" by Jimmy Rushing on songs like "Going to Chicago" and "Sent for You Yesterday". A well-known big band blues tune is Glenn Miller's "In the Mood". In the 1940s, the jump blues style developed. Jump blues is influenced by big band music and uses saxophone or other brass instruments and the guitar in the rhythm section to create a jazzy, up-tempo sound with declamatory vocals. Jump blues tunes by Louis Jordan and Big Joe Turner, based in Kansas City, Missouri, influenced the development of later styles such as rock and roll and rhythm and blues. Garofalo, pg. 76 Early post-war era Muddy Waters, described as "the guiding light of the modern blues school" Dicaire (1999), p. 79 After World War II and in the 1950s, new styles of electric blues music became popular in cities such as Chicago, Komara, pg. 118 Detroit Herzhaft, pg. 53 and St. Louis. Electric blues used amplified electric guitars, electric bass, drums, and harmonica played through a microphone and a PA system or a guitar amplifier. Chicago became a center for electric blues in the early 1950s. Chicago blues is influenced to a large extent by the Mississippi blues style, because many performers had migrated from the Mississippi region. Howlin' Wolf, Muddy Waters, Willie Dixon, and Jimmy Reed were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicago during the Great Migration. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar, harmonica, and a rhythm section of bass and drums. J. T. Brown who played in Elmore James's bands, or J. B. Lenoir's also used saxophones, but these were used more as "backing" or rhythmic support than as solo instruments. Little Walter and Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller) are well known harmonica (called "harp" by blues musicians) players of the early Chicago blues scene. Other harp players such as Big Walter Horton were also influential. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. B. B. King and Freddie King (no relation), who did not use slide guitar, were influential guitarists of the Electric blues style, even though they weren't from Chicago. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were known for their deep, "gravelly" voices. Bassist and composer Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote many standard blues songs of the period, such as "Hoochie Coochie Man", "I Just Want to Make Love to You" (both penned for Muddy Waters) and, "Wang Dang Doodle" and "Back Door Man" for Howlin' Wolf. Most artists of the Chicago blues style recorded for the Chicago-based Chess Records label. Other prominent blues labels of this era included J.O.B. Records and Vee-Jay Records. In the 1950s, blues had a huge influence on mainstream American popular music. While popular musicians like Bo Diddley Herzhaft, pg. 53 and Chuck Berry Herzhaft, pg. 11 were influenced by the Chicago blues, their enthusiastic playing styles departed from the melancholy aspects of blues. Chicago blues also influenced Louisiana's zydeco music, Herzhaft, pg. 236 with Clifton Chenier Herzhaft, pg. 35 using blues accents. Zydeco musicians used electric solo guitar and cajun arrangements of blues standards. John Lee Hooker created his own blues style and renewed it several times during his long career. Other blues artists, such as T-Bone Walker and John Lee Hooker had influences not directly related to the Chicago style. Dallas-born T-Bone Walker is often associated with the California blues style, Komara, pg. 120 which is smoother than Chicago blues and is a transition between the Chicago blues, the jump blues and swing with some jazz-guitar influence. John Lee Hooker's blues is more "personal", based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his "groovy" style is sometimes called "guitar boogie". His first hit, "Boogie Chillen", reached #1 on the R&B charts in 1949. Lars Bjorn, Before Motown, 2001, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-06765-6, pg. 175 By the late 1950s, the swamp blues genre developed near Baton Rouge, with performers such as Lightnin' Slim, Herzhaft, pg 116 Slim Harpo, Herzhaft, pg. 188 Sam Myers and Jerry McCain. Swamp blues has a slower pace and a simpler use of the harmonica than the Chicago blues style performers such as Little Walter or Muddy Waters. Songs from this genre include "Scratch my Back", "She's Tough" and "I'm a King Bee". 1960s and 1970s By the beginning of the 1960s, genres influenced by African American music such as rock and roll and soul were part of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought African-American music to new audiences, both within the US and abroad. In the UK, bands emulated US blues legends, and UK blues-rock-based bands had an influential role throughout the 1960s. Blues legend B.B. King with his guitar, "Lucille". Blues performers such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such as New York-born Taj Mahal. John Lee Hooker blended his blues style with rock elements and playing with younger white musicians, creating a musical style that can be heard on the 1971 album Endless Boogie. B. B. King's virtuoso guitar technique earned him the eponymous title "king of the blues". In contrast to the Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support from a saxophone, trumpet, and trombone, instead of using slide guitar or harp. Tennessee-born Bobby "Blue" Bland, like B. B. King, also straddled the blues and R&B genres. During this period, Freddie King and Albert King often played with rock and soul musicians (Eric Clapton, Booker T & the MGs)and had a major influence on those styles of music. The music of the Civil Rights Koroma, pg. 122 and Free Speech movements in the US prompted a resurgence of interest in American roots music and early African American music. As well as Jimmi Bass Music festivals such as the Newport Folk Festival Koroma, pg. 388 brought traditional blues to a new audience, which helped to revive interest in prewar acoustic blues and performers such as Son House, Mississippi John Hurt, Skip James, and Reverend Gary Davis. Koroma, pg. 122 Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished by the Yazoo Records. J. B. Lenoir from the Chicago blues movement in the 1950s recorded several LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. His songs commented on political issues such as racism or Vietnam War issues, which was unusual for this period. His Alabama Blues recording had a song that stated: <blockquote> I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x) You know they killed my sister and my brother, and the whole world let them peoples go down there free </blockquote> White audiences' interest in the blues during the 1960s increased due to the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the British blues movement. The style of British blues developed in the UK, when bands such as Fleetwood Mac, John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers, The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and Cream performed classic blues songs from the Delta or Chicago blues traditions. The British blues musicians of the early 1960s inspired a number of American blues rock fusion performers, including Canned Heat, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, The J. Geils Band, Ry Cooder and The Allman Brothers Band. Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs. One blues rock performer, Jimi Hendrix, was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played psychedelic rock. Hendrix was a skilled guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of distortion and feedback in his music. Garofalo, pgs. 224–225 Through these artists and others, blues music influenced the development of rock music. Otis Rush is a major representative of the West Side style. In the late 1960s, the West Side style blues emerged in Chicago with Magic Sam, Magic Slim and Otis Rush. Koroma, pg. 49 West Side style has strong rhythmic support from a rhythm guitar, bass electric guitar, and drums. Albert King, Buddy Guy, and Luther Allison had a West Side style that was dominated by amplified electric lead guitar. Since the early 1970s, The Texas rock-blues style emerged which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. In contrast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Major artists of the Texas style are Johnny Winter, Stevie Ray Vaughan, The Fabulous Thunderbirds, and ZZ Top. These artists all began their musical journey in the 1970s, but they did not achieve major international success until the next decade. Koroma, pg. 50 1980s to the 2000s Since the 1980s, there has been a resurgence of interest in the blues among a certain part of the African-American population, particularly around Jackson, Mississippi and other deep South regions. Often termed "soul blues" or "Southern soul", the music at the heart of this movement was given new life by the unexpected success of two particular recordings on the Jackson-based Malaco label: Z. Z. Hill's Down Home Blues (1982) and Little Milton's The Blues is Alright (1984). Contemporary African-American performers who work this vein of the blues include Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle, Sir Charles Jones, Bettye LaVette, Marvin Sease and Peggy Scott-Adams. Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan During the 1980s, blues also continued in both traditional and new forms. In 1986, the album Strong Persuader revealed Robert Cray as a major blues artist. The first Stevie Ray Vaughan recording, Texas Flood, was released in 1983, and the Texas-based guitarist exploded onto the international stage. 1989 saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's popularity with the album The Healer. Eric Clapton, known for his performances with the Blues Breakers and Cream, made a comeback in the 1990s with his album Unplugged, in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. However, the technological progresses which appeared in the 1990s in the domain of digital multitrack recording, and the evolution of the marketing strategies, which now include the production of video clips, have led to an increase of the costs of production and also to some loss of the spontaneity and improvisation which always have been an important component of blues music. Mary Katherine Aldin, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 130 In the 1980s and 1990s, blues publications such as Living Blues and Blues Revue began to be distributed, major cities began forming blues societies, outdoor blues festivals became more common, and A directory of the most significant blues festivals can be found at http://blues.about.com/od/bluesfestivals/ more nightclubs and venues for blues emerged. A list of important blues venues in the U.S. can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/venues/ In the 1990s, blues performers explored a range of musical genres, as can be seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards, previously named W. C. Handy Awards or of the Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary and Traditional Blues Album. Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several blues labels such as: Alligator Records, Ruf Records, Chess Records (MCA), Delmark Records, NorthernBlues Music, and Vanguard Records (Artemis Records). Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of blues rarities such as Arhoolie Records, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (heir of Folkways Records) and Yazoo Records (Shanachie Records). A complete directory of contemporary blues labels can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/recordlabels/ Young blues artists today are exploring all aspects of the blues, from classic delta to more rock-oriented blues, artists born after 1970 such as John Mayer, Sean Costello, Shannon Curfman, Anthony Gomes, Shemekia Copeland, Jonny Lang, Corey Harris, Susan Tedeschi, Joe Bonamassa, Michelle Malone,The White Stripes, North Mississippi Allstars, Gracie B, Everlast, The Black Keys, Bob Log III, Jose P and Hillstomp developing their own styles. Blues Babies.741.com Memphis, Texas-based William Daniel McFalls, also known as "Blues Boy Willie" is a performer of traditional blues. Musical impact Blues musical styles, forms (12-bar blues), melodies, and the blues scale have influenced many other genres of music, such as rock and roll, jazz, and popular music. Prominent jazz, folk or rock performers, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan and the White Stripes have performed significant blues recordings. The blues scale is often used in popular songs like Harold Arlen's "Blues in the Night", blues ballads like "Since I Fell for You" and "Please Send Me Someone to Love", and even in orchestral works such as George Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" and "Concerto in F". Gershwin's second "Prelude" for solo piano is an interesting example of a classical blues, maintaining the form with academic strictness. The blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs many modal frames, especially the ladder of thirds used in rock music (e.g., in "A Hard Day's Night"). Blues forms are used in the theme to the televised Batman, teen idol Fabian's hit, "Turn Me Loose", country music star Jimmie Rodgers' music, and guitarist/vocalist Tracy Chapman's hit "Give Me One Reason". R&B music can be traced back to spirituals and blues. Musically, spirituals were a descendant of New England choral traditions, and in particular of Isaac Watts's hymns, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the African-American community are much better documented than the "low-down" blues. Spiritual singing developed because African-American communities could gather for mass or worship gatherings, which were called camp meetings. Early country bluesmen such as Skip James, Charley Patton, Georgia Tom Dorsey played country and urban blues and had influences from spiritual singing. Dorsey helped to popularize Gospel music. Gospel music developed in the 1930s, with the Golden Gate Quartet. In the 1950s, soul music by Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and James Brown used gospel and blues music elements. In the 1960s and 1970s, gospel and blues were these merged in soul blues music. Funk music of the 1970s was influenced by soul; funk can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and contemporary R&B. Duke Ellington straddled the big band and bebop genres. Though Ellington was a jazz artist, he used the blues form extensively. Before World War II, the boundaries between blues and jazz were less clear. Usually jazz had harmonic structures stemming from brass bands, whereas blues had blues forms such as the 12-bar blues. However, the jump blues of the 1940s mixed both styles. After WWII, blues had a substantial influence on jazz. Bebop classics, such as Charlie Parker's "Now's the Time", used the blues form with the pentatonic scale and blue notes. Bebop marked a major shift in the role of jazz, from a popular style of music for dancing, to a "high-art," less-accessible, cerebral "musician's music". The audience for both blues and jazz split, and the border between blues and jazz became more defined. Artists straddling the boundary between jazz and blues are categorized into the jazz blues sub-genre. The blues' twelve-bar structure and the blues scale was a major influence on rock and roll music. Rock and roll has been called "blues with a back beat"; Carl Perkins called rockabilly "blues with a country beat". Rockabillies were also said to be twelve-bar blues played with a bluegrass beat. "Hound Dog", with its unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant), is a blues song transformed into a rock and roll song. Jerry Lee Lewis's style of rock and roll was heavily influenced by the blues and its derivative boogie woogie. His style of music was not exactly rockabilly but it has been often called real rock and roll (this is a label he shares with several African American rock and roll performers). Early country music was infused with the blues. Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Bob Wills, Bill Monroe and Hank Williams have all described themselves as blues singers and their music has a blues feel that is different to the country pop of Eddy Arnold. A lot of the 1970s-era "outlaw" country music by Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings also borrowed from the blues. When Jerry Lee Lewis returned to country after the decline of 1950s style rock and roll, he sang his country with a blues feel and often included blues standards on his albums. Many early rock and roll songs are based on blues: "That's All Right Mama", "Johnny B. Goode", "Blue Suede Shoes", "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On", "Shake, Rattle, and Roll", and "Long Tall Sally". The early African American rock musicians retained the sexual themes and innuendos of blues music: "Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do" ("Tutti Frutti", Little Richard) or "See the girl with the red dress on, She can do the Birdland all night long" ("What'd I Say", Ray Charles). In popular culture The music of Taj Mahal for the 1972 movie Sounder marked a revival of interest in acoustic blues. Like jazz, rock and roll, heavy metal music, hip hop music, reggae, country music, and pop music, blues has been accused of being the "devil's music" and of inciting violence and other poor behavior. SFGate In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s. In the early twentieth century, W.C. Handy was the first to popularize blues-influenced music among non-black Americans. During the blues revival of the 1960s and '70s, acoustic blues artist Taj Mahal and legendary Texas bluesman Lightnin' Hopkins wrote and performed music that figured prominently in the popularly and critically acclaimed film Sounder (1972). The film earned Mahal a Grammy nomination for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture and a BAFTA nomination. "Sounder"Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 11-02-2007. Almost 30 years later, Mahal wrote blues for, and performed a banjo composition, claw-hammer style, in the 2001 movie release "Songcatcher," which focused on the story of the preservation of the roots music of Appalachia. In 2003, Martin Scorsese made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience. He asked several famous directors such as Clint Eastwood and Wim Wenders to participate in a series of documentary films for PBS called The Blues. He also participated in the rendition of compilations of major blues artists in a series of high-quality cats in the cradle blues guitarist and vocalist Keb' Mo' performed his blues rendition of "America, the Beautiful" in 2006 to close out the final season of the television series "The West Wing." See also African American culture All Music Guide to the Blues Blues Hall of Fame Blues in New Zealand Blues dance Blues musicians, List of Blues standards, List of British blues musicians, List of Canadian blues Mississippi Blues Trail List of train songs 20th century music Notes References Bransford, Steve. "Blues in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley" Southern Spaces 2004 Further reading Brown, Luther. "Inside Poor Monkey's" Southern Spaces June 22 2006. External links The Blues Radio Series Extensive Blues Related Links The Blue Shoe Project - Nationwide (U.S.) Blues Education Programming "The Blues", documentary series by Martin Scorsese, aired on PBS The Blues Foundation The Memphis Blues Society The Delta Blues Museum Mississippi Delta Blues Society of Indianola The Music in Poetry — Smithsonian Institution lesson plan on the blues, for teachers BLUES WORLD publishes articles, interviews, scholarly research and photographs. 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1,969 | Gambling | Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, c. 1594. Gambling is the wagering of money or something of material value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning additional money and/or material goods. Typically, the outcome of the wager is evident within a short period. The term gaming United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information: Definition as Gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. The two words are not mutually exclusive; i.e., a “gaming” company offers (legal) “gambling” activities to the public. Gambling Law US This distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, however. For instance, in the UK, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission (not the Gaming Commission). UK Gambling Commission Legal aspects Both the Catholic and Jewish traditions traditionally set aside days for gambling, although religious authorities generally disapprove of gambling to some extent. Gambling can have adverse social consequences. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling. Some Islamic nations prohibit gambling; most other countries regulate it. International Association of Gaming Regulators: Members Many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban or heavily control (by licensing) gambling. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling. In other terms gambling can be performed through materials which are given a value but isn’t real money. The involvement of governments, through regulation and taxation, has led to a close connection between many governments and gaming organizations, where legal gambling provides significant government revenue, such as in Monaco or Macau. Under US federal law, gambling is legal in the United States, and states are free to regulate or prohibit the practice. Gambling has been legal in Nevada since 1931, forming the backbone of the state's economy, and the city of Las Vegas is perhaps the best known gambling destination in the world. In 1976, gambling was legalized in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and in 1990, it was legalized in Tunica, Mississippi; both of those cities have developed extensive casino and resort areas since then. Since a favorable U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1987, many Native American tribes have built their own casinos on tribal lands as a way to provide revenue for the tribe. Because the tribes are considered sovereign nations, they are often exempt from state laws restricting gambling, and are instead regulated under federal law. Additionally, almost all states have legalized gambling in the form of a state-run lottery. Because contracts of insurance have many features in common with wagers, insurance contracts are often distinguished under law as agreements in which either party has an interest in the "bet-upon" outcome beyond the specific financial terms. E.g.: a “bet” with an insurer on whether one's house will burn down is not gambling, but rather insurance — as the homeowner has an obvious interest in the continued existence of his/her home independent of the purely financial aspects of the "bet" (i.e., the insurance policy). Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. There is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a house bias can quite easily be missed unless checking the odds carefully. Nevada State Gaming Control Board: Technical Standards (Adopted) Gambling variables There are three variables common to all forms of gambling: The amount to be wagered. The predictability of the event. The odds agreed between the two (or more) parties to the wager; where there is a house or a bookmaker, the odds are (quite legally) arranged in favor of the house. The predictability varies greatly across different types of gambling: In mechanical or electronic gambling such as lotteries, slot machines and bingo, the results are random and unpredictable; no amount of skill or knowledge (assuming machinery is functioning as intended) can give an advantage in predictability to anyone. Card games played against the house (such as blackjack) are mostly random, but skilled players can count cards to improve their chances of winning. Card games played against other players (such as poker) have significant elements of both luck and skill, and skilled players can win substantially more often than average players. In sports betting, such as on horse racing or soccer matches, there is some predictability to the outcome; thus a person with greater knowledge and/or skill will have an advantage over others. The expected value, positive or negative, is a mathematical calculation using these three variables. The amount wagered determines the scale of an individual wager (bet); the odds and the amount wagered determine the payout if successful; the predictability determines the frequency of success. Finally the frequency of success times the payout minus the amount wagered equals the "expected value" The skill of a gambler lies in understanding and maneuvering the three variables so that the "actual value" is positive over a series of wagers. Types of gambling Casino games While almost any game can be played for money, and any game typically played for money can also be played just for fun, some games are generally offered in a casino setting. Table games The Caesars Palace main fountain. The statue is a copy of the ancient Winged Victory of Samothrace. A pachinko parlor in Tokyo, Japan Electronic gaming Pachinko Slot machine Video poker Other gambling Bingo Keno Non-casino gambling games Mahjong tiles. Gambling games that take place outside of casinos include Bingo (as played in the US and UK), dead pool, lotteries, pull-tab games and scratchcards, and Mahjong. Other non-casino gambling games include: Card games, such as Liar's poker, Bridge, Basset, Lansquenet, Piquet, Put, Teen patti Carnival Games such as The Razzle or Hanky Pank Coin-tossing games such as Head and Tail, Two-up* Confidence tricks such as Three-card Monte or the Shell game Dice-based games, such as Backgammon, Liar's dice, Passe-dix, Hazard, Threes, Pig, or Mexico *Although coin tossing isn't usually played in a casino, it has been known to be an official gambling game in some Australian casinos Sky City - SkyCity Casino - Table Games - Two Up Fixed-odds gambling Fixed-odds gambling and Parimutuel betting frequently occur at many types of sporting events, and political elections. In addition many bookmakers offer fixed odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes, for example the direction and extent of movement of various financial indices, the winner of television competitions such as Big Brother, and election results. ABC.net: US election betting backs Bush Interactive prediction markets also offer trading on these outcomes, with "shares" of results trading on an open market. Parimutuel betting Tokyo Racecourse in Tokyo, Japan. One of the most widespread forms of gambling involves betting on horse or greyhound racing. Wagering may take place through parimutuel pools, or bookmakers may take bets personally. Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at the median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started. Sports betting Betting on team sports has become an important service industry in many countries. For example, millions of Britons play the football pools every week. In addition to organized sports betting, both legal and illegal, there are many side-betting games played by casual groups of spectators, such as NCAA Basketball Tournament Bracket Pools, Super Bowl Squares, Fantasy Sports Leagues with monetary entry fees and winnings, and in-person spectator games like Moundball. Arbitrage betting Arbitrage betting is a theoretically risk-free betting system in which every outcome of an event is bet upon so that a known profit will be made by the bettor upon completion of the event, regardless of the outcome. Arbitrage betting is a combination of the ancient art of arbitrage trading and gambling, which has been made possible by the large numbers of bookmakers in the marketplace, creating occasional opportunities for arbitrage. Other types of betting One can also bet with another person that a statement is true or false, or that a specified event will happen (a "back bet") or will not happen (a "lay bet") within a specified time. This occurs in particular when two people have opposing but strongly-held views on truth or events. Not only do the parties hope to gain from the bet, they place the bet also to demonstrate their certainty about the issue. Some means of determining the issue at stake must exist. Sometimes the amount bet remains nominal, demonstrating the outcome as one of principle rather than of financial importance. Betting exchanges allow consumers to both back and lay at odds of their choice. Similar in some ways to a stock exchange, a better may want to back a horse (hoping it will win) or lay a horse (hoping it will lose, effectively acting as bookmaker) Staking systems Many betting systems have been created in an attempt to "beat the bookie" but most still accept that no system can make an unprofitable bet profitable over time. Widely-used systems include: Card counting - Many systems exist for Blackjack to keep track of the ratio of ten values to all others; when this ratio is high the player has an advantage and should increase the amount of their bets. Keeping track of cards dealt confers an advantage in other games as well. Due-column betting – A variation on fixed profits betting in which the bettor sets a target profit and then calculates a bet size that will make this profit, adding any losses to the target. Fixed profits – the stakes vary based on the odds to ensure the same profit from each winning selection. Fixed stakes – a traditional system of staking the same amount on each selection. Kelly – the optimum level to bet to maximize your future median bank level. Martingale – A system based on staking enough each time to recover losses from previous bet(s) until one wins. Pot odds vs. true odds - In poker, the ratio of the size of the current pot to the bet a player is considering is called "pot odds", which can be compared to the "true odds" of a player completing a winning hand from the cards remaining to be dealt to determine whether to make the bet. Other uses of the term "gambling" Many risk-return choices are sometimes referred to colloquially as "gambling." Whether this terminology is acceptable is a matter of debate, but generally the following activities are not considered gambling: Emotional or physical risk-taking, where the risk-return ratio is not quantifiable (e.g., skydiving, campaigning for political office, asking someone for a date, etc.) Insurance is a method of shifting risk from one party to another. Insurers use actuarial methods to calculate appropriate premiums, which could be considered similar to calculating gambling odds. However, insurers can set their premiums to obtain a long term positive expected return. Situations where the possible return is a secondary reason for the wager/purchase (e.g. buying a raffle ticket to support a charitable cause) Investments are also usually not considered gambling, although some investments can involve significant risk. Examples of investments include stocks, bonds and real estate. Starting a business can also be considered a form of investment. Investments are generally not considered gambling when they meet the following criteria: Economic utility Positive expected returns (at least in the long term) Underlying value independent of the risk being undertaken Some speculative investment activities are particularly risky, but are still usually considered separately from gambling: Foreign currency exchange (forex) transactions Prediction markets Securities derivatives, such as options or futures, where the value of the derivative is dependent on the value of the underlying asset at a specific point in time (typically the derivative's associated expiration date) Psychological aspects Studies show that though many people participate in gambling as a form of recreation or even as a means to gain an income, gambling, like any behavior which involves variation in brain chemistry, can become a psychologically addictive and harmful behavior in some people. Reinforcement schedules may also make gamblers persist in gambling even after repeated losses. The Russian writer Dostoevsky (himself a problem gambler) portrays in his novella The Gambler the psychological implications of gambling and how gambling can affect gamblers. He also associates gambling and the idea of "getting rich quick", suggesting that Russians may have a particular affinity for gambling. Dostoevsky shows the effect of betting money for the chance of gaining more in 19th-century Europe. The association between Russians and gambling has fed legends of the origins of Russian roulette. By country Gambling in Japan Gambling in Macau Gambling in South Africa Gambling in the United Kingdom Gambling in the United States See also Casino Comps (casino) Gambler's conceit Gambler's fallacy Gambler's ruin Gaming mathematics Mobile gambling Online gambling References External links Gaming Studies Research Center - at University of Nevada, Las Vegas Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming at the University of Nevada, Reno | Gambling |@lemmatized caravaggio:1 cardsharp:1 c:1 gambling:22 wagering:3 money:6 something:1 material:3 value:9 event:7 uncertain:1 outcome:9 primary:1 intent:1 win:6 additional:1 good:2 typically:5 wager:11 evident:1 within:2 short:1 period:1 term:6 gaming:5 united:4 kingdom:2 office:2 public:2 sector:1 information:1 definition:1 context:1 refer:2 instance:2 activity:5 specifically:1 permit:1 law:6 two:5 word:1 mutually:1 exclusive:1 e:5 company:1 offer:6 legal:8 gamble:39 u:5 distinction:1 universally:1 observe:1 english:1 speaking:1 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1,970 | Anadyr_River | Anadyr () is a river in the extreme northeast of Siberia, Russian Federation. The river rises in the Anadyr Range, about 67°N latitude and 173°E longitude, flows through Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, at first southwest and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr of the Bering Sea after a course of about 800 kilometres (500 mi). The river's source location (67 deg. N. lat. and 173 deg. E. long.), the description of the river's course ("first south-west and then east") and the river's length ("a course of about 500 miles.") are from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. The main tributaries from the right are the Yablon, the Eropol and the Maine; from the left are the Chineyveem, the White and the Tanyurer. At the mouth of the river is the Anadyrskiy Liman which is fed by the Anadyr, the Kanchalan, and the Velikaya rivers. History On a walrus hunting expedition in 1648 Semyon Dezhnev reached the mouth of the Anadyr. From the liman, Dezhnev went up the river and founded Anadyrskiy ostrog (fort). In the 18th century, the Anadyr was described by the polar explorer Dmitry Laptev. Ecology The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by tundra, with a rich variety of plant life. The area, which is still sparsely populated today, was described as "thinly populated" by the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition in 1911. Much of the region has beautiful landscapes, dominated by often spectacular, rugged mountains. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. Reindeer, upon which the local inhabitants subsisted, were once found in considerable numbers, This point was made in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition: "Reindeer, upon which the inhabitants subsist, are found in considerable numbers." but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in 1992. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild caribou have increased. There are ten species of salmon inhabiting the Anadyr river basin. Every year, on the last Sunday in April, there is an ice fishing competition in the frozen estuarine waters of the Anadyr River's mouth. This festival is locally known as Korfest. The area is a summering place for a number of migratory birds including Brent geese, Eurasian Wigeons, and the pintails of California. Henny, Charles J. (January 1973) "Drought Displaced Movement of North American Pintails into Siberia" The Journal of Wildlife Management 37(1): pp. 23-29 doi:10.2307/3799734 "Biologist's Journal 2001" Western Ecological Research Center, United States Geological Survey See also Operation Anadyr References and Notes Further reading Stephan, John Jason (1994). The Russian Far East: A History. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, ISBN 0-8047-2311-7. External links "Tourist and environmental information" Chukotka Autonomous Okrug website, in English "Russia Far East: Anadyr River" Wild Salmon Center Anadyr River Watershed "Snezhnoye: a village on the Anadyr' River" | Anadyr_River |@lemmatized anadyr:12 river:14 extreme:1 northeast:1 siberia:2 russian:2 federation:1 rise:1 range:1 n:2 latitude:1 e:2 longitude:1 flow:1 chukotka:2 autonomous:2 okrug:2 first:2 southwest:1 east:4 enter:1 gulf:1 bering:1 sea:1 course:3 kilometre:1 mi:1 source:1 location:1 deg:2 lat:1 long:1 description:1 south:1 west:1 length:1 mile:1 encyclopædia:3 britannica:3 eleventh:3 edition:3 main:1 tributary:1 right:1 yablon:1 eropol:1 maine:1 left:1 chineyveem:1 white:1 tanyurer:1 mouth:3 anadyrskiy:2 liman:2 feed:1 kanchalan:1 velikaya:1 history:2 walrus:1 hunt:1 expedition:1 semyon:1 dezhnev:2 reach:1 go:1 found:1 ostrog:1 fort:1 century:1 describe:2 polar:1 explorer:1 dmitry:1 laptev:1 ecology:1 country:1 pass:1 thinly:2 populate:2 dominate:2 tundra:1 rich:1 variety:1 plant:1 life:1 area:2 still:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 today:1 much:1 region:1 beautiful:1 landscape:1 often:1 spectacular:1 rugged:1 mountain:1 nine:1 month:1 year:2 ground:1 cover:1 snow:1 frozen:2 become:1 navigable:1 road:1 reindeer:4 upon:2 local:1 inhabitant:2 subsist:2 find:2 considerable:2 number:3 point:1 make:1 domestic:2 population:1 collapse:1 dramatically:1 since:1 reorganization:1 privatization:1 state:2 run:1 collective:1 farm:1 begin:1 herd:2 decline:1 wild:2 caribou:1 increase:1 ten:1 specie:1 salmon:2 inhabit:1 basin:1 every:1 last:1 sunday:1 april:1 ice:1 fish:1 competition:1 estuarine:1 water:1 festival:1 locally:1 know:1 korfest:1 summering:1 place:1 migratory:1 bird:1 include:1 brent:1 goose:1 eurasian:1 wigeon:1 pintail:2 california:1 henny:1 charles:1 j:1 january:1 drought:1 displace:1 movement:1 north:1 american:1 journal:2 wildlife:1 management:1 pp:1 doi:1 biologist:1 western:1 ecological:1 research:1 center:2 united:1 geological:1 survey:1 see:1 also:1 operation:1 reference:1 note:1 far:3 reading:1 stephan:1 john:1 jason:1 stanford:2 university:1 press:1 ca:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 tourist:1 environmental:1 information:1 website:1 english:1 russia:1 watershed:1 snezhnoye:1 village:1 |@bigram anadyr_river:6 autonomous_okrug:2 kilometre_mi:1 encyclopædia_britannica:3 britannica_eleventh:3 sparsely_populated:1 migratory_bird:1 geological_survey:1 external_link:1 |
1,971 | Foreign_relations_of_Brazil | The Ministry of External Relations is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Brazil. Brazil is a significant political and economic power in Latin America and a key player on the world stage Country Profile: Brazil UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved on 2009-01-05. . Brazil's foreign policy reflects its role as an emerging world power and is designed to help protect the country's national interests, national security, ideological goals, and economic prosperity. Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. Brazilian foreign policy has recently aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States, and act at times as a countervailing force to U.S. political and economic influence in Latin America. Foreign policy Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh receiving state honors during his visit to Brazil in 2006 Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power. U.S. Congressional Report on Brazil Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries. Georges D. Landau, "The Decision-making Process in Foreign Policy: The Case of Brazil," Center for Strategic and International Studies: Washington DC: March 2003 Brazil engages in multilateral diplomacy through the Organization of American States and the United Nations, and has increased ties with developing countries in Africa and Asia. Brazil is currently commanding a multinational U.N. stabilization force in Haiti, the MINUSTAH. Instead of pursuing unilateral prerogatives, Brazilian foreign policy has tended to emphasize regional integration, first through the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosul) and now the Union of South American Nations. Brazil's political, business, and military ventures are complemented by the country's trade policy. In Brazil, the Ministry of Foreign Relations continues to dominate trade policy, causing the country's commercial interests to be (at times) subsumed by a larger foreign policy goal, namely, enhancing Brazil's influence in Latin America and the world. CRS Report RL33258, Brazilian Trade Policy and the United States, by J.F. Hornbeck For example, while concluding meaningful trade agreements with developed countries (such as the United States and the European Union) would probably be beneficial to Brazil's long-term economic self-interest, the Brazilian government has instead prioritized its leadership role within Mercosul and expanded trade ties with countries in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. Diplomatic relations Brazilian diplomatic missions overseas Brazil has a large global network of diplomatic missions, and maintains diplomatic relations with every United Nations member, with the exception of: In addition to that, Brazil does not recognize the Republic of China (Taiwan), but maintains a special office in Taipei. Brazil does not recognize Kosovo as an independent state and has no plans to do so without an agreement with Serbia. Brasil não reconhece Kosovo sem acordo com Sérvia Relations with the United States Relations between the United States and Brazil are characterized as fairly warm and friendly. The United States has increasingly regarded Brazil as a significant power, especially in its role as a stabilizing force and a skillful interlocutor in Latin America. U.S. officials tend to describe Brazil, like Chile, as a friendly country that shares the U.S. commitment to democratic practices and prudent macroeconomic policies. Although they share common goals for regional stability, Brazil's independent approach to foreign policy has led to periodic disputes with the United States on trade and political issues, including Brazil's vocal opposition to the war in Iraq. Despite these disagreements, Brazil and the United States have worked closely on a wide range of bilateral and regional issues. In addition to trade matters, these issues include counter-narcotics and terrorism, energy security, human rights protection, environmental issues and HIV/AIDS. Brazilian and U.S. officials recently signed an agreement on ethanol and technology development. United Nations politics Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in many of its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former Belgian Congo, Cyprus, Mozambique, Angola, and more recently East Timor and Haiti. Brazil has been a member of the UN Security Council nine times, most recently 2004-2005. Brazil is currently seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the G4, an organization of Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, all nations who are currently seeking permanent representation. According to their plan the UN Security Council would be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty-five members. This would be the first time that permanent status has been extended to a South American nation and supporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major participants. International issues Two short sections of the border with Uruguay are in dispute - the Arroio Invernada area of the Quaraí River, and the Brazilian Island at the confluence of the Quaraí River and the Uruguay River Borders and Limits of Brazil: Ilha Brasileira . Brazil declared in 1986 the sector between 28°W to 53°W Brazilian Antarctica (Antártica Brasileira) as its Zone of Interest. It overlaps Argentine and British claims .Brazilian Antarctica In 2004, the country submitted its claims to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) to extend its maritime continental margin UN Continental Shelf and UNCLOS Article 76: Brazilian Submission . Foreign aid Brazil provides foreign aid to various countries in Africa and Latin America through the Brazilian Agency of Cooperation (Abbreviation: ABC; ), in addition to offering scientific, economical, and technical support to programs in various countries. Participation in international organizations ACS • ACTO • AfDB • BIS • CAN • CDB • CPLP • FAO • G4 • G4 bloc • G8+5 • G15 • G20 • G20+ • G24 • G77 • IADB • IDB • IAEA • IBRD • IBSA •ICAO • ICC • ICRM • IDA • IFAD • IFC • IFRCS • IHO • ILO • IMF • IMO • Inmarsat • Intelsat • Interpol • IOC • IOM • ISO • ITU • LAES • LAIA • Latin Union • Mercosur • MINUSTAH • NAM • NSG • OAS • OEI • OPANAL • OPCW • PCA • Rio Group • Rio Treaty • UN • UNASUR • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UNHCR • UNIDO • UNITAR • UNMIL • UNMIS • UNMOVIC • UNOCI • UNTAET • UNWTO • UPU • WCO • WHO • WIPO • WMO • WTO • ZPCAS See also Brazil and the United Nations Brazil and weapons of mass destruction Brazilian Antarctica Brazilian diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Brazil Mercosul Ministry of Foreign Relations of Brazil Union of South American Nations Relations with specific foreign nations: Angola: Angola–Brazil relations Argentina: Argentina–Brazil relations Canada: Brazil–Canada relations Chile: Brazil–Chile relations Cuba: Brazilian–Cuban relations Czech Republic: Brazilian-Czech relations Finland: Brazil–Finland relations France: Brazil–France relations Greece: Greco-Brazilian relations Guyana: Brazil–Guyana relations India: Brazil–India relations Iraq: Brazil–Iraq relations Jamaica: Jamaica–Brazil relations Japan: Brazil–Japan relations Malaysia: Malaysia-Brazil relations Mexico: Brazil–Mexico relations Nigeria: Brazil–Nigeria relations Pakistan: Brazil–Pakistan relations Russia: Brazil–Russia relations Serbia: Brazil-Serbia relations South Africa: Brazil–South Africa relations United States: Brazil – United States relations Uruguay: Brazil–Uruguay relations References External links Ministério das Relações Exteriores - Official website of the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Relations Ministério das Relações Exteriores - Official website of the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Relations Brazilian Mission to the United Nations - Official website Agência Brasileira de Cooperação - Official website of the Brazilian Agency of Cooperation | Foreign_relations_of_Brazil |@lemmatized ministry:5 external:2 relation:34 responsible:1 manage:1 foreign:19 brazil:55 significant:2 political:4 economic:4 power:5 latin:7 america:6 key:1 player:1 world:6 stage:1 country:15 profile:1 uk:1 commonwealth:1 office:2 retrieve:1 policy:15 reflect:1 role:3 emerge:2 design:1 help:1 protect:1 national:2 interest:4 security:5 ideological:1 goal:3 prosperity:1 war:2 ii:1 democratic:2 military:2 government:2 seek:3 expand:3 influence:3 pursue:2 state:14 lead:3 industrial:1 independent:3 brazilian:21 recently:4 aim:1 strengthen:1 tie:3 south:6 american:6 engage:2 multilateral:2 diplomacy:2 united:18 nation:15 organization:4 act:1 time:4 countervail:1 force:3 u:6 prime:1 minister:1 india:4 manmohan:1 singh:1 receive:1 honor:1 visit:1 product:1 unique:1 position:1 regional:4 leader:1 among:1 develop:3 congressional:1 report:2 generally:1 base:1 principle:1 multilateralism:1 peaceful:1 dispute:3 settlement:1 non:1 intervention:1 affair:1 george:1 landau:1 decision:1 make:1 process:1 case:1 center:1 strategic:1 international:3 study:1 washington:1 dc:1 march:1 increase:1 africa:5 asia:2 currently:3 command:1 multinational:1 n:1 stabilization:1 haiti:2 minustah:2 instead:2 unilateral:1 prerogative:1 tend:2 emphasize:1 integration:1 first:2 southern:1 cone:1 common:2 market:1 mercosul:3 union:4 business:1 venture:1 complement:1 trade:7 continue:1 dominate:1 cause:1 commercial:1 subsume:1 large:2 namely:1 enhance:1 crs:1 j:1 f:1 hornbeck:1 example:1 conclude:1 meaningful:1 agreement:3 developed:1 european:1 would:3 probably:1 beneficial:1 long:1 term:1 self:1 prioritize:1 leadership:1 within:1 middle:2 east:3 diplomatic:6 mission:5 overseas:1 global:1 network:1 maintain:2 every:1 member:6 exception:1 addition:3 recognize:2 republic:2 china:1 taiwan:1 special:1 taipei:1 kosovo:2 plan:3 without:1 serbia:3 brasil:1 não:1 reconhece:1 sem:1 acordo:1 com:1 sérvia:1 characterize:1 fairly:1 warm:1 friendly:2 increasingly:1 regard:1 especially:1 stabilize:1 skillful:1 interlocutor:1 official:6 describe:1 like:1 chile:3 share:2 commitment:1 practice:1 prudent:1 macroeconomic:1 although:1 stability:1 approach:1 periodic:1 issue:5 include:3 vocal:1 opposition:1 iraq:3 despite:1 disagreement:1 work:1 closely:1 wide:1 range:1 bilateral:1 matter:1 counter:1 narcotic:1 terrorism:1 energy:1 human:1 right:1 protection:1 environmental:1 hiv:1 aid:3 sign:1 ethanol:1 technology:1 development:1 politics:1 charter:1 participates:1 many:1 specialized:1 agency:3 contribute:1 troop:1 un:5 peacekeeping:1 effort:1 former:1 belgian:1 congo:1 cyprus:1 mozambique:1 angola:3 timor:1 council:3 nine:1 permanent:3 seat:1 germany:1 japan:3 representation:2 accord:1 beyond:1 current:2 fifteen:1 twenty:1 five:1 status:1 extend:2 supporter:1 suggest:1 great:1 rather:1 major:1 participant:1 two:1 short:1 section:1 border:2 uruguay:4 arroio:1 invernada:1 area:1 quaraí:2 river:3 island:1 confluence:1 limit:2 ilha:1 brasileira:3 declare:1 sector:1 w:2 antarctica:3 antártica:1 zone:1 overlap:1 argentine:1 british:1 claim:2 submit:1 commission:1 continental:3 shelf:2 clcs:1 maritime:1 margin:1 unclos:1 article:1 submission:1 provide:1 various:2 cooperation:2 abbreviation:1 abc:1 offer:1 scientific:1 economical:1 technical:1 support:1 program:1 participation:1 acs:1 acto:1 afdb:1 bi:1 cdb:1 cplp:1 fao:1 bloc:1 iadb:1 idb:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 ibsa:1 icao:1 icc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 iho:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 laes:1 laia:1 mercosur:1 nam:1 nsg:1 oas:1 oei:1 opanal:1 opcw:1 pca:1 rio:2 group:1 treaty:1 unasur:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 unitar:1 unmil:1 unmis:1 unmovic:1 unoci:1 untaet:1 unwto:1 upu:1 wco:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wto:1 zpcas:1 see:1 also:1 weapon:1 mass:1 destruction:1 list:1 specific:1 argentina:2 canada:2 cuba:1 cuban:1 czech:2 finland:2 france:2 greece:1 greco:1 guyana:2 jamaica:2 malaysia:2 mexico:2 nigeria:2 pakistan:2 russia:2 reference:1 link:1 ministério:2 das:2 relações:2 exteriores:2 website:4 agência:1 de:1 cooperação:1 |@bigram prime_minister:1 manmohan_singh:1 washington_dc:1 diplomatic_relation:2 diplomatic_mission:4 hiv_aid:1 un_peacekeeping:1 belgian_congo:1 east_timor:1 continental_shelf:2 iaea_ibrd:1 icao_icc:1 icc_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_iho:1 iho_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_laes:1 nsg_oas:1 opanal_opcw:1 opcw_pca:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unhcr:1 unhcr_unido:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wto:1 czech_republic:1 external_link:1 |
1,972 | Montserrat | Montserrat () is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. It measures approximately 16 km (10 miles) long and 11 km (7 miles) wide, giving of coastline. Montserrat CIA World Factbook, 19 September, 2006. Retrieved 1 October 2006. Christopher Columbus gave Montserrat its name on his second voyage to the New World in 1493, after its namesake located in Catalonia. Montserrat is often referred to as the Emerald Isle of the Caribbean, due both to its resemblance to coastal Ireland and to the Irish descent of most of its early European settlers. Its Georgian era capital city of Plymouth was destroyed and two-thirds of the island's population forced to flee abroad by an eruption of the previously dormant Soufriere Hills volcano that began on July 18, 1995. Montserrat Volcano Observatory Retrieved 2 October 2006. The eruption continues today on a much reduced scale, the damage being confined to the areas around Plymouth including its docking facilities and the former W.H. Bramble Airport. An exclusion zone extending from the south coast of the island north to parts of the Belham Valley has been closed because of an increase in the size of the existing volcanic dome. This zone includes St. George's Hill which provided visitors with a spectacular view of the volcano and the destruction it has wrought upon the capital. A new airport at Gerald's in the northern part of the island opened in 2005. The village of Brades currently serves as the de facto centre of government. History Montserrat was populated by Arawak and Carib people when it was claimed by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage for Spain in 1493, naming the island Santa María de Montserrate, after the Blessed Virgin of the Monastery of Montserrat, which is located on the Mountain of Montserrat, in Catalonia, Spain. The island fell under English control in 1632 when a group of Irish fleeing anti-Roman Catholic sentiment in Saint Kitts and Nevis settled there. The import of slaves common to most Caribbean islands, mainly coming from Ireland (70% of the population were Irish slaves by the mid 1600's), followed during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and an economy based on sugar, rum, arrowroot and Sea Island cotton was established. In 1782, during the American Revolutionary War, Montserrat was briefly captured by France. It was returned to the United Kingdom under the Treaty of Paris which ended that conflict. A failed slave uprising on 17 March 1798 led to Montserrat later becoming one of only four places in the world that celebrates St Patrick's Day as a public or bank holiday (the others being the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador). Slavery was abolished in Montserrat in 1834, presumably as a result of the general emancipation of slaves within the British Empire in that same year. Falling sugar prices during the nineteenth century had an adverse effect on the island's economy and in 1869 the philanthropist Joseph Sturge of Birmingham, England formed the Montserrat Company to buy sugar estates that were no longer economically viable. The company planted limes starting production of the island's famous lime juice, set up a school, and sold parcels of land to the inhabitants of the island, with the result that much of Montserrat came to be owned by smallholders. Commonwealth Secretariat website: Montserrat. Retrieved 30 January 2007. From 1871 to 1958 Montserrat was administered as part of the Federal Colony of the Leeward Islands, becoming a province of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962. With the completion of Beatles producer George Martin’s AIR Studios Montserrat in 1979, the island attracted world-famous musicians who came to record in the peace and quiet and lush tropical surroundings of Montserrat. George Martin Music: Montserrat The last several years of the 20th century, however, brought two events which devastated the island. In September 1989, Hurricane Hugo struck Montserrat with full force, damaging over 90 percent of the structures on the island. AIR Studios closed, and the tourist trade upon which the island depended was nearly wiped out. Within a few years, however, the island had recovered considerably—only to be struck again by disaster. Plymouth, the former capital city and major port of Montserrat, July 12, 1997, after pyroclastic flows had burned much of what was not covered in ash. In July 1995, Montserrat's Soufriere Hills volcano, dormant throughout recorded history, rumbled to life and began an eruption which eventually buried the island's capital, Plymouth, in more than of mud, destroyed its airport and docking facilities, and rendered the southern half of the island uninhabitable. Following the destruction of Plymouth, more than half of the population left the island due to the economic disruption and lack of housing. After a period of regular eruptive events during the late 1990s including one on June 25, 1997, in which 19 people lost their lives, the volcano's activity in recent years has been confined mostly to infrequent ventings of ash into the uninhabited areas in the south. However, this ash venting does occasionally extend into the populated areas of the northern and western parts of the island. As an example, on May 20, 2006, the lava dome that had been slowly building partially collapsed, resulting in an ashfall of about an 2.5 cm (1 inch) in Old Towne and parts of Olveston. There were no injuries or significant property damage. The southern part of the island is currently off limits to the population because of the volcano, and trespassers caught in the restricted area are subject to fines. Leonard, T. M. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. pp.1083. ISBN 978-1579583880 Long referred to as "The Emerald Isle of the Caribbean" for both its Irish heritage and its resemblance to coastal Ireland, most of Montserrat today remains lush and green. A new airport, opened officially by the Princess Royal Princess Anne in February 2005, received its first commercial flights on July 11, 2005, and docking facilities are in place at Little Bay, where a new capital is being constructed out of reach of any further volcanic activity. The people of Montserrat were granted full residency rights in the United Kingdom in 1998, and citizenship was granted in 2002. Primary schools Government Primary Schools—Brades, and Look Out Primary St. Augustine Roman Catholic School (Palm Loop, Montserrat) Samuel Academy School (Salem, Montserrat) Parishes Montserrat is divided into three parishes: Saint Anthony Parish Saint Georges Parish Saint Peter Parish Villages Cudjoe Head Baker Hill Brades (de facto capital) Davy Hill Banks Farells Yard Flemmings Gerald's Hope Little Bay Look Out, Montserrat Old Towne, Montserrat Olveston Plymouth (official capital, abandoned) Cavalla Hill Mongo Hill Saint John's Judy Piece Salem Sweeney's, Montserrat Woodlands St Peter's Virgin Island Drummonds Cheap End Geography Map of Montserrat Montserrat's coastline. The island of Montserrat is located approximately 480 km (300 miles) east-southeast of Puerto Rico and 48 km (30 miles) southwest of Antigua. It comprises only 104 km² (40 square miles) and is increasing gradually owing to volcanic deposits on the southeast coast of the island; it is 16 km (10 miles) long and 11 km (7 miles) wide, with dramatic rock faced cliffs rising 15 to 30 m (50-100 feet) above the sea and smooth bottomed sandy beaches scattered among coves on the west side of the island. Montserrat has been a quiet haven of extraordinary scenic beauty. Montserrat has two islets: Little Redonda and Virgin, and Statue Rock. The Soufrière Hills or Montserrat volcano is an active complex stratovolcano with many lava domes forming its summit on the island. After a long period of dormancy it became active in 1995, and eruptions have continued up to the present. The last eruption was in December 2008. Economy It was formerly the home of a branch of George Martin's AIR Studios (and other amenities) that made the island popular with working and vacationing musicians and other celebrities, celebrities often went there to record their songs in the recording studios. Famous Montserratians Alphonsus "Arrow" Cassell MBE — born in Montserrat is well known for his soca song "Hot Hot Hot" which has sold over 4 million copies. Arrow biography, Monkeybiz Management Entertainment Agency Jim Allen — A former cricketer who represented the World Series Cricket West Indians. Junior Mendes — A professional footballer who has represented Montserrat twice in international games, currently playing for Aldershot Town in Football League Two Shabazz Baidoo — A football player of Montserrat descent, plays in Football League 2 for Dagenham & Redbridge. Tesfaye Bramble — A football player, playing for Leiston F.C. in the Eastern Counties League Premier Division. David Jordan — A singer-songwriter who has reached number 4 in the UK charts. His mother was from Montserrat. Ruel Fox — A football player, played for Norwich City, Newcastle United, Tottenham Hotspur and West Bromwich Albion. He is currently coach of non-league Whitton United F.C., who play in the Eastern Counties League Premier Division. Maizie Williams — A member of the disco group Boney M. Lionel Baker — The first Montserratian to represent the West Indies in international cricket. World Series Cricket was not recognized by the ICC. Demographics Population: 4,819 (2007 estimate) Note: an estimated 8,000 refugees left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995; few have returned. Pre-eruption population was 13,000 in 1994. Age structure: 0-14 years: 23.4% (male 1,062; female 1,041) 15-64 years: 65.3% (male 2,805; female 3,066) 65 years and over: 11.3% (male 537; female 484) (2003 est.) Median age: total: 27.8 years male: 27.7 years female: 27.9 years (2002) Population growth rate: 4.5% (2003 est.) Birth rate: 17.57 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate: 7.34 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate: 195.