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2,100 | Automorphism | In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the automorphism group. It is, loosely speaking, the symmetry group of the object. Definition The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of "mathematical object" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an "isomorphism" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called category theory. Category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects. In category theory, an automorphism is an endomorphism (i.e. a morphism from an object to itself) which is also an isomorphism (in the categorical sense of the word). This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren't necessarily functions and objects aren't necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure. In the context of abstract algebra, for example, a mathematical object is an algebraic structure such as a group, ring, or vector space. An isomorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism. (Of course, the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example: group homomorphism, ring homomorphism, and linear operator). The identity morphism (identity mapping) is called the trivial automorphism in some contexts. Respectively, other (non-identity) automorphisms are called nontrivial automorphisms. Automorphism group If the automorphisms of an object X form a set (instead of a proper class), then they form a group under composition of morphisms. This group is called the automorphism group of X. That this is indeed a group is simple to see: Closure: composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism. Associativity: composition of morphisms is always associative. Identity: the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which exists by definition. Inverses: by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism. The automorphism group of an object X in a category C is denoted AutC(X), or simply Aut(X) if the category is clear from context. Examples In set theory, an automorphism of a set X is an arbitrary permutation of the elements of X. The automorphism group of X is also called the symmetric group on X. In elementary arithmetic, the set of integers, Z, considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a ring, however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any abelian group, but not of a ring or field. A group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group G there is a natural group homomorphism G → Aut(G) whose image is the group Inn(G) of inner automorphisms and whose kernel is the center of G. Thus, if G has trivial center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group. In linear algebra, an endomorphism of a vector space V is a linear operator V → V. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on V. When the vector space is finite-dimensional, the automorphism group of V is the same as the general linear group, GL(V). A field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself. In the cases of the rational numbers (Q) and the real numbers (R) there are no nontrivial field automorphisms. In the case of the complex numbers, C, there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends R into R: complex conjugation, but there are infinitely (uncountably) many "wild" automorphisms (assuming the axiom of choice). Field automorphisms are important to the theory of field extensions, in particular Galois extensions. In the case of a Galois extension L/K the subgroup of all automorphisms of L fixing K pointwise is called the Galois group of the extension. In graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation. For relations, see relation-preserving automorphism. In order theory, see order automorphism. In topology, morphisms between topological spaces are called continuous maps, and an automorphism of a topological space is a homeomorphism of the space to itself, or self-homeomorphism (see homeomorphism group). In this example it is not sufficient for a morphism to be bijective in order to be an isomorphism. An automorphism of a differentiable manifold M is a diffeomorphism from M to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(M). In Riemannian geometry an automorphism is a self-isometry. The automorphism group is also called the isometry group. In the category of Riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a bijective biholomorphic map (also called a conformal map), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the Riemann sphere are Möbius transformations. History One of the earliest group automorphisms (automorphism of a group, not simply a group of automorphisms of points) was given by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in 1856, in his Icosian Calculus, where he discovered an order two automorphism, writing: Inner and outer automorphisms In some categories—notably groups, rings, and Lie algebras—it is possible to separate automorphisms into two types, called "inner" and "outer" automorphisms. In the case of groups, the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element a of a group G, conjugation by a is the operation φa : G → G given by φa(g) = aga−1 (or a−1ga; usage varies). One can easily check that conjugation by a is a group automorphism. The inner automorphisms form a normal subgroup of Aut(G), denoted by Inn(G); this is called Goursat's lemma. The other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms. The quotient group Aut(G) / Inn(G) is usually denoted by Out(G); the non-trivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms. The same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element. For Lie algebras the definition is slightly different. See also endomorphism ring antiautomorphism Frobenius automorphism References External links | Automorphism |@lemmatized mathematics:2 automorphism:33 isomorphism:8 mathematical:3 object:17 sense:2 symmetry:2 way:1 map:4 preserve:3 structure:6 set:7 automorphisms:20 form:4 group:39 call:13 loosely:1 speak:2 definition:8 exact:1 depend:2 type:3 question:1 precisely:1 constitute:1 general:2 setting:2 word:2 meaning:1 abstract:4 branch:1 category:8 theory:8 deal:1 morphisms:6 endomorphism:5 e:1 morphism:4 also:7 categorical:1 since:2 necessarily:2 function:2 concrete:1 however:2 additional:1 context:3 algebra:3 example:5 algebraic:2 ring:8 vector:3 space:6 simply:3 bijective:4 homomorphism:6 course:1 see:6 linear:5 operator:3 identity:6 mapping:1 trivial:4 respectively:1 non:3 nontrivial:4 x:9 instead:1 proper:1 class:1 composition:3 indeed:1 simple:1 closure:1 two:4 endomorphisms:1 another:1 associativity:1 always:1 associative:1 exist:1 inverse:3 every:2 c:2 denote:4 autc:1 aut:4 clear:1 arbitrary:1 permutation:4 element:6 symmetric:1 elementary:1 arithmetic:1 integer:1 z:1 consider:2 addition:1 unique:2 negation:2 generally:1 abelian:1 field:6 informally:1 remain:1 unchanged:1 g:15 natural:1 whose:2 image:2 inn:3 inner:5 kernel:1 center:2 thus:1 embed:1 v:6 invertible:2 finite:1 dimensional:1 gl:1 case:4 rational:1 number:3 q:1 real:1 r:3 complex:2 send:1 conjugation:4 infinitely:1 uncountably:1 many:1 wild:1 assume:1 axiom:1 choice:1 important:1 extension:4 particular:2 galois:3 l:2 k:2 subgroup:2 fix:1 pointwise:1 graph:2 node:2 edge:3 join:1 relation:2 preserving:1 order:4 topology:1 topological:2 continuous:1 homeomorphism:3 self:2 sufficient:1 differentiable:1 manifold:1 diffeomorphism:1 sometimes:1 diff:1 riemannian:1 geometry:1 isometry:2 riemann:2 surface:2 biholomorphic:1 conformal:1 sphere:1 möbius:1 transformation:1 history:1 one:2 early:1 point:1 give:2 irish:1 mathematician:1 william:1 rowan:1 hamilton:1 icosian:1 calculus:1 discover:1 writing:1 outer:4 notably:1 lie:2 algebras:2 possible:1 separate:1 operation:1 φa:2 aga:1 usage:1 varies:1 easily:1 check:1 normal:1 goursat:1 lemma:1 quotient:1 usually:1 cosets:1 contain:1 hold:1 unital:1 slightly:1 different:1 antiautomorphism:1 frobenius:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 automorphisms_automorphism:2 composition_morphisms:2 inner_automorphisms:3 finite_dimensional:1 axiom_choice:1 galois_extension:2 topological_space:2 differentiable_manifold:1 riemannian_geometry:1 william_rowan:1 rowan_hamilton:1 outer_automorphisms:4 lie_algebras:2 normal_subgroup:1 endomorphism_ring:1 external_link:1 |
2,101 | Cinema_of_Germany | Cinema in Germany can be traced back to the very beginnings of the medium at the end of the 19th century. German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. 52 German films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. Before 1918 - Cinema pioneers The history of cinema in Germany can be traced back to the year of the medium's birth. On November 1, 1895 Max Skladanowsky and his brother Emil demonstrated their self-invented film projector the Bioskop at the Wintergarten music hall in Berlin. This performance pre-dated the first paying public display of the Lumière brothers' Cinematographe in Paris on December 28 of the same year, a performance that Max Skladanowsky attended and at which he was able to ascertain that the Cinematographe was technically superior to his Bioskop. Other German film pioneers included the Berliners Oskar Messter and Max Gliewe, two of several individuals who independently in 1896 first used a Geneva drive (which allows the film to be advanced intermittently one frame at a time) in a projector, and the cinematographer Guido Seeber. In its earliest days, the cinematograph was perceived as an attraction for upper class audiences, but the novelty of moving pictures did not last long. Soon, trivial short films were being shown as fairground attractions aimed at the working and lower-middle class. The booths in which these films were shown were known in Germany somewhat disparagingly as Kintopps. Film-makers with an artistic bent attempted to counter this view of cinema with longer movies based on literary models, and the first German "artistic" films began to be produced from around 1910, an example being the Edgar Allan Poe adaptation The Student of Prague (1913) which was co-directed by Paul Wegener and Stellan Rye, photographed by Guido Seeber and starring actors from Max Reinhardt's company. Prior to 1914, however, many foreign films were imported. In the era of the silent film there were no language boundaries and Danish and Italian films were particularly popular in Germany. The public's desire to see more films with particular actors led to the development in Germany, as elsewhere, of the phenomenon of the film star; the actress Henny Porten was one of the earliest German stars. Public desire to see popular film stories being continued encouraged the production of film serials, especially in the genre of mystery films, which is where the director Fritz Lang began his illustrious career. The outbreak of World War I and the subsequent boycott of, for example, French films left a noticeable gap in the market. By 1916, there already existed some 2000 fixed venues for movie performances and initially film screenings had to supplemented or even replaced by variety turns. In 1917 a process of concentration and partial nationalisation of the German film industry began with the founding of Universum Film AG (Ufa), which was partly a reaction to the very effective use that the Allied Powers had found for the new medium for the purpose of propaganda. Under the aegis of the military, so-called Vaterland films were produced, which equalled the Allies' films in the matter of propaganda and disparagement of the enemy. Audiences however did not care to swallow the patriotic medicine without the accompanying sugar of the light-entertainment films which, consequently, Ufa also promoted. The German film industry soon became the largest in Europe. 1918-1933 - Film in the Weimar Republic In the period immediately following World War I, the film industry boomed, helped by the 1920s German inflation. This enabled film makers to borrow money in Papiermark which would be vastly devalued by the time it had to be repaid. Nevertheless film budgets were tight and the need to save money was a contributing factor to the rise of German Expressionism, as was the desire to move forward and embrace the future that swept most of Europe at the time. Expressionist movies relied heavily on symbolism and artistic imagery rather than stark realism to tell their stories. Given the grim mood in post-WWI Germany, it was not surprising that these films focused heavily on crime and horror. The film usually credited with sparking the popularity of expressionism is Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). It painted a picture on the cinema screen with non-realistic sets built with exaggerated geometry, images painted on the floors and walls to represent objects (and often light and shadow), and a story involving the dark hallucinations of an insane man. An exaggerated acting style and unnatural costume design are other trademarks of this movement. Other notable works of Expressionism are Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau's Nosferatu (1922), and Carl Boese and Paul Wegener's The Golem: How He Came Into the World (1920). The Expressionist movement died down during the mid-1920s, but it continued to influence world cinema for years afterward. Its influence is particular noticeable in American horror films and film noir, and the works of European directors as diverse as Jean Cocteau and Ingmar Bergman. Ufa had been privatised in 1921 by a sale of the state's holdings to the Deutsche Bank and had become the mainstay of an industry that produced up to 600 feature films a year in the 1920s. In addition to Ufa, there were some 230 film companies in business in Berlin alone at this time. However, film industry financing was a fragile business in the unstable economy of the Weimar Republic, and this, coupled with the industry's tendency to overreach itself financially (such as in the production of Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927), perhaps the most famous German film of this period), frequently led to bankruptcies and financial ruin. Ufa itself was forced to go into a disadvantageous partnership called Parufamet with the American studios Paramount and MGM in 1925 before being taken over by the nationalist industrialist and newspaper owner Alfred Hugenberg in 1927. The company's financial travails did not prevent it from producing numerous significant films throughout this period, among them, Ernst Lubitsch's Madame Dubary (1919), Lang's epic production of Die Nibelungen, and Murnau's The Last Laugh (1925), and the development of the studios at Babelsberg, originally established in 1912 but later taken over by Ufa and expanded massively to accommodate the filming of Metropolis, gave the German film industry a highly-developed infrastructure. In addition to developments in the industry itself, the Weimar period saw the birth of film criticism as a serious discipline whose practitioners included Rudolf Arnheim in Die Weltbühne and in Film als Kunst (1932), Béla Balázs in Der Sichtbare Mensch (1924), Siegfried Kracauer in the Frankfurter Zeitung, and Lotte H. Eisner in the Filmkurier. After the influence of Expressionism began to wane a variety of other genres and styles developed in the 1920s. Movies influenced by New Objectivity with socially concerned themes and a return to realism, among them films by Georg Wilhelm Pabst such as Joyless Street (Die Freudlose Gasse) (1925), Pandora's Box (1929), and The Loves of Gene became widespread in the later 1920s. The movement is best characterized by tendency to understand reality and characters in terms of inanimate objects and personal possessions. Often associated with "street films." The influence of New Objectivity may also be seen in the trend towards so-called "asphalt" and "morality" films which dealt with "scandalous" subjects like abortion, prostitution, homosexuality and addiction. Contrastingly, in the same period the genre of the Bergfilm was also developed, mainly by the director Arnold Fanck, in which individuals were shown battling against nature in the mountains. Animators and directors of experimental film such as Lotte Reiniger, Oskar Fischinger and Walter Ruttmann were also very active in Germany in the 1920s. Ruttman's experimental documentary Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Großstadt (1927) epitomises the energy of 1920s Berlin. The polarised politics of the Weimar period were also reflected in some its movies. A series of patriotic films on Prussian history starring Otto Gebühr as Frederick the Great were produced throughout the 1920s and were popular with the nationalist right-wing, who strongly criticised the "asphalt" films' "decadence". Many of the films during that came out of Germany at this time were historical spectacles designed to pull in a large crowd and international release all while adhering to a smaller budget. Ernst Lubitsch's Madame Duberry explored the French revolution through window of the intimate life of King Louis' mistress. Many of his films tended to how the intimate and petty passions of the rich and powerful are ironically responsible for huge historical events in the public realm. The fourth key artistic movement of German cinema at this time was that of Kammerspiel or "chamber drama." Associated in particular with the screenwriter Carl Meyer and films such as Murnau's Last Laugh, this movement was in many ways a reaction against spectacle and expressionism. These films tended to revolve around ordinary people living in often dreary, ordinary settings. Often called "instinct" films because they emphasized the impulses and intimate psychology of the characters. The number of sets was often kept to a small number as well. This movement also relied heavily on the use of camera movements to explore the rather intimate and simple spaces. The arrival of sound at the very end of the 1920s produced a final artistic flourish of German film before the collapse of the Weimar Republic in 1933. Sound production and distribution were quickly taken up by the German film industry and by 1932 Germany had 3,800 cinemas equipped to play sound films. Der blaue Engel (1930) by the Austrian director Josef von Sternberg was Germany's first talkie (shot simultaneously in German and English) and made an international star of Marlene Dietrich. Other early sound films of note include Berlin Alexanderplatz, Pabst's Bertolt Brecht adaptation The Threepenny Opera and Lang's M (all 1931). Brecht was also one of the creators of the explicitly communist film Kuhle Wampe (1932), which was banned soon after its release. Aside from the major movements already addressed, German filmmakers at this time were known as innovators for their creative usage of Mise-en-scene and camera movement. See also List of German films 1919-1933 1933-1945 - Film in Nazi Germany See also Nazism and cinema and List of German films 1933-1945 The uncertain economic and political situation in Weimar Germany had already led to a number of film-makers and performers leaving the country, primarily for the United States; Ernst Lubitsch moved to Hollywood as early as 1923, the Hungarian-born Michael Curtiz in 1926. Some 1,500 directors, producers, actors and other film professionals emigrated in the years after the Nazis came to power. Among them were such key figures as the producer Erich Pommer, the studio head of Ufa, stars Marlene Dietrich and Peter Lorre, and director Fritz Lang. Lang's exodus to America is legendary; it is said that Metropolis so greatly impressed Joseph Goebbels that he asked Lang to become the head of his propaganda film unit. Lang fled to America instead, where he had a long and prosperous career. Many up-and-coming German directors also fled to the U.S., having a major influence on American film as a result. A number of the Universal Horror films of the 1930s were directed by German emigrees, including Karl Freund, Joe May and Robert Siodmak. Directors Edgar Ulmer and Douglas Sirk and the Austrian-born screenwriter (and later director) Billy Wilder also emigrated from Nazi Germany to Hollywood success. Not all those in the film industry threatened by the Nazi regime were able to escape; the actor and director Kurt Gerron, for example, perished in a concentration camp. Within weeks of the Machtergreifung, Alfred Hugenberg had effectively turned over Ufa to the ends of the Nazis, excluding Jews from employment in the company in March 1933, several months before the foundation in June of the Reichsfilmkammer (Reich Chamber of Film), the body of the Nazi state charged with control of the film industry, which marked the official exclusion of Jews and foreigners from employment in the German film industry. As part of the process of Gleichschaltung all film production in Germany was subordinate to the Reichsfilmkammer, which was directly responsible to Goebbel's Propaganda ministry, and all those employed in the industry had to be members of the Reichsfachschaft Film. "Non-Aryan" film professionals and those whose politics or personal life were unacceptable to the Nazis were excluded from the Reichsfachschaft and thus denied employment in the industry. Some 3,000 individuals were affected by this employment ban. In addition, as journalists were also organised as a division of the Propaganda Ministry, Goebbels was able to abolish film criticism in 1936 and replace it with Filmbeobachtung (film observation); journalists could only report on the content of a film, not offer judgement on its artistic or other worth. With the German film industry now effectively an arm of the totalitarian state, no films could be made that were not ostensibly in accord with the views of the ruling regime. However, despite the existence of anti-semitic propaganda works such as The Eternal Jew (1940) - which was a box-office flop - and the more sophisticated but equally anti-semitic Jud Süß (1940), which achieved commercial success at home and elsewhere in Europe, the majority of German films from the National Socialist period were intended principally as works of entertainment. The import of foreign films was legally restricted after 1936 and the German industry, which was effectively nationalised in 1937, had to make up for the missing foreign films (above all American productions). Entertainment also became increasingly important in the later years of World War II when the cinema provided a distraction from Allied bombing and a string of German defeats. In both 1943 and 1944 cinema admissions in Germany exceeded a billion, Kinobesuche in Deutschland 1925 bis 2004 Spitzenorganisation der Filmwirtschaft e. V and the biggest box office hits of the war years were Die große Liebe (1942) and Wunschkonzert (1941), which both combine elements of the musical, wartime romance and patriotic propaganda, Frauen sind doch bessere Diplomaten (1941), a comic musical which was one of the earliest German films in colour, and Wiener Blut (1942), the adaptation of a Johann Strauß comic operetta. The importance of the cinema as a tool of the state, both for its propaganda value and its ability to keep the populace entertained, can be seen in the filming history of Veit Harlan's Kolberg (1945), the most expensive film of the Nazi era, for the shooting of which tens of thousands of soldiers were diverted from their military positions to appear as extras. Despite the emigration of many film-makers and the political restrictions, the period was not without technical and aesthetic innovations, the introduction of Agfacolor film production being a notable example. Technical and aesthetic achievement could also be turned to the specific ends of the Nazi state, most spectacularly in the work of Leni Riefenstahl. Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935), documenting the 1934 Nuremberg Rally, and Olympia (1938), documenting the 1936 Summer Olympics, pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that have influenced many later films. Both films, particularly Triumph of the Will, remain highly controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandising of Nazi ideals. Post-war reconstruction The occupation and reconstruction of Germany by the Four Powers in the period immediately after the end of World War II brought a major and long-lasting change to the economic conditions under which the industry in Germany had previously operated. The holdings of Ufa were confiscated by the Allies and, as part of the process of decartelisation, licences to produce films were shared between a range of much smaller companies. In addition, the Occupation Statute of 1949, which granted partial independence to the newly created Federal Republic of Germany, specifically forbade the imposition of import quotas to protect German film production from foreign competition, the result of lobbying by the American industry as represented by the MPAA. Amidst the devastation of the Stunde Null year of 1945 cinema attendance was unsurprisingly down to a fraction of its wartime heights, but already by the end of the decade it had reached levels that exceeded the pre-war period. For the first time in many years, German audiences had free access to cinema from around the world and in this period the films of Charlie Chaplin remained popular, as were melodramas from the United States. Nonetheless, the share of the film market for German films in this period and into the 1950s remained relatively large, taking up some 40 percent of the total market. American films took up around 30 percent of the market despite having around twice as many films in distribution as the German industry in the same time frame (Schneider 1990:35, 42 & 44). Many of the German films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as belonging to the genre of the Trümmerfilm (literally "rubble film"). These films show strong affinities with the work of Italian neorealists, not least Roberto Rossellini's neorealist trilogy which included Germany Year Zero (1948), and are concerned primarily with day-to-day life in the devastated Germany and an initial reaction to the events of the Nazi period (the full horror of which was first experienced by many in documentary footage from liberated concentration camps). Such films include Wolfgang Staudte's Die Mörder sind unter uns (The Murderers are among us) (1946), the first film made in post-war Germany, and Wolfgang Liebeneiner's Liebe 47 (Love 47) (1949), an adaptation of Wolfgang Borchert's play Draußen vor der Tür. Post-war German cinema The 1950s Despite the advent of a regular television service in the Federal Republic in 1952, cinema attendances continued to grow through much of the 1950s, reaching a peak of 817.5 million visits in 1956. The majority of the films of this period set out to do no more than entertain the audience and had few pretensions to artistry or active engagement with social issues. The defining genre of the period was arguably the Heimatfilm ("homeland film"), in which morally simplistic tales of love and family were played out in a rural setting, often in the mountains of Bavaria, Austria or Switzerland. In their day Heimatfilms were of little interest to more scholarly film critics, but in recent years they have been the subject of study in relation to what they say about the culture of West Germany in the years of the Wirtschaftswunder. Other film genres typical of this period were adaptations of operettas, hospital melodramas, comedies and musicals. Many films were remakes of earlier Ufa productions shorn of the nationalistic Blut und Boden traits of those Nazi-period films. Rearmament and the founding of the Bundeswehr in 1955 brought with it a wave of war films which tended to depict the ordinary German soldiers of World War II as brave and apolitical. This period also saw a number of films that depicted the military resistance to Hitler. The international significance of the West German film industry of the 1950s could no longer measure up to that of France, Italy, or Japan. German films were only rarely distributed internationally as they were perceived as provincial. International co-productions of the kind which were becoming common in France and Italy tended to be rejected by German producers (Schneider 1990:43). However a few German films and film-makers did achieve international recognition at this time, among them Bernhard Wicki's Oscar-nominated Die Brücke (The Bridge) (1959), and the actresses Hildegard Knef and Romy Schneider. The 1960s: Cinema in crisis In the late 1950s, the growth in cinema attendance of the preceding decade first stagnated and then went into freefall throughout the 1960s. By 1969 West German cinema attendance at 172.2 million visits per year was less than a quarter of its 1956 post-war peak. As a consequence of this, numerous German production and distribution companies went out of business in the 1950s and 1960s and cinemas across the Federal Republic closed their doors; the number of screens in West Germany almost halved between the beginning and the end of the decade. Initially, the crisis was perceived as a problem of overproduction. Consequently, the German film industry cut back on production. 123 German movies were produced in 1955, only 65 in 1965. However, the roots of the problem lay deeper in changing economic and social circumstances. Average incomes in the Federal Republic rose sharply and this opened up alternative leisure activities to compete with cinema-going. At this time too, television was developing into a mass medium that could compete with the cinema. In 1953 there were only 10,000 sets in West Germany; by 1962 there were 7 million (Scheider 1990:49) (Hoffman 1990:69). The majority of films produced in the Federal Republic in the 1960s were genre works: westerns, especially the series of movies adapted from Karl May's popular genre novels which starred Pierre Brice as the Apache Winnetou and Lex Barker as his white blood brother Old Shatterhand; thrillers and crime films, notably a series of Edgar Wallace movies in which Klaus Kinski, Heinz Drache, Wolfgang Völz, and Joachim Fuchsberger were among the regular players; and softcore sex films, both the relatively serious Aufklärungsfilme (sex education films) of Oswalt Kolle and such exploitation films as Schulmädchen-Report (Schoolgirl Report) (1970) and its successors. Such movies were commercially successful and often enjoyed international distribution, but won little acclaim from critics. New German Cinema As a reaction to the artistic and economic stagnation of German cinema, a group of young film-makers issued the Oberhausen Manifesto on February 28, 1962. This call to arms, which included Alexander Kluge, Edgar Reitz, Peter Schamoni and Franz Josef Spieker among its signatories, provocatively declared "Der alte Film ist tot. Wir glauben an den neuen" ("The old cinema is dead. We believe in the new cinema"). Other up-and-coming filmmakers allied themselves to this Oberhausen group, among them Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Jean-Marie Straub, Wim Wenders and Hans-Jürgen Syberberg in their rejection of the existing German film industry and their determination to build a new industry founded on artistic excellence rather than commercial dictates. Despite the foundation of the Kuratorium Junger Deutscher Film (Young German Film Committee) in 1965, set up under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of the Interior to support new German films financially, the directors of this New German Cinema, who rejected co-operation with the existing film industry, were consequently often dependent on money from television. Young filmmakers had the opportunity to test their mettle in such programmes as the stand-alone drama and documentary series Das kleine Fernsehspiel (The Little TV Play) or the television films of the crime series Tatort. However, the broadcasters sought TV premieres for the films which they had supported financially, with theatrical showings only occurring later. As a consequence, such films tended to be unsuccessful at the box office. This situation changed after 1974 when the Film-Fernseh-Abkommen (Film and Television Accord) was agreed between the Federal Republic's main broadcasters, ARD and ZDF, and the German Federal Film Board (a government body created in 1968 to support film-making in Germany). Information on the Filmförderungsanstalt (FFA) - German Federal Film Board This accord, which has been repeatedly extended up to the present day, provides for the television companies to make available an annual sum to support the production of films which are suitable for both theatrical distribution and television presentation. (The amount of money provided by the public broadcasters has varied between 4.5 and 12.94 million euros per year). Under the terms of the accord, films produced using these funds can only be screened on television 24 months after their theatrical release. They may appear on video or DVD no sooner than six months after cinema release. As a result of the funds provided by the Film-Fernseh-Abkommen, German films, particularly those of the New German Cinema, gained a much greater opportunity to enjoy box-office success before they played on television (Blaney 1992:204). The artistically ambitious and socially critical films of the New German Cinema strove to delineate themselves from what had gone before and the works of auteur film-makers such as Kluge and Fassbinder are examples of this, although Fassbinder in his use of stars from German cinema history also sought a reconciliation between the new cinema and the old. In addition, a distinction is sometimes drawn between the avantgarde "Young German Cinema" of the 1960s and the more accessible "New German Cinema" of the 1970s. For their influences the new generation of film-makers looked to Italian neorealism, the French Nouvelle Vague and the British New Wave but combined this eclectically with references to the well-established genres of Hollywood cinema. The new movement saw German cinema return to international critical significance for the first time since the end of the Weimar Republic. Films such as Kluge's Abschied von Gestern (1966), Herzog's Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972), Fassbinder's Fear Eats the Soul (1974) and The Marriage of Maria Braun (1979), and Wenders' Paris, Texas (1984) found international acclaim and critical approval. Often the work of these auteurs was first recognised abroad rather than in Germany itself. The work of post-war Germany's leading novelists Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass provided source material for the adaptations The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum (1975) (by Schlöndorff and Margarethe von Trotta) and The Tin Drum (1979) (by Schlöndorff alone) respectively, the latter becoming the first German film to win the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. The New German Cinema also allowed for female directors to come to the fore and for the development of a feminist cinema which encompassed the works of directors such as Von Trotta, Helma Sanders-Brahms and Helke Sander. The 1980s Having achieved some of its goals, among them the establishment of state funding for the film industry and renewed international recognition for German films, the New German Cinema had begun to show signs of fatigue by the 1980s, even though many of its proponents continued to enjoy individual success. In addition, the "aesthetic left" nature of New German Cinema (in the words of the critic Enno Patalas ) no longer coincided with the spirit of the times. Among the commercial successes for German films of the 1980s were the Otto film series beginning in 1985 starring comedian Otto Waalkes, Wolfgang Petersen's adaptation of The NeverEnding Story (1984), and the internationally successful Das Boot (1981), which still holds the record for most Academy Award nominations for a German film (six). Other notable film-makers who came to prominence in the 1980s include producer Bernd Eichinger and directors Doris Dörrie, Uli Edel, and Loriot. Away from the mainstream, the splatter film director Jörg Buttgereit, the experimental film director Werner Nekes and the provocative Christoph Schlingensief all came to prominence in the 1980s. The development of arthouse cinemas (Programmkinos) from the 1970s onwards provided a venue for the works of less mainstream film-makers. From the mid-1980s the spread of videocassette recorders and the arrival of private TV channels such as RTL Television provided new competition for theatrical film distribution. Cinema attendance, having rallied slightly in the late 1970s after an all-time low of 115.1 million visits in 1976, dropped sharply again from the mid-1980s to end at just 101.6 million visits in 1989. However, the availability of a back catalogue of films on video also allowed for a different relationship between the viewer and an individual film, while private TV channels brought new money into the film industry and provided a launch pad from which new talent could later move into film. East German Cinema 1945 - 1989 East German cinema initially profited from the fact that much of the country's film infrastructure, notably the former UFA studios, lay in the Soviet occupation zone which enabled film production to get off the ground more quickly than in the Western sectors. The authorities in the Soviet Zone were keen to re-establish the film industry in their sector and an order was issued to re-open cinemas in Berlin in May 1945 within three weeks of German capitulation. The film production company Deutsche Film-Aktiengesellschaft or DEFA was founded on May 17, 1946 and took control of the film production facilities in the Soviet Zone which had been confiscated by order of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany in October 1945. Theoretically a joint-stock company, the majority interest in DEFA was actually held by the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) which became the ruling party of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) after 1949, formally placing DEFA as the state-owned monopoly for film production in East Germany. A sister "company", Progress Filmverleih, had also been established as a similar monopoly for domestic film distribution, its principal "competition" being Sovexportfilm, which handled distribution of Soviet films. In total DEFA produced some 900 feature films during its existence as well as around 800 animated films and over 3000 documentaries and short films. In its early years, production was limited due to strict controls imposed by the authorities which restricted the subject-matter of films to topics that directly contributed to the Communist project of the state. Excluding newsreels and educational films, only 50 films were produced between 1948 and 1953. However, in later years numerous films were produced on a variety of themes. DEFA had particular strengths in children's films, notably fairy tale adaptations such as Drei Haselnüsse für Aschenbrödel (Three Nuts for Cinderella) (1973), but it also attempted other genre works: science-fiction, for example Der schweigende Stern (The Silent Star) (1960), an adaptation of a Stanislaw Lem novel, or "red westerns" such as The Sons of the Great Mother Bear (1966) in which, in contrast to the typical American western, the heroes tended to be Native Americans. Many of these genre films were co-productions with other Warsaw Pact countries. Notable non-genre films produced by DEFA include Wolfgang Staudte's adaptation of Heinrich Mann's Der Untertan (1951); Konrad Wolf's Der geteilte Himmel (Divided Heaven) (1964), an adaptation of Christa Wolf's novel; Frank Beyer's adaptation of Jurek Becker's Jacob the Liar (1973), the only East German film to be nominated for an Oscar; The Legend Of Paul And Paula (1973), directed by Heiner Carow from Ulrich Plenzdorf's novel; and Solo Sunny (1980), again the work of Konrad Wolf. However, film-making in the GDR was always constrained and oriented by the political situation in the country at any given time. Ernst Thälmann, the communist leader in the Weimar period, was the subject of several hagiographical films in the 1950s and although East German filmmaking moved away from this overtly Stalinist approach in the 1960s, filmmakers were still subject to the changing political positions, and indeed the whims, of the SED leadership. For example, DEFA's full slate of contemporary films from 1966 were denied distribution, among them Frank Beyer's Traces of Stones (1966) which was pulled from distribution after three days, not because it was antipathetic to communist principles, but because it showed that such principles, which it fostered, were not put into practice at all times in East Germany. The huge box-office hit The Legend of Paul and Paula was initially threatened with a distribution ban because of its satirical elements and supposedly only allowed a release on the say-so of Party General Secretary Erich Honecker. In the late 1970s numerous film-makers left the GDR for the West as a result of restrictions on their work, among them director Egon Günther and actors Angelica Domröse, Eva-Maria Hagen, Katharina Thalbach, Hilmar Thate, Manfred Krug and Armin Mueller-Stahl. Many had been signatories of a 1976 petition opposing the expatriation of socially critical singer-songwriter Wolf Biermann and had had their ability to work restricted as a result. In the final years of the GDR, the availability of television and the programming and films on television broadcasts reaching ino the GDR via the uncontrollable airwaves, DEFA's productions' importance was reduced, although its continuing role in producing shows for East German television channel remained. Following the Wende, DEFA had ceased production altogether, and its studios and equipment was sold off by the Treuhand in 1992, but its intellectual property rights were handed to the charitable DEFA-Stiftung (DEFA Foundation) which exploits these rights in conjunction with a series of private companies, especially the quickly-privatized Progress Film GmbH which has issued several East German films with English subtitles since the mid-1990s. German cinema today Today's biggest producers include Bavaria Film, Constantin Film, Studio Hamburg, and UFA. Recent film releases such as Run Lola Run by Tom Tykwer, Good Bye Lenin! by Wolfgang Becker, Head-On by Fatih Akin, Downfall by Oliver Hirschbiegel, and Academy Award winner The Lives of Others by Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck have arguably managed to recapture the provocative and innovative nature of 1970s New German cinema. A number of modern German films such as Downfall, Sophie Scholl – The Final Days, The Lives of Others and The Counterfeiters address the nature of totalitarianism in 20th Century Germany. Apart from the international releases, a number of intimate German films have enjoyed critical success in France, where the term Nouvelle Vague Allemande as been applied to smaller productions mostly coming out of Berlin. A circle of directors of penetrating, realistic studies of relationships and characters informally constitute the "Berlin School" of filmmaking. Among those directors are Christian Petzold, Thomas Arslan, Valeska Grisebach, Christoph Hochhäusler, Benjamin Heisenberg, Henner Winckler and Angela Schanelec. Other notable directors working in German currently include Sönke Wortmann, Caroline Link (winner of an Academy Award), Romuald Karmakar, Harun Farocki, Hans-Christian Schmid, Andreas Dresen, Ulrich Köhler, Ulrich Seidl, and Sebastian Schipper, as well as comedy directors Michael Herbig and Sven Unterwaldt. Germany has recently experienced an influx of independent and underground films (mostly pertaining to the horror genre). Directors in this popular circle include Andreas Schnaas, Olaf Ittenbach, Jorg Buttgereit, Timo Rose,and Daryush Shokof with some highly original works beginning with his Seven Servants. The new decade has also seen a resurgence of the German film industry, with bigger-budget films and good returns at the German box office. In recent years, German production interests have become more and more involved with American television and film production to help offset the costs of such productions, as evidenced by the copyright credits in certain films and TV shows. Literature Blaney, Martin 1992 Symbiosis or Confrontation? Bonn Hoffman, Kay 1990 Am Ende Video – Video am Ende? Berlin Kracauer, Siegfried. 