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.11 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: total: 7.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) female: 6.43 deaths/1,000 live births male: 9.05 deaths/1,000 live births Life expectancy at birth: total population: 78.36 years. male: 76.24 years. female: 80.59 years (2003 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.8 children born/woman (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS—adult prevalence rate: NA% HIV/AIDS—people living with HIV/AIDS: NA HIV/AIDS—deaths: NA Nationality: noun: Montserratian(s) adjective: Montserratian Ethnic groups: black, white—mainly of mixed Irish and African descent Religions: Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Seventh-Day Adventist, other Christian denominations Languages: English Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 97% male: 97% female: 97% (1970 est.) Culture Cricket is a popular sport in Montserrat. Players from Montserrat are in fact eligible to play for the West Indies cricket team. Jim Allen was the first to play for West Indies and he represented the World Series Cricket West Indians. No other player from Montserrat had gone on to represent West Indies until Lionel Baker made his One Day International debut against Pakistan in November 2008. Late Show Wins It For Pakistan In Abu Dhabi Montserrat has its own FIFA Affiliated Football Team, and has twice competed in the World Cup qualifiers. A field for the team was built near the airport by FIFA. The Montserrat team are currently tied for 199th place in the FIFA world rankings with eight other teams, including American Samoa and Guam. In 2002, the team competed in a friendly with the second-lowest-ranked team in FIFA at that time, Bhutan, in The Other Final- the same day as the final of the 2002 World Cup. Bhutan won 4-0. Operation Montserrat Currently, American and British elementary and middle school students are eligible to participate in an Operation Montserrat live simulation. This is a videoconference program based on events of 1996 in which a hurricane approaches and a volcanic eruption occur nearly at the same time. The students are responsible for rescuing all of the people. In the weeks leading up to this, they practice the skills they need in their classroom. e-Mission: Operation Montserrat The Operation Montserrat website. Retrieved 1 May 2007 See also References External links Government Government of Montserrat Chief of State and Cabinet Members Montserrat National Trust Montserrat Hospitality Association General information Montserrat from UCB Libraries GovPubs Montserrat Webdirectory News media Montserrat Reporter news site Radio Montserrrat—ZJB Listen live online Travel Montserrat Tourist Board Montserrat Travel Information Other Satellite image of Montserrat from Google Maps Montserrat Volcano Observatory Official release archive Volcanism of Montserrat Scuba Diving in Montserrat Antigua, Montserrat and Virgin Islands Gazette, with full page images and full searchable text is freely and openly available in the Digital Library of the Caribbean be-x-old:Мансэрат | Montserrat |@lemmatized montserrat:61 british:3 overseas:1 territory:1 locate:4 leeward:2 island:30 part:7 chain:1 call:1 less:1 antilles:1 caribbean:5 sea:3 measure:1 approximately:2 km:6 mile:7 long:4 wide:2 give:2 coastline:2 cia:1 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1,973 | Hockey | Hockey is any of a family of sports in which two teams play against each other by trying to maneuver a ball, or a hard, round, rubber or heavy plastic disc called a puck, into the opponent's net or goal, using a hockey stick. Field hockey Field hockey game at Melbourne University. Field hockey is played on gravel, natural grass, sand-based or water-based artificial turf, with a small, hard ball. The game is popular among both males and females in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, Australia, and South Africa. In most countries, the game is played between single-sex sides, although they can be mixed-sex. The governing body is the 116-member International Hockey Federation (FIH). Men's Field hockey has been played at each summer Olympic Games since 1908 (except 1912 and 1924), while Women's Field Hockey has been played each summer Olympic Games since 1980. Modern field hockey sticks are J-shaped and constructed of a composite of wood, glass fibre or carbon fibre (sometimes both) and have a curved hook at the playing end, a flat surface on the playing side and curved surface on the rear side. While current field hockey appeared in the mid-18th century in England, primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that it became firmly established. The first club was created in 1849 at Blackheath in south-east London. Field hockey is the national sport of India and Pakistan Hockey,Field Hockey,Hockey Game,Hockey Sports,Hockey History,Hockey India . Ice hockey The Barrie Colts and the Brampton Battalion in an ice hockey game. Ice hockey is played on a large flat area of ice, using a three inch (76.2 mm) diameter vulcanized rubber disc called a puck. This puck is often frozen before high-level games to decrease the amount of bouncing and friction on the ice. The game is contested between two teams of skaters. The game is played all over North America, Europe and in many other countries around the world to varying extent. It is the most popular sport in Canada, Finland, the Czech Republic, and in Sweden. The governing body is the 64-member International Ice Hockey Federation, (IIHF). Men's ice hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924, and was in the 1920 Summer Olympics. Women's ice hockey was added to the Winter Olympics in 1998. North America's National Hockey League (NHL) is the strongest professional ice hockey league, drawing top ice hockey players from around the globe. The NHL rules are slightly different from those used in Olympic ice hockey: the periods are 20 minutes long, counting downwards. There are three periods. Ice hockey sticks are long L-shaped sticks made of wood, graphite, or composites with a blade at the bottom that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can curve either way, legally, as to help a left- or right-handed player gain an advantage. There are early representations and reports of ice hockey-type games being played on ice in the Netherlands, and reports from Canada from the beginning of the nineteenth century, but the modern game was initially organized by students at McGill University, Montreal in 1875 who, by two years later, codified the first set of ice hockey rules and organized the first teams. Ice hockey is played at a number of levels, by all ages. Roller hockey (inline) Inline roller hockey Inline hockey is a variation of roller hockey very similar to ice hockey, from which it is derived. Inline hockey is played by two teams, consisting of four skaters and one goalie, on a dry rink divided into two halves by a center line, with one net at each end of the rink. The game is played in three 15-minute periods with a variation of the ice hockey off-side rule. Icings are also called, but are usually referred to as illegal clearing. For rink dimensions and an overview of the rules of the game, see IIHF Inline Rules (official rules). Some leagues and competitions do not follow the IIHF regulations, in particular USA Inline and Canada Inline. Roller hockey (quad) Roller hockey played on quad skates. Roller hockey (quad) is the overarching name for a roller sport that has existed since long before inline skates were invented. Roller hockey has been played in sixty countries worldwide and so has many names worldwide. The sport is also known as quad hockey, hóquei em patins, international style ball hockey, rink hockey and hardball hockey. Roller Hockey was a demonstration roller sport at the 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics. Street hockey Another form of popular hockey is Street hockey, sometimes known as road hockey. This is usually played with the same rules as ice hockey, or roller hockey, except it is on the street. Most of the time, a ball is used instead of a puck, because a puck generates too much friction when handled on an asphalt or cement surface and does not slide. Street hockey is played year round. Other forms of hockey Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following: Air hockey is played indoors with a puck on an air-cushion table. Ball hockey is played in a gym using sticks and a ball, often a tennis ball with the fuzz removed. Unicycle hockey Unicycle hockey is similar to roller or inline hockey, however, each player must be mounted on their unicycle (with both feet on the pedals) to play at the ball. Deck hockey is traditionally played by the Royal Navy on the ships' decks, using short wooden 'L' shaped sticks. Bandy is played with a ball on a football-sized ice arena, typically outdoors. Box hockey is a school yard game played by two people. The object of the game is to move a hockey puck from the center of the box out through a hole placed at the end of the box (known as the goal). Each player kneels and faces one another on either side of the box, and each attempts to move the puck to the hole on their left. Broomball is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a "broom" (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick. Instead of using skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around. Floorball, is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium or in sport halls. A whiffle ball is used instead of a plastic ball, and the sticks are made from composite materials. The sticks are only one meter long. Foot hockey or sock hockey is played using a bald tennis ball or rolled up pair of socks and using only the feet. It is popular at elementary schools in the winter. Gym hockey is a form of ice hockey played in a gymnasium. It uses sticks with foam ends and a foam ball or a plastic puck. Hurling and Camogie are Irish games bearing some resemblance to - and notable differences from - hockey. Indoor field hockey is an indoor variation of field hockey. Mini hockey In the United States is a form of hockey (also known as "mini-sticks") which is played in basements of houses. Players get down on their knees, using a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long to maneuver a small ball or a soft, fabric covered mini puck into a miniature goals. In England 'mini hockey' refers to a seven-a-side version of field hockey, played on an area equivalent to half a normal pitch for younger players Nok Hockey is a table-top version of hockey played with no defense and a small block in front of the goal. PowerHockey is a form of hockey for persons requiring the use of an electric (power) wheelchair in daily life. PowerHockey is a competitive sports opportunity for the physically disabled. Ringette is an ice hockey variant that was designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and a rubber ring in place of a puck. Note: Ringette distances itself from hockey as it has its own set of rules and is closely related to a mix of lacrosse and basketball. Rinkball is a Scandinavian team sport, played in an ice hockey rink with a ball. Rossall hockey is a variation played at Rossall School on the sea shore in the winter months. Its rules are a mix of field hockey, Rugby and the Eton Wall Game. Shinny is an informal version of ice hockey. Shinty is a Scottish game now played primarily in the Highlands Skater hockey is a variant of inline hockey, played with a ball. Sledge hockey is a form of ice hockey played by the disabled. The players sit on sleds, and push themselves up and down the ice with picks on the butt end of their shortened hockey sticks. The game is played with many of the same rules as regular ice hockey. Spongee is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in Manitoba, Canada. A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a "sponge puck"), and the same soft-soled shoes used in broomball are worn. The rules are basically the same as ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a "rover". Table hockey is played indoors with a table-top game. Underwater hockey is played on the bottom of a swimming pool. References External links be-x-old:Хакей | Hockey |@lemmatized hockey:98 family:1 sport:10 two:6 team:5 play:38 try:1 maneuver:2 ball:17 hard:2 round:2 rubber:3 heavy:1 plastic:5 disc:2 call:5 puck:15 opponent:1 net:2 goal:4 use:17 stick:17 field:13 game:22 melbourne:1 university:2 gravel:1 natural:1 grass:1 sand:1 base:2 water:1 artificial:1 turf:1 small:4 popular:5 among:1 male:1 female:2 many:4 part:1 world:2 particularly:1 europe:2 asia:1 australia:1 south:2 africa:1 country:3 single:1 sex:2 side:6 although:1 mixed:1 govern:2 body:2 member:2 international:3 federation:2 fih:1 men:2 summer:4 olympic:3 since:4 except:2 woman:2 modern:2 j:1 shaped:3 construct:1 composite:3 wood:2 glass:1 fibre:2 carbon:1 sometimes:2 curve:3 hook:1 end:6 flat:3 surface:4 playing:2 rear:1 current:1 appear:1 mid:1 century:3 england:2 primarily:2 school:4 first:4 half:3 become:1 firmly:1 establish:1 club:1 create:1 blackheath:1 east:1 london:1 national:2 india:2 pakistan:1 history:1 ice:32 barrie:1 colt:1 brampton:1 battalion:1 large:1 area:2 three:3 inch:2 mm:1 diameter:1 vulcanize:1 often:2 frozen:1 high:1 level:2 decrease:1 amount:1 bouncing:1 friction:2 contest:1 skater:3 north:2 america:2 around:3 vary:1 extent:1 canada:4 finland:1 czech:1 republic:1 sweden:1 iihf:3 winter:4 olympics:4 add:1 league:3 nhl:2 strong:1 professional:1 draw:1 top:3 player:9 globe:1 rule:11 slightly:1 different:1 period:3 minute:2 long:5 count:1 downwards:1 l:2 make:2 graphite:1 blade:1 bottom:2 lie:1 hold:1 upright:1 either:2 way:1 legally:1 help:1 left:2 right:1 hand:1 gain:1 advantage:1 early:1 representation:1 report:2 type:1 netherlands:1 beginning:1 nineteenth:1 initially:1 organize:2 student:1 mcgill:1 montreal:1 year:2 later:1 codify:1 set:2 number:1 age:1 roller:12 inline:10 variation:5 similar:2 derive:2 consist:1 four:1 one:5 goalie:1 dry:1 rink:6 divide:1 center:2 line:1 icing:1 also:3 usually:3 refer:1 illegal:1 clearing:1 dimension:1 overview:1 see:1 official:1 competition:1 follow:1 regulation:1 particular:1 usa:1 quad:4 skate:3 overarch:1 name:2 exist:1 invent:1 sixty:1 worldwide:2 know:4 hóquei:1 em:1 patins:1 style:1 hardball:1 demonstration:1 barcelona:1 street:4 another:2 form:7 road:1 time:1 instead:4 generate:1 much:1 handle:1 asphalt:1 cement:1 slide:1 predecessor:1 include:1 following:1 air:2 indoors:2 cushion:1 table:4 gym:2 tennis:2 fuzz:1 remove:1 unicycle:3 however:1 must:1 mount:1 foot:3 pedal:1 deck:2 traditionally:1 royal:1 navy:1 ship:1 short:1 wooden:1 bandy:1 football:1 size:1 arena:1 typically:1 outdoors:1 box:4 yard:1 people:1 object:1 move:2 hole:2 place:3 kneel:1 face:1 attempt:1 broomball:3 broom:1 actually:1 implement:1 special:1 shoe:2 soft:4 rubbery:1 sol:1 maximize:1 grip:1 run:1 floorball:1 gymnasium:2 hall:1 whiffle:1 material:1 meter:1 sock:2 bald:1 roll:1 pair:1 elementary:1 foam:2 hurling:1 camogie:1 irish:1 bear:1 resemblance:1 notable:1 difference:1 indoor:2 mini:4 united:1 state:1 basement:1 house:1 get:1 knee:1 miniature:2 cm:1 fabric:1 cover:1 refers:1 seven:1 version:4 equivalent:1 normal:1 pitch:1 young:1 nok:1 defense:1 block:1 front:1 powerhockey:2 person:1 require:1 electric:1 power:1 wheelchair:1 daily:1 life:1 competitive:1 opportunity:1 physically:1 disabled:2 ringette:2 variant:2 design:1 straight:1 ring:1 note:1 distance:1 closely:1 relate:1 mix:2 lacrosse:1 basketball:1 rinkball:1 scandinavian:1 rossall:2 sea:1 shore:1 month:1 rugby:1 eton:1 wall:1 shinny:1 informal:1 shinty:1 scottish:1 highland:1 sledge:1 sit:1 sled:1 push:1 pick:1 butt:1 shorten:1 regular:1 spongee:1 cross:1 manitoba:1 sponge:1 sole:1 wear:1 basically:1 extra:1 rover:1 underwater:1 swimming:1 pool:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 x:1 old:1 хакей:1 |@bigram artificial_turf:1 male_female:1 carbon_fibre:1 ice_hockey:26 inch_mm:1 czech_republic:1 winter_olympics:2 summer_olympics:2 nineteenth_century:1 roller_hockey:9 inline_hockey:4 hockey_rink:3 hockey_puck:2 inch_cm:1 physically_disabled:1 closely_relate:1 swimming_pool:1 external_link:1 |
1,974 | Anthony_of_Saxony | Anthony (b. Dresden, 27 December 1755 – d. Dresden, 6 June 1836), also known by his German name Anton (full name: Anton Clemens Theodor Maria Joseph Johann Evangelista Johann Nepomuk Franz Xavier Aloys Januar), Holborn, p. 24 was a King of Saxony (1827-1836) from the House of Wettin. He became known as Anton der Gütige, Quinger p. 35 (en: "Anthony the Kind"). " The Kings of Saxony". Accessed January 27 2007. He was the fifth but third surviving son of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony, and Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Bavaria. Early life With few chances to take part in the politics of the Electorate of Saxony or receive any land from his older brother Frederick Augustus III, Anton lived under the shadows. No Elector of Saxony after Johann Georg I gave appananges to his younger sons. During the first years of the reign of his older brother as Elector, Anton was the third in line, preceded only by his older brother Karl. The death of Karl (8 September 1781) make him the next in line to the Electorate as Crown Prince (de: Kronprinz); this was because all the pregnancies of the Electress Amalie, except for one daughter, ended in a stillbirth. In Turin on 29 September 1781 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 24 October 1781 (in person), Anton married firstly with the Princess Caroline of Savoy (Maria Carolina Antonietta Adelaida), daughter of the King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia. Caroline died after only one year of marriage, on 28 December 1782. They had no children. In Florence on 8 September 1787 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 18 October 1787 (in person), Anton married a second time with the Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria (Maria Theresia Josephe Charlotte Johanna), daughter of the Grand Duke Leopold I of Tuscany, later Emperor Leopold II. Mozart's opera Don Giovanni was originally intended to be performed in honor of Anton and his wife for a visit to Prague on October 14, 1787, as they traveled between Dresden and Vienna, and librettos were printed with dedication to them. The premiere could not be arranged in time, however, so the opera The Marriage of Figaro was substituted on the express orders of the bride's uncle, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. The choice of The Marriage of Figaro was considered improper for a new bride by many observers, and the couple left the opera theater early without seeing the entire work performed. Mozart complained bitterly of the intrigues surrounding this incident in a letter to his friend Gottfried von Jacquin that was written in stages between October 15 and October 25, 1787. The couple had four children, but none survived to the age of two: Maria Ludovika Auguste Fredericka Therese Franziska Johanna Aloysia Nepomucena Ignatia Anna Josepha Xaveria Franziska de Paula Barbara (b. Dresden, 14 March 1795 - d. Dresden, 25 April 1796). Frederick Augustus (b. and d. Dresden, 5 April 1796). Maria Johanna Ludovica Anna Amalia Nepomucena Aloysia Ignatia Xaveria Josepha Franziska de Chantal Eva Apollonia Magdalena Crescentia Vincentia (b. Dresden, 5 April 1798 - d. Dresden, 30 October 1799). Maria Theresia (b. and d. Dresden, 15 October 1799). The Electress gave birth for last time in 1797 to another stillborn child. After this Anton became, officially, the Heir to the Electorate and, since 1806, the Kingdom of Saxony. King of Saxony Anton succeeded his brother Frederick August I as King of Saxony when he died, on 5 May 1827. The 71-years-old new King was completely inexperienced in government, thus he had no intention of initiating profound changes in foreign or domestic policy. Prussian diplomats discussed granting the Prussian Rhineland (predominantly Catholic) to Anton (a Catholic) in exchange for Lutheran Saxony in 1827, but nothing came of these talks. Freitag, p. 216 After the July Revolution of 1830 in France, disturbances in Saxony began in autumn. These were directed primarily against the old Constitution. Therefore, on 13 September the cabinet dismissed Count Detlev von Einsiedel, followed by Bernhard von Lindenau. Because the people wished a younger regent, Anton agreed to appoint his nephew Frederick Augustus Prince Co-Regent (de: Prinz-Mitregenten). As another consequence of the disturbances, a new constitution was accepted in 1831 which came into effect on 4 September of that year. With it Saxony became a Constitutional monarchy. The constitution was more conservative than other constitutions existing at this time in the German Union. The King kept his exclusive sovereignty but was bound by the Government Business to cooperate with the Ministers and the decisions of both Chambers of the States (de: Kammern der Ständeversammlung) meeting. The entry of Saxony into the Zollverein in 1833 let trade, industry and traffic blossom farther. Without surviving male issue, Anton was succeeded as King by his nephew, Frederick Augustus II. Ancestors + Anthony's ancestors in three generations Anthony of Saxony Father:Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony Paternal Grandfather:Augustus III of Poland Paternal Great-grandfather:Augustus II the Strong Paternal Great-grandmother:Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth Paternal Grandmother:Maria Josepha of Austria Paternal Great-grandfather:Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor Paternal Great-grandmother:Wilhelmina Amalia of Brunswick Mother:Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Bavaria Maternal Grandfather:Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor Maternal Great-grandfather:Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria Maternal Great-grandmother:Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska Maternal Grandmother:Maria Amalia of Austria Maternal Great-grandfather:Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor Maternal Great-grandmother:Wilhelmina Amalia of Brunswick Footnotes References | Anthony_of_Saxony |@lemmatized anthony:4 b:5 dresden:11 december:2 june:1 also:1 know:2 german:2 name:2 anton:13 full:1 clemens:1 theodor:1 maria:11 joseph:4 johann:3 evangelista:1 nepomuk:1 franz:1 xavier:1 aloys:1 januar:1 holborn:1 p:3 king:8 saxony:14 house:1 wettin:1 become:3 der:2 gütige:1 quinger:1 en:1 kind:1 access:1 january:1 fifth:1 third:2 survive:3 son:2 frederick:7 christian:2 elector:5 antonia:2 walpurgis:2 bavaria:3 early:2 life:1 chance:1 take:1 part:1 politics:1 electorate:3 receive:1 land:1 old:5 brother:4 augustus:6 iii:3 live:1 shadow:1 georg:1 give:2 appananges:1 young:2 first:1 year:4 reign:1 line:2 precede:1 karl:2 death:1 september:5 make:1 next:1 crown:1 prince:2 de:5 kronprinz:1 pregnancy:1 electress:2 amalie:1 except:1 one:2 daughter:3 end:1 stillbirth:1 turin:1 proxy:2 october:7 person:2 marry:2 firstly:1 princess:1 caroline:2 savoy:1 carolina:1 antonietta:1 adelaida:1 victor:1 amadeus:1 sardinia:1 die:2 marriage:3 child:3 florence:1 second:1 time:4 archduchess:1 theresia:3 austria:3 josephe:1 charlotte:1 johanna:3 grand:1 duke:1 leopold:2 tuscany:1 later:1 emperor:5 ii:5 mozart:2 opera:3 giovanni:1 originally:1 intend:1 perform:2 honor:1 wife:1 visit:1 prague:1 travel:1 vienna:1 libretto:1 print:1 dedication:1 premiere:1 could:1 arrange:1 however:1 figaro:2 substitute:1 express:1 order:1 bride:2 uncle:1 holy:4 roman:4 choice:1 consider:1 improper:1 new:3 many:1 observer:1 couple:2 leave:1 theater:1 without:2 see:1 entire:1 work:1 complain:1 bitterly:1 intrigue:1 surround:1 incident:1 letter:1 friend:1 gottfried:1 von:3 jacquin:1 write:1 stage:1 four:1 none:1 age:1 two:1 ludovika:1 auguste:1 fredericka:1 therese:1 franziska:3 aloysia:2 nepomucena:2 ignatia:2 anna:2 josepha:3 xaveria:2 paula:1 barbara:1 march:1 april:3 ludovica:1 amalia:4 chantal:1 eva:1 apollonia:1 magdalena:1 crescentia:1 vincentia:1 birth:1 last:1 another:2 stillborn:1 officially:1 heir:1 since:1 kingdom:1 succeed:2 august:1 may:1 completely:1 inexperienced:1 government:2 thus:1 intention:1 initiate:1 profound:1 change:1 foreign:1 domestic:1 policy:1 prussian:2 diplomat:1 discuss:1 grant:1 rhineland:1 predominantly:1 catholic:2 exchange:1 lutheran:1 nothing:1 come:2 talk:1 freitag:1 july:1 revolution:1 france:1 disturbance:2 begin:1 autumn:1 direct:1 primarily:1 constitution:4 therefore:1 cabinet:1 dismiss:1 count:1 detlev:1 einsiedel:1 follow:1 bernhard:1 lindenau:1 people:1 wish:1 regent:2 agree:1 appoint:1 nephew:2 co:1 prinz:1 mitregenten:1 consequence:1 accept:1 effect:1 constitutional:1 monarchy:1 conservative:1 exist:1 union:1 keep:1 exclusive:1 sovereignty:1 bind:1 business:1 cooperate:1 minister:1 decision:1 chamber:1 state:1 kammern:1 ständeversammlung:1 meeting:1 entry:1 zollverein:1 let:1 trade:1 industry:1 traffic:1 blossom:1 farther:1 male:1 issue:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 father:1 paternal:6 grandfather:6 poland:1 great:8 strong:1 grandmother:6 christiane:1 eberhardine:1 brandenburg:1 bayreuth:1 wilhelmina:2 brunswick:2 mother:1 maternal:6 charles:1 vii:1 maximilian:1 emanuel:1 theresa:1 kunegunda:1 sobieska:1 footnote:1 reference:1 |@bigram johann_nepomuk:1 house_wettin:1 elector_saxony:3 johann_georg:1 marry_firstly:1 victor_amadeus:1 archduchess_maria:1 maria_theresia:3 marriage_figaro:2 constitutional_monarchy:1 paternal_grandfather:1 brandenburg_bayreuth:1 paternal_grandmother:1 maternal_grandfather:1 elector_bavaria:1 maternal_grandmother:1 |
1,975 | Amstrad_CPC | The Amstrad CPC is a series of 8 bit home computers produced by Amstrad during the 1980s and early 1990s. "CPC" stands for 'Colour Personal Computer', although it was possible to purchase a CPC with a green screen (GT64/65) as well as with the standard colour screen (CTM640/644). Release history The first machine, the CPC 464, introduced in 1984, was designed as a direct competitor to the Commodore 64 system. Packaged as a "complete system" the CPC 464 came with its own monitor and built-in cassette tape deck. The CPC 664, with its own built-in floppy disk drive, arrived early in 1985, to be replaced itself later that same year by the CPC 6128 The original CPC range was successful, especially in Europe, with three million units sold Amstrad Products Archive . Following this, Amstrad launched the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, which sold eight million units. Variations and clones of the CPC range were also released in Germany and Spain. The Plus range failed to find a market amongst the higher spec 16-bit Atari ST and Commodore Amiga systems. Plus models The 6128 Plus keyboard In 1990 Amstrad introduced the "Plus" series, 464 and 6128 Plus, which tweaked the hardware and added a cartridge slot to the system. Improvements were made to the video display which saw an increase in palette to 4096 colours and gained a capacity for hardware sprites. Splitting the display into separate modes and pixel scrolling both became fully supported hardware features. The former was reasonably easy on the non-"Plus" machines, and the latter possible to some degree using clever programming of the existing Motorola 6845. An automatic DMA transfer system for feeding the sound chip was also added, enabling high-quality samples to be replayed with minimal processor overhead. The sound chip itself however, remained unchanged. A cut-down CPC Plus, without the keyboard or support for non-cartridge media was also released as the GX4000 video game console. These models did not do well in the marketplace, failing to attract any substantial third-party support. The 8-bit technology behind the CPC was looking out-of-date by 1990 and Amstrad's marketing failed to promote any significant advantage over the competing Atari ST and Commodore Amiga systems. The new models were not helped by the substantial price difference between cartridge games and their tape and disc counterparts, exacerbated by the tendency to rerelease old games on cartridge without taking advantage of the enhanced Plus hardware. Technical specifications CPC 464 – Tape deck, 64 KB RAM. CPC 472 – Tape deck, 72 KB RAM (the additional 8 KB RAM are not usable by the system itself); produced in small numbers for the Spanish market to avoid a legal ruling requiring that computers with 64 KB or less RAM must be localized to the Spanish language, including the keyboard and screen messages. The law was subsequently changed to include machines with more than 64 KB RAM so a localised version of the 472 also exists. amstradmuseum.com cpc 472 CPC 664 – 3" Floppy disk drive, 64 KB RAM. CPC 6128 – 3" Floppy disk drive, 128 KB RAM. Processor CPC models were based on a Zilog Z80 processor clocked at . Technical Specification, CPC464 Service Manual, p. 2., Amstrad Consumer Electronics Plc. Because a common pool of RAM is shared with the video circuits, the Z80 may only make a memory accesses every four cycles - which has the effect of rounding instruction cycle lengths up to the next multiple of four. The speed is therefore roughly equivalent to a machine. Memory The system came with 64 KB or 128 KB of RAM depending on the model (capable of being expanded to 512k within the Amstrad-standard address space). Technical Specification, CPC6128 Service Manual, p. 31., Amstrad Consumer Electronics Plc. The machines also featured an (almost) standard 9-pin Atari-style joystick socket which was able to take two joysticks via a splitter. Expansion The hardware and firmware was designed so that it could access software in external ROMs. Each ROM had to be a 16k block and was switched in and out of the memory space shared with the video RAM. The Amstrad firmware was deliberately designed so that new software could be easily accessed from these ROMs with minimum of fuss. Popular applications were marketed on ROM, particularly word processing and programming utility software (examples are Protext and Brunword of the former, and the MAXAM assembler of the latter type). Such extra ROM chips did not plug directly into the CPC itself, but into extra plug-in "rom-boxes" which contained sockets for the ROM chips and a minimal amount of decoding circuitry for the main machine to be able to switch between them. These boxes were either marketed commercially or could be built by competent hobbyists and they attached to the main expansion port at the back of the machine. Software on ROM loaded much faster than from disc or tape and the machine's boot-up sequence was designed to evaluate ROMs it found and optionally hand over control of the machine to them. This allowed complete customisation of the function of the machine, something that research labs and enthusiasts exploited for all manner of purposes . However, the typical user would probably not be aware of this added ROM functionality unless they read the CPC press, as it was not described in the user manual and was hardly ever mentioned in marketing literature. It was, however, documented in the official Amstrad firmware manual. Video Underlying the CPC's video output was the Motorola 6845 address generator. This chip was connected to a pixel generator that supported 4 bpp, 2 bpp and 1 bpp output (bpp = bits per pixel). The address generator was clocked at a constant rate so the 4 bpp display generated half as many pixels as the 2 bpp and a quarter as many as the 1 bpp. Three built-in display resolutions were available, though increased screen size could be achieved by reprogramming the 6845. The standard video modes were: Mode 0: 160×200 pixels with 16 colors (4 bpp) Mode 1: 320×200 pixels with 4 colors (2 bpp) Mode 2: 640×200 pixels with 2 colors (1 bpp) A colour palette of 27 colors was supported, derived from RGB colour space with each component assigned as either off, half on or on. The later Plus models extended this to 4096 colours and added support for hardware sprites. The machine lacked an RF TV or composite video output and instead shipped with a proprietary 6-pin DIN connector intended for use solely with the supplied Amstrad monitor. An official external adapter for RF TV was available to buy separately. The 6-pin DIN connector is capable of driving a SCART television with a correctly wired lead. The video signals are PAL frequency 1v p-p analogue RGB with composite sync. Audio The CPC used the General Instrument AY-3-8912 sound chip, providing three channels, each configurable to generate square waves, white noise or both. A small array of hardware volume envelopes are available. Output was provided in mono by a small (4 cm) built-in loudspeaker with volume control, driven by an internal amplifier. Stereo output was provided through a headphones jack. Playback of digital sound samples at a resolution of approximately 5-bit (for example as on the title screen of the game RoboCop) was possible by sending a stream of values to the sound chip. This technique was very processor-intensive and hard to combine with any other processing. Floppy disk drive A 3" floppy disc used on CPC machines Amstrad's choice of Hitachi's 3" floppy disk drive, when the rest of the PC industry was moving to Sony's 3.5" format, is claimed to be due to Amstrad bulk-buying a large consignment of 3" drive units in Asia. The chosen drive (built-in for later models) was a single-sided 40-track unit that required the user to physically remove and flip the disk to access the other side. Each side had its own independent write-protect switch. The sides were termed "A" and "B", with each one commonly formatted to 180 kB (in AMSDOS format, comprising 2 kB directory and 178 kB storage) for a total of 360 kB per disc. The interface with the drives was a NEC 765 FDC, used for the same purpose in the IBM PC/XT, PC/AT and PS/2 machines. Its features were not fully used in order to cut costs, namely DMA transfers and support for single density disks; they were formatted as double density using modified frequency modulation. Disks were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a compact disc "jewel" case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5" diskettes. A sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony's version. Because of this they were significantly more expensive than both 5.25" and 3.5" alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially proprietary nature, led to the format being discontinued shortly after the CPC itself was discontinued. Apart from Amstrad's other 3" machines (the PCW and the ZX Spectrum +3), the few other computer systems to use them included the Sega SF-7000 and CP/M systems such as the Tatung Einstein and Osborne machines. They also found use on embedded systems. The Shugart-standard interface meant that Amstrad CPC machines were able to use standard 3", 3½" or 5¼" drives as their second drive. Programs such as ROMDOS and ParaDOS extended the standard AMSDOS system to provide support for double-sided, 80-track formats, enabling up to 800k to be stored on a single disk. The 3" disks themselves were usually known as "discs" on the CPC, following the spelling on the machine's plastic casing. Serial port adaptor Amstrad issued two RS-232-C D25 serial interfaces, attached to the expansion connector at the rear of the machine, with a through-connector for the CPC464 disk drive or other peripherals. The original interface came with a "Book of Spells" for facilitating data transfer between other systems using a proprietary protocol in the device's own ROM, as well as terminal software to connect to British Telecom's Prestel service. A separate version of the ROM was created for the U.S. market due to the use of the commands "SUCK" and "BLOW", which were considered unacceptable there. Software and hardware limitations in this interface led to its replacement with an Amstrad-branded version of a compatible alternative by Pace. Serial interfaces were also available from third-party vendors such as KDS Electronics and Cirkit. Software BASIC and operating system Locomotive BASIC on the Amstrad CPC 464 Like most home computers at the time, the CPC had its OS and a BASIC interpreter built in as ROM. It used Locomotive BASIC - an improved version of Locomotive Software's Z80 BASIC for the BBC Microcomputer co-processor board. This was faster, more comfortable and more powerful than the generic but common Microsoft BASIC used by the Commodore 64 and MSX amongst others. It was particularly notable for providing easy access to the machine's video and audio resources in contrast to the arcane POKE commands required on generic Microsoft implementations. Other unusual features included timed event handling with the AFTER and EVERY commands, and text-based windowing. CP/M Digital Research's CP/M operating system was supplied with the 664 and 6128 disk-based systems, and the DDI-1 disk expansion unit for the 464. 64k machines shipped with CP/M 2.2 alone, while the 128k machines also included CP/M 3.1. The compact CP/M 2.2 implementation was largely stored on the boot sectors of a 3" disk in what was called "System format"; typing |CPM from Locomotive BASIC would load code from these sectors, making it a popular choice for custom game loading routines. The CP/M 3.1 implementation was largely in a separate file which was in turn loaded from the boot sector. Much public domain CP/M software was made available for the CPC, from word-processors such as VDE to complete bulletin board systems such as ROS. Other languages Although it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, C and Pascal, the majority of the CPC's software was written in native Z80a assembly language. Popular assemblers were Hisoft's Devpac, Arnor's Maxam, and (in France) DAMS. Disk-based CPC (not Plus) systems shipped with an interpreter for the educational language LOGO, booted from CP/M 2.2 but largely CPC-specific with much code resident in the AMSDOS ROM; 6128 machines also included a CP/M 3.1, non-ROM version. Roland At launch, 50 games were available from Amsoft. A number of these (as well as several subsequent releases) were tagged with the Roland name, in an attempt to give the CPC a recognisable mascot. However, since the games had not been designed around the Roland character and only had the branding added later, there was initially no consensus on what kind of games Roland should star in or even what he looked like. Roland's appearance varied immensely, from a spiky-haired blonde teenager (Roland Goes Digging) to a mutant flea (Roland In The Caves) to a white cube with legs (Roland Goes Square Bashing) to something resembling Luigi from the Mario games (Roland On The Ropes). Eventually it was decided that Roland should be a squat man in a blue hat, red jumper and yellow trousers. The character was named after Roland Perry, a technical manager at Amstrad. Community The Amstrad CPC enjoyed a strong and long lifetime, mainly due to the machines use for businesses as well as gaming. Dedicated programmers continued working on the CPC range, even producing Graphical User Interface (GUI) operating systems such as FutureOS and SymbOS. Internet sites devoted to the CPC have appeared from around the world featuring forums, news, hardware, software, programming and games. CPC Magazines appeared during the 1980s including publications in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Australia and Greece. Titles included the official Amstrad Computer User publication, as well as independent titles like Amstrad Action, Amtix!, Computing with the Amstrad CPC, CPC Attack, Australia's The Amstrad User, France's Amstrad Cent Pour Cent and Amstar. Following the CPCs end of production, Amstrad gave permission for the CPC ROMs to be distributed freely as long as the copyright message is not changed and that it is acknowledged that Amstrad still holds copyright, giving emulator authors the possibility to ship the CPC firmware with their programs. Influence on other Amstrad machines Amstrad followed their success with the CPC 464 by launching the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, another Z80-based machine with a 3" disk drive and software by Locomotive Software. The PCW was originally developed to be partly compatible with an improved version of the CPC ('ANT', or Arnold Number Two - the CPC's development codename was Arnold). However Amstrad decided to focus on the PCW and the ANT project never came to market. On 7 April 1986 Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research "...the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer related products." CRASH 28 - News which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair's unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3" disks that Amstrad CPC machines used. See also List of Amstrad CPC games Amstrad PCW (CP/M wordprocessor/personal computer range) CP/M FutureOS (Third-party operating system for CPC 6128 and 6128 Plus) Sinclair Research Sinclair ZX Spectrum SymbOS (multitasking operating system) Notes and references External links | Amstrad_CPC |@lemmatized amstrad:39 cpc:48 series:2 bit:5 home:2 computer:11 produce:3 early:2 stand:1 colour:6 personal:2 although:2 possible:4 purchase:1 green:1 screen:5 well:6 standard:7 release:4 history:1 first:1 machine:27 introduce:2 design:5 direct:1 competitor:1 commodore:4 system:22 package:1 complete:3 come:4 monitor:2 build:7 cassette:1 tape:6 deck:3 floppy:7 disk:18 drive:16 arrive:1 replace:1 later:2 year:2 original:2 range:7 successful:1 especially:1 europe:1 three:3 million:4 unit:5 sell:4 product:3 archive:1 follow:4 launch:4 pcw:6 word:4 processor:8 eight:1 variation:1 clone:1 also:10 germany:2 spain:2 plus:11 fail:3 find:3 market:6 amongst:2 high:2 spec:1 atari:3 st:2 amiga:2 model:7 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|@bigram amstrad_cpc:7 cassette_tape:1 floppy_disk:6 commodore_amiga:2 cartridge_slot:1 hardware_sprite:2 kb_ram:7 consumer_electronics:2 kb_kb:1 pin_din:2 din_connector:2 ibm_pc:1 pc_xt:1 frequency_modulation:1 compact_disc:1 zx_spectrum:6 bulletin_board:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 interface_gui:1 sinclair_zx:1 external_link:1 |
1,976 | Oligarchy | An Oligarchy (Greek , Oligarkhía) is a form of government where power effectively rests with a small elite segment of society distinguished by royal, wealth, family, military or religious hegemony. The word oligarchy is from the Greek words for "few" (ὀλίγος olígos) and "rule" (ἀρχή arkhē). Such states are often controlled by politically powerful families whose children are heavily conditioned and mentored to be heirs of the power of the oligarchy. Oligarchies have been tyrannical throughout history, being completely reliant on public servitude to exist. Although Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as a synonym for rule by the rich, for which the exact term is plutocracy, oligarchy is not always a rule by wealth, as oligarchs can simply be a privileged group. Some city-states from Ancient Greece were oligarchies. Oligarchy vs. monarchy A early societies may have become oligarchies as an outgrowth of an alliance between rival tribal chieftains or as the result of a caste system. Oligarchies can often become instruments of transformation, by insisting that monarchs or dictators share power, thereby opening the door to power-sharing by other elements of society (while oligarchy means "the rule of the few," monarchy means "the rule of the one"). One example of power-sharing from one person to a larger group of persons occurred when English nobles banded together in 1215 to force a reluctant King John of England to sign the Magna Carta, a tacit recognition both of King John's waning political power and of the existence of an incipient oligarchy (the nobility). As English society continued to grow and develop, Magna Carta was repeatedly revised (1216, 1217, and 1225), guaranteeing greater rights to greater numbers of people, thus setting the stage for English constitutional monarchy. In an aristocracy, a small group of wealthy or socially prominent citizens control the government. Members of this high social class claim to be, or are considered by others to be superior to the other people because of family ties, social rank, wealth, or religious affiliation. The word "aristocracy" comes from the Greek term meaning rule by the best. Many aristocrats have inherited titles of nobility such as duke or baron. Examples of oligarchies Some examples include Vaishali, the First French Republic government under the Directory, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (only the nobility could vote). A modern example of oligarchy could be seen in South Africa during the 20th century. Here, the basic characteristics of oligarchy are particularly easy to observe, since the South African form of oligarchy was based on race. After the Second Boer War, a tacit agreement was reached between English- and Afrikaans-speaking whites. Together, they made up about twenty percent of the population, but this small percentage ruled the vast native population. Whites had access to virtually all the educational and trade opportunities, and they proceeded to deny this to the black majority even further than before. Although this process had been going on since the mid-18th century, after 1948 it became official government policy and became known worldwide as apartheid. This lasted until the arrival of democracy in South Africa in 1994, punctuated by the transition to a democratically-elected government dominated by the black majority. Meiji Restoration rulers from Japan's westernization era were also known as an oligarchy in the late 19th and early 20th century. Capitalism as a social system is sometimes described as an oligarchy. Socialists argue that in a capitalist society, power - economic, cultural and political - rests in the hands of the capitalist class. Socialist and communist states have also been seen as oligarchies, being ruled by a class with special privileges, the nomenklatura. Russia has been labeled an oligarchy because of the power of certain individuals, the oligarchs (often former Nomenklatura), who gained great wealth after the fall of Communism. Critics have argued that this happened in illegitimate ways and was due to corruption. Russia ranked 143rd out of 179 countries in the 2007 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index. Several nations in Latin America have long functioned as oligarchies, where a small, mostly European-descended elite dominate the economy, politics, and society. The concept of an "oligarchic democracy" is one which some scholars attribute to Ancient Rome and the United States. Marxist Ellen Meiksins Wood writes, that it "conveys a truth about U.S. politics every bit as telling as its application to ancient Rome. It is no accident that the Founding Fathers of the U.S. Republic looked to Roman models for inspiration in making the Federalist case, adopting Roman names as pseudonyms and conceiving of themselves as latterday Catos, forming a natural aristocracy of republican virtue. (Americans today still have a representative body called the Senate, and their republic is still watched over by the Roman eagle, albeit in its American form.) Faced with the distasteful specter of democracy, they sought ways to redefine that unpalatable concept to accommodate aristocratic rule, producing a hybrid, "representative democracy," which was clearly meant to achieve an effect similar to the ancient Roman idea of the "mixed constitution," in fact, an "oligarchic 'democracy."' See Monthly Review, July-August, 1989. However, the constitution and state laws have since been modified, with the removal of the original property requirements for voting, as well as giving the vote to women and blacks. U.S. Voting Rights A number of critics argue that the United States political system is, itself, an oligarchic structure. Third party candidates stand little chance of election to national office, due to the enormous monetary capital needed to purchase advertising time and to make other key connections in order to gain sufficient attention from the electorate. Since large donors fuel national political races, expecting due compensation in return for funding the winners' campaigns, it is difficult to distinguish between the current situation and societies most commonly recognized as oligarchies. It is, many feel, a return to aristocratic rule, in which the common people have little control over their political fate; feelings of being "sold out" frequently lead to apathy, now recognized as the most common problem in American politics. The Iron Law of Oligarchy Some authors, such as Zulma Riley, Keith Riley, Mathew Marquess, and Robert Michels, believe that any political system eventually evolves into an oligarchy. This theory is called the "iron law of oligarchy". According to this school of thought, modern democracies should be considered as elected oligarchies. In these systems, actual differences between viable political rivals are small, the oligarchic elite impose strict limits on what constitutes an 'acceptable' and 'respectable' political position, and politicians' careers depend heavily on unelected economic and media elites. The disadvantage of this position is that it is not falsifiable. As a proposition, it cannot ever be evaluated as incorrect, hence the "iron law" aspect derived from the "any...eventually" aspect. Thus the popular phrase: there is only one political party, the 'incumbent' party. See also Government terms: Aristocracy Elitism Crony capitalism Dictatorship Forms of government Meritocracy Netocracy Oligopoly Plutocracy Political family Theocracy Timocracy Power behind the throne Russian oligarchs Fascism Links to a recent Russian example of oligarchy: Boris Yeltsin. Boris Berezovsky. The Yukos oil company. Vasily Aleksanyan. Vladimir Gusinsky. Mikhail Khodorkovsky. Relevant authors: Vilfredo Pareto Gaetano Mosca Thomas R. Dye Robert Michels Plato Webster Tarpley References Ostwald, M. Oligarchia: The Development of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece (Historia Einzelschirften; 144). Stuttgart: Steiner, 2000 (ISBN 3-515-07680-8). External links Online Text: Leonard Whibley, Greek Oligarchies: Their Character and Organisation (1869), still the only full-scale treatment of oligarchy in Classical Greece. | Oligarchy |@lemmatized oligarchy:28 greek:4 oligarkhía:1 form:6 government:7 power:9 effectively:1 rest:2 small:5 elite:4 segment:1 society:7 distinguish:2 royal:1 wealth:4 family:4 military:1 religious:2 hegemony:1 word:3 ὀλίγος:1 olígos:1 rule:10 ἀρχή:1 arkhē:1 state:6 often:3 control:3 politically:1 powerful:1 whose:1 child:1 heavily:2 condition:1 mentor:1 heir:1 tyrannical:1 throughout:1 history:1 completely:1 reliant:1 public:1 servitude:1 exist:1 although:2 aristotle:1 pioneer:1 use:1 term:4 synonym:1 rich:1 exact:1 plutocracy:2 always:1 oligarch:3 simply:1 privileged:1 group:3 city:1 ancient:5 greece:3 v:1 monarchy:3 early:2 may:1 become:4 outgrowth:1 alliance:1 rival:2 tribal:1 chieftain:1 result:1 caste:1 system:5 instrument:1 transformation:1 insist:1 monarch:1 dictator:1 share:1 thereby:1 open:1 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1,977 | Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2) | Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (commonly known as Mabo) was a landmark Australian court case which was decided by the High Court of Australia on June 3, 1992. The effective result of the judgement was to make irrelevant the declaration of terra nullius, or "land belonging to no-one" which had been taken to occur from the commencement British colonisation in 1788, and to recognise a form of native title. It is argued by some historians that the Royal Proclamation of 1763 was seen to apply to Australia at the time of settlement, and therefore governed unceded territories. Although Mabo was litigated within the legal context of property law, the decisions clearly had much wider implications which have still to be determined. The case The action which brought about the decision had been led by Eddie Mabo, David Passi and James Rice, all from the Meriam people (from the Murray Islands in the Torres Strait). They commenced proceedings in the High Court in 1982, in response to the Queensland Amendment Act 1982 establishing a system of making land grants on trust for Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders, which the Murray Islanders refused to accept. The Plaintiffs were represented by Ron Castan, Bryan Keon-Cohen and Greg McIntyre. The action was brought as a test case to determine the legal rights of the Meriam people to land on the islands of Mer (Murray Island), Dauar and Waier in the Torres Strait, which were annexed to the state of Queensland in 1879. Prior to European contact the Meriam people had lived on the islands in a subsistence economy based on cultivation and fishing. Land on the islands was not subject of public or general community ownership, but was regarded as belonging to individuals or groups. In 1985 the Queensland Government attempted to terminate the proceedings by enacting the Queensland Coast Islands Declaratory Act 1985, which declared that on annexation of the islands in 1879, title to the islands was vested in the state of Queensland "freed from all other rights, interests and claims whatsoever". In Mabo v Queensland (No 1) (1988) the High Court held that this legislation was contrary to the Racial Discrimination Act 1975. The plaintiffs sought declarations, inter alia, that the Meriam people were entitled to the Murray Islands "as owners; as possessors; as occupiers; or as persons entitled to use and enjoy the said islands". Plaintiff's arguments: The plaintiff argued for a possessory title by reason of long possession. Defendant's arguments: The Queensland government argued that when the territory of a settled colony became part of the Crown's dominions, the law of England became the law of the colony and, by that law, the Crown acquired the "absolute beneficial ownership" of all land in the territory. The decision Five judgments were delivered in the High Court, by (1) Justice Brennan, (2) Justice Deane and Justice Gaudron, (3) Justice Toohey, (4) Justice Dawson, and (5) Chief Justice Mason and Justice McHugh. The decision was based on the findings of fact made by Justice Moynihan of the Supreme Court of Queensland: that the Murray Islanders had a strong sense of relationship to the islands and regarded the land as theirs. All of the judges, except Justice Dawson, agreed that: there was a concept of native title at common law; the source of native title was the traditional connection to or occupation of the land; the nature and content of native title was determined by the character of the connection or occupation under traditional laws or customs; and native title could be extinguished by the valid exercise of governmental powers provided a clear and plain intention to do so was manifest. Rejection of terra nullius: The decision recognised that the indigenous population had a pre-existing system of law, which, along with all rights subsisting thereunder, would remain in force under the new sovereign except where specifically modified or extinguished by legislative or executive action. The Court purported to achieve all this without altering the traditional assumption that the Australian land mass was "settled". Instead, the rules for a "settled" colony were said to be assimilated to the rules for a "conquered" colony. Repudiation of absolute beneficial title of all lands: The majority in Mabo also rejected the proposition that immediately upon the acquisition of sovereignty, absolute beneficial ownership of all the lands of the Colony vested in the Crown. The majority rejected the traditional feudal development of the doctrine of tenure as inappropriate for Australia, and rather saw that upon acquisition of sovereignty the Crown acquired not an absolute but a radical title, and that title would be subject to native title rights where those rights had not been validly extinguished. Thus the court accepted that a modified doctrine of tenure operated in Australia, and that the law of tenure (as a product of the common law) could co-exist with the law of native title (as a product of customary laws and traditions), though where there had been a valid grant of fee simple by the Crown the latter title would be extinguished. Fragmentation of proprietary interests: Justice Toohey made the argument that common law possessory title could form the basis for native title claims by indigenous Australians. This has not subsequently been pursued. Consequences The Mabo decision presented many legal and political problems for the Federal Government and the states, including: the necessity to validate titles issued after the commencement of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 which might have been rendered invalid by that Act; a requirement to make provision for permitted future development of land affected by native title; provide a regime for the speedy and efficient determination of issues of native title. In response to the Mabo judgment and to the subsequent and potential reactions, the Australian Federal Parliament (then controlled by the Labor Party led by Paul Keating) enacted the Native Title Act 1993. This was amended in 1998 following the 1996 Wik Decision. The Act enacted a statutory definition of native title based on that made by Justice Brennan in the case (s233 NTA), and provided a means for validating acts, providing compensation and determining native title. The Act also provides for a Native Title Tribunal. See also Common law Torres Strait Islanders History of Australia Terra Nullius Native title Milirrpum References Richard Bartlett, "The Proprietary Nature of Native Title" (1993) 6 Australian Property Law Journal 1. External links and Another v The State of Queensland and Another'' [1989] HCA 69; (1989) 166 CLR 186 and Others v Queensland (No. 2)'' [1992] HCA 23; (1992) 175 CLR 1 Native Title Act'' 1993 (Cth) The Hon. Sir Gerard Brennan, convention paper regarding Mabo to an International Conference Papers of Edward Koiki Mabo, held by the National Library of Australia | Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2) |@lemmatized mabo:10 v:4 queensland:11 commonly:1 know:1 landmark:1 australian:5 court:8 case:4 decide:1 high:4 australia:6 june:1 effective:1 result:1 judgement:1 make:6 irrelevant:1 declaration:2 terra:3 nullius:3 land:11 belong:1 one:1 take:1 occur:1 commencement:2 british:1 colonisation:1 recognise:2 form:2 native:17 title:25 argue:3 historian:1 royal:1 proclamation:1 see:2 apply:1 time:1 settlement:1 therefore:1 govern:1 unceded:1 territory:3 although:1 litigate:1 within:1 legal:3 context:1 property:2 law:14 decision:7 clearly:1 much:1 wider:1 implication:1 still:1 determine:4 action:3 bring:2 lead:2 eddie:1 david:1 passi:1 james:1 rice:1 meriam:4 people:4 murray:5 islands:2 torres:4 strait:4 commence:1 proceeding:2 response:2 amendment:1 act:10 establish:1 system:2 grant:2 trust:1 aboriginal:1 islander:4 refuse:1 accept:2 plaintiff:4 represent:1 ron:1 castan:1 bryan:1 keon:1 cohen:1 greg:1 mcintyre:1 test:1 right:5 island:9 mer:1 dauar:1 waier:1 annex:1 state:4 prior:1 european:1 contact:1 live:1 subsistence:1 economy:1 base:3 cultivation:1 fishing:1 subject:2 public:1 general:1 community:1 ownership:3 regard:3 belonging:1 individual:1 group:1 government:3 attempt:1 terminate:1 enact:3 coast:1 declaratory:1 declare:1 annexation:1 vest:2 freed:1 interest:2 claim:2 whatsoever:1 hold:2 legislation:1 contrary:1 racial:2 discrimination:2 seek:1 inter:1 alia:1 entitle:2 owner:1 possessor:1 occupier:1 person:1 use:1 enjoy:1 say:2 argument:3 possessory:2 reason:1 long:1 possession:1 defendant:1 settled:1 colony:5 become:2 part:1 crown:5 dominion:1 england:1 acquire:2 absolute:4 beneficial:3 five:1 judgment:2 deliver:1 justice:11 brennan:3 deane:1 gaudron:1 toohey:2 dawson:2 chief:1 mason:1 mchugh:1 finding:1 fact:1 moynihan:1 supreme:1 strong:1 sense:1 relationship:1 judge:1 except:2 agree:1 concept:1 common:4 source:1 traditional:4 connection:2 occupation:2 nature:2 content:1 character:1 custom:1 could:3 extinguish:4 valid:2 exercise:1 governmental:1 power:1 provide:5 clear:1 plain:1 intention:1 manifest:1 rejection:1 indigenous:2 population:1 pre:1 exist:2 along:1 subsist:1 thereunder:1 would:3 remain:1 force:1 new:1 sovereign:1 specifically:1 modify:1 legislative:1 executive:1 purport:1 achieve:1 without:1 alter:1 assumption:1 mass:1 settle:2 instead:1 rule:2 assimilate:1 conquer:1 repudiation:1 majority:2 also:3 reject:2 proposition:1 immediately:1 upon:2 acquisition:2 sovereignty:2 feudal:1 development:2 doctrine:2 tenure:3 inappropriate:1 rather:1 saw:1 radical:1 validly:1 thus:1 modified:1 operate:1 product:2 co:1 customary:1 tradition:1 though:1 fee:1 simple:1 latter:1 fragmentation:1 proprietary:2 basis:1 subsequently:1 pursue:1 consequence:1 present:1 many:1 political:1 problem:1 federal:2 include:1 necessity:1 validate:2 issue:2 might:1 render:1 invalid:1 requirement:1 provision:1 permitted:1 future:1 affect:1 regime:1 speedy:1 efficient:1 determination:1 subsequent:1 potential:1 reaction:1 parliament:1 control:1 labor:1 party:1 paul:1 keating:1 amend:1 follow:1 wik:1 statutory:1 definition:1 nta:1 mean:1 compensation:1 tribunal:1 history:1 milirrpum:1 reference:1 richard:1 bartlett:1 journal:1 external:1 link:1 another:2 hca:2 clr:2 others:1 cth:1 hon:1 sir:1 gerard:1 convention:1 paper:2 international:1 conference:1 edward:1 koiki:1 national:1 library:1 |@bigram torres_strait:4 racial_discrimination:2 inter_alia:1 supreme_court:1 external_link:1 act_cth:1 |
1,978 | Avicenna | '', known as Abu Ali Sina Balkhi http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/avicen.html http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/asina/abu_ali_sina.php () or Ibn Sina () and commonly known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna (, Abitzianos), (born c. 980 near Bukhara, contemporary Uzbekistan, died 1037 in Hamedan in modern Iran) was a Persian "Avicenna", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Concise Online Version, 2006 (); D. Gutas, "Avicenna", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Version 2006, (LINK); Avicenna in (Encyclopedia of Islam: © 1999 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands) polymath and the foremost Istanbul to host Ibn Sina Int'l Symposium, Retrieved on: December 17, 2008. physician and philosopher of his time. He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, physicist, poet, psychologist, scientist, and teacher. Avicenna", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Version 2006, Ibn Sīnā studied medicine under a physician named Koushyar. He wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine. Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina) His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. Avicenna 980-1037 The Canon of Medicine was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Louvain as late as 1650. Medicine : an exhibition of books relating to medicine and surgery from the collection formed by J.K. Lilly. Ibn Sīnā developed a medical system that combined his own personal experience with that of Islamic medicine, the medical system of the Greek physician Galen, Islamic Medical Manuscripts: Catalogue - Galen Aristotelian metaphysics Articles on Avicenna, Averroes and Maimonides (Avicenna was one of the main interpreters of Aristotle) Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina) , and ancient Persian, Mesopotamian and Indian medicine. He was also the founder of Avicennian logic and the philosophical school of Avicennism, which were influential among both Muslim and Scholastic thinkers. Ibn Sīnā is regarded as a father of modern medicine, Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23. Medical Practitioners and clinical pharmacology D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [448-449]. particularly for his introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology, Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170. his discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, clinical trials, David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", The Journal of The Gulf Heart Association 4 (2): 69-81. randomized controlled trials, Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, p. 34–44 [36]. Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), p. 13–21 [19]. efficacy tests, D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449]. Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press. clinical pharmacology, neuropsychiatry, risk factor analysis, the idea of the syndrome, and the importance of dietetics and the influence of climate and environment on health. The Canon of Medicine, The American Institute of Unani Medicine, 2003. He is also considered the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974. and regarded as a pioneer of aromatherapy for his invention of steam distillation and extraction of essential oils. Marlene Ericksen (2000). Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0658003828. He also developed the concept of uniformitarianism and law of superposition in geology. George Sarton, an author of the history of science, wrote in the Introduction to the History of Science: Circumstances Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as Islam's Golden Age, in which the translations of Graeco-Roman, Neo- and Mid-Platonic, and Aristotelian texts by the Kindi schools were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, as well as building upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, and medicine. The Samanid dynasty in Greater Khorasan and central Asia as well as Buwayhid on in western part of Persia and Iraq could provide a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivalled Baghdad as a cultural capital of Islam. The study of Quran and Hadith thrived in such a scholarly atmosphere. Philosophy Fiqh and theology kalam were further developed, most noticeably by Avicenna and his opponents. al-Razi and Al-Farabi had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine and philosophy. Avicenna could use the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamedan. As various texts, such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar show, he debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. As Aruzi Samarqandi describes in his four articles before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met Abu Rayhan Biruni (a noted scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician). Biography Early life His full name was Hussain ibn Abdullah ibn Hassan ibn Ali ibn Sina. He was born in Afshana, near Bukhara around 980 to a Persian "Avicenna", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Concise Online Version, 2006 (); D. Gutas, "Avicenna", in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Version 2006, (LINK); Avicenna in (Encyclopedia of Islam: © 1999 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands) family. He was born in Khurmaithan, a village near Bukhara in Greater Khorasan which was his mother's hometown. His father, Abdullah, was a respected Ismaili Corbin, (1993) p. 170 Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim Physician And Philosopher of the Eleventh Century, p. 38, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 1404205098. scholar from Balkh, an important town of the Persian Empire, in what is today contemporary Afghanistan. Prominent theologian Henry Corbin believed that Ibn Sina himself was a Twelver Shi'a Corbin, (1993) p.170 . His mother was named Setareh. His father was at the time of his son's birth the governor in one of the Samanid Nuh ibn Mansur's estates. He had his son very carefully educated at Bukhara. Ibn Sina's independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen. As he said in his autobiography, there was nothing that he had not learned when he reached eighteen. Ibn Sīnā was put under the charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours; he displayed exceptional intellectual behaviour and was a child prodigy who had memorized the Qur'an by the age of 10 (10 or 7? it says 7 in the theology section below) and a great deal of Persian poetry as well. He learned Indian arithmetic from an Indian greengrocer, and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young. He also studied Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) under the Hanafi scholar Ismail al-Zahid. Khan, Aisha (2006), Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim Physician And Philosopher of the Eleventh Century, p. 38, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 1404205098. Jorge J. E. Gracia and Timothy B. Noone (2003), A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages, p. 196, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0631216731. As a teenager, he was greatly troubled by the Metaphysics of Aristotle, which he could not understand until he read al-Farabi's commentary on the work. Corbin, (1993) p. 168 For the next year and a half, he studied philosophy, in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions (wudu), then go to the mosque, and continue in prayer (salah) till light broke on his difficulties. Deep into the night he would continue his studies, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty times, it is said, he read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle, till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by Farabi, which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhams. So great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor. He turned to medicine at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but also by gratuitous attendance of the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment. The teenager achieved full status as a qualified physician at age 18, and found that "Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like mathematics and metaphysics, so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies." The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment. Adulthood His first appointment was that of physician to the emir, who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997). Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the Samanids, well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works. When Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004. Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud of Ghazni, and proceeded westwards to Urgench in the modern Uzbekistan, where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for his talents. Qabus, the generous ruler of Dailam and central Persia, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find an asylum, was about that date (1012) starved to death by his troops who had revolted. Ibn Sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at Gorgan, near the Caspian Sea, Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on logic and astronomy. Several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written for this patron; and the commencement of his Canon of Medicine also dates from his stay in Hyrcania. Ibn Sina subsequently settled at Rai, in the vicinity of modern Tehran, (present day capital of Iran), the home town of Rhazes; where Majd Addaula, a son of the last Buwayhid emir, was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother (Seyyedeh Khatun). About thirty of Ibn Sina's shorter works are said to have been composed in Rai. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, Shams al-Daula, however, compelled the scholar to quit the place. After a brief sojourn at Qazvin he passed southwards to Hamadãn where Shams al-Daula, another Buwayhid emir, had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The emir consented that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in a sheikh Ahmed Fadhel's house, until a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina persevered with his studies and teaching. Every evening, extracts from his great works, the Canon and the Sanatio, were dictated and explained to his pupils. On the death of the emir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works. Meanwhile, he had written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of the dynamic city of Isfahan, offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina was hidden, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in 1024 the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Tajik mercenaries. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the emir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labours. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a Sufi ascetic. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honourable welcome from the prince. Later life and Death Avicenna's tomb in Hamedan, Iran Avicenna's tomb from the inside,Hamedan, Iran/Persia. The remaining ten or twelve years of Ibn Sīnā's life were spent in the service of Abu Ja'far 'Ala Addaula, whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns. During these years he began to study literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. He contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of Averroes. A severe colic, which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadan, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadan, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate. His friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately. He refused, however, stating that: "I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length". On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the Qur'an. He died in June 1037, in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in Hamedan, Iran. Avicennian science Medicine and pharmacology Though the threads which comprise Unani healing can be traced all the way back to Claudius Galenus of Pergamum, who lived in the second century of the Christian Era, the basic knowledge of Unani medicine as a healing system was developed by Hakim Ibn Sina in his medical encyclopedia The Canon of Medicine. The time of origin is thus dated at circa 1025 AD, when Avicenna wrote The Canon of Medicine in Persia. While he was primarily influenced by Greek and Islamic medicine, he was also influenced by the Indian medical teachings of Sushruta and Charaka. Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine The Canon of Medicine A Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. The best-known amongst them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text in Europe and the Islamic world up until the 18th century. Ziauddin Sardar, Science in Islamic philosophy The book is known for its introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology, the discovery of contagious diseases and sexually transmitted diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of infectious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine, clinical trials, neuropsychiatry, S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", Neurosurg Focus 23 (1), E13, p. 3. risk factor analysis, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases, and hypothesized the existence of microrganisms. It classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes. Hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered. In this, Ibn Sīnā is credited as being the first to correctly document the anatomy of the human eye, along with descriptions of eye afflictions such as cataracts. It asserts that tuberculosis was contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true. It also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes. Both forms of facial paralysis were described in-depth. In addition, the workings of the heart as a valve are described. The Canon of Medicine was the first book dealing with experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, randomized controlled trials, and efficacy tests, D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [448]. and it laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still form the basis of clinical pharmacology and modern clinical trials: "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality." "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease." "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones." "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them." "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused." "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect." "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man." A copy of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1593 An Arabic edition of the Canon appeared at Rome in 1593, and a Hebrew version at Naples in 1491. Of the Latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by Gerard de Sabloneta. In the 15th century a commentary on the text of the Canon was composed. Other medical works translated into Latin are the Medicamenta Cordialia, Canticum de Medicina, and the Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso. It was mainly accident which determined that from the 12th to the 18th century, Ibn Sīnā should be the guide of medical study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes, Ali ibn al-Abbas and Averroes. His work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of Galen, and through Galen the doctrine of Hippocrates, modified by the system of Aristotle, as well as the Indian doctrines of Sushruta and Charaka. Hakeem Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the field of Medicine But the Canon of Ibn Sīnā is distinguished from the Al-Hawi (Continens) or Summary of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former. The work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like Averroes, holding it useful only as waste paper. In modern times it has been mainly of historic interest as most of its tenets have been disproved or expanded upon by scientific medicine. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases. It includes five books; of which the first and second discuss physiology, pathology and hygiene, the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part contains some personal observations. He is ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior in practical medicine and surgery. He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the Peripatetic system. Of natural history and botany he pretended to no special knowledge. Up to the year 1650, or thereabouts, the Canon was still used as a textbook in the universities of Leuven and Montpellier. In the museum at Bukhara, there are displays showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment. Ibn Sīnā was interested in the effect of the mind on the body, and wrote a great deal on psychology, likely influencing Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Bajjah. He also introduced medical herbs. Avicenna extended the theory of temperaments in The Canon of Medicine to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams." He summarized his version of the four humours and temperaments in a table as follows: <center>Avicenna's four humours and temperaments<center> Evidence Hot Cold Moist Dry Morbid states inflammations become febrile fevers related to serious humour, rheumatism lassitude loss of vigour Functional power deficient energy deficient digestive power difficult digestion Subjective sensations bitter taste, excessive thirst, burning at cardia Lack of desire for fluids mucoid salivation, sleepiness insomnia, wakefulness Physical signs high pulse rate, lassitude flaccid joints diarrhea, swollen eyelids, rough skin, acquired habit rough skin, acquired habit Foods & medicines calefacients harmful, infrigidants beneficial infrigidants harmful, calefacients beneficial moist articles harmful dry regimen harmful, humectants beneficial Relation to weather worse in summer worse in winter bad in autumn Avicennian psychology In Muslim psychology and the neurosciences, Avicenna was a pioneer of neuropsychiatry. He first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. Avicenna was also a pioneer in psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. He recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the word association test attributed to Carl Jung. Avicenna is reported to have treated a very ill patient by "feeling the patient's pulse and reciting aloud to him the names of provinces, districts, towns, streets, and people." He noticed how the patient's pulse increased when certain names were mentioned, from which Avicenna deduced that the patient was in love with a girl whose home Avicenna was "able to locate by the digital examination." Avicenna advised the patient to marry the girl he is in love with, and the patient soon recovered from his illness after his marriage. Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association, 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7]. Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises "on the soul"). The main thesis of these tracts is represented in his so-called "flying man" argument, which resonates with what was centuries later entailed by Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an "epoche"). Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000), pp. 149-171. Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna’s De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp. 67-89. In the The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna dealt with neuropsychiatry and described a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including melancholia. S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", Neurosurgical Focus 23 (1), E13, p. 3. He described melancholia as a depressive type of mood disorder in which the person may become suspicious and develop certain types of phobias. Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [366]. Astronomy and astrology In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani, a pupil of Ibn Sīnā, claimed that his teacher Ibn Sīnā had solved the equant problem in Ptolemy's planetary model. A. I. Sabra (1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy", Perspectives on Science 6 (3), p. 288-330 [305-306]. Also in astronomy, he criticized Aristotle's incorrect view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun. Ibn Sīnā correctly stated that the stars are self-luminous, though he believed that the planets are also self-luminous. The study of astrology was refuted by Avicenna. His reasons were both due to the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox Islam. He also cited passages from the Qur'an in order to justify his refutation of astrology on both scientific and religious grounds. George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, p. 60, 67-69. New York University Press, ISBN 0814780237. Chemistry In chemistry, the chemical process of steam distillation was first described by Ibn Sīnā. The technique was used to produce alcohol and essential oils; the latter was fundamental to aromatherapy. He also invented the refrigerated coil, which condenses the aromatic vapours. This was a breakthrough in distillation technology and he made use of it in his steam distillation process, which requires refrigerated tubing, to produce essential oils. As a chemist, Avicenna was one of the first to write refutations on alchemy, after al-Kindi. Four of his works on the refutation of alchemy were translated into Latin as: Georges C. Anawati (1996), "Arabic alchemy", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 853-885 [875]. Routledge, London and New York. Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae Declaratio Lapis physici Avicennae filio sui Aboali Avicennae de congelatione et conglutinatione lapifum Avicennae ad Hasan Regem epistola de Re recta In one of these works, Ibn Sīnā discredited the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists: Among his works refuting alchemy, Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. In another work, translated into Latin as De congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum, Ibn Sina proposed a four-part classification of inorganic bodies, which was a significant improvement over the two-part classification of Aristotle (into orycta and metals) and three-part classification of Galen (into terrae, lapides and metals). The four parts of Ibn Sina's classification were: lapides, sulfur, salts and metals. Earth sciences Ibn Sīnā wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in The Book of Healing, in which he developed the concept of uniformitarianism and law of superposition in geology. Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965), The Ancestry of Science: The Discovery of Time, p. 64, University of Chicago Press (cf. The Contribution of Ibn Sina to the development of Earth sciences) While discussing the formation of mountains, he explained: Physics In physics, Ibn Sīnā was the first to employ an air thermometer to measure air temperature in his scientific experiments. Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 191. In 1253, a Latin text entitled Speculum Tripartitum stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on heat: In mechanics, Ibn Sīnā developed an elaborate theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. Fernando Espinoza (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching", Physics Education 40 (2), p. 141. He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance. A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477 – 482: His theory of motion was thus consistent with the concept of inertia in Newton's first law of motion. Ibn Sīnā also referred to mayl to as being proportional to weight times velocity, a precursor to the concept of momentum in Newton's second law of motion. A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), p. 477 – 482: Ibn Sīnā's theory of mayl was further developed by Jean Buridan in his theory of impetus. In optics, Ibn Sina "observed that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite." George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. 1, p. 710. He also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. Carl Benjamin Boyer described Avicenna's ("Ibn Sīnā") theory on the rainbow as follows: Avicennian philosophy Ibn Sīnā wrote extensively on early Islamic philosophy, especially the subjects logic, ethics, and metaphysics, including treatises named Logic and Metaphysics. Most of his works were written in Arabic - which was the de facto scientific language of that time, and some were written in the Persian language. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language (particularly the Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for Ala' ad-Dawla'). Ibn Sīnā's commentaries on Aristotle often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad. In the medieval Islamic world, due to Avicenna's successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism along with Kalam, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of Islamic philosophy by the 12th century, with Avicenna becoming a central authority on philosophy. Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. Avicennism was also influential in medieval Europe, particular his doctrines on the nature of the soul and his existence-essence distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in scholastic Europe. This was particularly the case in Paris, where Avicennism was later proscribed in 1210. Nevertheless, his psychology and theory of knowledge influenced William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus, while his metaphysics had an impact on the thought of Thomas Aquinas. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037) Metaphysical doctrine Early Islamic philosophy, imbued as it is with Islamic theology, distinguishes more clearly than Aristotelianism the difference between essence and existence. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Ibn Sīnā, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a truly definitive Islamic philosophy can be seen in what is left to us of his work. Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect. Avicenna’s consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency, and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (mumkin bi-dhatihi) has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a ‘necessary existent due to what is other than itself’ (wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi) is true in itself, while the contingent being is ‘false in itself’ and ‘true due to something else other than itself’. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists. Avicenna, Kitab al-shifa’, Metaphysics II, (eds.) G. C. Anawati, Ibrahim Madkour, Sa’id Zayed (Cairo, 1975), p. 36 Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (2001), pp. 753-778 The Necessary exists ‘due-to-Its-Self’, and has no quiddity/essence (mahiyya) other than existence (wujud). Furthermore, It is ‘One’ (wahid ahad) Avicenna, Metaphysica of Avicenna, trans. Parviz Morewedge (New York, 1973), p. 43. since there cannot be more than one ‘Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself’ without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist ‘due-to-themselves’ as well as ‘due to what is other than themselves’; and this is contradictory. However, if no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then there is no sense in which these ‘Existents’ are not one and the same. Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000) Avicenna adds that the ‘Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself’ has no genus (jins), nor a definition (hadd), nor a counterpart (nadd), nor an opposite (did), and is detached (bari’) from matter (madda), quality (kayf), quantity (kam), place (ayn), situation (wad’), and time (waqt). Avicenna, Kitab al-Hidaya, ed. Muhammad ‘Abdu (Cairo, 1874), pp. 262-3 Salem Mashran, al-Janib al-ilahi ‘ind Ibn Sina (Damascus, 1992), p. 99 Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna’s Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), pp. 243-261 Avicennian logic Avicenna discussed the topic of logic in Islamic philosophy extensively in his works, and developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world. I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", A history of formal logic, p. 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, Indiana University Press. (cf. Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) After the Latin translations of the 12th century, Avicennian logic was also influential in Europe. Ibn Sina developed an early theory on hypothetical syllogism, which formed the basis of his early risk factor analysis. He also developed an early theory on propositional calculus, which was an area of logic not covered in the Aristotelian tradition. Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), Avicenna, p. 188, Routledge, ISBN 041501929X. The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were also written by Ibn Sina, who developed an original theory on temporal modal syllogism. History of logic: Arabic logic, Encyclopædia Britannica. Ibn Sina also contributed inventively to the development of inductive logic, being the first to describe the methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method. Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806. Natural philosophy Ibn Sina and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī engaged in a written debate, with Abu Rayhan Biruni mostly criticizing Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school, while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to Biruni's criticisms in writing. Abu Rayhan began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens. Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, June 2003. Philosophy of science In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he develops a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry." Theology Ibn Sīnā was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. His aim was to prove the existence of God and his creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic. Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 8-9, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806. Avicenna wrote a number of treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the Islamic prophets, whom he viewed as "inspired philosophers", and on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Qur'an, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his own philosophical system. James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic PhIlosophy, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, p. 142-188 [159-161]. Ibn Sīnā memorized the Qur'an by the age of seven, and as an adult, he wrote five treatises commenting on suras from the Qur'an. One of these texts included the Proof of Prophecies, in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Qur'an in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers. Jules Janssens (2004), "Avicenna and the Qur'an: A Survey of his Qur'anic commentaries", MIDEO 25, p. 177-192. Thought experiments While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous "Floating Man" thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul. He referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. Nasr (1996), pp. 315, 1022 and 1023 Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000), pp. 149-171. Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna’s De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp. 67-89. Other contributions Engineering In the chapters on mechanics and engineering in his encyclopedia Mi'yar al-'aql (The Measure of the Mind), Avicenna writes an analysis on the ilm al-hiyal (science of ingenious devices) and makes the first successful attempt to classify simple machines and their combinations. He first describes and illustrates the five constituent simple machines: the lever, pulley, screw, wedge, and windlass. He then analyzes all the combinations of these simple machines, such as the windlass-screw, windlass-pulley and windlass-lever for example. He is also the first to describe a mechanism which is essentially a combination of all of these simple machines (except for the wedge). Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 2, p. 614-642 [633]. Routledge, London and New York. Poetry Almost half of Ibn Sīnā's works are versified. E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine (sometimes also printed under the title Arabian medicine), 2002, Goodword Pub., ISBN 81-87570-19-9, p61 His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to Omar Khayyám, and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā: E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine (sometimes also printed under the title Arabian medicine), 2002, Goodword Pub., ISBN 81-87570-19-9, p60-61) When some of his opponents blame him for blasphemy, he says ملاقات تاریخی ابوسعید ابوالخیر و ابو علی سینا Legacy As early as the 1300s when Dante Alighieri showed him experiencing a perfect eternity with some of the greatest men in history in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato, and Saladin, Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West, as one of history's great figures. George Sarton, the father of the history of science, described Ibn Sīnā as "one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history" and called him "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine. He was influenced by the approach of Hippocrates and Galen, as well as Sushruta and Charaka. Along with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis, and al-Ibadi, Ibn Sīnā is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. Ibn Sīnā is also considered the father of the fundamental concept of momentum in physics. In Iran, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived. Many portraits and statues remain in Iran today. An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands outside the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris. There is also a crater on the Moon named Avicenna. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan (Iran), the ibn Sīnā Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe (The capital of the Republic of Tajikistan), Avicenna School in Karachi, Pakistan Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, and Ibn Siena Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour.Avicenna monument in Dushanbe In 1980, the former Soviet Union, which then ruled his birthplace Bukhara, celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Avicenna's birth by circulating various commemorative stamps with artistic illustrations, and by erecting a bust of Avicenna based on anthropological research by Soviet scholars. Professor Dr. İbrahim Hakkı Aydin (2001), "Avicenna And Modern Neurological Sciences", Journal of Academic Researches in Religious Sciences 1 (2): 1-4. In March 2008, it was announced Educating health professionals: the Avicenna project The Lancet, Volume 371 pp 966 – 967 that Avicenna’s name would be used for new Directories of education institutions for health care professionals, worldwide. The Avicenna Directories will list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The project team stated “Why Avicenna? Avicenna … was … noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna’s name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.” Works Avicenna celebrated on a stamp printed in Dubai. Scarcely any member of the Muslim circle of the sciences, including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and music, was left untouched by the treatises of Ibn Sīnā. This vast quantity of works - be they full-blown treatises or opuscula - vary so much in style and content (if one were to compare between the ahd made with his disciple Bahmanyar to uphold philosophical integrity with the Provenance and Direction, for example) that Yahya (formerly Jean) Michot has accused him of "neurological bipolarity". Ibn Sīnā's works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine. His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Sīnā wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His book on animals was translated by Michael Scot. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine, though the Metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Ibn Sīnā's world; Arabic philosophers have hinted at the idea that Ibn Sīnā was attempting to "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world. The Logic and Metaphysics have been printed more than once, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495, and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836). Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a حكمت مشرقيه (hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin Philosophia Orientalis), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone. List of works This is the list of some of Avicenna's well-known works: IBN SINA ABU ‘ALI AL-HUSAYN Sirat al-shaykh al-ra’is (The Life of Ibn Sina), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Ibn Sina’s autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu ‘Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna’s Philosophical Works, Leiden: Brill, 1988.) Al-Isharat wa-‘l-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996. Al-Qanun fi’l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.) Risalah fi sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Danishnama-i ‘ala’i (The Book of Scientific Knowledge), ed. and trans. P Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973. Kitab al-Shifa’ (The Book of Healing). (Ibn Sina’s major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa’ in 1014, and completed it in 1020.) Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952-83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour Hayy ibn Yaqdhan a Persian myth. A novel called Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, based on Avicenna's story, was later written by Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) in the 12th century and translated into Latin and English as Philosophus Autodidactus in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively. In the 13th century, Ibn al-Nafis wrote his own novel Fadil ibn Natiq, known as Theologus Autodidactus in the West, as a critical response to Hayy ibn Yaqdhan. Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", pp. 95-102, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. Persian Works Danishnama-i ‘Alai(the Book of Knowledge for 'Alai) One of Avicenna's important Persian work is the Daaneshnaame(literally: the book of knoweldge) for 'Alaa (the local Buyid ruler). The linguist aspects of the Dāneš-nāma and the originality of their Persian vocabulary are of great interest to Iranian philologists. Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not existed before in the modern Persian language. The Dāneš-nāma covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. Andar Danesh-e-Rag(On the science of the pulse) This book contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is condensed synonpsis. Footnotes References Books Encyclopedia Further reading A good introduction to his life and philosophical thought is Avicenna by Lenn E. Goodman (Cornell University Press: 1992, updated edition 2006) ISBN 041501929X, 9780415019293 For a list of extant works, C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.) For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd. Editio princeps d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) ISBN 2-84161-150-7. For an overview of his career see Shams Inati, "Ibn Sina" in History of Islamic Philosophy, ed. Hossein Seyyed Nasr and Oliver Leaman, New York: Routledge (1996). For Ibn Sina's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by de Slane (1842); F. Wüstenfeld's Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher (Gottingen, 1840). Shahrastani, German translation, vol. ii. 213-332 Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753-778 Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna’s De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp. 67-89 Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna’s Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), pp. 243-261 For his medicine, see Edward G. Browne, Islamic Medicine, 2002, Goodword Pub., ISBN 81-87570-19-9 Sprengel, Histoire de la Medicine For his philosophy, see Avicenne: Réfutation de l'astrologie. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) ISBN 2-84161-304-6. Amos Bertolacci, The reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A milestone of Western metaphysical thought (Leiden: Brill 2006) Dimitri Gutas, "Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works" (Leiden: Brill 1988) Michot, Jean R., La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne (Leuven: Peeters, 1986) ISBN 90-6381-071-2. Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000). Reisman, David C. (ed.), "Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group" (Leiden: Brill 2003) Shoja MM, Tubbs RS. The disorder of love in the Canon of Avicenna (A.D. 980-1037). Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164:228–229. Gordon, Stewart. When Asia was the World: Traveling Merchants, Scholars, Warriors, and Monks who created the "Riches of the East" Da Capo Press, Perseus Books, 2008. ISBN 0-306-81556-7. The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy, edited by P. Adamson and R. Taylor, (Cambridge: Cambridge: University Press 2005) External links Avicenna an article by Seyyed Hossein Nasr on Encyclopedia Britannica Online Avicenna on the subject and the object of metaphysics with a list of English translations of his philosophical works Philosophy Bites podcast on Avicenna. Avicenna An article by encyclopedia Iranica Biography & Works from Routledge Ibn Sina (Islamic Philosophy Online) Ibn Sina from the Encyclopedia of Islam Avicenna/Ibn Sina at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Physician's Day in Iran: A Reference Article on Pur Sina (Avicenna) by Manouchehr Saadat Noury Biography of Avicenna (in English) Biography of Avicenna Catholic Encyclopedia: Avicenna In Our Time, BBC 4 Radio podcast, 45 minutes on Avicenna The Ibn Sina (ship named after Ibn Sina) See also Abu al-Qasim Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī Al-Qumri Avicennia, a genus of mangrove named after Ibn Sīnā Ibn Sina Peak - named after the Scientist Eastern philosophy History of medicine Iranian philosophy Islamic science Islamic medicine List of Muslim scientists Islamic philosophy Early Islamic philosophy Sufi philosophy Islamic scholars Science and technology in Iran Ancient Iranian Medicine List of Iranian scientists and scholars Scholasticism The Book of Healing The Canon of Medicine </div> | 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1,979 | Organelle | In cell biology, an organelle (pronunciation: ) is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is usually separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane. A typical animal cell. Within the cytoplasm, the major organelles and cellular structures include: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (6) Golgi apparatus (7) cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytosol (12) lysosome (13) centriole. The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are to cells what an organ is to the body (hence the name organelle, the suffix -elle being a diminutive). Organelles are identified by microscopy, and can also be purified by cell fractionation. There are many types of organelles, particularly in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes were once thought not to have organelles, but some examples have now been identified. History and Terminology In biology, organs are defined as confined functional units within an organism. The analogy of bodily organs to microscopic cellular substructures is obvious, as from even early works, authors of respective textbooks rarely elaborate on the distinction between the two. Credited as the first Amer. Naturalist. 23, 1889, S. 183: „It may possibly be of advantage to use the word organula here instead of organ, following a suggestion by Möbius. Functionally-differentiated multicellular aggregates in multicellular forms or metazoa are in this sense organs, while, for functionally-differentiated portions of unicellular organisms or for such differentiated portions of the unicellular germ-elements of metazoa, the diminutive organula is appropriate.“ Cited after : Oxford English Dictionary online, entry for „organelle“. 'Journal de l'anatomie et de la physiologie normales et pathologiques de l'homme et des animaux' at Google Books to use a diminutive of organ (i.e. little organ) for cellular structures was German zoologist Karl August Möbius (1884), who used the term "organula" (plural form of organulum, the diminutive of latin organum). From the context, it is clear that he referred to reproduction related structures of protists. In a footnote, which was published as a correction in the next issue of the journal, he justified his suggestion to call organs of unicellular organisms "organella" since they are only differently formed parts of one cell, in contrast to multicellular organs of multicellular organisms. Thus, the original definition was limited to structures of unicellular organisms. It would take several years before organulum, or the later term organelle, became accepted and expanded in meaning to include subcellular structures in multicellular organisms. Books around 1900 from Valentin Häcker, Edmund Wilson and Oscar Hertwig still referred to cellular organs. Later, both terms came to be used side by side: Bengt Lidforss wrote 1915 (in German) about "Organs or Organells". Around 1920, the term organelle was used to describe propulsion structures ("motor organelle complex", i.e., flagella and their anchoring) and other protist structures, such as ciliates. Cl. Hamburger, Handwörterbuch der Naturw. Bd. V, .S. 435. Infusorien. cited after Alfred Kühn wrote about centrioles as division organelles, although he stated that, for Vahlkampfias, the alternative 'organelle' or 'product of structural build-up' had not yet been decided, without explaining the difference between the alternatives. In his 1953 textbook, Max Hartmann used the term for extracellular (pellicula, shells, cell walls) and intracellular skeletons of protists. Later, the now-widely-used Nultsch, Allgemeine Botanik, 11. Aufl. 2001, Thieme Verlag Wehner/Gehring, Zoologie, 23. Aufl. 1995, Thieme Verlag Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4. ed. 2002, online via "NCBI-Bookshelf" Brock, Mikrobiologie, 2. korrigierter Nachdruck (2003), der 1. Aufl. von 2001 definition of organelle emerged, after which only cellular structures with surrounding membrane had been considered organelles. However, the more original definition of subcellular functional unit in general still coexists. Strasburgers Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen, 35. Aufl. (2002), S. 42 In 1978, Albert Frey-Wyssling suggested that the term organelle should refer only to structures that convert energy, such as centrosomes, ribosomes, and nucleoli. Albert Frey-Wyssling: Concerning the concept "Organelle". Experientia 34, 547 (1978). This new definition, however, did not win wide recognition. Examples While most cell biologists consider the term organelle to be synonymous with "cell compartment," other cell biologists choose to limit the term organelle to include only those that are DNA-containing, having originated from formerly-autonomous microscopic organisms acquired via endosymbiosis. The most notable of these organelles having originated from endosymbiont bacteria are: mitochondria (in almost all eukaryotes) chloroplasts (in plants, algae and protists). Other organelles are also suggested to have endosymbiotic origins, (notably the flagellum - see evolution of flagella). Not all parts of the cell qualify as organelles, and the use of the term to refer to some structures is disputed. These structures are large assemblies of macromolecules that carry out particular and specialized functions, but they lack membrane boundaries. Such cell structures, which are not formally organelles, include: ribosome cytoskeleton flagellum centriole and microtubule-organizing center (MTOC). Eukaryotic organelles Eukaryotes are one of the most structurally complex cell type, and by definition are in part organized by smaller interior compartments, that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane. The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with the light microscope. They were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope. Not all eukaryotic cells have every one of the organelles listed below. Exceptional organisms have cells which do not include some organelles that might otherwise be considered universal to eukaryotes (such as mitochondria). There are also occasional exceptions to the number of membranes surrounding organelles, listed in the tables below (e.g., some that are listed as double-membrane are sometimes found with single or triple membranes). In addition, the number of individual organelles of each type found in a given cell varies depending upon the function of that cell. +Major eukaryotic organellesOrganelleMain functionStructureOrganismsNoteschloroplast (plastid)photosynthesisdouble-membrane compartmentplants, protists (rare kleptoplastic organisms)has some genes; theorized to be engulfed by the ancestral eukaryotic cell (endosymbiosis)endoplasmic reticulumtranslation and folding of new proteins (rough endoplasmic reticulum), expression of lipids (smooth endoplasmic reticulum)single-membrane compartmentall eukaryotesrough endoplasmic reticulum is covered with ribosomes, has folds that are flat sacs; smooth endoplasmic reticulum has folds that are tubularGolgi apparatussorting and modification of proteinssingle-membrane compartmentall eukaryotescis-face (convex) nearest to rough endoplasmic reticulum; trans-face (concave) farthest from rough endoplasmic reticulummitochondrionenergy productiondouble-membrane compartmentmost eukaryoteshas some DNA; theorized to be engulfed by the ancestral eukaryotic cell (endosymbiosis)vacuolestorage, homeostasissingle-membrane compartmenteukaryotesnucleusDNA maintenance, RNA transcriptiondouble-membrane compartmentall eukaryotes has bulk of genome Mitochondria and chloroplasts, which have double-membranes and their own DNA, are believed to have originated from incompletely consumed or invading prokaryotic organisms, which were adopted as a part of the invaded cell. This idea is supported in the Endosymbiotic theory. +Minor eukaryotic organelles and cell componentsOrganelle/MacromoleculeMain functionStructureOrganismsacrosomehelps spermatoza fuse with ovumsingle-membrane compartmentmany animalsautophagosomevesicle which sequesters cytoplasmic material and organelles for degradationdouble-membrane compartmentall eukaryotic cellscentrioleanchor for cytoskeletonMicrotubule proteinanimalsciliummovement in or of external medium; "critical developmental signaling pathway" . Microtubule proteinanimals, protists, few plantseyespot apparatusdetects light, allowing phototaxis to take place green algae and other unicellular photosynthetic organisms such as euglenidsglycosomecarries out glycolysissingle-membrane compartmentSome protozoa, such as Trypanosomes.glyoxysomeconversion of fat into sugarssingle-membrane compartmentplantshydrogenosomeenergy & hydrogen productiondouble-membrane compartmenta few unicellular eukaryoteslysosomebreakdown of large molecules (e.g., proteins + polysaccharides)single-membrane compartmentmost eukaryotesmelanosomepigment storagesingle-membrane compartmentanimalsmitosomenot characterizeddouble-membrane compartmenta few unicellular eukaryotesmyofibrilmuscular contractionbundled filamentsanimalsnucleolusribosome productionprotein-DNA-RNAmost eukaryotesparenthesomenot characterizednot characterizedfungiperoxisomebreakdown of metabolic hydrogen peroxidesingle-membrane compartmentall eukaryotesribosometranslation of RNA into proteinsRNA-protein eukaryotes, prokaryotesvesiclematerial transportsingle-membrane compartmentall eukaryotes Other related structures: cytosol endomembrane system nucleosome microtubule cell membrane image|(A) Electron micrograph of Halothiobacillus neapolitanus cells, arrows highlight carboxysomes. (B) Image of intact carboxysomes isolated from H. neapolitanus. Scale bars are 100 nm. Prokaryotic organelles Prokaryotes are not as structurally complex as eukaryotes, and were once thought not to have any internal structures enclosed by lipid membranes. In the past, they were often viewed as having little internal organization; but, slowly, details are emerging about prokaryotic internal structures. An early false turn was the idea developed in the 1970s that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy. However, more recent research has revealed that at least some prokaryotes have microcompartments such as carboxysomes. These subcellular compartments are 100 - 200 nm in diameter and are enclosed by a shell of proteins. Even more striking is the description of membrane-bound magnetosomes in bacteria, as well as the nucleus-like structures of the Planctomycetes that are surrounded by lipid membranes. +Prokaryotic organelles and cell componentsOrganelle/MacromoleculeMain functionStructureOrganismscarboxysomecarbon fixationprotein-shell compartmentsome bacteriachlorosomephotosynthesislight harvesting complexgreen sulfur bacteriaflagellummovement in external mediumprotein filamentsome prokaryotes and eukaryotesmagnetosomemagnetic orientationinorganic crystal, lipid membranemagnetotactic bacterianucleoidDNA maintenance, transcription to RNADNA-proteinprokaryotesplasmidDNA exchangecircular DNAsome bacteriaribosometranslation of RNA into proteinsRNA-protein eukaryotes, prokaryotesthylakoidphotosynthesisphotosystem proteins and pigmentsmostly cyanobacteria See also Cell CoRR Hypothesis Endosymbiotic theory References Bibliography Alberts, Bruce et al. (2003). Essential Cell Biology, 2nd ed., Garland Science, 2003, ISBN 081533480X. Alberts, Bruce et al. (2002). The Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed., Garland Science, 2002, ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. 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1,980 | Pisces_(constellation) | Pisces (, genitive Piscium ) is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is the Latin plural for fish, and its symbol is (). It lies between Aquarius to the west and Aries to the east. Notable features The Vernal equinox is currently located in Pisces, due south of ω Psc, and, due to precession, slowly drifting below the western fish towards Aquarius. Pisces contains one galaxy that is listed in Charles Messier's catalog, named the spiral galaxy Messier 74. Named Stars Bayer designation Name Language Meaning α Al Rischa Arabic the cord β Samaka Arabic fish δ Linteum Latin line ο Torcular Latin tube shaped ε Kaht Persian astrological η Kullat Nunu Akkadian fish ζ Revati Hindi wealthy In addition, van Maanen's Star, at 12.36 magnitude, is located in this constellation. Mythology and visualizations Pisces as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. The constellation is commonly represented as two fish, each of which is tied to the same point by a long length of string. The fish are connected at the tails. However, the 'strings' can also be interpreted as stick-figure men (with the 'fish' thus becoming their heads), and some forms of early Greek mythology viewed it as men bound to a point, with only the constellation Piscis Austrinus considered to be a fish. According to one Greek myth, Pisces represents the fish into which Aphrodite and her son Eros transformed in order to escape the monstrous Typhon; they are tied together with a cord on their tails, to make sure they do not lose one another. Star Tales – Pisces Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Pisces from March 12 to April 18. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Pisces from February 20 to March 20, and in sidereal astrology, from March 15 to April 14. According to a majority of polled tropical astrologers, Nicholas Campion, The Book of World Horoscopes we are currently in the Age of Pisces. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. Richard Hinckley Allen, Star Names, Their Lore and Legenc, New York, Dover: various dates. Thomas Wm. Hamilton, Useful Star Names, Holbrook, NY, Viewlex: 1968. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Pisces Star Tales – Pisces | Pisces_(constellation) |@lemmatized pisces:11 genitive:1 piscium:1 constellation:7 zodiac:1 name:6 latin:3 plural:1 fish:9 symbol:1 lie:1 aquarius:2 west:1 aries:1 east:1 notable:1 feature:1 vernal:1 equinox:1 currently:2 locate:2 due:2 south:1 ω:1 psc:1 precession:1 slowly:1 drift:1 western:1 towards:1 contain:1 one:3 galaxy:2 list:1 charles:1 messier:2 catalog:1 spiral:1 star:7 bayer:1 designation:1 language:1 mean:1 α:1 al:1 rischa:1 arabic:2 cord:2 β:1 samaka:1 δ:1 linteum:1 line:1 ο:1 torcular:1 tube:1 shape:1 ε:1 kaht:1 persian:1 astrological:1 η:1 kullat:1 nunu:1 akkadian:1 ζ:1 revati:1 hindi:1 wealthy:1 addition:1 van:1 maanen:1 magnitude:1 mythology:2 visualization:1 depict:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 c:1 commonly:1 represent:2 two:1 tie:2 point:2 long:1 length:1 string:2 connect:1 tail:2 however:1 also:1 interpret:1 stick:1 figure:1 men:2 thus:1 become:1 head:1 form:1 early:1 greek:2 view:1 bound:1 piscis:1 austrinus:1 consider:2 accord:2 myth:1 aphrodite:1 son:1 eros:1 transform:1 order:1 escape:1 monstrous:1 typhon:1 together:1 make:1 sure:1 lose:1 another:1 tale:2 astrology:3 sun:2 appear:1 march:3 april:2 tropical:2 sign:1 february:1 sidereal:1 majority:1 polled:1 astrologer:1 nicholas:1 campion:1 book:1 world:1 horoscope:1 age:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 richard:1 hinckley:1 allen:1 lore:1 legenc:1 new:1 york:1 dover:1 various:1 date:1 thomas:1 wm:1 hamilton:1 useful:1 holbrook:1 ny:1 viewlex:1 external:1 link:1 deep:1 photographic:1 |@bigram constellation_zodiac:1 vernal_equinox:1 aquarius_pisces:1 charles_messier:1 spiral_galaxy:1 bayer_designation:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 sidereal_astrology:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 richard_hinckley:1 hinckley_allen:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