2004 RE. From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of the German Film. Princeton: Univ. of Princeton Press. ISBN 0-691-11519-2 Schneider, Irmela 1990 Film, Fernsehen & Co. Heidelberg. References See also History of cinema List of films featuring Berlin German underground horror World cinema External links German Film History Bavaria Film German Film & TV Producer Bavaria Film Biographies and autographs of the early German film era european-films.net - Reviews, trailers, interviews, news and previews of recent and upcoming European films (in English) | Cinema_of_Germany |@lemmatized cinema:49 germany:33 trace:3 back:4 beginning:2 medium:4 end:9 century:2 german:84 make:6 major:4 technical:3 artistic:9 contribution:1 film:202 co:6 production:26 represent:3 book:1 movie:10 must:1 see:9 die:9 pioneer:3 history:7 year:18 birth:2 november:1 max:4 skladanowsky:2 brother:3 emil:1 demonstrate:1 self:1 invent:1 projector:2 bioskop:2 wintergarten:1 music:1 hall:1 berlin:10 performance:3 pre:2 date:1 first:11 pay:1 public:5 display:1 lumière:1 cinematographe:2 paris:2 december:1 attend:1 able:3 ascertain:1 technically:1 superior:1 include:12 berliner:1 oskar:2 messter:1 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2,102 | Casimir_III_the_Great | Casimir III the Great (; April 30 1310 – November 5, 1370), last King of Poland from the Piast dynasty (1333–1370), was the son of King Władysław I the Elbow-high and Jadwiga of Gniezno and Greater Poland. Royal titles Royal titles in Latin: Kazimirus, Dei gracia rex Poloniæ ac terrarum Cracoviæ, Sandomiriæ, Syradiæ, Lanciciæ, Cuyaviæ, Pomeraniæ, Russiequæ dominus et heres. English translation: Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland, lord and inheritor of the land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia) and Ruthenia. Also known as the Peasants' King.Biography Casimir III the Great. Drawing by Jan Matejko Born in Kowal, Casimir (Kazimierz) the Great first married Anna, or Aldona Ona, the daughter of the prince of Lithuania, Gediminas. The daughters from this marriage were Cunigunde (d 1357), who was married to Louis VI the Roman, the son of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and Elisabeth, who was married to Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania. Aldona died in 1339 and Kazimierz then married Adelaide of Hesse. He divorced Adelheid in 1356, married Christina, divorced her, and while Adelheid and possibly also Christina were still alive ca. 1365 married Hedwig (Jadwiga) of Głogów and Sagan. His three daughters by his fourth wife were very young and regarded as of dubious legitimacy because of their father's bigamy. Because all of the five children he fathered with his first and fourth wife were daughters, he would have no lawful male heir to his throne. When Kazimierz, the last Piast king of Poland, died in 1370, his nephew King Louis I of Hungary succeeded him to become king of Poland in personal union with Hungary. The Great King Kazimierz is the only Polish king who both received and kept the title of Great in Polish history (Boleslaw I Chrobry is also called the Great, but his title Chrobry (Valiant) is now more common). When he received the crown, his hold on it was in danger, as even his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him "king of Kraków". The economy was ruined, and the country was depopulated and exhausted by war. Upon his death, he left a country doubled in size (mostly through the addition of land in today's Ukraine, then the Duchy of Halicz), prosperous, wealthy and with great prospects for the future. Although he is depicted as a peaceful king in children's books, he in fact waged many victorious wars and was readying for others just before he died. Kazimierz the Great built many new castles, reformed the Polish army and Polish civil and criminal law. At the Sejm in Wiślica, March 11, 1347, he introduced salutary legal reforms in the jurisprudence of his country. He sanctioned a code of laws for Great and Lesser Poland, which gained for him the title of "the Polish Justinian" and founded the University of Kraków which is the oldest Polish university, although his death temporararily stalled the university's development (which is why it is today called the "Jagiellonian" rather than "Casimirian" University). He organized a meeting of kings at Kraków (1364) in which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom. Concession to the nobility 14th-century rally, in the reign of Kazimierz the Great In order to enlist the support of the nobility, especially the military help of pospolite ruszenie, Kazimierz was forced to give up important privileges to their caste, which made them finally clearly dominant over townsfolk (burghers or mieszczaństwo). In 1335, in the Treaty of Trentschin, Kazimierz relinquished "in perpetuity" his claims to Silesia. In 1355 in Buda Kazimierz designated Louis of Anjou (Louis I of Hungary) as his successor. In exchange, the szlachta's tax burden was reduced and they would no longer be required to pay for military expeditions expenses outside Poland. Those important concessions would eventually lead to the ultimately crippling rise of the unique nobles' democracy in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. His second daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, bore a son in 1351, named Kasimir (Kazimierz of Pomerania) after his maternal grandfather. He was slated to become the heir, but did not succeed to the throne, dying childless in 1377, 7 years after King Kazimierz. He was the only male descendant of King Kazimierz who lived during his lifetime. Subjection of Ruthenia by the Crown of the Polish Kingdom in 1366 by Jan Matejko Also, his son-in-law Louis VI the Roman of Bavaria, Margrave and Prince-elector of Brandenburg, was thought as a possible successor as king of Poland. However, he was not deemed eligible as his wife, Kazimierz's daughter Cunigunde, had died already in 1357, without children. Kazimierz had no legal sons. Apparently he deemed his own descendants either unsuitable or too young to inherit. Thus, and in order to provide a clear line of succession and avoid dynastic uncertainty, he arranged for his sister Elisabeth, Dowager Queen of Hungary, and her son Louis king of Hungary to be his successors in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king on Kazimierz's death in 1370, and Elisabeth held much of the real power until her death in 1380. Many of the influential lords of Poland were unsatisfied with the idea of any personal union with Hungary, and 12 years after Kazimierz's death, (and only a couple of years after Elisabeth's), they refused in 1382 to accept the succession of Louis's eldest surviving daughter Mary (Queen of Hungary) in Poland too. They therefore chose Mary's younger sister, Hedwig, as their new monarch, and she became "King" (=Queen Regnant) Jadwiga of Poland, thus restoring the independence enjoyed until the death of Kazimierz, twelve years earlier. Relationship with Polish Jews Wojciech Gerson, Casimir the Great and Jews King Kazimierz was favorably disposed toward Jews. On 9 October 1334, he confirmed the privileges granted to Jewish Poles in 1264 by Bolesław V the Chaste. Under penalty of death, he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of Jewish cemeteries. Although Jews had lived in Poland since before the reign of King Kazimierz, he allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as people of the king. Marriages and children On 30 April or 16 October, 1325, Casimir married Aldona of Lithuania. She was a daughter of Gediminas of Lithuania and Jewna. They had two children: Elisabeth of Poland (ca. 1326–1361). She married Bogusław V, Duke of Pomerania. Cunigunde of Poland (1334–1357). Married Louis VI the Roman. Aldona died on 26 May, 1339. Casimir remained a widower for two years. On 29 September, 1341, Casimir married his second wife Adelheid of Hesse. She was a daughter of Henry II, Landgrave of Hesse and Elisabeth of Meissen. Her maternal grandparents were Frederick I, Margrave of Meissen and his second wife Elizabeth of Lobdeburg-Arnshaugk. They had no children. Casimir started living separately from Adelheid soon after their marriage. Their loveless marriage lasted until 1356. Casimir effectively divorced Adelheid and married his mistress Christina. Christina was the widow of Miklusz Rokiczani, a wealthy merchant. Her own origins are unknown. Following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of Bohemia in Prague as a lady-in-waiting. Casimir brought her with him from Prague and convinced the abbot of the Benedictine abbey of Tyniec to marry them. The marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known. Adelheid renounced it as bigamous and returned to Hesse without permission. Casimir continued living with Christine despite complains by Pope Innocent VI on behalf of Adelheid. The marriage lasted until 1363/1364 when Casimir again declared himself divorced. They had no children. In about 1365, Casimir married his fourth wife Jadwiga (Hedwig) of Żagań. She was a daughter of Henry V of Iron, Duke of Żagań and Anna of Mazovia. They had three children: Anna of Poland, Countess of Celje (1366 – 9 June, 1422). Married firstly William of Celje. Their only daughter was Anna of Celje. Married secondly Ulrich, Duke of Teck. They had no children. Kunigunde of Poland (1367–1370). Jadwiga of Poland (1368 – ca. 1407). Reportedly married ca. 1382 but the details are obscure. With Adelheid still alive and Christine possibly surviving, the marriage to Jadwiga was also considered bigamous. The legitimacy of the three last daughters was disputed. Casimir managed to have Anna and Kunigunde legitimated by Pope Urban V on 5 December, 1369. Jadwiga the younger was legitimated by Pope Gregory XI on 11 October, 1371. Casimir also had three illegitimate sons by his mistress Cudka, wife of a castellan. Niemierz (last mentioned alive in 1386). Oldest son. Survived his father, inherited lands around Stopnica. Pelka (1342–1365). Married and had two sons. Predeceased his father. Jan (d. 28 October, 1383). Youngest son. Survived his father, inherited lands around Stopnica. Ancestors Tittle-tattles During his reign bricks were used as a building material. There is a Polish proverb about Casimir the Great: He found Poland in wood and left her in brick'' (). Casimir III the Great was the last king of the Piast dynasty, as he died leaving no heir. Gallery References See also History of Poland (966–1385) Jagiellonian University Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz Kazimierz Kazimierz Dolny External links His listing in "Medieval lands" by Charles Cawley. 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2,103 | History_of_Germany | Despite the lack of a German nation state before 1871, the country dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. Following the migration period, the Franks subsequently subdued the West Germanic tribes, who made up for most of East Francia after the Frankish Empire fell apart. Their emperors saw themselves as legitimate heirs of the Roman Empire, and until 1806 ruled a Holy Roman Empire comprising most of Central Europe, that saw massive German settlement in the course of the medieval Ostsiedlung. Yet, since the High Middle Ages, the kings, dukes and princes of the empire managed to gain power at the expense of the emperors and over time became nearly autonomous rulers in their territories. The northern states became Protestant after the early 16th century Protestant reformation, while the southern states remained Roman Catholic. In the 17th century, the opponents clashed in the Thirty Years' War, leaving the empire devastated and vast areas depopulated. Of the abundant German states (Kleinstaaterei), Prussia managed to become the largest and dominating state of the North, while Austria united with Hungary forming a multi-ethnic empire in the south. During the Napoleonic Wars, the French dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. They not only reorganized the German territories and thereby significantly reduce the number of states to 39, but also enforced a political system influenced by the ideals of the French revolution. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states loosely allied in the Austrian-led German Confederation in 1815, aimed at restoring the pre-Napoleonic state. Within this confederation, Prussia included most German states in her Zollverein free trade area, that excluded Austria. Opposition to the restoration by burghers and students led to the unsuccessful 1848 March Revolution. In 1866, the Prussian-led North German Confederation replaced the German Confederation, leaving Austria outside. From this confederation, the German Empire was declared in 1871, led by the Kaiser and his chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The empire underwent industrial revolution and promoted nationalistic ideas. In the First World War, Germany aimed to gain a status equalling the most successful nation states of the time, Great Britain and France, yet after the 1918 armistice she instead faced territorial losses, war reparations and other harsh conditions resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. The Kaiser had to resign and democracy was introduced; Germany became a republic. This Weimar Republic was abandoned when the Prussian government was ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932 (lasting nominally until 1933), when in 1933 the Nazis took over Germany with Adolf Hitler becoming chancellor of the Third Reich. The Nazis imposed drastic changes on German society and administration, they initiated the Holocaust, annexations and finally the devastations of World War II. After Nazi Germany's defeat, the Potsdam Agreement left Germany partitioned by the allies and deprived her of all territory east of the Oder-Neisse line, from which nearly all Germans were expelled along with the other Germans living outside post-war Germany. From May 1945 to 1949, the Allied Occupation Forces ruled over all of Germany and in 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was made up from the United States, and French zones, while the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) evolved from the Soviet zone. While West Germany was a democracy that joined NATO and the European Union, East Germany was part of the Soviet-controlled Eastern Bloc, separated from the West by the iron curtain with its most prominent part, the Berlin wall. In 1989, in the course of the peaceful Wende revolution the East German government was overthrown and the wall opened. In 1990, East Germany was reunited with West Germany. Germanic tribes (100 BC to 260 AD) The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east,and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire, etymological research, and archaeological finds. Jill N. Claster: Medieval Experience: 300–1400. NYU Press 1982, p. 35. ISBN 0814713815. Germanic tribes in 50 AD (not including most of Scandinavia) Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans running roughly from the Rhine to the Urals), and it was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius later suffered a defeat at the hands of the Roman general Germanicus at the Battle of the Weser River or Idistaviso in AD 16, but the Roman victory was not followed up after the Roman Emperor Tiberius recalled Germanicus to Rome in AD 17. Tiberius wished that the Roman frontier with Germania be maintained along the Rhine rver. Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the Roman Empire. By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany. The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands. The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 12, p. 442. ISBN 0521301998. The Franks The Merovingian kings of the Germanic Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 CE. In the fifth and sixth century the Merovingian kings conquered several other Germanic tribes and kingdoms and placed them under the control of autonomous dukes of mixed Frankish and native blood. Frankish Colonists were encouraged to move to the newly conquered territories. While the local Germanic tribes were allowed to preserve their laws, they were pressured into changing their religion. Frankish Empire After the fall of the Western Roman empire the Franks created an empire under the Merovingian kings and subjugated the other Germanic tribes. Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in 496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Already king Chlothar I ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and made expeditions into Saxony while the Southeast of modern Germany was still under influence of the Ostrogoths. In 531 Saxons and Franks destroyed the Kingdom of Thuringia. Saxons inhabit the area down to the Unstrut river. During the partition of the Frankish empire their German territories were a part of Austrasia. In 718 the Franconian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel marked war against Saxony, because of its help for the Neustrians. The Franconian Carloman started in 743 a new war against Saxony, because the Saxons gave aid to Duke Odilo of Bavaria. In 751 Pippin III, mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the Pope, Charlemagne launched a decades-long military campaign against their heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. The Saxons (by the Saxon Wars (772-804)) and Avars were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Carolingian Empire. Middle Ages The prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. (left to right: Archbishop of Cologne, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia) From 772 to 814 king Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in Rome. The Frankish empire was divided into counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (Kaiserpfalzen) became economic and cultural centres (Aachen being the most famous Nelson, J.L. (1998). Charlemagne's church at Aachen. History Today. 48(1), 62-64. ). Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was partitioned into several parts in the Treaty of Verdun, the Treaty of Meerssen and the Treaty of Ribemont. The German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, East Francia. From 919 to 936 the Germanic peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians) were united under Duke Henry of Saxony, who took the title of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans ("Regnum Teutonicorum") was applied to a Frankish kingdom, even though Teutonicorum at its founding originally meant something closer to "Realm of the Germanic peoples" or "Germanic Realm" than realm of the Germans. In 936 Otto I the Great was crowned at Aachen. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (Reichsfürsten), thereby establishing a national church. In 951 Otto the Great married the widowed Queen Adelheid, thereby winning the Lombard crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained with the decisive defeat of the Magyars of Hungary near Augsburg at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 and the subjugation of Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong Frankish influence over the Papacy. In 1033 the Kingdom of Burgundy was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Conrad II, the first emperor of the Salian dynasty. During the reign of his son Henry III the Holy Roman Empire supported the Cluniac reform of the Church - the Peace of God, the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (Pfalz) was built at Goslar, as the Empire continued its expansion to the East. In the Investiture Dispute which began between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the Concordat of Worms. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the Ottonian National Church Reichskirche, and a strengthening of the Imperial secular princes. Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork () The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the crusades. Knightly religious orders were established, including the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order. From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries. The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties (see German town law), while the rural population remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became Imperial Free Cities, which did not depend on princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. The German colonization and the chartering of new towns and villages began into largely Slav-inhabited territories east of the Elbe, such as Bohemia, Silesia, Pomerania, and Livonia (see also Ostsiedlung). Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of Frederick I (Barbarossa), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, an accommodation was reached with the rival Guelph party by the grant of the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. Austria became a separate duchy by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Barbarossa tried to reassert his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in Venice. In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach (founder of the Wittelsbach dynasty which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided. From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the Reichsfest (imperial celebrations) held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of Sicily. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and literature (see Wolfram von Eschenbach). Between 1212 and 1250 Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state in Sicily. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor. Beginning in 1226 under the auspices of Emperor Frederick II, the Teutonic Knights began their conquest of Prussia after being invited to Chełmno Land by the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia. The native Baltic Prussians were conquered and Christianized by the Knights with much warfare, and numerous German towns were established along the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. From 1300, however, the Empire started to lose territory on all its frontiers. The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV with the papacy led in 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore the imperial authority. Around the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death ravaged Germany and Europe. From the Dance of Death by Hans Holbein (1491) Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the Black Death. Jews were persecuted on religious and economic grounds; many fled to Poland. The Golden Bull of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by four secular electors (the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg) and three spiritual electors (the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne). After the disasters of the 14th century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The Fugger family gained prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular rulers. The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburgs, who controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day Austria and Slovenia, and Bohemia and Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to increased disunity among the Holy Roman Empires territorial rulers and prevented sections of the country from coming together and forming nations in the manner of France and England. During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court (Reichskammergericht) was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire. Early modern Germany see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political structure Reformation and Thirty Years War Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in the Holy Roman Empire caused by abuses such as indulgences in the Catholic Church and a general desire for reform. In 1515 the Frisian peasants rebellion took place. Led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama, thousands of Frisians (a Germanic race) fought against the suppression of their lands by Charles V. The hostilities ended in 1523 when the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated. Martin Luther, 1529 In 1517 the Reformation began with the publication of Martin Luther's 95 theses; he had posted them innocuously in the town square, and copies of them to German nobles, but never nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg as is commonly said. Rather, an unknown person decided to take the 95 theses from their obscure posting and nail them to the Church's door. The list detailed 95 assertions Luther believed to show corruption and misguidance within the Catholic Church. One often cited example, though perhaps not Luther's chief concern, is a condemnation of the selling of indulgences; another prominent point within the 95 theses is Luther's disagreement both with the way in which the higher clergy, especially the pope, used and abused power, and with the very idea of the pope. Statue of Pier Gerlofs Donia, self acclaimed "King of all Frisians". Famous rebel and freedom fighter of legendary strength and size. In 1521 Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms. But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Hiding in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible from Latin to German, establishing the basis of the German language. "The Holy Roman Empire, 1512. In 1524 the Peasants' War broke out in Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia against ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia), and by the theologian Thomas Münzer (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes. It is estimated that as many as 100,000 German peasants were massacred during the revolt, Peasants' War usually after the battles had ended. The Catholic and the Lutheran Church From 1545 the Counter-Reformation began in Germany. The main force was provided by the Jesuit order, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. Central and northeastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In 1547, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant rulers. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler (Cuius regio, eius religio). In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was separated from the Imperial possessions. In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed. From 1618 to 1648 the Thirty Years' War ravaged in the Holy Roman Empire. The causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the emperor (Defenestration of Prague), but the conflict was widened into a European War by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark (1625-29), Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1630-48) and France under Cardinal Richelieu, the regent of the young Louis XIV (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, a loss of approximately a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster and Osnabrück: Imperial territory was lost to France and Sweden and the Netherlands left the Holy Roman Empire after being de facto seceded for 80 years already. The imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased. End of the Holy Roman Empire The German Empire in 1705, map "L’Empire d’Allemagne" from Nicolas de Fer After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began From 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia had started to rise under the Great Elector, Frederick William. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on absolutism was established. In 1701 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King in Prussia". From 1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized state. Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had conquered parts of Alsace and Lorraine (1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the Palatinate (1688-1697). Louis XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria. Louis XIV ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate. In 1683 the Ottoman Turks were defeated outside Vienna by a Polish relief army led by King Jan Sobieski of Poland while the city itself was defended by Imperial and Austrian troops under the command of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. Hungary was reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria, under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power. In the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Maria Theresa fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the Silesian Wars and in the Seven Years' War she had to cede Silesia to Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763 between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Prussia became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany. From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an "enlightened absolutism" was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be "the first servant of the state". The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of Jews; the emancipation of the peasants began. Education was promoted. In 1772-1795 Prussia took part in the partitions of Poland, occupying western territories of Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth, which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution. The French Revolution sparked a new war between France and several of its Eastern neighbors, including Prussia and Austria. Following the Peace of Basel in 1795 with Prussia, the west bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. Napoleon I of France relaunched the war against the Empire. In 1803, under the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" (a resolution of a committee of the Imperial Diet meeting in Regensburg), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in southwestern Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in northwestern Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's protection. After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at Jena and Auerstedt, the Peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its possessions west of the Elbe to France and the kingdom of Westphalia was established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the territories Prussia conquered from Poland were regained by Duchy of Warsaw. From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian generals Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau. In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's army in Russia (1812). After the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, Germany was liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved. In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the Britain's Duke of Wellington and by Prussia's Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. German Confederation Restoration and Revolution Frankfurt 1848 Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the Revolution of 1848 in the German states After the fall of Napoleon, European monarchs and statesmen convened in Vienna in 1814 for the reorganization of European affairs, under the leadership of the Austrian Prince Metternich. The political principles agreed upon at this Congress of Vienna included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas. On the territory of the former "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (Bundestag) meeting in Frankfurt am Main. In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the "Wartburg festival" at Wartburg Castle, at Eisenach in Thuringia, on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt. In 1819 the student Karl Ludwig Sand murdered the writer August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal student organizations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the Karlsbad Decrees: censorship was introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called "persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn. In 1834 the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria. Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt Parliament) met in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main to draw up a national German constitution. But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. In 1862 Prince Bismarck was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals, who saw him as a reactionary. In 1863-64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark grew over Schleswig, which - unlike Holstein - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the Second War of Schleswig, in the course of which Prussia, joined by Austria, defeated Denmark. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of the two duchies caused growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War (1866). The Prussians were victorious in this war, carrying a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgratz under the command of Helmuth von Moltke. North German Federation In 1866 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the North German Federation (German Norddeutscher Bund) was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded, and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries. The North German Federation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire, led by Otto Von Bismarck who was declared chancellor. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, through the Zollverein, southern Germany. German Empire Age of Bismarck On 18 January 1871, the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. The German Empire of 1871. By excluding Austria, Bismarck chose a "little German" solution. Differences between France and Prussia over the possible accession to the Spanish throne of a German candidate — whom France opposed — was the French pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Because of their defensive treaties, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the command of Moltke, repelled French troops which had occupied Saarbrücken and proceeded to invade France in August 1870. After a few weeks, the French army was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. French Emperor Napoleon III was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed, yet the new republic decided to prolong the war for several months. Months after the Siege of Paris was lifted, the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed: France was obliged to cede what became known as Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The ceded area consisted of Alsace and parts of Lorraine. The fact that many small, French-speaking areas were included was used by France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since Germany had justified it by the native Germanic dialects and culture of the areas inhabitants. During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as the "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The German Empire was thus founded, with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic free cities, and Bismarck, again, served as Chancellor. It was dubbed the "Little German" solution, since Austria was not included. Otto von Bismarck Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called Kulturkampf (1872–1878), he tried to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and of its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, through various measures — like the introduction of civil marriage — but without much success. Millions of non-Germans subjects in the German Empire, like the Polish, Danish and French minorities, were discriminated against and a policy of Germanization was implemented. The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the Social Democratic Party of Germany), whose declared aim was the establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organization, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire. Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin. The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia. In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance to form a Triple Alliance. Italy wanted to defend its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy. In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French military attack. For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Crown Prince Wilhelm II's aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German colonies ("a place in the sun", originally a statement of Bernhard von Bülow). Bismarck wanted to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would threaten the security of Germany at all cost. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established overseas: in Africa, these were Togo, the Cameroons, German South-West Africa and German East Africa; in Oceania, they were German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. In fact, it was Bismarck himself who helped initiate the Berlin Conference of 1885. He did it "establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory," (see Colonisation of Africa). This conference was an impetus for the "Scramble for Africa" and "New Imperialism". In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died at age 91, and his terminally ill son Friedrich III ruled for only 99 days before his death. The 29 year old and ambitious Wilhelm II, Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually caused Bismarck to resign in 1890. Wilhelminian Era A postage stamp from the Carolines, dating back to the time when the islands were ruled by the German Empire. The new Weltpolitik of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to frictions with other imperialist powers. When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in the world (Weltpolitik). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy. From 1898, German colonial expansion in East Asia (Jiaozhou Bay, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan and the United States. The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the North Sea with the Persian Gulf via the Bosporus, also collided with British and Russian geopolitical and economic interests. To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, Admiral von Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated. Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the First World War, sparked by the assassination, on June 28, 1914, of the Austrian heir-apparent Franz Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo, in the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina by a Serbian nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and several other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies. In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through Belgium, German troops were halted on the Marne, north of Paris. The frontlines in France changed little until the end of the war. In the east there were decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of Tannenberg, followed by huge Austrian and German successes led to a breakdown of Russian forces and an imposed peace on the newly created USSR under Lenin. Churchill ordered a naval blockade in the North Sea which lasted until 1919, crippling Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare marked a decisive turning-point against Germany. The end of October 1918, in Kiel, in northern Germany, saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–19. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising. On November 3, the revolt spread to other cities and states of the country, in many of which so-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established. Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On November 9, 1918, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. On November 11, an armistice ending the war was signed at Compiègne. In accordance with the Social Democratic government by early 1919 the revolution was violently put down with the aid of the Reichswehr and the Freikorps. Weimar Republic States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with Prussia in blue On 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles was signed. Germany was to cede Alsace-Lorraine, Eupen-Malmédy, North Schleswig, and the Memel area. All German colonies were to be handed over to the British and French. Poland was restored and most of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, and some areas of Upper Silesia were reincorporated into the reformed country after plebiscites and independence uprisings. The left and right banks of the Rhine were to be permanently demilitarised. The industrially important Saarland was to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5–15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany and its allies were to accept the sole responsibility of the war, in accordance with the War Guilt Clause, and were to pay financial reparations for all loss and damage suffered by the Allies. The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime. On 11 August 1919 the Weimar constitution came into effect, with Friedrich Ebert as first President. The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the German Communist Party (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic. In the first months of 1920, the Reichswehr was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many Freikorps - units made up of volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician Wolfgang Kapp. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself Reich Chancellor (Kapp Putsch). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed. Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. Under the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also led to hyperinflation, and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right. See 1920s German inflation. In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor Gustav Stresemann to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark (later: Reichsmark), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913. On the evening of November 8, 1923, six hundred armed SA men surrounded a beer hall in Munich, where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local Reichswehr had gathered for a rally. The storm troopers were led by Adolf Hitler. Born in 1889 in Austria, a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called NSDAP, he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power (Beer Hall Putsch). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after less than one year of detention. The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (Ruck nach rechts). Field Marshal Hindenburg, a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President in 1925. In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926. The stock market crash of 1929 on Wall Street marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the Darmstätter und Nationalbank - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000. In addition to the flagging economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the Reichstag to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency decrees, and even dissolved Parliament. In March and April 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the German presidential election of 1932. Of the many splinter parties the NSDAP was the largest in the national elections of 1932. The Prussian government had been ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932. On July 31, 1932 the NSDAP had received 37.3% of the votes, and in the election on 6 November 1932 it received less, but still the largest share, 33.1, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the petite bourgeoisie (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural population; and among the army of unemployed. On January 30, 1933, pressured by former Chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor. Weimar Republic Results of Elections 1919-1933, Electiontions 1932, 1933 Third Reich Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power' In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, Hitler called for new elections. On the evening of 27 February 1933, a fire was set in the Reichstag building. Hitler swiftly blamed an alleged Communist uprising, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself. Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into concentration camps, where they were at the mercy of the Gestapo, the newly established secret police force (9,000 were found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were taken into protective custody (despite their constitutional privileges). Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of March 5 1933, while resulting in 43.9% failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together with the German National People's Party (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic Centre Party Germany, Hitler succeeded in convincing a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass the Enabling act of 1933 which gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the Dictatorship, dissolution of the Länder; the trade unions and all political parties other than the National Socialist (Nazi) Party were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based on the liberal Weimar constitution. Germany left the League of Nations. The coalition Parliament was rigged on this fateful 23 March 1933 by defining the absence of arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a quid pro quo with the Holy See under the anti-communist Pope Pius XI for the Reichskonkordat; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. It is interesting to note however that according to Professor Dick Geary the Nazis gained a larger share of their vote in Protestant than in Catholic areas of Germany in elections held between 1928 to November 1932 Dick Geary, Who voted for the Nazis?(electoral history of the National Socialist German Workers Party), History Today, October 1998, Vol 48, Issue 10, pages 8-14 The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 . However, many leaders of the Nazi SA were disappointed. The Chief of Staff of the SA, Ernst Röhm, was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the Wehrmacht under his supreme command. Hitler felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of June 30, 1934, he gave order to the SS to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial (known as the Night of the Long Knives). The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler. He would become the supervisor of the Gestapo and of the concentration camps, soon also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the Waffen-SS as a separate troop. The regime showed particular hostility towards the Jews. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called Nuremberg race laws directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German citizenship, and were banned from marrying non-Jewish Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules. Hitler re-established the German air force and reintroduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles, but neither the United Kingdom, France or Italy went beyond issuing notes of protest. In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. In this case, the Treaty of Locarno would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the 1936 Summer Olympics, which were held in the same year in Berlin and in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime. Expansion and defeat After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with Mussolini, and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan - which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 - Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation (Anschluss) of their country to the German Reich. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of an all encompassing German Reich with the inclusion of Austria - the "greater Germany" solution that Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German-speaking lands under Prussian leadership. Although the annexation denounced the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany, the western powers once again merely protested. After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the 3.5 million-strong Sudeten German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the Munich Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by Czechoslovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed. In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for World War II. The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population of Nazi Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and, ultimately, genocide now known as the Holocaust. A similar policy applied to the various ethnic and national groups considered subhuman such as Poles , Roma or Russians. These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's Aryan race. There were also many groups, such as homosexuals, the mentally handicapped and those who were physically challenged from birth, which were singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity. After annexing the Sudetenland border country of Czechoslovakia (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a protectorate (March 1939), the German Reich and the Soviet Union invaded Poland on first September 1939 predominantly as part of the Wehrmacht operation codenamed Fall Weiss. The invasion of Poland began World War II. Territorial losses of modern Germany 1919-1945. By 1941, the Germans had the upper hand, but the tide turned in December 1941 when the invasion of the Soviet Union stalled in front of Moscow and the United States joined the war. Because of the invasion (see Operation Barbarossa), the Soviets joined the Allies. The tide turned further after the Battle of Stalingrad. By late 1944, the United States and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in the West, while the Soviets were closing from the East. In May 1945, Nazi Germany collapsed when Berlin was taken by Soviet and Polish forces. Hitler committed suicide when it seemed inevitable that the Allies would win. By September 1945, the German Reich (which lasted only 13 years) and its Axis partners (Italy and Japan) had been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Much of Europe lay in ruins, over sixty million people had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews in what became known as the Holocaust. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructure and led directly to its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in the east), and historical legacy of guilt and shame. Germany since 1945 Post-war state Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the Stunde Null (zero hour) to describe the near-total collapse of their country. At the Potsdam Conference, Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies. Also in Potsdam, the allies agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line) were transferred to Poland and Russia (Kaliningrad oblast). The agreement also set forth the abolition of Prussia and the expulsion of Germans living in those territories, and formalized the German exodus from Eastern Europe. In the process of the expulsions, millions died, and many suffered from exhaustion and dehydration. Prisoners of war in the streets of Berlin. In the immediate post-war years the German population lived on near starvation levels, Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0-8803-3995-0. subsection by Richard Dominic Wiggers,The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War I and the Allied economic policy was one of de-industrialisation Frederick H. Gareau Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 517-534 (Morgenthau Plan) in order to preclude any future German war-making capability. U.S. policy began to change at the end of 1946 Curtis F. Morgan, Southern Partnership: James F. Byrnes, Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945 1947 (Restatement of Policy on Germany), and by mid 1947, after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. Ray Salvatore Jennings “The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15 In July, Truman rescinded on "national security grounds" the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany." Pas de Pagaille! Time Magazine July 28, 1947. Division into East and West Germany The three western occupation zones (U.S., UK and French zone) would later form the Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany), while the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (commonly known as East Germany), both founded in 1949. West Germany was established as a federal democratic republic while East Germany became a Communist State under the influence of the Soviet Union. West Germany eventually came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). The recovery occurred largely because of the previously forbidden currency reform of June 1948 and to a minor degree by U.S. assistance through Marshall Plan loans. Henderson, David. German Economic "Miracle" Retrieved 2006, 12-07 "Marshall Plan 1947-1997 A German View" by Susan Stern West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958 . East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control of the USSR through her occupation forces and the Warsaw Treaty. While claiming to be a democracy, the political power was solely executed by leading members (Politburo) of the communist-controlled SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany). Their power was ensured by the Stasi, a secret service of immense size, and a variety of SED-suborganizations controlling every aspect of society. In turn, the basic needs of the population were satisfied at low costs by the state. A Soviet-style command economy was set up, later the GDR became the most advanced Comecon state. While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programs and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. Colchester, Nico. D-mark day dawns Financial Times. January 1, 2001. Retrieved 2006, 12-07 The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War. Reunification Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (Ostpolitik) in the 1970s, culminating in the Warschauer Kniefall on 7 December 1970. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany were admitted to the United Nations. During the summer of 1989, rapid changes known as peaceful revolution or Die Wende took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany, many via Hungary after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, most notably in Prague. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow. Faced with civil unrest, East German leader Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990. Role in the European Union Together with France and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the European Union. Germany (especially under Chancellor Helmut Kohl) was one of the main supporters of the wish of many East European countries to join the EU. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor Schröder expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the UN Security Council, identifying France, Russia and Japan as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid. Historiography A major historiographical debate about the German history concerns the Sonderweg, the alleged “special path” that separated German history from the “normal” course of historical development, and whether or not Nazi Germany was the inevitable result of the Sonderweg. Proponents of the Sonderweg theory such as Fritz Fischer point to such events of the Revolution of 1848, the authoritarian of the Second Empire and the continuation of the Imperial elite into the Weimar and Nazi periods. Opponents such as Gerhard Ritter of the Sonderweg theory argue that proponents of the theory are guilty of seeking selective examples, and there was much contingency and chance in German history. In addition, there was much debate within the supporters of the Sonderweg concept as for the reasons for the Sonderweg, and whether or not the Sonderweg ended in 1945. See also Medieval East Colonisation by German noblemen and farmers German exodus from Eastern Europe History of German settlement in Eastern Europe Territorial changes of Germany Military history of Germany Germany (terminology) References Lewkowicz, N., The German Question and the Origins of the Cold War (IPOC:Milan) (2008) External links The full text of the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" of 25 February 1803 Constitution of the German Empire ("Constitution of Paulskirche") of 28 March 1849, in full text Constitutional charter for the Prussian State (Imposed Constitution of 5 December 1848, in full text) Kingdom of Prussia: Constitutional charter for the Prussian State (Revised Constitution of 31 January 1850, in full text) History of Germany: Primary Documents Pessimistic Germans Losing Faith in Democracy, Study Shows | History_of_Germany |@lemmatized despite:4 lack:2 german:138 nation:11 state:57 country:11 date:2 back:3 era:2 germanic:20 tribe:14 follow:10 migration:1 period:4 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2,104 | Molecule | 3D (left and center) and 2D (right) representations of the terpenoid molecule atisane. In chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable, electrically neutral group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by very strong (covalent) chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from polyatomic ions in this strict sense. In organic chemistry and biochemistry, the term molecule is used less strictly and also is applied to charged organic molecules and biomolecules. In the kinetic theory of gases the term molecule is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. E.g. see According to this definition noble gas atoms are considered molecules despite the fact that they are composed of a single non-bonded atom. A molecule may consist of atoms of a single chemical element, as with oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O). Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds are generally not considered single molecules. No typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphite) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds without any definable molecule, but also without any of the regularity of repeating units that characterises crystals. Molecular science The science of molecules is called molecular chemistry or molecular physics, depending on the focus. Molecular chemistry deals with the laws governing the interaction between molecules that results in the formation and breakage of chemical bonds, while molecular physics deals with the laws governing their structure and properties. In practice, however, this distinction is vague. In molecular sciences, a molecule consists of a stable system (bound state) comprising two or more atoms. Polyatomic ions may sometimes be usefully thought of as electrically charged molecules. The term unstable molecule is used for very reactive species, i.e., short-lived assemblies (resonances) of electrons and nuclei, such as radicals, molecular ions, Rydberg molecules, transition states, van der Waals complexes, or systems of colliding atoms as in Bose-Einstein condensate History and Etymology According to Merriam-Webster and the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "molecule" derives from the Latin "moles" or small unit of mass. Molecule (1794) - "extremely minute particle," from Fr. molécule (1678), from Mod.L. molecula, dim. of L. moles "mass, barrier". A vague meaning at first; the vogue for the word (used until late 18th century only in Latin form) can be traced to the philosophy of Descartes. Although the existence of molecules has been accepted by many chemists since the early 19th century as a result of Dalton's laws of Definite and Multiple Proportions (1803-1808) and Avogadro's law (1811), there was some resistance among positivists and physicists such as Mach, Boltzmann, Maxwell, and Gibbs, who saw molecules merely as convenient mathematical constructs. The work of Perrin on Brownian motion (1911) is considered to be the final proof of the existence of molecules. The definition of the molecule has evolved as knowledge of the structure of molecules has increased. Earlier definitions were less precise, defining molecules as the smallest particles of pure chemical substances that still retain their composition and chemical properties. Molecule Definition (Frostburg State University) This definition often breaks down since many substances in ordinary experience, such as rocks, salts, and metals, are composed of large networks of chemically bonded atoms or ions, but are not made of discrete molecules. Molecular size Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, but there are exceptions. DNA, a macromolecule, can reach macroscopic sizes, as can molecules of many polymers. The smallest molecule is the diatomic hydrogen (H2), with an overall length of roughly twice the 74 picometres (0.74 Å) bond length. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few Å to several dozen Å. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules. Radius Effective molecular radius is the size a molecule displays in solution. The table of permselectivity for different substances contains examples. Molecular formula A compound's empirical formula is the simplest integer ratio of the chemical elements that constitute it. For example, water is always composed of a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, and ethyl alcohol or ethanol is always composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 2:6:1 ratio. However, this does not determine the kind of molecule uniquely - dimethyl ether has the same ratios as ethanol, for instance. Molecules with the same atoms in different arrangements are called isomers. Also carbohydrates, for example, haver the same ratio (carbon:hydrogen:oxygen= 1:2:1) (and thus the same empirical formula) but different total numbers of atoms in the molecule. The molecular formula reflects the exact number of atoms that compose the molecule and so characterizes different isomers. The empirical formula is often the same as the molecular formula but not always. For example the molecule acetylene has molecular formula C2H2, but the simplest integer ratio of elements is CH. The molecular mass can be calculated from the chemical formula and is expressed in conventional atomic mass units equal to 1/12th of the mass of a neutral carbon-12 (12C isotope) atom. For network solids, the term formula unit is used in stoichiometric calculations. Molecular geometry Molecules have fixed equilibrium geometries—bond lengths and angles— about which they continuously oscillate through vibrational and rotational motions. A pure substance is composed of molecules with the same average geometrical structure. The chemical formula and the structure of a molecule are the two important factors that determine its properties, particularly its reactivity. Isomers share a chemical formula but normally have very different properties because of their different structures. Stereoisomers, a particular type of isomers, may have very similar physico-chemical properties and at the same time different biochemical activities. Molecular spectroscopy Molecular spectroscopy deals with the response (spectrum) of molecules interacting with probing signals of known energy (or frequency, according to Planck's formula). Molecules have quantized energy levels that can be analyzed by detecting the molecule's energy exchange through absorbance or emission. Spectroscopy does not generally refer to diffraction studies where particles such as neutrons, electrons, or high energy X-rays interact with a regular arrangement of molecules (as in a crystal). Theoretical aspects The study of molecules by molecular physics and theoretical chemistry is largely based on quantum mechanics and is essential for the understanding of the chemical bond. The simplest of molecules is the hydrogen molecule-ion, H2+, and the simplest of all the chemical bonds is the one-electron bond. H2+ is composed of two positively-charged protons and one negatively-charged electron, which means that the Schrödinger equation for the system can be solved more easily due to the lack of electron–electron repulsion. With the development of fast digital computers, approximate solutions for more complicated molecules became possible and are one of the main aspects of computational chemistry. When trying to define rigorously whether an arrangement of atoms is "sufficiently stable" to be considered a molecule, IUPAC suggests that it "must correspond to a depression on the potential energy surface that is deep enough to confine at least one vibrational state". This definition does not depend on the nature of the interaction between the atoms, but only on the strength of the interaction. In fact, it includes weakly-bound species that would not traditionally be considered molecules, such as the helium dimer, He2, which has one vibrational bound state and is so loosely bound that it is only likely to be observed at very low temperatures. See also References External links Molecule of the Month - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol | Molecule |@lemmatized leave:1 center:1 right:1 representation:1 terpenoid:1 molecule:54 atisane:1 chemistry:7 define:4 sufficiently:2 stable:3 electrically:2 neutral:2 group:1 least:2 two:4 atom:17 definite:2 arrangement:4 hold:3 together:2 strong:1 covalent:3 chemical:13 bond:13 distinguish:1 polyatomic:2 ion:5 strict:1 sense:1 organic:3 biochemistry:1 term:4 use:7 less:2 strictly:1 also:6 apply:1 charge:4 biomolecules:1 kinetic:1 theory:1 gas:2 often:4 gaseous:1 particle:4 regardless:1 composition:2 e:2 g:1 see:3 accord:3 definition:6 noble:1 consider:5 despite:1 fact:2 compose:8 single:4 non:2 may:5 consist:2 element:4 oxygen:4 different:8 water:2 complex:2 connect:1 hydrogen:6 ionic:2 generally:2 typical:1 crystal:4 salt:2 network:3 solid:3 although:2 repeat:3 unit:6 cell:1 extend:1 either:1 plane:1 graphite:1 three:1 dimensionally:1 diamond:1 sodium:1 chloride:1 theme:1 cellular:1 structure:6 condensed:1 phase:1 metallic:1 bonding:1 glass:1 exist:1 vitreous:1 disordered:1 state:6 without:2 definable:1 regularity:1 characterise:1 molecular:18 science:3 call:2 physic:3 depend:2 focus:1 deal:3 law:4 govern:2 interaction:3 result:2 formation:1 breakage:1 property:5 practice:1 however:2 distinction:1 vague:2 system:3 bound:4 comprise:1 sometimes:1 usefully:1 think:1 unstable:1 reactive:1 specie:2 short:1 lived:1 assembly:1 resonance:1 electron:6 nucleus:1 radical:1 rydberg:1 transition:1 van:1 der:1 waals:1 collide:1 bose:1 einstein:1 condensate:1 history:1 etymology:2 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 dictionary:1 word:2 derive:1 latin:2 mole:2 small:5 mass:5 extremely:1 minute:1 fr:1 molécule:1 mod:1 l:2 molecula:1 dim:1 barrier:1 meaning:1 first:1 vogue:1 late:1 century:2 form:1 trace:2 philosophy:1 descartes:1 existence:2 accept:1 many:3 chemist:1 since:2 early:1 dalton:1 multiple:1 proportion:1 avogadro:1 resistance:1 among:1 positivist:1 physicist:1 mach:1 boltzmann:1 maxwell:1 gibbs:1 saw:1 merely:1 convenient:1 mathematical:1 construct:1 work:1 perrin:1 brownian:1 motion:2 final:1 proof:1 evolve:1 knowledge:1 increase:1 earlier:1 precise:1 pure:2 substance:4 still:1 retain:1 frostburg:1 university:2 break:1 ordinary:1 experience:1 rock:1 metal:1 large:2 chemically:1 make:1 discrete:1 size:3 far:1 naked:1 eye:1 exception:1 dna:1 macromolecule:2 reach:1 macroscopic:1 polymer:1 diatomic:1 overall:1 length:3 roughly:1 twice:1 picometre:1 å:3 commonly:1 building:1 block:1 synthesis:1 dimension:1 several:1 dozen:1 cannot:1 usually:1 observe:2 light:1 note:1 even:1 outline:1 individual:1 circumstance:1 atomic:2 force:1 microscope:1 supermolecule:1 radius:2 effective:1 display:1 solution:2 table:1 permselectivity:1 contain:1 example:4 formula:12 compound:1 empirical:3 simple:4 integer:2 ratio:6 constitute:1 always:3 ethyl:1 alcohol:1 ethanol:2 carbon:3 determine:2 kind:1 uniquely:1 dimethyl:1 ether:1 instance:1 isomer:4 carbohydrates:1 haver:1 thus:1 total:1 number:2 reflect:1 exact:1 characterizes:1 acetylene:1 ch:1 calculate:1 express:1 conventional:1 equal:1 isotope:1 stoichiometric:1 calculation:1 geometry:2 fix:1 equilibrium:1 angle:1 continuously:1 oscillate:1 vibrational:3 rotational:1 average:1 geometrical:1 important:1 factor:1 particularly:1 reactivity:1 share:1 normally:1 stereoisomers:1 particular:1 type:1 similar:1 physico:1 time:1 biochemical:1 activity:1 spectroscopy:3 response:1 spectrum:1 interact:2 probe:1 signal:1 know:1 energy:5 frequency:1 planck:1 quantize:1 level:1 analyze:1 detect:1 exchange:1 absorbance:1 emission:1 refer:1 diffraction:1 study:2 neutron:1 high:1 x:1 ray:1 regular:1 theoretical:2 aspects:1 largely:1 base:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 essential:1 understanding:1 one:5 positively:1 proton:1 negatively:1 mean:1 schrödinger:1 equation:1 solve:1 easily:1 due:1 lack:1 repulsion:1 development:1 fast:1 digital:1 computer:1 approximate:1 complicated:1 become:1 possible:1 main:1 aspect:1 computational:1 try:1 rigorously:1 whether:1 iupac:1 suggest:1 must:1 correspond:1 depression:1 potential:1 surface:1 deep:1 enough:1 confine:1 nature:1 strength:1 include:1 weakly:1 would:1 traditionally:1 helium:1 dimer:1 loosely:1 likely:1 low:1 temperature:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 month:1 school:1 bristol:1 |@bigram electrically_neutral:1 polyatomic_ion:2 organic_chemistry:1 covalent_bond:1 hydrogen_bond:1 sodium_chloride:1 metallic_bonding:1 electrically_charge:1 short_lived:1 van_der:1 der_waals:1 bose_einstein:1 einstein_condensate:1 merriam_webster:1 brownian_motion:1 naked_eye:1 ethyl_alcohol:1 physico_chemical:1 emission_spectroscopy:1 quantum_mechanic:1 positively_charge:1 negatively_charge:1 schrödinger_equation:1 computational_chemistry:1 external_link:1 |
2,105 | Amphipolis | Localization of Amphipolis Amphipolis ( – Amphípolis) was an ancient Greek city in the region once inhabited by the Edoni people in the present-day periphery of Central Macedonia. It was built on a raised plateau overlooking the east bank of the river Strymon where it emerged from Lake Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the Aegean Sea. Founded in 437 BC, the city was finally abandoned in the 8th century AD. The present municipality Amfipoli (), named after the ancient city, occupies the site. Currently, it is a municipality in the Serres Prefecture, Central Macedonia with a population of 3 623 (2001 census). Origins of the city View of the delta of the river Strymon from the acropolis of Amphipolis Archaeology has uncovered remains at the site dating to approximately 3000 BC. Due to the strategic location of the site it was fortified from very early. Xerxes I of Persia passed during his invasion of Greece of 480 BC and buried alive nine young men and nine maidens as a sacrifice to the river god. Near the later site of Amphipolis Alexander I of Macedon defeated the remains of Xerxes' army in 479 BC. Throughout the 5th century BC, Athens sought to consolidate its control over Thrace, which was strategically important because of its primary materials (the gold and silver of the Pangaion hills and the dense forests essential for naval construction), and the sea routes vital for Athens' supply of grain from Scythia. After a first unsuccessful attempt at colonisation in 497 BC by the Miletian Tyrant Histiaeus, the Athenians founded a first colony at Ennea-Hodoi (‘Nine Ways’) in 465, but these first ten thousand colonists were massacred by the Thracians. Thucydides I, 100, 3 A second attempt took place in 437 BC on the same site under the guidance of Hagnon, son of Nicias. Map of Amphipolis The new settlement took the name of Amphipolis (literally, "around the city"), a name which is the subject of much debates about lexicography. Thucydides claims the name comes from the fact that the Strymon flows "around the city" on two sides; Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War however a note in the Suda (also given in the lexicon of Photius) offers a different explanation apparently given by Marsyas, son of Periander: that a large proportion of the population lived "around the city". However, a more probable explanation is the one given by Julius Pollux: that the name indicates the vicinity of an isthmus. Furthermore, the Etymologicum Genuinum gives the following definition: a city of the Athenians or of Thrace, which was once called Nine Routes, (so named) because it is encircled and surrounded by the Strymon river. This description corresponds to the actual site of the city (see adjacent map), and to the description of Thucydides. Amphipolis subsequently became the main power base of the Athenians in Thrace and, consequently, a target of choice for their Spartans adversaries. The Athenian population remained very much in the minority within the city. http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200;query=chapter%3D%23471;layout=;loc=4.105.1 Thucydide, IV.105.1=4.105 An Athenian rescue expedition led by strategist (and later historian) Thucydides had to settle for securing Eion and could not retake Amphipolis, a failure for which Thucydides was sentenced to exile. A new Athenian force under the command of Cleon failed once more in 422 BC during a battle at which both Cleon and Brasidas lost their lives. Brasidas survived long enough to hear of the defeat of the Athenians and was buried at Amphipolis with impressive pomp. From then on he was regarded as the founder of the city Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War and honoured with yearly games and sacrifices. The city itself kept its independence until the reign of the king Philip II despite several other Athenian attacks, notably because of the government of Callistratus of Aphidnae. From Athenian Colony to Roman province Fortifications and bridge of Amphipolis In 357 BC, Philip removed the block which Amphipolis presented on the road to Macedonian control over Thrace by conquering the town, which Athens had tried in vain to recover during the previous years. According the historian Theopompus, this conquest came to be the object of a secret accord between Athens and Philip II, who would return the city in exchange for the fortified town of Pydna, but the Macedonian king betrayed the accord, refusing to cede Amphipolis and laying siege to Pydna. After the conquest by Philip II, the city was not immediately incorporated into the kingdom, and for some time preserved its institutions and a certain degree of autonomy. The border of Macedonia was not moved further east; however, Philip sent a number of Macedonians governors to Amphipolis, and in many respects the city was effectively ‘Macedonianized’. Nomenclature, the calendar and the currency (the gold stater, installed by Philip to capitalise on the gold reserves of the Pangaion hills, replaced the Amphipolitan drachma) were all replaced by Macedonian equivalents. In the reign of Alexander, Amphipolis was an important naval base, and the birthplace of three of the most famous Macedonian Admirals: Nearchus, Androsthenes http://books.google.com/books?um=1&q=Androsthenes+Thasos&btnG=Search+Books and Laomedon whose burial place is most likely marked by the famous lion of Amphipolis. Fresco of a house in Amphipolis Amphipolis became one of the main stops on the Macedonian royal road (as testified by a border stone found between Philippos and Amphipolis giving the distance to the latter), and later on the ‘Via Egnatia’, the principal Roman Road which crossed the southern Balkans. Apart from the ramparts of the low town (see photograph), the gymnasium and a set well-preserved frescoes from a wealthy villa are the only artifacts from this period that remain visible. Though little is known of the layout of the town, modern knowledge of its institutions is in considerably better shape thanks to a rich epigraphic documentation, including a military ordinance of Philip V and an ephebarchic (?) law from the gymnasium. After the final victory of Rome over Macedonia in a battle in 168 BC, Amphipolis became the capital one of the four mini-republics, or ‘merides’, which were created by the Romans out of the kingdom of the Antigonids which succeeded Alexander’s Empire in Macedon. These 'merides' were gradually incorporated into the Roman client state, and later province, of Thracia. The Amphipolis Lion by Vlahos Vaggelis Revival in Late Antiquity During the period of Late Antiquity, Amphipolis benefited from the increasing economic prosperity of Macedonia, as is evidenced by the large number of Christian Churches that were built. Significantly however, these churches were built within a restricted area of the town, sheltered by the walls of the acropolis. This has been taken as evidence that the large fortified perimeter of the ancient town was no longer defendable, and that the population of the city had considerably diminished. Nevertheless, the number, size and quality of the churches constructed between the fifth and sixth centuries are impressive. Four basilicas adorned with rich [mosaic] floors and elaborate architectural sculptures (such as the ram-headed column capitals - see picture) have been excavated, as well as a church with a hexagonal central plan which evokes that of the basilica of St. Vitalis in Ravenna. It is difficult to find reasons for such municipal extravagance in such a small town. One possible explanation provided by the historian André Boulanger is that an increasing ‘willingness’ on the part of the wealthy upper classes in the late Roman period to spend money on local gentrification projects (which he terms ‘'évergétisme’', from the Greek verb εύεργετέω,(meaning ‘I do good’) was exploited by the local church to its advantage, which led to a mass gentrification of the urban centre and of the agricultural riches of the city’s territory. Amphipolis was also a diocese under the suffragan of Thessaloniki - the Bishop of Amphipolis is first mentioned in 533 AD. From the reduction of the urban area to the disappearance of the city Ram-headed capital of a column from a pre-Christian temple in Amphipolis The Slavic invasions of the late 6th century gradually encroached on the back-country Amphipolitan lifestyle and led to the decline of the town, during which period its inhabitants retreated to the area around the acropolis. The ramparts were maintained to a certain extent, thanks to materials plundered from the monuments of the lower city, and the large unused cisterns of the upper city were occupied by small houses and the workshops of artisans. Around the middle of the 7th century AD, a further reduction of the inhabited area of the city was followed by an increase in the fortification of the town, with the construction of a new rampart with pentagonal towers cutting through the middle of the remaining monuments. The acropolis, the Roman baths, and especially the Episcopal basilica were crossed by this wall. The city was probably abandoned in the eighth century, as the last bishop was attested in 787. Its inhabitants probably moved to the neighbouring site of ancient Eion, port of Amphipolis, which had been rebuilt and refortified in the Byzantine period under the name “Chrysopolis”. This small port continued to enjoy some prosperity, before being abandoned during the Ottoman period. The last recorded sign of activity in the region of Amphipolis was the construction of a fortified tower to the north in 1367 by Grand Primicier Jean and the Stratopedarque Alexis to protect the land that they had given to the monastery of Pantokrator on Mount Athos. Exploration of the site The ruins of Amphipolis as seen by E. Cousinéry in 1831: the bridge over the Strymon, the city fortifications, and the acropolis The site was rediscovered and described by many travellers and archaeologists during the 19th century, including E. Cousinéry (1831) (engraver), L. Heuzey (1861), and P. Perdrizet (1894–1899). In 1934, M. Feyel, of the École française d'Athènes, led an epigraphical mission to the site and uncovered the remains of a funeral lion (a reconstruction was given in the, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique a publication of the EfA which is available on line). However, excavations did not truly begin until after the Second World War. The Greek Archaeological Society under D. Lazaridis excavated in 1972 and 1985, uncovering a necropolis, the rampart of the old town (see photograph), the basilicas, and the acropolis. Amphipolis in pop culture In the popular TV series Xena: Warrior Princess, the fictional character Xena – the main character of the show – was born at the city of Amphipolis and is on occasion referred to as Xena of Amphipolis. Xena and her comrade in arms, Gabrielle of Poteidaia, made frequent trips to Amphipolis. The city became a breeding ground for demons when the duo came back after twenty five years of being trapped in ice. Mephistopheles, the king of hell, had captured the soul of Cyrene of Amphipolis, Xena's mother, and tortured her. Xena was able to defeat Mephistopheles and rescue the trapped souls, releasing them to rest in the Elysian Fields. Amphipolitans Demetrius of Amphipolis student of Plato Zoilus (400 BC-320 BC) grammarian, cynic philosopher Pamphilus painter,head of Sicyonian school and teacher of Apelles Aetion sculptor Philippus of Amphipolis,historian Nearchus Macedonian admiral Erigyius Macedonian general Damasias of Amphipolis 320 BC Stadion Olympics Hermagoras of Amphipolis (c. 225 BC), stoic philosopher ,follower of Persaeus Damippus, Pythagorean References External links Demographic Information from Greek Travel Pages Livius.org: Amphipolis | Amphipolis |@lemmatized localization:1 amphipolis:37 amphípolis:1 ancient:4 greek:4 city:25 region:2 inhabit:1 edoni:1 people:1 present:3 day:1 periphery:1 central:3 macedonia:5 build:3 raise:1 plateau:1 overlook:1 east:2 bank:1 river:4 strymon:5 emerge:1 lake:1 cercinitis:1 aegean:1 sea:2 found:2 bc:14 finally:1 abandon:3 century:7 ad:3 municipality:2 amfipoli:1 name:7 occupy:2 site:10 currently:1 serres:1 prefecture:1 population:4 census:1 origins:1 view:1 delta:1 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publication:1 efa:1 available:1 line:1 excavation:1 truly:1 begin:1 world:1 archaeological:1 society:1 lazaridis:1 necropolis:1 old:1 pop:1 culture:1 popular:1 tv:1 series:1 xena:6 warrior:1 princess:1 fictional:1 character:2 show:1 bear:1 occasion:1 refer:1 comrade:1 arm:1 gabrielle:1 poteidaia:1 make:1 frequent:1 trip:1 breeding:1 ground:1 demon:1 duo:1 twenty:1 five:1 trap:1 ice:1 mephistopheles:2 hell:1 capture:1 soul:2 cyrene:1 mother:1 torture:1 able:1 trapped:1 release:1 rest:1 elysian:1 field:1 amphipolitans:1 demetrius:1 student:1 plato:1 zoilus:1 grammarian:1 cynic:1 philosopher:2 pamphilus:1 painter:1 sicyonian:1 school:1 teacher:1 apelles:1 aetion:1 sculptor:1 philippus:1 erigyius:1 general:1 damasias:1 stadion:1 olympics:1 hermagoras:1 c:1 stoic:1 follower:1 persaeus:1 damippus:1 pythagorean:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 demographic:1 information:1 travel:1 page:1 livius:1 org:1 |@bigram aegean_sea:1 strategically_important:1 gold_silver:1 peloponnesian_war:2 cgi_bin:1 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2,106 | Microwave | Electromagnetic spectrum with visible light highlighted Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 1mm - 1m, or frequencies between 0.3 GHz and 300 GHz. Apparatus and techniques may be described qualitatively as "microwave" when the wavelengths of signals are roughly the same as the dimensions of the equipment, so that lumped-element circuit theory is inaccurate. As a consequence, practical microwave technique tends to move away from the discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors used with lower frequency radio waves. Instead, distributed circuit elements and transmission-line theory are more useful methods for design and analysis. Open-wire and coaxial transmission lines give way to waveguides, and lumped-element tuned circuits are replaced by cavity resonators or resonant lines. Effects of reflection, polarization, scattering, diffraction and atmospheric absorption usually associated with visible light are of practical significance in the study of microwave propagation. The same equations of electromagnetic theory apply at all frequencies. While the name may suggest a micrometer wavelength, it is better understood as indicating wavelengths very much smaller than those used in radio broadcasting. The boundaries between far infrared light, terahertz radiation, microwaves, and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study. The term microwave generally refers to "alternating current signals with frequencies between 0.3 GHz (3×108 Hz) and 300 GHz (3×1011 Hz)." Pozar, David M. (1993). Microwave Engineering Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 0-201-50418-9. Both IEC standard 60050 and IEEE standard 100 define "microwave" frequencies starting at 1 GHz (30 cm wavelength). Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than microwaves are called "radio waves". Electromagnetic radiation with shorter wavelengths may be called "millimeter waves", terahertz radiation or even T-rays. Definitions differ for millimeter wave band, which the IEEE defines as 110 GHz to 300 GHz. Frequency range The microwave range includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3–3 GHz), super high frequency (SHF) (3–30 GHz), and extremely high frequency (EHF) (30–300 GHz) signals. Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is effectively opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges. Microwave sources Vacuum tube devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous stream. A maser is a device similar to a laser, except that it works at microwave frequencies. Solid-state sources include the field-effect transistor (at least at lower frequencies), tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, and IMPATT diodes. Uses A microwave telecommunications tower on Wrights Hill in Wellington, New Zealand Communication Before the advent of fiber optic transmission, most long distance telephone calls were carried via microwave point-to-point links through sites like the AT&T Long Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away. Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to offer services in this range in the U.S.-with emphasis on 3.65GHZ. Dozens of service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on the 3.65GHZ band will give business customers another option for connectivity. Metropolitan Area Networks: MAN protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) based in the IEEE 802.16 specification. The IEEE 802.16 specification was designed to operate between 2 to 11 GHz. The commercial implementations are in the 2.3GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges. Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access: MBWA protocols based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (e.g. iBurst) are designed to operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency. Cable TV and Internet access on coaxial cable as well as broadcast television use some of the lower microwave frequencies. Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, also use the lower microwave frequencies. Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directive antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van. Most satellite communications systems operate in the C, X, Ka, or Ku Bands of the microwave spectrum. These frequencies allow large bandwidth while avoiding the crowded UHF frequencies and staying below the atmospheric absorption of EHF frequencies. Satellite TV either operates in the C band for the traditional large dish Fixed Satellite Service or Ku band for Direct Broadcast Satellite. Military communications run primarily over X or Ku Band links, with Ka band being used for Milstar. Remote sensing Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War II due to its great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement. A Gunn diode oscillator and waveguide are used as a motion detector for automatic door openers (although these are being replaced by ultrasonic devices). Most radio astronomy uses microwaves. Microwave imaging; see Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine Navigation Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the American Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz. Power A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequency near 2.45 GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of energy in the water, fats and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of inexpensive cavity magnetrons. Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products. Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using Solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves. Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 °F (54 °C) at a depth of 1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System. Raytheon's Silent Guardian millimeter wave weapon Microwave frequency bands The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from approximately 1 GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSGB), are shown in the table below: +Microwave frequency bandsLetter DesignationFrequency rangeL band1 to 2 GHzS band2 to 4 GHzC band4 to 8 GHzX band8 to 12 GHzKu band12 to 18 GHzK band18 to 26.5 GHzKa band26.5 to 40 GHzQ band30 to 50 GHzU band40 to 60 GHzV band50 to 75 GHzE band60 to 90 GHzW band75 to 110 GHzF band90 to 140 GHzD band110 to 170 GHz Footnote: P band is sometimes incorrectly used for Ku Band. "P" for "previous" was a radar band used in the UK ranging from 250 to 500 MHz and now obsolete per IEEE Std 521, see and . For other definitions see Letter Designations of Microwave Bands Microwave frequency measurement Microwave frequency can be measured by either electronic or mechanical techniques. Frequency counters or high frequency heterodyne systems can be used. Here the unknown frequency is compared with harmonics of a known lower frequency by use of a low frequency generator, a harmonic generator and a mixer. Accuracy of the measurement is limited by the accuracy and stability of the reference source. Mechanical methods require a tunable resonator of some form, which has a known relation between a physical dimension and frequency. An alternative mechanical technique is to use a slotted waveguide or slotted coaxial line to directly measure the wavelength. These devices consist of a probe introduced into the line through a longitudinal slot, so that the probe is free to travel up and down the line. Slotted lines are primarily intended for measurement of the voltage standing wave ratio on the line. However, provided a standing wave is present, they may also be used to measure the distance between the nodes, which is equal to half the wavelength. Precision of this method is limited by the determination of the nodal locations. Health effects Microwaves contain insufficient energy to directly chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of nonionizing radiation. The word "radiation" refers to the fact that energy can radiate. The term in this context is not to be confused with radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other nonionizing electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. This is separate from the risks associated with very high intensity exposure, which can cause heating and burns like any heat source, and not a unique property of microwaves specifically. During World War II, it was observed that individuals in the radiation path of radar installations experienced clicks and buzzing sounds in response to the microwaves radiation. This microwave auditory effect was thought to be caused by the microwaves inducing an electric current in the hearing centers of the brain. Philip L. Stocklin, US Patent 4,858,612, December 19, 1983 Research by NASA in the 1970s has shown this to be caused by thermal expansion in parts of the inner ear. When injury from exposure to microwaves occurs, it usually results from dielectric heating induced in the body. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts by this mechanism, because the microwave heating denatures proteins in the crystalline lens of the eye (in the same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque) faster than the lens can be cooled by surrounding structures. The lens and cornea of the eye are especially vulnerable because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away heat. Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other tissues as well, up to and including serious burns which may not be immediately evident because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture content. History and research Perhaps the first, documented, formal use of the term microwave occurred in 1931: "When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm were made known, there was undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon." Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1 In 1943: the Hungarian engineer Zoltán Bay sent ultra-short radio waves to the moon, which, reflected from there worked as a radar, and could be used to measure distance, as well as to study the moon. http://dieselpingwin.multiply.com/reviews/item/8 Perhaps the first use of the word microwave in an astronomical context occurred in 1946 in an article "Microwave Radiation from the Sun and Moon" by Robert Dicke and Robert Beringer. Some of the history in the development of electromagnetic theory applicable to modern microwave applications see the following figures: Hans Christian Ørsted. Michael Faraday. James Clerk Maxwell. Heinrich Hertz. Nikola Tesla. Guglielmo Marconi. Samuel Morse. Sir William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin. Oliver Heaviside. Lord Rayleigh. Oliver Lodge. Jagadish Chandra Bose. Julius Lange. Specific significant areas of research and work developing microwaves and their applications: +Specific work on microwavesWork carried out byArea of workBarkhausen and KurzPositive grid oscillatorsHullSmooth bore magnetronVarian BrothersVelocity modulated electron beam → klystron tubeRandall and BootCavity magnetron See also Cosmic microwave background radiation Electron cyclotron resonance Microwave auditory effect Rain fade Microwave chemistry Microwave Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition Microwave radio relay Thing (listening device) Tropospheric scatter RF Switch Matrix References External links EM Talk, Microwave Engineering Tutorials and Tools Microwave Irradiation for Negative Refraction by using Metamaterials Microwaves101, web resource covering the fundamental principles of microwave design Applications of Microwaves in Medicine Microwave Technology Video Microwave Digestion Platform by Anton Paar | Microwave |@lemmatized electromagnetic:9 spectrum:6 visible:2 light:3 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2,107 | Niels_Henrik_Abel | Niels Henrik Abel (August 5, 1802 – April 6, 1829) was a noted Norwegian mathematician Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 3 who proved the impossibility of solving the quintic equation in radicals. Early life Abel was born in Nedstrand, near Finnøy, to Søren Georg Abel and Anne Marie Simonsen, "the daughter of a shipping merchant." See page 91 of Abel's father had a degree in theology and philosophy and his grandfather was an active Protestant minister at Gjerstad near Risør. After the latter's death, Abel's father was appointed as minister at Gjerstad. In 1815, Abel entered the Cathedral School in Christiania. A new mathematics teacher, Bernt Michael Holmboe, was appointed in 1817. Seeing Abel's talent in mathematics he encouraged him to study the subject to an advanced level. When Abel's father died in 1820, the family was left in strained circumstances, and Holmboe supported Abel with a scholarship to remain at school and raised money from his friends to enable Abel to study at the Royal Frederick University. Abel entered the university in 1821 and graduated in 1822. Career After returning from a visit to Degen and other mathematicians in Copenhagen, Abel applied for economic support in order to visit top mathematicians in Germany and France. Instead, he was given funds to stay in Cristiania for two years, and he learned German and French in those years. While learning languages, Abel published his first notable work in 1824, Mémoire sur les équations algébriques ou on démontre l'impossibilité de la résolution de l'équation générale du cinquième degré (Memoir on algebraic equations, in which the impossibility of solving the general equation of the fifth degree is proven). Abel proved the impossibility of solving the quintic equation in radicals in 1823 (now referred to as the Abel–Ruffini theorem). This work was in abstruse and difficult form, in part because the page count was severely restricted in order to save money on printing. A more detailed proof was published in 1826 in the first volume of Crelle's Journal. In 1825, he was given a government scholarship that enabled him to travel abroad. During the travel, Abel visited the astronomer Heinrich Christian Schumacher in Altona, now a district of Hamburg. He spent six months in Berlin, where he became well acquainted with August Leopold Crelle, who was then about to publish his mathematical journal. This project was warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiburg, and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of functions: elliptic, hyperelliptic, and a new class now known as abelian functions being particularly intensely studied. In 1826 Abel moved to Paris, and during a ten-month stay he met the leading mathematicians of France; but he was poorly appreciated, as his work was scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him from proclaiming his research. Pecuniary embarrassments, from which he had never been free, finally compelled him to abandon his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught for some time at Christiania. Death While in Paris, Abel had contracted tuberculosis. For Christmas 1828, he traveled by sled to again visit his fiancée in Froland. He became seriously ill on the journey, although a temporary improvement allowed the couple to enjoy the holiday together. Crelle, at the same time, had been searching for a new job for Abel in Berlin, and did manage to have him appointed professor at a university. Crelle wrote to Abel on April 8, 1829 to tell him the good news, but Abel had died two days before. Legacy The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom Adrien-Marie Legendre said "quelle tête celle du jeune Norvégien!" ("what a head the young Norwegian has!"), cut short a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise. Under Abel's guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous ramifications along which progress could be made. His works, the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal, were edited by Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Norwegian government, and a more complete edition by Ludwig Sylow and Sophus Lie was published in 1881. The adjective "abelian", derived from his name, has become so commonplace in mathematical writing that it is conventionally spelled with a lower-case initial "a" (e.g., abelian group, abelian category, and abelian variety). On April 6, 1929, four Norwegian stamps were issued for the centenary of Abel's death. His portrait appears on the 500-kroner banknote (version V) issued during 1978–1985. On June 5, 2002, four Norwegian stamps were issued in honour of Abel two months before the bicentenary of his birth. There is also a 20-kroner coin issued by Norway in his honour. In Oslo stands a statue of Abel, and crater Abel on the Moon was named after him. In 2002, the Abel Prize was established in his memory. See also Abel transform Abel transformation Abel's identity Abel's inequality Abel equation Abelian group References Further reading - translated by Richard R. Daly External links From the Abel Prize website: Biography by Arild Stubhaug Scientific biography by Christian Houzel Collected works Handwritten manuscripts Memorabilia Biography of Niels Henrik Abel Translation of Niels Henrik Abel's Research on Elliptic Functions at Convergence Famous Quotes by Niels Henrik Abel at Convergence The Niels Henrik Abel mathematical contest, The Norwegian Mathematical Olympiad be-x-old:Нільс Хэнрык Абэль | Niels_Henrik_Abel |@lemmatized niels:5 henrik:5 abel:38 august:2 april:3 noted:1 norwegian:6 mathematician:6 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:3 prove:3 impossibility:3 solve:3 quintic:2 equation:5 radical:2 early:2 life:1 bear:1 nedstrand:1 near:2 finnøy:1 søren:1 georg:1 anne:1 marie:2 simonsen:1 daughter:1 shipping:1 merchant:1 see:3 father:3 degree:2 theology:1 philosophy:1 grandfather:1 active:1 protestant:1 minister:2 gjerstad:2 risør:1 latter:1 death:4 appoint:3 enter:3 cathedral:1 school:2 christiania:2 new:4 mathematics:2 teacher:1 bernt:1 michael:1 holmboe:3 talent:1 encourage:2 study:4 subject:1 advanced:1 level:1 die:2 family:1 leave:1 strained:1 circumstance:1 support:2 scholarship:2 remain:1 raise:1 money:2 friend:1 enable:2 royal:1 frederick:1 university:3 graduate:1 career:2 return:2 visit:4 degen:1 copenhagen:1 apply:1 economic:1 order:2 top:1 germany:1 france:2 instead:1 give:2 fund:1 stay:2 cristiania:1 two:3 year:2 learn:2 german:1 french:1 language:1 publish:5 first:2 notable:1 work:5 mémoire:1 sur:1 les:1 équations:1 algébriques:1 ou:1 démontre:1 l:2 impossibilité:1 de:2 la:1 résolution:1 équation:1 générale:1 du:2 cinquième:1 degré:1 memoir:1 algebraic:1 general:1 fifth:1 refer:1 ruffini:1 theorem:1 abstruse:1 difficult:1 form:1 part:2 count:1 severely:1 restrict:1 save:1 printing:1 detailed:1 proof:1 volume:1 crelle:5 journal:3 government:2 travel:3 abroad:1 astronomer:1 heinrich:1 christian:2 schumacher:1 altona:1 district:1 hamburg:1 spend:1 six:1 month:3 berlin:3 become:3 well:1 acquaint:1 leopold:1 mathematical:4 project:1 warmly:1 contribute:1 much:1 success:1 venture:1 pass:1 freiburg:1 make:2 brilliant:1 research:3 theory:1 function:4 elliptic:2 hyperelliptic:1 class:1 know:2 abelian:6 particularly:1 intensely:1 move:1 paris:2 ten:1 meet:1 lead:1 poorly:1 appreciate:1 scarcely:1 modesty:1 restrain:1 proclaim:1 pecuniary:1 embarrassment:1 never:1 free:1 finally:1 compel:1 abandon:1 tour:1 norway:2 teach:1 time:2 contract:1 tuberculosis:1 christmas:1 sled:1 fiancée:1 froland:1 seriously:1 ill:1 journey:1 although:1 temporary:1 improvement:1 allow:1 couple:1 enjoy:1 holiday:1 together:1 search:1 job:1 manage:1 professor:1 write:1 tell:1 good:1 news:1 day:1 legacy:1 talented:1 adrien:1 legendre:1 say:1 quelle:1 tête:1 celle:1 jeune:1 norvégien:1 head:1 young:1 cut:1 short:1 extraordinary:1 brilliance:1 promise:1 guidance:1 prevail:1 obscurity:1 analysis:1 begin:1 clear:1 field:1 upon:1 advance:1 provide:1 numerous:1 ramification:1 along:1 progress:1 could:1 great:1 originally:1 appear:2 edit:1 complete:1 edition:1 ludwig:1 sylow:1 sophus:1 lie:1 adjective:1 derive:1 name:2 commonplace:1 writing:1 conventionally:1 spell:1 low:1 case:1 initial:1 e:1 g:1 group:2 category:1 variety:1 four:2 stamp:2 issue:4 centenary:1 portrait:1 krone:2 banknote:1 version:1 v:1 june:1 honour:2 bicentenary:1 birth:1 also:2 coin:1 oslo:1 stand:1 statue:1 crater:1 moon:1 prize:2 establish:1 memory:1 transform:1 transformation:1 identity:1 inequality:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 translate:1 richard:1 r:1 daly:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 biography:3 arild:1 stubhaug:1 scientific:1 houzel:1 collect:1 handwritten:1 manuscript:1 memorabilia:1 translation:1 convergence:2 famous:1 quote:1 contest:1 olympiad:1 x:1 old:1 нільс:1 хэнрык:1 абэль:1 |@bigram niels_henrik:5 henrik_abel:5 chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 quintic_equation:2 mémoire_sur:1 sur_les:1 abel_ruffini:1 ruffini_theorem:1 severely_restrict:1 seriously_ill:1 adrien_marie:1 marie_legendre:1 sophus_lie:1 external_link:1 handwritten_manuscript:1 mathematical_olympiad:1 |
2,108 | Cavitation | Cavitating propeller model in a water tunnel experiment. High speed jet of fluid impact on a fixed surface. Cavitation damages on a valve plate for an axial piston hydraulic pump. Cavitation is the formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure. Cavitation is usually divided into two classes of behavior: inertial (or transient) cavitation, and noninertial cavitation. Inertial cavitation is the process where a void or bubble in a liquid rapidly collapses, producing a shock wave. Such cavitation often occurs in pumps, propellers, impellers, and in the vascular tissues of plants. Noninertial cavitation is the process in which a bubble in a fluid is forced to oscillate in size or shape due to some form of energy input, such as an acoustic field. Such cavitation is often employed in ultrasonic cleaning baths and can also be observed in pumps, propellers, etc. Since the shock waves formed by cavitation are strong enough to significantly damage moving parts, cavitation is usually an undesirable phenomenon. It is specifically avoided in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers, and eliminating cavitation is a major field in the study of fluid dynamics. Inertial cavitation Inertial cavitation was first studied by Lord Rayleigh in the late 19th century, when he considered the collapse of a spherical void within a liquid. When a volume of liquid is subjected to a sufficiently low pressure, it may rupture and form a cavity. This phenomenon is termed cavitation inception and may occur behind the blade of a rapidly rotating propeller or on any surface vibrating underwater with sufficient amplitude and acceleration. A fast-flowing river can cause cavitation on rock surfaces, particularly when there is a drop-off, such as on a waterfall. Other ways of generating cavitation voids involve the local deposition of energy, such as an intense focused laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a spark. Vapor gases evaporate into the cavity from the surrounding medium; thus, the cavity is not a perfect vacuum, but has a relatively low gas pressure. Such a low-pressure cavitation bubble in a liquid begins to collapse due to the higher pressure of the surrounding medium. As the bubble collapses, the pressure and temperature of the vapor within increases. The bubble eventually collapses to a minute fraction of its original size, at which point the gas within dissipates into the surrounding liquid via a rather violent mechanism, which releases a significant amount of energy in the form of an acoustic shock wave and as visible light. At the point of total collapse, the temperature of the vapor within the bubble may be several thousand kelvin, and the pressure several hundred atmospheres. Inertial cavitation can also occur in the presence of an acoustic field. Microscopic gas bubbles that are generally present in a liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic field. If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh like void to occur. High-power ultrasonics usually utilize the inertial cavitation of microscopic vacuum bubbles for treatment of surfaces, liquids, and slurries. The physical process of cavitation inception is similar to boiling. The major difference between the two is the thermodynamic paths that precede the formation of the vapor. Boiling occurs when the local vapor pressure of the liquid rises above its local ambient pressure and sufficient energy is present to cause the phase change to a gas. Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure falls sufficiently far below the saturated vapor pressure, a value given by the tensile strength of the liquid. In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation "bubbles" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container, by impurities in the liquid, or by small undissolved microbubbles within the liquid. It is generally accepted that hydrophobic surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These pre-existing bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed to a pressure below the threshold pressure, termed Blake's threshold. The vapor pressure here differs from the meteorological definition of vapor pressure, which describes the partial pressure of water in the atmosphere at some value less than 100% saturation. Vapor pressure as relating to cavitation refers to the vapor pressure in equilibrium conditions and can therefore be more accurately defined as the equilibrium (or saturated) vapor pressure. Noninertial cavitation Noninertial cavitation is the process in which small bubbles in a liquid are forced to oscillate in the presence of an acoustic field, when the intensity of the acoustic field is insufficient to cause total bubble collapse. This form of cavitation causes significantly less erosion than inertial cavitation, and is often used for the cleaning of delicate materials, such as silicon wafers. Cavitation damage Cavitation damage to a Francis turbine. Cavitation is, in many cases, an undesirable occurrence. In devices such as propellers and pumps, cavitation causes a great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss of efficiency. When the cavitation bubbles collapse, they force liquid energy into very small volumes, thereby creating spots of high temperature and emitting shock waves, the latter of which are a source of noise. The noise created by cavitation is a particular problem for military submarines, as it increases the chances of being detected by passive sonar. Although the collapse of a cavity is a relatively low-energy event, highly localized collapses can erode metals, such as steel, over time. The pitting caused by the collapse of cavities produces great wear on components and can dramatically shorten a propeller or pump's lifetime. After a surface is initially affected by cavitation, it tends to erode at an accelerating pace. The cavitation pits increase the turbulence of the fluid flow and create crevasses that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles. The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses. This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion. Hydrodynamic Cavitation Hydrodynamic cavitation describes the process of vaporisation, bubble generation and bubble implosion which occurs in a flowing liquid as a result of a decrease and subsequent increase in pressure. Cavitation will only occur if the pressure declines to some point below the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid. In pipe systems, cavitation typically occurs either as the result of an increase in the kinetic energy (through an area constriction) or an increase in the pipe elevation. Hydrodynamic cavitation can be produced by passing a liquid through a constricted channel at a specific velocity or by mechanical rotation through a liquid. In the case of the constricted channel and based on the specific (or unique) geometry of the system, the combination of pressure and kinetic energy can be created when the hydrodynamic cavitation cavern downstream of the local constriction generating high energy cavitation bubbles. The process of bubble generation, subsequent growth and collapse of the cavitation bubbles results in very high energy densities, resulting in very high temperatures and pressures at the surface of the bubbles for a very short time. The overall liquid medium environment, therefore, remains at ambient conditions. When uncontrolled, cavitation is damaging; however, by controlling the flow of the cavitation the power is harnessed and non-destructive. Controlled cavitation can be used to enhance chemical reactions or propagate certain unexpected reactions because free radicals are generated in the process due to disassociation of vapors trapped in the cavitating bubbles. Chemical engineering applications In industry, cavitation is often used to homogenize, or mix and break down, suspended particles in a colloidal liquid compound such as paint mixtures or milk. Many industrial mixing machines are based upon this design principle. It is usually achieved through impeller design or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice. In the latter case, the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into a larger volume induces cavitation. This method can be controlled with hydraulic devices that control inlet orifice size, allowing for dynamic adjustment during the process, or modification for different substances. The outer surface of this type of mixing valve, upon which the cavitation bubbles are driven against to cause their implosion, undergoes tremendous stress, and is often constructed of super-hard or tough materials such as stainless steel, Stellite, or even polycrystalline diamond (PCD). Cavitating water purification devices have also been designed, in which the extreme conditions of cavitation can break down pollutants and organic molecules. Spectral analysis of light emitted in sonochemical reactions reveal chemical and plasma-based mechanisms of energy transfer. The light emitted from cavitation bubbles is termed sonoluminesence. Hydrophobic chemicals are attracted underwater by cavitation as the pressure difference between the bubbles and the liquid water forces them to join together. This effect may assist in protein folding. Biomedical application Cavitation plays an important role for the destruction of kidney stones in shock wave lithotripsy. Currently, tests are being conducted as to whether cavitation can be used to transfer large molecules into biological cells (sonoporation). Nitrogen cavitation is a method used in research to lyse cell membranes while leaving organelles intact. Cavitation plays a key role in non-thermal noninvasive fractionation of tissue for treatment of a variety of diseases. University of Michigan. Therapeutic Ultrasound Group, Biomedical Engineering Department, University of Michigan. Cavitation also probably plays a role in HIFU, a thermal noninvasive treatment methodology for cancer. University of Oxford. Biomedical Ultrasonics & Biotherapy Laboratory, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Oxford. Cleaning application In industrial cleaning applications, cavitation has sufficient power to overcome the particle-to-substrate adhesion forces, loosening contaminants. The threshold pressure required to initiate cavitation is a strong function of the pulse width and the power input. This method works by generating controlled acoustic cavitation in the cleaning fluid, picking up and carrying contaminant particles away so that they do not reattach to the material being cleaned. Pumps and propellers Major places where cavitation occurs are in pumps, on propellers, or at restrictions in a flowing liquid. As an impeller's (in a pump) or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or submarine) blades move through a fluid, low-pressure areas are formed as the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades. The faster the blades move, the lower the pressure around it can become. As it reaches vapor pressure, the fluid vaporizes and forms small bubbles of gas. This is cavitation. When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shock waves in the fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades. Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms: Suction cavitation Suction cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low-pressure/high-vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump, where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition can have large chunks of material removed from its face or very small bits of material removed, causing the impeller to look spongelike. Both cases will cause premature failure of the pump, often due to bearing failure. Suction cavitation is often identified by a sound like gravel or marbles in the pump casing. Discharge cavitation Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge pressure is extremely high, normally occurring in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller, it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump housing at extremely high velocity. This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the housing wall (similar to what occurs in a venturi), which turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump housing. In addition, due to the high pressure conditions, premature failure of the pump's mechanical seal and bearings can be expected. Under extreme conditions, this can break the impeller shaft. Discharge cavitation in joint fluid is thought to cause the popping sound produced by bone joint cracking, for example by deliberately cracking one's knuckles. Cavitation in engines Some bigger diesel engines suffer from cavitation due to high compression and undersized cylinder walls. Vibrations of the cylinder wall induce alternating low and high pressure in the coolant against the cylinder wall. The result is pitting of the cylinder wall, which will eventually let cooling fluid leak into the cylinder and combustion gases to leak into the coolant. It is possible to prevent this from happening with the use of chemical additives in the cooling fluid that form a protective layer on the cylinder wall. This layer will be exposed to the same cavitation, but rebuilds itself. From about the 1980s, new designs of smaller petrol engines also displayed cavitation phenomenon. One answer to the need for smaller and lighter engines was a smaller coolant volume and a correspondingly higher coolant velocity. This gave rise to rapid changes in flow velocity and therefore rapid changes of static pressure in areas of high heat transfer. Where resulting vapour bubbles collapsed against a surface, they had the effect of first disrupting protective oxide layers (of cast aluminum materials) and then repeatedly damaging the newly formed surface, preventing the action of some types of corrosion inhibitor (such as silicate based inhibitors). A final problem was the affect that increased material temperature had on the relative electrochemical reactivity of the base metal and its alloying constituents. The result was deep pits that could form and penetrate the engine head in a matter of hours when the engine was running at high load and high speed. These effects could largely be avoided by the use of organic corrosion inhibitors or (preferably) by designing the engine head in such a way as to avoid certain cavitation inducing conditions. Vascular plants Cavitation occurs in the xylem of vascular plants when the tension of water within the xylem becomes so great that dissolved air within the water expands to fill either the vessel elements or tracheids. Plants are generally able to repair cavitated xylem in a number of ways. For plants less than 50 cm tall, root pressure can be sufficient to redissolve air. For larger plants, they must repair cavitation by importing solutes into the xylem; this causes water to enter as well, which can then redissolve the air. In some trees, the sound of the cavitation is clearly audible, particularly in summer, when the rate of evapotranspiration is highest. Deciduous trees shed leaves in the autumn partly because cavitation increases as temperatures decrease. Marine life Just as cavitation bubbles form on a fast-spinning boat propeller, they may also form on the tails and fins of aquatic animals. The effects of cavitation are especially important near the surface of the ocean, where the ambient water pressure is relatively low and cavitation is more likely to occur. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, because it limits their maximum swimming speed. Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the painful bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create an air film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage. Cavitation is not always a limitation for sea life; some animals have found ways to use it to their advantage when hunting prey. The pistol shrimp snaps a specialized claw to create cavitation, which can kill small fish. The mantis shrimp (of the smasher variety) uses cavitation as well in order to stun, smash open, or kill the shellfish that it feasts upon. Coastal erosion In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted. Air pockets in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded, then the force of the wave compresses the air pockets until the bubble implodes, becoming liquid, giving off various forms of energy that blast apart the rock. List of cavitation tunnels Canada National Research Council—Institute for Ocean Technology Cavitation Tunnel, Cavitation Tunnel - NRC-IOT St. Johns, Newfoundland. France "Tunnel de Cavitation" Ecole Navale, Ecole Navale - Ecole Navale Lanveoc. "Grand Tunnel Hydrodynamique" Bassin d'Essais des Carènes, cadre Val de Reuil. Germany Multiple cavitation tunnels at the Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffbau, VWS-Berlin Berlin. Large Cavitation tunnel at Hamburg Ship Model Basin, HSVA - Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt Hamburg. India Cavitation Tunnel of the Naval Science and Technology Labs at Visakhapatnam. Iran Applied Hydrodynamics Laboratory, Iran University of Science and Technology, http://hydrolab.iust.ac.ir Narmak, Tehran. Marine Engineering Laboratory, Sharif University of Technology, http://mech.sharif.edu/~mel/ http://mech.sharif.edu/~mel/CAVITATIONAL%20TUNEL.html Azadi Av., Tehran. Netherlands Large Cavitation Tunnel and High Speed Cavitation Tunnel http://www.marin.nl/web/show/id=45465| at the Maritime Research Institute, Wageningen. Norway "Cavitation Lab" NTNU, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Cavitation lab | IMT, IVT- NTNU Trondheim. Poland Ship Design and Research Centre (CTO S.A.) Centrum Techniki Okrętowej S.A., Cavitation tunnel Gdansk. South Korea Samsung Ship Model Basin (SSMB), Samsung Heavy Industries, http://www.shi.samsung.co.kr/eng/ Daejeon. Spain CEHIPAR (Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas de El Pardo), Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas de El Pardo El Pardo (Madrid). Sweden SSPA SSPA provides you with efficient maritime solutions! | SSPA Sweden Taiwan The Large Cavitation Tunnel at National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung. United Kingdom "Emerson Cavitation Tunnel," University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Emerson Cavitation Tunnel United States The Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel, The Pennsylvania State University, GTWT State College, PA. The William B. Morgan Large Cavitation Channel, http://www50.dt.navy.mil/facilities/LCC.html Memphis, TN. MIT's variable pressure water tunnel. MIT Marine Hydrodynamics Laboratory University of Minnesota's St. Anthony Falls Laboratory cavitation facilities. See also The phenomenon known as supercavitation is used to allow objects to travel under water at high speed. Supercavitation propeller Sonoluminescence Cavitation number Ultrasonics Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes Water hammer Mitton Valve References S. Barnett; Nonthermal issues: Cavitation—Its nature, detection and measurement; Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology, Volume 24, Supplement 1, June 1998, Pages S11-S21 Further reading For cavitation in plants, see Plant Physiology by Taiz and Zeiger. For cavitation in the engineering field, visit Kornfelt, M.: "On the destructive action of cavitation," Journal of applied Physics No.15, 1944. External links Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics by Christopher E. Brennen Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow by Christopher E. 