1,981 | Letterboxing_(filming) | A 2.35:1 widescreen image letterboxed in a 1.33:1 screen. Letterboxing is the practice of transferring film shot in a widescreen aspect ratio to standard-width video formats while preserving the film's original aspect ratio. The resulting videographic image has mattes (black bars) above and below it; these mattes are part of the image (i.e., of each frame of the video signal). LTBX is the identifying abbreviation for films and images so formatted. The term refers to the shape of a letter box, a slot in a wall or door through which mail is delivered, being rectangular and wider than it is high. Letterboxing is used as an alternative to a full-screen, pan-and-scan transfer of a widescreen film image to videotape or videodisc. In pan-and-scan transfers, the original image is cropped to the narrower aspect ratio of the destination format, usually the 1.33:1 (4:3) ratio of the standard television screen, whereas letterboxing preserves the film's original image composition as seen in the cinema. Letterboxing was developed for use in 4:3 television displays before widescreen television screens were available, but it is also necessary to represent on a 16:9 widescreen display the unaltered original composition of a film with a wider aspect ratio, such as Panavision's 2.35:1 ratio. Letterboxing can be done when a film transfer is made or as part of an electronic conversion from a widescreen (16:9) to a standard definition (4:3) video signal, and the term letterboxed itself does not imply at which stage (between content origination and presentation) the conversion is done and the mattes are added; a letterboxed picture could have been made so by the film studio that mastered the disc, by the television set that displayed it, or by an electronic device in between. An alternative to letterboxing is anamorphic widescreen presentation, which squeezes the picture horizontally to fit into a narrower aspect ratio. The player or receiver must correct this distortion by either stretching the image back to its original relative width, for display on widescreen televisions, or letterboxing it (during playback) for display on 4:3 video screens. This image transformation generally requires digital signal processing, so letterboxing was the only way in which films were presented in widescreen on home video prior to the DVD format (with a few exceptions outside the mass market, such as Squeeze LD). Anamorphic widescreen video recordings are sometimes called "anamorphically enhanced", in comparison to letterboxed versions. To represent a film wider than 16:9 (e.g., a 2.35:1 film) on a 16:9 display with no cropping, both anamorphic and letterbox techniques (or letterboxing alone) are required; using the anamorphic technique, the mattes will be smaller but still necessary. Academy ratio (1.33:1, or 4:3) film or video will appear distorted if it is stretched to fill a widescreen (16:9) television display. This can be avoided by pillar boxing the image, either via the television set or the video player, e.g. a DVD player. Occasionally, video is shot in a widescreen format and broadcast at 4:3 letterboxed. (Such video will appear letterboxed on any television, widescreen or not, as the mattes are part of the broadcast image.) This effect is common on personal video websites and old documentaries. If a recording is said to be letterboxed, that implies that the letterboxing was done prior to fixing the recording on the medium. There is a difference between a letterboxed recording (or other source) and a letterboxed picture, as a letterboxed recording will appear letterboxed on every screen – even one that has the same aspect ratio as the source content – while a letterboxed picture may be produced from a non-letterboxed source, in which case it will appear full-screen on a suitably wide display. (The letterboxed source displayed on a wide screen will appear both letterboxed and pillarboxed, so the active picture will occupy a rectangle in the middle of the screen surrounded by mattes on all four sides.) Anamorphic widescreen recordings may mislabeled as letterboxed, which technically they are not. The term letterbox is sometimes used to emphasize that a widescreen motion picture or video has not been anamorphically encoded for 16:9 screens, thus not taking full advantage of the resolution provided by DVD, high-definition television (HDTV), or other media. Because the black mattes are part of the picture, they take up space in the signal that could be used for active picture information, forcing the picture to use less vertical space in the signal than if it were anamorphically encoded. This results in less vertical resolution in the letterboxed picture than in either an anamorphic or pan-and-scan version (which have the same vertical resolution). The reduced vertical resolution is the main disadvantage of letterboxing. Early use of the letterbox format The first use of letterbox appeared with the RCA videodisc (CED) format. Initially, letterboxing was limited to several key sequences of a film (e.g., opening and closing credits), but later it was used for the entire film. The first full letterboxed CED release was Amarcord in 1984, and several others followed. Each disc contained a label noting the use of "RCA's innovative wide-screen mastering technique." Amarcord CED Web Page In the cinema and home video Some cineastes prefer letterbox video formatting of their films. Woody Allen insisted that Manhattan be released letterboxed; Sydney Pollack preferred the widescreen in a bonus segment of The Interpreter DVD, despite there being pan-and-scan and letterbox versions; and Miloš Forman has stated his opinion that the matting distracts the viewer. In NTSC areas of the world, videocassettes often contained only pan-and-scan versions, but DVD releases tend to be offered in both versions. In PAL areas, which do not suffer so much from low vertical resolution with letterboxed images, letterboxing was more common on videocassettes and is almost ubiquitous on DVDs, with very few films being offered in pan-and-scan releases today. On television Current high-definition television (HDTV) systems use video displays with a wider aspect ratio than standard television sets, making it easier to accurately transfer widescreen films. In addition to films produced for the cinema, some television programming is produced in high definition (and therefore widescreen) and appears letterboxed when presented in the 4:3 aspect ratio for viewing on a standard 4:3 television. Programs broadcast in HDTV are sometimes letterboxed in standard-definition television sets or when shown on an analog broadcast. In Europe, letterboxing has been the display standard for widescreen cinema on television, because the higher-resolution PAL television system does not degrade letterboxed images as much as the American NTSC system. Together with digital broadcasting that allows 1.78:1 (16:9) widescreen format transmissions without losing resolution, 1.78:1 widescreen television is becoming the European television norm for television materials. Although this is not true of high-definition television, it has the same aspect ratio. Most programming in countries such as Britain and France is in standard-definition letterbox format (adopted in the 1990s); in Germany, most television programming is in the full-screen, 1.33:1 aspect ratio. On a widescreen television set, a 1.78:1 image fills the screen, however, 2.39:1 aspect ratio films are letterboxed with narrow mattes. Because the 1.85:1 aspect ratio does not match the 1.78:1 (16:9) aspect ratio of widescreen DVDs and high-definition video, slight letterboxing occurs. Usually, such matting of 1.85:1 film is eliminated to match the 1.78:1 aspect ratio in the DVD and HD image transference. Most newer camcorders have a widescreen recording mode that appears letterboxed on a 4:3 TV set. Pillarboxing and windowboxing A pillarboxed image A windowboxed image Pillarboxing (reversed letterboxing) is the display of an image within a wider image frame by adding lateral mattes (vertical bars at the sides); for example, a 1.33:1 image has lateral mattes when displayed on a 16:9 aspect ratio television screen. An alternative to pillarboxing is "tilt-and-scan" (reversed pan and scan), horizontally matting the original 1.33:1 television images to the 1.78:1 aspect ratio, which at any given moment crops part of the top and/or bottom of the frame, hence the need for the "tilt" component. A tilt is a camera move in which the camera tilts up or down. Windowboxing occurs when an image appears centered in a television screen, with blank space on all four sides of the image, A visual reference to common Pixel Aspect formats Home Theater: Audio & Video Glossary - ACME HOW TO.com , such as when a widescreen image that has been previously letterboxed to fit 1.33:1 is then pillarboxed to fit 16:9. It is also called "matchbox", "gutterbox", and "postage stamp" display. HDTV This occurs on the DVD editions of the Star Trek films on a 4:3 television when the included widescreen documentaries show footage from the original television series. It is also seen in The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course, which displays widescreen pillarboxing with 1.85:1 scenes in a 2.40:1 frame that is subsequently letterboxed. It is common to see windowboxed commercials on HD television networks, because many commercials are shot in 16:9 but distributed to networks in SD, letterboxed to fit 1.33:1. Many 1980s 8-bit home computers feature gutterboxing display mode, because the TV screens normally used as monitors at that time tended to distort the image near the border of the screen, to such an extent that text displayed in that area became illegible. Moreover, due to the overscanned nature of television video, the precise edges of the visible area of the screen varied from television set to television set, so characters near the expected border of the active screen area might be behind the bezel or off the edge of the screen. The Commodore 64, VIC-20, and Commodore 128 (in 40-column mode) featured coloured gutterboxing of the main text window, while the Atari 8-bit family featured a blue text window with a black border. The original IBM PC CGA display adapter was the same, and the monochrome MDA, the predecessor of the CGA, as well as the later EGA and VGA, also featured gutterboxing; this is also called underscanned video. The Fisher-Price PXL-2000 camcorder of the late 1980s recorded a windowboxed image to partially compensate for low resolution. Occasionally, an image is deliberately windowboxed for stylistic effect; for example, the documentary-style sequence of the film Rent suggest an older-format camera representing the 4:3 aspect ratio, and the opening sequence of the Oliver Stone film JFK features pillar boxing to represent the 1960s era 4:3 television footage. The film Sneakers uses a windowsboxing effect in a scene for dramatic effect. See also Active Format Description List of film formats Motion picture terminology References External links The Widescreen and Letterbox Advocacy Page Why Widescreen? 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1,982 | Laconia_incident | RMS Laconia The Laconia incident happened in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II. On 12 September 1942, RMS Laconia, carrying some 80 civilians, 268 British Army soldiers, about 1,800 Italian prisoners of war, and 160 Polish soldiers (on guard), was struck and sunk by a torpedo from Kriegsmarine submarine U-156 off the coast of west Africa. The U-boat commander, Kapitänleutnant Werner Hartenstein and his crew heard Italian voices coming from those struggling in the water and realized their error. The Germans immediately commenced rescue operations and were joined by the crews of other U-boats in the area. Heading to rendezvous with Vichy French ships under Red Cross banners, the U-boats were deliberately attacked by a U.S. Army B-24 Liberator bomber. This event profoundly affected the operations of the German fleet, which abandoned the practice of attempting rescue of civilian survivors under the "Laconia Order" of Admiral Karl Dönitz. The “Laconia AFFAIR” is a controversial incident from the early days of World War II that set the precedent for the subsequent unrestricted submarine warfare for not only the German Navy, but also for the US Navy. The on-going controversy comes from the level of required assistance and/or protection that military forces must afford non-combatants in war at sea. One international bestseller and numerous articles on the subject have been publish about this South Atlantic incident. It raises the following points of study for not only military historians but also practitioners of war and peace to consider. • What to do with regard to non-combatants during military combat operations at sea? • Minor tactical decisions made on both sides can and do set precedents with current and possible future strategic level impact. • In war, there are no “Black or White” answers, only grey ones made with a minimal set of facts in the heat of battle. Summary of Incident In late 1942, a German U-Boat sinks the British troopship Laconia carrying 1800 Italian POWs off the coast of West Africa, then realizing who the passengers were started rescue operations flying the Red Cross flag. A US Army Air Corp bomber flying out of a secret South Atlantic airbase (Ascension Island) attacks the u-boat which is flying a Red Cross flag. The u-boat abandons the rescue effort and leaves the survivors drift to Africa. Over half the survivors die before reaching Africa. This incident leads to German Admiral Dönitz to issue the Triton Null Order which came to be known as the Laconia Order; which expressly forbade submarine commanders to rescue survivors from torpedoed ships. The US Navy used that order as justification for a similar order in the Pacific. Summary of the Key Facts On 12 Sept 1942, Werner Hartenstein commanding the German Navy U-156 sighted and sank the 19,700-ton British Cunard White Star passenger liner Laconia, serving as a troopship The unescorted but armed Laconia was carrying 1,800 Italian POWs guarded by 103 prisoner guards (Free Poles) and 268 British military personnel from Desert War in Egypt. Hartenstein discovering that the Laconia was carrying Italian POWs from North Africa decided on his own initiative to launch rescue operations, to broadcast in the blind “cease fire” broadcast, and to inform and seek approval of his decision from Berlin. He did so either out of concerned “that the accidental killing and stranding of so many Italian soldiers could cause a serious political rupture in the Axis high command," and/or for deeply felt humanitarian consideration The German Senior level leadership (Naval and National) requested the Vichy French to send warships from Dakar and/or the Ivory Coast to to pick up the survivors, but rejected Hartenstein cease fire proposal, in part because http://wernerhartenstein.tripod.com/U156ClayBlair.htm Excerpt from “THE HUNTED, 1942-1945” (Random House, November 1998) that continues Clay Blair's history of German submarine warfare in the Second World War. •• Hitler in his rage had directed that no word of the Laconia sinking or the proposed Axis rescue be transmitted to the Allies •• Admiral Raeder did not think it wise to enter into a "deal" with the untrustworthy Allies •• Nothing was to interfere with Eisbär's surprise attack on Cape Town to strike at the supplies destined for the British and Soviets The British in Freetown intercepted this message, but believing it might be a ruse de guerre, refused to credit it or to act. The Vinchy French in response to Berlin's request sent the 7,500-ton Vichy French cruiser Gloire from Dakar, and two sloops, the fast 650-ton Annamite and the slower 2,000-ton Dumont d'Urville, from Conakry, French Guinea, and Cotonou, Dahomey, respectively The Allies, specifically the United States, had gone to great effort to establish an airfield on Ascension as a critical link in their only air route between the United States and Desert War in Egypt. This was a secret airfield and its loss would have shutoff the critically needed supply of medium bombers to British forces in Egypt and to the Soviets forces in Russia. This is why Then Captian Richardson's squadron of P-39s and five B-25 Mitchell bombers were assigned to protect the airfield. Then Captain Richardson ordered the bombing of the submarine, based on his assessment of the overall military situation and the importance of his protecting Ascension Island as critical link in the US aerial resupply of the British and Soviet war efforts in Egypt and Russia, respectfully As a result of the aerial attack, Hartenstein and, subsequently, the Vichy French abandoned the rescue operations due to their perceived threat from unknown allied source(s). This chain of events led to the death of well over half of the Laconia's passengers (British, Italian, and Free Pole) and crew. Events German attack At 10 p.m. on September 12, 1942, U-156 was patrolling off the coast of West Africa midway between Liberia and Ascension Island. The submarine's commanding officer, Kapitänleutnant Hartenstein, spotted a large British ocean liner sailing alone and attacked it. At 10:22 p.m. the liner, sailing under the name Laconia, transmitted the following message on the 600-meter band SSS SSS 0434 South / 1125 West Laconia torpedoed signifying "under attack by submarine". As Laconia began to sink, Hartenstein surfaced. He hoped to capture the ship's senior officers. To his surprise, Hartenstein saw over two thousand people struggling in the water. Survivor Jim McLoughlin states in One Common Enemy Hartenstein asked him if he was in the Royal Navy, which he was, and then asked why a passenger ship was armed, stating, "If it wasn't armed, I would not have attacked." McLoughlin believes this indicates Hartenstein had thought it was a troop transport rather than a passenger ship; in fact, by signalling to the Royal Navy, Laconia was acting as a de facto naval auxiliary. Moreover, merchantmen armed with guns (which most were) fell outside the protection from attack without warning and the requirement to place survivors "in a place of safety" (for which lifeboats did not qualify); therefore, it made no difference if she was a troop ship. Rescue operations Hartenstein immediately began rescue operations. Laconia sank at 11:23 p.m. At 1:25 a.m. September 13 Hartenstein sent a coded radio message to Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote (Commander-in-Chief for Submarines) alerting them to the situation. It read: Head of submarine operations, Admiral Dönitz, immediately ordered two other U-boats to divert to the scene. Soon U-156 was crammed above and below decks with nearly two hundred survivors, including five women, and had another 200 in tow aboard four lifeboats. At 6am on September 13, Hartenstein broadcast a message on the 25-meter band in English (and plain language) to all shipping in the area giving his position, requesting assistance with the rescue effort and promising not to attack. It read: U-156 remained on the surface at the scene for the next two and a half days. At 11:30am on September 15, she was joined by U-506 commanded by Kptlt. Erich Würdemann and a few hours later by both U-507 under Korvettenkapitän Harro Schacht and the Italian submarine Cappellini. The four boats, with lifeboats in tow and hundreds of survivors standing on their decks, headed for the African coastline and a rendezvous with Vichy French surface warships which had set out from Senegal and Dahomey. According to the official after-action report by the U.S. Navy, all four submarines were present. Survivor accounts in One Common Enemy and The U-Boat Peril say the Italians arrived later. American bombing The next morning, September 16, at 11:25 a.m., the four submarines, with Red Cross flags draped across their gun decks, were spotted by an American B-24 Liberator bomber from Ascension Island. Hartenstein signalled to the pilot requesting assistance. Lieutenant James D. Harden of the U.S. Army Air Force turned away and notified his base of the situation. The senior officer on duty that day, Captain Robert C. Richardson III not knowing that this was a Red Cross sanctioned German rescue operation, knowing that The rules of war, at the time, did not permit a Combat ship to fly Red Cross flags The British authorities had diverted two Allied freighters to the site and fearing the German subs would attack them The German submarine was only rescuing the Italian POWs and the U-boats would sink the Allied freighters In his tactical assessment, the submarine would discover and shell the secret Ascension airfield and fuel tanks, thus cutting off a critical allied resupply air route to British forces in Egypt and Soviet forces in Russia; ordered the B-24 to "sink the sub". "Origin of the Laconia Order" by Dr Mauer Maurer and Lawrence Paszezk, Air University Review, March-April 1964 and The USAF Oral History Interview - Brig Gen Robert C. Richardson III (K239.0512-1560) 18-19 May; 14 June 1984, USAF Historical Research Center, Maxwell AFB AL Harden flew back to the scene of the rescue effort and at 12:32 p.m. attacked with bombs and depth charges. One landed among the lifeboats in tow behind U-156 while others straddled the submarine itself. Hartenstein cast adrift those lifeboats still afloat and ordered the survivors on his deck into the water. The submarines dived and escaped. Hundreds of Laconia survivors perished, but French vessels managed to re-rescue about a thousand later that day. In all, some 1,500 passengers survived. Under the Hague Conventions, hospital ships are protected from attack, but their identity must be communicated to belligerents (III, 1-3), they must be painted white with a Red Cross emblem (III, 5), and must not be used for other purposes (III, 4). Since a submarine remained a military vessel even if hors de combat, the Red Cross emblem did not confer automatic protection, although in many cases it would have been allowed as a practical matter. The order given by Richardson has been called a possible war crime, but the use of a Red Cross flag by an armed military vessel would also be a violation. There is no provision in either convention for temporary designation of a hospital or rescue ship. Under the informal rules of war at sea, however, ships engaged in rescue operations are held immune from attack. Consequences The Laconia incident had far-reaching consequences. Until then, as indicated in point #1 of the "Laconia Order," it was common for U-boats to assist torpedoed survivors with food, water, simple medical care for wounded survivors, and directions to the nearest land; it was extremely rare for survivors to be brought on board as space on a U-boat was barely enough for its own crew. Now Dönitz prohibited rescues; survivors were to be left in the sea. Even afterwards, U-boats would still occasionally provide aid for survivors. At the Nuremberg Trials held by the victorious Allies in 1946, Dönitz was indicted for war crimes, including the issuance of the "Laconia order": See also Laconia Order Italian submarine Cappellini Unrestricted submarine warfare Allied war crimes Robert C Richardson III Biography Footnotes References and also ISBN 094806577X Further reading Excerpt from “THE HUNTED, 1942-1945” (Random House, November 1998) that continues Clay Blair's history of German submarine warfare in the Second World War. THE LACONIA AFFAIR, by Leonce Peillard, New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1963 (Reprinted 1983) and a bestseller published in 10+ languages. ISBN 0553230700, 9780553230703. "Origin of the Laconia Order" article by Dr Mauer Maurer and Lawrence Paszezk, Air University Review, March-April 1964 External links The Laconia Incident on Uboataces.com The Laconia Incident on Uboat.net An account from Helen Charles, a survivor of RMS Laconia Excerpt from “THE HUNTED, 1942-1945” | Laconia_incident |@lemmatized rms:3 laconia:28 incident:8 happen:1 atlantic:3 ocean:2 world:4 war:16 ii:2 september:6 carry:4 civilian:2 british:12 army:4 soldier:3 italian:11 prisoner:2 polish:1 guard:3 strike:2 sink:7 torpedo:1 kriegsmarine:1 submarine:20 u:27 coast:4 west:4 africa:6 boat:13 commander:3 kapitänleutnant:2 werner:2 hartenstein:15 crew:4 heard:1 voice:1 come:3 struggle:2 water:4 realize:2 error:1 german:13 immediately:3 commence:1 rescue:18 operation:11 join:2 area:2 head:3 rendezvous:2 vichy:5 french:8 ship:10 red:9 cross:9 banner:1 deliberately:1 attack:14 b:4 liberator:2 bomber:5 event:3 profoundly:1 affect:1 fleet:1 abandon:3 practice:1 attempt:1 survivor:18 order:15 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1,983 | American_Civil_Liberties_Union | The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) consists of two separate non-profit organizations: the ACLU Foundation, a 501(c)(3) organization which focuses on litigation and communication efforts, and the American Civil Liberties Union, a 501(c)(4) organization which focuses on legislative lobbying. The ACLU's stated mission is "to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States." http://aclu.org/about/faqs/index.html#1_1 It works through litigation, legislation, and community education. Founded in 1920 by Crystal Eastman, Roger Baldwin and Walter Nelles, the ACLU was the successor organization to the earlier National Civil Liberties Bureau founded during World War I. William Alfred Eddy Papers, 1859-1978: Finding Aid, Princeton University Libraries. The ACLU reported over 500,000 members at the end of 2005. Lawsuits brought by the ACLU have been influential in the evolution of Constitutional law. The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases in which it considers civil liberties to be at risk. Even when the ACLU does not provide direct legal representation, it often submits amicus curiae briefs. Outside of its legal work, the organization has also engaged in lobbying of elected officials and political activism. ACLU, "About Us" The ACLU has been critical of elected officials and policies of both Democrats and Republicans. History Roger Nash Baldwin became head of the National Civil Liberties Bureau (NCLB) in 1917. An independent outgrowth of the American Union Against Militarism, the Bureau opposed American intervention in World War I. The NCLB provided legal advice and aid for conscientious objectors and those being prosecuted under the Espionage Act of 1917 or the Sedition Act of 1918. In 1920, the NCLB changed its name to the American Civil Liberties Union, with Baldwin continuing as its director and Walter Nelles as chief counsel. Jeannette Rankin, Jane Addams, Crystal Eastman, Albert DeSilver, Helen Keller, along with other former members of the NCLB, assisted Baldwin with the founding of the ACLU. Among the founding members was Felix Frankfurter, who later became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. The ACLU as Guardian of Liberty Franklyn S. Haiman DeSilver and Nelles were Baldwin's closest associates. The ACLU was formed to protect aliens threatened with deportation, along with U.S. nationals threatened with criminal charges by U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer for their communist or socialist activities and agendas "A Brief History of the American Civil Liberties Union", Champaign County ACLU. (see Palmer Raids). It also opposed attacks on the rights of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and other labor unions to meet and organize. In 1940, the ACLU formally barred communists from leadership or staff positions, and would take the position that it did not want communists as members either. The board declared that it was "inappropriate for any person to serve on the governing committees of the Union or its staff, who is a member of any political organization which supports totalitarianism in any country, or who by his public declarations indicates his support of such a principle." The purge, which was led by Baldwin, himself a former supporter of communism, began with the ouster of Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, a member of both the Communist Party USA and the Industrial Workers of the World. Robert C. Cottrell, "Roger Baldwin: Founder, American Civil Liberties Union, 1884-1981", Notable American Unitarians, Harvard Square Library. Conservatives and Republicans have frequently criticized the ACLU. One well-known example occurred during the 1988 presidential election: then-Vice President George H. W. Bush noted that his opponent Michael Dukakis had described himself as a "card-carrying member of the ACLU" and used that as evidence that Dukakis was "a strong, passionate liberal" and "out of the mainstream." The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign. After the September 11, 2001 attacks and the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security, including the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act, the membership of the ACLU increased by 20%, bringing the group's total enrollment to 330,000. The growth continued, and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500,000. ACLU, "About Us" Leadership, funding and organizational structure Leadership Nadine Strossen, Former President (1991-2008)Currently, the leadership of the ACLU includes Executive Director Anthony Romero ACLU, "Anthony D. Romero, Executive Director", ACLU profile (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). and President Susan Herman. "Susan Herman, President of the ACLU ", ACLU profile (last visited Oct. 22, 2008). The national board of directors consists of representatives elected by each state affiliate as well as at-large delegates elected by boards of each affiliate. Each state affiliate has an Executive Director and Board of Directors. Notably, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, a current Justice of the Supreme Court, was the first director of the ACLU's Women's Rights Project. And Judith Krug, Director of the American Library Association Office for Intellectual Freedom American Library Association, Office for Intellectual Freedom website (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). since 1967, was for three years concurrently on the Board of Directors of the Illinois Division of the ACLU. "She has been very successful in promulgating the ACLU's views within the country's libraries, and the ACLU has honored her with awards." In 2005, in response to increasing internal strife, the ACLU national board attempted to impose what many critics labeled a "gag rule" on its employees. The proposal included the rule that "a board member may publicly disagree with an ACLU policy position, but may not criticize the ACLU Board or staff." The measures proved highly unpopular with free speech advocates within the ACLU, and were eventually shelved. Aclu V. Aclu Funding The ACLU receives funding from a large number of sources. For example, in 2004, the ACLU and its affiliate, the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation reported revenues totaling $85,559,887. Of that total, 87% was from donations and dues from the public, 1.8% from program services, including awards of legal fees, royalty income, and literature sales, and the remainder from investment income and income from sale of assets. The distribution and amount of funding for state affiliates varies from state to state. For example, the ACLU of New Jersey reported $1.2 million in income to both the ACLU-NJ and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation in the 2005 fiscal year. Of that income, 46% came from contributions, 19% came from membership dues, 18% came from court awarded attorney fees, 12% came from grants, 4% came from investment income and the remainder from other sources. Its expenses in the same period were $800,000, of which 12% went to administration and management. Smaller affiliates with fewer resources, such as that in Nebraska, receive subsidies from the national ACLU. ACLU Nebraska, "Frequently Asked Questions" (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). Foundations In October 2004, the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations because the Foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to "underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities." The ACLU views this clause, both in Federal law and in the donors' agreements, as a threat to civil liberties, saying it is overly broad and ambiguous. Stephanie Strom, "A.C.L.U. Rejects Foundation Grants Over Terror Language", New York Times, Oct. 19, 2004 (available at ACLU South Carolina). Court awarded damages and attorney's fees In 2004, court-awarded damages and attorney fees composed a 3% (net) of ACLU Foundation funding; state affiliates also receive money from such fees, although the national headquarters does not. ACLUProCon.org, Structure of the ACLU - V. Budget. Recovery of attorney's' fees by non-profit legal advocacy organizations is common practice. The pro-life Thomas More Law Center, for example, generally seeks, and is successful in, recovery of attorney's fees in the same manner as the ACLU. ThomasMore.org, ThomasMore.org In 2005, the Thomas More law center derived 4.8% of its funding from court-awarded legal fees in this manner. Form 990, Return of Organization Exempt from Tax, filed 11/14/06 Due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments: a town, state or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver. Lane v. Pena, 518 U.S. 187 (1996) (abstract of case at Oyez). Chain, Younger Cohn & Stiles (law firm), "Cases Against Local, County, State and Federal Government" (law firm material; last visited, Jan. 6, 2008). In some cases, the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief. In particular, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976 leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases. Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered "equitable relief" rather than damages, and government entities are not immune from equitable relief. Under laws such as this, the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies. The ACLU has received court awarded fees in numerous church-state cases. The Georgia affiliate was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse; ACLU Georgia Press Release, "Barrow County to Remove 10 Commandments Display", July 19, 2007 (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). a second Ten Commandments case in the State, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment. ACLU Georgia, "2007 Litigation & Advocacy Docket" (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). Meanwhile, the State of Tennessee was required to pay $50,000, the State of Alabama $175,000, and the State of Kentucky $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, The Ten Commandments: Developments: Year 2002, ReligiousTolerance.org The Public Expression of Religion Act of 2005, introduced by Representative John Hostettler, sought to alter the rules put in place by the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976 to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church-state separation. Report No. 109-657, H.R. 2679, available at GPO. Also, groups such as the American Legion have taken stances opposing the ACLU's right to collect fees under such legislation. American Legion, Organizational structure Howard Simon, executive director of the Florida chapter, joins in a protest of the Guantanamo Bay detentions with Amnesty International. The national headquarters of the ACLU is located in New York City. The organization does most of its work through 53 locally based affiliates and associated chapters, each of which have staff and a board of directors. The affiliates generally correspond to state (or equivalent) lines; Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico each have an affiliate, California has three affiliates, Pennsylvania has two, Missouri has two (one combined with Kansas), The Dakotas share one. These affiliates maintain a certain amount of governing autonomy from the national organization, and are able to work independently from each other, if they choose to do so. Many of the ACLU's cases originate or are handled from the local level and are also handled by local lawyers from the individual affiliates. Affiliates (the state organizations) are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in a twenty-month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's New Jersey chapter was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual report—thirty-five cases in state courts, and sixteen in federal court. They provided legal representation in thirty-three of those cases, and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen. They listed forty-four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases. Each legal foundation and political affiliate is registered as a 501(c)(3) and 501(c)(4) entity, respectively. Positions While the bulk of the ACLU's cases involve the First Amendment, Equal Protection, due process, and the right to privacy, See, e.g., the Louisiana chapter's "Complaint Guidelines". the organization has taken positions on a wide range of issues. According to the ACLU, it supports: Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa speaking at an ACLU event. Villaraigosa is a former board member and president of the ACLU Southern California affiliate. Religious liberty: Defends the individual rights of Americans of all religions to practice and/or display affirmations of their faith in public, but not on public property with government sponsorship or endorsement. The decriminalization of drugs such as heroin, cocaine and marijuana. Separation of church and state; under this mandate, the ACLU: Opposes the government-sponsored display of religious symbols on public property. Opposes official prayers, religious ceremonies, and some kinds of "moments of silence" ACLU, "Constitutional Amendment on School Prayer", March 11, 2002 (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). in public schools or schools funded with public money. Full freedom of speech and of the press, including school newspapers. Abolition of capital punishment. ACLU, "Capital Punishment Project" (last visited Feb. 26, 2008). Reproductive rights, including access to contraception and abortion. Full civil rights for LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) people, including government benefits for same-sex couples equal to those provided for heterosexual ones. Affirmative action as a means of redressing past discrimination and achieving a racially diverse student body. ACLU, "Racial Justice" (last visited Aug. 19, 2008).. The rights of defendants and suspects against unconstitutional police practices. Privacy as it "works to preserve the American tradition that the government not track individuals or violate privacy unless it has evidence of wrongdoing." ACLU, "Privacy and Technology" (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). Immigrants' rights by "challenging unconstitutional laws and practices, countering the myths upon which many of these laws are based." ACLU, "Immigrants' Rights" (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). Concerning the Second Amendment, specifically gun control, the ACLU embraces the States' Right Model interpretation of the Second Amendment, which only recognizes a state's right to possess firearms, the organization officially declares itself "neutral" on the issue of gun control, pointing to previous Supreme Court decisions such as United States v. Miller to argue that the Second Amendment applies to the preservation or efficiency of a well-regulated militia, and that "except for lawful police and military purposes, the possession of firearms by individuals is not constitutionally protected." The ACLU has opposed some campaign finance reform laws such as the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, which it considers an inappropriate restriction upon freedom of expression. It does not have a policy of blanket opposition to all laws on campaign finance. Testimony of Laura W. Murphy, Director, ACLU Washington Office, On the Return to Hearings List ... Before the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, April 26, 2000, available at U.S. Senate website. While the ACLU does oppose the use of crosses in public monuments, Rees Lloyd, WorldNetDaily Exclusive Commentary: "Judicial Voodoo Versus the Cross", WorldNetDaily, April 15, 2005. there have been false allegations that the ACLU has urged the removal of cross-shaped headstones from federal cemeteries and has opposed prayer by soldiers; such charges have been deemed to be urban legends. Snopes, ACLU and Cemetery Headstones (last visited Jan. 6, 2008). Controversial stances The ACLU has for years been a controversial organization by nature, Howstuffworks "How the ACLU Works" with most of their support coming from the left and opposition from the right. The reasons for opposition are varied, although conservatives often view the ACLU stance of separation of church and state as anti-religious, and their defense of both accused and convicted criminals as undermining law and order. Furthermore, the nature of the ACLU is that they defend even the most unpopular forms of speech and expression, notably those with which most other organizations would not wish to associate themselves. Often, its clients are notoriously unpopular such as Neo-Nazi organizations and the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), a group which supports lifting all age restrictions on pederasty. In the case of NAMBLA, the ACLU's Massachusetts affiliate represented the organization, on first amendment grounds, in a wrongful death civil suit that was based solely on the fact that a man who raped and murdered a child had visited the NAMBLA website. ACLU, "ACLU Statement on Defending Free Speech of Unpopular Organizations", Aug. 31, 2000. Although the ACLU does not endorse NAMBLA's message, its defense of the group has been widely criticized. Additionally, the ACLU has initiated several court cases involving government funding of organizations that discriminate against homosexuals and atheists, prominently including the Boy Scouts of America. ACLU, "U.S. Supreme Court Ruling that boy Scouts Can Discriminate Is 'Damaging but Limited,' ACLU Says", June 28, 2000 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). Among the most notable controversial cases which involved the ACLU are the following: The ACLU currently opposes, under the ex post facto clause of the Constitution, the retroactive application of Megan’s Law (which requires law enforcement authorities to identify convicted sex offenders to the public at large through various media outlets) to persons convicted before the law was passed. National Alert Registry, "Megan's Law: What it is and who Megan's Law Offenders are" (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). ACLU New Jersey, "Megan's Law Still Under Attack" (last visited Jan. 8, 2008). The ACLU initially opposed the bill in its entirety, considering it "misguided political posturing that [would] do nothing to reduce sex crimes," Paul Van Slambrouck, "Sex-Crime Laws Draw More Flak", Christian Science Monitor, Aug. 13, 1998. but has not advocated that position recently. The ACLU also defended Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, whose conviction was tainted by coerced testimony — a violation of his fifth amendment rights. The ACLU fought for the Westboro Baptist Church and Shirley Phelps-Roper after legislation prevented the group from picketing outside of veterans' funerals. Garance Burke, "ACLU Sues for Anti-Gay Group That Pickets at Troops' Burials", Washington Post, July 23, 2006. The Westboro Baptist Church is infamous for their picket signs that contain messages such as, "God Hates Fags," "Thank God for Dead Soldiers" and "Thank God for 9/11." The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a "law that infringes on Shirley Phelps-Roper's rights to religious liberty and free speech." ACLU, "ACLU of Eastern Missouri Challenges Law Banning Pickets and Protests One Hour Before or After a Funeral", July 21, 2006. The suit was successful. American Civil Liberties Union : ACLU of Eastern Missouri Applauds Decision In Free Speech Case The ACLU has filed 6 lawsuits against the Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana school board over what the group sees as teacher-led prayer in school activities. The ACLU defended Frank Snepp, formerly of the Central Intelligence Agency, from an attempt by the government agency to enforce a gag order against him. Maeve A. Cowan, "Review of Frank Snepp, Irreparable Harm: A Firsthand Account of How One Agent Took on the CIA in an Epic Battle over Free Speech", H-Law, H-Net Reviews, March, 2002. The ACLU has aided the Florida Justice Institute and WriteAPrisoner.com in supporting prisoner's rights, especially what the ACLU sees as the First Amendment right to post online profiles seeking pen pals during their incarceration and jobs upon their release. In 2006, the ACLU of Washington State and the Second Amendment Foundation jointly filed a lawsuit ACLU of Washington State, "ACLU Suit Seeks Access to Lawful Information on Internet", Nov. 16, 2006 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron's request. Library patrons attempting to access pro-gun web sites were blocked, and the library refused to remove the blocks. Much ACLU work is done in the political arena where it faces frequent controversy as well. The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, the PATRIOT 2 Act of 2003, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism. The ACLU believes such legislation violates either the letter or the spirit of the U.S. Bill of Rights. In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from the Combined Federal Campaign. ACLU, "Citing Government "Blacklist"; Policy, ACLU Rejects $500,000 from Funding Program ", July 31, 2004 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). The requirement was that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU has stated that it would "reject $500,000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government 'blacklist' policy."See also: American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft (2004)The ACLU opposes the use of capital punishment, calling it "the ultimate denial of civil liberties." The ACLU claims that the death penalty is unfairly applied to racial minorities and the poor, and considers it "cruel and unusual" punishment. ACLU, "Race and the Death Penalty", Feb. 26, 2003 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). The organization often opposes executions on the grounds that the present method of lethal injection sometimes goes awry. The ACLU's position on spam is considered controversial by a broad cross-section of political points of view. In 2000, Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, stated that proposed anti-spam legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such: "Standardized labeling is compelled speech." He also stated, "It's relatively simple to click and delete." Adam S. Marlin, "First Amendment is obstacle to spam legislation", CNN, June 9, 2000. The debate found the ACLU joining with the Direct Marketing Association and the Center for Democracy and Technology in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the House of Representatives in 2000. As early as 1997 the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper, ACLU Cyber-Liberties Update, Sept. 2, 1997 (on the Red Rock Eater News Service listserve) (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). although it has supported "opt-out" requirements in some cases. The ACLU opposed the 2003 CAN-SPAM act ACLU, "Letter to the Senate Urging Opposition to S.877, the "Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003"", July 30, 2003 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). suggesting that it could have a chilling effect on speech in cyberspace. Notable historical cases Since its founding, the ACLU has been involved in many cases. A few of the most significant are discussed here. 1920–1960 In 1925, the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee's anti-evolution law in a court test. Clarence Darrow, a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The prosecution, led by William Jennings Bryan, contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching creationism in school. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality. University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law, "Tennessee v. John Scopes: The 'Monkey Trial' (1925)", Famous Trials in American History, last updated April 25, 2005 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). In 1954, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the ban on racial segregation in U.S. public schools. ACLU, ACLU Amicus Brief in Brown v. Board of Education, Oct. 11, 1952 (PDF brief). 1960–2000 In 1967, the ACLU successfully argued against state bans on interracial marriage, in the case of Loving v. Virginia. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967), available at UMKC Law School. In 1973, the ACLU was the first major national organization to call for the impeachment of President Richard Nixon, giving as reasons the Nixon administration's violations of civil liberties. That same year, the ACLU was involved in the cases of Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton, in which the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of privacy extended to women seeking abortions. In 1977, the ACLU filed suit against the Village of Skokie, Illinois, seeking an injunction against the enforcement of three town ordinances outlawing Neo-Nazi parades and demonstrations. Skokie, Illinois at the time had a majority population of Jews, totaling 40,000 of 70,000 citizens. A federal district court struck down the ordinances in a decision eventually affirmed by the Supreme Court. The ACLU's action in this case led to a rift between the Jewish Defense League and the ACLU. According to David Hamlin, executive director of the Illinois ACLU, "...the Chicago office which chose to provide legal counsel to neo-Nazis who have been planning to march in Skokie, has lost about 25% of its membership and nearly one-third of its budget." 30,000 ACLU members resigned in protest. Philippa Strum, When the Nazis Came to Skokie: Freedom for Speech We Hate (University Press of Kansas) (University of Kansas Press publisher's catalog description). The financial strain from the controversy lead to layoffs at local chapters. In his February 23, 1978 decision overturning the town ordinances, US District Court Judge Bernard M. Decker described the principle involved in the case as follows: "It is better to allow those who preach racial hatred to expend their venom in rhetoric rather than to be panicked into embarking on the dangerous course of permitting the government to decide what its citizens may say and hear ... The ability of American society to tolerate the advocacy of even hateful doctrines ... is perhaps the best protection we have against the establishment of any Nazi-type regime in this country." Ed McManus, "Nazi March: What's It All About?", Illinois Issues, v.13, Nov. 1978 (available at Illinois Periodicals Online). In the 1980s, the ACLU filed suit to challenge the Arkansas 1981 creationism statute, which required the teaching in public schools of the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The law was declared unconstitutional by a Federal District Court. McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 529 F. Supp. 1255 (E.D. Ark. 1982) ("transcription" by Clark Dorman, Jan. 30, 1996, at TalkOrigins). In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of child pornography (New York v. Ferber). New York v. Ferber', 458 U.S. 747 (1982) (abstract at Oyez).</ref> In an amicus brief, the ACLU argued that the law in question "has criminalized the dissemination, sale or display of constitutionally protected non-obscene materials which portray juveniles in sexually related roles," while arguing that child pornography deemed obscene under the Miller test deserved no constitutional protection and could be banned. 2000–present In November 2000, 15 African American residents of Hearne, Texas were indicted on drug charges after being arrested in a series of "drug sweeps". The ACLU filed a class action lawsuit, Kelly v. Paschall, on their behalf, alleging that the arrests were unlawful. The ACLU contended that 15 percent of Hearne's male African American population aged 18 to 34 were arrested based on the "uncorroborated word of a single unreliable confidential informant coerced by police to make cases." On May 11, 2005, the ACLU and Robertson County announced a confidential settlement of the lawsuit, an outcome which "both sides stated that they were satisfied with." The District Attorney dismissed the charges against the plaintiffs of the suit. ACLU, "In Wake of ACLU Civil Rights Lawsuit Settlement, African Americans Affected by Texas Drug Task Force Scandal Call for Reconciliation at Town Meeting ", 6/2/2005 (last visited 4/10/09). The upcoming film American Violet depicts this case. ACLU: American Violet In a 2002 letter, the ACLU stated that it "opposes child pornography that uses real children in its depictions," but that material "which is produced without using real children, and is not otherwise obscene, is protected under the First Amendment." ACLU, "Letter to Reps. Smith and Scott on H.R. 4623, the "Child Obscenity and Pornography Prevention Act of 2002"", May 8, 2002 (last visited Jul. 9, 2008). During the 2004 trial regarding allegations of Rush Limbaugh's drug abuse, the ACLU argued that his privacy should not have been compromised by allowing law enforcement examination of his medical records. ACLU Comes to Rush Limbaugh's Defense Monday, January 12, 2004 By Catherine Donaldson-Evans FOX News In June 2004, the ACLU received numerous phone calls from angry parents after the Dover Area School District in Dover, Pennsylvania passed a curriculum change requiring that its high school biology students be read a one-minute statement saying that the theory of evolution is not fact and mentioning intelligent design as an alternative theory. Believing that the school was promoting a religious idea in the classroom and violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, several Dover parents called the ACLU to discuss a possible lawsuit against the school. The ACLU, along with Americans United for Separation of Church and State and Pepper Hamilton, LLP, went on to represent the parents, the plaintiffs, in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. After a more than 40-day trial, Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, finding that intelligent design is not science and permanently forbidding the Dover school system from teaching intelligent design in science classes. Judge Rejects Teaching Intelligent Design In January 2006, the ACLU filed a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, in a federal district court in Michigan, challenging government spying in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief ("NSA Spying Complaint"), ACLU v. NSA (E.D. Mich. Jan. 17, 2006) (PDF of complaint available at ACLU website, "Safe and Free: NSA Spying" section of website). On August 17, 2006, that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program is unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately. Ryan Singel, "Judge Halts NSA Snooping", Wired, Aug. 17, 2006. However, the order is stayed pending an appeal. The Bush administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard. In February 2008, the US Supreme Court "turned down an appeal from the [ACLU] to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the Sept. 11 terror attacks." The ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits around the country against telecommunications companies. The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois (Terkel v. AT&T) which was dismissed because of the State Secrets Privilege ACLU, "ACLU of Illinois Responds to Ruling in Terkel v. AT&T, July 25, 2006 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). and two others in California requesting injunctions against AT&T and Verizon. ACLU, "ACLU Files Lawsuit in California Court Demanding End to Privacy Violations by AT&T and Verizon", May 26, 2006 (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). On August 10, 2006, the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco. After the town of Hazleton, Pennsylvania passed an ordinance to punish landlords who rented to illegal immigrants and businesses who hired illegal immigrants, the ACLU and Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund sued Hazleton, saying the ordinance was unconstitutional.<ref>ACLU of Pennsylvania, [http://www.aclupa.org/legal/legaldocket/challengetohazletonimmigra.htm "Lozano v. City of Hazleton webpage], including links to press releases, complaint, and other materials (last visited Jan. 7, 2008). Tom Head, "Top 10 Civil Liberties News Stories - Aug. 22, 2006 Edition", About.com (covering "ACLU Challenges Anti-Immigrant Hazleton Ordinance". On July 26, 2007, a federal court agreed and struck down the Hazleton ordinance; Hazleton's mayor promised to appeal the decision. Judge Voids Ordinance on Illegal Immigrants In 2008, the ACLU stated that it would represent defendants arrested in Flint, Michigan for disorderly conduct when sagging (wearing pants low enough to show underwear), partly on the basis of unconstitutional racial profiling. Enforcement of Flint Saggy Pants Rule is Unconstitutional and Must be Stopped After the City of Indianapolis, Indiana began cracking down on when, where and how homeless persons can solicit donations, the ACLU sued Indianapolis, claiming the city's police unconstitutionally forced homeless persons to produce identification without probable cause. Legal Docket | Police Practices Bibliography William A. Donohue, The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1985) ISBN 0-88738-021-2 Peggy Lamson, Roger Baldwin: Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1976) ISBN 0-395-24761-6 Samuel Walker, In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU'' (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-19-504539-4 See also American Center for Law & Justice British Columbia Civil Liberties Association Canadian Civil Liberties Association Freedom (political) National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee New York Civil Liberties Union Southern Poverty Law Center References External links Official ACLU site The ACLU Freedom Files TV series | American_Civil_Liberties_Union |@lemmatized american:30 civil:29 liberty:28 union:14 aclu:171 consist:1 two:4 separate:2 non:4 profit:2 organization:24 foundation:10 c:7 focus:2 litigation:5 communication:1 effort:1 legislative:2 lobbying:3 state:37 mission:1 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1,984 | Bantu_peoples | Bantu is a large category of African languages. It also is used as a general label for over 400 ethnic groups in Sub-Saharan Africa, from Cameroon across Central Africa and Eastern Africa to Southern Africa. These peoples share a common language family sub-group, the Bantu languages, and broad ancestral culture, but Bantu languages as a whole are as diverse as Indo-European languages. Etymology "Bantu" means "people" in many Bantu languages, along with similar sounding cognates. Dr. Wilhelm Bleek first used the term "Bantu" in its current sense in his 1862 book A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, in which he hypothesized that a vast number of languages located across central, southern, eastern, and western Africa shared so many characteristics that they must be part of a single language group. Perhaps the most salient was the organization of many parts of speech in concordance with a set of noun categories, by means of inflected prefixes. The word bantu drift of Punt and Kush. Thus in isiZulu, a paradigmatic case for Bleek, the noun root -ntu is found in nouns such as umuntu (person), abantu (people), ubuntu (quality of being human, humaneness), and verbs and adjectives describing the nouns agree with them: Umuntu omkhulu uhamba ngokushesha (The big person walks quickly), Abantu abakhulu bahamba ngokushesha (The big people walk quickly). Bleek's basic thesis of linguistic affinity has been confirmed by numerous researchers using the comparative method. Origins 1 = 3000 - 1500 BC origin2 = ca.1500 BC first migrations 2.a = Eastern Bantu, 2.b = Western Bantu3 = 1000 - 500 BC Urewe nuclus of Eastern Bantu4 - 7 = southward advance9 = 500 BC - 0 Congo nucleus10 = 0 - 1000 AD last phase The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock in Southern Africa A Brief History of Botswana On Bantu and Khoisan in (Southeastern) Zambia, (in German) Early Iron Age findings in eastern and southern Africa Current scholarly understanding places the ancestral proto-Bantu homeland near the southwestern modern boundary of Nigeria and Cameroon ca. 5,000 years ago (3000 BC), and regards the Bantu languages as a branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Erhet & Posnansky, eds. (1982), Newman (1995) This view represents a resolution of debates in the 1960s over competing theories advanced by Joseph Greenberg and Malcolm Guthrie, in favor of refinements of Greenberg's theory. Based on wide comparisons including non-Bantu languages, Greenberg argued that Proto-Bantu, the hypothetical ancestor of the Bantu languages, had strong ancestral affinities with a group of languages spoken in Southeastern Nigeria. He proposed that Bantu languages had spread east and south from there, to secondary centers of further dispersion, over hundreds of years. Using a different comparative method focused more exclusively on relationships among Bantu languages, Guthrie argued for a single central African dispersal point spreading at a roughly equal rate in all directions. Subsequent research on loanwords for adaptations in agriculture and animal husbandry and on the wider Niger-Congo language family rendered that thesis untenable. In the 1990s Jan Vansina proposed a modification of Greenberg's ideas, in which dispersions from secondary and tertiary centers resembled Guthrie's central node idea, but from a number of regional centers rather than just one, creating linguistic clusters. Vansina (1995) Before the expansion of farming and herding peoples, including those speaking Bantu languages, Africa south of the equator was populated by neolithic hunting and foraging peoples. Some of them were ancestral to modern Central African forest peoples (so-called Pygmies) who now speak Bantu languages. Others were proto-Khoisan-speaking peoples, whose few modern hunter-forager and linguistic descendants today occupy the arid regions around the Kalahari desert. Many more Khoekhoe and San descendants have a Coloured identity in South Africa and Namibia, speaking Afrikaans and English. The small Hadza and Sandawe-speaking populations in Tanzania, whose languages are proposed by many to have a distant relationship to Khoekhoe and San languages (although the hypothesis that the Khoisan languages are a single family is disputed by many, and the name is simply used for convenience), comprise the other modern hunter-forager remnant in Africa. Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu-speaking communities, as well as by Ubangian, Nilotic and Central Sudanic language-speakers in North Central and Eastern Africa. While earliest archaeological evidence of farming and herding in today's Bantu language areas often is presumed to reflect spread of Bantu-speaking communities, it need not always do so. Ehret (1998) Bantu expansion The Bantu expansion was a millennia-long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas. Bantu-speakers developed novel methods of agriculture and metalworking which allowed people to colonize new areas with widely varying ecologies in greater densities than hunting and foraging permitted. Meanwhile in Eastern and Southern Africa Bantu-speakers adopted livestock husbandry from other peoples they encountered, and in turn passed it to hunter-foragers, so that herding reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did. Archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence all support the idea that the Bantu expansion was one of the most significant human migrations and cultural transformations within the past few thousand years. It is unclear when exactly the spread of Bantu-speakers began from their core area as hypothesized ca. 5,000 years ago. By 3,500 years ago (1500 B.C.) in the west, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 2,500 year ago (500 B.C.) pioneering groups had emerged into the savannahs to the south, in what are now the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Zambia. Another stream of migration, moving east, by 3,000 years ago (1000 B.C.) was creating a major new population center near the Great Lakes of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively harsh farming conditions in areas further from water. Pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by A.D. 300 along the coast, and the modern Northern Province (encompassed within the former province of the Transvaal) by A.D. 500. Newman (1995), Ehret (1998), Shillington (2005) Between the 14th and 15th centuries powerful Bantu-speaking states began to emerge, in the Great Lakes region, in the savannah south of the Central African rainforest, and on the Zambezi river where the Monomatapa kings built the famous Great Zimbabwe complex. Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They were probably due to denser population, which led to more specialized divisions of labor, including military power, while making emigration more difficult, to increased trade among African communities and with European, Swahili and Arab traders on the coasts, to technological developments in economic activity, and to new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualization of royalty as the source of national strength and health. Shillington (2005) The use of the term "Bantu" in South Africa In the 1920s relatively liberal white South Africans, missionaries and the small black intelligentsia began to use the term "Bantu" in preference to "Native" and more derogatory terms (such as "Kaffir") to refer collectively to Bantu-speaking South Africans. After World War II, the racialist National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal white allies turned to the term "African" instead, so that "Bantu" became identified with the policies of apartheid. By the 1970s this so discredited "Bantu" as an ethno-racial designation that the apartheid government switched to the term "Black" in its official racial categorizations, restricting it to Bantu-speaking Africans, at about the same time that the Black Consciousness Movement led by Steve Biko and others were defining "Black" to mean all racially oppressed South Africans (Africans, Coloureds and Indians). Examples of South African usages of "Bantu" include: One of South Africa's politicians of recent times, General Bantubonke Harrington Holomisa (Bantubonke is a compound noun meaning "all the people"), is known as Bantu Holomisa. The South African apartheid governments originally gave the name "bantustans" to the eleven rural reserve areas intended for a spurious, ersatz independence to deny Africans South African citizenship. "Bantustan" originally reflected an analogy to the various ethnic "-stans" of Western and Central Asia. Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term "ethnic homelands". Meanwhile the anti-apartheid movement persisted in calling the areas bantustans, to drive home their political illegitimacy. The abstract noun ubuntu, humanity or humaneness, is derived regularly from the Nguni noun stem -ntu in isiXhosa, isiZulu and siNdebele. In siSwati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu. In the Sotho-Tswana languages of southern Africa, batho is the cognate term to Nguni abantu, illustrating that such cognates need not actually look like the -ntu root exactly. The early African National Congress of South Africa had a newspaper called Abantu-Batho from 1912-1933, which carried columns in English, isiZulu, Sesotho, and isiXhosa. Bibliography Christopher Ehret, An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400, James Currey, London, 1998 Christopher Ehret and Merrick Posnansky, eds., The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1982 April A. Gordon and Donald L. Gordon, Understanding Contemporary Africa, Lynne Riener, London, 1996 John M. Janzen, Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992 James L. Newman, The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1995 Kevin Shillington, History of Africa, 3rd ed. St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005 Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1990 Jan Vansina, "New linguistic evidence on the expansion of Bantu," Journal of African History 36:173-195, 1995 See also Centre International des Civilisations Bantu Jan Vansina Candomblé Bantu Somali Bantu Historical migration References | Bantu_peoples |@lemmatized bantu:42 large:1 category:2 african:23 language:23 also:2 use:7 general:2 label:1 ethnic:3 group:10 sub:2 saharan:1 africa:24 cameroon:2 across:2 central:11 eastern:8 southern:8 people:12 share:2 common:1 family:4 languages:3 broad:1 ancestral:4 culture:1 whole:1 diverse:1 indo:1 european:2 etymology:1 mean:4 many:7 along:2 similar:1 sound:1 cognate:3 dr:1 wilhelm:1 bleek:3 first:2 term:9 current:2 sense:1 book:1 comparative:3 grammar:1 south:18 hypothesize:2 vast:1 number:2 locate:1 western:3 characteristic:1 must:1 part:2 single:3 perhaps:1 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see:1 centre:1 international:1 de:1 civilisation:1 candomblé:1 somali:1 historical:1 reference:1 |@bigram sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 bantu_languages:3 indo_european:1 nigeria_cameroon:1 niger_congo:2 animal_husbandry:1 jan_vansina:4 secondary_tertiary:1 farming_herding:2 kalahari_desert:1 bantu_speaking:6 archaeological_evidence:1 republic_congo:1 kwazulu_natal:1 zambezi_river:1 steve_biko:1 anti_apartheid:1 christopher_ehret:2 james_currey:1 los_angeles:2 |
1,985 | Cyrix_6x86 | Cyrix 6x86-P166. The Cyrix 6x86 (codename M1) is a sixth-generation, 32-bit 80x86-compatible microprocessor designed by Cyrix and manufactured by IBM and SGS-Thomson. It was originally released in 1996. Architecture A simplistic block diagram of the Cyrix 6x86 microarchitecture. The 6x86 is superscalar and superpipelined and performs register renaming, speculative execution, out-of-order execution, and data dependency removal. However, it continued to use native x86 execution and ordinary microcode only, like Centaur's Winchip, unlike competitors Intel and AMD which introduced the method of dynamic translation to micro-operations with Pentium Pro and K5. With regards to internal caches, it has a 16-KB primary cache and is socket-compatible with the Intel Pentium P54C. It was also unique in that it was the only x86 design to incorporate a 256-byte Level 0 scratchpad cache. It has six performance levels: PR 90+, PR 120+, PR 133+, PR 150+, PR 166+ and PR 200+. These performance levels do not map to the clock speed of the chip itself (for example, a PR 133+ ran at 110 MHz, a PR 166+ ran at 133 MHz, etc). Note that the 6x86 and 6x86L weren't completely compatible with the Intel Pentium instruction set and is not multi-processor capable. For this reason the chip identified itself as a 80486 and disabled the CPUID instruction by default. CPUID support could be enabled by first enabling extended CCR registers then setting bit 7 in CCR4. The lack of full Pentium compatibility caused problems with some applications because programmers had begun to use Pentium-specific instructions. Some companies released patches for their products to make them function on the 6x86. The first generation of 6x86 had heat problems. This was primarily caused by their relatively higher heat output than other x86 CPUs of the day and, as such, computer builders sometimes did not equip them with adequate cooling. The CPUs topped out at around 25 W heat output (like the AMD K6), whereas the Pentium produced around 15 W of waste heat at its peak. However, both numbers would be a fraction of the heat generated by many high performance Pentium 4 versions, some years later. Revised cores The 6x86L was later released by Cyrix to address heat issues; the L standing for low-power. Another release of the 6x86, the 6x86MX, added MMX compatibility, introduced the EMMI instruction set, and quadrupled the primary cache size to 64 KB. This chip was later renamed MII, to better compete with the Pentium II processor. Performance Cyrix 6x86L PR166+ sold under IBM label Cyrix 6x86MX PR200 IBM 6x86MX. It has been speculated by experts that 6x86 was designed to perform well specifically on business-oriented benchmarks of the time, most notably Ziff-Davis' Winstone benchmark. Winstone ran various speed tests using several popular applications. It was one of the leading benchmarks during the mid-'90s and was used in some leading magazines, such as Computer Shopper and PC Magazine, as a deciding factor for system ratings. The 6x86's integer performance was fantastic. As said earlier, Cyrix used a PR rating (Performance Rating) to relate their performance to the Intel Pentium Classic (pre-P55C), because a 6x86 at a lower clock rate outperformed the higher-clocked Pentium. For example, a 133 MHz 6x86 will outperform a Pentium Classic at 166 MHz, and as a result Cyrix could market the 133 MHz chip as being a Pentium 166's equal. A PR rating was also necessary because the 6x86 could not clock as high as Pentium and maintain equivalent manufacturing yields, so it was critical to establish the slower clock speeds as equal in the minds of the consumer. However, the PR rating was not an entirely truthful representation of the 6x86's performance. While it can be simply said that its integer performance is excellent, the same can not be said with regard to its floating point performance. The FPU is considerably less robust than that of the Pentium (let alone the P6 FPU.) During the 6x86's development, the majority of applications (office software) performed almost entirely integer operations. The designers foresaw that future applications would most likely maintain this instruction focus. So, to optimize the chip's performance for what they believed to be the most likely application of the CPU, the integer execution resources received most of the transistor budget. The poor FPU performance of the 6x86 can be mostly attributed to major FPU instructions taking at least 4 clock cycles and that it was not pipelined. It was not much faster than a 486 FPU at the same clock speed. The popularity of the Pentium caused many software developers to hand-optimize code in assembly language, to take advantage of the Pentium's pipelined and lower latency FPU. For example, the highly anticipated first person shooter Quake used highly-optimized assembly code designed almost entirely around the Pentium's FPU. As a result, the Pentium significantly outperformed other CPUs in the game. Fortunately for the 6x86 (and AMD K6), many games continued to be integer-based throughout the chip's lifetime. Cyrix MII The 6x86 successor, MII, was late to market, and couldn't scale well in clock speed. Cyrix had made a mistake with 6x86, similar to what AMD had done with their K5; design a chip far more focused on integer per-clock performance superiority than clock scalability. As such, 6x86 and MII were forced to compete at the low-end of the market because AMD K6 and Intel Pentium II were always at least one step ahead on clock speed. This, combined with the limited floating point unit, and an integer section that was at best on-par with the newer P6 and K6 chips, Cyrix could no longer compete in performance. References Gwennap, Linley (25 October 1993). "Cyrix Describes Pentium Competitor" Microprocessor Report. Gwennap, Linley (5 December 1994). "Cyrix M1 Design Tapes Out". Microprocessor Report. Slater, Michael (12 February 1996). "Cyrix, IBM Push 6x86 to 133 MHz". Microprocessor Report. External links Cyrix 6x86 ("M1") at PCGuide cpu-collection.de Cyrix 6x86 processor images and descriptions Paul Hsieh's 6th Generation x86 CPU Comparison in-depth analysis of 6th generation x86 CPUs, including the 6x86MX. 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1,986 | Limp_Bizkit | Limp Bizkit is an American nu metal band from Jacksonville, Florida. The band achieved success with over 35 million albums sold worldwide. http://www.last.fm/music/Limp+Bizkit/+wiki The current members of the band include vocalist Fred Durst, guitarist Wes Borland, bassist Sam Rivers, drummer John Otto (Rivers' cousin) and turntablist/sampler player DJ Lethal. The band's guitarist Wes Borland departed in 2001 following the release of their first three albums to be replaced by Mike Smith for the band's fourth release Results May Vary. Borland rejoined for The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1) only to quit once again in 2006 to work with other projects. February 2009 saw the confirmation of all five members reuniting for a world tour set to launch in the Spring of that year. http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b99728_limp_bizkit_back_togetherdoes_anyone.html History Early years Fred Durst lived in Jacksonville, when he met Sam Rivers. Rivers was introduced to music by his cousin, John Otto, a drummer in Keystone. Durst asked Rivers if he wanted to get together for a jam session, and Rivers accepted. Rivers brought Otto along. Together they started an early version of the band. The trio soon recruited guitarist Rob Waters. In 1994 Limp Bizkit was established. http://limpbizkit.com The band's first four-track demo, entitled Mental Aquaducts, (which were remakes of previously written songs from Fred's previous bands Split 26 and 10Ft Shindig) was recorded with him but soon after he left the band. Otto suggested the group to consider Wes Borland, whom he had gone to school with, for the now vacant position. Otto stated Borland was an artist, but also a very good guitar player. Durst had noticed him playing at clubs and wanted to recruit him. Durst went to Philadelphia, and he instructed the other members to talk to Wes and see if he'd join the band. Wes accepted, and the very night Fred came back to Jacksonville a show was scheduled. Fred and Wes met for the first time, practiced for a half hour, and then went and played the show. The band continued to play various shows, their most popular venue being at the Milkbar in Jacksonville. In 1995, Fred Durst was scared to talk to and meet members of the band KoRn when they played a show in the Jacksonville area. Durst, a tattoo artist, gave KoRn Lead Guitarist Brian "Head" Welch several tattoos and the two became friends. Durst also gave KoRn the band's first demo tape with Rob Waters, and they shrugged it off as nothing special. But when Wes Borland came into the picture, a second demo was recorded and this time KoRn was impressed. The three-song demo included the tracks "Counterfeit", "Stuck", "Stalemate", and "Pollution", all of which would end up on Three Dollar Bill, Yall$. Reginald "Fieldy" Arvizu passed the demo tape onto Ross Robinson, who produced for KoRn, and was also very impressed. Ross contacted Limp Bizkit, and stated his intent to produce for the band. Also, at a Garbage concert, Durst had met Jordan Schur and played his demo tape for him in Schur's car. He was impressed, and wanted to sign Limp Bizkit to his label, Flip Records. Around this time, the band was booked to tour with the bands Deftones and House of Pain, whose member DJ Lethal later joined Limp Bizkit. Limp Bizkit later signed with Mojo records, but was later bought out by Schur and suubsequently signed with Flip Records. Three Dollar Bill, Yall$ (1997–1998) Three Dollar Bill, Yall$, their first full length recording, was released in 1997 on Interscope. The album fared poorly on the Billboard 200 at the time of its release, although it did sell steadily over time due to a huge amount of obsessive touring. It wasn't until the Family Values Tour, the Trail of Tears, and Ozzfest, which helped the album to peak at number 25 on the chart. At Ozzfest in particular, the band made a memorable impression on viewers due to the original set they played on, which consisted of a giant toilet. The band climbed out from the toilet at the beginning of the show, with Fred saying lines during the show such as "We're coming straight to you from the sewer" and "I am a piece of shit, and my band is a piece of shit". Sam Rivers once said during MTV Driven "Our music is fueled by negativity, so by saying these things you're only fueling the fire". Wes Borland's outlandish makeup also started making impressions on fans as well. Although their first released single was "Counterfeit", they rose to fame through a cover of George Michael's "Faith". The song appeared on the soundtrack of Peter Berg's 1998 movie "Very Bad Things" starring Cameron Diaz, Christian Slater and Jeremy Piven. "Limp Bizkit Pays For 'Counterfeit' Play". MTV News, July 1, 1998; retrieved May 31, 2006. Apparently, the song only took around 10 minutes to arrange. Later that year, Fred lent his vocals to KoRn's third album on the song All in the Family, a rap-battle of sorts. The album also featured a second disc, with four remixes of the demo for the song and multimedia featuring interviews between Durst, Borland and the rest of KoRn. Another unique idea the band came up with was the Ladies Night in Cambodia tour. Fred had noticed that mostly young males went to their concerts, and wanted more women to come. So, they came up with the idea to let women get in for free at this tour. The tour was a huge success, and many more women would appear at their later concerts (even though this practice lasted only for the "Cambodia" tour). The set was also fairly original, as it made the stage appear to be a jungle (hence the 'Cambodia'). Shortly here after Limp Bizkit was sued by Rob Waters for using songs he helped co-write. Waters won and was rewarded with a high six figure sum. Terry Balsamo (Cold, Evanescence) decided not to persue in the lawsuit even though he helped write material as well.m Many others could have sued as well but have "yet" to do so. Significant Other (1999–2000) In 1999, Limp Bizkit found major worldwide success with their second album Significant Other, which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 and received somewhat positive reviews. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:1jnsa9wgl23h The album sold 834,000 copies in its first week and has sold over 16 million copies worldwide. The first single "Nookie", was an enormous hit on rock radio, reaching the top 10 in both rock and rap charts. The band followed-up the single with three simultaneously released singles - "Break Stuff", "Re-Arranged" and "N 2 Gether Now" (featuring hip-hop artist Method Man). "N 2 Gether Now" has been cited as an example of Fred Durst's attempt to work for unity rather than rivalry between rock and hip-hop, blurring the distinction between the two genres of music. Randy Davenport, "Bizkit is back", The Orion, Feb. 25th, 2009. The album also featured the song "Nobody Like You" with vocals by Jonathan Davis of KoRn and Scott Weiland of Stone Temple Pilots. Controversies In the summer of 1999, Limp Bizkit played at the highly anticipated Woodstock '99 show. Then violent action sprang up during and after their performance, including fans tearing plywood from the walls during a rendition of the band's single "Break Stuff". Several rapes and sexual assaults were reported in the aftermath of the concert, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/july99/woodstock29.htm resulting in deliberately lit fires and looting when the Red Hot Chili Peppers played the next day. Some have blamed the band for this outbreak, although Fred Durst claimed that none of the instigations he had made at the concert were intended to cause damage. Along with this episode, controversies involving the band's members began to arise. Durst particularly became involved in feuds with the metal band Slipknot, Ozzy Osbourne's guitarist Zakk Wylde and engaged in physical violence with Creed frontman Scott Stapp. In addition, the band Taproot released on their website an answering machine message that Durst had left on the lead singer's phone as "revenge" for ending their record company contract with his record label. Chocolate Starfish (2000–2001) Fifteen months later, Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water was released on October 17, 2000. In an interview with Guitar World, guitarist Wes Borland explained the meaning of the album's strange title. He said that Fred was frequently referred to as an asshole, or a "chocolate starfish," and the hot dog flavored water came from an inside joke about a gas station the band visited while on the road that had every flavor of water imaginable (except hot dog flavored). The album set a record for highest week-one sales of a rock album with just over one million copies sold in the U.S. in its first week of release . "Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water" was certified Gold, Platinum and six times Multi-Platinum. Limp Bizkit tops the Billboard Album chart | Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water | Music News | Music | Entertainment Weekly . The first two singles "My Generation" and "Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)" were released at the same time in promotion of the album. "Take a Look Around" was later added to the list as the theme song to the movie Mission: Impossible 2. A remix, "Rollin' (Urban Assault Vehicle)" featuring Method Man, Redman and DMX was also a minor club hit and was also featured in the movie The Fast and the Furious. The fourth single "My Way" was commissioned as the opening theme for the World Wrestling Entertainment's WrestleMania X-Seven. Despite its commercial success, the album received mediocre reviews from many critics. http://www.metacritic.com/music/artists/limpbizkit/chocolatestarfish?q=limp%20bizkit Controversies In late 2000, the band also stirred up some discontent by allowing the controversial peer-to-peer file-sharing network Napster to sponsor their "Back to Basics tour", advertised as a chance for fans to get closer to the band. Controversy continued with a death during a 2001 tour of Australia at the Big Day Out festival in Sydney. Teenager Jessica Michalik suffered a heart attack when fans rushed the stage in the mosh pit. It was claimed by security and witnesses that Fred Durst was urging the crowd on in a possibly violent manner, or that he failed to attempt to calm the crowd after the accident. Michalik was later rushed to Sydney's Concord Hospital where she died five days later. Durst provided the courts with testimony. During the hearing he claimed, via a video connection from the U.S., that he had warned the concert's organizers Aaron Jackson, Will Pearce and Amar Tailor and promoter Vivian Lees of the potential dangers of such minimal security http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1148637.stm , even going so far as to say Limp Bizkit would “pull out” if the issue wasn't properly addressed. Big Day Out attorneys attempted to pin the blame on Limp Bizkit because the band did not stop playing when they received news of the incident. Although the guitars, drums and bass ceased, DJ Lethal played a quiet computer-generated loop. While admitting that Lethal took it upon himself to play the interlude, Durst claimed that the quiet melody did have a soothing effect on the crowd. The Coroner's Court decided the band 'could've been more helpful in efforts to aid the girl'. The security practices employed by festival organizers Creative Entertainment Australia bore the brunt of the blame. After viewing videotapes and hearing witness testimony, however, Milledge, the coroner, said it was evident that the density of the crowd was dangerous at the time Limp Bizkit took the stage- therefore they had to erect a cage around the band. "Organizers Blamed In Limp Bizkit Mosh-Pit Death". MTV News November 8, 2002; retrieved May 31, 2006. Borland's first departure In the fall of 2001, Wes Borland left Limp Bizkit for the first time. Strained relations between him and Durst contributed to his decision. His departure was interpreted as a major blow by fans and critics to the band. He was often cited as a vital creative force in the group, due in part to his eccentricity. The last known song the band was working on with Wes was "Relax", a semi-cover take on Frankie Goes to Hollywood's song, due to be on the Zoolander soundtrack. Results May Vary (2002–2004) With Borland's absence, Limp Bizkit began a nation-wide audition for their new guitarist called Put Your Guitar Where Your Mouth Is in 2002. "Limp Bizkit Scouring 99 the reason why they didn't go to 100 cities because they were to lazy Cities For New Guitarist". MTV News, December 21, 2001; retrieved May 31, 2006. Durst announced at the outset that he was interested in recruiting a female or more than one new member into the band. Thousands of hopefuls were said entered. Some controversy occurred when rumors surfaced that all contestants were required to sign a document giving Limp Bizkit the full ownership of any riffs they played. Durst said on the band's website that what they signed was only a release form so that each person's likeness could be used in a documentary if the band were to make one. http://www.ihatefreddurst.com/news/ Each auditioner was allowed only sixty seconds in the first round. The final contestants were Monte Pittman, Anoush Saboktakin and Jonas Anderson of Fresno, California. On March 7, 2003, Limp Bizkit announced they would perform live for the first time in two years, at World Wrestling Entertainment's upcoming WrestleMania XIX taking place on March 30. They played "Crack Addict" and "Rollin'" (The Undertaker's theme song) at the show. "WrestleMania XIX this Sunday". World Wrestling Entertainment press release, March 28, 2003; retrieved May 31, 2006. They also signed up for several live tours, despite their lack of a guitarist. The guitarists for the WrestleMania tour were later revealed when Durst wrote in a post on the official website: "We are playing WrestleMania this weekend. On the guitars will be Head from KoRn and Mike Smith from Snot". The song was originally set to be released on their next album, though it did not appear on Results May Vary. The song was later made available for download through their MySpace page. During this time, Durst spoke of many collaborations with guitarists, with a few rap guests sprinkled in on songs for the album. Among them were Rivers Cuomo of Weezer, Page Hamilton of Helmet, Al Jourgensen of Ministry, and Brian Welch of KoRn as well as Jay-Z, Bubba Sparxxx, and Snoop Dogg. None of the songs with those guitarists would make it onto the album, except "Build a Bridge", which was written with Welch, and "Red Light - Green Light", which featured Snoop Dogg. For whatever reason, the finalists from the "Put Your Guitar Where Your Mouth Is" contest were rejected in favor of former Snot guitarist Mike Smith. The band also changed its logo to limpbizkit to promote their change of style. The band had already recorded an album's worth of material for an upcoming release. But with Mike Smith now in the band, it was decided that they would go back in the studio and record another album's worth of songs. The best of these tracks would make it onto the final release. Fred refers to the tracks recorded during this period that didn't make it to the album as the 'Off the Record' tracks, as if it were an album in itself. On September 23, 2003, Results May Vary, their fourth album and last top ten recording, was released, with about half the songs featuring Mike Smith on guitar and about half having Limp Bizkit's Sam Rivers on guitar. "Build a Bridge" has Brian Welch on guitar. The album was considered a commercial flop, breaking the group's #1 spree on the Billboard 200. It received platinum certification (1 million copies sold) in the United States on 6-3-2008, almost 5 years after its release. In comparison, their previous work Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water sold one million albums in its first week. Results May Vary appealed more to fans of Fred-written ballads with less of a hard rock emphasis than on previous releases. On the other hand, the album received generally poor reviews by critics. http://www.metacritic.com/music/artists/limpbizkit/resultsmayvary Although Rolling Stone'''s review was generally positive, Playlouder called it 'fucking crap', http://www.playlouder.com/review/+resultsmayvary/ Yahoo! Launch labeled it 'a frightening insight into the vacuous state of 21st century culture', http://uk.launch.yahoo.com/l_reviews_a/30984.html and allmusic stated that it 'suffered from an utter lack of form and direction.'. http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:la9ks37wa3dg~T1 Nevertheless, an acoustic cover of The Who's "Behind Blue Eyes" was a moderate hit on mainstream radio, and its video featured actress Halle Berry. "Eat You Alive" was released as the first single off the album, cracking the top 20 of both American rock charts with an accompanying video that features actress Thora Birch being berated and actor Bill Paxton as her father who is looking for her. The album's ballad "Build a Bridge" was the official theme song of WWE's Survivor Series pay-per-view event in November 2003, although it was never released as an official single due to Mike Smith's departure. Another song from the album, "Almost Over", cracked the Rock Top 40. However it was never released as a single or video. In 2003, Limp Bizkit toured on the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 with Metallica, Linkin Park, Deftones and Mudvayne to promote Metallica's 2003 release, St. Anger. At the tour's stop in Chicago, IL, attendees of the concert threw items at and heckled Durst from the moment he walked on stage. With the crowd chanting "Fuck Fred Durst" and continuing their assault on him, Durst threw the mic down after six songs and walked off stage, but not before heckling the crowd back. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1474912/20030728/limp_bizkit.jhtml The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1), Greatest Hitz, and hiatus (2004–2008) Throughout July 2004, various rumors began circulating claiming that Wes Borland had been playing with the band again. By July 8, a fan site released an official report that Borland was recording with the band in London. Photos appeared on the band's official website of him playing with the band, and a live video of them playing a new song "The Truth" in studio was also posted on the website. Durst said of Borland's re-entry, "We are very content with Mike being gone. We are the type of people that stay true to our family and our instincts and at any moment will act on intuition as a whole. Mike wasn't the guy. We had fun playing with him, but always knew, in the back of our minds, that he wasn't where we needed him to be mentally." "EXCLUSIVE: Fred Durst Interview". thearmpit.net August 15, 2004; retrieved May 31, 2006. At this stage, they reverted back to the use of their original logo. The band returned to the studio with producer Ross Robinson, who had worked with them on Three Dollar Bill, Yall$, to create a seven track EP titled The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1). Drummer John Otto was only able to contribute to one track on the album due to personal matters, with Sammy Siegler providing percussion on the remaining tracks. Durst promised fans before its release that it would be a return to the 'rawer, more abrasive style' of their first album. The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1) was released as a 7-track EP internationally on May 3, 2005 with little fanfare or advertising, debuting at number 24 on the Billboard 200 and selling only 37,000 copies in its first week. It has sold just slightly over 100,000 in the US. Moss, Corey. "Limp Bizkit: What Happened?". MTV News; retrieved May 31, 2006. It also received mediocre reviews, with some critics thinking that Durst was trying too hard to imitate Rage Against the Machine's lead singer Zack de la Rocha. http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/limpbizkit/albums/album/7285846/review/7313493/the_unquestionable_truth_part_1 Limp Bizkit's first greatest hits compilation, titled Greatest Hitz, was released on November 8, 2005. It contained material from the band's first four albums (the track "The Truth" was released in some countries). An additional DVD, which featured music videos for most of their major hits, was released in conjunction with the CD. The album and DVD were barely promoted by the band's label, even to the point where Durst claimed he was being forced to do interviews about a compilation he wasn't very excited about. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1512963/11032005/limp_bizkit.jhtml The promotion did not pay off, with the album debuting at number 47. The compilation album featured two previously unreleased songs, "Why" and "Lean on Me", which were acoustic/metal-based leftovers from Results May Vary, dropped for heavier songs, http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1513351/11092005/durst_fred.jhtml and a medley of The Verve's "Bittersweet Symphony" and Mötley Crüe's "Home Sweet Home", which was released to radio but did not receive much airplay. Wes Borland stated that the CD was "a piece of shit and a waste of money." After the release of Greatest Hitz and the depature of Wes Borland the band unofficially went into a hiatus. Durst began directing and acting in movies (Population 436, The Longshots), Otto went into rehab and collaborated with other bands and artists, as did the rest of the band (Rivers, Lethal). Rock im Park 2001 was released on on March 31, 2008. It is a live album and DVD documenting the 2001 performance by Limp Bizkit recorded at Rock im park in 2001. It documents the band at the height of their popularity and captures their set at the Rock im Park festival in Germany in 2001. This is one of the last shows that have the original lineup. End of hiatus (2008) In late 2008, bassist Sam Rivers hinted that the group was in the early stages of writing new material for the fifth album. He described the band's intentions in a post on fan site thearmpit.net: "This is the start of our new beginning. We want all of you to be involved as much as possible, soon you will be seeing all of us on here keeping you guys informed on whats happening with us. Our goal is to have all you guys be a part of all the stages of making our new album. We will be uploading new pictures to show you guys the process of creating the new Limp Bizkit, From the very beginning to the end of recording the album. I hope all of you guys get as excited as we are. We love all of you, and get ready because it starts this Sunday..... Sam " On December 12, the band posted on thearmpit.net that, despite technical difficulties, things were going great and that "something is coming soon." In mid-2008 rumors began to indicate that Limp Bizkit will be planning a comeback tour, these rumors were later confirmed. Interviews with various members of the band had hinted that Terry Balsamo will be replacing Wes Borland, but more recently updates to the Limp Bizkit MySpace page and the band's website, have strongly hinted that Wes Borland has rejoined the band. Despite no official confirmation from the band, members of Limp Bizkit have signed up for Twitter including Wes, with DJ Lethal confirming the twitter account to be real, making Borland's rejoining seem less like a rumour. The band updated one picture on their official website limpbizkit.com and their myspace page. New album, touring and recent events (2009-present) On February 11, 2009, Durst posted on his Twitter account the message "1am pacific time- limpbizkit.com tonight". The site was up and running for the first time in years and confirmed the return of Wes. Through a blog post on the homepage, Fred Durst and Wes Borland issued a joint statement: http://www.limpbizkit.com/ The band also added that a worldwide tour would follow, and initially stated that a new album would follow. Later, they were confirmed for the Download Festival taking place in the UK at Donington Park on the June 12-14 http://www.downloadfestival.co.uk/lineup/index.aspx as well as the simultaneous German festivals Rock am Ring and Rock im Park. They were also confirmed for a few other European dates, like Rock Werchter in Belgium, a few Russian dates a Hungarian date and more. During spring of 2009 Limp Bizkit band has "Limp Bizkit World tour 2009" almost all over the Europe. The band has released three new rehearsal videos of "Boiler", "My Way" and "Break Stuff" on their website. http://www.limpbizkit.com/Default.aspx#player/ They recently named their first tour since their hiatus; "Unicorns N' Rainbows Tour 2009". http://www.limpbizkit.com/events/ On May 20, 2009 the original lineup of Limp Bizkit (Fred Durst, Wes Borland, Sam Rivers, John Otto and DJ Lethal) performed in Riga, Latvia for the first time in 8 years; and their first show ever in Latvia. Limp Bizkit will perform on July 10 in their first North American concert with their original lineup in eight years as a part of the UFC 100 weekend. On May, 27, the band performed at Ledovy Palace, in St. Petersburg, Russia. While making the final preparations to the show, Limp Bizkit technicians dropped a bunch of flycards to the waiting crowd. On the front side of the card it was written "Hatorade", and on the other - "New album coming at 2009". Band members Current Fred Durst – vocals (1995–present) Sam Rivers – bass (1995–present) John Otto – drums (1995–present) DJ Lethal – turntables, samples, keyboards, programming, sound design (1996–present) Wes Borland – guitars (1995–2001, 2004–2006, 2009–present) Former Mike Smith – guitars (2002–2004) Rob Waters – guitars (1995) Session Scott Borland – keyboards (1997–2000) Brian Head Welch – guitar (2002–2003) Sammy Siegler – drums, percussion (2005) Non-musical album appearances Les Claypool and Matt Pinfield - Outro (Significant Other) Ben Stiller - Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle) (Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water) Rob Dyrdek - Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle) (Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water) DiscographyThree Dollar Bill, Yall$ (1997)Significant Other (1999)Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water (2000)Results May Vary (2003)The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1) (2005)TBA'' Guest appearances in Limp Bizkit videos Sen Dog (Cypress Hill), Thom Hazaert (President - Corporate Punishment Records) - "Counterfeit" Chino Moreno - "Counterfeit [Lethal Dose Mix]" Eminem, Dr. Dre, Jonathan Davis, Snoop Dogg, Pauly Shore, Seth Green, Flea & more - "Break Stuff" Ben Stiller, Stephen Dorff - "Rollin'" Bill Paxton, Thora Birch - "Eat You Alive" Halle Berry - "Behind Blue Eyes" Jonathan Davis, Fieldy, Brian "Head" Welch, Munky, Les Claypool - "Faith", footage from the Family Values Tour. Matt Pinfield - "Re-Arranged" Method Man, Pauly Shore, Redman, DJ Premier - "N 2 Gether Now" Bubba Sparxxx, Timbaland - "Re-Arranged (Timbaland Mix)" Guest appearances in other videos Fred Durst - Lil' Bow Wow ft. Snoop Dogg, "Bow Wow (That's My Name)" Fred Durst - Cold, "Give" Fred Durst - Eminem, "The Real Slim Shady" Fred Durst - KoRn, "Falling Away from Me" Fred Durst - KoRn, "Got the Life" Fred Durst - Methods of Mayhem, "Get Naked" Fred Durst - Puddle of Mudd, "Control" Fred Durst - Soulfly, "Bleed" Fred Durst - Staind, "Home" Fred Durst - Staind, "Outside (Live)" Fred Durst - Staind, "Just Go" Fred Durst - 8Ball, "Quit Playin Games" Fred Durst - Artists Against AIDS Worldwide, "What's Going On" Fred Durst - Kid Rock, "Bawitdaba" Mike Smith - Britney Spears, "I Love Rock 'n Roll" Mike Smith - Five for Fighting, "Easy Tonight" Mike Smith - Staind, "Outside" Wes Borland - The Crystal Method, "Born Too Slow" Wes Borland - The Crystal Method, "Weapons of Mass Distortion" DJ Lethal - Dilated Peoples, "Worst Comes to Worst" DJ Lethal - La Coka Nostra, "That's Coke" DJ Lethal - Mr. Hyde, Ill Bill, Q-Unique, "Killer Collage" See also House of Pain Black Light Burns From First to Last References External links Official website Limp Bizkit Reunite be-x-old:Limp Bizkit | Limp_Bizkit |@lemmatized limp:39 bizkit:39 american:3 nu:1 metal:3 band:63 jacksonville:5 florida:1 achieve:1 success:4 million:5 album:45 sell:9 worldwide:5 http:20 www:17 last:6 fm:1 music:9 wiki:1 current:2 member:10 include:4 vocalist:1 fred:34 durst:49 guitarist:13 wes:23 borland:26 bassist:2 sam:8 river:14 drummer:3 john:5 otto:9 cousin:2 turntablist:1 sampler:1 player:3 dj:10 lethal:12 depart:1 follow:4 release:32 first:26 three:8 replace:2 mike:12 smith:10 fourth:3 result:8 may:16 vary:7 rejoin:3 unquestionable:5 truth:7 part:8 quit:2 work:5 project:1 february:2 saw:1 confirmation:2 five:3 reunite:2 world:6 tour:20 set:6 launch:3 spring:3 year:8 eonline:1 com:19 uberblog:1 html:2 history:1 early:3 live:6 meet:3 introduce:1 keystone:1 ask:1 want:5 get:7 together:2 jam:1 session:2 accept:2 bring:1 along:2 start:4 version:1 trio:1 soon:4 recruit:3 rob:5 water:14 establish:1 limpbizkit:10 four:3 track:10 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1,987 | Crandall_University | Atlantic Baptist University is a small Liberal Arts university located in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. ABU is run by the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches. History The school was founded in 1949 under the name United Baptist Bible Training School (UBBTS), and served as both a secondary school and a Bible school. Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In 1968, UBBTS became a Bible and Junior Christian Liberal Arts College, and in 1970 the name was changed to Atlantic Baptist College (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full Bachelor of Arts degrees in the early 1980s. Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district. The institution moved to a new campus constructed on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in 1996. The name was also changed to Atlantic Baptist University, a reflection of expanded student enrollment and academic accreditation. ABU sports teams play under the name Blue Tide. ABU remains the only English university in New Brunswick's largest, and fastest growing city. All students, aware of the denominational history of the institution, are encouraged to attend Baptist worship services on campus. The Atlantic Baptist University Act was passed by the New Brunswick Legislature in 2008. www.gnb.ca/legis/bill/FILE/56/2/Bill-64-e.htm Atlantic Baptist University Act Programs Bachelor of Business Administration Bachelor of Education Bachelor of Arts Biblical Studies Religious Studies History English Communications Psychology Sociology Organizational Management Interdisciplinary Studies Bachelor of Science Biology See also List of colleges and universities External links Atlantic Baptist University's Homepage References | Crandall_University |@lemmatized atlantic:7 baptist:9 university:8 small:1 liberal:2 art:4 locate:2 moncton:2 new:4 brunswick:3 canada:1 abu:3 run:1 convention:1 church:1 history:3 school:6 found:1 name:4 united:1 bible:3 training:1 ubbts:2 serve:1 secondary:2 two:1 decade:1 focus:1 gradually:1 shift:1 toward:1 post:1 program:2 become:1 junior:1 christian:1 college:3 change:2 abc:2 sustained:1 campaign:1 expand:1 faculty:1 improve:1 level:1 education:2 result:1 able:1 grant:1 full:1 bachelor:5 degree:1 early:1 campus:3 time:1 along:1 salisbury:1 road:2 west:1 central:2 business:3 district:2 institution:2 move:1 construct:1 gorge:1 north:1 also:2 reflection:1 expanded:1 student:2 enrollment:1 academic:1 accreditation:1 sport:1 team:1 play:1 blue:1 tide:1 remain:1 english:2 large:1 fast:1 grow:1 city:1 aware:1 denominational:1 encourage:1 attend:1 worship:1 service:1 act:2 pass:1 legislature:1 www:1 gnb:1 ca:1 legis:1 bill:2 file:1 e:1 htm:1 administration:1 biblical:1 study:3 religious:1 communication:1 psychology:1 sociology:1 organizational:1 management:1 interdisciplinary:1 science:1 biology:1 see:1 list:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 reference:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
1,988 | Mulholland_Drive_(film) | Mulholland Drive (2001) is a surrealistic, neo-noir psychological thriller directed by David Lynch, and starring Naomi Watts, Laura Elena Harring and Justin Theroux. The film was highly acclaimed by many critics and earned Lynch the Prix de la mise en scène (Best Director Award) at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival as well as an Oscar nomination for Best Director. Mulholland Drive also launched the careers of Watts and Harring and was the last feature film to star veteran Hollywood actress Ann Miller. The film is widely regarded as one of Lynch's finest works, alongside Eraserhead (1977) and Blue Velvet (1986). Originally conceived as a television pilot, a large portion of the film was shot with Lynch's plan to keep it open-ended for a potential series. After viewing Lynch's version, however, television executives decided to reject it; Lynch then provided an ending to the project, making it a feature film. The half-pilot, half-feature result, along with Lynch's characteristic style, has left the general meaning of the movie's events open to interpretation. Lynch has declined to offer an explanation of his intentions for the narrative, leaving audiences, critics, and cast members to speculate on what transpires. The film tells the story of an aspiring actress named Betty Elms, newly arrived in Los Angeles, California, who meets and befriends an amnesiac hiding in her aunt's apartment. The story includes several other seemingly unrelated vignettes that eventually connect in various ways, as well as some surreal scenes and images that relate to the cryptic narrative. The New York Times wrote that while some might consider the plot an "offense against narrative order ... the film is an intoxicating liberation from sense, with moments of feeling all the more powerful for seeming to emerge from the murky night world of the unconscious." Plot The story may not be linear and exhibits several instances of temporal disruption. A dark-haired woman (Laura Elena Harring) escapes imminent murder when she is the sole survivor of a car accident on Mulholland Drive. Injured and in shock, she descends into Los Angeles and sneaks into an apartment which an older, red-headed woman has recently vacated. An aspiring actress named Betty Elms (Naomi Watts) arrives from Deep River, Ontario, and takes a taxi to the same apartment, where she finds the dark-haired woman confused, not knowing her own name. The dark-haired woman assumes the name "Rita" when she sees a poster for the film Gilda (1946), starring Rita Hayworth. Betty decides to assist her in discovering her identity, and they look in Rita's purse where they find a large amount of money and an unusual blue key. A man in a diner called Winkies tells his companion about a nightmare in which he dreamt there was a horrible figure behind the diner. When they investigate, the figure appears, causing the man with the nightmare to collapse in fright. Later, a bungling hit man attempts to steal a book full of phone numbers and leaves three people dead. A Hollywood director named Adam Kesher (Justin Theroux) has his film commandeered by apparent mobsters, who insist he casts an unknown actress named Camilla Rhodes (Melissa George) as the lead in his film. After he resists, he returns home to find his wife having an affair and is thrown out of his house. He later learns that his bank has closed his line of credit and he is broke. He agrees to meet a mysterious figure called The Cowboy, who urges him to cast Camilla Rhodes for his own good. Betty and Rita try to learn more about her accident and Rita remembers the name "Diane Selwyn" after they are served by a waitress named Diane in Winkies. They call Diane Selwyn after finding her in the phone book, but she does not answer. Betty goes to an audition, where her performance is highly praised. A casting agent takes her to the set of a film called The Sylvia North Story, directed by Adam, where Camilla Rhodes gives an audition and Adam declares "This is the girl". Saying that she needs to meet a friend, Betty flees before she can meet Adam. Betty and Rita go to Diane Selwyn's apartment and break in when no one answers the door. In the bedroom they find the body of a woman who has been dead for several days. Terrified, they return to their apartment, where Rita disguises herself with a blond wig. The two women make love that night and awake at 2 a.m., when Rita insists they go to an eerie theater called Club Silencio. A performer explains in several languages that everything is an illusion; a woman performs a song then collapses, although the song continues. Betty finds a blue box in her purse that matches Rita's key. Upon returning to the apartment to open the box, Betty disappears, and Rita unlocks the box, and it falls to the floor with a thump. The woman with the red hair investigates the sound, but nothing is there. The Cowboy appears in the doorway of Diane Selwyn's bedroom saying, "Hey, pretty girl. Time to wake up." Diane Selwyn (played by Naomi Watts) wakes up in her bed. She looks exactly like Betty, but she is portrayed as a lonely and depressed failed actress, in love with Camilla Rhodes (played now by Laura Elena Harring), who torments and rejects her. On Camilla's invitation, Diane attends a party at Adam's house on Mulholland Drive. Her limousine stops before they reach the house and Camilla escorts her using a shortcut. Adam, who is a successful director, also appears to be in love with Camilla. Over dinner, Diane states that she came to Hollywood when her aunt died, and she met Camilla at an audition for The Sylvia North Story. Another woman (played by Melissa George) kisses Camilla and they turn and smile at Diane. Adam and Camilla attempt to make an important announcement, but dissolve into laughter and kiss while Diane watches, crying. Diane meets with the bungling hit man at Winkies, where she gives him Camilla's photo and a large amount of money, and they are served by a waitress named Betty. The hit man tells Diane that when the job is done, she will find a blue key. Diane looks up to see the man who had the nightmare standing at the counter. Back at her apartment, in view of the key, she is terrorized by hallucinations. She runs screaming to her bed where she shoots herself. Production history Development Originally conceived as a television series, Mulholland Drive began as a two hour-plus pilot produced for Touchstone Television and intended for the ABC television network. David Lynch sold the idea to ABC executives based only on the story of Rita emerging from the car accident with her purse containing $125,000 in cash and the blue key, and Betty trying to help her figure out who she is. An ABC executive recalled, "I remember the creepiness of this woman in this horrible, horrible crash, and David teasing us with the notion that people are chasing her. She's not just 'in' trouble—she is trouble. Obviously, we asked, 'What happens next?' And David said, 'You have to buy the pitch for me to tell you.'" Woods, p. 206. Lynch described the attractiveness of the idea of a pilot, despite the knowledge that the medium of television would be constricting: "I'm a sucker for a continuing story ... Theoretically, you can get a very deep story and you can go so deep and open the world so beautifully, but it takes time to do that." The story included normal and surreal elements, much like Lynch’s earlier series Twin Peaks. Groundwork was laid for story arcs, such as the mystery of Rita's identity, Betty's career, and Adam Kesher's film project. Woods, p. 205–214. Casting Lynch cast Naomi Watts and Laura Elena Harring by their photographs. He called them in separately for half-hour interviews and told them he had not seen either of their previous works in film or television. Harring considered it fateful that she was involved in a minor car accident on the way to the first interview, only to learn her character would also be involved in a car accident in the film. Newman, Bruce (October 10, 2001). "How pair got to intersection of Lynch and 'Mulholland'", The San Diego Union-Tribune, p. F-6. Watts arrived wearing jeans for the first interview, direct from the airplane from New York City. Lynch asked her to return the next day "more glammed up". She was offered the part two weeks later. Lynch explained his selection of Watts, "I saw someone that I felt had a tremendous talent, and I saw someone who had a beautiful soul, an intelligence—possibilities for a lot of different roles, so it was a beautiful full package." Justin Theroux also met Lynch directly from his airplane. After a long flight with little sleep, Theroux arrived dressed all in black, with his hair mussed. Lynch liked the look and decided to cast Adam wearing similar clothes and the same hairstyle. Filming Filming for the television pilot began on location in Los Angeles in February 1999 and took six weeks. Ultimately, the network was unhappy with the pilot and decided not to place it on its schedule. Woods 2000, p. 213–214. Romney, Jonathan. "Film: Lynch opens up his box of tricks; Mulholland Drive David Lynch," Independent (London), January 6, 2002, p. 11. Objections included the nonlinear storyline, the ages of Harring and Watts (whom they considered too old), Ann Miller's character cigarette smoking, and a close-frame shot of dog feces in one scene. Lynch remembered, "All I know is, I loved making it, ABC hated it, and I don't like the cut I turned in. I agreed with ABC that the longer cut was too slow, but I was forced to butcher it because we had a deadline, and there wasn't time to finesse anything. It lost texture, big scenes, and storylines, and there are 300 tape copies of the bad version circulating around. Lots of people have seen it, which is embarrassing, because they're bad-quality tapes, too. I don't want to think about it." Woods, p. 214. The script was later rewritten and expanded when Lynch decided to transform it into a feature film. Describing how he transitioned from an open-ended pilot to a feature film with a resolution of sorts, Lynch said, "One night, I sat down, the ideas came in, and it was a most beautiful experience. Everything was seen from a different angle ... Now, looking back, I see that [the film] always wanted to be this way. It just took this strange beginning to cause it to be what it is." The result was an extra eighteen pages of material that included the romantic relationship between Rita and Betty and the events that occurred after the blue box was opened. Watts was relieved that the pilot was dropped by ABC. She found Betty too one-dimensional without the darker portion of the film that was put together afterward. Most of the new scenes were filmed in October 2000, funded with $7 million from French production company StudioCanal. David, Anna (November, 2001). "Twin Piques", Premiere Magazine, 15 (3), p. 80–81. Theroux described approaching filming without entirely understanding what the plot was about: "You get the whole script, but he might as well withhold the scenes you're not in, because the whole turns out to be more mystifying than the parts. David welcomes questions, but he won't answer any of them ... You work kind of half-blindfolded. If he were a first-time director and hadn't demonstrated any command of this method, I'd probably have reservations. But it obviously works for him." Theroux noted the only answer Lynch did provide was that he was certain that Theroux's character, a Hollywood director, was not autobiographical of Lynch. Watts stated that she tried to bluff Lynch by pretending she had the plot figured out, and that he delighted in the cast's frustration. Interpretations and allusions Giving the film only the tagline, "A love story in the city of dreams", Macaulay, Scott (October, 2001)."The dream factory", FilmMaker, 10 (1), p. 64–67. David Lynch has refused to comment on Mulholland Drive's meaning or symbolism, leading to much discussion and multiple interpretations. Christian Science Monitor film critic David Sterritt spoke with Lynch after the film screened at Cannes and wrote that the director "insisted that Mulholland Drive does tell a coherent, comprehensible story," unlike some of Lynch's earlier films. On the other hand, Justin Theroux said of Lynch's feelings on the multiple meanings people perceive in the film, "I think he's genuinely happy for it to mean anything you want. He loves it when people come up with really bizarre interpretations. David works from his subconscious." An early interpretation of the film uses dream analysis to explain that the first part is a dream of the real Diane Selwyn, who has cast her dream-self as the innocent and hopeful "Betty Elms", reconstructing her history and persona into something like an old Hollywood movie. In the dream, Betty is successful, charming, and lives the fantasy life of a soon-to-be-famous actress. The last third of the film presents Diane's bleak real life, in which she has failed both personally and professionally. She arranges for Camilla, a cold ex-lover, to be killed, and unable to cope with the guilt, re-imagines her as the dependent, pliable amnesiac named Rita. Clues to her inevitable demise, however, continue to appear throughout her dream. This interpretation was similar to what Naomi Watts construed, when she said in an interview, "I thought Diane was the real character and that Betty was the person she wanted to be and had dreamed up. Rita is the damsel in distress and she's in absolute need of Betty, and Betty controls her as if she were a doll. Rita is Betty's fantasy of who she wants Camilla to be." Fuller, Graham (November 2001). "Naomi Watts: Three Continents Later, An Outsider Actress Finds her Place," Interview, Vol. 11, p. 132–137. Watts' own early experiences in Hollywood parallel those of Diane's. She endured some professional frustration before she became successful, auditioned for parts in which she did not believe, and encountered people who did not follow through with opportunities. She recalled, "There were a lot of promises, but nothing actually came off. I ran out of money and became quite lonely." Pearce, Gareth (January 6, 2002). "Why Naomi is a girl's best friend", The Sunday Times, p. 14. The Guardian asked six well-known film critics for their own perceptions of the overall meaning in the Mulholland Drive. Neil Roberts of The Sun and Tom Charity of Time Out subscribed to the theory that Betty is Diane's projection of a happier life. Roger Ebert and Jonathan Ross seemed to accept this interpretation, but both hesitated to overanalyze the movie. Ebert stated, "There is no explanation. There may not even be a mystery." Ross observed that there were storylines that went nowhere: "Perhaps these were leftovers from the pilot it was originally intended to be, or perhaps these things are the non-sequiturs and subconscious of dreams." Philip French from The Observer saw it as an allusion to Hollywood tragedy, while Jane Douglas from the BBC rejected the theory of Betty's life as Diane's dream, but also warned against too much analysis. Another theory offered is that the narrative is a Möbius strip, a twisted band that has no beginning and no end. Hudson, Jennifer (Spring 2004). "'No Hay Banda, and yet We Hear a Band': David Lynch's Reversal of Coherence in Mulholland Drive". Journal of Film and Video, 56 (1), p. 17–24. Or Betty and Rita, and Diane and Camilla may exist in parallel universes that sometimes interconnect. Or the entire film is a dream, but whose dream is unknown. Lapote, Philip (September–October, 2001). "Welcome to L.A." Film Comment, 37 (5), p. 44–49. A "poisonous valentine to Hollywood" Regardless of the proliferation of theories, movie reviewers note that no single explanation satisfies all of the loose ends and questions that arise from the film. Stephen Holden of the The New York Times wrote, "Mulholland Drive has little to do with any single character's love life or professional ambition. The movie is an ever-deepening reflection on the allure of Hollywood and on the multiple role-playing and self-invention that the movie-going experience promises ... What greater power is there than the power to enter and to program the dream life of the culture?" J. Hoberman from The Village Voice echoed this sentiment by calling it a "poisonous valentine to Hollywood". Mulholland Drive has been compared with Billy Wilder's film