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2,109 | Irish_Republican_Army | The Irish Republican Army (IRA) ( James Durney, The Volunteer: Uniforms, weapons and history of the Irish Republican Army 1913-1997, pg. 8. ) was an Irish republican revolutionary military organisation descended from the Irish Volunteers, established 25 November 1913 and who in April 1916 staged the Easter Rising. Durney, pp. 7–8 The Irish Volunteers were recognised in 1919 by Dáil Éireann (its elected assembly) as the legitimate army of the unilaterally declared Irish Republic, the Irish state proclaimed at Easter in 1916 and reaffirmed by the Dáil in January 1919. Thereafter, the IRA waged a guerrilla campaign against British rule in Ireland in the Irish War of Independence from 1919–1921. The original IRA split in 1922. After the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921, members of the IRA who supported the Treaty formed the nucleus of the National Army founded by IRA leader Michael Collins. However, a high proportion of the IRA was opposed to the treaty. The anti-Treaty IRA fought a civil war with their former comrades in 1922–23, with the intention of creating a fully independent all Ireland republic. Having lost the civil war, this group remained in existence, with the intention of overthrowing both the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland and re-establishing the Irish Republic declared in 1919. Origins Physical force Irish republicanism as an ideology had a long history, from the United Irishmen of the 1798 and 1803 rebellions, to the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 and the Irish Republican Brotherhood rebellion of 1867. In addition, the methods of the IRA were to some extent inspired by the traditions of militant agrarian Irish secret societies like the Defenders, the Ribbonmen and the supporters of the Irish Land League. The acronym IRA was first used by the IRB organization in America (also known as the Fenian Brotherhood). This "Irish Republican Army" of the 1860s comprised the American Fenians' paramilitary forces, organized into a number of regiments. Fenian soldiers wearing IRA insignia fought at the Battle of Ridgeway on 2 June 1866. However the term Irish Republican Army in its modern sense was first used in the second decade of the 20th century for the rebel forces of the Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizens Army during the Easter Rising. It was subsequently, and most commonly, used for those Volunteers who fought a guerrilla campaign in 1919–1921 in support of the Irish Republic declared in 1919. Background—Home Rule and the Volunteers The political violence that broke out in Ireland between 1916 and 1923 had its origins in Irish nationalist demands for Home Rule within the UK and British Empire and unionist resistance to these demands. By 1914, this issue was at an impasse, with the British government prepared to concede Home Rule or self government to Ireland. This led to the formation of unionist and nationalist armed militias, respectively, the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Irish Volunteers. The Government of Ireland Act 1914, more generally known as the Third Home Rule Act, was an Act of Parliament passed by the British Parliament in May 1914 which sought to give Ireland regional self-government within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Although it received Royal Assent in September 1914, its implementation was postponed until after the First World War, amid fears that opposition to home rule by Irish Unionists and illegal gun-running by the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Irish Volunteers would lead to civil war. The standoff was temporarily averted by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. The Irish Volunteers split. The National Volunteers, with over 100,000 members led by Irish Parliamentary Party leader John Redmond were prepared to accept British promises to deliver Home Rule and about 20,000 of them served in the war in the British Army. However about 12,000 Volunteers, led by Eoin MacNeill and dominated by the secret Irish Republican Brotherhood, refused to join the British war effort and kept the name Irish Volunteers. Whereas MacNeill intended to use force only to resist the imposition of conscription on Ireland, the IRB men intended to launch an armed rebellion in pursuit of Irish independence. A smaller organisation, the Irish Citizen Army—originally a worker's defence association under socialist James Connolly—independently planned their own rebellion. To avoid confusion, the IRB co-opted Connolly onto their supreme council in 1915. McNeill, however was never told of the planned insurrection. Easter Rising Weapons were supplied by Germany under the auspices of a leading human rights campaigner, Sir Roger Casement—including over 20,000 rifles and 10 machineguns. However, the plot was discovered on 21 April 1916 and the weapons were lost when the ship carrying them, the Aud, was scuttled to prevent the arms from falling into the hands of the British. The Rising broke out on 24 April 1916. However, Eoin MacNeill, the Volunteer leader found out about the plot at the last minute and issued countermanding orders to Volunteer units around the country. As a result, less than 2,000 Volunteers out of 12,000 turned out. The IRB plan was to seize a compact area of central Dublin and launch simultaneous Risings around the country. In the event, the rising consisted of a week's street fighting in the Irish capital after which the rebels surrendered. The British used overwhelming force, including over 16,000 troops, artillery, and a naval gunboat, to put down the rebellion. Over half the 500 or so killed were civilians caught in the crossfire. It was during the Rising that the Volunteers began to refer to themselves as the Irish Republican Army. 1916: The Easter Rising by Tim Pat Coogan (ISBN 0-75381-853-2), page 138 The leaders seized the General Post Office (GPO), raising a green flag bearing the legend "Irish Republic", and proclaiming independence for Ireland. While the Rising later became a celebrated episode for Irish nationalists, it was very unpopular at the time. The rebel Volunteers were a minority faction among Irish nationalists and up to 200,000 Irishmen were serving on the British side in the First World War. Moreover, the public largely blamed the rebels for the death and destruction caused in the fighting. There were calls for the execution of the "ringleaders" in the major Irish nationalist daily newspaper, the Irish Independent, and local authorities also sought the ringleaders. After the Rising, Dubliners spat, threw stones at them, and emptied chamber pots down on the rebels as they were marched towards the transport ships that would take them to the Welsh internment camps. However, public opinion dramatically shifted to the rebels' side in the next two years. Initially, this was caused by the revulsion over the summary executions of 16 senior leaders—some of whom, such as James Connolly, were too ill to stand—and of other people thought complicit in the rebellion. As one observer described, "the drawn-out process of executing the leaders of the rising, it was like watching blood seep from behind a closed door." Opinion shifted even more in favour of the Republicans in 1917–18 with the Conscription Crisis, an attempt by Britain to impose conscription on Ireland to bolster its flagging war effort. By 1917, this was extremely unpopular in Ireland due to heavy casualties on the Western Front. A small nationalist Irish party, Sinn Féin, was widely, but wrongly, credited with orchestrating the Easter Rising although its leader Arthur Griffith in fact advocated Irish self government under a dual monarchy. The Republican survivors of the Rising, under Éamon de Valera, infiltrated and took over Sinn Féin in 1917 and committed the party to founding an Irish Republic. From 1916 to 1918, the two dominant nationalist movements, Sinn Féin and the Irish Parliamentary Party, fought a tough series of battles in by-elections. Neither won a decisive victory; however, the Conscription Crisis tipped the balance in favor of Sinn Féin. The party went on to win a clear majority of seats in the 1918 general election: of the 73 seats in which Sinn Féin were elected, 25 were uncontested. The Sinn Féin MPs withdrew from the British Parliament and declared an Irish Republic, with themselves as the legitimate government. They met in their own parliament, which they called the Dáil. In this new position of strength, the Irish Volunteers, who had been swollen to over 100,000 men in the conscription crisis, were re-organised as the army of this Republic. Hence they began to refer to themselves as the Irish Republican Army. An tÓglach, August 1918, quoted in Coogan, The IRA, (1970), pages 41, 42 The emergence of the IRA after the Easter Rising The first steps towards reorganizing the defeated Irish Volunteers were taken on 27 October 1917 when a convention took place in Dublin. This convention, that subsequently became known as an IRA convention, was called to coincide with the Sinn Féin party conference. Nearly 250 people attended the convention; internment prevented many more from attending. In fact, the Royal Irish Constabulary estimated that 162 companies of volunteers were active in the country, although other sources suggest a higher figure of 390. The proceedings were presided over by Éamon de Valera, who had been elected President of Sinn Féin the previous day. Also on the platform were Cathal Brugha and many others who were prominent in the reorganising of the Volunteers in the previous few months, many of them ex-prisoners. De Valera was elected president. A national executive was also elected, composed of provincial representatives (including Dublin). In addition, a number of directors were elected to head the various IRA departments. Those elected were: Michael Collins (Director for Organisation); Diarmuid Lynch (Director for Communications); Michael Staines (Director for Supply); Rory O'Connor (Director of Engineering). Seán McGarry was voted General Secretary, while Cathal Brugha was made Chairman of the Resident Executive, which in effect made him Chief of Staff. The other elected members were: M. W. O'Reilly (Dublin); Austin Stack (Kerry); Con Collins (Limerick); Seán MacEntee (Belfast); Joe O'Doherty (Donegal); Paul Galligan (Cavan); Eoin O'Duffy (Monaghan); Seamus Doyle (Wexford); Peadar Bracken (Offaly); Larry Lardner (Galway); Dick Walsh (Mayo) and another member from Connacht. There were six co-options to make-up the full number when the directors were named from within their ranks. The six were all Dublin men: Eamonn Duggan; Gearóid O'Sullivan; Fintan Murphy; Diarmuid O'Hegarty; Dick McKee and Paddy Ryan. Of the 26 elected, six were also members of the Sinn Féin National Executive, with Éamon de Valera president of both. Eleven of the 26 were elected Teachta Dála in the 1918 general election and 13 in the May 1921 election. Dáil Éireann and the IRA Sinn Féin MPs elected in 1918 fulfilled their election promise not to take their seats in Westminster but instead set up an independent "Assembly of Ireland", or Dáil Éireann, in the Irish language. On January 21, 1919, this new, unofficial parliament assembled in the Mansion House in Dublin. As its first acts, the Dáil elected a prime minister (Príomh Aire), Cathal Brugha, and inaugurated a ministry called the Aireacht. In theory, the IRA was responsible to the Dáil and was the army of the Irish Republic. In practice, the Dáil had great difficulty controlling the actions of the Volunteers. The new leadership of the Irish Republic worried that the IRA would not accept its authority, given that the Volunteers, under their own constitution, was bound to obey their own executive and no other body. Dorothy MacCardle, The Irish Republic (Corgi, 1968) p.267. The fear was increased when, on the very day the new national parliament was meeting, 21 January 1919, the South Tipperary IRA volunteer unit, acting on their own initiative, seized a quantity of gelignite, and two Royal Irish Constabulary constables (James McDonnell and Patrick O'Connell) were killed in the process by Seán Treacy and Dan Breen. Technically, the men involved were considered to be in a serious breach of IRA discipline and were liable to be court-martialed, but it was considered more politically expedient to hold them up as examples of a rejuvenated militarism. The conflict soon escalated into guerrilla warfare by what were then known as the Flying Columns in remote areas. Attacks on remote Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) barracks continued throughout 1919 and 1920, forcing the police to consolidate defensively in the larger towns, effectively placing large areas of the countryside in the hands of the Republicans. Moves to make the IRA the army of the Dáil and not its rival had begun before the January attack, and were stepped up. On 31 January the IRA organ, An tÓglách ("The Volunteer") published a list of principles agreed between two representatives of the Aireacht, acting Príomh Aire Cathal Brugha and Richard Mulcahy and the Executive. It made first mention of the organisation treating "the armed forces of the enemy – whether soldiers or policemen – exactly as a national army would treat the members of an invading army". Ibid p.269. In the statement the new relationship between the Aireacht and the IRA was defined clearly. The Government was defined as possessing the same power and authority as a normal government. It, and not the IRA, sanctions the IRA campaign; It explicitly spoke of a state of war. As part of the ongoing strategy to take control of the IRA, Brugha proposed to Dáil Éireann on 20 August 1919 that the Volunteers were to be asked, at this next convention, to swear allegiance to the Dáil. He further proposed that members of the Dáil themselves should swear the same oath. On 25 August Collins wrote to the Príomh Aire, Éamon de Valera, to inform him "the Volunteer affair is now fixed". Though this was "fixed" at one level, another year passed before the Volunteers took an oath of allegiance to the Irish Republic and its government, "throughout August 1920". C. Younger, Ireland's Civil War (Frederick Muller, 1968) p. 103. A power struggle continued between Brugha and Collins, both cabinet ministers, over who had the greater influence. Brugha was nominally the superior as Minister for Defence, but Collins's powerbase came from his position as Director of Organisation of the IRA and as his key powerbase as a member of the Supreme Council of the IRB. De Valera too resented Collins's clear power and influence, which he saw as coming from the secretive IRB than from his position as a Teachta Dála (TD) and minister in the Aireacht. Brugha and de Valera both urged the IRA to undertake larger, more conventional military actions for the propaganda effect, but were ignored by Collins and Mulcahy. Brugha at one stage proposed the assassination of the entire British cabinet. This was also discounted due to its presumed negative effect on British public opinion. Moreover, many members of the Dáil, notably Arthur Griffith did not approve of IRA violence and would have preferred a campaign of passive resistance to British rule. The Dáil belatedly accepted responsibility for IRA actions in April 1921, just three months before the end of the Irish War of Independence. In practice, the IRA was commanded by Collins, with Richard Mulcahy as second in command. These men were able to issue orders and directives to IRA guerrilla units around the country and at times to send arms and organisers to specific areas. However, because of the localised and irregular character of the war, they were only able to exert limited control over local IRA commanders such as Tom Barry, Liam Lynch in Cork and Seán Mac Eoin in Longford. The War of Independence IRA campaign and organisation See also: Chronology of the Irish War of Independence The IRA fought a guerrilla war against the Crown forces in Ireland from 1919 to July 1921. The most intense period of the war was from November 1920 to July 1921. The IRA campaign can broadly be split into three phases. The first, in 1919, involved the re-organisation of the Irish Volunteers as a guerrilla army. Organisers such as Ernie O'Malley were sent around the country to set up viable guerrilla units. On paper, there were 100,000 or so Volunteers enrolled after the conscription crisis of 1918. However, only about 15,000 of these participated in the guerrilla war. In 1919, Collins, the IRA's Director of Intelligence, organised the "Squad"—an assassination unit based in Dublin which killed police involved in intelligence work; the Irish playwright Brendan Behan's father Stephen Behan was a member of this squad. Typical of Collin's sardonic sense of humour, the squad was often referred to as his "Twelve Apostles". In addition, there were some arms raids on Royal Irish Constabulary barracks. By the end of 1919, four Dublin Metropolitan Police and 11 RIC men had been killed. The RIC abandoned most of their smaller rural barracks in late 1919. Around 400 of these were burned in a co-ordinated IRA operation around the country in April 1920. The second phase of the IRA campaign, roughly from January to July 1920, involved attacks on the fortified police barracks located in the towns. Between January and June 1920, 16 of these were destroyed and 29 badly damaged. Several events of late 1920 greatly escalated the conflict. Firstly, the British declared martial law in parts of the country—allowing for internment and executions of IRA men. Secondly they deployed paramilitary forces, the Black and Tans and Auxiliary Division, and more British Army personnel into the country. Thus, the third phase of the war (roughly August 1920–July 1921) involved the IRA taking on a greatly expanded British force, moving away from attacking well defended barracks and instead using ambush tactics. To this end the IRA was re-organised into "flying columns"—permanent guerrilla units, usually about 20 strong, though sometimes larger. In rural areas, the flying columns usually had bases in remote mountainous areas. While most areas of the country saw some violence in 1919–1921, the brunt of the war was fought in Dublin and the southern province of Munster. In Munster, the IRA carried out a significant number of successful actions against British troops, for instance the ambushing and killing of 17 of 18 Auxiliaries by Tom Barry's column at Kilmicheal in West Cork in November 1920, or Liam Lynch's men killing 13 British soldiers near Millstreet early in the next year. At the Crossbarry Ambush in March 1921, 100 or so of Barry's men fought a sizeable engagement with a British column of 1,200, escaping from the British encircling manoeuvre. In Dublin, the "Squad" and elements of the IRA Dublin Brigade were amalgamated into the "Active Service Unit", under Oscar Traynor, which tried to carry out at least three attacks on British troops a day. Usually, these consisted of shooting or grenade attacks on British patrols. Outside Dublin and Munster, there were only isolated areas of intense activity. For instance, the County Longford IRA under Seán Mac Eoin carried out a number of well planned ambushes and successfully defended the village of Ballinalee against Black and Tan reprisals in a three-hour gun battle. In Mayo, large scale guerrilla action did not break out until spring 1921, when two British forces were ambushed at Carrowkennedy and Tourmakeady. Elsewhere, fighting was more sporadic and less intense. In Belfast, the war had a character all of its own. The area had a Protestant and Unionist majority and IRA actions were responded to with reprisals against the Catholic population, including killings (such as the McMahon Murders) and the burning of many homes. The IRA in Belfast and the north generally, although involved in protecting the Catholic community from loyalists and state forces, and undertook an arson campaign against factories and commercial premises. The violence in Belfast alone, which continued until October 1922 long after the truce in the rest of the country, claimed the lives of between 400 and 500 people. Alan F. Parkinson, Belfast's Unholy War, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2004 In April 1921, the IRA was again reorganised, in line with the Dáil's endorsement of its actions, along the lines of a regular army. Divisions were created based on region, with commanders being given responsibility, in theory, for large geographical areas. In practice, this had little effect on the localised nature of the guerrilla warfare. In May 1921, the IRA in Dublin attacked and burned the The Custom House. The action was a serious setback as five members were killed and eighty captured. By the end of the war, in July 1921, the IRA was very hard pressed by the deployment of more British troops into the most active areas and a chronic shortage of arms and ammunition. It has been estimated that the IRA had only about 3,000 rifles (mostly captured from the British) during the war, with a larger number of shotguns and pistols. An ambitious plan to buy arms from Italy in 1921 collapsed when the money did not reach the arms dealers. Towards the end of the war, some Thompson submachine guns were imported from the United States; however 450 of these were intercepted by the American authorities and the remainder only reached Ireland shortly before the Truce. By June 1921, Collins' assessment was that the IRA was within weeks, possibly even days, of collapse. It had few weapons or ammunition left. Moreover, almost 5,000 IRA men had been imprisoned or interned and over 500 killed. Collins and Mulcahy estimated that the number of effective guerrilla fighters was down to 2,000–3,000. However in the summer of 1921, the war was abruptly ended. Atrocities on both sides The Irish War of Independence was a brutal and bloody affair, with violence and acts of extreme brutality on both sides. The British sent hundreds of World War I veterans to assist the RIC. The veterans at first wore a combination of black police uniforms and tan army uniforms (because of shortages), which, according to one etymology, inspired the nickname Black and Tans. The brutality of the "Black and Tans" is now legendary, although the most excessive repression attributed to the Crown's forces was often that of the Auxiliary Division of the Constabulary. One of the strongest critics of the Black and Tans was King George V. When the Lord Mayor of Cork Terence MacSwiney lay dying on hunger strike the King personally intervened to try to get MacSwiney's release from jail. Typical British reprisals included the burning of houses and businesses, the owners of which occasionally had no connection to the IRA. In addition, after August 1920, the British began executing IRA prisoners. The IRA responded by killing British prisoners. Spies and suspected spies were shot by the IRA and publicly dumped on roadsides. The most high profile atrocity of the war took place in Dublin in November 1920, and is still known as Bloody Sunday. In the early hours of the morning, Collins' "Squad" assassinated 14 British agents, some in front of their wives and families. In reprisal, that afternoon, British forces opened fire on a football crowd at Croke Park, killing 14 civilians. Towards the end of the day, two prominent Republicans and a friend of theirs were arrested and killed by Crown Forces. The IRA was also involved in the destruction of many stately homes in Munster. These belonged to prominent Loyalists The Church of Ireland Gazette recorded numerous instances of Unionists and Loyalists being shot, burnt or forced from their homes during the early 1920s. In County Cork between 1920 and 1923 the IRA shot over 200 civilians of whom over 70 (or 36%) were Protestants: five times the percentage of Protestants in the civilian population. This was due to the historical inclination of Protestants towards loyalty to the United Kingdom. A convention of Irish Protestant Churches in Dublin in May 1922 signed a resolution placing "on record" that "hostility to Protestants by reason of their religion has been almost, if not wholly, unknown in the twenty-six counties in which Protestants are in the minority." who were aiding the Crown forces, and were burnt to discourage the British policy of destroying the homes of Republicans, suspected and actual. Many historic buildings in Ireland were destroyed during the war, most famously the Custom House in Dublin, which was disastrously attacked on de Valera's insistence, to the horror of the more militarily experienced Collins. As he feared, the destruction proved a pyrrhic victory for the Republic, with so many IRA men killed or captured that the IRA in Dublin suffered a severe blow. This was also a period of social upheaval in Ireland, with frequent strikes as well as other manifestations of class conflict. In this regard, the IRA acted to a large degree as an agent of social control and stability, driven by the need to preserve cross-class unity in the national struggle, "The Politics of Illusion: Republicanism and Socialism in Modern Ireland", Henry Patterson, Hutchinson Radius, 1989: pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-09-174139-4. and on occasion being used to break strikes. Communism in Modern Ireland: The Pursuit of the Workers' Republic since 1916, Mike Milotte, Dublin, 1984, pp. 56–57. Assessment Assessments of the effectiveness of the IRA's campaign vary. The IRA did not in any sense defeat the British military in Ireland. Nor were they ever in a position to engage them in conventional warfare. IRA Chief-of-Staff Richard Mulcahy bemoaned the fact that they had not been able to drive the British "out of anything bigger than a fairly good size police barracks". On the other hand, the guerrilla warfare of 1919–21 had made Ireland ungovernable except by military means. The political, military and financial costs of remaining in Ireland were higher than the British government was prepared to pay and this in a sense forced them into negotiations with the Irish political leaders. According to historian Michael Hopkinson, the guerrilla warfare "was often courageous and effective". Hopkinson, Irish War of Independence, p.204. Historian David Fitzpatrick observes, "The guerrilla fighters...were vastly outnumbered by the forces of the Crown.... [T]he success of the Irish Volunteers in surviving so long is therefore noteworthy." Bartlett, Military History of Ireland, p. 406. Truce and Treaty David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, at the time, found himself under increasing pressure (both internationally and from within the British Isles) to try to salvage something from the situation. This was a complete reversal on his earlier position. He had consistently referred to the IRA as a "murder gang" up until then. An unexpected olive branch came from King George V, who, in a speech in Belfast called for reconciliation on all sides, changed the mood and enabled the British and Irish Republican governments to agree to a truce. The Truce was agreed on 11 July 1921. On 8 July, de Valera met General Macready, the British commander in chief in Ireland and agreed terms. The IRA was to retain its arms and the British Army was to remain in barracks for the duration of peace negotiations. Many IRA officers interpreted the truce only as a temporary break in fighting. They continued to recruit and train volunteers, with the result that the IRA had increased its number to over 72,000 men by early 1922. Negotiations on an Anglo-Irish Treaty took place in late 1921 in London. The Irish delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. The most contentious areas of the Treaty for the IRA were abolition of the Irish Republic declared in 1919, the status of the Irish Free State as a dominion in the British Commonwealth and the British retention of the so called Treaty Ports on Ireland's south coast. These issues were the cause of a split in the IRA and ultimately, the Irish Civil War. Under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, Ireland was partitioned, creating Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish agreement of 6 December 1921, which ended the war (1919–1921), Northern Ireland was given the option of withdrawing from the new state, the Irish Free State, and remaining part of the United Kingdom. The Northern Ireland parliament chose to do the latter. An Irish Boundary Commission was then set up to review the border. Irish leaders expected that it would so reduce Northern Ireland's size, by transferring nationalist areas to the Irish Free State, as to make it economically unviable. Partition was not the key breaking point between pro- and anti-Treaty campaigners; both sides expected the Boundary Commission to emasculate Northern Ireland. Moreover, Michael Collins was planning a clandestine guerrilla campaign against the Northern state using the IRA. In early 1922, he sent IRA units to the border areas and sent arms to northern units. For this reason, the future of Northern Ireland was not the cause of the Irish Civil War. It was only afterwards, when partition was confirmed that a united Ireland became the preserve of anti-Treaty Republicans. The IRA and the Treaty The IRA leadership was deeply divided over the decision by the Dáil to ratify the Treaty. Despite the fact that Michael Collins – the de facto leader of the IRA – had negotiated the Treaty, many IRA officers were against it. Of the General Headquarters (GHQ) staff, nine members were in favour of the Treaty while four opposed it. Many of the IRA rank-and-file were against the Treaty and in January–June 1922, their discontent developed into open defiance of the elected civilian Provisional government of Ireland. Dorothy Macardle has claimed that 70 to 80 per cent of the IRA was against the Treaty. IRA Chief-of-Staff Richard Mulcahy estimated at the outbreak of the civil war that the anti-treaty IRA members outnumbered the pro-treaty ones by over 2–1. Both sides agreed that the IRA's allegiance was to the (elected) Dáil of the Irish Republic, but the anti-Treaty side argued that the decision of the Dáil to accept the Treaty (and set aside the Irish Republic) meant that the IRA no longer owed that body its allegiance. They called for the IRA to withdraw from the authority of the Dáil and to entrust the IRA Executive with control over the army. On 16 January, the first IRA division – the 2nd Southern Division led by Ernie O'Malley – repudiated the authority of the GHQ. A month later, on 18 February, Liam Forde, O/C of the IRA Mid-Limerick Brigade, issued a proclamation stating that: "We no longer recognise the authority of the present head of the army, and renew our allegiance to the existing Irish Republic". This was the first unit of the IRA to break with the pro-Treaty government. On 22 March, Rory O'Connor held what was to become an infamous press conference and declared that the IRA would no longer obey the Dáil as (he said) it had violated its Oath to uphold the Irish Republic. He went on to say that "we repudiate the Dáil … We will set up an Executive which will issue orders to the IRA all over the country." In reply to the question on whether this meant they intended to create a military dictatorship, O’Connor said: "You can take it that way if you like." On 28 March, the (anti-Treaty) IRA Executive issued statement stating that Minister of Defence (Richard Mulcahy) and the Chief-of-Staff (Eoin O'Duffy) no longer exercised any control over the IRA. In addition, it ordered an end to the recruitment to the new military and police forces of the Provisional Government. Furthermore, it instructed all IRA units to reaffirm their allegiance to the Irish Republic on 2 April. The stage was set for civil war over the Treaty. Civil War The pro-treaty IRA soon became the nucleus of the new (regular) Irish National Army created by Collins and Richard Mulcahy. British pressure, and tensions between the pro- and anti-Treaty factions of the IRA, led to a bloody civil war, ending in the defeat of the anti-Treaty faction. Roughly 7,000 to 8,000 of the Free State's National Army were former IRA Volunteers, while perhaps 15,000 men fought on the anti-Treaty side. On May 24, 1923 Frank Aiken, the (anti-treaty) IRA Chief-of-Staff, called a cease-fire. Many left political activity altogether, but a minority continued to insist that the new Irish Free State, created by the "illegitimate" Treaty, was an illegitimate state. They asserted that their "IRA Army Executive" was the real government of a still-existing Irish Republic. The IRA of the Civil War and subsequent organisations that have used the name claim lineage from that group, which is covered in full at Irish Republican Army (1922-1969). For information on later organisations using the name Irish Republican Army, see the table below. For a genealogy of organisations using the name IRA after 1922, see List of IRAs. See also Clan na Gael References Bibliography Tim Pat Coogan, Michael Collins (Hutchinson, 1990) ISBN 0-09-174106-8 Tim Pat Coogan, The Troubles (Arrow, 1995, 1996) ISBN 1570980926 Tim Pat Coogan, The I.R.A., 1970. ISBN 0-00-653155-5 F.S.L. Lyons, Ireland Since the Famine Dorothy MacCardle, The Irish Republic (Corgi, 1968) ISBN 0-552-07862-X Aengus Ó Snodaigh, IRA Convention meets, An Phoblacht/Republican News, 11 May 2000. Seamus Fox, Chronology of Irish History 1919-1923. Brian Dooley, Black and Green. The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland and Black America (London Press, 1988) Michael Hopkinson, The Irish War of Independence, Ernie O'Malley, On Another Man's Wound ME Collins, Ireland 1868-1966 Meda Ryan, Liam Lynch, The Real Chief Tom Barry, Guerrilla Days in Ireland T. 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2,110 | Internet_Protocol | The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol used for communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to as TCP/IP. IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite and has the task of delivering distinguished protocol datagrams (packets) from the source host to the destination host solely based on their addresses. For this purpose the Internet Protocol defines addressing methods and structures for datagram encapsulation. The first major version of addressing structure, now referred to as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is still the dominant protocol of the Internet, although the successor, Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is being deployed actively worldwide. IP Encapsulation Data from an upper layer protocol is encapsulated as packets/datagrams (the terms are basically synonymous in IP). Circuit setup is not needed before a host may send packets to another host that it has previously not communicated with (a characteristic of packet-switched networks), thus IP is a connectionless protocol. This is in contrast to Public Switched Telephone Networks that require the setup of a circuit before a phone call may go through (connection-oriented protocol). Services provided by IP Because of the abstraction provided by encapsulation, IP can be used over a heterogeneous network, i.e., a network connecting computers may consist of a combination of Ethernet, ATM, FDDI, Wi-Fi, token ring, or others. Each link layer implementation may have its own method of addressing (or possibly the complete lack of it), with a corresponding need to resolve IP addresses to data link addresses. This address resolution is handled by the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for IPv4 and Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6. Reliability The design principles of the Internet protocols assume that the network infrastructure is inherently unreliable at any single network element or transmission medium and that it is dynamic in terms of availability of links and nodes. No central monitoring or performance measurement facility exists that tracks or maintains the state of the network. For the benefit of reducing network complexity, the intelligence in the network is purposely mostly located in the end nodes of each data transmission, cf. end-to-end principle. Routers in the transmission path simply forward packets to next known local gateway matching the routing prefix for the destination address. As a consequence of this design, the Internet Protocol only provides best effort delivery and its service can also be characterized as unreliable. In network architectural language it is a connection-less protocol, in contrast to so-called connection-oriented modes of transmission. The lack of reliability allows any of the following fault events to occur: data corruption lost data packets duplicate arrival out-of-order packet delivery; meaning, if packet 'A' is sent before packet 'B', packet 'B' may arrive before packet 'A'. Since routing is dynamic and there is no memory in the network about the path of prior packets, it is possible that the first packet sent takes a longer path to its destination. The only assistance that the Internet Protocol provides in Version 4 (IPv4) is to ensure that the IP packet header is error-free through computation of a checksum at the routing nodes. This has the side-effect of discarding packets with bad headers on the spot. In this case no notification is required to be sent to either end node, although a facility exists in the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) to do so. IPv6, on the other hand, has abandoned the use of IP header checksums for the benefit of rapid forwarding through routing elements in the network. The resolution or correction of any of these reliability issues is the responsibility of an upper layer protocol. For example, to ensure in-order delivery the upper layer may have to cache data until it can be passed to the application. In addition to issues of reliability, this dynamic nature and the diversity of the Internet and its components provide no guarantee that any particular path is actually capable of, or suitable for performing the data transmission requested, even if the path is available and reliable. One of the technical constraints is the size of data packets allowed on a given link. An application must assure that it uses proper transmission characteristics. Some of this responsibility lies also in the upper layer protocols between application and IP. Facilities exist to examine the maximum transmission unit (MTU) size of the local link, as well as for the entire projected path to the destination when using IPv6. The IPv4 internetworking layer has the capability to automatically fragment the original datagram into smaller units for transmission. In this case, IP does provide re-ordering of fragments delivered out-of-order. Siyan, Karanjit. Inside TCP/IP, New Riders Publishing, 1997. ISBN 1-56205-714-6 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a protocol that will adjust its segment size to be smaller than the MTU. User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) disregard MTU size thereby forcing IP to fragment oversized datagrams. Basic Journey of a Packet IP addressing and routing Perhaps the most complex aspects of IP are IP addressing and routing. Addressing refers to how end hosts become assigned IP addresses and how subnetworks of IP host addresses are divided and grouped together. IP routing is performed by all hosts, but most importantly by internetwork routers, which typically use either interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help make IP datagram forwarding decisions across IP connected networks Version history In May, 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) published a paper entitled "A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection." Vinton G. Cerf, Robert E. Kahn, "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication", IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 22, No. 5, May 1974 pp. 637-648 The paper's authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet-switching among the nodes. A central control component of this model was the "Transmission Control Program" (TCP) that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. The monolithic Transmission Control Program was later divided into a modular architecture consisting of the Transmission Control Protocol at the connection-oriented layer and the Internet Protocol at the internetworking (datagram) layer. The model became known informally as TCP/IP, although formally it was henceforth referenced as the Internet Protocol Suite. The Internet Protocol is one of the determining elements that define the Internet. The dominant internetworking protocol (Internet Layer) in use today is IPv4; with number 4 assigned as the formal protocol version number carried in every IP datagram. IPv4 is described in RFC-791 (1981). The successor to IPv4 is IPv6. Its most prominent modification from Version 4 is the addressing system. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses (c. 4 billion, or , addresses) while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses (c. 340 undecillion, or addresses). Although adoption of IPv6 has been slow, as of June 2008, all United States government systems have demonstrated basic infrastructure support for IPv6 (if only at the backbone level). CIO council adds to IPv6 transition primer Version numbers 0 through 3 were development versions of IPv4 used between 1977 and 1979. Version number 5 was used by the Internet Stream Protocol (IST), an experimental stream protocol. Version numbers 6 through 9 were proposed for various protocol models designed to replace IPv4: SIPP (Simple Internet Protocol Plus, known now as IPv6), TP/IX (RFC 1475), PIP (RFC 1621) and TUBA (TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses, RFC 1347). Version number 6 was eventually chosen as the official assignment for the successor Internet protocol, subsequently standardized as IPv6. In 2004, a Chinese project called IPv9 was briefly mentioned in the press as a possible competitor to IPv6. The proposal had no affiliation with or support by any international standards body, and appears to have gained no traction even within China. A humorous Request for Comments that made an IPv9 protocol center of its storyline was published on April 1, 1994 by the IETF. RFC 1606: A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9. April 1, 1994. It was intended as an April Fool's Day joke. Reference diagrams Internet Protocol Suite in operation between two hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop Sample encapsulation of application data from UDP to a Link protocol frame See also Main lists: List of basic internet topics and List of Internet topics All IP Connectionless protocol Flat IP Geolocation software IANA Internet Internet Protocol Suite Internet Stream Protocol ip - the ip structure for the C programming language IP address IP packet IPv4 IPv6 TCP and UDP port numbers Transmission Control Protocol References External links RFC 791 Data Communication Lectures of Manfred Lindner - Part IP Technology Basics Data Communication Lectures of Manfred Lindner - Part IP Technology Details Data Communication Lectures of Manfred Lindner - Part IPv6 IPv6.com - Knowledge Center for Next Generation Internet IPv6 | Internet_Protocol |@lemmatized internet:29 protocol:48 ip:34 use:13 communicate:2 data:13 across:2 packet:21 switch:3 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2,111 | Apple_III | The Apple III (often rendered as Apple ///) is a personal computer that was manufactured and sold by Apple from May, 1980 until its discontinuation on April 24, 1984. Its predecessor, the better-known Apple II, was designed by Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak. Intended as a computer for the business user market, design work on the Apple III started in late 1978 under the guidance of Dr. Wendell Sander. It had the internal code name of "Sara", named after Sander's daughter. History and design The Apple III was designed to be a business computer and a successor for the Apple II . It featured an advanced operating system called Apple SOS, or "Sophisticated Operating System", pronounced "Apple Sauce" and a new BASIC interpreter, "Apple /// Business BASIC" (an implementation of UCSD Pascal was also offered for more structured programming). Other features included an 80-column display with upper and lowercase characters, a numeric keypad, support for a real-time clock, 6-bit (DAC) audio, 16-color graphics, and a hierarchical file system. It included a built-in 140 KB 5.25" floppy disk drive, with up to three additional external "Disk ///" floppy disk drives, which were only compatible with the Apple ///. In addition they required an adapter for use on the /// Plus. Originally intended as a direct replacement to the Apple II series, it was designed for backwards-compatibility of Apple II software in order to migrate users over. However, since Apple did not want to encourage continued development of the II platform, they limited its capabilities to emulate a basic 48 KB Apple II+ configuration, with no access to the III's advanced features, a restriction which actually required custom chips to enforce. The Apple III was powered by a 2 MHz SynerTek 6502A 8-bit CPU and, like some of the more advanced machines in the Apple II family, used bank switching techniques to address up to 256 KB of memory (512 KB with a third-party upgrade). The Apple III was the first Apple product that allowed the user to choose both a screen font and a keyboard layout:either QWERTY or Dvorak. These choices could not be changed while programs were running, unlike the Apple IIc, which had a keyboard switch directly above the keyboard, allowing switching on the fly. The Apple III with an Apple Monitor //. The Apple III had a System Utilities program, which allowed system reconfiguration and file manipulation. Another program, Selector III, was designed to integrate with the System Utilities program and launch various applications. However, Apple decided not to finish this project, and the engineers and writers working on the project bought the right to market Selector III to Apple III owners for a nominal fee. However, another company, Quark Software, developed a competing product, Catalyst, the cruder interface of which was offset by program-switching capabilities and support for copy-protection, which enabled companies to license users to run programs from a hard disk without worrying that their software might be backed up or copied without permission. When Apple decided to bundle Catalyst with its new ProFile hard disk, Quark celebrated—it eventually grew into a major software vendor with QuarkXPress); and the Selector III's developers quietly dissolved their company. One popular anecdote about the Apple III is probably better remembered than the machine itself: in a technical bulletin, customers who were experiencing certain problems were instructed to lift the machine and drop it in order to reseat the chips. Another problem was that the circuit board used a "fineline" technology that was not fully mature, with narrow, closely spaced traces. When chips were "stuffed" into the board and wave-soldered, solder bridges would form between traces that were not supposed to be connected. This caused numerous short circuits, which required hours of costly diagnosis and hand rework to fix. Apple designed a new circuit board, with more layers and normal-width traces. It was designed by one designer on a huge drafting board, rather than a costly CAD-CAM system used for the previous board, and it worked. Some of the features and codebase of the Sophisticated Operating System made their way into the Apple II's ProDOS and GS/OS operating systems, as well as those of the Lisa and Macintosh. Commercial failure For a variety of reasons, the Apple III was a commercial failure. With a starting price between $4,340 to $7,800 US, it was more expensive than many of the CP/M-based business computers that were available at the time. The Apple III's software library was very limited, and while sold as an Apple II compatible, the emulation that made this possible was intentionally hobbled, thus it could not make use of the advanced III features (specifically 64 KB RAM or higher, required by a large number of Apple II software titles based on PASCAL), which limited its usefulness. Far more importantly, the machine was plagued by numerous hardware and software bugs. The real time clock, the first in an Apple computer, would fail after prolonged use. This chip, which was made by National Semiconductor, was an example of a recurrent problem. Semiconductor purchase contracts allowed a vendor 30 days to replace defective parts. It was assumed that a vendor would test parts before shipping them, but this was not required. National had a reputation for knowingly shipping bad parts, confident that they could do another production run before they had to send replacements. This was not a problem for customers who put chips in sockets and had extensive repair facilities. However, Apple was soldering chips directly to boards and could not easily test a board to find a single bad chip. Eventually, Apple solved this problem by deleting the real-time clock from the specification, rather than putting in a working clock chip. Other widely experienced problems were alleged due to the fact that the Apple III had no cooling fan (as suggested by Steve Jobs for quieter performance) or air vents. Because of this many Apple III computers were manufactured with heatsinks, but since the system had a metal case and chips crammed together with no air vents, it was impossible for enough heat to escape. Some users stated that their Apple III became so hot that the chips started dislodging from the board, the screen would display garbled data, or their disk would come out of the slot "melted" (which was another reason why there are very few Apple IIIs left). Jerry Manock, the case designer refuted these charges and maintained that the unit adequately dissipated the internal heat, which he proved with various tests. In the end he was vindicated as the primary culprit turned out to be a problem with the proximity between circuit board traces caused by the nascent "fineline" technology. Computer History Museum: Apple Industrial Designers Robert Brunner and Jerry Manock In the end, Apple had to replace the first 14,000 Apple III machines, free of charge. The customers who had bought them were given brand new machines, with new circuit boards. These did not constitute a new model: it was deemed warranty service. However for new customers in late 1981 it was a newly revised system, with twice as much memory (256K RAM) and sold for a much lower introductory price of $3,495. At the same time, Apple also introduced the optional ProFile 5 MB external hard drive. Apple III Plus An improved version, the Apple III Plus, was introduced in December 1983 and sold for $2,995 US. The III Plus fixed the hardware problems of the original III, included 256 KB RAM, built-in clock, video interlacing, and featured a keyboard in the style of the Apple IIe. However, not even the new "allow me to reintroduce myself" campaign could salvage the III's reputation. Possibly more relevant in the long run was the fact that the III was essentially an enhanced Apple II—newest heir to a line of 8-bit machines dating back to 1976. The year after the III was originally released, IBM unveiled its PC—a completely new 16-bit design soon available in a wide range of inexpensive clones. The business market moved rapidly towards the IBM machines and, in September 1985, the Apple III line was discontinued, having sold only about 65,000 systems. Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak stated that the primary reason for the Apple III's failure was that the system was designed by Apple's marketing department, unlike Apple's previous engineering-driven projects. Wozniak, S. G. (2006), iWoz: From Computer Geek to Cult Icon: How I Invented the Personal Computer, Co-Founded Apple, and Had Fun Doing It. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-06143-4. See also List of products discontinued by Apple Inc. References Apple III chaos (Cortland), Joshua Coventry, Low End Mac (2006) Notes External links The Ill-Fated Apple III Many manuals and diagrams | Apple_III |@lemmatized apple:58 iii:32 often:1 render:1 personal:2 computer:9 manufacture:2 sell:5 may:1 discontinuation:1 april:1 predecessor:1 good:1 know:1 ii:11 design:10 co:3 founder:2 steve:3 wozniak:3 intend:2 business:5 user:5 market:3 work:3 start:2 late:2 guidance:1 dr:1 wendell:1 sander:2 internal:2 code:1 name:2 sara:1 daughter:1 history:2 successor:1 feature:6 advanced:3 operating:3 system:13 call:1 sophisticated:2 pronounce:1 sauce:1 new:10 basic:3 interpreter:1 implementation:1 ucsd:1 pascal:2 also:3 offer:1 structured:1 programming:1 include:3 column:1 display:2 upper:1 lowercase:1 character:1 numeric:1 keypad:1 support:2 real:3 time:5 clock:5 bit:4 dac:1 audio:1 color:1 graphic:1 hierarchical:1 file:2 build:2 kb:6 floppy:2 disk:6 drive:3 three:1 additional:1 external:3 compatible:2 addition:1 require:5 adapter:1 use:6 plus:4 originally:2 direct:1 replacement:2 series:1 backwards:1 compatibility:1 software:7 order:2 migrate:1 however:6 since:2 want:1 encourage:1 continued:1 development:1 platform:1 limit:2 capability:2 emulate:1 configuration:1 access:1 advance:1 restriction:1 actually:1 custom:1 chip:10 enforce:1 power:1 mhz:1 synertek:1 cpu:1 like:1 machine:8 family:1 bank:1 switch:3 technique:1 address:1 memory:2 third:1 party:1 upgrade:1 first:3 product:3 allow:5 choose:1 screen:2 font:1 keyboard:4 layout:1 either:1 qwerty:1 dvorak:1 choice:1 could:5 change:1 program:6 run:4 unlike:2 iic:1 directly:2 fly:1 monitor:1 utilities:2 reconfiguration:1 manipulation:1 another:5 selector:3 integrate:1 launch:1 various:2 application:1 decide:2 finish:1 project:3 engineer:1 writer:1 buy:2 right:1 owner:1 nominal:1 fee:1 company:4 quark:2 develop:1 compete:1 catalyst:2 cruder:1 interface:1 offset:1 switching:1 copy:2 protection:1 enable:1 license:1 hard:3 without:2 worry:1 might:1 back:2 permission:1 bundle:1 profile:2 celebrate:1 eventually:2 grow:1 major:1 vendor:3 quarkxpress:1 developer:1 quietly:1 dissolve:1 one:2 popular:1 anecdote:1 probably:1 well:2 remember:1 technical:1 bulletin:1 customer:4 experience:2 certain:1 problem:8 instruct:1 lift:1 drop:1 reseat:1 circuit:5 board:10 fineline:2 technology:2 fully:1 mature:1 narrow:1 closely:1 spaced:1 trace:4 stuffed:1 wave:1 solder:3 bridge:1 would:5 form:1 suppose:1 connect:1 cause:2 numerous:2 short:1 hour:1 costly:2 diagnosis:1 hand:1 rework:1 fix:2 layer:1 normal:1 width:1 designer:3 huge:1 drafting:1 rather:2 cad:1 cam:1 previous:2 codebase:1 make:4 way:1 prodos:1 g:2 operate:1 lisa:1 macintosh:1 commercial:2 failure:3 variety:1 reason:3 starting:1 price:2 u:2 expensive:1 many:3 cp:1 base:2 available:2 library:1 limited:1 emulation:1 possible:1 intentionally:1 hobble:1 thus:1 specifically:1 ram:3 high:1 large:1 number:1 title:1 usefulness:1 far:1 importantly:1 plague:1 hardware:2 bug:1 fail:1 prolonged:1 national:2 semiconductor:2 example:1 recurrent:1 purchase:1 contract:1 day:1 replace:2 defective:1 part:3 assume:1 test:3 ship:2 reputation:2 knowingly:1 bad:2 confident:1 production:1 send:1 put:2 socket:1 extensive:1 repair:1 facility:1 easily:1 find:1 single:1 solve:1 delete:1 specification:1 working:1 widely:1 allege:1 due:1 fact:2 cool:1 fan:1 suggest:1 job:1 quieter:1 performance:1 air:2 vent:2 heatsinks:1 metal:1 case:2 cram:1 together:1 impossible:1 enough:1 heat:2 escape:1 state:2 become:1 hot:1 dislodge:1 garble:1 data:1 come:1 slot:1 melt:1 leave:1 jerry:2 manock:2 refute:1 charge:2 maintain:1 unit:1 adequately:1 dissipate:1 prove:1 end:3 vindicate:1 primary:2 culprit:1 turn:1 proximity:1 nascent:1 museum:1 industrial:1 robert:1 brunner:1 free:1 give:1 brand:1 constitute:1 model:1 deem:1 warranty:1 service:1 newly:1 revise:1 twice:1 much:2 low:2 introductory:1 introduce:2 optional:1 mb:1 improved:1 version:1 december:1 original:1 video:1 interlacing:1 style:1 iie:1 even:1 reintroduce:1 campaign:1 salvage:1 possibly:1 relevant:1 long:1 essentially:1 enhanced:1 heir:1 line:2 date:1 year:1 release:1 ibm:2 unveil:1 pc:1 completely:1 soon:1 wide:1 range:1 inexpensive:1 clone:1 move:1 rapidly:1 towards:1 september:1 discontinue:2 marketing:1 department:1 engineering:1 driven:1 iwoz:1 geek:1 cult:1 icon:1 invent:1 found:1 fun:1 w:2 norton:1 isbn:1 see:1 list:1 inc:1 reference:1 chaos:1 cortland:1 joshua:1 coventry:1 mac:1 note:1 link:1 ill:1 fat:1 manual:1 diagram:1 |@bigram steve_wozniak:2 structured_programming:1 numeric_keypad:1 floppy_disk:2 backwards_compatibility:1 keyboard_layout:1 apple_iic:1 closely_spaced:1 cad_cam:1 lisa_macintosh:1 kb_ram:2 apple_iie:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 ill_fat:1 |
2,112 | Afonso_V_of_Portugal | Afonso V of Portugal, Conqueror of African strongholds Afonso V (; English Alphonzo), or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese), the African (Port. o Africano) (on January 15, 1432 – August 28, 1481), was the 12th king of Portugal and the Algarves (List of Portuguese monarchs). He was born in Sintra, the eldest son of King Edward of Portugal by his wife, Infanta Eleanor of Aragon. Afonso V was only six years old when he succeeded his father in 1438. During his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother, according to a late will of his father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and the queen's only ally was Afonso, Count of Barcelos, the illegitimate half brother of Duarte I and count of Barcelos. In the following year, the Cortes (assembly of the kingdom) decided to replace the queen with Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, the young king's oldest uncle. His main policies were concerned with avoiding the development of great noble houses, kingdoms inside the kingdom, and concentrating power in the person of the king. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the Duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In 1442, the king made Afonso the first Duke of Braganza. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe . To secure his position as regent, in 1445 Pedro married his daughter, Isabel of Coimbra, Infanta of Portugal, to Afonso V. But in June 9, 1448, when the king came of age, Pedro had to surrender his power to Afonso V. The years of conspiracy by the Duke of Braganza finally came to a head. On September 15 of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. The situation became unstable and, in the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false representations, Afonso declared Pedro a rebel and defeated his army in the Battle of Alfarrobeira, in which both his uncle and father in law was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable infantes, the Duke of Braganza became the de facto ruler of the country. Afonso V then turned his attentions to the North of Africa. In his grandfather's (John I of Portugal) reign, Ceuta had been conquered from the king of Morocco, now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcácer Ceguer (1458), Tangiers (won and lost several times between 1460 and 1464) and Arzila (1471). This achievements granted the king the nickname of the African. The king also supported the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean led by prince Henry the Navigator but, after Henry's death in 1460 he did nothing to pursue this course of action. Administratively, Afonso V was an absent king, since he did not pursue development of laws or commerce, preferring to stand with the legacy of his father and grandfather. In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to hereditary slavery. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in the Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455 (also by Nicholas V). These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism. When the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds for battle in the Iberian Peninsula. In neighbouring Castile, a huge scandal with political and dynastic implications had arisen. King Henry IV of Castile died without a male heir. From his two marriages, only a daughter, Joan, princess of Castile had been born. But her paternity was questioned, as rumour said the king was impotent and the queen, princess Joana of Portugal, had a notorious affair with a nobleman called Beltrán de La Cueva. The birth of princess Joan in 1462, openly called the Beltraneja, caused the divorce of her parents. She was never considered legitimate and, when the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Her aunt, Isabella I of Castile, was due to inherit the crown, but Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In 1475 he married his niece Joan, the Beltraneja, whom he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself king of Castile and León and prepared to defend his wife's rights. In the following year he was defeated at the Battle of Toro by King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to France to obtain the assistance of Louis XI, but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he returned to Portugal in 1477 in very low spirits. Disillusioned and depressed, he fell into a deep melancholy and abdicated in favour of his son Prince João (future John II). After this, he retired to a monastery in Sintra where he died in 1481. His death was mourned in the country, by the people who loved the king, and by the nobles who were starting to fear his successor. Afonso was a direct descendant of Edward III of England through his son John of Gaunt and therefore was a direct descendant of William the Conqueror, King of England. Ancestors +Afonso's ancestors in three generations Afonso V of Portugal Father:Edward of Portugal Father's father:John I of Portugal Father's father's father:Peter I of Portugal Father's father's mother:Teresa Lourenço Father's mother:Philippa of Lancaster Father's mother's father:John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster Father's mother's mother:Blanche of Lancaster Mother:Leonor of Aragon Mother's father:Ferdinand I of Aragon Mother's father's father:John I of Castile Mother's father's mother:Eleanor of Aragon Mother's mother:Eleanor of Alburquerque Mother's mother's father:Sancho, Count of Alburquerque Mother's mother's mother:Infanta Beatriz, Countess of Alburquerque Marriages and descendants Afonso married first to his cousin Isabel of Coimbra in 1447. Isabel died in 1455 and Afonso married again (although not recognized by the Papacy) in 1475, this time to Joan of Castile (known as "la Beltraneja"), daughter of Henry IV of Castile and Joan of Portugal. This marriage was an attempt to inherit the throne of Castile as Joan was the sole daughter of Henry IV. However this didn't happen as Afonso lost a short war with Castile. NameBirthDeathNotesBy Isabel of Coimbra (1432-December 2, 1455; married on May 6, 1447)Prince João (John)January 29, 14511451Crown Prince of Portugal (1451).Princess Joana (Joan)February 6, 1452May 12, 1490Crown Princess of Portugal (1452-1455). Known as Saint Joan of Portugal or Saint Joan Princess. Canonized in 1693 by Pope Innocent XIIPrince João (John)March 3, 1455October 25, 1495Who succeeded him as John, 13th King of Portugal.Joan of Castile (1462-1530; married on May 30, 1475)By Maria Álvares de Carvalho (?-?)Álvaro Soares de Carvalhoc. 14671557Natural son. See also Afonso de Albuquerque (contemporary Portuguese naval general) Portugal in the Age of Discovery |- be-x-old:Афансу V | Afonso_V_of_Portugal |@lemmatized afonso:23 v:17 portugal:19 conqueror:2 african:3 stronghold:1 english:1 alphonzo:1 affonso:1 archaic:1 portuguese:3 port:1 africano:1 january:2 august:1 king:21 algarves:1 list:1 monarch:2 bear:2 sintra:2 eldest:1 son:4 edward:3 wife:2 infanta:3 eleanor:3 aragon:5 six:1 year:6 old:3 succeed:2 father:21 minority:1 place:1 regency:2 mother:19 accord:1 late:1 foreigner:1 woman:1 queen:4 popular:1 choice:1 regent:2 opposition:1 rise:1 ally:1 count:4 barcelos:3 illegitimate:1 half:2 brother:2 duarte:1 following:3 cortes:1 assembly:1 kingdom:3 decide:1 replace:1 infante:1 pedro:4 duke:6 coimbra:5 young:1 uncle:3 main:1 policy:1 concern:1 avoid:1 development:2 great:1 noble:3 house:1 inside:1 concentrate:1 power:3 person:1 country:3 prosper:1 rule:1 peacefully:1 law:4 interfere:2 ambition:2 powerful:2 personal:1 enemy:1 despite:1 eventually:1 become:4 favourite:1 begin:1 constant:1 struggle:1 make:1 first:2 braganza:3 title:1 land:1 man:1 one:3 rich:1 men:1 europe:1 secure:1 position:1 marry:6 daughter:4 isabel:4 june:1 come:3 age:2 surrender:1 conspiracy:1 finally:1 head:1 september:1 nullify:1 edicts:1 approve:1 situation:1 unstable:1 lead:2 afterwards:1 discover:1 false:1 representation:1 declare:1 rebel:1 defeat:2 army:2 battle:4 alfarrobeira:1 kill:1 loss:1 remarkable:1 infantes:1 de:5 facto:1 ruler:1 turn:1 attention:1 north:1 africa:2 grandfather:2 john:9 reign:1 ceuta:1 conquer:2 morocco:1 new:2 want:1 expand:1 conquest:1 alcácer:1 ceguer:1 tangier:1 lose:2 several:1 time:2 arzila:1 achievement:1 grant:2 nickname:1 also:3 support:1 exploration:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 prince:4 henry:5 navigator:1 death:2 nothing:1 pursue:2 course:1 action:1 administratively:1 absent:1 since:2 commerce:1 prefer:1 stand:1 legacy:1 pope:2 nicholas:2 issue:1 papal:2 bull:3 dum:1 diversas:1 right:2 reduce:1 saracen:1 pagan:1 unbeliever:1 hereditary:1 slavery:2 approval:1 reaffirm:1 extend:1 romanus:1 pontifex:1 serve:1 justification:1 subsequent:1 era:1 slave:1 trade:1 european:1 colonialism:1 campaign:1 find:2 ground:1 iberian:1 peninsula:1 neighbour:1 castile:13 huge:1 scandal:1 political:1 dynastic:1 implication:1 arise:1 iv:3 die:4 without:1 male:1 heir:2 two:1 marriage:3 joan:10 princess:6 paternity:1 question:1 rumour:1 say:1 impotent:1 joana:2 notorious:1 affair:1 nobleman:1 call:2 beltrán:1 la:2 cueva:1 birth:1 openly:1 beltraneja:3 cause:1 divorce:1 parent:1 never:1 consider:2 legitimate:2 take:1 serious:1 contender:1 crown:3 aunt:1 isabella:2 due:1 inherit:2 keen:1 succession:1 niece:1 adulteress:1 sister:1 family:1 honour:1 protect:1 proclaim:1 león:1 prepare:1 defend:1 toro:1 ferdinand:2 ii:2 husband:1 go:1 france:1 obtain:1 assistance:1 louis:1 xi:1 deceive:1 french:1 return:1 low:1 spirit:1 disillusion:1 depress:1 fell:1 deep:1 melancholy:1 abdicate:1 favour:1 joão:3 future:1 retire:1 monastery:1 mourn:1 people:1 love:1 start:1 fear:1 successor:1 direct:2 descendant:3 iii:1 england:2 gaunt:2 therefore:1 william:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 peter:1 teresa:1 lourenço:1 philippa:1 lancaster:3 blanche:1 leonor:1 alburquerque:3 sancho:1 beatriz:1 countess:1 cousin:1 although:1 recognize:1 papacy:1 know:2 attempt:1 throne:1 sole:1 however:1 happen:1 short:1 war:1 namebirthdeathnotesby:1 december:1 may:2 february:1 saint:2 canonize:1 innocent:1 xiiprince:1 march:1 maria:1 álvares:1 carvalho:1 álvaro:1 soares:1 carvalhoc:1 see:1 albuquerque:1 contemporary:1 naval:1 general:1 discovery:1 x:1 афансу:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 duke_braganza:3 de_facto:1 atlantic_ocean:1 papal_bull:2 iberian_peninsula:1 serious_contender:1 isabella_castile:2 legitimate_heir:1 castile_león:1 abdicate_favour:1 philippa_lancaster:1 gaunt_duke:1 canonize_pope:1 pope_innocent:1 |
2,113 | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_athletics_(women) | This is the complete list of women's Olympic medalists in athletics from 1928 to 2008. (There were no women's competitions at Olympic Games from 1896 to 1924.) Current program 100 metres 1928 Amsterdam1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydneyvacant On October 5 2007 Marion Jones of the United States admitted to having taken performance enhancing drugs prior to the 2000 Summer Olympics. On October 9 she relenquished her medals to the United States Olympic Committee, who returned them to the International Olympic Committee. The IOC have removed the medals from Jones and her relay teammates, leaving the positions vacant. 2004 Athens2008 Beijingnone awarded 200 metres 1948 London 1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydneyvacant2004 Athens2008 Beijing 400 metres 1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 800 metres 1928 Amsterdam1932–1956not included in the Olympic program1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 1500 metres 1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 5000 metres 1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 10000 metres 1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Marathon 1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 100 metres hurdles 1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 400 metre hurdles 1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing 3000 metre steeplechase 2008 Beijing 4 x 100 metres relay 1928 AmsterdamFanny RosenfeldEthel SmithJane BellMyrtle Cook Mary WashburnJessie CrossLoretta McNeilBetty Robinson Rosa KellnerHelene SchmidtAnni HoldmannHelene Junker 1932 Los AngelesMary CarewEvelyn FurtschAnnette RogersWilhelmina von BremenMildred FizzellLilian PalmerMary FrizzelHilda StrikeEileen HiscockGwendoline PorterViolet WebbNellie Halstead 1936 BerlinHarriet BlandAnnette RogersBetty RobinsonHelen StephensEileen HiscockViolet OlneyAudrey BrownBarbara BurkeDorothy BrookshawMildred DolsonHilda CameronAileen Meagher 1948 LondonXenia Stad-de JongNetty Witziers-TimmerGerda van der Kade-KoudijsFanny Blankers-Koen Shirley StricklandJune MastonElizabeth McKinnonJoyce King Viola MyersNancy MacKayDiane FosterPatricia Jones 1952 HelsinkiMae FaggsBarbara JonesJanet MoreauCatherine HardyUrsula KnabMaria SanderHelga KleinMarga PetersenSylvia CheesemanJune FouldsJean DesforgesHeather Armitage1956 MelbourneShirley Strickland de la HuntyNorma CrokerFleur MellorBetty CuthbertAnne PashleyJean ScrivensJune FouldsHeather ArmitageMae FaggsMargaret MatthewsWilma RudolphIsabelle Daniels 1960 RomeMartha HudsonLucinda WilliamsBarbara JonesWilma RudolphMartha LangbeinAnnie BiechlBrunhilde HendrixJutta HeineTeresa WieczorekBarbara JaniszewskaCelina JesionowskaHalina Richter1964 TokyoTeresa CiepłyIrena KirszensteinHalina GóreckaEwa KłobukowskaWillye WhiteWyomia TyusMarilyn WhiteEdith McGuireJanet SimpsonMary RandDaphne ArdenDorothy Hyman1968 Mexico CityBarbara FerrellMargaret BailesMildrette NetterWyomia TyusMarlene ElejardeFulgencia RomayVioletta QuesadaMiguelina CobiánLiudmila Zharkova-MaslakovaGalina BukharinaVera PopkovaLyudmila Samotesova1972 MunichChristiane KrauseIngrid Mickler-BeckerAnnegret RichterHeide Rosendahl Evelyn KauferChristina HeinichBarbel StruppertRenate Stecher Marlene ElejardeCarmen ValdesFulgencia RomaySilvia Chibás1976 MontrealMarlies OelsnerRenate StecherCarla BodendorfBärbel EckertElvira PossekelInge HeltenAnnegret RichterAnnegret KronigerTatyana ProrochenkoLiudmila Zharkova-MaslakovaNadezhda BesfamilnayaVera Anisimova1980 MoscowRomy MüllerBärbel WöckelIngrid AuerswaldMarlies GöhrVera KomisovaLiudmila Zharkova-MaslakovaVera AnisimovaNatalya BochinaHeather HunteKathy Smallwood-CookBeverley GoddardSonia Lannaman1984 Los AngelesAlice BrownJeanette BoldenChandra CheeseboroughEvelyn AshfordAngela BaileyMarita PayneAngella Taylor-IssajenkoFrance GareauSimone JacobsKathy Smallwood-CookBeverley CallanderHeather Oakes1988 SeoulAlice BrownSheila EcholsFlorence Griffith JoynerEvelyn AshfordSilke MöllerKerstin BehrendtIngrid AuerswaldMarlies GöhrLyudmila KondratyevaGalina MalchuginaMarina ZhirovaNatalya Pomoschnikova 1992 BarcelonaEvelyn AshfordEsther JonesCarlette GuidryGwen TorrenceMichelle FinnOlga BogoslovskayaGalina MalchuginaMarina TrandenkovaIrina PrivalovaBeatrice UtonduFaith IdehenChristy Opara-ThompsonMary Onyali1996 AtlantaGail DeversInger MillerChryste GainesGwen TorrenceCarlette GuidryEldece ClarkeChandra SturrupSavatheda FynesPauline Davis-ThompsonDebbie FergusonMichelle FreemanJuliet CuthbertNikole MitchellMerlene OtteyGillian RussellAndrea Lloyd2000 SydneySavatheda FynesChandra SturrupPauline Davis-ThompsonDebbie FergusonEldece LewisTayna LawrenceVeronica CampbellBeverly McDonaldMerlene OtteyMerlene Frazervacant2004 AthensTayna LawrenceSherone SimpsonAleen BaileyVeronica CampbellBeverly McDonaldOlga FyodorovaYuliya TabakovaIrina KhabarovaLarisa KruglovaVeronique MangMuriel HurtisSylviane FelixChristine Arron2008 BeijingYuliya ChermoshanskayaYulia GushchinaAleksandra FedorivaEvgeniya PolyakovaKim GevaertElodie OuedraogoHanna MarienOlivia BorleeHalimat IsmailaOludamola OsayomiAgnes OsazumaGloria KemasuodeFranca Idoko Note: since 1992, athletes who ran only in preliminary rounds also received medals. 4 x 400 metres relay 1972 MunichDagmar KäslingRita KühneHelga SeidlerMonika ZehrtMable FergersonMadeline ManningCheryl ToussaintKathy HammondAnette RückesInge BöddingHildegard FalckRita Wilden1976 MontrealDoris MaletzkiBrigitte RohdeEllen StreidtChristina BrehmerDebra SapenterSheila IngramPamela JilesRosalyn BryantInta KlimovicaLyudmila AksenovaNatalya SokolovaNadezhda Ilyina1980 MoscowTatyana ProrochenkoTatyana GoistchikNina ZyuskovaIrina NazarovaGabriele LöweBarbara KrugChristina LathanMarita KochLinsey MacDonaldMichelle ProbertJoslyn Hoyte-SmithDonna-Marie Hartley1984 Los AngelesLillie LeatherwoodSherri HowardValerie Brisco-HooksChandra CheeseboroughCharmaine CrooksJillian RichardsonMolly KillingbeckMarita PayneHeike Schulte-MattlerUte ThimmHeidi-Elke GaugelGaby Bussmann1988 SeoulTatyana LedovskayaOlga NazarovaMariya PiniginaOlga BryzginaDenean HowardDiane DixonValerie Brisco-HooksFlorence Griffith JoynerDagmar Neubauer-RübsamKirsten EmmelmannSabine BuschPetra Müller 1992 BarcelonaYelena RuzinaLyudmila DzhigalovaOlga NazarovaOlga BryzginaMarina ShmoninaLiliya NurutdinovaNatasha KaiserGwen TorrenceJearl MilesRochelle StevensDenean HillDannette YoungPhylis SmithSandra DouglasJennifer StouteSally Gunnell1996 AtlantaRochelle StevensMaicel MaloneKim GrahamJearl MilesLinetta WilsonBisi AfolabiFatima YusufCharity OparaFalilat OgunkoyaUta RohländerLinda KisabakaAnja RückerGrit Breuer2000 SydneyvacantSandie RichardsCatherine ScottDeon HemmingsLorraine GrahamCharmaine HowellMichelle BurgherYulia SotnikovaSvetlana GoncharenkoOlga KotlyarovaIrina PrivalovaNatalya NazarovaOlesya Zykina2004 AthensDeeDee TrotterMonique HendersonSanya RichardsMonique HennaganCrystal CoxMoushaumi RobinsonOlesya KrasnomovetsNatalya NazarovaOlesya ZykinaNatalya AntyukhTatyana FirovaNatalya IvanovaNovlene WilliamsMichelle BurgherNadia DavySandie RichardsRonetta Smith2008 BeijingMary WinebergAllyson FelixMonique HendersonSanya RichardsYulia GushchinaLyudmila LitvinovaTatyana FirovaAnastasiya KapachinskayaShericka WilliamsShereefa LloydRosemarie WhyteNovlene Williams Note: since 1992, athletes who ran only in preliminary rounds also received medals. 20 km walk 2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing High jump 1928 Amsterdam 1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbournenone awarded1960 Romenone awarded1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Pole vault 2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Long jump 1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydneyvacant2004 Athens2008 Beijing Triple jump 1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Shot put 1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Discus throw 1928 Amsterdam1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Athens2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Hammer throw 2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Javelin throw 1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Heptathlon 1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona1996 Atlanta2000 Sydney2004 Athens2008 Beijing Discontinued events 3000 metres 1984 Los Angeles1988 Seoul1992 Barcelona 80 m hurdles 1932 Los Angeles1936 Berlin1948 London1952 Helsinki1956 Melbourne1960 Rome1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City Pentathlon 1964 Tokyo1968 Mexico City1972 Munich1976 Montreal1980 Moscow 10 km walk 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta References International Olympic Committee results database | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_athletics_(women) |@lemmatized complete:1 list:1 woman:2 olympic:6 medalist:1 athletics:1 competition:1 game:1 current:1 program:1 metre:13 los:23 mexico:12 sydneyvacant:1 october:2 marion:1 jones:3 united:2 state:2 admit:1 take:1 performance:1 enhance:1 drug:1 prior:1 summer:1 olympics:1 relenquished:1 medal:4 committee:3 return:1 international:2 ioc:1 remove:1 relay:3 teammate:1 leave:1 position:1 vacant:1 beijingnone:1 award:1 london:1 beijing:20 include:1 marathon:1 hurdle:3 steeplechase:1 x:2 amsterdamfanny:1 rosenfeldethel:1 smithjane:1 bellmyrtle:1 cook:1 mary:1 washburnjessie:1 crossloretta:1 mcneilbetty:1 robinson:1 rosa:1 kellnerhelene:1 schmidtanni:1 holdmannhelene:1 junker:1 angelesmary:1 carewevelyn:1 furtschannette:1 rogerswilhelmina:1 von:1 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williamsbarbara:1 joneswilma:1 rudolphmartha:1 langbeinannie:1 biechlbrunhilde:1 hendrixjutta:1 heineteresa:1 wieczorekbarbara:1 janiszewskacelina:1 jesionowskahalina:1 tokyoteresa:1 ciepłyirena:1 kirszensteinhalina:1 góreckaewa:1 kłobukowskawillye:1 whitewyomia:1 tyusmarilyn:1 whiteedith:1 mcguirejanet:1 simpsonmary:1 randdaphne:1 ardendorothy:1 citybarbara:1 ferrellmargaret:1 bailesmildrette:1 netterwyomia:1 tyusmarlene:1 elejardefulgencia:1 romayvioletta:1 quesadamiguelina:1 cobiánliudmila:1 zharkova:3 maslakovagalina:1 bukharinavera:1 popkovalyudmila:1 munichchristiane:1 krauseingrid:1 mickler:1 beckerannegret:1 richterheide:1 rosendahl:1 evelyn:1 kauferchristina:1 heinichbarbel:1 struppertrenate:1 stecher:1 marlene:1 elejardecarmen:1 valdesfulgencia:1 romaysilvia:1 montrealmarlies:1 oelsnerrenate:1 stechercarla:1 bodendorfbärbel:1 eckertelvira:1 possekelinge:1 heltenannegret:1 richterannegret:1 kronigertatyana:1 prorochenkoliudmila:1 maslakovanadezhda:1 besfamilnayavera:1 moscowromy:1 müllerbärbel:1 wöckelingrid:1 auerswaldmarlies:2 göhrvera:1 komisovaliudmila:1 maslakovavera:1 anisimovanatalya:1 bochinaheather:1 huntekathy:1 smallwood:2 cookbeverley:2 goddardsonia:1 angelesalice:1 brownjeanette:1 boldenchandra:1 cheeseboroughevelyn:1 ashfordangela:1 baileymarita:1 payneangella:1 taylor:1 issajenkofrance:1 gareausimone:1 jacobskathy:1 callanderheather:1 seoulalice:1 brownsheila:1 echolsflorence:1 griffith:2 joynerevelyn:1 ashfordsilke:1 möllerkerstin:1 behrendtingrid:1 göhrlyudmila:1 kondratyevagalina:1 malchuginamarina:2 zhirovanatalya:1 pomoschnikova:1 barcelonaevelyn:1 ashfordesther:1 jonescarlette:1 guidrygwen:1 torrencemichelle:1 finnolga:1 bogoslovskayagalina:1 trandenkovairina:1 privalovabeatrice:1 utondufaith:1 idehenchristy:1 opara:1 thompsonmary:1 atlantagail:1 deversinger:1 millerchryste:1 gainesgwen:1 torrencecarlette:1 guidryeldece:1 clarkechandra:1 sturrupsavatheda:1 fynespauline:1 davis:2 thompsondebbie:2 fergusonmichelle:1 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sapentersheila:1 ingrampamela:1 jilesrosalyn:1 bryantinta:1 klimovicalyudmila:1 aksenovanatalya:1 sokolovanadezhda:1 moscowtatyana:1 prorochenkotatyana:1 goistchiknina:1 zyuskovairina:1 nazarovagabriele:1 löwebarbara:1 krugchristina:1 lathanmarita:1 kochlinsey:1 macdonaldmichelle:1 probertjoslyn:1 hoyte:1 smithdonna:1 marie:1 angeleslillie:1 leatherwoodsherri:1 howardvalerie:1 brisco:2 hookschandra:1 cheeseboroughcharmaine:1 crooksjillian:1 richardsonmolly:1 killingbeckmarita:1 payneheike:1 schulte:1 mattlerute:1 thimmheidi:1 elke:1 gaugelgaby:1 seoultatyana:1 ledovskayaolga:1 nazarovamariya:1 piniginaolga:1 bryzginadenean:1 howarddiane:1 dixonvalerie:1 hooksflorence:1 joynerdagmar:1 neubauer:1 rübsamkirsten:1 emmelmannsabine:1 buschpetra:1 müller:1 barcelonayelena:1 ruzinalyudmila:1 dzhigalovaolga:1 nazarovaolga:1 bryzginamarina:1 shmoninaliliya:1 nurutdinovanatasha:1 kaisergwen:1 torrencejearl:1 milesrochelle:1 stevensdenean:1 hilldannette:1 youngphylis:1 smithsandra:1 douglasjennifer:1 stoutesally:1 atlantarochelle:1 stevensmaicel:1 malonekim:1 grahamjearl:1 mileslinetta:1 wilsonbisi:1 afolabifatima:1 yusufcharity:1 oparafalilat:1 ogunkoyauta:1 rohländerlinda:1 kisabakaanja:1 rückergrit:1 sydneyvacantsandie:1 richardscatherine:1 scottdeon:1 hemmingslorraine:1 grahamcharmaine:1 howellmichelle:1 burgheryulia:1 sotnikovasvetlana:1 goncharenkoolga:1 kotlyarovairina:1 privalovanatalya:1 nazarovaolesya:2 athensdeedee:1 trottermonique:1 hendersonsanya:2 richardsmonique:1 hennagancrystal:1 coxmoushaumi:1 robinsonolesya:1 krasnomovetsnatalya:1 zykinanatalya:1 antyukhtatyana:1 firovanatalya:1 ivanovanovlene:1 williamsmichelle:1 burghernadia:1 davysandie:1 richardsronetta:1 beijingmary:1 winebergallyson:1 felixmonique:1 richardsyulia:1 gushchinalyudmila:1 litvinovatatyana:1 firovaanastasiya:1 kapachinskayashericka:1 williamsshereefa:1 lloydrosemarie:1 whytenovlene:1 williams:1 km:2 walk:2 high:1 jump:3 amsterdam:1 melbournenone:1 romenone:1 pole:1 vault:1 long:1 triple:1 shot:1 put:1 discus:1 throw:3 hammer:1 javelin:1 heptathlon:1 seoul:1 discontinue:1 event:1 barcelona:2 city:1 pentathlon:1 moscow:1 atlanta:1 reference:1 result:1 database:1 |@bigram olympic_medalist:1 summer_olympics:1 van_der:1 discus_throw:1 javelin_throw:1 barcelona_atlanta:1 |
2,114 | Bocce | Italian men playing Bocce in San Giorgio a Cremano, Naples, Italy. Bocce (or Bocci, or Boccie) bocce.org TheFreeDictionary.com TheFreeDictionary.com US Patent #5480026 modernruins.com is a precision sport belonging to the boules sport family, closely related to bowls and pétanque with a common ancestry from ancient games played in the Roman Empire. Developed into its present form in Italy (where it is called Bocce, the plural of the Italian word boccia which means "bowl"), it is played around Europe and also in overseas countries that have received Italian migrants, including Australia, North America and South America (where it is known as bochas; "bolas criollas" in Venezuela), initially amongst the migrants themselves but slowly becoming more popular with their descendants and the wider community. The game is also well-known in Serbia as boćanje (боћање) and in Croatia as boćanje, bućanje, or balote, depending on the region. In France the sport is known as Boule Lyonnaise. Rules and play Bocce is traditionally played on an oyster shell court, but has also been played on decomposed granite, marble, soil, or asphalt courts approximately 20 to 27 metres in length and 2.5 to 4 metres wide, sometimes with wooden boards of approximately 15 centimetres in height surrounding the court. Bocce balls can be made of metal www.BocceVolo.com - Official Rules - Chapter 1 - Materials , wood, or various kinds of plastic. Unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias. Red scores 2 points A game can be contested between two players, or two teams of two, three, or four. A court match is started by a randomly chosen side being given the opportunity to throw a smaller ball, the jack (called a pallino, pallina or a boccino in some areas), from one end of the court into a zone about 5 metres in length, ending 2 metres from the far end of the court. If they miss twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the prescribed zone. At this time the team that attempted to put the jack into play first gets to roll the first ball. The side that first attempted to place the jack is given the opportunity to bowl first. Once the first bowl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl. From then on, the side which does not have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, up until one side or the other has used their four balls. At that point, the other side bowls its remaining bocce balls. The team with the closest bocce ball to the jack is the only team that can score points in any frame. The scoring team receives one point for each of their balls that is closer to the jack than the closest ball of the other team. The length of a game varies by region, but is typically played to 11, 12, or 13 points. Players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action. This is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball away to attain a more favourable position. Tactics can get quite complex when players have sufficient control over the bocce ball to throw or roll it accurately. Players A bocce player of note is Umberto Granaglia (May 20, 1931 – December 13, 2008), who was awarded the honor of "Player of the Twentieth Century" by the Confederation Mondiale des Sport de Boules. International Bocce Federation Between 1957 and 1980 Granaglia won a record 13 World Championship titles, 12 European Championship titles, & 46 Italian National Championship titles. www.bocceinvalle.it See also Bowls Curling Fédération Internationale de Boules Pétanque References External links BocceVolo.com - World Class Bocce Confederation Mondiale des Sports de Boules International Bocce Federation (FIB) | Bocce |@lemmatized italian:4 men:1 play:8 bocce:14 san:1 giorgio:1 cremano:1 naples:1 italy:2 bocci:1 boccie:1 org:1 thefreedictionary:2 com:5 u:1 patent:1 modernruins:1 precision:1 sport:5 belong:1 boule:5 family:1 closely:1 relate:1 bowl:9 pétanque:2 common:1 ancestry:1 ancient:1 game:4 roman:1 empire:1 develop:1 present:1 form:1 call:2 plural:1 word:1 boccia:1 mean:1 around:1 europe:1 also:4 overseas:1 country:1 receive:2 migrant:2 include:1 australia:1 north:1 america:2 south:1 know:3 bochas:1 bolas:1 criollas:1 venezuela:1 initially:1 amongst:1 slowly:1 become:1 popular:1 descendant:1 wider:1 community:1 well:1 serbia:1 boćanje:2 боћање:1 croatia:1 bućanje:1 balote:1 depend:1 region:2 france:1 lyonnaise:1 rule:2 traditionally:1 oyster:1 shell:1 court:6 decomposed:1 granite:1 marble:1 soil:1 asphalt:1 approximately:2 metre:4 length:3 wide:1 sometimes:1 wooden:1 board:1 centimetre:1 height:1 surround:1 ball:13 make:1 metal:1 www:2 boccevolo:2 official:1 chapter:1 material:1 wood:1 various:1 kind:1 plastic:1 unlike:1 lawn:1 spherical:1 inbuilt:1 bias:1 red:1 score:3 point:5 contest:1 two:3 player:6 team:7 three:1 four:2 match:1 start:1 randomly:1 chosen:1 side:6 give:2 opportunity:4 throw:3 small:1 jack:8 pallino:1 pallina:1 boccino:1 area:1 one:3 end:3 zone:2 far:1 miss:1 twice:1 award:2 place:3 anywhere:1 choose:1 within:1 prescribed:1 time:1 attempt:2 put:1 first:5 get:2 roll:2 take:1 closest:1 chance:1 use:3 remain:1 close:3 frame:1 varies:1 typically:1 permit:1 air:1 underarm:1 action:1 generally:1 knock:1 either:1 another:1 away:1 attain:1 favourable:1 position:1 tactic:1 quite:1 complex:1 sufficient:1 control:1 accurately:1 note:1 umberto:1 granaglia:2 may:1 december:1 honor:1 twentieth:1 century:1 confederation:2 mondiale:2 de:5 international:2 federation:2 win:1 record:1 world:2 championship:3 title:3 european:1 national:1 bocceinvalle:1 see:1 curl:1 fédération:1 internationale:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 class:1 fib:1 |@bigram thefreedictionary_com:2 closely_relate:1 oyster_shell:1 bocce_ball:5 lawn_bowl:1 twentieth_century:1 fédération_internationale:1 external_link:1 |