noir classic Sunset Boulevard (1950), another tale about broken dreams in Hollywood. Sheen, p. 170. Apart from both titles referring to iconic Los Angeles streets, Mulholland Drive is "Lynch's unique account of what held Wilder's attention too: human putrefaction (a term Lynch used several times during his press conference at the New York Film Festival 2001) in a city of lethal illusions". Nochimson, Martha (Autumn 2002). "Mulholland Drive by David Lynch", Film Quarterly, 56 (1), p. 37–45. The title of the film is a reference to iconic Hollywood culture. David Lynch lives near Mulholland Drive, and stated in an interview, "At night, you ride on the top of the world. In the daytime you ride on top of the world, too, but it's mysterious, and there's a hair of fear because it goes into remote areas. You feel the history of Hollywood in that road." Watts also had experience with the road before her career was established: "I remember driving along the street many times sobbing my heart out in my car, going, 'What am I doing here?'" Cheng, Scarlet (October 12, 2001). "It's a Road She Knows Well; 'Mulholland Dr.' star Naomi Watts has lived the Hollywood metaphor behind the fabled highway", Los Angeles Times. p. F.20. One critic cautioned viewers against a cynical interpretation of the events in the movie, stating that Lynch presents more than "the façade and that he believes only evil and deceit lie beneath it." Weight, Gregory (2002). "Film Reviews: Mulholland Drive", Film & History, 32 (1), p. 83–84. As much as Lynch makes a statement about the deceit, manipulation, and false pretenses in Hollywood culture, he also infuses nostalgia throughout the film, and recognizes that real art comes from classic filmmaking, as Lynch cast, thereby paying tribute to, veteran actors Ann Miller, Lee Grant, and Chad Everett. He also portrays Betty as extraordinarily talented and that her abilities are noticed by powerful people in the entertainment industry. Laura Elena Harring described her interpretation after seeing the finished product: "When I saw it the first time, I thought it was the story of Hollywood dreams, illusion and obsession. It touches on the idea that nothing is quite as it seems, especially the idea of being a Hollywood movie star. The second and third times I saw it, I thought it dealt with identity. Do we know who we are? And then I kept seeing different things in it ... There's no right or wrong to what someone takes away from it or what they think the film is really about. It's a movie that makes you continuously ponder, makes you ask questions. I've heard over and over, 'This is a movie that I'll see again' or 'This is a movie you've got to see again.' It intrigues you. You want to get it, but I don't think it's a movie to be gotten. It's achieved its goal if it makes you ask questions." Retrieved from davidlynch.de on 2008-04-01. Romantic content Treatment of the relationships between Betty and Rita, and Diane and Camilla varied between those who were honestly touched by their sincerity and those who were titillated. A review of the film by Premiere stated that the relationship between Betty and Rita is "possibly the healthiest, most positive amorous relationship ever depicted in a Lynch movie." Another pointed out that the pivotal romantic interlude between Betty and Rita is so poignant and tender by Betty's "understanding for the first time, with self-surprise, that all her helpfulness and curiosity about the other woman had a point: desire ... It is a beautiful moment, made all the more miraculous by its earned tenderness, and its distances from anything lurid." Lopate, Philip (September-October 2001). "Welcome to L.A.", Film Comment, 37 (5), p. 44–45. Another review stated the scene's "eroticism is so potent it blankets the whole movie, coloring every scene that came before and every one that follows". An analysis of the film in terms of the lesbian as a tragic figure noted the media response to the film: "(r)eviewers rhapsodized in particular and at length about the film's sex scenes, as if there were a contest to see who could enjoy this representation of female same-sex desire the most." Love, Heather (Winter, 2004). "Spectacular failure: the figure of the lesbian in Mulholland Drive", New Literary History, 35 (1), p. 117–132. The author Heather Love wrote that the film used a classic theme in literature and film depicting lesbian relationships: Camilla as achingly beautiful and available, rejecting Diane for Adam. Popular reaction to the film suggests the contrasting relationships between Betty and Rita, and Diane and Camilla are "understood as both the hottest thing on earth and, at the same time, as something fundamentally sad and not at all erotic" as "the heterosexual order asserts itself with crushing effects for the abandoned woman". Media portrayals of Naomi Watts' and Laura Elena Harring's views of their onscreen relationships were varied and conflicting. Watts said of the filming of the scene, "I don't see it as erotic, though maybe it plays that way. The last time I saw it, I actually had tears in my eyes because I knew where the story was going. It broke my heart a little bit." Hensley, Dennis (February 2002). "Lust Highway", Total Film, Issue 61, p. 72–74. However, in another interview Watts stated, "I was amazed how honest and real all this looks on screen. These girls look really in love and it was curiously erotic." While Harring was quoted saying, "The love scene just happened in my eyes. Rita's very grateful for the help Betty's given [her] so I'm saying goodbye and goodnight to her, thank you, from the bottom of my heart, I kiss her and then there's just an energy that takes us [over]. Of course I have amnesia so I don't know if I've done it before, but I don't think we're really lesbians." Ferber, Lawrence (October 11–24, 2001). "Sapphic Strangeness", Watermark, p. 31. Heather Love agreed somewhat with Harring's perception when she stated that identity in Mulholland Drive is not as important as desire: "who we are does not count for much—what matters instead is what we are about to do, what we want to do." Characters Betty (Naomi Watts) arrives in Los Angeles; pictured with Irene (Jeanne Bates). Betty is bright and optimistic, in contrast with Watts' portrayal of Diane in the latter part of the film. Betty Elms (Naomi Watts), the bright and talented newcomer to Los Angeles, is described as "wholesome, optimistic, determined to take the town by storm", and "absurdly naïve". Her perkiness and intrepid approach to helping Rita because it is the right thing to do is reminiscent of Nancy Drew for reviewers. Johnson, p. 155. Her entire persona at first is an apparent cliché of small-town naïveté. But it is Betty's identity, or loss of it, that appears to be the focus of the film. For one critic, Betty performed the role of the film's consciousness and unconscious. Naomi Watts, who modeled Betty on Doris Day, Tippi Hedren, and Kim Novak, observed that Betty is a thrill-seeker, someone "who finds herself in a world she doesn't belong in and is ready to take on a new identity, even if it's somebody else's". Film critic Amy Taubin suggests that Betty is a reincarnation of Sandy from Lynch's Blue Velvet: Betty's hometown shares the same name as the apartment building of Blue Velvet's femme fatale, Dorothy. Having been freed from her small-town constrictions, Sandy is reborn as Betty, drawn to a dark-haired mystery woman like Dorothy, and falls in love with her and loses herself. Taubin, Amy (September–October 2001). "In Dreams", Film Comment, 37 (5), p. 51–55. Betty, however difficult to believe as her character is established, shows an astonishing depth of dimension in her audition. Toles, George (2004). "Auditioning Betty in Mulholland Drive", Film Quarterly, 58 (1), p. 2–13. Previously rehearsed with Rita in the apartment, where Rita feeds her lines woodenly, the scene is "dreck" and "hollow; every line unworthy of a genuine actress's commitment", and Betty plays it in rehearsal as poorly as it is written. Nervous but plucky as ever at the audition, Betty enters the cramped room, but when pitted inches from her audition partner (Chad Everett), she turns it into a scene of powerful sexual tension that she fully controls and draws in every person in the room. The sexuality erodes immediately as the scene ends and she stands before them shyly waiting for their approval. One film analyst asserts Betty's previously unknown ability steals the show, specifically, taking the dark mystery away from Rita and assigning it to herself, and by Lynch's use of this scene illustrates his use of deception in his characters. Rita (Laura Elena Harring), the mysterious and helpless apparent victim, is a classic femme fatale with her dark, strikingly beautiful appearance. Roger Ebert was so impressed with Harring that he said of her "all she has to do is stand there and she is the first good argument in 55 years for a Gilda remake". She serves as the object of desire, directly oppositional to Betty's bright self-assuredness. She is also the first character with whom the audience identifies, and as viewers know her only as confused and frightened, not knowing who she is and where she is going, she represents their desire to make sense of the film through her identity. McGowan, p. 198 Instead of threatening, she inspires Betty to nurture, console, and help her. Her amnesia makes her a blank persona, that one reviewer noted, is "the vacancy that comes with extraordinary beauty and the onlooker's willingness to project any combination of angelic and devilish onto her". A character analysis of Rita asserts that her actions are the most genuine of the first portion of the film, since she has no memory and nothing to use as a frame of reference for how to behave. Todd McGowan, however, author of a book on themes in Lynch's films, states that the first portion of Mulholland Drive can be construed as Rita's fantasy, until Diane Selwyn is revealed; Betty is the object that overcomes Rita's anxiety about her loss of identity. McGowan, p. 199. The dark-haired woman (Laura Elena Harring) assumes the name "Rita" after seeing the name on a poster. Her search for her identity has been interpreted by film scholars as representing the audience's desire to make sense of the film. After Betty and Rita find the decomposing body, they flee the apartment and their images are split apart and reintegrated. Immediately they return to Betty's aunt's apartment where Rita dons a blonde wig—ostensibly to disguise herself—but making her look remarkably like Betty. It is this transformation that one film analyst suggests is the melding of both identities. This is further illustrated soon after by their sexual intimacy, followed by Rita's personality becoming more dominant as she insists they go to Club Silencio at 2 a.m., that eventually leads to the total domination by Camilla. Diane Selwyn (Naomi Watts), the palpably frustrated and depressed woman, who seems to have ridden the coattails of Camilla, whom she idolizes and adores, but who does not return her affection. She is considered to be the reality of the too-good-to-be-true Betty, or a later version of Betty after living too long in Hollywood. Diane is the personification of dissatisfaction, painfully illustrated in a scene where she is unable to climax while masturbating, crying tears of frustration. One analysis of Diane suggests her devotion to Camilla is based on a manifestation of narcissism, as Camilla embodies everything Diane wants and wants to be. Although she is portrayed as weak and the ultimate loser, for Jeff Johnson, author of a book about morality in Lynch films, Diane is the only character in the second portion of the film whose moral code remains intact. She is "a decent person corrupted by the miscellaneous miscreants who populate the film industry". Johnson, p. 137. Her guilt and regret are evident in her suicide, and in the clues that surface in the first portion of the film. Rita's fear, the dead body, and the illusion at Club Silencio, indicate something is dark and wrong in Betty and Rita's world. In becoming free from Camilla, her moral conditioning kills her. Johnson, p. 137–138. Camilla Rhodes (Melissa George, Laura Elena Harring) is little more than a face in a photo and a name that has inspired many representatives of some vaguely threatening power to place her in a film against the wishes of Adam. Referred to as a "vapid moll" by one reviewer, Fuller, Graham (December 2001). "Babes in Babylon", Sight and Sound, 11 (12), p. 14–17. she barely makes an impression in the first portion of the film, but after the blue box is opened and she is portrayed by Laura Elena Harring, she becomes a full person who symbolizes "betrayal, humiliation, and abandonment", and is the object of Diane's frustration. Diane is sharp contrast to Camilla, who is more voluptuous than ever, and who appears to have "sucked the life out of Diane". Immediately after telling Diane that she drives her wild, Camilla tells her they must end their affair. On a movie set where Adam is directing Camilla, he orders the set cleared, except for Diane—at Camilla's request—where Adam shows another actor just how to kiss Camilla correctly. Instead of punishing Camilla for such public humiliation, as is suggested by Diane's conversation with the bungling hit man, one critic views Rita as the vulnerable representation of Diane's desire for Camilla. Adam Kesher (Justin Theroux) is established in the first portion of the film as a "vaguely arrogant", Woods 2000, p. 208. but apparently successful director who endures one humiliation after another. Theroux said of his role, "He's sort of the one character in the film who doesn't know what the [heck's] going on. I think he's the one guy the audience says, 'I'm kind of like you right now. I don't know why you're being subjected to all this pain.'" Neman, Daniel (October 19, 2001). "Indie Actor Theroux Puts in 'Drive' Time". Richmond Times Dispatch (Virginia), p. C1A. After being stripped of creative control of his film, he is cuckolded by the pool cleaner (played by Billy Ray Cyrus), and thrown out of his own opulent house above Hollywood. After he checks into a seedy motel and pays with cash, the manager arrives to tell him his credit is no good. Witnessed by Diane, Adam is pompous and self-important. He is the only character whose personality does not seem to change completely from the first part of the film to the second. McGowan, p. 205–206. One analysis of Adam's character contends that because he capitulated and chose Camilla Rhodes for his film, that is the end of Betty's cheerfulness and ability to help Rita, placing the blame for her tragedy on the representatives of studio power. Minor characters include The Cowboy (Lafayette Montgomery), the Castigliani Brothers (Dan Hedaya, Angelo Badalamenti), and Mr. Roque (Michael J. Anderson), all of whom are somehow involved in pressuring Adam to cast Camilla Rhodes in his film. These characters represent the death of creativity for film scholars, Sheen, p. 171. and they portray a "vision of the industry as a closed hierarchical system in which the ultimate source of power remains hidden behind a series of representatives". Ann Miller portrays Coco, the landlady who welcomes Betty to her wonderful new apartment. Coco, in the first part of the film represents the old guard in Hollywood, who welcomes and protects Betty. In the second part of the film, however, she appears as Adam's mother, who impatiently chastises Diane for being late to the party and barely pays attention to Diane's embarrassed tale of how she got into acting. Style Dwarf actor Michael J. Anderson, as Mr. Roque, was fitted with oversized prosthetic limbs in order to give him the appearance of an abnormally small head. The filmmaking style of David Lynch has been written about extensively using descriptions like "ultraweird", "dark", and "oddball". Johnson, p. 6 An author of a book on Lynch wrote, "One cannot watch a Lynch film the way one watches a standard Hollywood film noir nor in the way that one watches most radical films." McGowan, p. 2. Through Lynch's juxtaposition of cliché and surreal, nightmares and fantasies, nonlinear story lines, camera work, sound, and lighting, he presents a film that challenges viewers to suspend belief of what they are experiencing. Vass, Michael (June 22, 2005). "Cinematic meaning in the work of David Lynch: Revisiting Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me, Lost Highway, and Mulholland Drive", CineAction, Issue 67, p. 12–25. Many of the characters in Mulholland Drive are archetypes that can only be perceived as cliché: the new Hollywood hopeful, the femme fatale, the maverick director, and shady powerbrokers that Lynch never seems to explore fully. Lynch places these often hackneyed characters in dire situations, creating dream-like qualities. By using these characters in scenarios that have components and references to dreams, fantasies, and nightmares, viewers are left to decide, between the extremes, what is reality. One film analyst wrote of him, "Like most surrealists, Lynch's language of the unexplained is the fluid language of dreams." David Lynch uses various methods of deception in Mulholland Drive. A shadowy figure named Mr. Roque, who seems to control film studios, is portrayed by dwarf actor Michael J. Anderson (also from Twin Peaks). Anderson, who has only two lines and is seated in an enormous wooden wheelchair, was fitted with oversized foam prosthetic arms and legs in order to portray his head as abnormally small. Woods, p. 209. During Adam and Camilla's party, Diane watches Camilla (played by Harring) with Adam on one arm, lean over and deeply kiss the same woman who appeared as Camilla (Melissa George) before the blue box was opened. Both then turn and smile pointedly at Diane. Film Critic Franklin Ridgway writes that the depiction of such a deliberate "cruel and manipulative" act makes it unclear if Camilla is as capricious as she seems, or if Diane's paranoia is allowing the audience only to see what she senses. In another example of an illusion, in a scene immediately after Betty's audition, the film cuts to a woman singing without apparent accompaniment, but as the camera pulls backwards, the audience sees that it is a recording studio. In actuality, it is a sound stage where Betty has just arrived to meet Adam Kesher, that the audience realizes as the camera pulls back further. Ridgway insists that such deception through artful camera work sets the viewer full of doubt about what is being presented: "It is as if the camera, in its graceful fluidity of motion, reassures us that it (thinks it) sees everything, has everything under control, even if we (and Betty) do not." Ridgway, Franklin (Fall 2006). "You Came Back!; Or Mulholland Treib", Post Script: Essays in Film and the Humanities, 26 (1), p. 43–61. An emotionally wrenched Diane (Naomi Watts) exchanges words with Camilla (Laura Elena Harring). Diane's scenes were characterized by different lighting to symbolize her physical and spiritual impoverishment. The first portion of the film that establishes the characters of Betty, Rita, and Adam, presents some of Lynch's most logical filmmaking of his career. The later part of the film that represents reality to many viewers, however, exhibits a marked change in cinematic effect that gives it a quality just as surreal as the first part. Diane's scenes feature choppier editing and dirtier lighting symbolizing her physical and spiritual impoverishment, that contrasts with the first portion of the film where "even the plainest decor seems to sparkle", Betty and Rita glow with light, and transitions between scenes are smooth. McGowan, Todd (2004). "Lost on Mulholland Drive: Navigating David Lynch's Panegyric to Hollywood", Cinema Journal 43 (2), p. 67–89. Lynch moves between scenes in the first portion of the film using panoramic shots of the mountains, palm trees, and buildings in Los Angeles. In the darker part of the film, sound transitions to the next scene without a visual reference where it is taking place. At Camilla's party, when Diane is most humiliated, the sound of crashing dishes is heard that carries immediately to the scene where dishes have been dropped in the diner, and Diane is speaking with the hit man. Another recurring element in Lynch's films is his experimentation with sound. He stated in an interview, "you look at the image and the scene silent, it's doing the job it's supposed to do, but the work isn't done. When you start working on the sound, keep working until it feels correct. There's so many wrong sounds and instantly you know it. Sometimes it's really magical." Divine, Christine (November–December 2001). "David Lynch", Creative Screenwriting, 8 (6), p. 8–12. In the opening scene of the film, the dark-haired woman stumbles off Mulholland Drive, silently it suggests she is clumsy. After Lynch added "a hint of the steam [from the wreck] and the screaming kids", however, it transformed Laura Elena Harring from clumsy to terrified. Woods, p. 206. Lynch also infused subtle rumblings throughout portions of the film that reviewers noted added unsettling and creepy effects. Soundtrack The soundtrack of Mulholland Drive was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti, who collaborated with Lynch on previous projects that include Blue Velvet and Twin Peaks. Jolin, Dan (February 2002). "Angelo Badalamenti", Total Film, 61, p. 113. Badalamenti, who was nominated for awards from the American Film Institute (AFI) and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) for his work on the film, also has a cameo as an espresso aficionado and mobster. Reviewers noted Badalamenti's ominous score contributed to the sense of mystery as the film opens on the dark-haired woman's limousine, McGowan, p. 197. that contrasted with the bright, hopeful tones of Betty's first arrival in Los Angeles. Lynch uses two pop songs from the 1960s directly after one another, playing as two actresses are auditioning by lip-synching them. According to an analyst of music used in Lynch films, Lynch's female characters are often unable to communicate through normal channels and are reduced to lip-synching or being otherwise stifled. Connie Stevens' "Sixteen Reasons" is the song being sung while the camera pans backwards to reveal several illusions, and Linda Scott's version of "I've Told Ev'ry Little Star" is the audition for the first Camilla Rhodes, that film scholar Eric Gans considers a song of empowerment for Betty. Originally written by Jerome Kern as a duet, sung by Linda Scott in this rendition by herself, Gans suggests it takes on a homosexual overtone in Mulholland Drive. Unlike "Sixteen Reasons," however, portions of "I've Told Ev'ry Little Star" are distorted to suggest "a sonic split-identity" for Camilla. Mazullo, Mark (Winter, 2005). "Remembering Pop: David Lynch and the Sound of the '60s", American Music, 23 (4) p. 493–513. When the song plays, Betty has just entered the sound stage where Adam is auditioning actresses for his film, and she sees Adam, locks eyes with him and abruptly flees after Adam has declared "This is the girl", about Camilla, thereby avoiding his inevitable rejection. At the hinge of the film is a scene in an unusual late night theater called Club Silencio where a performer announces "No hay banda," (There is no band) "But yet we hear a band", variated between English, Spanish, and French. Described as "the most original and stunning sequence in an original and stunning film", Rebekah del Rio's Spanish a cappella rendition of "Crying", named "Llorando", is praised as "show-stopping ...except that there's no show to stop" in the sparsely attended Club Silencio. Lynch wanted to use Roy Orbison's version of "Crying" in Blue Velvet, but changed his mind when he heard Orbison's "In Dreams". Del Rio, who popularized the Spanish version and who received her first recording contract on the basis of the song, stated that Lynch flew to Nashville where she was living, and she sang the song for him once and did not know he was recording her. Lynch wrote a part for her in the film and used the version she sang for him in Nashville. In the Club Silencio scene, before the song ends, del Rio collapses onstage although her powerful voice continues to ring throughout the theater. The song tragically serenades the lovers Betty and Rita, who sit spellbound and weeping, moments before their relationship disappears and is replaced by Diane and Camilla's dysfunction. According to one film scholar, the song and the entire theater scene marks the disintegration of Betty's and Rita's personalities, as well as their relationship. With the use of multiple languages and a song to portray such primal emotions, one film analyst states that Lynch exhibits his distrust of intellectual discourse and chooses to make sense through images and sounds. Release and reaction Performance Naomi Watts, David Lynch, Laura Elena Harring and Justin Theroux at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival Mulholland Drive premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2001 to major critical acclaim. Lynch was awarded the Best Director prize at the festival, sharing it with co-winner Joel Coen for The Man Who Wasn't There. It drew positive reviews from many critics and some of the strongest audience reactions of Lynch's career. Universal Pictures released Mulholland Drive theatrically in 66 theaters in the United States on October 12, 2001, grossing $587,591 over its opening weekend. It eventually expanded to its widest release of 247 theaters, ultimately grossing $7,220,243 in U.S. box office. TVA Films released the film theatrically in Canada on October 26, 2001. In other territories outside the United States, the film grossed $12,892,096 for a worldwide total of $20,112,339. Lynch was nominated for a Best Directing Oscar for the film. From the Hollywood Foreign Press, the film received four Golden Globe nominations, including Best Picture (Drama), Best Director, and Best Screenplay. It was named Best Picture by the New York Film Critics Circle and Online Film Critics Society. Critical reception Since its release, Mulholland Drive has received acclaim from many critics. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, who had been highly critical of Lynch's previous films, awarded the film four stars and commented, "David Lynch has been working toward Mulholland Drive all of his career, and now that he's arrived there I forgive him Wild at Heart (1990) and even Lost Highway (1997). At last his experiment doesn't shatter the test tubes. The movie is a surrealist dreamscape in the form of a Hollywood film noir, and the less sense it makes, the more we can't stop watching it." In The New York Times, Stephen Holden said the film "ranks alongside Fellini's 8½ and other auteurist fantasias as a monumental self-reflection" and added, "Looked at lightly, it is the grandest and silliest cinematic carnival to come along in quite some time: a lurching journey through one filmmaker's personal fun house. On a more serious level, its investigation into the power of movies pierces a void from which you can hear the screams of a ravenous demon whose appetites can never be slaked." Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle called it "exhilarating ... for its dreamlike images and fierce, frequently reckless imagination" and added, "(t)here's a mesmerizing quality to its languid pace, its sense of foreboding and its lost-in-time atmosphere ... it holds us, spellbound and amused, for all of its loony and luscious, exasperating 146 minutes [and] proves that Lynch is in solid form—and still an expert at pricking our nerves." In Rolling Stone, Peter Travers observed, "Mulholland Drive makes movies feel alive again. This sinful pleasure is a fresh triumph for Lynch, and one of the best films of a sorry-ass year. For visionary daring, swooning eroticism and colors that pop like a whore's lip gloss, there's nothing like this baby anywhere." J. Hoberman of The Village Voice stated, "This voluptuous phantasmagoria ... is certainly Lynch's strongest movie since Blue Velvet and maybe Eraserhead. The very things that failed him in the bad-boy rockabilly debacle of Lost Highway—the atmosphere of free-floating menace, pointless transmigration of souls, provocatively dropped plot stitches, gimcrack alternate universes—are here brilliantly rehabilitated." While reviews of the film were mostly positive (receiving an 81% rating on Rotten Tomatoes), Mulholland Drive was not without its detractors. Rex Reed of The New York Observer said it was the worst film he had seen in 2001, calling it "a load of moronic and incoherent garbage." In New York, Peter Rainer observed, "Although I like it more than some of his other dreamtime freakfests, it's still a pretty moribund ride ... Lynch needs to renew himself with an influx of the deep feeling he has for people, for outcasts, and lay off the cretins and hobgoblins and zombies for a while." In the Washington Post, Desson Howe called it "an extended mood opera, if you want to put an arty label on incoherence." Howe, Desson (October 12, 2001). "'Mulholland': A Dead-End Street", The Washington Post, p. T43. Todd McCarthy of Variety found much to praise—"Lynch cranks up the levels of bizarre humor, dramatic incident and genuine mystery with a succession of memorable scenes, some of which rank with his best"—but also noted, "(t)he film jumps off the solid ground of relative narrative coherence into Lynchian fantasyland ... for the final 45 minutes, Lynch is in mind-twisting mode that presents a form of alternate reality with no apparent meaning or logical connection to what came before. Although such tactics are familiar from Twin Peaks and elsewhere, the sudden switcheroo to head games is disappointing because, up to this point, Lynch had so wonderfully succeeded in creating genuine involvement." James Berardinelli also criticized it, saying: "Lynch cheats his audience, pulling the rug out from under us. He throws everything into the mix with the lone goal of confusing us. Nothing makes any sense because it's not supposed to make any sense. There's no purpose or logic to events. Lynch is playing a big practical joke on us. Berardinelli, James (2001). Mulholland Drive, reelviews.net. Retrieved on May 12, 2009. Since its release, the film has been ranked #38 on the Channel 4 program 50 Films to See Before You Die, and it appeared in The Guardian's 1000 Films to See Before You Die. Despite Naomi Watts' experience in twenty film roles prior to Mulholland Drive, she stated that the material she was able to choose from after its release was "elevated by about 1000 per cent ... I'm definitely being showcased out there with a great film and work that I'm proud of." Fischer, Paul. "Naomi's drive to Hollywood," The Daily Telegraph (Sydney, Australia), January 5, 2002, p. 27. The film was voted as the 11th best film set in Los Angeles in the last 25 years by a group of Los Angeles Times writers and editors with two criteria: "The movie had to communicate some inherent truth about the L.A. experience, and only one film per director was allowed on the list". Release history A DVD version of Mulholland Drive was released in April 2002 in the United States and Canada, with few special features. It was released without chapter stops, a feature that Lynch objects to on the grounds that it "demystifies" the film. In spite of Lynch's concerns, the DVD release included a cover insert that provides "David Lynch's 10 Clues to Unlocking This Thriller", although one DVD reviewer noted, the clues may be "big obnoxious red herrings" , and another described them as "vague and cryptic, and frankly a little condescending". Special features included in later versions and overseas versions of the DVD included a Lynch interview at the Cannes Film Festival and highlights of the debut of the film at Cannes. Awards Category — Recipient(s)Cannes Film FestivalBest Director – David Lynch (shared)New York Film Critics Circle AwardsBest Film – Mulholland DriveLos Angeles Film Critics AssociationBest Director – David Lynch Chicago Film Critics AwardsBest Picture – Mulholland Drive Best Director – David Lynch Best Actress – Naomi Watts Online Film Critics Society Best Picture – Mulholland Drive Best Director – David Lynch Best Actress – Naomi Watts Best Original Screenplay – David Lynch Best Original Score – Angelo Badalamenti Best Breakthrough Performance – Naomi Watts ALMA Awards Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture – Laura Elena Harring (May 20, 2002). "'Pinero,' Rodriguez Receive ALMA Awards", Los Angeles Times, p. F.7. BAFTA AwardsBest Editing – Mary Sweeney Independent Spirit AwardsBest Cinematography – Peter Deming Category – Nominee(s)74th Academy AwardsAchievement in Directing – David LynchAFI AwardsAFI Actor of the Year (Female): Movies – Naomi Watts AFI Composer of the Year – Angelo Badalamenti AFI Director of the Year – David Lynch AFI Movie of the Year BAFTA AwardsBest Film Music – Angelo BadalamentiGolden Globe AwardsBest Motion Picture (Drama) Best Director (Motion Picture) — David Lynch Best Original Score – Angelo Badalamenti Best Screenplay – David Lynch References Notes Bibliography Johnson, Jeff. Pervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the works of David Lynch. McFarland & Company, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0786417536 McGowan, Todd. The Impossible David Lynch. Columbia University Press, 2007. ISBN 0231139551 Sheen, Erica, Davison, A. (eds.) The Cinema of David Lynch: American Dreams, Nightmare Visions. Wallflower Press, 2004. ISBN 190336485X Woods, Paul (ed.). Weirdsville USA: The Obsessive Universe of David Lynch. Plexus Publishing Limited, 2000. ISBN 0859652912 External links Official site, with trailer Lost on Mulholland Dr., comprehensive analysis and resource center 'No hay banda': A Long, Strange Trip Down David Lynch's Mulholland Drive Deciphering David Lynch's 10 Clues, found within the DVD Mulholland Drive / lynchnet.com, includes interviews, press kit, film clips | Mulholland_Drive_(film) |@lemmatized mulholland:46 drive:44 surrealistic:1 neo:1 noir:4 psychological:1 thriller:2 direct:5 david:37 lynch:100 star:8 naomi:21 watt:28 laura:14 elena:14 harring:21 justin:6 theroux:12 film:147 highly:3 acclaim:3 many:8 critic:17 earn:1 prix:1 de:2 la:1 mise:1 en:1 scène:1 best:23 director:18 award:7 cannes:7 festival:6 well:6 oscar:2 nomination:2 also:14 launch:1 career:6 last:5 feature:9 veteran:2 hollywood:26 actress:13 ann:4 miller:4 widely:1 regard:1 one:30 fine:1 work:15 alongside:2 eraserhead:2 blue:13 velvet:6 originally:4 conceive:2 television:9 pilot:9 large:3 portion:13 shoot:2 plan:1 keep:3 open:10 end:10 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1,989 | History_of_Guinea-Bissau | The history of Guinea-Bissau was dominated by Portugal from the 1450s to the 1970s; since independence, the country has been primarily controlled by a single-party system. Portuguese rule The rivers of Guinea and the islands of Cape Verde were among the first areas in Africa explored by the Portuguese, notably Nuno Tristão, in the 15th century. Portugal claimed Portuguese Guinea in 1446, but few trading posts were established before 1600. In 1630, a "captaincy-general" of Portuguese Guinea was established to administer the territory. With the cooperation of some local tribes, the Portuguese entered the slave trade and exported large numbers of Africans to the Western Hemisphere via the Cape Verde Islands. Cacheu became one of the major slave centers, and a small fort still stands in the town. The local African rulers in Guinea, who prospered greatly from the African slave trade, had no interest in allowing the Europeans any further inland than the fortified coastal settlements where the trading takes place. The slave trade declined in the 19th century, and Bissau, originally founded as a military and slave-trading center in 1765, grew to become the major commercial center. 19th and 20th centuries Portuguese conquest and consolidation of the interior did not begin until the latter half of the 19th century. Portugal lost part of Guinea to French West Africa, including the center of earlier Portuguese commercial interest, the Casamance River region. A dispute with Britain over the island of Bolama was settled in Portugal's favor with the involvement of U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. Before World War I, Portuguese forces, with some assistance from the Muslim population, subdued animist tribes and eventually established the territory's borders. The interior of Portuguese Guinea was brought under control after more than 30 years of fighting; final subjugation of the Bijagós Islands did not occur until 1936. The administrative capital was moved from Bolama to Bissau in 1941, and in 1952, by constitutional amendment, the colony of Portuguese Guinea became an overseas province of Portugal. Struggle for independence In 1956, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was organized clandestinely by Amílcar Cabral and Rafael Barbosa. The PAIGC moved its headquarters to Conakry, Guinea, in 1960 and started an armed rebellion against the Portuguese in 1961 (for a detailed account of this struggle, see the PAIGC page). Despite the presence of Portuguese troops, which grew to more than 35,000, the PAIGC steadily expanded its influence until, by 1968, it controlled most of the country. It established civilian rule in the territory under its control and held elections for a National Assembly. Portuguese forces and civilians increasingly were confined to their garrisons and larger towns. The Portuguese Governor and Commander in Chief from 1968 to 1973, General António de Spínola, returned to Portugal and led the movement which brought democracy to Portugal and independence for its colonies. Amílcar Cabral was assassinated in Conakry in 1973, and party leadership fell to Aristides Pereira, who later became the first president of the Republic of Cape Verde. The PAIGC National Assembly met at Boe in the southeastern region and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on September 24, 1973 and was recognized by a 93-7 UN General Assembly vote in November, unprecedented as it denounced illegal Portuguese aggression and occupation and was prior to complete control and Portuguese recognition. Following Portugal's April 1974 Carnation Revolution, it granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on September 10, 1974. Luís Cabral, Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became President of Guinea-Bissau. Independence from Portugal Following Portugal's April 1974 Carnation Revolution, it granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on September 10, 1974. Luís Cabral, Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became President of Guinea-Bissau. Following independence local soldiers that fought along with the Portuguese Army against the PAIGC guerrillas were slaughtered by the thousands. A small number escaped to Portugal or to other African nations. The most famous massacre occurred in Bissorã. In 1980 PAIGC admitted in its newspaper "Nó Pintcha" (dated 29/11/1980) that many were executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole and Mansabá. In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a relatively bloodless coup led by Prime Minister and former armed forces commander João Bernardo Vieira. Vieira's presidency From November 1980 to May 1984, power was held by a provisional government responsible to a Revolutionary Council headed by President João Bernardo Vieira. In 1984, the council was dissolved, and the National Popular Assembly (ANP) was reconstituted. The single-party assembly approved a new constitution, elected President Vieira to a new 5-year term, and elected a Council of State, which was the executive agent of the ANP. Under this system, the president presides over the Council of State and serves as head of state and government. The president also was head of the PAIGC and commander in chief of the armed forces. From 1980 to 1991, opposition parties were illegal. Aristide Menezes led the Democratic Front, which in 1991 became the first legal opposition party and paved the way for democratic elections. There were alleged coup plots against the Vieira government in 1983, 1985, and 1993. In 1986, first Vice President Paulo Correia and five others were executed for treason following a lengthy trial. Democracy In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal, the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising that triggered the Guinea-Bissau Civil War in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The president was ousted by a military junta in May 7, 1999. An interim government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader Kumba Ialá took office following two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy has been complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war and the military's predilection for governmental meddling. In September 2003 a bloodless coup took place in which the military, headed by General Veríssimo Correia Seabra, arrested Ialá, because "he was unable to solve the problems". After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in April 2004. A mutiny of military factions in October 2004 resulted in the death of General Seabra and others, and caused widespread unrest. The Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior has stated that the mutineers were ex-UN soldiers recently returned from Liberia who were angry about delays in being paid. Talks between these soldiers and the authorities have so far failed to come to an agreement. In June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá. Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country, but the election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1998 coup. Vieira was a candidate for one sect of the PAIGC. Vieira defeated Malam Bacai Sanha in a runoff-election, but Sanha refused initially to concede, claiming that the elections had been fraudulent in two constituencies, including the capital Bissau. Despite reports that there had been an influx of arms in the weeks leading up to the election and reports of some 'disturbances during campaigning' - including attacks on the presidential palace and the Interior Ministry by as-yet-unidentified gunmen - European monitors labelled the election as "calm and organized". On March 2, 2009, Vleira was assassinated by soldiers. This may be part of another coup attempt. References See also History of Africa History of West Africa United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office in Guinea-Bissau (UNOGBIS) External links Background Note: Guinea-Bissau History of Guinea-Bissau | History_of_Guinea-Bissau |@lemmatized history:4 guinea:20 bissau:14 dominate:1 portugal:12 since:2 independence:10 country:4 primarily:1 control:5 single:2 party:6 system:2 portuguese:17 rule:2 river:2 island:4 cape:4 verde:4 among:1 first:6 area:1 africa:4 explore:1 notably:1 nuno:1 tristão:1 century:4 claim:3 trading:3 post:1 establish:4 captaincy:1 general:5 administer:1 territory:3 cooperation:1 local:3 tribe:2 enter:1 slave:5 trade:3 export:1 large:2 number:2 african:5 western:1 hemisphere:1 via:1 cacheu:1 become:7 one:2 major:2 center:4 small:2 fort:1 still:1 stand:1 town:2 ruler:1 prosper:1 greatly:1 interest:2 allow:1 european:2 inland:1 fortified:1 coastal:1 settlement:1 take:3 place:2 decline:1 originally:1 found:1 military:5 grow:2 commercial:2 conquest:1 consolidation:1 interior:3 begin:1 latter:1 half:3 lose:1 part:2 french:1 west:2 include:3 early:1 casamance:1 region:2 dispute:1 britain:1 bolama:2 settle:1 favor:1 involvement:1 u:1 president:12 ulysses:1 grant:3 world:1 war:3 force:4 assistance:1 muslim:1 population:1 subdue:1 animist:1 eventually:1 border:1 bring:2 year:3 fighting:1 final:1 subjugation:1 bijagós:1 occur:2 administrative:1 capital:2 move:2 constitutional:1 amendment:1 colony:2 overseas:1 province:1 struggle:2 paigc:9 organize:2 clandestinely:1 amílcar:4 cabral:6 rafael:1 barbosa:1 headquarters:1 conakry:2 start:1 armed:2 rebellion:1 detailed:1 account:1 see:2 page:1 despite:2 presence:1 troop:1 steadily:1 expand:1 influence:1 civilian:2 hold:5 election:11 national:3 assembly:5 increasingly:1 confine:1 garrison:1 governor:1 commander:3 chief:2 antónio:1 de:1 spínola:1 return:3 lead:4 movement:1 democracy:3 assassinate:2 leadership:1 fell:1 aristides:1 pereira:1 later:1 republic:1 meet:1 boe:1 southeastern:1 declare:1 september:4 recognize:1 un:2 vote:1 november:2 unprecedented:1 denounce:1 illegal:2 aggression:1 occupation:1 prior:1 complete:1 recognition:1 follow:5 april:3 carnation:2 revolution:2 luís:2 brother:2 soldier:4 fight:1 along:1 army:2 guerrilla:1 slaughter:1 thousand:2 escape:1 nation:2 famous:1 massacre:1 bissorã:1 admit:1 newspaper:1 nó:1 pintcha:1 date:1 many:1 execute:2 bury:1 unmarked:1 collective:1 graf:1 wood:1 cumerá:1 portogole:1 mansabá:1 late:1 government:5 overthrow:1 relatively:1 bloodless:2 coup:6 prime:2 minister:2 former:2 arm:2 joão:3 bernardo:3 vieira:8 presidency:1 may:3 power:2 provisional:1 responsible:1 revolutionary:1 council:4 head:4 dissolve:1 popular:1 anp:2 reconstitute:1 approve:1 new:2 constitution:1 elect:2 term:1 state:4 executive:1 agent:1 preside:1 serf:1 also:2 opposition:3 aristide:1 menezes:1 democratic:2 front:1 legal:1 pave:1 way:1 allege:1 plot:1 vice:1 paulo:1 correia:2 five:1 others:2 treason:1 lengthy:1 trial:1 multiparty:1 legislative:2 presidential:4 uprising:1 trigger:1 civil:2 create:1 hundred:1 displaced:1 person:1 oust:1 junta:1 interim:1 turn:1 february:1 leader:1 kumba:1 ialá:4 office:2 two:2 round:1 transparent:1 transition:1 back:1 complicate:1 crippled:1 economy:1 devastate:1 predilection:1 governmental:1 meddling:1 veríssimo:1 seabra:2 arrest:1 unable:1 solve:1 problem:1 delay:2 several:1 time:2 mutiny:1 faction:1 october:1 result:1 death:1 cause:1 widespread:1 unrest:1 carlos:1 gomes:1 júnior:1 mutineer:1 ex:1 recently:1 liberia:1 angry:1 pay:1 talk:1 authority:1 far:1 fail:1 come:1 agreement:1 june:1 depose:2 candidate:2 pr:1 legitimate:1 win:1 sect:1 defeat:1 malam:1 bacai:1 sanha:2 runoff:1 refuse:1 initially:1 concede:1 fraudulent:1 constituency:1 report:2 influx:1 week:1 disturbance:1 campaign:1 attack:1 palace:1 ministry:1 yet:1 unidentified:1 gunman:1 monitor:1 label:1 calm:1 march:1 vleira:1 another:1 attempt:1 reference:1 united:1 peacebuilding:1 support:1 unogbis:1 external:1 link:1 background:1 note:1 |@bigram guinea_bissau:11 cape_verde:4 ulysses_grant:1 constitutional_amendment:1 verde_paigc:2 amílcar_cabral:4 commander_chief:2 carnation_revolution:2 bloodless_coup:2 prime_minister:2 joão_bernardo:3 bernardo_vieira:3 vice_president:1 presidential_election:3 hundred_thousand:1 displaced_person:1 external_link:1 |
1,990 | Natural_Law_Party | The Natural Law Party refers to a number of defunct political parties in more than 80 countries, which based their policies and beliefs on the teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Members believe that natural law is the supreme organizing principle that governs the universe, and that the problems of humanity are caused by people acting against this natural law. The Natural Law Party claims that it can realign humanity with this organizing principle through techniques such as the practice of Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program. The various Natural Law Parties disbanded over a period of years from 2001-2006. United States The Natural Law Party in the USA was founded in 1992 by a group of educators, business leaders, and lawyers in Fairfield, Iowa, who practiced Transcendental Meditation, Roth, R:The Natural Law Party:A Reason to Vote, page 285. St. Martin's Press, 1998 . The U.S. Natural Law Party ran as a third party that was largely center-left in ideology. It took liberal positions on abortion and gay rights, promised that it had scientific solutions to combat social ills such as poverty, crime, racism, bigotry. The NLP ran Dr. John Hagelin, a physics professor at Maharishi University of Management, for president of the United States in the 1992, 1996, and 2000 elections, when he received fewer than 84,000 votes — or less than one tenth of one percent of the total number of votes. Federal Elections 2000: 2000 Presidential Popular Vote Summary Table According to the Federal Election Commission (FEC), the NLP spent nearly $2.3 million on its presidential campaign in the 1999-2000 election cycle. Campaign Finance Disclosure Data Search The Natural Law Party did not run a candidate for president in the 2004 U.S. election and it is no longer a registered party in the United States. In 2000 Hagelin attempted to create an independent coalition between the Natural Law and Reform political parties; however, that failed when Patrick Buchanan took control of the Reform Party. Between 2000–2004 the Natural Law Party sought to create an independent coalition of voters interested in election law reform. In 2002 the party endorsed Independence Party of Minnesota candidate for Minnesota Governor, Tim Penny. In 2004 the Natural Law Party endorsed Democratic Party presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich for President. Not long afterwards the Natural Law Party headquarters announced that it was shutting down and many state chapters followed suit. Hagelin went on to start the US Peace Government. In 1996, the NLP ran more than 400 candidates in 48 states and had attracted support from Democrats, Republicans and independents. The Idaho Natural Law Party remained active, and was prepared to have three candidates on the ballot for state and federal office in 2006 by entering into a coalition with the new United Party, and thus remained the only Natural Law Party still active in the United States of America. However, on June 16 the Idaho Natural Law Party changed its name to the United Party, effectively ending the Natural Law Party's presence on American ballots. United Kingdom The first Natural Law Party was launched in the , with Dr. Geoffrey Clements as Party Leader. The UK manifesto, like other NLP platforms in the subsequent decade, was founded on two assertions: (1) that the development of consciousness, in particular through the practice of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program including Yogic Flying, can enhance individual capability to resolve societal problems, and (2) that the practice of these techniques by a critical mass of the population, or else their group practice, in particular the group practice of Yogi Flying, results in overall improvements in society, including reduced crime, accidents and hospital admissions and improvements in prosperity, security and quality of life. The party quoted peer-reviewed published scientific research for many of its assertions. In the 1992 general election, 310 candidates stood for the NLP in the UK, garnering 0.19% of the vote; every candidate lost his or her deposit, for failing to receive at least 5% of the vote. Summary Results 1992 Election A significant number of constituencies were contested by nationals of countries outside the UK, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and India, as British electoral law allows any member of a Commonwealth country to stand for Parliament. A week before the 1992 general election, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi tried to convince George Harrison, Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr to stand for election as MPs for Liverpool for the NLP. Miles, Barry, "Paul McCartney: Many Years from Now", Macmillan 1998, pp 429-430 Although they declined to stand for election, Harrison put on a fund-raising concert for the NLP during the campaign. The NLP ran 16 candidates in the 20 by-elections held between 1992 and 1997 averaging 0.30% of the vote; every candidate lost his or her deposit. Byelections in the 1992-1997 Parliament In the 1997 general election, the NLP ran 197 candidates for Parliament in the UK, garnering 0.10% of the vote; every candidate lost his or her deposit. Summary Results 1997 Election The NLP ran 8 candidates for the 16 by-elections held between 1997 and 2001, averaging 0.10% of the vote; every candidate lost his or her deposit. [http://www.election.demon.co.uk/by1997.html Results of Byelections to the 52nd United Kingdom Parliament] The NLP did not run any candidates for Parliament in the 2001 general election or in the succeeding by-elections. Summary Results 2001 Election [http://www.election.demon.co.uk/by2001.html Results of Byelections to the 53rd United Kingdom Parliament] The party ceased to submit accounts to the Electoral Commission from 2004. Republic of Ireland The Republic of Ireland had a Natural Law Party, centered in Dublin. Its highest profile candidate was Paddy Seery from Offaly. Currently, the party is supposedly disbanded. Australia In Australia some candidates gained as much as 10% of the vote in some electorates, but as in the UK and most other countries in which the Natural Law Party was active the party was discontinued after about 2001. References See also Political parties of the world List of political parties in the United States Natural Law Party of Canada Natural Law Party of New Zealand Naturgesetz Partei (natural law party of Germany; article in German Wikipedia) Parti de la loi naturelle du Québec United States Natural Law Party External links Homepage of the Natural Law Party of the United States GLBT Planet Out Interview U.S. Natural Law Party Platform 2000 | Natural_Law_Party |@lemmatized natural:26 law:28 party:40 refers:1 number:3 defunct:1 political:4 country:4 base:1 policy:1 belief:1 teaching:1 maharishi:3 mahesh:2 yogi:3 member:2 believe:1 supreme:1 organize:2 principle:2 govern:1 universe:1 problem:2 humanity:2 cause:1 people:1 act:1 claim:1 realign:1 technique:2 practice:6 transcendental:3 meditation:3 tm:2 sidhi:2 program:2 various:1 disband:2 period:1 year:2 united:12 state:10 usa:1 found:2 group:3 educator:1 business:1 leader:2 lawyer:1 fairfield:1 iowa:1 roth:1 r:1 reason:1 vote:10 page:1 st:1 martin:1 press:1 u:4 run:8 third:1 largely:1 center:2 left:1 ideology:1 take:2 liberal:1 position:1 abortion:1 gay:1 right:1 promise:1 scientific:2 solution:1 combat:1 social:1 ill:1 poverty:1 crime:2 racism:1 bigotry:1 nlp:11 dr:2 john:1 hagelin:3 physic:1 professor:1 university:1 management:1 president:3 election:20 receive:2 less:1 one:2 tenth:1 percent:1 total:1 federal:3 presidential:3 popular:1 summary:4 table:1 accord:1 commission:2 fec:1 spend:1 nearly:1 million:1 campaign:3 cycle:1 finance:1 disclosure:1 data:1 search:1 candidate:16 longer:1 registered:1 attempt:1 create:2 independent:3 coalition:3 reform:3 however:2 fail:2 patrick:1 buchanan:1 control:1 seek:1 voter:1 interested:1 endorse:2 independence:1 minnesota:2 governor:1 tim:1 penny:1 democratic:1 dennis:1 kucinich:1 long:1 afterwards:1 headquarters:1 announce:1 shut:1 many:3 chapter:1 follow:1 suit:1 go:1 start:1 peace:1 government:1 attract:1 support:1 democrat:1 republican:1 idaho:2 remain:2 active:3 prepare:1 three:1 ballot:2 office:1 enter:1 new:3 thus:1 still:1 america:1 june:1 change:1 name:1 effectively:1 end:1 presence:1 american:1 kingdom:3 first:1 launch:1 geoffrey:1 clements:1 uk:7 manifesto:1 like:1 platform:2 subsequent:1 decade:1 two:1 assertion:2 development:1 consciousness:1 particular:2 include:3 yogic:1 flying:1 enhance:1 individual:1 capability:1 resolve:1 societal:1 critical:1 mass:1 population:1 else:1 fly:1 result:6 overall:1 improvement:2 society:1 reduce:1 accident:1 hospital:1 admission:1 prosperity:1 security:1 quality:1 life:1 quote:1 peer:1 review:1 publish:1 research:1 general:4 stand:4 garner:2 every:4 lose:4 deposit:4 least:1 significant:1 constituency:1 contest:1 national:1 outside:1 canada:2 australia:3 zealand:2 india:1 british:1 electoral:2 allow:1 commonwealth:1 parliament:6 week:1 try:1 convince:1 george:1 harrison:2 paul:2 mccartney:2 ringo:1 starr:1 mp:1 liverpool:1 mile:1 barry:1 macmillan:1 pp:1 although:1 decline:1 put:1 fund:1 raise:1 concert:1 hold:2 average:2 byelections:3 http:2 www:2 demon:2 co:2 html:2 succeeding:1 cease:1 submit:1 account:1 republic:2 ireland:2 dublin:1 high:1 profile:1 paddy:1 seery:1 offaly:1 currently:1 supposedly:1 gain:1 much:1 electorate:1 discontinue:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 world:1 list:1 naturgesetz:1 partei:1 germany:1 article:1 german:1 wikipedia:1 parti:1 de:1 la:1 loi:1 naturelle:1 du:1 québec:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 glbt:1 planet:1 interview:1 |@bigram transcendental_meditation:3 presidential_candidate:1 peer_review:1 paul_mccartney:2 ringo_starr:1 http_www:2 du_québec:1 external_link:1 |
1,991 | April | April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, and one of four months with a length of 30 days. April was originally the second month of the Roman calendar, before January and February were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450 BC, when it also was given 29 days. The derivation of the name (Latin Aprilis) is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the Latin aperire, "to open," in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open," is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of ἁνοιξις (opening) for spring. Since most of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to Venus, the Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite (Aphros), or from the Etruscan name Apru. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, Aper or Aprus. Jacob Grim Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Cap. "Monate" The Anglo-Saxons called April Oster-monath or Eostur-monath, The Venerable Bede says that this month is the root of the word Easter. He further speculates that the month was named after a goddess Eostre whose feast was in that month. St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our April. The Finnish called this month Huhtikuu, or 'Burnwood Month', when the wood for beat and burn clearing of farmland was felled. The "days of April" (journées d'avril) is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the procès d'avril. The birthstone of April is the diamond, and the birth flower is typically listed as either the Daisy or the Sweet Pea. Kipfer, Barbara Ann (1997) The Order of Things. New York: Random House April starts on the same day of the week as July in all years, and January in leap years. April holidays and events April from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Buddha's Birthday is celebrated in April (here is pictured the Tian Tan Buddha in Hong Kong) Sexual Violence Awareness Month National Poetry Month - in United States National Arab American Heritage Month - in United States Jazz Appreciation Month April Fools' Day - April 1 April 1 is the first day of Japanese fiscal year. Major Japanese companies usually have Nyushashiki (entry ceremony for companies) for new employees those who newly hired after their graduation from schools, on this day. Japanese school calendar also starts from April 1, although Nyugakushiki (entry ceremony for schools) are usually held later, around second week of April. World Autism Awareness Day - April 2 Arbor Day- in Korea - April 5 End of Tax Year (UK) - April 5 World Health Day- April 7 Buddha's Birthday - Traditional Date - April 8 Araw ng Kagitingan, also known as "Bataan Day" (Philippines) - April 9 Thai New Year in Thailand - april 13 Khmer New Year in Cambodia - April 13 Tax Day - April 15 (in US) Boston Marathon - Third Monday Passover begins on the fifteenth day of Nisan, which in 2008 begins at sunset on April 19 4:20- April 20 Patriots' Day- April 21 Earth Day - April 22 Conch Republic Independence Celebration (Key West, Florida) - April 23 St George's Day Patron Saint Celebration (England, Europe) - April 23 Birthday of Sgt. Jacob Caldwell, Journalist, U.S. Army - April 24 ANZAC Day (Australia and New Zealand) - April 25 Carnation Revolution (Portugal) - April 25 Freedom Day (South Africa) - April 27 April 29 is a Japanese national holiday, as Shōwa Day since 2007. It has been celebrated as The Emperor's Birthday from 1927 to 1988, then renamed as Greenery Day after Hirohito's death in 1989. It is usually marked as the first day of "Golden Week", a week-long holiday period. Koninginnedag (Kingdom of the Netherlands) - April 30 Arbor Day - last Friday of April in United States Take Our Daughters And Sons To Work Day, usually fourth Thursday (United States) London Marathon - usually fourth Sunday Easter - two days after Good Friday April symbols April's birthstone is diamond, which symbolizes innocence. Its birth flower is the daisy and sweet pea. http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ See also List of historical anniversaries References External links be-x-old:Красавік | April |@lemmatized april:40 fourth:5 month:18 year:10 gregorian:1 calendar:4 one:1 four:1 length:1 day:26 originally:2 second:2 roman:2 january:2 february:1 add:1 king:1 numa:1 pompilius:1 bc:2 become:1 twelve:1 display:1 order:2 time:1 decemvirs:1 also:4 give:1 derivation:1 name:7 latin:2 aprilis:2 uncertain:1 traditional:2 etymology:1 aperire:1 open:3 allusion:1 season:1 tree:1 flower:3 begin:3 support:1 comparison:1 modern:1 greek:2 use:1 ἁνοιξις:1 spring:1 since:2 honor:1 divinity:1 sacred:1 venus:1 festum:1 veneris:1 et:1 fortunae:1 virilis:1 hold:2 first:3 suggest:2 aphrilis:1 aphrodite:1 aphros:1 etruscan:1 apru:1 jacob:3 grimm:1 hypothetical:1 god:1 hero:1 aper:1 aprus:1 grim:1 geschichte:1 der:1 deutschen:1 sprache:1 cap:1 monate:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 call:2 oster:1 monath:2 eostur:1 venerable:1 bede:1 say:1 root:1 word:1 easter:2 far:1 speculate:1 goddess:1 eostre:1 whose:1 feast:1 st:3 george:2 twenty:2 third:3 mark:2 eve:1 superstition:1 ghost:1 doom:1 die:1 within:1 see:2 pass:1 church:1 fall:1 china:1 symbolic:1 ploughing:1 earth:2 emperor:2 prince:1 blood:1 take:2 place:1 frequently:1 correspond:1 finnish:1 huhtikuu:1 burnwood:1 wood:1 beat:1 burn:1 clearing:1 farmland:1 fell:1 journées:1 avril:2 appropriate:1 french:1 history:1 series:1 insurrection:1 lyon:1 paris:1 elsewhere:1 government:1 louis:1 philippe:1 lead:1 violent:1 repressive:1 measure:1 famous:1 trial:1 know:2 procès:1 birthstone:2 diamond:2 birth:2 typically:1 list:2 either:1 daisy:2 sweet:2 pea:2 kipfer:1 barbara:1 ann:1 thing:1 new:5 york:1 random:1 house:1 start:2 week:4 july:1 leap:1 holiday:3 event:1 très:1 riches:1 heures:1 du:1 duc:1 de:1 berry:1 buddha:3 birthday:4 celebrate:2 picture:1 tian:1 tan:1 hong:1 kong:1 sexual:1 violence:1 awareness:2 national:3 poetry:1 united:4 state:4 arab:1 american:1 heritage:1 jazz:1 appreciation:1 fool:1 japanese:4 fiscal:1 major:1 company:2 usually:5 nyushashiki:1 entry:2 ceremony:2 employee:1 newly:1 hire:1 graduation:1 school:3 although:1 nyugakushiki:1 later:1 around:1 world:2 autism:1 arbor:2 korea:1 end:1 tax:2 uk:1 health:1 date:1 araw:1 ng:1 kagitingan:1 bataan:1 philippine:1 thai:1 thailand:1 khmer:1 cambodia:1 u:2 boston:1 marathon:2 monday:1 passover:1 fifteenth:1 nisan:1 sunset:1 patriot:1 conch:1 republic:1 independence:1 celebration:2 key:1 west:1 florida:1 patron:1 saint:1 england:1 europe:1 sgt:1 caldwell:1 journalist:1 army:1 anzac:1 australia:1 zealand:1 carnation:1 revolution:1 portugal:1 freedom:1 south:1 africa:1 shōwa:1 rename:1 greenery:1 hirohito:1 death:1 golden:1 long:1 period:1 koninginnedag:1 kingdom:1 netherlands:1 last:1 friday:2 daughter:1 son:1 work:1 thursday:1 london:1 sunday:1 two:1 good:1 symbol:1 symbolize:1 innocence:1 http:1 www:1 shgresources:1 com:1 gem:1 birthflowers:1 historical:1 anniversary:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 x:1 old:1 красавік:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:1 numa_pompilius:1 jacob_grimm:1 geschichte_der:1 der_deutschen:1 anglo_saxon:1 venerable_bede:1 très_riches:1 riches_heures:1 heures_du:1 du_duc:1 hong_kong:1 patron_saint:1 carnation_revolution:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
1,992 | Montana | Montana () is a state in the Western United States. The western third of the state contains numerous mountain ranges; other 'island' ranges are found in the central third of the state, for a total of 77 named ranges of the Rocky Mountains. This geographic and geographical fact is reflected in the state's name, derived from the Spanish word montaña (mountain). The state nickname is the "Treasure State." Other nicknames include "Land of Shining Mountains," "Big Sky Country," and the slogan "The Last Best Place." The state ranks fourth in area, but 44th in population, and therefore has the third lowest population density in the United States. The economy is primarily based on ranching, wheat farming, oil and coal in the east; lumber, tourism, and hard rock mining in the west. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Battle of Little Bighorn site, and three of the five entrances to Yellowstone National Park. Geography With a land area of the state of Montana is the fourth largest in the United States (after Alaska, Texas, and California). To the north, Montana and Canada share a border. The state borders the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, more provinces than any other state. To the east, the state borders North Dakota and South Dakota. To the south is Wyoming and to the west and southwest is Idaho. The topography of the state is diverse, but roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which runs on an approximate diagonal through the state from northwest to south-central, splitting it into two distinct eastern and western regions. Montana is well known for its mountainous western region, most of which are geologically and geographically part of the Northern Rocky Mountains. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the south are technically part of the Central Rocky Mountains. However, about 60% of the state is actually prairie, part of the northern Great Plains. Nonetheless, even east of the Continental Divide and the Rocky Mountain Front, there are a number of isolated "island ranges" that dot the prairie landscape. This island range region covers most of the central third of the state. The Bitterroot Mountains, one of the longest continuous ranges in the entire Rocky Mountain chain from Alaska to Mexico, divide the state from Idaho to the west with the southern third of the range blending into the Continental Divide. Mountain ranges between the Bitterroots and the top of the Continental Divide include the Cabinet Mountains, the Missions, the Garnet, Sapphire, Flint Creek, and Pintlar ranges. The northern section of the Divide, where the mountains give way rapidly to prairie, is known collectively as the Rocky Mountain Front and is most pronounced in the Lewis Range located primarily in Glacier National Park. Due to the configuration of mountain ranges in Glacier National Park, the Northern Divide (which begins in Alaska's Seward Peninsula) crosses this region and turns east in Montana at Triple Divide Peak. Thus, the Waterton, Belly, and Saint Mary rivers flow north into Alberta, Canada, joining the Saskatchewan River and ultimately emptying into Hudson Bay. East of the Divide, several parallel ranges march across the southern half of the state, including the Gravelly Range, the Tobacco Roots, the Madison Range, Gallatin Range, Big Belt Mountains, Bridger Mountains, Absaroka Mountains, and the Beartooth Mountains. The Beartooth Plateau is the largest continuous land mass over in the lower 48 states and contains the highest point in the state, Granite Peak, high. Between the mountain ranges are many scenic valleys, rich in agricultural resources and rivers, and possessing multiple opportunities for tourism and recreation. Among the best-known areas are the Flathead Valley, Bitterroot Valley, Big Hole Valley, and Gallatin Valley. East and north of this transition zone are expansive sparsely populated Northern Plains, with rolling tableland prairies, "island" mountain ranges, and scenic badlands extending into the Dakotas, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Wyoming. The isolated island ranges east of the Divide include the Castle Mountains, Crazy Mountains, Little Belt Mountains, Snowy Mountains, Sweet Grass Hills, Bull Mountains. The Pryor Mountains South of Billings and, in the southeastern corner of the state near Ekalaka, the Long Pines and Short Pines. The area east of the divide in the north-central portion of the state is known for the dramatic Missouri Breaks and other significant rock formations. Three stately buttes south of Great Falls are familiar landmarks. These buttes, Square Butte, Shaw Butte, and Crown Butte, are made of igneous rock, which is dense and has withstood weathering for many years. The underlying surface consists of shale. Many areas around these buttes are covered with clay surface soils. These soils have been derived from the weathering of the Colorado Formation. Farther east, areas such as Makoshika State Park near Glendive, and Medicine Rocks State Park near Ekalaka also highlight some of the most scenic badlands regions in the state. Montana also contains a number of rivers, many of which are known for "blue-ribbon" trout fishing, but which also provide most of the water needed by residents of the state, as well as being a source of hydropower. Montana is one of few geographic areas in the world whose rivers form parts of three major watersheds (i.e. where two continental divides intersect): The Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and Hudson Bay which are divided atop Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park. West of the divide, the Clark Fork of the Columbia (not to be confused with the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River) rises in the Rocky Mountains near Butte and flows northwest to Missoula. There it is joined by the Blackfoot River and Bitterroot River and further downstream by the Flathead River before entering Idaho near Lake Pend Oreille, becoming part of the Columbia River, which flows to the Pacific Ocean. The Clark Fork discharges the greatest volume of water of any river exiting the state. The Flathead River and Kootenai River also drain major portions of the western half of the state. East of the divide, the Missouri River, formed by the confluence of the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers, crosses the central part of the state, flows through the Missouri breaks and enters North Dakota. The Yellowstone River rises in Yellowstone Park in Wyoming, flows north to Livingston, Montana, where it then turns east and flows across the state until it joins the Missouri River a few miles east of the North Dakota boundary. The Yellowstone River is the longest undammed, free-flowing river in North America. Other major Montana tributaries of the Missouri include the Milk, Marias, Tongue, and Musselshell Rivers. Montana also claims the disputed title of possessing the "world's shortest river," the Roe River, just outside Great Falls, Montana. These rivers ultimately join the Mississippi River and flow into the Gulf of Mexico. Water is of critical importance to the state for both agriculture and hydropower. In addition to its rivers, the state is home to Flathead Lake, the largest natural fresh-water lake in the United States west of the Great Lakes. Man-made reservoirs dot Montana's rivers, the largest of which is Fort Peck Reservoir, on the Missouri river, contained by the largest earth-filled dam in the world. Vegetation of the state includes ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, douglas fir, larch, spruce, aspen, birch, red cedar, hemlock, ash, alder, rocky mountain maple and cottonwood trees. Forests cover approximately 25% of the state. Flowers native to Montana include asters, bitterroots, daisies, lupins, poppies, primroses, columbine, lilies, orchids and dryads. Several species of sagebrush and cactus and many species of grasses are common. Many species of mushrooms and lichens are also found in the state. Montana contains Glacier National Park, 'The Crown of the Continent,' and portions of Yellowstone National Park, including three of the Park's five entrances. Other federally recognized sites include the Little Bighorn National Monument, Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area, Big Hole National Battlefield, Lewis and Clark Caverns, and the National Bison Range. Montana has eight National Forests and more than 20 National Wildlife Refuges. The Federal government administers . are administered as state parks and forests. Areas managed by the National Park Service include: Big Hole National Battlefield near Wisdom Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area near Fort Smith Glacier National Park Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site at Deer Lodge, Montana Lewis & Clark National Historic Trail Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument near Crow Agency Nez Perce National Historical Park Yellowstone National Park Several Indian reservations are located in Montana: Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, Crow Indian Reservation, Rocky Boy's Indian Reservation, Blackfeet Indian Reservation, and the Flathead Indian Reservation. Montana has only two TV channels in some parts. Climate Montana is a large state with considerable variation in geography, and so the climate is equally varied. The state spans from 'below' the 45th parallel (i.e. the halfway line between the equator and the north pole) to the 49th parallel, and elevations range from under 2,000 feet to almost 13,000 feet above sea level. The western half is mountainous, interrupted by numerous large valleys. Eastern Montana is plains, badlands, broken by hills and isolated mountain ranges, and has a semi-arid continental climate. The Continental Divide runs north-south through the western mountainous half, and has a large effect on the climate. It restricts the flow of warmer air from the Pacific from moving east, and cooler, drier continental moving west. West of the divide the climate is described as modified northern Pacific coast climate, with milder winters, cooler summers, less wind, and a longer growing season. Western Regional Climate Center "Climate of Montana" In the winter Valley fog and low clouds often form in the valleys west of the divide, but this is rarely seen in the east. Animal Range and Sciences, Extension Service, Montana State University - "Climate of Montana" Average daytime temperatures vary from 28 degrees Fahrenheit in January to 84.5 degrees Fahrenheit in July. Visit MT.com "Montana Facts" The variation in geography leads to great variation in temperature. Hot weather occurs in the eastern plains on occasion; the highest observed being 117° at Glendive on July 20, 1893, and Medicine Lake on July 5, 1937. Throughout the state summer nights are generally cool and pleasant. Temperatures decrease with altitude, and hot weather is unknown above Snowfall is not unknown any month of the year in the central part of Montana, but is quite rare in July and August. The coldest temperature on record for Montana is the coldest temperature for the entire continental U.S. On January 20, 1954 -70 °F was recorded at a gold mining camp near Rogers Pass. Temperatures vary greatly on such cold nights, and Helena, to the southeast had a low of only . Winter cold spells last a week or so. They are the result of cold continental air coming south from Canada. The front is often well defined, causing a large temperature drop in a 24 hour period. Conversely, air flow from the southwest results in "Chinooks". These steady 25-50mph (or more) winds can suddenly warm parts of Montana, especially areas just to the east of the mountains, where temperatures sometimes rise up to 50 - 60°F. Indeed, Loma, Montana is the location of the most extreme recorded temperature change in a 24-hour period in the United States. On January 15, 1972, the temperature rose from −54 °F (−48 °C) to 49 °F (9 °C); a dramatic example of the regional Chinook wind in action. Andrew H. Horvitz, et al. A National Temperature Record at Loma, Montana, National Weather Service, 2002. Accessed 2008-11-02. Average annual precipitation is , but great variations are seen. The mountain ranges block the moist Pacific air, holding moisture in the western valleys, and creating rain shadows to the east. Heron in the west receives the most precipitation, 34.70 inches. On the east side of a mountain range the valleys are much drier; Lonepine averages 11.45, and Deer Lodge 11.00 inches of precipitation. The mountains themselves can get over , for example the Grinnell Glacier in Glacier National Park gets . Perhaps the driest is an area southwest of Belfry that averaged only over a 16 year period. Most of the larger cities get 30 to of snow each year. Mountain ranges themselves can accumulate of snow during a winter. Heavy snowstorms can occur as early as September or as Late as May, but most snow falls from November to March. The climate has become warmer in Montana and continues to do so. Billings Gazette, UM climate expert says triple-digit Julys will be norm - August 27, 2007 The glaciers in Glacier National Park have receded and are predicted to melt away completely in a few decades. Many Montana cities set heat records during July 2007, the hottest month ever recorded in Montana. NOAA - National Climatic Data Center "Climate of 2007 - July in Historical Perspective" August 15, 2007 Winters are warmer, too, and have fewer cold spells. Previously these cold spells had killed off bark beetles which are now attacking the forests of Western Montana. The Missoulian "Beetles shaping Montana's forest lands" Missoulan "Forest Service finds varied beetle activity" The combination of warmer weather, attack by beetles, and mismanagement during past years has led to a substantial increase in the severity of forest fires in Montana. History Native Americans were the first inhabitants of the state of Montana. Groups included the Crow in the south-central area, the Cheyenne in the southeast, the Blackfeet, Assiniboine and Gros Ventres in the central and north-central area and the Kootenai and Salish in the west. The smaller Pend d'Oreille and Kalispel tribes lived near Flathead Lake and the western mountains, respectively. Montana east of the continental divide was part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Subsequent to the Lewis and Clark Expedition and after the finding of gold and copper (see the Copper Kings) in the state in the late 1850s, Montana became a United States territory (Montana Territory) on May 26, 1864, and the 41st state on November 8, 1889. Fort Shaw (Montana Territory) was established in Spring 1867. It is located west of Great Falls in the Sun River Valley and was one of three posts authorized to be built by Congress in 1865. The other two posts in the Montana Territory were Camp Cooke on the Judith River and Fort C.F. Smith on the Bozeman Trail in south central Montana Territory. Fort Shaw, named after Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, who commanded the 54th Massachusetts, one of the first all African-American regiments, during the American Civil War, was built of adobe and lumber by the 13th Infantry. The fort had a parade ground that was , and consisted of barracks for officers, a hospital, and a trading post, and could house up to 450 soldiers. Completed in 1868, it was used by military personnel until 1891. After the close of the military post, the government established Fort Shaw as a school to provide industrial training to young Native Americans. The Fort Shaw Indian Industrial School was opened on April 30, 1892. The school had at one time 17 faculty members, 11 Indian assistants and 300 students. The school made use of over 20 of the buildings built by the Army. The revised Homestead Act of the early 1900s greatly affected the settlement of Montana. This act expanded the land that was provided by the Homestead Act of 1862 from to . When the latter act was signed by President William Howard Taft, it also reduced the time necessary to prove up from five years to three years and permitted five months' absence from the claim each year. In 1908, the Sun River Irrigation Project, west of Great Falls was opened up for homesteading. Under this Reclamation Act, a person could obtain 40 acres (16 ha). Most of the people who came to file on these homesteads were young couples who were eager to live near mountains where hunting and fishing were good. Many of these homesteaders came from the Midwest. Montana was the scene of the Native Americans' last effort to keep their land, and the last stand of U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer was fought near the present day town of Hardin. Montana was also the location of the final battles of the Nez Perce Wars. Cattle ranching has long been central to Montana's history and economy. The Grant-Kohrs Ranch National Historic Site in Deer Lodge Valley is maintained as a link to the ranching style of the late 19th century. It is operated by the National Park Service but is also a working ranch. Demographics Montana ranks 44th in population; only six states (Alaska, Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, Vermont and Delaware) have fewer people. As of 2006, Montana has an estimated population of 997,670, slightly less than either Rhode Island or Hawaii, which is an increase of 8,750, or 0.9%, from the prior year and an increase of 33,475, or 3.7%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 13,674 people (that is 58,001 births minus 44,327 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 21,074 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 2,141 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 18,933 people. 16,500 of state residents are foreign-born, accounting for 1.8% of the total population. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 94.8% of the population aged 5 and older speak English at home. Language Map Data Center The center of population of Montana is located in Meagher County, in the city of White Sulphur Springs. While German ancestry is the largest reported European-American ancestry in most of Montana, residents of Scandinavian ancestry are prevalent in some of the farming-dominated northern and eastern prairie regions. There are also several predominantly Native American counties, mostly around each of the seven Indian reservations. The historically mining-oriented communities of western Montana such as Butte have a wider range of ethnic groups, particularly people of Eastern European and Irish ancestry, as well as people who originally emigrated from British mining regions such as Cornwall. Montana is second only to South Dakota in U.S. Hutterite population with several colonies spread across the state. Many of Montana's historic logging communities originally attracted people of Scandinavian, Slavic, and Scots-Irish descent. Montana's Hispanic population is particularly concentrated around the Billings area in south-central Montana, and the highest density of African-Americans is located in Great Falls. Religion The religious affiliations of the people of Montana Christian – 82% Protestant – 55% Lutheran – 15% Methodist – 8% Baptist – 5% Presbyterian – 4% United Church of Christ – 2% Other Protestant or general Protestant – 21% Roman Catholic – 24% The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) – 3% Other Religions – <1% Non-Religious – 18% The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 169,250; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 50,287; and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,726. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/30_2000.asp Economy The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Montana's total state product in 2003 was $26 billion. Per capita personal income in 2003 was $25,406, 47th in the nation. However, this number is rapidly increasing. According to the Missoulian, the economy has grown rapidly since 2003; in 2005, Montana ranked 39th in the nation with an average per capita personal income of $29,387. The economy is primarily based on agriculture, and major crops include wheat, barley, sugar beets, oats, rye, seed potatoes, honey, cherries, and cattle and sheep ranching. Montana is also a relative hub of beer microbrewing, ranking third in the nation in number of craft breweries per capita. Craft Brewing Industry Statistics There are significant industries for lumber and mineral extraction; the states resources include gold, coal, silver, talc, and vermiculite. Tourism is also important to the economy with millions of visitors a year to Glacier National Park, Flathead Lake, the Missouri River headwaters, the site of the Battle of Little Bighorn and three of the five entrances to Yellowstone National Park. Montana's personal income tax contains 7 brackets, with rates ranging from 1% to 6.9%. Montana has no sales tax. In Montana, household goods are exempt from property taxes. However, property taxes are assessed on livestock, farm machinery, heavy equipment, automobiles, trucks, and business equipment. The amount of property tax owed is not determined solely by the property's value. The property's value is multiplied by a tax rate, set by the Montana Legislature, to determine its taxable value. The taxable value is then multiplied by the mill levy established by various taxing jurisdictions – city and county government, school districts and others. Transportation Railroads have been an important method of transportation in Montana since the 1880s. Historically, the state was traversed by the main lines of three east-west transcontinental routes: the Milwaukee Road, the Great Northern, and the Northern Pacific. Today, the BNSF Railway is the state's largest railroad, its main transcontinental route incorporating the former Great Northern main line across the state. Montana RailLink, a privately-held Class II railroad, operates former Northern Pacific trackage in western Montana. In addition, Amtrak's Empire Builder train runs through the north of the state, stopping in the following towns: Libby, Whitefish, West Glacier, Essex, East Glacier Park, Browning, Cut Bank, Shelby, Havre, Malta, Glasgow, and Wolf Point. Montana's three largest commercial airports serve Bozeman, Billings, and Missoula; smaller airports at Great Falls International Airport, Kalispell, Helena, and Butte also serve multiple commercial carriers. Eight smaller communities have airports designated for commercial service under the Essential Air Service program. Historically, the primary east-west highway route across Montana was U.S. Route 10, which connected the major cities in the southern half of the state. Still the state's most important east-west travel corridor, the route is today served by Interstate 90 and Interstate 94. U.S. Routes 2 and 12 and Montana Highway 200 also traverse the entire state from east to west. Montana's only north-south Interstate Highway is Interstate 15. Other major north-south highways include U.S. Routes 87, 89, 93 and 191. Law and government The current Governor is Brian Schweitzer (Democrat) who was sworn in on January 3, 2005. Its two U.S. senators are Max Baucus (Democrat) and Jon Tester (Democrat). Montana's congressional representative is Denny Rehberg (Republican). The state was the first to elect a female member of Congress (Jeannette Rankin) and was one of the first states to give women voting rights (see suffrage). Despite its sizable American Indian population, Montana is one of the most homogenous states — nearly 90% of its residents are of European descent, with a large number of immigrants of German, Irish, Welsh, Slavs, English, Italian, Slovak and Scandinavian heritage arriving in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A significant portion of Chinese (Cantonese) immigrants also came and left an indelible mark on the state, especially in the mining cities of Helena, Butte, and Anaconda. Politics Historically, Montana is a swing state of cross-ticket voters with a tradition of sending "liberals to Helena (the state capital) and conservatives to Washington." However, there have also been long-term shifts of party control. During the 1970s, the state was dominated by the Democratic Party, with Democratic governors for a 20-year period, and a Democratic majority of both the national congressional delegation and during many sessions of the state legislature. This pattern shifted, beginning with the 1988 election, when Montana elected a Republican governor and sent a Republican to the U.S. Senate for the first time since the 1940s. This shift continued with the reapportionment of the state's legislative districts that took effect in 1994, when the Republican Party took control of both houses of the state legislature, consolidating a party dominance that lasted until 2004. The state last supported a Democrat for president in 1992, when Bill Clinton won a plurality victory. Overall, since 1889 the state has voted for Democratic governors 60% of the time and Democratic presidents 40% of the time, with these numbers being 40/60 for Republican candidates. In recent years, Montana has been classified as a Republican-leaning state, as the state supported President George W. Bush by a wide margin in 2000 and 2004. However, the state currently has two Democratic U.S. Senators and a Democratic governor (Brian Schweitzer), elected in 2004. In the 2006 midterm elections, Democratic candidate Jon Tester narrowly defeated (by only 3000 votes) incumbent Republican Senator Conrad Burns ,one of several crucial races that allowed the Democratic Party to win the majority in the U.S. Senate. Montana's lone US Representative, Republican Denny Rehberg, easily won reelection in 2006 as well as in 2008. Long time Senator Max Baucus won reelection in 2008 with a massive majority of votes. The state Senate is (as of 2009) controlled by the Republicans. The State House of Representatives is tied with the speaker of the house coming from the democrats. In the 2008 Presidential Election, Montana was considered a swing state, and was ultimately won by Republican John McCain (albeit by a narrow margin of 2 percent). 2008 Election Results, CNN On April 17, 2007, Montana became the first state to pass legislation against the federal government's Real ID Act. Gov. Schweitzer signed a bill banning the Montana Motor Vehicle Division from enforcing the new regulations. http://www.stateline.org/live/details/story?contentId=199732 Montana is an Alcoholic beverage control state. On April 22, 2009, House Resolution 3 failed to pass by one vote, with all 50 Republicans voting for and all 50 Democrats voting against. http://laws.leg.mt.gov/laws09/LAW0211W$BLAC.VoteTabulation?P_VOTE_SEQ=H1902 It reads in part: http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/2009/billhtml/HR0003.htm (15) That if any act of Congress becomes law or if an Executive Order of the President of the United States is put into force beyond the reservations expressed in this resolution, or if any treaty is entered into by the federal government that nullifies the rights of the people of Montana as expressed in the United States or Montana constitutions, Montana's "Compact With the United States" may be considered breached and all powers previously delegated to the United States via the United States Constitution revert to the states individually.(16) That any future federal government of the United States shall require ratification of three-fourths of the states seeking to form a federal government and shall not be binding upon any state not seeking to form or join a federal government. State Representative Mike Menahan, (D-Helena), said, "If this isn’t groundwork for seceding from the union, I don’t know what is." http://www.bozemandailychronicle.com/articles/2009/04/23/news/10resolution.txt Important cities and towns Some of the cities in Montana are: Billings Bozeman Butte Great Falls Helena Kalispell Missoula Some of the major towns in Montana are: Anaconda Belgrade Colstrip Columbia Falls Conrad Cut Bank Deer Lodge Dillon Glasgow Glendive Hamilton Hardin Havre Laurel Lewistown Libby Livingston Miles City Polson Red Lodge Roundup Shelby Sidney Wolf Point Counties The State of Montana has 56 counties. + Montana Counties Ranked By 2005 Population Rank County Population Rank County Population 1 Yellowstone County 136,691 29 Powell County 6,999 2 Missoula County 100,086 30 Blaine County 6,629 3 Flathead County 83,172 31 Teton County 6,240 4 Cascade County 79,569 32 Pondera County 6,087 5 Gallatin County 78,210 33 Chouteau County 5,463 6 Lewis and Clark County 58,449 34 Toole County 5,031 7 Ravalli County 39,940 35 Broadwater County 4,517 8 Silver Bow County 32,982 36 Musselshell County 4,497 9 Lake County 28,297 37 Phillips County 4,179 10 Lincoln County 19,193 38 Mineral County 4,014 11 Hill County 16,304 39 Sweet Grass County 3,672 12 Park County 15,968 40 Sheridan County 3,524 13 Glacier County 13,552 41 Granite County 2,965 14 Big Horn County 13,149 42 Fallon County 2,717 15 Fergus County 11,551 43 Judith Basin County 2,198 16 Custer County 11,267 44 Wheatland County 2,037 17 Jefferson County 11,170 45 Liberty County 2,003 18 Sanders County 11,057 46 Meagher County 1,999 19 Roosevelt County 10,524 47 Daniels County 1,836 20 Carbon County 9,902 48 McCone County 1,805 21 Rosebud County 9,212 49 Powder River County 1,705 22 Richland County 9,096 50 Carter County 1,320 23 Deer Lodge County 8,948 51 Garfield County 1,199 24 Beaverhead County 8,773 52 Golden Valley County 1,159 25 Dawson County 8,688 53 Prairie County 1,105 26 Stillwater County 8,493 54 Wibaux County 951 27 Madison County 7,274 55 Treasure County 689 28 Valley County 7,143 56 Petroleum County 470 Education Colleges and universities The state-funded Montana University System consists of: Flathead Valley Community College Dawson Community College Miles Community College Montana State University - Bozeman Montana State University - Billings Montana State University - Northern - Havre University of Montana - Missoula Montana Tech of the University of Montana - Butte University of Montana Western - Dillon University of Montana - Helena College of Technology Major Tribal Colleges in Montana include: Fort Peck Community College or Ft. Peck Community College Little Big Horn College Salish Kootenai College Stone Child College Major Private Colleges and Universities include: Carroll College Rocky Mountain College University of Great Falls Sports Professional sports There are no major league sports franchises in Montana, due to the state's relatively small and dispersed population, but a number of minor league teams play in the state. Baseball is the minor-league sport with the longest heritage in the state, and Montana is currently home to four Minor League baseball teams, all members of the Pioneer Baseball League: Billings Mustangs Great Falls Voyagers Helena Brewers Missoula Osprey The Billings Outlaws are a professional indoor football team affiliated with the United Indoor Football league. Collegiate and amateur sports All of Montana's four-year colleges and universities field a variety of intercollegiate sports teams. The two largest schools, the University of Montana and Montana State University, are members of the Big Sky Conference and have enjoyed a strong athletic rivalry since the early twentieth century. Most of the smaller four-year schools in the state belong to the Frontier Conference. Football and basketball are the two most popular sports at the high school level. Montana is one of the few states where the smallest high schools participate in six-man football leagues. Numerous other sports are played at the club and amateur level, including softball, rugby, and soccer. Since 1988, the Montana High School All Class Wrestling Tournament has been held in Billings at MetraPark. This event remains one of the most popular high school events each year in Montana. There are five junior hockey teams in Montana, all affiliated with the Northern Pacific Hockey League: Billings Bulls Bozeman Icedogs Butte Roughriders Helena Bighorns Missoula Maulers Ft. Shaw In 1904 a group of young Native American women, after playing undefeated during their last season, went to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis and defeated all challenging teams and were declared to be world champions. For this they received a large silver trophy with the inscription "World's Fair - St. Louis, 1904 - Basket Ball - Won by Fort Shaw Team". "Full Court Quest - Authors: Linda Peavy and Ursula Smith - Published 2008 by University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Publishing Division of the University Montana in Popular Culture The protagonist in Ernest Hemingway's For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), Robert Jordan, is a native Montanan. The book was adapted as a film in 1943, starring Gary Cooper, a native Montanan himself. Although he was from Illinois and had ties to Idaho and Michigan, Hemingway also traveled to Montana extensively, and much of his family still lives in the state today. The character Jefferson Smith (played by James "Jimmy" Stewart) in Frank Capra's 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington is a Montanan. The 1994 film Legends of the Fall which stars Brad Pitt, Anthony Hopkins and Aidan Quinn takes place in remote Montana and briefly in Helena . It is about a family's struggle to live through World War 1, the Prohibition 1920's and the 1930s. Directed by Edward Zwick. The 1992 film A River Runs Through It takes place in and around Missoula, Montana it is about the Prohibition era of the 1920s. It stars Brad Pitt, Craig Sheffer and Tom Skerritt. Directed by Robert Redford. In the animated series King of the Hill, Peggy Hill is a native born and raised Montanan to cattle ranchers. She now resides in Arlen, Texas with husband Hank Hill and son Bobby Hill. Miscellaneous topics The planned battleship USS Montana was named in honor of the state. However, the battleship was never completed, making Montana the only one of the 48 states during World War II not to have a battleship named after it. Additionally, Alaska and Hawaii have both had nuclear submarines named after them. As such Montana is the only state in the union without a modern naval ship named in its honor. However, in August 2007 Senator Jon Tester made a request to the Navy that a submarine be christened USS Montana. Press Release Detail The Hell Creek Formation is a major source of dinosaur fossils. Paleontologist Jack Horner, of the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman, Montana, brought this formation to the world's attention with several major finds. For example, Jane was discovered in 2001 in Hell Creek and is the world's most complete juvenile tyrannosaurus rex. In 1902, a group of female students from the Fort Shaw Indian Industrial School began playing basketball and traveled throughout Montana, defeating high school teams and some college teams. In 1904, the girls' basketball team traveled by train to the St. Louis World's Fair. Over a period of five months, the team was challenged by numerous other basketball teams and won every contest, returning to Fort Shaw with the "world champion" trophy. On May 1, 2004, a monument in honor of the basketball team was unveiled at the entrance of the present-day Fort Shaw Elementary School. In the movie 'Star Trek: First Contact', Montana is the location of the fictitious first contact between humans and an alien race, the Vulcans. Star Trek producer Brannon Braga is originally from Bozeman, Montana. However, no Montana locations were used in the shooting of the film. Montana has the largest grizzly bear population in the lower 48 states. Montana's triple divide allows water to flow into three oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean (Gulf of Mexico), and the Arctic Ocean (Hudson Bay). This phenomenon occurs at Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park. In 1888, Helena (the current state capital) had more millionaires per capita than any other city in the world. State symbols State flower: Bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), since 1895 State tree: Ponderosa Pine, since 1949 State animal: Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), since 1862 State bird: Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), since 1931 State fish: Westslope cutthroat trout, since 1977 State Song: "Montana", since 1945 State Ballad: "Montana Melody", since 1983 State Gemstones: Yogo Sapphire & Agate State Fossil: Maiasaur ("Duck-billed Dinosaur") (Maiasaura peeblesorum), since 1985 State Butterfly: Mourning cloak (Nymphalis antiopa), since 2001 State Grass: Bluebunch wheatgrass, since 1973 State Motto: "Oro y Plata" (Spanish: Gold and Silver) Ski areas Montana has several ski areas including: Bear Paw Ski Bowl near Havre, Montana Big Sky Resort near Big Sky, Montana Blacktail near Lakeside Bridger Bowl Ski Area near Bozeman Discovery Basin near Philipsburg Great Divide near Helena, Montana Lost Trail near Darby, Montana Lookout Pass near St. Regis, Montana Maverick Mountain near Dillon, Montana Moonlight Basin near Big Sky, Montana Red Lodge Mountain near Red Lodge Showdown Ski Area near White Sulphur Springs, Montana Snowbowl Ski Area near Missoula Teton Pass Ski Area near Choteau Turner Mountain Ski Resort near Libby Whitefish Mountain Resort near Whitefish Notable People See List of people from Montana See also Index of Montana-related articles References Further reading Montana was awarded the award for Having the Best State Government and Citizens by President George W. Bush in 2005. To read more about this award, and more about Montana read these books. Axline, Jon, et al. Still Speaking Ill of the Dead: More Jerks in Montana History. Falcon Press, 2005. ISBN 1-58592-032-0 Bennion, Jon. Big Sky Politics. Five Valleys Publishing, April 2004. ISBN 1-888550-13-9 Doig, Ivan, Dancing at the Rascal Fair. Scribner: 1987. ISBN 0-689-11764-7. Doig, Ivan, English Creek. Peter Smith Publisher Inc: 1992. ISBN 0-8446-6608-4. Howard, Joseph Kinsey. Montana: High, Wide, and Handsome. Bison Books: 2003. ISBN 0-8032-7339-8. Howard, Joseph Kinsey. Montana Margins: A State Anthology. Yale University Press,: 1946. ISBN 0-8369-2652-8. Kittredge, William. The Last Best Place: A Montana Anthology. (From the back cover: "...over 230 stories, poems, reminiscences, and reports written by 140 men and women. The book is divided into eight sections with introductory essays by William Bevis, Mary Clearman Blew, William Kittredge, William Lang, Richard Roeder, Annick Smith, and James Welch.") University of Washington Press: 1990. 1158 pages. ISBN 0-295-96974-1. Lopach, James. We the People of Montana: The Workings of a Popular Government. Falcon Press, 1983 ISBN 0-87842-159-9 MacLean, Norman, A River Runs Through It. University of Chicago Press: 1976. ISBN 0-226-50060-8. MacLean, Norman, Young Men and Fire. University of Chicago Press: 1992. ISBN 0-226-50061-6. Malone, Michael P., Richard B. Roeder and William L. Lang. Montana: A History of Two Centuries. University of Washington: 1991. ISBN 0-295-97129-0. Toole, K. Ross. Montana: An Uncommon Land. University of Oklahoma Press: 1984. ISBN 0-8061-1890-3. Walter, Dave, et al. Speaking Ill of the Dead: Jerks in Montana History. Falcon Press, 2000. ISBN 1-58592-032-0 Walker, Mildred. Winter Wheat. Harcourt: 1967. ISBN 0-15-197223-0. External links State of Montana Website Montana energy data & statistics - From the U.S. Department of Energy Montana Historical Society Montana History Montana State Capitol Information Montana state facts from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Census of Montana List of searchable databases produced by Montana state agencies hosted by the American Library Association Government Documents Roundtable. Official State Travel Information Site USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Montana | Montana |@lemmatized montana:153 state:130 western:15 united:15 third:6 contain:6 numerous:4 mountain:40 range:28 island:6 find:4 central:13 total:3 named:1 rocky:10 geographic:3 geographical:1 fact:3 reflect:1 name:6 derive:2 spanish:2 word:1 montaña:1 nickname:2 treasure:2 include:19 land:7 shin:1 big:12 sky:6 country:2 slogan:1 last:9 best:4 place:4 rank:6 fourth:3 area:21 population:15 therefore:1 low:5 density:2 economy:6 primarily:3 base:2 ranching:2 wheat:3 farming:1 oil:1 coal:2 east:23 lumber:3 tourism:3 hard:1 rock:4 mining:4 west:17 million:2 tourist:1 annually:1 visit:2 glacier:15 national:33 park:24 battle:3 little:6 bighorn:7 site:6 three:11 five:8 entrance:4 yellowstone:9 geography:3 large:18 alaska:5 texas:2 california:1 north:16 canada:3 share:1 border:3 canadian:1 province:2 british:2 columbia:4 alberta:3 saskatchewan:3 dakota:8 south:15 wyoming:4 southwest:3 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1,993 | Cisâ%80%93trans_isomerism | Cis-2-buteneTrans-2-butene In chemistry, cis-trans isomerism or geometric isomerism or configuration isomerism or E-Z isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism describing the orientation of functional groups within a molecule. In general, such isomers contain double bonds, which cannot rotate, but they can also arise from ring structures, wherein the rotation of bonds is greatly restricted. The term "geometric isomerism" is considered an obsolete synonym of "cis-trans isomerism" by IUPAC. It is sometimes used as a synonym for general stereoisomerism (e.g., optical isomerism being called geometric isomerism); the correct term for non-optical stereoisomerism is diastereomerism. There are two forms of a cis-trans isomer, the cis and trans versions. When the substituent groups are oriented in the same direction, the diastereomer is referred to as cis, whereas, when the substituents are oriented in opposing directions, the diastereomer is referred to as trans. An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying cis-trans isomerism is 2-butene. Alicyclic compounds can also display cis-trans isomerism. As an example of a geometric isomer due to a ring structure, consider 1,2-dichlorocyclohexane: trans-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane cis-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane Cis vs trans physical properties Cis isomers and trans isomers often have different physical properties. Differences between isomers, in general, arise from the differences in the shape of the molecule or the overall dipole moment. These differences can be very small, as in the case of the boiling point of straight-chained alkenes, such as pent-2-ene, wherein the trans isomer has a boiling point of 36°C and cis isomer is 37°C Chemicalland values . The differences between cis and trans isomers can also be quite large, as in the case of cyclooctene. The cis isomer in this case has a boiling point of 145°C Akros data , while the trans isomer has a boiling point of 75°C. Organic Syntheses, Coll. Vol. 5, p.315 (1973); Vol. 49, p.39 (1969) Link The large difference between the two isomers of cyclooctene arises from the large ring strain for trans-cyclooctene, which also makes it significantly less stable than the cis isomer. In fact, the two isomers of 2-butenedioic acid have such large differences in properties and reactivities that they were actually given completely different names. The cis isomer is called maleic acid and the trans is named fumaric acid. Polarity is key in determining relative boiling point as it causes increased intermolecular forces, thereby raising the boiling point. In the same manner, symmetry is key in determining relative melting point as it allows for better packing in the solid state. Thus, trans-alkenes which are less polar and more symmetrical have lower boiling points and higher melting points and cis-alkenes, which are generally more polar and less symmetrical have higher boiling points and lower melting points. In the case of geometric isomers that are a consequence of double bonds, and, in particular, when both substituents are the same, some general trends usually hold. These trends can be attributed to the fact that the dipoles of the substituents in a cis isomer will add up to give an overall molecular dipole. In a trans isomer, the dipoles of the substituents will cancel out due to their being on opposite site of the molecule. Trans isomers also tend to have lower densities than their cis counterparts. March Advanced organic Chemistry, Reactions, mechanisms and structure 3ed. page 111 Jerry March ISBN 0-471-85472-7 observes that, as trans alkenes, in general, have more symmetry than cis alkenes, the trans alkenes also tend to have higher melting points and lower solubility in inert solvents. Vicinal coupling constants (3JHH), measured by NMR spectroscopy, are larger for trans- (range: 12–18 Hz, typical: 15 Hz) than for cis- (range: 0–12 Hz, typical: 8 Hz) isomers. "Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry," Dudly H. WIlliams and Ian FLeming, 4th ed. revised,McGraw-Hill Book COmpany (UK) Limited, 1989.Table 3.27 Stability Usually, trans isomers are more stable than the cis isomers. This is partly due to their shape, the straighter shape of the trans isomer leads to hydrogen intermolecular forces that make the isomer more stable . According to March, trans isomers also have a lower heat of combustion, indicating higher thermochemical stability. In the Benson Heat of formation group additivity, dataset cis isomers suffer a 1.10 kcal/mol stability penalty. Exceptions to this rule exist. For instance, for 1,2-difluoroethylene, 1,2-difluorodiazene (FN=NF), and several other halogen- and oxygen-substituted ethylenes. In this case, the cis isomer is more stable than the trans isomer. The stereochemical consequences of electron delocalization in extended .pi. systems. An interpretation of the cis effect exhibited by 1,2-disubstituted ethylenes and related phenomena Richard C. Bingham J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1976; 98(2); 535-540 Abstract This phenomenon is called the cis effect. Contribution to the Study of the Gauche Effect. The Complete Structure of the Anti Rotamer of 1,2-Difluoroethane Norman C. Craig et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 1997; 119 p 4789 E/Z notation Bromine has a higher CIP priority than chlorine, so this alkene is the Z isomer. The cis/trans system for naming isomers is not effective when there are more than two different substituents on a double bond. The E/Z notation should then be used. Z (from the German ) means together and corresponds to the term cis; E (from the German ) means opposite and corresponds to the term trans. Whether a molecular configuration is designated E or Z is determined by the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules (higher atomic numbers are given higher priority). For each of the two atoms in the double bond, it is necessary to determine which of the two substituents is of a higher priority. If both of the substituents of higher priority are on the same side, the arrangement is Z; if they are on opposite sides, the arrangement is E. External links The IUPAC definition of "stereoisomerism" The IUPAC definition of "geometric isomerism" The IUPAC definition of "cis-trans isomers" See also Isomer Structural isomerism Chirality (chemistry) Trans fat References | Cisâ%80%93trans_isomerism |@lemmatized ci:23 butenetrans:1 butene:2 chemistry:4 trans:29 isomerism:12 geometric:6 configuration:2 e:7 z:7 form:2 stereoisomerism:4 describe:1 orientation:1 functional:1 group:3 within:1 molecule:3 general:5 isomer:32 contain:1 double:4 bond:5 cannot:1 rotate:1 also:8 arise:2 ring:3 structure:4 wherein:2 rotation:1 greatly:1 restrict:1 term:4 consider:2 obsolete:1 synonym:2 iupac:4 sometimes:1 use:2 g:1 optical:2 call:3 correct:1 non:1 diastereomerism:1 two:6 version:1 substituent:1 orient:2 direction:2 diastereomer:2 refer:2 whereas:1 substituents:7 oppose:1 example:2 small:2 hydrocarbon:1 display:2 alicyclic:1 compound:1 due:3 dichlorocyclohexane:3 v:1 physical:2 property:3 cis:6 often:1 different:3 difference:6 shape:3 overall:2 dipole:4 moment:1 case:5 boil:1 point:12 straight:1 chain:1 alkene:7 pent:1 ene:1 boiling:7 c:6 chemicalland:1 value:1 quite:1 large:5 cyclooctene:3 akros:1 data:1 organic:3 synthesis:1 coll:1 vol:2 p:3 link:2 arises:1 strain:1 make:2 significantly:1 less:3 stable:4 fact:2 butenedioic:1 acid:3 reactivity:1 actually:1 give:3 completely:1 name:3 maleic:1 fumaric:1 polarity:1 key:2 determine:4 relative:2 cause:1 increased:1 intermolecular:2 force:2 thereby:1 raise:1 manner:1 symmetry:2 melting:2 allow:1 good:1 packing:1 solid:1 state:1 thus:1 polar:2 symmetrical:2 low:5 high:9 melt:2 generally:1 consequence:2 particular:1 trend:2 usually:2 hold:1 attribute:1 add:1 molecular:2 cancel:1 opposite:3 site:1 tend:2 density:1 counterpart:1 march:3 advance:1 reaction:1 mechanism:1 page:1 jerry:1 isbn:1 observes:1 solubility:1 inert:1 solvent:1 vicinal:1 coupling:1 constant:1 measure:1 nmr:1 spectroscopy:1 range:2 hz:4 typical:2 spectroscopic:1 method:1 dudly:1 h:1 williams:1 ian:1 fleming:1 ed:1 revise:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 book:1 company:1 uk:1 limit:1 table:1 stability:3 partly:1 straighter:1 lead:1 hydrogen:1 accord:1 heat:2 combustion:1 indicate:1 thermochemical:1 benson:1 formation:1 additivity:1 dataset:1 suffer:1 kcal:1 mol:1 penalty:1 exception:1 rule:2 exist:1 instance:1 difluoroethylene:1 difluorodiazene:1 fn:1 nf:1 several:1 halogen:1 oxygen:1 substitute:1 ethylene:2 stereochemical:1 electron:1 delocalization:1 extend:1 pi:1 system:2 interpretation:1 effect:3 exhibit:1 disubstituted:1 related:1 phenomenon:2 richard:1 bingham:1 j:2 chem:2 soc:2 abstract:1 contribution:1 study:1 gauche:1 complete:1 anti:1 rotamer:1 difluoroethane:1 norman:1 craig:1 et:1 al:1 notation:2 bromine:1 cip:1 priority:5 chlorine:1 effective:1 german:2 mean:2 together:1 correspond:2 whether:1 designate:1 cahn:1 ingold:1 prelog:1 atomic:1 number:1 atom:1 necessary:1 side:2 arrangement:2 external:1 definition:3 see:1 structural:1 chirality:1 fat:1 reference:1 |@bigram ci_trans:9 trans_isomer:12 cis_isomer:4 dipole_moment:1 boiling_point:7 synthesis_coll:1 coll_vol:1 ci_isomer:5 organic_chemistry:2 nmr_spectroscopy:1 ian_fleming:1 mcgraw_hill:1 kcal_mol:1 electron_delocalization:1 chem_soc:2 et_al:1 external_link:1 |
1,994 | Offa_of_Angel | Uffe den Spake, by Peter Nicolai Arbo. Offa (fl. c.450), also Uffo or Uffe, was the (possibly mythical) 4th-great-grandfather of Creoda of Mercia, and was reputed to be a great-grandson of Odin. Whether historical or mythical, Offa was the son of Wermund, and the father of Angeltheow. He was the most famous hero of the early Angles (Anglii in Latin). He is said by the Old English poem Widsith to have ruled over Angel, and the poem refers briefly to his victorious single combat, a story which is related at length by the Danish historians Saxo and Svend Aagesen. Single combat Offa is said to have been dumb or silent during his early years. His aged and blind father, King Wermund believed him to be a simpleton and in order to preserve his son's position as king had him marry the daughter of Freawine (a neighbouring warlord/king) so that Freawine would assist Offa when he became king. However, the plans did not come to pass, as Freawine was killed by a marauding Viking warlord (a Swede called Atisl). Wermund subsequently raised Freawine's sons Ket and Wig as his own. The two would eventually cause great dishonour to the Angles when they ambushed Atisl in a forest as he walked alone and slew him. The surrounding peoples began to mock the Angles, accusing them of cowardice and dishonour. Eventually the neighbouring Saxons decided that Wermund was too weak to resist their requests for him to surrender his kingdom, and they sent their emissaries to Wermund's court. There they proceeded to mock the blind man, prompting Wermund to challenge their king to a duel — but the king stated that he would not fight a blind man. It was then that Offa regained his speech, and revealed that his silence had been caused by the great dishonour involved in Atisl's death. He promptly challenged the prince of the Saxons and one of his champions to a duel in order to regain the honour of the Angles. Offa's combat took place at Rendsburg on an island in the Eider River, and Offa succeeded in killing both his opponents. According to Widsith, Offa's opponents belonged to a tribe or dynasty called Myrgingas, but both accounts state that he won a great kingdom as the result of his victory. A somewhat corrupt version of the same story is preserved in the Vitae duorum Offarum, where, however, the scene is transferred to England. Other Offas It is very probable that the Offa whose marriage with Modþryð, a lady of murderous disposition, is mentioned in Beowulf, is the same person. (This story also appears in the Vitae duorum Offarum, though it is erroneously told of the later Offa of Mercia.) Offa of Mercia was a descendant of Offa of Angel. It is probable from this and other considerations that the earlier Offa lived in the latter part of the 5th century. External links Offa's immediate family References See H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907), where references to the original authorities will be found. | Offa_of_Angel |@lemmatized uffe:2 den:1 spake:1 peter:1 nicolai:1 arbo:1 offa:14 fl:1 c:1 also:2 uffo:1 possibly:1 mythical:2 great:5 grandfather:1 creoda:1 mercia:3 repute:1 grandson:1 odin:1 whether:1 historical:1 son:3 wermund:6 father:2 angeltheow:1 famous:1 hero:1 early:3 angle:4 anglii:1 latin:1 say:2 old:1 english:2 poem:2 widsith:2 rule:1 angel:2 refers:1 briefly:1 victorious:1 single:2 combat:3 story:3 relate:1 length:1 danish:1 historian:1 saxo:1 svend:1 aagesen:1 dumb:1 silent:1 year:1 aged:1 blind:3 king:6 believe:1 simpleton:1 order:2 preserve:2 position:1 marry:1 daughter:1 freawine:4 neighbouring:2 warlord:2 would:3 assist:1 become:1 however:2 plan:1 come:1 pass:1 kill:2 marauding:1 viking:1 swede:1 call:2 atisl:3 subsequently:1 raise:1 ket:1 wig:1 two:1 eventually:2 cause:2 dishonour:3 ambush:1 forest:1 walk:1 alone:1 slew:1 surround:1 people:1 begin:1 mock:2 accuse:1 cowardice:1 saxon:2 decide:1 weak:1 resist:1 request:1 surrender:1 kingdom:2 send:1 emissary:1 court:1 proceed:1 man:2 prompt:1 challenge:2 duel:2 state:2 fight:1 regain:2 speech:1 reveal:1 silence:1 involve:1 death:1 promptly:1 prince:1 one:1 champion:1 honour:1 take:1 place:1 rendsburg:1 island:1 eider:1 river:1 succeed:1 opponent:2 accord:1 belong:1 tribe:1 dynasty:1 myrgingas:1 account:1 win:1 result:1 victory:1 somewhat:1 corrupt:1 version:1 vitae:2 duorum:2 offarum:2 scene:1 transfer:1 england:1 offas:1 probable:2 whose:1 marriage:1 modþryð:1 lady:1 murderous:1 disposition:1 mention:1 beowulf:1 person:1 appear:1 though:1 erroneously:1 tell:1 late:1 descendant:1 consideration:1 live:1 latter:1 part:1 century:1 external:1 link:1 immediate:1 family:1 reference:2 see:1 h:1 chadwick:1 origin:1 nation:1 cambridge:1 original:1 authority:1 find:1 |@bigram send_emissary:1 offa_mercia:2 external_link:1 |
1,995 | Christian_eschatology | In Christian theology, Christian eschatology is the study of its religious beliefs concerning all future and final events (End Times), as well as the ultimate purpose(s) of the world (i.e., mortal life), of humankind, and the Church. Where eschatology (Greek: eskhatos "last," logia "discourse") refers to doctrine that represents a history of inquiry into the concept of the destiny of all things, in Christian context, this inquiry is vested in the prophesied purposes of God as documented in the Bible. Introduction The "last things" are important issues to Christian faith, although eschatology is a relatively recent development as a formal division of Christian theology. In Epistle to the Romans, Paul wrote: For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God. For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of him who subjected it, in hope that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God. For we know that the whole creation has been groaning together in the pains of childbirth until now. And not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. For in this hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what he sees? But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience. Christian eschatology concerns the afterlife, the return of Jesus, the End of the World, resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, renewal of creation, Heaven and Hell, the establishment of the Kingdom of God, and the consummation of all of God's purposes, the fulfillment of Messianic prophecy and the beginning of the Messianic Age. The term eschatology is often used in a more popular and narrower sense when comparing various interpretations of the Book of Revelation and other prophetic parts of the Bible, such as the Book of Daniel and various sayings of Jesus in the Gospels, such as the Olivet discourse and the Judgment of the Nations, concerning the timing of what many Christians believe to be the imminent second coming of Christ. There are various controversies concerning the order of events leading to and following the return of Jesus and the religious significance of these events. Some Christians, notably followers of Eastern Orthodoxy but also members of other sects, regard most popular discussion of this topic to be fundamentally and dangerously false. Theologians from a number of traditions point out that the Book of Revelation was included late in the Biblical canon, because of lingering questions regarding its usefulness (see also Antilegomena). Many early teachers thought the Christian faith should be single-mindedly preoccupied with what is most transparently understood concerning salvation. The book is not included in the liturgical readings of most traditions. Nevertheless, a great number of Christians consider the effort to understand the Book of Revelation (and other prophecies) to be one of the most important issues, if not the chief objective, of their Christian faith. In many Roman Catholic and Protestant dogmatic, mystical or folk traditions, in addition to the other doctrines and prophecies of the Bible, there are also traditional teachings, or writings of people granted gifts of prophecy or a special visitation by messengers from heaven, such as angels, saints, or Christ. Nearly all traditions of Christianity believe that suffering, disease, injustice and death will continue until the second coming of Christ and the end of the world. However, there are dissenting traditions, which teach it to be an ethical or moral principle that all suffering ought to be eliminated prior to Christ's return. Schools of prophetic interpretation Generally speaking, there are four approaches or perspectives in Christian eschatology. The Historicist looks to Scripture, and especially to its fulfilled prophecies, for the religious significance in past or present historical events. The Preterist believes that most or all of the prophecies, especially of the book of Revelation, have already been fulfilled. Revelation is understood as predicting the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, which was the event prophesied by Jesus that would signal the "end of the age." See , , , and . The opening and closing verses of the book of Revelation state that the events prophesied in it were to take place "shortly," and that the time was "near." See , and . The book fits into the category of a "covenant lawsuit," in which judgment is pronounced against the nation of Israel for violating the stipulations of the Mosaic covenant. It prophesies the end of that covenant, the beginning of the New Covenant, and the inheritance of the Kingdom of God by the saints. cf. and . The Futurist looks for religious significance for the present time in events that are thought to be future in history or beyond history. The Futurists have been subdivided into Premillennialism, Postmillennialism, and Amillennialism, named after their particular interpretation of the "thousand years" of Revelations 20. The Idealist looks for regularities, patterns or laws of history or of the internal life which are of perpetual religious significance. These patterns may be continually displayed in history or displayed at numerous times or in a special context (such as in the Liturgy). Idealism may be combined with historicism or futurism, so that the pattern is an echo of a consummate or archetypical event sometime in history or at the end of the world. Additionally, some interpretations are purely metaphorical. Diversity of opinion arises when a particular passage concerning the kingdom of heaven is interpreted ideally, for example, which other groups interpret as history, and others as future or future beyond history. All of these would be opposed to a merely metaphorical interpretation of the same passage. Prophetic events prior to the return of Christ Comparison of Christian millennial interpretations Kingdom of God: Literal Millennial views Within Biblical eschatology, there are diverse opinions about the Kingdom of God. Some interpret Rev 20:1–6, concerning the 1,000-year (or millennial) rule of Christ on Earth, to be a future age. The belief that the Kingdom of God predicted by the Old Testament, the Messianic Age or Millennium of Messiah, is still future and will come about prior to the final judgment and final eternal state is called millennialism. A commonly accepted premise of millennialism is that this Messianic rule promised in the Old Testament has been postponed until God's purposes in the New Testament church have been fulfilled. Premillennialism is a futurist historical interpretation. It predicts that Christ's second coming will inaugurate a literal 1,000-year earthly Kingdom, at the conclusion of which will be the final judgment. Upon Christ's return many anticipate a partial resurrection, only of the faithful, who will reign with Christ for one thousand years. During this time Satan will be imprisoned or restrained in the Abyss or Bottomless Pit. At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released to deceive the godless people of Gog and Magog, who will have re-accumulated during the Millennium. The wicked will attempt to surround the Holy City once more during this Millennial rebellion. Again they will be defeated and for all time. The Great White Throne Judgment will follow, and Satan will be cast into the Lake of Fire. The Devil will be condemned to hell for all eternity, together with those who have trusted in him rather than in God. This penultimate event is the Last Judgment of the Great White Throne. Each person will be consigned to either hell or heaven. The end of all things is a new heaven and a new earth, the mystery of an age of endless ages, when there will no longer be death and "God will be all in all." 1 Corinthians 15:28 This is that final moment of ultimate perfection and bliss toward which all orthodox Christians finally direct their hope. Premillennialists fall into two primary categories: historic premillennialism and dispensational premillennialism. Historic premillennialism is so-called because it is the classic form which may be found in writings of some of the early church fathers, although in an undeveloped form. The Montanist sect espoused premillennialism, and their "fanatical excesses" brought premillennialism into discredit with the wider church. Schaff; History of the Christian Church Dispensational premillennialism is that form which derives from John Nelson Darby (1800–1882) and dispensational theology. It is dispensational premillennialism that first taught the notion of a pretribulation rapture. Pretribulationists believe that the second coming will be in two stages separated by a seven-year period of tribulation. At the first he will return in the air to rescue those who are Christians at the time (the rapture). Then follows a seven-year period of suffering, in which the Antichrist will conquer the world and kill those who refuse to worship him. At the end of the seven years, the final witness will go out before men and angels, and Christ will return to the earth. He will defeat the Antichrist and rescue the Jews and those who have converted to Christianity during the tribulation. Dispensationalism has also spawned Midtribulationists, who believe that Christians will not be removed until 3-1/2 years of the final seven years of this age have elapsed. They place the Rapture when the Temple sacrifices have been halted and the Antichrist has enshrined himself in the Temple, calling himself God. Posttribulationists (generally the view of historic premillennialism) see no appreciable difference in the timing of the rapture and the "official" second coming. Thus they hold that Christ will not return until the end of the tribulation and that Christians will suffer for the faith as they bring forth the final witness associated with the fifth seal. The belief in the pretribulation or midtribulation rapture theories of dispensationalism is often criticized, on the grounds that it results in the division of Christ's single return into two stages. Some see it as an impossible "apartheid of the Elect" of sorts which is not seen in scripture. Pretribulationists defend it on the basis of a scripture passage which affirms that God has not appointed His people to wrath. Posttribulationists counter that the tribulation associated with the final witness of the saints is in no way connected to the wrath of God. This wrath of God will only come at the last day, and it will fall upon the heads of the wicked at the last judgment. Some specifically criticize dispensational premillennialism for anticipating the rebuilding of the Hebrew Temple and the offering again of animal sacrifices during the millennial reign of Christ. In dispensationalism the return of the sacrifices will be ceremonial in nature. Like the ceremony of Communion or the Lord's Supper, they believe that the sacrifices will be performed on the appointed feast days in the future Millennium. They say that the reason the animal sacrifices will continue is because they will be enacted as a memorial to the Savior who came to earth as the Sacrifice Lamb. However, critics view the idea of blood sacrifices reinstituted after Christ's return as incompatible with Christ's completed work and find the idea abhorrent. Allis, O. T., Prophecy and the Church, p. 248 Postmillennialism is of two antithetical varieties, millennial and non-millennial. Some postmillennialists believe that the millennium is a future golden age, when Christian saints will reign over all of the earth before the return of Christ and the end of the world. This variety gained brief notoriety through the Anabaptist movement in the 16th century, in the segment led by Thomas Muntzer. Utopian ideals and Marxism in particular have at times brought about revivals of millenarian belief derived from this variety of postmillennial expectations. Kingdom of God: Non-literal Millennial views Postmillennialism of the more common form is sometimes called "optimistic amillennialism". As in amillennialism the "thousand years" is an idiomatic expression for the entire period following the resurrection of Christ until His return. Neither version anticipates a physical throne set up in geographical Jerusalem on earth, where Christ will reign for one thousand years. Both believe that Christ is reigning now, at the right hand of God, in fulfillment of the promises made to David that his throne would be without end. However, unlike the more usual amillennialism, postmillennial expectation for the future is optimistic concerning the progress of the Gospel and the increasing practical benefit of Christianity to all people. Postmillennialists anticipate that prior to Christ's return, the world will have gradually but entirely converted to Christianity, at least nominally, through the preaching of the gospel. God's legal sanctions in history are predictable, ensuring the punishment of the wicked and reward of the just, and the power of the Holy Spirit, working through the gospel, will eventually be pervasive. Stated another way, they believe that the Second Advent will be an event that continues the state of earthly affairs at the time, rather than interposing a radical discontinuity to them. Some anticipate a final apostasy, immediately prior to the final judgment. Postmillennialism of this kind was common in 17th-century Britain and in America in the late 19th century and early 20th century prior to World War I. Additionally, postmillennialists typically envision a future conversion of the Jewish people, en masse, to the Christian faith. Some versions of postmillennialism expect the Antichrist to arise in the future, but most have preterist or idealist interpretations of the Antichrist. This variety of postmillennialism has been revived in the last forty years, particularly among conservative Calvinist groups. The view places particular emphasis on the timing of Christ's return, which is expected only after a future period of global prosperity. This postmillennial expectation, as an important feature of Christian eschatology, is favored by Christian Reconstructionists such as Gary North, R. J Rushdoony, Greg Bahnsen, Kenneth Gentry, Andrew Sandlin and Gary DeMar; and by non-Reconstructionists such as Loraine Boettner, Errol Hulse, G.I. Williamson and John Jefferson Davis. This version of postmillennialism has repopularized evangelical interest in Preterist (fulfilled) interpretations. Preterism is a variant of Christian eschatology which deals with the position of past fulfillment of the Last Days (or End Times) prophecies in varying degrees. The term preterism is derived from the word preterite, or past perfect tense; it also has its roots in the Latin word præter, meaning "past." The Preterist believes that most (a historically orthodox position) or all (a historically heterodox position) of the prophetic passages in the Bible, which have been commonly taken to refer to the end of the world, in fact refer to events in the first century AD, such as the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor Nero, and were fulfilled in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. The Preterism page contains much more detail about this view. Amillennialists (no literal thousand years) hold that the millennium represents the period between Christ's death and resurrection and his Second Coming, that is, the age of the Church. This view is related to the understanding of a millennium as a short time period to God, with an inexact extent. Some amillennialists and postmillennialists adopt a preterist (fulfilled) historical interpretation of the establishment of the Kingdom of God and the appearing of the antichrist. Others adopt an idealist interpretation either exclusively or in addition to historicism of some kind, so that in their understanding, the kingdom of God is repeatedly established, and many antichrists arise in conflict with it throughout history only to finally be destroyed. Millennialism is not an all-encompassing description of eschatology, and ideas concerning the timing of Christ's coming are often not a central issue of eschatology. For example, amillennialism may or may not be the belief of the Catholic church, or of many Protestants; the issue simply is not a central feature of their view of last things or a focus of their faith. Typically, expectations concerning the reign of Christ are seen as partially fulfilled. The kingdom of God is "now and not yet"—realized now in a hidden way in the Church but awaiting full revealing with the Parousia (the appearing of Christ). Generally, the return of Christ is expected "any time", as the signs anticipating his appearing are believed to have been long since fulfilled by Christ's return to the Father, and the diaspora of Christianity into all the nations. Biblical passages on life after death The Last Judgement - Fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo. Most Christian traditions teach belief in life after death as a central and indispensable tenet of their faith. "All these people were still living by faith when they died. They did not receive the things promised; they only saw them and welcomed them from a distance. And they admitted that they were aliens and strangers on earth." . It is charged by some that this belief in an afterlife is an innovation of Christianity, perhaps by admixture with Greek philosophy; however, it is apparent that such a belief was already prevalent in Jewish thinking Jewish eschatology: The afterlife and olam haba among the Pharisees Pharisees: Pharisaic Principles and Values and Essenes, Essenes: Rules, customs, theology and beliefs and that this particular aspect was brought to the fore as a result of the teachings of Jesus, . his resurrection, and the proclamation of the gospel message. 1 Corinthians 15:1-12. Christian churches such as the Catholic Church that accept the Deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament point to the second book of Maccabees as Old Testament justification for the belief in an afterlife. Second Maccabees relates the martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons: After the first brother had died in this way, they brought forward the second for their sport. [...] And when he was at his last breath, he said, 'You accursed wretch, you dismiss us from this present life, but the King of the universe will raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.' After him, the third was the victim of their sport. When it was demanded, he quickly put out his tongue and courageously stretched forth his hands, and said nobly, 'I got these from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again. 2 Maccabees 7:7-11 Within the accepted Protestant canon, it is only in the book of Daniel that a "modern" understanding of an afterlife appears. From a prophetic Christian view, this aforementioned proposed denial of the possibility of afterlife may be interpreted in a different manner: One might see it as a distinction between the "dead" and the "resurrected dead" rather than a denial of the afterlife. The "dead" would represent those who have died outside of God's grace, who by choice do or did not follow God, and thus are dead (spiritually and bodily). The ones who go to be with God, by their choice of faith or actions depending on the religion, would be the "resurrected dead," "living dead" or, simply, "living." When the Sadducees were testing him, Jesus explained this difference by pointing out that God is the God of the living, not of the dead, yet saying that God is the God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, three apparently dead people. According to Matthew, Jesus said, "But about the resurrection of the dead—have you not read what God said to you, 'I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? He is not the God of the dead but of the living." . Looking at the above "contradictory to the afterlife" scriptures in this light, one might suggest the quotes from Isaiah, Psalms, and Ecclesiastes to mean that those who have chosen not to praise God are "dead," but those who have chosen to praise God have been given eternal life and thus are "living" or "resurrected dead." This interpretation however conflicts with ancient Israelite religion. According to Professor James Tabor, Chairman of the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte: The ancient Hebrews had no idea of an immortal soul living a full and vital life beyond death, nor of any resurrection or return from death. Human beings, like the beasts of the field, are made of "dust of the earth," and at death they return to that dust. (Gen. 2:7; 3:19). The Hebrew word nephesh, traditionally translated "living soul" but more properly understood as "living creature," is the same word used for all breathing creatures and refers to nothing immortal. What the Bible says about death, afterlife, and the future See the Early Hebrew Bible. Christian tradition however still interprets the Hebrew Bible's passages by explaining that rather than saying there is not an afterlife, the author is simply saying in each case that those who do not have "eternal life" will not or cannot praise God (perhaps because their choice to not praise God in life is permanent in the afterlife). Furthermore, the words in Job are a metaphor. The construction suggests that the idea is being used as a metaphor and is not so much a fact as a generality. "Consider that my life is but wind; I shall never see happiness again . . . As a cloud fades away, so whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up." In other words, in general, whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up. But also, the whole selection of text is, Remember, O God, that my life is but a breath; my eyes will never see happiness again. 8 The eye that now sees me will see me no longer; you will look for me, but I will be no more. 9 As a cloud vanishes and is gone, so he who goes down to the grave [Sheol] does not return. 10 He will never come to his house again; his place will know him no more. Job does not say whoever goes to Sheol lives no more; he says a person who goes to Sheol does not return. Reading further in the passage, one finds he is speaking about returning "to his house again." In other words, a person does not come back to regular, physical life. This does not bar resurrection in the spirit (or even in the body) to an afterlife. Christians believe that Job was wrong about never seeing happiness again (again, he was exaggerating using standard literary technique, but he certainly saw happiness later. See . What does that say about his comments on Sheol? Actually Job certainly believed in a life after death. "And after my skin has been destroyed, yet in my flesh I will see God; I myself will see him with my own eyes—I, and not another." . Christian tradition believes Job implies that a continuity of existence is necessary for any reward or punishment to be just; in his opinion, then, though he should die, he never would at any point cease to exist nor would he at any point be unreachable ("dead") to God. This Christian interpretation conflicts with the objective approach taken by most scholars, Job's interpretation of the afterlife is more clearly evident in Job 14: But man dies, and is laid low; man breathes his last, and where is he? As waters fail from a lake, and a river wastes away and dries up, so man lies down and rises not again; till the heavens are no more he will not awake, or be aroused out of his sleep. Job 14:10-12. Professor Tabor asserts that the passage is often "misunderstood as offering some hope of life after death or resurrection from the dead. The context makes clear that the answer to Job's question, "If a man die, shall he live again?" is no. That is precisely Job's point." All the dead go down to Sheol, and there they lie in sleep together–whether good or evil, rich or poor, slave or free. . It is described as a region "dark and deep," "the Pit," and "the land of forgetfulness," cut off from both God and human life above. and Though in some texts Yahweh's power can reach down to Sheol, . the dominant idea is that the dead are abandoned forever. This idea of Sheol is negative in contrast to the world of life and light above, but there is no idea of judgment or of reward and punishment. If one faces extreme circumstances of suffering in the realm of the living above, as did Job, it can even be seen as a welcome relief from pain–see the third chapter of Job. But basically it is a kind of "nothingness," an existence that is barely existence at all, in which a "shadow" or "shade" of the former self survives. . This rather bleak (or comforting, depending on your point of view) understanding of the future (or non-future) of the individual at death is one that prevails throughout most of the Hebrew Bible. It is found throughout the Pentateuch (the Books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), and it runs through the books of history, poetry, and prophecy. What the Bible says about Death, Afterlife, and the Future See the Early Hebrew Bible. Intermediate state Belief in life after death of the body, according to Christian eschatology, also usually includes belief in an intermediate state. Jewish background In the Hebrew Bible ("Old Testament") the grave or the place of the dead is represented by the word sheol (שאול, Sh'ol). Greek background Sheol was often translated as Hades, which was the Greek concept of the underworld. Christian views Most traditions believe that the grave does not interrupt consciousness; rather, the immaterial soul experiences a particular judgment after death while separate from the body. The particular judgment is followed by placement either in the presence of God in Heaven or away from God's presence in Hell, where the soul is consciously subject either to happiness or torment. Additionally, the Roman Catholic tradition further compartmentalizes existence after death, and includes belief in Purgatory. Some Catholic theologians have also argued for the existence of Limbo, but there has never been a definitive Church teaching about the matter binding on the faithful. Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism do not require belief in Purgatory. However, these differ from one another in their respective degrees of opposition to the teaching. Orthodoxy does allow that the disembodied soul may have a course to pass through on the way to an ultimate destination; theosis may continue after death (or it might not). John Calvin included this belief among those things not worth arguing about. Later Protestants tend to be less vague in their opinion, and definitely reject any idea of intervening experience for the soul after death, prior to being in the presence of God. However, an issue on which Catholic and Orthodox faiths are united against Protestantism is that the souls of at least some of the saints in heaven are aware of those who call upon them in request of their intercession. In stark contrast it is antithetical to most traditions of Protestantism to believe that the souls of those who have died either should or even can be called upon for help or intercession with God. Prayers directed toward those who have died, or rituals or masses dedicated to assisting the dead in their salvation, are often dogmatically taught by Protestants to be contrary to Scripture. Protestants typically deny that the souls of men adopt omniscience omnipresence, or ubiquity after death, or that they are troubled any longer with the trials of life, or that their exceeding virtue in life remains as a deposit of grace in the Church that can benefit the living. Catholic and Orthodox Christians do not claim that departed saints gain omniscience or omnipresence, however. An essential consequence of Jesus' own death and resurrection is the defeat of death itself. Because of this death neither puts a person beyond God's help nor prevents the Christian from praying. The living are not deprived of the prayers of a Christian simply because the Christian dies; otherwise death would still claim victory. Neither does a person's death make it impossible for God to save or sanctify them; otherwise death would limit what God could do. The Orthodox church carefully avoids defining exactly how departed saints are aware of requests for their intercession, or exactly how the departed may be helped by prayers made on their behalf. It just continues to pray as it always has, with faith in God for the results. Not all Christian sects believe in existence apart from the body, which they regard to be a purely extra-biblical notion borrowed from the non-Christian philosophies and religions (see Annihilationism). The Millerites, or Adventist tradition, for example, typically deny that consciousness is possible apart from the body. Most do not deny the resurrection, however. A similar belief can be found represented by a minority in other Protestant groups, among whom it is not necessarily considered a heretical belief. The Second Coming Eschatology concerns the things hoped for, yet to be revealed. The return of Jesus Christ is the most important eschatological event. The central act of Christian worship calls the Christian's attention toward the return of Jesus Christ and the renewal of the creation, at the "Lord's table" (called Eucharist, "The thanks"; or Communion). According to Luke, Jesus to the apostles, "I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. 16 For I tell you I will not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." . "For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes." 1 Corinthians 11:26. The resurrection of the righteous and the wicked With the coming of Christ, Christians anticipate a resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked. The last enemy, death, will be vanquished.When Jesus Christ comes, the dead in Christ are going to be raised from the dead and they will be changed into heavenly bodies (immortal bodies) and they will be taken (rapture). But the wicked dead will be raised and will not be changed but they will be in their state when they died (mortal bodies). Final judgement Following the resurrection of the dead, Christians anticipate that Christ will personally judge the living and the dead, to determine the eternal destiny of each according to whether their names are written in the Lamb's Book of Life. See also 1 Maccabees 2300 day prophecy Abomination (Bible) Amillenialism Antichrist Antiochus Epiphanes Apocalypse Apocalypticism Armageddon Book of Daniel Book of Revelation Bible Prophecy Christian Zionism in the United Kingdom Daniel's Vision of Chapter 8 Daniel Chapter 11 Day-year principle Dispensationalism - which posits a "parenthesis" between weeks 69 and 70 in the historic fulfillment. Eschatology End times Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Gog and Magog Historicism (Christian eschatology) Idealism (Christian eschatology) Last Judgment Mid-tribulation rapture Millenialism Millenarianism Olivet discourse Premillenialism Preterism Prewrath Postmillennialism Post Tribulation Progressive dispensationalism Prophecy of Seventy Weeks Rapture Realized eschatology Siege of Jerusalem (70) Summary of Christian eschatological differences The Beast (Bible) The Rapture The Two Witnesses Footnotes and References External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Eschatology | Christian_eschatology |@lemmatized christian:47 theology:4 eschatology:19 study:2 religious:6 belief:17 concern:11 future:16 final:12 event:13 end:15 times:1 well:1 ultimate:3 purpose:4 world:10 e:1 mortal:2 life:21 humankind:1 church:14 greek:4 eskhatos:1 last:14 logion:1 discourse:3 refers:2 doctrine:2 represent:5 history:12 inquiry:2 concept:2 destiny:2 thing:7 context:3 vest:1 prophesied:1 god:52 document:1 bible:14 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1,996 | Akira_Toriyama | is a widely known and acclaimed Japanese manga artist known mostly for his creation of Dragon Ball in 1984. It is difficult to pin point the source of Toriyama's artwork inspiration. He admires Osamu Tezuka's Astro Boy and was impressed by Walt Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians, which he remembers for the great art. Jackie Chan's early movies had a noticeable influence on Toriyama's stories. Biography He debuted in 1979 with the story Wonder Island, published in Weekly Shōnen Jump, and first gained popularity for the anime and manga series Dr. Slump, originally serialized weekly in Shōnen Jump from 1980 to 1984. In 1982, he won the Shogakukan Manga Award for Dr. Slump for best shōnen or shōjo manga series of the year. In 1984, Toriyama was responsible for developing Dragon Ball which was initially serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump. It became an instant accomplishment—primarily selling over 35,000,000 copies in Japan, Dragon Ball eventually became a record-breaking best seller with over 120,000,000 copies sold. Shonen Jump Aside from the Japanese fame, the series was equally successful internationally as well, including in Europe (1988), the United States (1996) and Latin America. Toriyama is mostly acknowledged for his major hit Dragon Ball. This work was one of the linchpins for what is accepted as the Golden Age of Jump. Its success encouraged Toriyama to continue working on Dragon Ball from 1984 to 1995. During that eleven-year period, he produced 519 chapters, collected into 42 volumes. Each volume has an average of 200 pages. Moreover, the benefit of the manga led to three anime adaptations, numerous feature-length animated movies, several video games, and mega-merchandising. Though Toriyama had been planning to end Dragon Ball for a long time, his editors agreed to let him end the manga so he could "take some new steps in life," as he put it. Referenced in Dragon Ball manga, volume 26, page 244 — ISBN 1-4215-0636-X The third anime adaptation, Dragon Ball GT, was not based on his manga; however, Toriyama was still involved in the project by supervising its production, although in a limited way. Akira Toriyama at http://www.myfavoritegames.com/ The Dragon Ball anime, including installments that followed, spawned over 500 episodes made in Japan, and are produced and licensed for North America and Australia by FUNimation. Toriyama's clean line and design sense led to jobs designing characters for the phenomenally popular Dragon Quest series of role-playing games (formerly called Dragon Warrior in North America). Toriyama has also served as the character designer for the Super Famicom RPG Chrono Trigger, the fighting game Tobal No. 1 for the PlayStation (as well as its sequel, Tobal 2, released only in Japan), and the Mistwalker Xbox 360 exclusive RPG Blue Dragon. His works after Dragon Ball tend to be short (100-200 page) stories, including Cowa!, Kajika, and Sand Land, as well as one-shots, like Neko Majin. Toriyama worked on a one-shot called Cross Epoch, in cooperation with One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda. The story is a short crossover that presents characters from both One Piece and Dragon Ball respectively. Recently, Toriyama and his studio have begun developing Dragon Ball Online, a follow-up to the Dragon Ball manga, with Bandai Namco Games and NTL for release in South Korea and Japan. The game will act as a direct sequel to the manga, and Toriyama will be supervising all aspects of the game, from storyline and setting to character and location designs. In a press conference in South Korea on February 14, 2008, Kazuhiko Torishima, the director of Shueisha (and Toriyama's original editor), stated that Toriyama had immersed himself in creating character designs and providing editorial supervision for the game for the past five years. Dragon Ball Online South Korean Press Conference Report, Toriyama's studio is called "Bird Studio", which is a play on his name, "tori" meaning "bird". Toriyama does almost all of the work in Bird Studio; his assistant does mostly backgrounds. The studio has not been very active over the last few years and has only done occasional one-shots. In an interview conducted in 2007 with Shōnen Jump, Toriyama revealed that he does not consider what is to occur in proceeding chapters of his stories. Shonen Jump: Oct. 2007 issue, page 360 Selected bibliography Manga Name Year Collected Awawa World 1977 Unpublished Wonder Island 1978-1979 2 One-shots Today's Highlight Island 1979 One-shot Tomato 1979 One-shot Hetappi 1982 1 tankōbon, drawing lesson - Co-author: Akira Sakuma Dr. Slump 1980-1985 18 tankōbon, kanzenban Escape 1981 One-shot Pola & Roid 1981 One-shot Pink 1982 One-shot Mad Matic 1982 One-shot Chobit 1983 2 One-shots, This is not to be confused with the later Chobits, by Clamp Dragon Boy 1983 2 One-shots Tongpoo 1983 One-shot Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.1 1983 1 tankōbon Dragon Ball 1984-1995 42 tankōbon, later reassembled into 34 kanzenban special editions Mr. Ho 1986 One-shot Lady Red 1987 4 one-shots, adult gag manga Kennosuke-sama 1987 One-shot Sonchoh 1987 One-shot Mamejiro 1988 One-shot Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.2 1988 1 tankōbon Karamaru 1989 One-shot Wolf 1990 One-shot Cashman Saving Soldier 1991 3 one-shots - 1998, 1 tankōbon Dub & Peter 1 1992 4 one-shots Go!Go!Ackman 1993 11 one-shots Chotto Kaettekita Dr. Slump 1994-1997 4 slim tankōbon Tokimecha 1996 One-shot Alien X-Peke 1997 One-shot Bubul 1997 One-shot Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater Vol.3 1997 1 tankōbon Cowa! 1997-1998 1 tankōbon Cashman Saving Soldier/New Cashman Saving Soldier 1998 1 tankōbon Tahi Mahi 1998 1 tankōbon Kajika 1998 1 tankōbon Neko Majin 1999-2005 5 one-shots, 1 tankōbon/kanzenban Sand Land 2000 1 tankōbon Bitch's Life 2001 1 illustration Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo 2006 One-shot, omake Cross Epoch 2006 One-shot 2007 One-shot in Monthly Shōnen Jump 2008 One-shot in Jump SQ., with Masakazu Katsura Video games (character design) Dragon Quest series: Role-playing game (RPG) series published by Enix (now Square Enix). Appeared on Nintendo's Famicom/NES, Super Famicom/Super NES, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, Sony's PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and Wii. Dragon Quest Monsters series: Role-playing game (RPG) series published by Enix (now Square Enix). Appeared on Nintendo's Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Sony's PlayStation. Chrono Trigger: Role-playing game (RPG) developed by SquareSoft (now Square Enix) for Nintendo's Super NES. It was relaunched with a few additions for Sony's PlayStation. Toriyama appeared in an alternate ending to the game along with all the other developers; the game is now also available for the Nintendo DS in Japan, North America, and Europe. Tobal No. 1 and Tobal 2: Fighting games for Sony's PlayStation developed by SquareSoft (now Square Enix). Blue Dragon: Role-playing game (RPG) for Microsoft's Xbox 360 developed by Artoon for Mistwalker studio based on a design by Final Fantasy originator Hironobu Sakaguchi. Dragon Ball Online: An MMORPG based on the manga Dragon Ball. He has worked on designs for the game for the last five years. Children's books Toccio the Angel Blue Dragon Toriyama announced that his help with the making of the Blue Dragon anime may very well be his final assistance in anime. In his own words, he said: Blue Dragon began airing on TV Tokyo on April 7, 2007, featuring a different vocal cast than that used for the game. It is scheduled for 51 episodes. On April 16, 2007, Viz Media secured the license for the anime adaptation and was originally set be released in both North America and Europe later on in the year, but that did not happen. The anime premiered in the United States, on Cartoon Network, on March 28, 2008. Notes and references External links Akira Toriyama profile on MobyGames Toriyama'' information at http://www.dbzgtlegacy.com/ Akira Toriyama short bio, interviews, and photo gallery at the Square Haven People Database | Akira_Toriyama |@lemmatized widely:1 know:2 acclaim:1 japanese:2 manga:16 artist:1 mostly:3 creation:1 dragon:27 ball:17 difficult:1 pin:1 point:1 source:1 toriyama:26 artwork:1 inspiration:1 admire:1 osamu:1 tezuka:1 astro:1 boy:7 impress:1 walt:1 disney:1 one:36 hundred:1 dalmatian:1 remember:1 great:1 art:1 jackie:1 chan:1 early:1 movie:2 noticeable:1 influence:1 story:5 biography:1 debut:1 wonder:2 island:3 publish:3 weekly:3 shōnen:6 jump:9 first:1 gain:1 popularity:1 anime:8 series:8 dr:4 slump:4 originally:2 serialize:2 win:1 shogakukan:1 award:1 best:2 shōjo:1 year:7 responsible:1 develop:5 initially:1 become:2 instant:1 accomplishment:1 primarily:1 sell:2 copy:2 japan:5 eventually:1 record:1 breaking:1 seller:1 shonen:2 aside:1 fame:1 equally:1 successful:1 internationally:1 well:4 include:3 europe:3 united:2 state:3 latin:1 america:5 acknowledge:1 major:1 hit:1 work:6 linchpin:1 accept:1 golden:1 age:1 success:1 encourage:1 continue:1 eleven:1 period:1 produce:2 chapter:2 collect:2 volume:3 average:1 page:4 moreover:1 benefit:1 lead:2 three:1 adaptation:3 numerous:1 feature:2 length:1 animated:1 several:1 video:2 game:22 mega:1 merchandising:1 though:1 plan:1 end:3 long:1 time:1 editor:2 agree:1 let:1 could:1 take:1 new:2 step:1 life:2 put:1 reference:2 isbn:1 x:2 third:1 gt:1 base:3 however:1 still:1 involve:1 project:1 supervise:2 production:1 although:1 limited:1 way:1 akira:7 http:2 www:2 myfavoritegames:1 com:2 installment:1 follow:2 spawn:1 episode:2 make:1 license:2 north:4 australia:1 funimation:1 clean:1 line:1 design:7 sense:1 job:1 character:6 phenomenally:1 popular:1 quest:3 role:5 playing:5 formerly:1 call:3 warrior:1 also:2 serve:1 designer:1 super:4 famicom:3 rpg:6 chrono:2 trigger:2 fighting:2 tobal:4 playstation:6 sequel:2 release:3 mistwalker:2 xbox:2 exclusive:1 blue:5 tend:1 short:3 cowa:2 kajika:2 sand:2 land:2 shot:31 like:1 neko:2 majin:2 cross:2 epoch:2 cooperation:1 piece:2 creator:1 eiichiro:1 oda:1 crossover:1 present:1 respectively:1 recently:1 studio:6 begin:2 online:3 bandai:1 namco:1 ntl:1 south:3 korea:2 act:1 direct:1 aspect:1 storyline:1 set:2 location:1 press:2 conference:2 february:1 kazuhiko:1 torishima:1 director:1 shueisha:1 original:1 immerse:1 create:1 provide:1 editorial:1 supervision:1 past:1 five:2 korean:1 report:1 bird:3 play:1 name:2 tori:1 mean:1 almost:1 assistant:1 background:1 active:1 last:2 occasional:1 interview:2 conduct:1 reveal:1 consider:1 occur:1 proceed:1 oct:1 issue:1 select:1 bibliography:1 awawa:1 world:1 unpublished:1 today:1 highlight:1 tomato:1 hetappi:1 tankōbon:14 draw:1 lesson:1 co:1 author:1 sakuma:1 kanzenban:3 escape:1 pola:1 roid:1 pink:1 mad:1 matic:1 chobit:1 confuse:1 late:1 chobits:1 clamp:1 tongpoo:1 theater:3 vol:3 later:2 reassemble:1 special:1 edition:1 mr:1 ho:1 lady:1 red:1 adult:1 gag:1 kennosuke:1 sama:1 sonchoh:1 mamejiro:1 karamaru:1 wolf:1 cashman:3 save:3 soldier:3 dub:1 peter:1 go:2 ackman:1 chotto:1 kaettekita:1 slim:1 tokimecha:1 alien:1 peke:1 bubul:1 tahi:1 mahi:1 bitch:1 illustration:1 kochira:1 katsushika:1 ku:1 kameari:1 kōen:1 mae:1 hashutsujo:1 omake:1 monthly:1 sq:1 masakazu:1 katsura:1 enix:6 square:5 appear:3 nintendo:6 ne:3 color:2 advance:2 sony:4 wii:1 monster:1 squaresoft:2 relaunched:1 addition:1 alternate:1 along:1 developer:1 available:1 microsoft:1 artoon:1 final:2 fantasy:1 originator:1 hironobu:1 sakaguchi:1 mmorpg:1 child:1 book:1 toccio:1 angel:1 announce:1 help:1 making:1 may:1 assistance:1 word:1 say:1 air:1 tv:1 tokyo:1 april:2 different:1 vocal:1 cast:1 use:1 schedule:1 viz:1 medium:1 secure:1 happen:1 premier:1 cartoon:1 network:1 march:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 mobygames:1 information:1 dbzgtlegacy:1 bio:1 photo:1 gallery:1 people:1 database:1 |@bigram osamu_tezuka:1 astro_boy:1 walt_disney:1 jackie_chan:1 shōnen_jump:5 anime_manga:1 shogakukan_manga:1 shōjo_manga:1 akira_toriyama:6 http_www:2 super_famicom:2 chrono_trigger:2 square_enix:4 nintendo_famicom:1 sony_playstation:4 playstation_playstation:1 hironobu_sakaguchi:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 |
1,997 | Orthography | The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific writing system to write the language. (Where more than one writing system is used for a language, for example for Kurdish, there can be more than one orthography.) Orthography is derived from Greek ὀρθός orthós ("correct") and γράφειν gráphein ("to write"). Orthography is distinct from typography. While "orthography" colloquially is often used synonymously with spelling, spelling is only part of orthography. Other elements of the field of orthography are hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks and punctuation. Orthography describes or defines the set of symbols (graphemes and diacritics) used, and the rules about how to write these symbols. Efficiency An orthography may be described as "efficient" if it has one grapheme per phoneme (distinctive speech sound) and vice versa. An orthography may also have varying degrees of efficiency for reading or writing. For example, diverse letter, digraph, and diacritic shapes contribute to diverse word shapes, which aid fluent reading, while heavy use of apostrophes or diacritics makes writing slow, and the use of symbols not found on standard keyboards makes computer or cell phone input awkward. Typology of spelling systems Phonemic orthography A phonemic orthography is an orthography that has a dedicated symbol or sequence of symbols for each phoneme (distinctive speech sound) and vice versa, that is, graphemes and phonemes are bijective functions of one another. Spanish and Italian are very close to being phonemic, and English is among the least phonemic. Morpho-phonemic orthography A morpho-phonemic orthography considers not only what is phonemic, as above, but also the underlying structure of the words. For example, in English, and are distinct phonemes, so in a phonemic orthography the plurals of cat and dog would be cats and dogz. However, English orthography recognizes that the sound in cats and the sound in dogs are the same element (archiphoneme), automatically pronounced differently depending on its environment, and therefore writes them the same despite their differing pronunciation. German and Russian are morpho-phonemic in this sense, whereas Turkish is purely phonemic. Korean hangul has changed over the centuries from a highly phonemic to a largely morpho-phonemic orthography, and there are moves in Turkey to make that script more morpho-phonemic as well. Defectiveness A "defective orthography" is one in which there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes in the language, such as those of English or Arabic. Most languages of western Europe (which are written with the Latin alphabet), as well as the modern Greek language (written with the Greek alphabet), have defective scripts. In some of these, there are sounds with more than one possible spelling, usually for etymological or morpho-phonemic reasons (like in English, which can be written with "j", "g", "dj", "dg", or "ge"). In other cases, the letters in the alphabet are not enough to write all phonemes. The remaining ones must then be represented by using such devices as diacritics, digraphs that reuse letters with different values (like "th" in English, whose sound value is normally not ), or simply inferred from the context (for example the short vowels in abjads like the Arabic and the Hebrew alphabet, which are normally left unwritten). Another term to describe this characteristic is "deep orthography". (Note that the term "defective orthography" should not indicate that the writing system is flawed; some defects, such as the aforementioned absence of short vowels in abjads for Semitic languages, serve the languages better than a supposedly "perfect" orthography would.) Deep orthographies are writing systems that do not have a full correspondence between the spoken phoneme and the written grapheme (as listed above). Shallow orthographies, however, have a one-to-one relationship between graphemes and phonemes. The phonetic writing of Japanese (ex. hiragana) is an example of shallow orthography. Complex orthography Complex orthographies often combine different types of scripts and/or utilize many different complex punctuation rules. Some widely accepted examples of languages with complex orthographies include Thai, Chinese, Japanese, and Khmer. See also English orthography Writing systems: Abugida Alphabet Abjad List of writing systems Logogram Syllabary Writing rules and components: Collation Collating sequence Diacritic Digraph (orthography) Eight Principles of Yong Grapheme Diacritic Digraph (orthography) Glyph Letter (alphabet) Silent letter Ligature (typography) Trigraph (orthography) Letter case and capitalization Upper case Lower case Official script Punctuation Radical (Chinese character) Spelling Spelling reform Stroke order Calligraphy Catherine McBride-Chang Researcher in area of cross-cultural orthographic development Cursive Graphology Keyboard layout Lateral masking Leet Palaeography Penmanship Prescription and description Romanization Typography Writing References Smalley, W.A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems (United Bible Society, London). External links The CODE and the Challenge of Learning to Read It Videos: The History and Impact of Writing in the West Omniglot - writing systems & languages of the world - a privately run orthography website Phonemic awareness page of the CTER wiki lonestar.texas.net/~jebbo/learn-as/ orthography of Old English be-x-old:Правапіс | Orthography |@lemmatized orthography:35 language:10 specify:1 correct:2 way:1 use:7 specific:1 write:19 system:9 one:11 writing:4 example:6 kurdish:1 derive:1 greek:3 ὀρθός:1 orthós:1 γράφειν:1 gráphein:1 distinct:2 typography:3 colloquially:1 often:2 synonymously:1 spelling:3 part:1 element:2 field:1 hyphenation:1 capitalization:2 word:3 break:1 punctuation:3 describe:3 define:1 set:1 symbol:5 grapheme:6 diacritic:6 rule:3 efficiency:2 may:2 efficient:1 per:1 phoneme:8 distinctive:2 speech:2 sound:6 vice:2 versa:2 also:3 vary:1 degree:1 read:2 diverse:2 letter:7 digraph:4 shape:2 contribute:1 aid:1 fluent:1 reading:1 heavy:1 apostrophe:1 make:3 slow:1 find:1 standard:1 keyboard:2 computer:1 cell:1 phone:1 input:1 awkward:1 typology:1 spell:3 phonemic:15 dedicate:1 sequence:2 bijective:1 function:1 another:2 spanish:1 italian:1 close:1 english:8 among:1 least:1 morpho:6 considers:1 underlying:1 structure:1 plural:1 cat:3 dog:2 would:2 dogz:1 however:2 recognize:1 archiphoneme:1 automatically:1 pronounce:1 differently:1 depend:1 environment:1 therefore:1 despite:1 differing:1 pronunciation:1 german:1 russian:1 sense:1 whereas:1 turkish:1 purely:1 korean:1 hangul:1 change:1 century:1 highly:1 largely:1 move:1 turkey:1 script:4 well:2 defectiveness:1 defective:3 correspondence:2 arabic:2 western:1 europe:1 latin:1 alphabet:6 modern:1 possible:1 usually:1 etymological:1 reason:1 like:3 j:1 g:1 dj:1 dg:1 ge:1 case:4 enough:1 remain:1 must:1 represent:1 device:1 reuse:1 different:3 value:2 th:1 whose:1 normally:2 simply:1 infer:1 context:1 short:2 vowel:2 abjads:2 hebrew:1 left:1 unwritten:1 term:2 characteristic:1 deep:2 note:1 indicate:1 flaw:1 defect:1 aforementioned:1 absence:1 semitic:1 serve:1 good:1 supposedly:1 perfect:1 full:1 spoken:1 list:2 shallow:2 relationship:1 phonetic:1 japanese:2 ex:1 hiragana:1 complex:4 combine:1 type:1 utilize:1 many:1 widely:1 accept:1 include:1 thai:1 chinese:2 khmer:1 see:1 abugida:1 abjad:1 logogram:1 syllabary:1 component:1 collation:1 collate:1 eight:1 principle:1 yong:1 glyph:1 silent:1 ligature:1 trigraph:1 upper:1 lower:1 official:1 radical:1 character:1 reform:1 stroke:1 order:1 calligraphy:1 catherine:1 mcbride:1 chang:1 researcher:1 area:1 cross:1 cultural:1 orthographic:1 development:1 cursive:1 graphology:1 layout:1 lateral:1 mask:1 leet:1 palaeography:1 penmanship:1 prescription:1 description:1 romanization:1 reference:1 smalley:1 w:1 ed:1 study:1 article:1 new:1 united:1 bible:1 society:1 london:1 external:1 link:1 code:1 challenge:1 learn:2 videos:1 history:1 impact:1 west:1 omniglot:1 world:1 privately:1 run:1 website:1 awareness:1 page:1 cter:1 wiki:1 lonestar:1 texas:1 net:1 jebbo:1 old:2 x:1 правапіс:1 |@bigram vice_versa:2 phonemic_orthography:6 grapheme_phoneme:2 morpho_phonemic:6 shallow_orthography:2 keyboard_layout:1 external_link:1 |
1,998 | Canadian_whisky | A bottle of aged Canadian whisky Canadian whisky is whisky that by law must be mashed, distilled and aged at least three years in Canada in a wooden barrel of not greater than 700 L capacity. "Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870) - Canadian Whisky, Canadian Rye Whisky or Rye Whisky (B.02.020.)" "Canadian Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870) - Definitions (B.02.002.)" Overview Most Canadians are blended multi-grain liquors containing a large percentage of rye, typiclly lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. While the use of rye is not dictated by law they are often generically referred to and may legally be labelled as "rye whisky" in Canada. Alternatively, the U.S. definition of "rye whisky" prevents low rye content whiskies from being labeled "rye" in the U.S.. Since the U.S. definition does not have an aging requirement, younger U.S. versions, even those qualifying as "straight rye" in the US, may not legally be labelled "rye whisky" in Canada unless they meet Canadian ageing standards. Canadian whisky featured prominently in rum-running into the U.S. during Prohibition. Hiram Walker's distillery in Windsor, Ontario, directly across the Detroit River from Detroit, Michigan, easily served bootleggers using small, fast smuggling boats. Other whiskies made in Canada, such as "single malt" and "Quebec Maple", do not fall under the traditional umbrella of "Canadian whisky". Popular Brands Popular Canadian whiskies include: Wiser's Crown Royal Canadian Club Seagrams VO Other Canadian produced whiskies While not Canadian whiskies in the usual sense, a few small batch distillers in Canada produce their own distinctive liquors. Among them: Glen Breton Rare single malt Since 1991, Glenora Distillers, an independent distillery in Glenville, Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, has been producing unblended malt whisky in the Scottish style. Their product, Glen Breton Rare, was the only single malt whisky produced in Canada, and the oldest of the few produced in the Americas. Quebec maple In Quebec, Maison des Futailles produces two so-called maple whiskies. The first one, Fine Sève, is made from the distillation of maple wine (which is then aged in oak barrels, giving it a distinctive taste). The second, Sortilège, is a mix of Canadian rye whisky and maple syrup http://www.futailles.com/engl/2_4/index.html . While these two products are not whiskies per se, they have often been described as such. Examples Various Canadian whiskies Forty Creek Canadian Club (The only North American distiller to have been granted a Royal Warrant (now withdrawn)) Glen Breton Rare (single malt) Alberta Premium (100% Rye) Crown Royal Black Velvet Wiser's whisky See also List of whisky brands Bourbon whiskey Corn whiskey Irish whiskey Moonshine Rye whiskey Scotch whisky Tennessee whiskey Welsh whisky Whisky References External links Forty Creek Whisky Glenora Distillery Nova Scotia Whisky Society Best of Whisky - Whisky Industry News | Canadian_whisky |@lemmatized bottle:1 aged:1 canadian:17 whisky:32 law:2 must:1 mash:1 distil:1 age:2 least:1 three:1 year:1 canada:6 wooden:1 barrel:2 great:1 l:1 capacity:1 food:2 drug:2 regulation:2 c:6 r:2 rye:13 b:2 definition:3 overview:1 blend:1 multi:1 grain:1 liquor:2 contain:1 large:1 percentage:1 typiclly:1 light:1 smooth:1 style:2 use:2 dictate:1 often:2 generically:1 refer:1 may:2 legally:2 label:3 alternatively:1 u:6 prevents:1 low:1 content:1 since:2 aging:1 requirement:1 young:1 version:1 even:1 qualify:1 straight:1 unless:1 meet:1 ageing:1 standard:1 feature:1 prominently:1 rum:1 run:1 prohibition:1 hiram:1 walker:1 distillery:3 windsor:1 ontario:1 directly:1 across:1 detroit:2 river:1 michigan:1 easily:1 serve:1 bootlegger:1 small:2 fast:1 smuggling:1 boat:1 make:2 single:4 malt:5 quebec:3 maple:5 fall:1 traditional:1 umbrella:1 popular:2 brand:2 include:1 wiser:2 crown:2 royal:3 club:2 seagrams:1 vo:1 produce:6 usual:1 sense:1 batch:1 distiller:3 distinctive:2 among:1 glen:3 breton:4 rare:3 glenora:2 independent:1 glenville:1 nova:2 scotia:2 cape:1 island:1 unblended:1 scottish:1 product:2 old:1 america:1 maison:1 de:1 futailles:2 two:2 call:1 first:1 one:1 fine:1 sève:1 distillation:1 wine:1 oak:1 give:1 taste:1 second:1 sortilège:1 mix:1 syrup:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 engl:1 index:1 html:1 per:1 se:1 describe:1 example:1 various:1 forty:2 creek:2 north:1 american:1 grant:1 warrant:1 withdraw:1 alberta:1 premium:1 black:1 velvet:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 bourbon:1 whiskey:5 corn:1 irish:1 moonshine:1 scotch:1 tennessee:1 welsh:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 society:1 best:1 industry:1 news:1 |@bigram rye_whisky:6 windsor_ontario:1 nova_scotia:2 cape_breton:1 malt_whisky:2 maple_syrup:1 http_www:1 per_se:1 bourbon_whiskey:1 scotch_whisky:1 external_link:1 |
1,999 | The_Plague | The Plague (Fr. La Peste) is a novel by Albert Camus, published in 1947, that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labour as the Algerian city of Oran is swept by a plague epidemic. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace. The novel is believed to be based on the cholera epidemic that killed a large percentage of Oran's population in 1849 following French colonization, but the novel is placed in the 1940s. Oran and its environs were struck by disease multiple times before Camus published this novel. According to a research report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oran was decimated by the plague in 1556 and 1678, but outbreaks after European colonization, in 1921 (185 cases), 1931 (76 cases), and 1944 (95 cases), were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel. The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, where individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings, the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition. Camus included a dim-witted character misreading The Trial as a mystery novel as an oblique homage. The novel has been read as a metaphorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II. Although Camus's approach in the book is severe, his narrator emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. The Plague represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the Absurd, a theory which Camus himself helped to define. Plot summary The text of The Plague is divided into two parts. Part one In the town of Oran, thousands of rats, initially going unnoticed by the populace, began to die in the streets. A hysteria develops soon after, causing the local newspapers to report the incident. Authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats, unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague. The main character, Dr. Rieux, lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the building's concierge, M. Michel, a confidante, dies from a fever. Dr. Rieux consults his colleague, Castel, about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town. They both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory, but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death. However, as more and more deaths quickly ensue, it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic. Authorities are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take. Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation. A "special ward" is opened at the hospital, but its 80 beds are filled within three days. As the death toll begins to rise, more desperate measures are taken. Homes are quarantined, corpses and burials are strictly supervised. A supply of plague serum finally arrives, but there is only enough to treat existing cases and the country's emergency reserves are depleted. When the daily number of deaths jumps to 30, the town is sealed and an outbreak of plague is officially declared. Part two The town is sealed off. The town gates are shut, rail travel is prohibited, and all mail service is suspended. The use of telephone lines is restricted only to "urgent" calls, leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town. The separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople, who begin to feel isolated and introverted, and the plague begins to affect various characters. One character, Raymond Rambert, devises a plan to escape the city to join his lover in Paris after city officials refused his request to leave. He befriends some criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city. Another character, Father Paneloux, uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of God for the citizens' sinful nature. His diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town, who turned to religion in droves and who would not have done so in normal circumstances. Cottard, a criminal fearful of being arrested, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Dr. Rieux, a vacationer Jean Tarrou, and a civil servant Joseph Grand exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital. Rambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan, but when Tarrou tells him that others in the city, including Dr. Rieux, also have loved ones outside the city that they are not allowed to see, Rambert becomes sympathetic and changes his mind. He then decides to join Tarrou and Dr. Rieux to help fight the epidemic. At the peak of the plague's destruction, the townspeople eventually give up on their personal concerns and band together to help each other. When a child dies from the plague, Dr. Rieux criticizes Father Paneloux's first sermon about God's vengeance for sinful behaviour, citing the innocence of children. This inspires Father Paneloux to deliver a second sermon, however not to directly address the innocence, but to suggest that death was, in Paneloux's opinion, an expression of God's will. Therefore, the child's death is a "test" for Christians who have to choose between following God wholly or not at all. Paneloux also implies that all those who died from the plague were sinful. Eventually Paneloux too is stricken with illness. When the plague ends, the townspeople return to their daily routine becoming self-absorbed and ignorant again. Rambert reunites with his wife; Cottard, not being able to make a living outside of the plague, is captured by the police; Tarrou dies just before the plague ends. Dr. Rieux learns that his wife died from illness though she was outside the city. In the final scene he stands watching the fireworks of celebration, leaving a reminder that the plague is not dead, merely subdued. Characters in "The Plague" The Narrator: presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents, but does not identify himself with any character until the ending of the novel. Dr. Bernard Rieux: The principal character of the novel, though not a traditional protagonist. He describes himself as tired of the world, but is actively involved in events as a medical professional. He is among the first to notice the dying rats and human cases of the disease. Jean Tarrou: A recent visitor to Oran, apparently independently wealthy. His diary notebooks provide an additional perspective on unfolding events, recording things seen and overheard accompanied by commentary that is often cryptic. Joseph Grand: A municipal clerk of 22 years, passed over for promotion or adequate raise. As a result of his inadequate means, he lives in a sparingly furnished apartment. He has difficulty asserting himself and is uncomfortable communicating with others, yet aspires to write a book. He is a neighbor of M. Cottard. M. Cottard: Introduced in the novel just following his attempted suicide, from which he is saved by his neighbor J. Grand. He is eager to socialize, but has few friends. He undergoes major changes throughout the novel. Dr. Castel: An older colleague of Dr. Rieux. His personal experiences with bubonic plague outbreaks in China and Paris enable him to be the first to recognize the symptoms of the disease and give it a name. Dr. Richard: A more cautious and methodical doctor. He is unwilling to take action to curtail spread of the disease without definitive proof that it is in fact plague. Father Paneloux: A Jesuit priest, whom Camus uses to represent the shortcomings of zealous Christian morality. He dies of the plague. M. Othon: Police magistrate. He has a wife and two children. Raymond Rambert: A journalist who, after finding himself isolated within Oran after the plague strikes, embarks upon several escapades with smugglers in an attempt to escape and reunite with his spouse. Following his failure to escape he assists Dr. Rieux in care of plague victims and later joins his wife after being released from quarantine. Allusions/references to other works In the first part of The Plague, Rieux overhears a conversation concerning an Algerian man being shot to death on a beach. This is in all probability a reference to the plot of Camus's earlier novel The Stranger. 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