2,115 | Listerine | Various Listerine products Listerine is a brand name for antiseptic mouthwash. Its original formula has notoriously strong flavor, although variations have been released that are marketed as tasting milder. The product is marketed under the slogan "Kills germs that cause bad breath". It was named after Joseph Lister who discovered the idea of antiseptic surgery by killing bacteria. Listerine is one of the most popular mouthwashes sold in the United States. It is currently manufactured and distributed by Johnson and Johnson since that company's acquisition of Pfizer's consumer healthcare division in late December of 2006. The Listerine brand name is also used on toothpaste, Listerine Whitening rinse, new Listerine Fluoride rinse (Listerine Tooth Defense), Listerine Agent Cool Blue (children's plaque disclosing rinse), PocketPaks, and PocketMist. In September 2007, Listerine began selling their own brand of self-dissolving teeth whitening strips. History First formulated by Dr. Joseph Lawrence and Jordan Wheat Lambert in 1879 as surgical antiseptic, it was given to dentists for oral care in 1895 and it was the first over-the-counter mouthwash sold in the United States in 1914. The mouthwash was named in honor of Dr. Joseph Lister, pioneer of antiseptic surgery. According to Freakonomics, Listerine was invented in the 19th century as powerful surgical antiseptic. It was later sold, in very distilled form, as floor cleaner and cure for gonorrhea. But it wasn't runaway success until the 1920s, when it was pitched as solution for "chronic halitosis", the faux medical term that the Listerine advertising group created in 1921 to describe bad breath. By naming and thus creating medical condition for which consumers now felt they needed cure, Listerine created market for their mouthwash. Until that time, bad breath was not conventionally considered catastrophe, but Listerine's ad campaign changed that. As the advertising scholar James B. Twitchell writes, "Listerine did not make mouthwash as much as it made halitosis." Listerine's new ads featured forlorn young women and men, eager for marriage but turned off by their mate's rotten breath. "Can I be happy with him in spite of that?" one maiden asked herself. In just seven years, the company's revenues rose from $115,000 to more than $8 million. From 1921 until the mid-1970s Listerine was also marketed as preventive and remedy for colds and sore throats. In 1976, the Federal Trade Commission ruled that these claims were misleading, and that Listerine had "no efficacy" at either preventing or alleviating the symptoms of sore throats and colds. Warner-Lambert was ordered to stop making the claims, and to include in the next $10.2 million dollars' of Listerine ads specific mention that "contrary to prior advertising, Listerine will not help prevent colds or sore throats or lessen their severity." 1930s advertisements claimed that applying Listerine to the scalp could prevent dandruff. Listerine was packaged in glass bottle inside corrugated cardboard tube for nearly 80 years before the first revamps were made to the brand; in 1992, Cool Mint Listerine was introduced in addition to the original Listerine Antiseptic formula and, in 1994, both brands were introduced in plastic bottles for the first time. In 1995, FreshBurst was added, http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-192416_ITM then in 2003 Natural Citrus. In 2006 a new addition to the "less intense" variety, Vanilla Mint, was released. Currently, eight different kinds of Listerine are on the market in the U.S. and elsewhere: Original, Cool Mint, FreshBurst, Natural Citrus, Vanilla Mint, Advanced with Tartar Control (Arctic mint), Tooth Defense (mint shield), and Whitening pre-brush rinse (clean mint). The most recent addition is the Listerine Total Care, marketed as the Most Complete Listerine. It claims to reduce plaque, strengthen teeth to prevent cavities, prevent tartar build-up to keep teeth white, prevent gingivitis, and freshen breath for up to 12 hours. Composition The active ingredients listed on Listerine bottles are menthol, thymol, methyl salicylate, and eucalyptol. Ethanol is present in concentrations of 21.6% in the flavored product and 26.9% in the original gold Listerine Antiseptic. Thymol is an antiseptic, methyl salicylate is cleaning agent, and menthol is local anesthetic. At this concentration, the ethanol serves to dissolve the active ingredients. Contrary to persistent myths, methanol (which is frequently confused with menthol) is not an ingredient. A Food and Drug Administration Advisory Panel has recommended that the active ingredients in Listerine be classified as Category I (safe and effective) for antiplaque and GAME antigingivitis activity. The efficacy of the treatment is due mainly to Listerine's liquid properties, as liquids are quite effective at coating most exposed surfaces in the mouth, even between teeth. By the same coin, however, this treatment is generally ineffective at physically removing the plaque buildup and wedged-in food particles that it is intended to neutralize. Listerine is best used in conjunction with brushing and flossing, but not as a replacement. Effectiveness Additional rinsing helps in reducing dental plaque and gingivitis in children, in addition to reducing the risk of bleeding from the gingival sulcus. However, the effect is not as essential as motivation to using Listerine as everyday oral hygiene. (The label of the new whitening pre-rinse recommends consumers use one of the other Listerine formulas for fighting plaque.) In a January 6, 2005 decision, Judge Chin of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York ruled that an advertising campaign by Pfizer, claiming that the mouthwash Listerine is as effective as flossing in fighting tooth and gum decay, is false and misleading and poses a public health risk. Safety There has been concern that the use of alcohol-containing mouthwash such as Listerine may increase the risk of developing oral cancer. Both the American Dental Association (ADA) and the United States National Cancer Institute (NCI) agree that the alcohol contained in antiseptic mouthwash is safe and not a factor in oral cancers. Studies conduced in 1985, 1995, and 2003 summarize that alcohol-containing mouth rinses are not associated with oral cancer. However, an extensive study published December 2008 in the Australian Dental Journal concluded that: Andrew Penman, chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales, called for further research on the matter. On April 11 2007 McNeil-PPC disclosed that there were potentially contaminants in all Listerine Agent Cool Blue products sold since its launch in 2006, and that all bottles were being recalled. The recall affects some 4,000,000 bottles sold since that time. According to the company, Listerine Agent Cool Blue is the only product affected by the safety issue and that no other products in the Listerine family were under recall. References External links Official site | Listerine |@lemmatized various:1 listerine:38 product:6 brand:5 name:5 antiseptic:9 mouthwash:9 original:4 formula:3 notoriously:1 strong:1 flavor:1 although:1 variation:1 release:2 market:6 taste:1 milder:1 slogan:1 kill:2 germs:1 cause:1 bad:3 breath:5 joseph:3 lister:2 discover:1 idea:1 surgery:2 bacteria:1 one:3 popular:1 sell:6 united:4 state:4 currently:2 manufacture:1 distribute:1 johnson:2 since:3 company:3 acquisition:1 pfizer:2 consumer:3 healthcare:1 division:1 late:1 december:2 also:2 use:5 toothpaste:1 whitening:1 rinse:6 new:6 fluoride:1 tooth:3 defense:2 agent:4 cool:5 blue:3 child:2 plaque:5 disclose:2 pocketpaks:1 pocketmist:1 september:1 begin:1 self:1 dissolve:2 teeth:4 whiten:3 strip:1 history:1 first:4 formulate:1 dr:2 lawrence:1 jordan:1 wheat:1 lambert:2 surgical:2 give:1 dentist:1 oral:5 care:2 counter:1 honor:1 pioneer:1 accord:2 freakonomics:1 invent:1 century:1 powerful:1 later:1 distilled:1 form:1 floor:1 cleaner:1 cure:2 gonorrhea:1 runaway:1 success:1 pitch:1 solution:1 chronic:1 halitosis:2 faux:1 medical:2 term:1 advertising:4 group:1 create:3 describe:1 thus:1 condition:1 felt:1 need:1 time:3 conventionally:1 consider:1 catastrophe:1 ad:3 campaign:2 change:1 scholar:1 james:1 b:1 twitchell:1 write:1 make:4 much:1 feature:1 forlorn:1 young:1 woman:1 men:1 eager:1 marriage:1 turn:1 mate:1 rotten:1 happy:1 spite:1 maiden:1 ask:1 seven:1 year:2 revenue:1 rise:1 million:2 mid:1 preventive:1 remedy:1 cold:3 sore:3 throat:3 federal:1 trade:1 commission:1 rule:2 claim:5 misleading:2 efficacy:2 either:1 prevent:6 alleviate:1 symptom:1 warner:1 order:1 stop:1 include:1 next:1 dollar:1 specific:1 mention:1 contrary:2 prior:1 help:2 lessen:1 severity:1 advertisement:1 apply:1 scalp:1 could:1 dandruff:1 package:1 glass:1 bottle:5 inside:1 corrugate:1 cardboard:1 tube:1 nearly:1 revamps:1 mint:7 introduce:2 addition:4 plastic:1 freshburst:2 add:1 http:1 www:1 accessmylibrary:1 com:1 natural:2 citrus:2 le:1 intense:1 variety:1 vanilla:2 eight:1 different:1 kind:1 u:1 elsewhere:1 advance:1 tartar:2 control:1 arctic:1 shield:1 pre:2 brush:1 clean:2 recent:1 total:1 complete:1 reduce:3 strengthen:1 cavity:1 build:1 keep:1 white:1 gingivitis:2 freshen:1 hour:1 composition:1 active:3 ingredient:4 list:1 menthol:3 thymol:2 methyl:2 salicylate:2 eucalyptol:1 ethanol:2 present:1 concentration:2 flavored:1 gold:1 local:1 anesthetic:1 serve:1 persistent:1 myth:1 methanol:1 frequently:1 confuse:1 food:2 drug:1 administration:1 advisory:1 panel:1 recommend:2 classify:1 category:1 safe:2 effective:3 antiplaque:1 game:1 antigingivitis:1 activity:1 treatment:2 due:1 mainly:1 liquid:2 property:1 quite:1 coat:1 exposed:1 surface:1 mouth:2 even:1 coin:1 however:3 generally:1 ineffective:1 physically:1 remove:1 buildup:1 wedge:1 particle:1 intend:1 neutralize:1 best:1 conjunction:1 brushing:1 flossing:1 replacement:1 effectiveness:1 additional:1 rinsing:1 dental:3 risk:3 bleed:1 gingival:1 sulcus:1 effect:1 essential:1 motivation:1 everyday:1 hygiene:1 label:1 fight:2 january:1 decision:1 judge:1 chin:1 district:2 court:1 southern:1 york:1 floss:1 gum:1 decay:1 false:1 pose:1 public:1 health:1 safety:2 concern:1 alcohol:3 contain:3 may:1 increase:1 develop:1 cancer:5 american:1 association:1 ada:1 national:1 institute:1 nci:1 agree:1 factor:1 study:2 conduce:1 summarize:1 associate:1 extensive:1 publish:1 australian:1 journal:1 conclude:1 andrew:1 penman:1 chief:1 executive:1 council:1 south:1 wale:1 call:1 research:1 matter:1 april:1 mcneil:1 ppc:1 potentially:1 contaminant:1 launch:1 recall:3 affect:2 issue:1 family:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram joseph_lister:2 sore_throat:3 plastic_bottle:1 http_www:1 methyl_salicylate:2 dental_plaque:1 false_misleading:1 mouth_rinse:1 external_link:1 |
2,116 | Lleyton_Hewitt | Lleyton Glynn Hewitt (IPA: See pronunciation of Lleyton Hewitt. ) (born 24 February 1981) is a tennis player from Australia. In 2000, Hewitt had won ATP titles on all three major surfaces (Hard, Clay and Grass) and reached one final on carpet. By 2001, he became the youngest male ever to be ranked number one. His career best achievements are winning the 2001 US Open and 2002 Wimbledon men's singles titles, and winning back-to-back ATP World Tour Finals (2001 and 2002). In 2005, TENNIS Magazine put Hewitt in 34th place on its list of the 40 greatest tennis players since 1965. Hewitt is known for his competitiveness and has won most of his matches with fitness, consistency and skilled footwork. Hewitt spent much time in the late stages of 2004 working with his former coach and good friend, Roger Rasheed, on bulking up his physique. His hard work paid off after he made it to the final of the 2005 Australian Open, before losing to Marat Safin in 4 sets (1–6, 6–3, 6–4, 6–4). Tennis career Hewitt might well have followed in the footsteps of his Australian rules football-playing father Glynn. Instead, he became one of the youngest winners of an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tournament when, as an almost unknown youngster, he won the 1998 Next Generation Adelaide International, defeating Andre Agassi in the semifinals. Only Aaron Krickstein winning Tel Aviv in 1983 and Michael Chang winning San Francisco in 1988 were younger when claiming their first ATP title. Hewitt and fellow Australian Mark Philippoussis confer during a doubles match at the 2005 Queen's Club Championships. In 2000, Hewitt won his first Grand Slam title when he and Max Mirnyi won the men's doubles championship at the US Open. Hewitt's first Grand Slam singles title was at the US Open in 2001, when he defeated then-four time champion Pete Sampras in straight sets, making himself and fellow countryman Pat Rafter the only active ATP players to have won a Grand Slam singles and doubles title during their career. He followed his US Open win with a victory at Wimbledon in 2002, defeating David Nalbandian in the final. His victory reinforced the idea that although the tournament had tended to be dominated by serve-and-volleyers, a baseliner like Hewitt or Agassi could still triumph on grass. (Hewitt was the first baseliner to win the tournament since Agassi did it ten years earlier.) In 2003 Hewitt had a good time by winning Indian Wells against former world nº1 Gustavo Kuerten, but at Wimbledon, as the defending champion, Hewitt lost in the first round of Wimbledon to qualifier Ivo Karlović. Hewitt became the first defending Wimbledon men's champion in the open era to lose in the first round. Only once before in the tournament's 126-year history had a defending men's champion lost in the opening round, when asf 1967 Manuel Santana was beaten by Charles Pasarell. Hewitt also was only the third defending champion to lose in the first round of a Grand Slam singles tournament, after Boris Becker in the 1997 Australian Open and Pat Rafter in the 1999 US Open. After Wimbledon in 2003, Hewitt lost in the final of the tournament in Los Angeles, the second round of the ATP Masters Series tournament in Montreal, and the first round of the ATP Masters Series tournament in Cincinnati. At the US Open, Hewitt lost in the quarterfinals to Juan Carlos Ferrero 4–6, 6–3, 7–6(5), 6–1. Hewitt played only Davis Cup matches for the remainder of the year, using his time off to bulk up, gaining 7 kg. Lleyton Hewitt In 2004, Hewitt became the first man in history to lose in each Grand Slam singles tournament to the eventual champion. At the Australian Open, he was defeated in the fourth round by Swiss Roger Federer. At the French Open, he was defeated in a quarterfinal by Argentine Gastón Gaudio. At Wimbledon, he was defeated in a quarterfinal by Federer. And at the US Open, he was defeated in the final by Federer, losing two out of the three sets at love. At the year ending 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, Hewitt defeated Andy Roddick to advance to the final but was yet again defeated by defending champion Federer. In 2005, Hewitt won his only title at the Sydney Medibank International. He reached his first Australian Open final by defeating World No. 2 Roddick, but was defeated by Marat Safin. At Wimbledon, he reached the semifinals, but lost to eventual champion Federer. Almost three months later, Hewitt again lost to Federer in the US Open semifinal, although this time he was able to take one set from the Swiss. Hewitt had at this point lost to the eventual champion at seven consecutive Grand Slam tournaments he played (he missed the 2005 French Open because of injury). Hewitt pulled out of the Tennis Masters Cup tournament in Shanghai in November 2005 so that he could be with his wife Bec, who was due to give birth. He was replaced by Gastón Gaudio. 2006 After a fairly frosty start to 2006, where Hewitt was defeated in the second round of the Australian Open, his results improved after some time away from the tour. He reached the finals of the San Jose and Las Vegas tournaments, losing to British youngster Andy Murray and American James Blake, respectively. But he lost to Tim Henman 7–6(5), 6–3 in the second round of the Miami Masters, a player he had defeated eight times previously in as many matches. At the 2006 French Open, Hewitt reached the fourth round where he lost to defending champion, and eventual winner, Rafael Nadal in four sets. Hewitt won his first tournament of 2006 (after a 17 month hiatus from winning a tournament) when he beat Blake 6–4, 6–4 in the finals of the Queen's Club Championships. This was his fourth title there, thereby equalling the records of John McEnroe and Boris Becker. During the 2006 Wimbledon Championships, Hewitt survived a five-set match against South Korea's Hyung-Taik Lee that was played over two days. He then defeated Olivier Rochus and David Ferrer before losing to Marcos Baghdatis in the quarterfinals. At the 2006 Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington, D.C., Hewitt was defeated by Arnaud Clément 7–6(1), 6–4 in a quarterfinal after defeating Vincent Spadea in the second round and Denis Gremelmayr in the third round. Hewitt participated at the 2006 US Open despite having an injured knee. Hewitt won his first three matches in straight sets against, respectively, Albert Montañés, Jan Hernych, and Novak Đoković. He defeated Richard Gasquet 6–4, 6–4, 4–6, 3–6, 6–3 in the fourth round to advance to the quarterfinals for the seventh consecutive year. He then lost to Roddick 6–3, 7–5, 6–4. 2007 At the 2007 Australian Open, Hewitt lost in the third round to the tenth seeded Chilean and eventual runner-up Fernando González 6–2, 6–2, 5–7, 6–4. With his win in Las Vegas in March 2007, Hewitt has won at least one ATP title annually for ten consecutive years. This was a record among active players at the time. Hewitt reached the 2007 Hamburg Masters semifinals, where he pushed eventual finalist Rafael Nadal to three sets. At the 2007 French Open, Hewitt, for the 2nd straight time at Roland Garros, lost in the 4th round to Rafael Nadal 6–3, 6–1, 7–6(5). At the 2007 Wimbledon Championships, Hewitt won his first three matches, including a four-set third round victory over Guillermo Cañas. He then faced 4th seed Novak Djokovic in the fourth round which he lost 7–6, 7–6, 4–6, 7–6. After Wimbledon, it was announced that he had hired former Australian tennis pro, Tony Roche, to coach him during Grand Slam and Masters tournaments in 2007 and 2008. At the Masters tournaments in Montréal and Cincinnati Hewitt reached the quarter- and semifinals, respectively. In both cases, he lost to Roger Federer. He was seeded 16 at the 2007 U.S. Open, but for the first time in eight consecutive appearances at Flushing Meadows, he did not reach the quarterfinals or further. He lost in the second round to Argentine Agustín Calleri. 2008 At the 2008 Australian Open, he advanced to the fourth round as the 19th seed, defeating 15th-seeded and 2006 Australian Open finalist Marcos Baghdatis in a thrilling match, 4–6, 7–5, 7–5, 6–7 (4), 6–3. Destined to be his last win at the Australian Open, the 282 minute match started at 11:52pm and ended at 4:34am the following morning, Melbourne time. It was a characteristically "gutsy" performance and cemented Hewitt's reputation as a tough competitor. Hewitt lost his fourth round match in straight sets to the 3rd seeded and eventual champion Novak Đoković 7–5, 6–3, 6–3. A hip injury Hewitt acquired in March 2008 affected his preparation for the French open, and forced the loss of 300 rankings points as Hewitt was unable to defend his Semi Final appearance at the Hamburg Masters as well as compete in supplementary tournaments. However, Hewitt made the third round at Roland Garros before losing a 5 set thriller to fifth seed David Ferrer 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-3, 6-4. Despite his ongoing hip problem Hewitt was able to compete at the Queens Club Championship with moderate success, falling to second seed Novak Djokovic in the Quarter Finals 2-6, 2-6. His good form continued into Wimbledon, Hewitt making the fourth round for the second successive year before facing world number 1 and first seed Roger Federer, a match that Federer took 7-6(7), 6-2, 6-4. After Wimbledon Hewitt elected to miss the Montreal and Cincinnati Masters in an effort to give his hip sufficient rest to enable him to play at the 2008 Beijing Olympics where he defeated Jonas Björkman in the first round 7-5 7-6(7-2) before losing to second seed Rafael Nadal 6-1 6-2. However, the more notable incident in the Olympics occurred in Hewitt's opening round doubles match with Chris Guccione against Argentines Juan Mónaco and Agustín Calleri. The match went to an advantage 3rd set with Hewitt and Guccione prevailing 18-16. After the Olympics due to the further damage Hewitt's hip sustained at the Olympics, he was left with no option but to pull out of the US open and skip the rest of the season to have hip surgery. 2008 was the first year that Hewitt didn't win a title since 1998. 2009 After returning from hip surgery Hewitt played his first match in 2009 at the Hopman Cup where he defeated Nicolas Kiefer in 3 sets. Hewitt lost his 2009 first round match against Fernando Gonzalez in the 2009 Australian Open after 5 sets for the first time. At the 2009 Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup he caused an upset by defeating James Blake in three sets, 3-6, 6-1, 6-4. He then defeated fellow Australian Chris Guccione in the second round 6-2, 7-6(4), and Christophe Rochus in the quarterfinals 6-2, 6-3. He faced Andy Roddick in the semifinals but lost in a close match 2-6, 7-6(4), 6-4. Hewitt lost in the first round of the 2009 Delray Beach International Tennis Championships to Yen-Hsun Lu, the eighth seed, 7-5, 2-6, 6-2. Hewitt also competed in the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, California, he reached the second round, being defeated by Fernando Gonzalez. At the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, Hewitt played Israeli Dudi Sela in the first round. Hewitt lost the first set before recovering to win the match 3-6, 6-4, 6-3. Hewitt was then defeated by 7th seed Gilles Simon of France 6-1, 6-2. At the 2009 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Hewitt defeated the number 7 seed Diego Junqueira 6-0, 6-2. Hewitt advanced to the Quarter Finals after defeating Sergio Roitman 6-1, 6-3 in just 57 minutes, and defeated Guillermo Garcia-Lopez 6-3, 6-4 to advance to the semi finals where he defeated Evgeny Korolev 7-6(4), 6-4. He defeated Wayne Odesnik in the final 6-2, 7-5, for his first title since 2007 and his first clay court title in a decade. Hewitt entered the Monte Carlo Masters as a wild card. He lost in the first round 6-4, 7-5 to Marat Safin who lives in Monte Carlo. After missing his scheduled flight out of Houston due to his match being delayed by rain Hewitt was forced to arrive in Monte Carlo the afternoon of the match against Safin after a further 3 hour flight delay and was carrying a slight muscle tear. Hewitt admitted to running out of energy in the second set. At the 2009 BMW Open, Hewitt recorded his 500th career win after defeating Philipp Petzschner in the first round. In the 2009 French Open, he defeated No.26 seed Ivo Karlovic in five sets 6-7(1) 6-7(4) 7-6(4) 6-4 6-3 in the first round, and then defeated Andrey Golubev 6-4, 6-3, 6-1 in the second. He lost to No. 1 Rafael Nadal 6-1, 6-3, 6-1 in the third round. Davis Cup Hewitt was a part of the Australian Davis Cup Team that won the Davis Cup in 1999 and 2003 and reached the final in 2000 and 2001. By the age of 22, he had recorded more wins in Davis Cup singles than any other Australian player. In 2003, Hewitt led the Australian team to victory when he defeated Juan Carlos Ferrero in the opening rubber 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 7–6, 6–2. In the 2006 quarterfinals in Melbourne, Hewitt defeated Belarusian Vladimir Voltchkov 6–2, 6–1, 6–2 in just 91 minutes. Voltchkov said before the match that "Hewitt has no weapons to hurt me." Hewitt responded, "Voltchkov doesn't have a ranking [of 457] to hurt me." In the semifinals in Buenos Aires on clay, Hewitt lost to Argentine José Acasuso 1–6, 6–4, 4–6, 6–2, 6–1. In February 2007, Australia led by Hewitt lost in the first round to Belgium in Belgium on clay. Hewitt lost to then World No. 41 Kristof Vliegen, and his teammate Chris Guccione also lost his first singles match. Although Hewitt won both his doubles match with Paul Hanley and singles match against Olivier Rochus to get Australia back in contention, Guccione could not prevent an Australian first round exit, their first since 2004. Coaches Darren Cahill, Jason Stoltenberg and Roger Rasheed are all former coaches of his. Hewitt is currently coached by Tony Roche . Playing style Hewitt is a defensive baseline counterpuncher. He typically likes to stay back towards the baseline during a rally and will usually approach the net only to catch a short reply or drop shot from his opponent. At the 2004 Cincinnati Masters Final, commentator MaliVai Washington said that Hewitt was even more difficult to "ace" than Agassi because he gets more returns in play. Hewitt's tactics typically involve putting difficult service returns in play, consistently chasing down attempted winning shots from his opponent, and waiting for his opponent to make an error. Although he is known primarily as a baseline defender, Hewitt is actually a skilled volleyer and is known for having one of the best overhead smashes in the game. His signature shot, however, is the offensive topspin lob, a shot that he executes efficiently off both wings when his opponent approaches the net. US Davis Cup captain Patrick McEnroe and Jim Courier have both described Hewitt's lob as being the best in the world. Controversies In a five set match with James Blake at the 2001 US Open, Hewitt complained to umpire Andres Egli and asked for a black linesman to be moved after being called for two foot-faults in the third set. Hewitt approached the chair umpire and, pointing first to the offending linesman and then to Blake, said, "Look at him [the linesman] and you tell me what the similarity is." Some witnesses, including Blake, had suggested that the "similarity" referred to the colour shared by Blake and the linesman. Hewitt claimed he had merely pointed out that the same linesman had foot-faulted him on both occasions, while other officials had made no such calls. During the 2001 French Open he was fined US$1000 for calling Egli (see above), a "spastic". Hewitt denied this. Hewitt blamed his losses at the 2005 and 2006 Australian Open on uncooperative maintenance of the courts by the tournament directors. "I don't think there's been a lot of homework done on how the balls play on this surface ... Mate, it could be slower than the French Open." Hewitt was disappointed that the organisers had ignored his concerns about the courts. "I feel like I'm fighting with people that we should be working together to try and make Australian tennis better". Since then, long-time Australian Open chief executive Paul McNamee has resigned, leaving new tournament director Craig Tiley to confirm that the main aim for 2007 was to provide "uniformity and consistency" when the stadium's match and practice courts were resurfaced in November 2006. The courts will be as fast as they were in the second week of the 2006 tournament. Hewitt is disliked by some Pro Tour players. Mary Carillo said: "He makes guys crazy, they try hard to ignore him, but he's always barking on the other side of the net." In his 2005 Australian Open match against Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela, Hewitt angered his opponent by his celebration of an unforced error, to the point where Chela served directly at Hewitt, and spat at him during the changeover. In 2006 Hewitt was nominated by GQ magazine as one of the '10 Most Hated Athletes' in Sport . That year, he also came under criticism from Australian child psychologist Michael Carr-Gregg for "exploiting" his child during the 2006 Logie Awards. During a match at the 2005 Australian Open, David Nalbandian and Hewitt purposefully bumped into each other at a change of ends. Nalbandian later remarked that "no-one on the tour is friends with Hewitt" and that Hewitt is "not a gentleman". Nalbandian comment re Hewitt Awards 2001–ATP Player of the Year 2001–Most Popular South Australian 2002–ATP Player of the Year 2002–Australia's Male Athlete 2002–ESPY Best Male Tennis Player 2003–Young Australian of the Year 2003–Vogue Australia Sportsman of the Year 2003–Most Popular South Australian Personal life Hewitt is a keen supporter of Australian rules football, having played the game earlier in his career and is no.1 ticket holder for the Adelaide Crows. He once had a close friendship with Crows star Andrew McLeod, but this broke down over much public controversy. Hewitt had a four-year relationship with highly-ranked Belgian tennis player Kim Clijsters. The two announced their engagement just before Christmas 2003 but separated in October 2004, in effect canceling a planned February 2005 wedding. Shortly after losing the final of the 2005 Australian Open, Hewitt proposed to Australian actress Bec Cartwright on 30 January after they had been dating for six weeks. They married on 21 July 2005. Their first child, a daughter named Mia Rebecca Hewitt, was born on 29 November 2005. . Their second child, a son named Cruz Lleyton Hewitt, was born in Sydney on 11 December 2008. Lleyton Hewitt Welcomes New Son December 16, 2008 Hewitt is currently sponsored by the Japanese sports manufacterer Yonex, with whom he signed a "Head to Toe" deal with in late 2005. Yonex provides all of Hewitt's clothing, racquets, shoes and accessories. Hewitt's Yonex shoes (SHT-306) are inscribed with his nickname "Rusty" along with an image of an Australian flag. As of 7 August 2007, his first appearance with a new racquet at the Montreal Masters, Hewitt used to use the Yonex RQiS Tour-1. He used to use the Yonex RDS 001 '08 Model, but switched to the Yonex RDiS 100 in 2009. Hewitt's sister, Jaslyn Hewitt, is a former tennis player, and currently a bodybuilder. Career statistics Grand Slam singles finals Wins (2) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final 2001 US Open Pete Sampras 7–6(4), 6–1, 6–1 2002 Wimbledon David Nalbandian 6–1, 6–3, 6–2 Runner-ups (2) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final 2004 US Open Roger Federer 6–0, 7–6(3), 6–0 2005 Australian Open Marat Safin 1–6, 6–3, 6–4, 6–4 Grand Slam doubles finals Wins (1) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipPartnering |width="175"|Opponent in FinalScore in Final |-bgcolor="#CCCCFF" |2000||US Open|| Max Mirnyi|| Ellis Ferreira Rick Leach||6–4, 5–7, 7–6(5) |} Tennis Masters Cup singles finals Wins (2) Year |width="200"|VenueOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final2001Sydney Sébastien Grosjean 6–3, 6–3, 6–42002Shanghai Juan Carlos Ferrero 7–5, 7–5, 2–6, 2–6, 6–4 Career singles finals Wins (27) Legend (pre/post 2009) Grand Slam tournaments (2) Tennis Masters Cup / ATP World Tour Finals (2) ATP Masters Series / ATP World Tour Masters 1000 (2) ATP International Series Gold / ATP World Tour 500 Series (2) ATP International Series / ATP World Tour 250 Series (19)Titles by Surface Hard (19) Clay (2) Grass (6) Carpet (0) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in the finalScore 1. 5 January 1998 Adelaide, Australia (1) Hard Jason Stoltenberg 3–6, 6–3, 7–6(4) 2. 3 May 1999 Delray Beach, United States Clay Xavier Malisse 6–4, 6–7(2), 6–1 3. 3 January 2000 Adelaide, Australia (2) Hard Thomas Enqvist 3–6, 6–3, 6–2 4. 10 January 2000 Sydney, Australia (1) Hard Jason Stoltenberg 6–4, 6–0 5. 6 March 2000 Scottsdale, U.S. (1) Hard Tim Henman 6–4, 7–6(2) 6. 12 June 2000 London/Queen's Club, United Kingdom (1) Grass Pete Sampras 6–4, 6–4 7. 8 January 2001 Sydney, Australia (2) Hard Magnus Norman 6–4, 6–1 8. 11 June 2001 London/Queen's Club, United Kingdom (2) Grass Tim Henman 7–6(3), 7–6(3) 9. 18 June 2001 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands Grass Guillermo Cañas 6–3, 6–410.10 September 2001U.S. Open, New YorkHard Pete Sampras7–6(4), 6–1, 6–1 11. 1 October 2001 Tokyo, Japan Hard Michel Kratochvil 6–4, 6–212.12 November 2001Tennis Masters Cup, Sydney (1)Hard Sébastien Grosjean6–3, 6–3, 6–4 13. 25 February 2002 San José, U.S. Hard Andre Agassi 4–6, 7–6(6), 7–6(4)14.11 March 2002Indian Wells, U.S. (1)Hard Tim Henman6–1, 6–2 15. 10 June 2002 London/Queen's Club, United Kingdom (3) Grass Tim Henman 4–6, 6–1, 6–416.24 June 2002Wimbledon, LondonGrass David Nalbandian6–1, 6–3, 6–217.11 November 2002Tennis Masters Cup, Shanghai (2)Hard Juan Carlos Ferrero7–5, 7–5, 2–6, 2–6, 6–4 18. 3 March 2003 Scottsdale, U.S. (2) Hard Mark Philippoussis 6–4, 6–419.10 March 2003Indian Wells, U.S. (2)Hard Gustavo Kuerten6–1, 6–1 20. 12 January 2004 Sydney, Australia (3) Hard Carlos Moyà 4–3 retired 21. 16 February 2004 Rotterdam, Netherlands Hard Juan Carlos Ferrero 6–7(1), 7–5, 6–4 22. 16 August 2004 Washington, D.C., U.S. Hard Gilles Müller 6–3, 6–4 23. 23 August 2004 Long Island, U.S. Hard Luis Horna 6–3, 6–1 24. 10 January 2005 Sydney, Australia (4) Hard Ivo Minář 7–5, 6–0 25. 18 June 2006 London/Queen's Club, United Kingdom (4) Grass James Blake 6–4, 6–4 26. 5 March 2007 Las Vegas, U.S. (3) Hard Jurgen Melzer 6–4, 7–6(10) 27. 12 April 2009 Houston, U.S. Clay Wayne Odesnik 6–2, 7–5 Runner-ups (14) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in the finalScore 1. 11 January 1999 Adelaide, Australia Hard Thomas Enqvist 4–6, 6–1, 6–2 2. 8 March 1999 Scottsdale, U.S. Hard Jan-Michael Gambill 7–6(2), 4–6, 6–4 3. 25 October 1999 Lyon, France Carpet Nicolás Lapentti 6–3, 6–2 4. 6 November 2000 Stuttgart Indoor, Germany Hard Wayne Ferreira 7–6(6), 3–6, 6–7(5), 7–6(2), 6–2 5. 12 August 2002 Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Carlos Moyà 7–5, 7–6(5) 6. 4 November 2002 Paris, France Carpet Marat Safin 7–6(4), 6–0, 6–4 7. 4 August 2003 Los Angeles, U.S. Hard Wayne Ferreira 6–3, 4–6, 7–5 8. 9 August 2004 Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Andre Agassi 6–3, 3–6, 6–2 9. 13 September 2004 U.S. Open, New York Hard Roger Federer 6–0, 7–6(3), 6–0 10. 22 November 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, Houston Hard Roger Federer 6–3, 6–2 11. 31 January 2005 Australian Open, Melbourne Hard Marat Safin 1–6, 6–3, 6–4, 6–4 12. 21 March 2005 Indian Wells, U.S. Hard Roger Federer 6–2, 6–4, 6–4 13. 20 February 2006 San Jose, U.S. Hard (i) Andy Murray 2–6, 6–1, 7–6(3) 14. 6 March 2006 Las Vegas, U.S. Hard James Blake 7–5, 2–6, 6–3 Career doubles finals Wins (2) {| class="wikitable" |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" |No.|Date|Tournament|Surface|PartneringOpponent in the finalScore 1. 21 August 2000 Indianapolis, U.S. Hard Sandon Stolle Jonas Björkman Max Mirnyi 7–6(3), 4–6, 7–6(3) 2. 11 September 2000 U.S. Open, New York Hard Max Mirnyi Ellis Ferreira Rick Leach 6–4, 5–7, 7–6(5) Singles performance timeline To prevent confusion and double counting, information in this table is updated only once a tournament or the player's participation in the tournament has concluded. This table stops before the 2008 French Open, which started on 25 May 2008. Tournament 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Career SR Career W-L Grand SlamsAustralian Open1R1R2R4R3R1R4R4RF2R3R4R1R0 / 1324–13French OpenALQ1R4RQF4R3RQFA4R4R3R3R0 / 1026–10WimbledonALQ3R1R4RW1RQFSFQF4R4R 1 / 931–9US OpenALQ3RSFWSFQFFSFQF2RA 1 / 939–8Grand Slam SR0 / 10 / 10 / 40 / 41 / 41 / 40 / 40 / 40 / 30 / 40 / 40 / 30 / 12 / 42N/AGrand Slam Win – Loss0–10–15–411–416–315–39–417–416–312–49–48–32–2N/A120–40 Year-End ChampionshipATP World Tour FinalsAAARRWWAFAAAA 2 / 413–5 ATP Masters SeriesIndian Wells MastersA1R2R2RSFWW3RF3R2R4R2R2 / 1227–10Miami MastersA1R2RSFSFSF2R3RA2RA2R2R0 / 1015–10Monte Carlo MastersAAAAA1RA3RAAAA1R0 / 22–2Rome MastersALQASF3R2RA2RAA1RAA0 / 58–5Madrid MastersAA1RFSFAAAAAAAA0 / 37–3Hamburg MastersAAA2RSFQF3RSFAASFA 0 / 618–6Canada MastersAAA2R2R1R2R3R1R2RQFA 0 / 89–8Cincinnati MastersAAA1RSFF1RFSFASFA 0 / 722–7Paris MastersAA3RA2RFAQFAAAA 0 / 48–4 Olympic Games |- |style="background:#EFEFEF;" | Summer Olympics |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center" style="background:#afeeee;"|1R |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center"|A |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center"|NH |align="center" style="background:#afeeee;"|2R |align="center"|NH |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |0 / 2 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |1–2 |- | colspan="16" | Career Statistics|- |style="background:#EFEFEF;" | Year |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |1997 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |1998 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2009 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2000 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2001 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2002 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2003 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2004 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2005 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2006 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2007 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2008 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |2009 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |CareerWin % |- bgcolor="#efefef" |ATP Tournaments Played |align="center"|1 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|19 |align="center"|19 |align="center"|21 |align="center"|20 |align="center"|12 |align="center"|19 |align="center"|10 |align="center"|16 |align="center"|14 |align="center"|11 |align="center"|5 |align="center"|176 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" | |- bgcolor="#efefef" |ATP Finals Reached |align="center"|0 |align="center"|1 |align="center"|4 |align="center"|5 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|3 |align="center"|1 |align="center"|0 |align="center"|1 |align="center"|41 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" | |- bgcolor="#efefef" |style="background:#EFEFEF;"|ATP Tournaments Won |align="center"|0|align="center"|1|align="center"|1|align="center"|4|align="center"|6|align="center"|5|align="center"|2|align="center"|4|align="center"|1|align="center"|1|align="center"|1|align="center"|0|align="center"|1|align="center"|27|align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" | |- |style="background:#EFEFEF;"| Hardcourt Win – Loss |align="center"|0–1 |align="center"|7–6 |align="center"|22–10 |align="center"|37–11 |align="center"|50–10 |align="center"|33–9 |align="center"|26–6 |align="center"|45–9 |align="center"|28–6 |align="center"|21–11 |align="center"|21–9 |align="center"|12–8 |align="center"|8-8 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"|292–92 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |76.05% |- |style="background:#EFEFEF;"| Clay Win – Loss |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|6–5 |align="center"|11–5 |align="center"|14–5 |align="center"|10–5 |align="center"|8–2 |align="center"|13–6 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|3–3 |align="center"|12–5 |align="center"|2–1 |align="center"|5-0 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"|81–36 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |69.23% |- |style="background:#EFEFEF;"| Grass Win – Loss |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|1–2 |align="center"|10–3 |align="center"|8–2 |align="center"|16–2 |align="center"|14–0 |align="center"|3–2 |align="center"|8–2 |align="center"|9–3 |align="center"|9–1 |align="center"|3–2 |align="center"|6–2 |align="center"| |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"|81–19 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |81% |- |style="background:#EFEFEF;"| Carpet Win – Loss |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|2–1 |align="center"|6–2 |align="center"|5–1 |align="center"|0–1 |align="center"|4–1 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|2–1 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"|0 – 0 |align="center"| |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"|19–7 |align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;" |73.08% |- bgcolor="#efefef" |Overall Win – Loss |align="center"|0–1|align="center"|10–9|align="center"|44–20|align="center"|61–19|align="center"|80–18|align="center"|61–15|align="center"|37–10|align="center"|68–18|align="center"|37–9|align="center"|33–15|align="center"|35–16|align="center"|20–1113-8499–16974.70% Year End Ranking550100247111734202167 N/A ATP Tour career earnings Year Slams ATP wins Total wins Earnings ($) Money list rank1999011411,7715420000441,642,572820011563,770,618120021454,619,38612003022873,5981520040442,766,051220050111,459,43782006011646,680272007011662,075302008000357,876702009011192,81324Career2252717,742,90111 See also Wimbledon champions (Men's Singles) US Open champions (Men's Singles) List of Grand Slam Men's Singles champions References External links | Lleyton_Hewitt |@lemmatized lleyton:5 glynn:2 hewitt:105 ipa:1 see:3 pronunciation:1 born:1 february:6 tennis:17 player:13 australia:12 win:42 atp:23 title:13 three:7 major:1 surface:4 hard:36 clay:9 grass:9 reach:11 one:8 final:31 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2,117 | Baltimore_Ravens | The Baltimore Ravens are a professional American football team based in Baltimore, Maryland. They compete in the AFC North Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Ravens have won one Super Bowl title, Super Bowl XXXV, in the 2000 season against the New York Giants. History The Baltimore Ravens came into existence after a flurry of legal activity was triggered in 1995 when Art Modell, then owner of the Cleveland Browns, announced his intention to relocate his team from Cleveland to Baltimore. The controversy ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on February 8, 1996. The agreement stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, uniform design and franchise records would remain in Cleveland. The franchise history included Browns club records and connections with Pro Football Hall of Fame players. A new team to begin play in 1999 would be regarded as the "reactivated" Cleveland Browns. Modell's Baltimore team, while retaining all current player contracts, would officially be the expansion team, a "new franchise." Morgan, Jon. Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore, The Baltimore Sun, February 9, 1996. Modell relocated the team and hired Ted Marchibroda as head coach. Marchibroda was already well known because of his work as head coach of the Baltimore Colts during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s. Ozzie Newsome, the Browns' tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to Vice President/General Manager. The home stadium for the Ravens first season in 1996 was Baltimore's Memorial Stadium, home field of the Baltimore Colts years before. The 1996 Ravens finished with a 4-12 record. The 1997 Ravens started 3–1. Peter Boulware, a rookie defender from Florida State, recorded 11.5 sacks and was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year. The team finished 6–9–1. The Ravens played their 1998 season in their own new stadium at Camden Yards. Raven Stadium would subsequently wear the names PSI Net Stadium and then M&T Bank Stadium. Quarterback Vinny Testaverde left for the New York Jets before the season and was replaced by former Indianapolis Colt Jim Harbaugh, and later Eric Zeier. Cornerback Rod Woodson joined the team after a successful stint with the Pittsburgh Steelers, and Priest Holmes started getting the first playing time of his career and ran for 1,000 yards. The Ravens finished with a 6–10 record. Three consecutive losing seasons under Marchibroda led to a change in the head coach. Brian Billick took over as head coach in 1999. Billick had been offensive coordinator for the record-setting Minnesota Vikings the season before. Quarterback Tony Banks came to Baltimore from the St. Louis Rams and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 pass rating. He was joined by receiver Qadry Ismail, who posted a 1,000-yard season. The Ravens struggled early starting 3-6 but managed to finish with an 8–8 record. Due to continual financial hardships, the NFL directed Modell to initiate the sale of his franchise. On March 27, 2000, NFL owners approved the sale of 49% of the Ravens to Bisciotti. In the deal, Bisciotti had an option to purchase the remaining 51% for $325 million in 2004 from Art Modell. On April 9, 2004 the NFL approved Steve Bisciotti's purchase of the majority stake in the club. 2000 season — Super Bowl champions The 2000 season saw the Ravens defense, led by defensive coordinator Marvin Lewis, develop into a rock-solid unit that emerged as one of the most formidable defenses in NFL history. The Ravens defense set a new NFL record in holding opposing teams to 165 total points; the feat eclipsed the mark set previously by the 1985 Chicago Bears of 198 points for a 16 game season. Linebacker Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year and, with two of his defensive teammates, Sam Adams and Rod Woodson, made the Pro Bowl. Baltimore's season started strong with a 5–1 record. Banks began the 2000 season as the starting quarterback, but was replaced by Trent Dilfer mid-season. Dilfer provided a steady hand at quarterback. The 1,364-yard rushing season by rookie running back Jamal Lewis combined with the stout Ravens defense to keep Baltimore competitive in games even when the offense struggled. At one point in the season the team played five consecutive games without scoring an offensive touchdown but still managed 2 wins during that stretch. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12–4. The Ravens had made the playoffs for the first time. Since the divisional rival Tennessee Titans had a record of 13–3, Baltimore had to play in the wild card round. They dominated the Denver Broncos 21–3 in their first game. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. Tied 10–10 in the fourth quarter, an Al Del Greco field goal attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by Anthony Mitchell, and a Ray Lewis interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore's favor. The 24–10 win put the Ravens in the AFC Championship against the Oakland Raiders. The game was barely in doubt. Shannon Sharpe's 96-yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter, followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback Rich Gannon, was crucial as the Ravens won easily, 16–3. Baltimore then went to Tampa for Super Bowl XXXV against the New York Giants, cruising to a 34–7 win for their first championship in franchise history. The Ravens recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a Kerry Collins interception returned for a touchdown by Duane Starks. The Giants' only score was a Ron Dixon kickoff return for another touchdown (after Starks' interception return); however, Baltimore immediately countered with a TD return by Jermaine Lewis. The Ravens became only the third wild card team to win a Super Bowl championship. The interception return for a touchdown, followed by two kick return TDs, marked the quickest time in Super Bowl history that three touchdowns had been scored. The title made the Ravens the fourth Baltimore-based pro football team to win a league championship. They were preceded by the NFL Colts in 1958, 1959 and 1970, the USFL Stars in 1985, and the CFL Stallions in 1995. 2001–2002 In 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend its title with Elvis Grbac as its new starting quarterback, but an injury to Jamal Lewis on the first day of training camp and poor offensive performances stymied the team. After a 3–3 start, the Ravens defeated the Minnesota Vikings in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10–6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20–3 blowout over the Miami Dolphins, in which the team forced three turnovers and outgained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the Pittsburgh Steelers. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens' season, as they lost 27–10. Baltimore ran into salary cap problems entering the 2002 season and was forced to part with a number of impact players. The Ravens stayed somewhat competitive, until a losing streak in December eliminated any chances of a post-season berth. 2003 draft The Ravens needed a quarterback but, drafting after all the top quarterbacks were gone, used their 10th pick to select Arizona State defensive end Terrell Suggs. They then traded their 2nd round pick and 2004 1st round pick to the New England Patriots for the 19th overall selection. The Ravens used it to draft Cal quarterback Kyle Boller. The Patriots eventually used the Ravens' 2004 1st round selection to take defensive tackle Vince Wilfork. 2003–2005 After the 2003 season, Art Modell officially transferred his remaining 51% ownership to Bisciotti, ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner. Modell still has an office at the Ravens' headquarters in Owings Mills, Maryland, and acts as a consultant. The Ravens named Boller their starting QB just prior to the start of the 2003 season, but he was injured midway through the season and was replaced by Anthony Wright. Jamal Lewis ran for 2,066 yards (including 295 yards in one game against the Cleveland Browns on September 14). The Ravens held a 5–5 record until, in a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, wiped out a 41–24 gap in the final seven minutes of regulation, then won on a Matt Stover field goal in overtime for a 44–41 triumph. From there the Ravens won five of their last six games. With a 10–6 record, Baltimore won their first AFC North division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the Tennessee Titans, went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20-17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore's season ended early. Ray Lewis was named Defensive Player of the Year for the second time in his career. The Ravens did not make the playoffs in 2004 and finished the season with a record of 9-7 with Kyle Boller finishing the season at QB. In the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second-worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing Derrick Mason from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver Mark Clayton in the first round of the 2005 NFL Draft. However, the Ravens ended their season 6-10. 2006 season The 2006 Baltimore Ravens season began with the team trying to improve on their 6–10 record of 2005. The Ravens, for the first time in franchise history, started 4–0, under the leadership of former Titans quarterback Steve McNair. The Ravens lost 2 straight games mid-season on offensive troubles, prompting coach Brian Billick to drop their offensive coordinator Jim Fassel in their week 7 bye. After the bye, and with Billick calling the offense, Baltimore would record a five-game win streak before losing to the Bengals in week 13. Still ranked second overall to first-place San Diego, The Ravens continued on. They defeated the Chiefs, and held the defending Super Bowl Champion Pittsburgh Steelers to only one touchdown at Heinz Field, allowing the Ravens to clinch the AFC North. The Ravens ended the regular season with a franchise-best 13–3 record. Baltimore had secured the AFC North title, the #2 AFC playoff seed, and clinched a 1st-round bye by season's end. The Ravens were slated to face the Indianapolis Colts in the second round of the playoffs, in the first meeting of the two teams in the playoffs. Many Baltimore and Indianapolis fans saw this historic meeting as a sort of "Judgment Day" with the new team of Baltimore facing the old team of Baltimore (the former Baltimore Colts having left Baltimore under questionable circumstances in 1984). In one of the most bizarre playoff games in NFL history, both Indianapolis and Baltimore were held to scoring only field goals as the two defenses slugged it out all over M&T Bank Stadium. McNair threw two costly interceptions, including one at the 1-yard line. The eventual Super-Bowl-Champion Colts won 15-6, ending Baltimore's season. 2007 season After a stellar 2006 season, the Ravens hoped to improve upon its 13-3 record but injuries and poor play plagued the team which finished the 2007 season in the AFC North cellar with a disappointing 5-11 record. A humiliating 22-16 overtime loss to the previously winless Dolphins on December 16 led to Brian Billick's dismissal on New Year's Eve, one day after the end of the regular season. 2008 season With rookies at head coach (John Harbaugh) and quarterback (Joe Flacco), the Ravens entered the 2008 campaign with lots of uncertainty. After a season-opening home victory over the Bengals, their Week 2 match at the Houston Texans was postponed until two months later because of Hurricane Ike, forcing the Ravens to play for what would eventually be eighteen straight weeks. Its record would drop to 2-3 after three straight losses - in overtime at Pittsburgh, a home heartbreaker versus Tennessee and a blowout in Indianapolis. A win at Miami, redemption for what happened late in the previous season, sparked a four-game winning streak. After a road loss to the defending Super Bowl Champion Giants in Week 11, the Ravens beat Philadelphia at home, powered by Ed Reed breaking his own NFL record for longest interception for a touchdown when he returned one 108 yards against Eagles quarterback Kevin Kolb. The previous record was 106 yards in 2004. In Week 16, the Ravens bounced back from a frustrating home loss to the Steelers that was decided by a highly controversial call from officials by humbling the Dallas Cowboys 33-24 in the final game at Texas Stadium behind Le'Ron McClain and Willis McGahee combining for 249 rushing yards and two touchdowns. McGahee broke a 77-yard run for a touchdown, a stadium record which would last until McClain, on the very first offensive play of the Ravens' next possession, secured the victory with an 82-yard touchdown run of his own. Baltimore closed out the regular season at home by defeating the Jaguars to clinch the sixth seed in the AFC playoffs. On the strength of two more Ed Reed interceptions, one resulting in a touchdown, the Ravens began its postseason run by winning a rematch over Miami 27-9 at Dolphin Stadium on January 4, 2009 in a wildcard game. Six days later, they advanced to the AFC Championship Game by avenging a Week 5 loss to the Titans 13-10 at LP Field on a Matt Stover field goal within the last two minutes of regulation. Even though they trailed by only two points with about four minutes remaining in the fourth quarter, the Ravens fell one victory short of Super Bowl XLIII by losing to the Steelers 23-14 at Heinz Field on January 18, 2009. 2009 season The Ravens hold the 26th pick in the 2009 NFL draft. The Ravens were rumored to be in talks with the Arizona Cardinals to acquire wide receiver Anquan Boldin. The Ravens selected Michael Oher in the first round of the NFL Draft. Logo controversy Baltimore Ravens logo from 1996-1998 Bouchat's original sketch The team's first helmet logo, used from 1996 through 1998, featured raven wings outspread from a shield displaying a letter B framed by the word Ravens overhead and a heraldic cross underneath. The US Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a jury verdict that the logo infringed on a copyright retained by Frederick E. Bouchat, an amateur artist and security guard in Maryland. Bouchat had submitted his design to the Maryland Stadium Authority by fax after learning that Baltimore was to acquire an NFL team. He was not credited for the design when the logo was announced. Bouchat sued the team, claiming to be the designer of the emblem; representatives of the team asserted that the image had been designed independently. The court ruled in favor of Bouchat, noting that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat's work. Bouchat's fax had gone to John Moag, the Maryland Stadium Authority chairman, whose office was located in the same building as Modell's. FindLaw for Legal Professionals - Case Law, Federal and State Resources, Forms, and Code Bouchat ultimately was awarded no monetary compensation, though, in the damages phase of the case. Bouchat v. Balt. Ravens Football Club, 346 F.3d 514, 519 (4th Cir. 2003), cert. denied 541 U.S. 1042 (2004) ("The damages trial was conducted over a period of six days, from July 17 to 24, 2002. On July 23, 2002, at the close of the evidence, the jury was asked to decide whether the Defendants had proven, by a preponderance of the evidence, that the Non-Excluded Merchandise Revenues were attributable entirely to factors other than the Defendants' infringement of Bouchat's copyright. If the jury found that they were not, then it was charged to decide the percentage of the Non-Excluded Merchandise Revenues attributable to factors other than the infringement. After a full day of deliberations, the jury answered the first question in the affirmative, thereby denying Bouchat any monetary recovery.") The Baltimore Sun ran a poll showing three designs for helmet logos. Fans participating in the poll expressed a preference for a raven's head in profile over other designs. Art Modell announced that he would honor this preference but still wanted a letter B to appear somewhere in the design. The new Ravens logo featured a raven's head in profile with the letter superimposed. The secondary logo is a shield that honors Baltimore's history of heraldry. Alternating Calvert and Baltimore emblems (seen also in the flag of Maryland and the flag of Baltimore) are interlocked with stylized letters B and R. Uniforms Baltimore Ravens uniform combination The design of the Ravens uniform has remained essentially unchanged since the team's inaugural season in 1996. Helmets are black with purple "talon" stripes rising from the facemask to the crown. Players normally wear purple jerseys at home and white jerseys on the road. In 1996 the team wore black pants with a single large white stripe for all games. At home games the combination of black pants with purple jersey made the Ravens the first NFL team to wear dark colors head to calf. A number of NFL teams have since donned the look, beginning with the all-black home uniform worn in three games by the 2001 New Orleans Saints. In 1997 the Ravens opted for a more classic NFL look with white pants sporting stripes in purple and black. The white pants were worn with both home and road jerseys. The road uniform (white pants with white jerseys) was worn by the Ravens in the 2000 Super Bowl. In the 2002 season the Ravens began the practice of wearing white jerseys for the home opener and, occasionally, other early games in the season that have a 1:00 kickoff. In November 2004 the team introduced an alternate uniform design featuring black jerseys and solid black pants with black socks. The all-black uniform was first worn for a home game against the Cleveland Browns, entitled "Black Sunday", that resulted in a Ravens win. The uniform has since been worn for select prime-time national game broadcasts and other games of significance. The Ravens began wearing black pants again with the white jersey in 2008. On December 7, 2008, during a Sunday Night Football game against the Washington Redskins, the Ravens introduced a new combination of black jersey with white pants. Training Camp The Ravens currently train at McDaniel College in Westminster, Maryland. Certain sessions are open to the public. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Note: The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens. For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and players who played for the Baltimore Colts, see Indianapolis Colts. Pro Football Hall of Fame 26 Rod Woodson, inducted in 2009, played for Ravens 1998-2001, won Super Bowl XXXV. Retired numbers The Ravens have no retired numbers. Ring of Honor The Ravens have a "Ring of Honor" which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&T Bank Stadium, including a sign with the names and dates of play viewable from the seats. The ring currently honors the following: Baltimore Ravens 21 Earnest Byner, Running back, played for Modell in both Cleveland and Baltimore, inducted in 2001 58 Peter Boulware, Linebacker inducted in 2006 75 Jonathan Ogden, Offensive Tackle inducted in 2008 99 Michael McCrary, Defensive Lineman inducted in 2004 Art Modell, original owner inducted in 2003 Johnny Unitas and the Baltimore Colts, inducted in 2002 following the death of Unitas. The numbers of the following Hall of Fame Colts players are honored: 19 Johnny Unitas 24 Lenny Moore 70 Art Donovan 77 Jim Parker 82 Raymond Berry 83 Ted Hendricks 88 John Mackey 89 Gino Marchetti All-time first-round draft picks Coaches of note Head coaches # Name Term Regular season Playoffs Awards Reference GC W L T W–L % The Win-Loss percentage is calculated using the formula: GC W L1Ted Marchibroda1996–199848163110.344——— 2Brian Billick1999–2007144806400.556853 3John Harbaugh2008–Present1611500.688321 Current staff Radio and television The Ravens' flagship radio stations are WIYY, "98 Rock," and WBAL 1090 AM, with Gerry Sandusky (WBAL-TV Sports Anchor since 1988) as the play-by-play announcer, with analysts Rob Burnett (Ravens DE 1996-2001) and Stan White (Baltimore Colts LB 1972-1979). The Hearst-Argyle stations were in their first season of game coverage, replacing longtime stations WJFK/WQSR. As of the 2008 season, any Ravens preseason games not on national television are seen on WBAL-TV in Baltimore and on Mid-Atlantic Sports Network throughout the region. Sandusky, Burnett and White are also the television announcers. MASN also has extensive coverage of the team throughout the season, including postgame reports and the magazine show Ravens Wired. Ravens Wired, as well as Ravens Report and the regional preseason games, are produced by the Ravens in-house production department, RaveTV. Ravens radio announcers YearsFlagship stationPlay-by-PlayColor Commentator1996WJFK/WLIF FMScott GarceauBruce Cunningham and Tom Matte1997–2000WJFK/WLIF FMScott GarceauTom Matte2001–2005WJFK/WQSR FMScott GarceauTom Matte2006-PresentWBAL AM/WIYY FMGerry SanduskyRob Burnett and Stan White Team Headquarters Baltimore Ravens Headquarters Owings Mills, MD Notes and references External links Baltimore Ravens official web site Sports E-Cyclopedia.com | Baltimore_Ravens |@lemmatized baltimore:48 raven:86 professional:2 american:2 football:9 team:32 base:2 maryland:7 compete:1 afc:11 north:5 division:2 conference:1 national:3 league:2 nfl:20 win:20 one:12 super:12 bowl:13 title:5 xxxv:3 season:51 new:14 york:3 giant:4 history:8 come:2 existence:1 flurry:1 legal:2 activity:1 trigger:1 art:6 modell:13 owner:5 cleveland:8 brown:7 announce:3 intention:1 relocate:2 controversy:2 end:11 representative:2 reach:1 settlement:1 february:2 agreement:1 stipulate:1 name:8 color:2 uniform:9 design:9 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2,118 | Doublespeak | Doublespeak (sometimes called doubletalk) is language constructed to disguise or distort its actual meaning, often resulting in a communication bypass. Doublespeak may take the form of bald euphemisms (e.g., "downsizing" for layoffs) or deliberate ambiguity. History The term doublespeak was coined in the early 1950s. It is often incorrectly attributed to George Orwell and his 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The term does not appear in that novel, although Orwell did coin newspeak, oldspeak, and doublethink, and his novel made fashionable composite nouns with speak as the second element, which were previously unknown in English. Doublespeak may be considered, in Orwell's lexicography, as the vocabulary of Newspeak, words "deliberately constructed for political purposes: words, that is to say, which not only had in every case a political implication, but were intended to impose a desirable mental attitude upon the person using them." The term double talk (with a similar meaning) dates back to at least 1936. double talk - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary See also Double entendre Polite fiction Notes References Lutz, William. (1987). Doublespeak: From "Revenue Enhancement" to "Terminal Living": How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You. New York: Harper & Row. External links Business Doublespeak A short essay by William Lutz DoubleSpeak Homepage by Michele Damron (1998) | Doublespeak |@lemmatized doublespeak:7 sometimes:1 call:1 doubletalk:1 language:2 construct:2 disguise:1 distort:1 actual:1 meaning:2 often:2 result:1 communication:1 bypass:1 may:2 take:1 form:1 bald:1 euphemism:1 e:1 g:1 downsizing:1 layoff:1 deliberate:1 ambiguity:1 history:1 term:3 coin:2 early:1 incorrectly:1 attribute:1 george:1 orwell:3 dystopian:1 novel:3 nineteen:1 eighty:1 four:1 appear:1 although:1 newspeak:2 oldspeak:1 doublethink:1 make:1 fashionable:1 composite:1 noun:1 speak:1 second:1 element:1 previously:1 unknown:1 english:1 consider:1 lexicography:1 vocabulary:1 word:2 deliberately:1 political:2 purpose:1 say:1 every:1 case:1 implication:1 intend:1 impose:1 desirable:1 mental:1 attitude:1 upon:1 person:1 use:2 double:3 talk:2 similar:1 date:1 back:1 least:1 definition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 dictionary:1 see:1 also:1 entendre:1 polite:1 fiction:1 note:1 reference:1 lutz:2 william:2 revenue:1 enhancement:1 terminal:1 living:1 government:1 business:2 advertiser:1 others:1 deceive:1 new:1 york:1 harper:1 row:1 external:1 link:1 short:1 essay:1 homepage:1 michele:1 damron:1 |@bigram george_orwell:1 nineteen_eighty:1 merriam_webster:1 double_entendre:1 harper_row:1 external_link:1 |
2,119 | Nevanlinna_Prize | The Rolf Nevanlinna Prize is awarded once every 4 years at the International Congress of Mathematicians, for outstanding contributions in Mathematical Aspects of Information Sciences including: All mathematical aspects of computer science, including complexity theory, logic of programming languages, analysis of algorithms, cryptography, computer vision, pattern recognition, information processing and modelling of intelligence. Scientific computing and numerical analysis. Computational aspects of optimization and control theory. Computer algebra. The prize was established in 1981 by the Executive Committee of the International Mathematical Union IMU and named to honour the Finnish mathematician Rolf Nevanlinna who had died a year earlier. The award consists of a gold medal and cash prize. Like the Fields Medal the prize is targeted at younger mathematicians, and only those younger than 40 on January 1 of the award year are eligible . The medal features a profile of Nevanlinna, the text "Rolf Nevanlinna Prize", and very small characters "RH 83" on its obverse. RH refers to Raimo Heino, the medal's designer, and 83 to the year of first minting. On the reverse, two figures related to the University of Helsinki, the prize sponsor, are engraved. The rim bears the name of the prizewinner. Laureates Year Laureate Nationality 1982 Robert Tarjan 1986 Leslie Valiant 1990 Alexander Razborov 1994 Avi Wigderson 1998 Peter Shor 2002 Madhu Sudan 2006 Jon Kleinberg See also Abel Prize Fields Medal Gödel Prize Schock Prize Wolf Prize List of prizes Notes External links Rolf Nevanlinna Prizes - Official site | Nevanlinna_Prize |@lemmatized rolf:4 nevanlinna:5 prize:11 award:3 every:1 year:5 international:2 congress:1 mathematician:3 outstanding:1 contribution:1 mathematical:3 aspect:3 information:2 science:2 include:2 computer:3 complexity:1 theory:2 logic:1 program:1 language:1 analysis:2 algorithm:1 cryptography:1 vision:1 pattern:1 recognition:1 processing:1 modelling:1 intelligence:1 scientific:1 computing:1 numerical:1 computational:1 optimization:1 control:1 algebra:1 establish:1 executive:1 committee:1 union:1 imu:1 name:2 honour:1 finnish:1 die:1 earlier:1 consist:1 gold:1 medal:5 cash:1 like:1 field:2 target:1 young:2 january:1 eligible:1 feature:1 profile:1 text:1 small:1 character:1 rh:2 obverse:1 refers:1 raimo:1 heino:1 designer:1 first:1 minting:1 reverse:1 two:1 figure:1 relate:1 university:1 helsinki:1 sponsor:1 engrave:1 rim:1 bear:1 prizewinner:1 laureates:1 laureate:1 nationality:1 robert:1 tarjan:1 leslie:1 valiant:1 alexander:1 razborov:1 avi:1 wigderson:1 peter:1 shor:1 madhu:1 sudan:1 jon:1 kleinberg:1 see:1 also:1 abel:1 gödel:1 schock:1 wolf:1 list:1 prizes:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram rolf_nevanlinna:4 gold_medal:1 external_link:1 |
2,120 | Minimalism | Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, where the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features. As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post-World War II Western Art, most strongly with American visual arts in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include Donald Judd, Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, and Frank Stella. It is rooted in the reductive aspects of Modernism, and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract Expressionism and a bridge to Postmodern art practices. The term has expanded to encompass a movement in music which features repetition and iteration, as in the compositions of Steve Reich, LaMonte Young, Philip Glass, John Adams, and Terry Riley. (See also Postminimalism). The term "minimalist" is often applied colloquially to designate anything which is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has also been used to describe the plays and novels of Samuel Beckett, the films of Robert Bresson, the stories of Raymond Carver, and even the automobile designs of Colin Chapman. Musical minimalism In art music of the last 40 years, the term minimalism is sometimes applied to music which displays some or all of the following features: repetition (often of short musical phrases, with minimal variations over long periods of time, ostinati) or stasis (often in the form of drones and long tones); emphasis on consonant harmony; a steady pulse; hypnotic effect; sometimes use of phase shifting where sound waves gradually move out of sync with each other. Prime examples are the compositions of John Cage and LaMonte Young. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384056/minimalism The term minimalism, endowed independently by composer-critics Michael Nyman and Tom Johnson, has been controversial, but was in wide use by the mid-1970s. The application of a visual art term to music has been protested; however, not only do minimalist sculpture and music share a certain spare simplicity of means and an aversion to ornamental detail, but many of the early minimalist concerts happened in connection with exhibits of minimalist art by Sol LeWitt and others. Several composers associated with minimalism have disavowed the term, notably Philip Glass, who has reportedly said, "That word should be stamped out!!" PhilipGlass.com � Music in Twelve Parts A more recent form of minimalistic music is Minimal techno, a sub-genre of Techno music. In its most basic form it can consist of little more that a single ostinato motif (often called a loop) played in common time with a bass drum sounding on the quarter note pulse. In other examples basic rhythm patterns are layered to create polyrhythmic accompaniment to the same 4/4 bass drum pulse. Sherburne (2004) calls the latter technique massification and the former skeletalism. Cox C. & Warner D. ed.(2004), Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music, Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd, London. Minimalist design The reconstruction of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's German Pavilion in Barcelona The term minimalism is also used to describe a trend in design and architecture where in the subject is reduced to its necessary elements. Minimalist design has been highly influenced by Japanese traditional design and architecture. In addition, the work of De Stijl artists is a major source of reference for this kind of work. De Stijl expanded the ideas that could be expressed by using basic elements such as lines and planes organized in very particular manners. Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe adopted the motto "Less is more" to describe his aesthetic tactic of arranging the numerous necessary components of a building to create an impression of extreme simplicity, by enlisting every element and detail to serve multiple visual and functional purposes (such as designing a floor to also serve as the radiator, or a massive fireplace to also house the bathroom). Designer Buckminster Fuller adopted the engineer's goal of "Doing more with less", but his concerns were oriented towards technology and engineering rather than aesthetics. A similar sentiment was industrial designer Dieter Rams' motto, "Less but better", adapted from van der Rohe. The structure uses relatively simple elegant designs. The structure's beauty is also determined by playing with lighting, using the basic geometric shapes as outlines, using only a single shape or a small number of like shapes for components for design unity, using tasteful non-fussy bright color combinations, usually natural textures and colors, and clean and fine finishes. Using sometimes the beauty of natural patterns on stone and wood encapsulated within ordered simplified structures. May use color brightness balance and contrast between surface colors to improve visual aesthetics. The structure would usually have industrial and space age style utilities (lamps, stoves, stairs, etcetera), neat and straight components (like walls or stairs) that appear to be machined with machines, flat or nearly flat roofs, pleasing negative spaces, and large windows. This and science fiction may have contributed to the late twentieth century futuristic architecture design, and modern home decor. Modern minimalist home architecture with its unnecessary internal walls removed may have led to the popularity of the open plan kitchen and living room style. Another modern master who exemplifies reductivist ideas is Luis Barragan. In minimalism, the architectural designers pay special attention to the connection between perfect planes, elegant lighting, and careful consideration of the void spaces left by the removal of three-dimensional shapes from an architectural design. The more attractive looking minimalist home designs are not truly minimalist, because these use more expensive building materials and finishes, and are relatively larger. Contemporary architects working in this tradition include John Pawson, Eduardo Souto de Moura, Alvaro Siza, Tadao Ando, Alberto Campo Baeza,Yoshio Taniguchi, Peter Zumthor, Hugh Newell Jacobsen, Vincent Van Duysen, Claudio Silvestrin, Michael Gabellini, and Richard Gluckman. Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741. Minimalism in visual art Tony Smith, Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 Kazimir Malevich Black Square, 1913, Oil on Canvas, State Russian Museum, St.Petersburg Dan Flavin, Site-specific installation, 1996, Menil Collection Minimalism in visual art, sometimes referred to as literalist art Fried, M. "Art and Objecthood", Artforum, 1967 and ABC Art Rose, B. "ABC Art", Art in America, 1965. emerged in New York in the 1960s. It is regarded as a reaction against the painterly forms of Abstract Expressionism as well as the discourse, institutions and ideologies that supported it. As artist and critic Thomas Lawson noted in his 1977 catalog essay Last Exit: Painting, minimalism did not reject Clement Greenberg's claims about Modernist Painting's reduction to surface and materials so much as take his claims literally. Minimalism was the result, even though the term "minimalism" was not generally embraced by the artists associated with it, and many practitioners of art designated minimalist by critics did not identify it as a movement as such. In contrast to the Abstract Expressionists, Minimalists were influenced by composers John Cage and LaMonte Young, poet William Carlos Williams, and the landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. They very explicitly stated that their art was not self-expression, in opposition to the previous decade's Abstract Expressionists. In general, Minimalism's features included: geometric, often cubic forms purged of all metaphor, equality of parts, repetition, neutral surfaces, and industrial materials. Robert Morris, an influential theorist and artist, wrote a three part essay, "Notes on Sculpture 1-3", originally published across three issues of Artforum in 1966. In these essays, Morris attempted to define a conceptual framework and formal elements for himself and one that would embrace the practices of his contemporaries. These essays paid great attention to the idea of the gestalt - "parts... bound together in such a way that they create a maximum resistance to perceptual separation." Morris later described an art represented by a "marked lateral spread and no regularized units or symmetrical intervals..." in "Notes on Sculpture 4: Beyond Objects", originally published in Artforum, 1969, continuing to say that "indeterminacy of arrangement of parts is a literal aspect of the physical existence of the thing." The general shift in theory of which this essay is an expression suggests the transitions into what would later be referred to as Postminimalism. One of the first artists specifically associated with Minimalism was the painter, Frank Stella, whose early "stripe" paintings were highlighted in the 1959 show, "16 Americans", organized by Dorothy Miller at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The width of the stripes in Frank Stellas's stripe paintings were determined by the dimensions of the lumber, visible as the depth of the painting when viewed from the side, used to construct the supportive chassis upon which the canvas was stretched. The decisions about structures on the front surface of the canvas were therefore not entirely subjective, but pre-conditioned by a "given" feature of the physical construction of the support. In the show catalog, Carl Andre noted, "Art excludes the unnecessary. Frank Stella has found it necessary to paint stripes. There is nothing else in his painting." These reductive works were in sharp contrast to the energy-filled and apparently highly subjective and emotionally-charged paintings of Willem De Kooning or Franz Kline and, in terms of precedent among the previous generation of abstract expressionists, leaned more toward less gestural, often somber coloristic field paintings of Barnett Newman and Mark Rothko. Although Stella received immediate attention from the MOMA show, artists like Kenneth Noland, Ralph Humphrey, Robert Motherwell and Robert Ryman had begun to explore stripes, monochromatic and Hard-edge formats from the late 50s through the 1960s. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384056/minimalism Because of a tendency in Minimalism to exclude the pictorial, illusionistic and fictive in favor of the literal, there was a movement away from painterly and toward sculptural concerns. Donald Judd had started as a painter, and ended as a creator of objects. His seminal essay, "Specific Objects" (published in Arts Yearbook 8, 1965), was a touchstone of theory for the formation of Minimalist aesthetics. In this essay, Judd found a starting point for a new territory for American art, and a simultaneous rejection of residual inherited European artistic values. He pointed to evidence of this development in the works of an array of artists active in New York at the time, including Jasper Johns, Dan Flavin and Lee Bontecou. Of "preliminary" importance for Judd was the work of George Ortman, who had concretized and distilled painting's forms into blunt, tough, philosophically charged geometries. These Specific Objects inhabited a space not then comfortably classifiable as either painting or sculpture. That the categorical identity of such objects was itself in question, and that they avoided easy association with well-worn and over-familiar conventions, was a part of their value for Judd. In a much more broad and general sense, one might, in fact, find European roots of Minimalism in the geometric abstractions painters in the Bauhaus, in the works of Piet Mondrian and other artists associated with the movement DeStijl, in Russian Constructivists and in the work of the Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncuşi. Piet Mondrian, Composition No. 10, 1939-42, oil on canvas, 80 x 73 cm, private collection. This movement was heavily criticised by high modernist formalist art critics and historians. Some anxious critics thought Minimalist art represented a misunderstanding of the modern dialectic of painting and sculpture as defined by critic Clement Greenberg, arguably the dominant American critic of painting in the period leading up to the 1960s. The most notable critique of Minimalism was produced by Michael Fried, a Greenbergian critic, who objected to the work on the basis of its "theatricality". In Art and Objecthood (published in Artforum in June 1967) he declared that the Minimalist work of art, particularly Minimalist sculpture, was based on an engagement with the physicality of the spectator. He argued that work like Robert Morris's transformed the act of viewing into a type of spectacle, in which the artifice of the act observation and the viewer's participation in the work were unveiled. Fried saw this displacement of the viewer's experience from an aesthetic engagement within, to an event outside of the artwork as a failure of Minimal art. Fried's opinionated essay was immediately challenged by artist Robert Smithson in a letter to the editor in the October issue of Artforum. Smithson stated the following: "What Fried fears most is the consciousness of what he is doing--namely being himself theatrical." Other Minimalist artists include: Richard Allen, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Bell, Ronald Bladen, Mel Bochner, Norman Carlberg, Erwin Hauer, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt, Brice Marden, Agnes Martin, Jo Baer, John McCracken, Paul Mogensen, David Novros, Ad Reinhardt, Fred Sandback, Richard Serra, Tony Smith, Robert Smithson, and Anne Truitt. Ad Reinhardt, actually an artist of the Abstract Expressionist generation, but one whose reductive all-black paintings seemed to anticipate minimalism, had this to say about the value of a reductive approach to art: "The more stuff in it, the busier the work of art, the worse it is. More is less. Less is more. The eye is a menace to clear sight. The laying bare of oneself is obscene. Art begins with the getting rid of nature." Literary minimalism Literary minimalism is characterized by an economy with words and a focus on surface description. Minimalist authors eschew adverbs and prefer allowing context to dictate meaning. Readers are expected to take an active role in the creation of a story, to "choose sides" based on oblique hints and innuendo, rather than reacting to directions from the author. The characters in minimalist stories and novels tend to be unexceptional; they may be pool supply salespeople or second tier athletic coaches rather than famous detectives or the fabulously wealthy. Some 1940s-era crime fiction of writers such as James M. Cain and Jim Thompson adopted a stripped-down, matter-of-fact prose style to considerable effect; some classifiy this prose style as minimalism. Another strand of literary minimalism arose in response to the meta-fiction trend of the 1960s and early 1970s (John Barth, Robert Coover, and William H. Gass). These writers were also spare with prose and kept a psychological distance from their subject matter. Minimalist authors, or those who are identified with minimalism during certain periods of their writing careers, include the following: Raymond Carver, Chuck Palahniuk, Bret Easton Ellis, Ernest Hemingway, K.J. Stevens, Amy Hempel, Bobbie Ann Mason, Tobias Wolff, Grace Paley, Sandra Cisneros, Mary Robison, Frederick Barthelme, Richard Ford, and Alicia Erian. American poets such as William Carlos Williams, early Ezra Pound, Robert Creeley, Robert Grenier, and Aram Saroyan are sometimes identified with their minimalist style. The term "minimalism" is also sometimes associated with the briefest of poetic genres, haiku, which originated in Japan but has been domesticated in English literature by poets such as Nick Virgilio, Raymond Roseliep, and George Swede. The Irish author Samuel Beckett is also known for his minimalist plays and prose. Minimalism in film Footnotes See also Minimalism (computing) Worse is better Modular constructivism Formalism (art) Monochrome painting Geometric abstraction Shaped canvas Minimal Techno List of minimalist artists Stuckism Linguistic minimalism Minimalist music Postminimalism Lyrical Abstraction Neo-minimalism | Minimalism |@lemmatized minimalism:30 describe:5 movement:8 various:1 form:7 art:32 design:14 especially:1 visual:7 music:11 work:14 strip:2 fundamental:1 feature:5 specific:4 identify:4 development:2 post:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 western:1 strongly:1 american:5 late:3 early:5 prominent:1 artist:13 associate:6 include:6 donald:2 judd:5 agnes:2 martin:2 robert:11 morris:5 frank:4 stella:5 root:2 reductive:4 aspect:2 modernism:1 often:7 interpret:1 reaction:2 abstract:6 expressionism:2 bridge:1 postmodern:1 practice:2 term:10 expand:2 encompass:1 repetition:3 iteration:1 composition:3 steve:1 reich:1 lamonte:3 young:3 philip:2 glass:2 john:7 adam:1 terry:1 riley:1 see:2 also:10 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2,121 | Primary_sector_of_the_economy | Agricultural output in 2005. The primary sector of the economy involves changing natural resources into primary products. Most products from this sector are considered raw materials for other industries. Major businesses in this sector include agriculture, agribusiness, fishing, forestry and all mining and quarrying industries. The manufacturing industries that aggregate, pack, package, purify or process the raw materials close to the primary producers are normally considered part of this sector, especially if the raw material is unsuitable for sale or difficult to transport long distances. About.com: Sectors of the Economy Primary industry is a larger sector in developing countries; for instance, animal husbandry is more common in Africa than in Japan. Primary Sector in Economic Development Mining in 19th century South Wales is a case study of how an economy can come to rely on one form of business. Mining: it's only a word Agriculture In developed countries primary industry becomes more developed and more high-tech, for instance the mechanization of arable farming opposed to hand picking and planting. In the United States corn belt, combine harvesters pick the corn, and spray systems distribute large amounts of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides thus proving that the more developed an economy, the higher the capital that is invested. These technological advances and investment allow the primary sector to require less workforce and, this way, developed countries tend to have a smaller percentage of their workforce involved in primary activities, instead having a higher percentage involved in the secondary and tertiary sectors. H Dwight H. Perkins: Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol. 31, No. 1, China's Developmental Experience (Mar., 1973) Developed countries are allowed to maintain and develop their primary industries even further due to the excess wealth. For instance, EU subsidies in Europe provide buffers for the fluctuating inflation rates and prices of agricultural produce. This allows developed countries to be able to export their agricultural products at extraordinarily low prices, making them extremely competitive against those of poor or underdeveloped countries that maintain free market policies and low or inexistent tariffs to counter them. WTO MINISTERIAL OUTCOME IMBALANCED AGAINST DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Third World Farmers Hit by Unfair Rules U.S. subsidies help big business, but crush farmers from renovating countries See also Three-sector hypothesis Resource curse List of countries by GDP sector composition theory of relativity References Further reading Dwight H. Perkins: Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol. 31, No. 1, China's Developmental Experience (Mar., 1973) Cameron: General Economic and Social History Historia Económica y Social General, by Maria Inés Barbero, Rubén L. Berenblum, Fernando R. García Molina, Jorge Saborido | Primary_sector_of_the_economy |@lemmatized agricultural:3 output:1 primary:9 sector:11 economy:4 involve:3 change:1 natural:1 resource:2 product:3 consider:2 raw:3 material:3 industry:6 major:1 business:3 include:1 agriculture:2 agribusiness:1 fishing:1 forestry:1 mining:3 quarry:1 manufacturing:1 aggregate:1 pack:1 package:1 purify:1 process:1 close:1 producer:1 normally:1 part:1 especially:1 unsuitable:1 sale:1 difficult:1 transport:1 long:1 distance:1 com:1 large:2 develop:5 country:9 instance:3 animal:1 husbandry:1 common:1 africa:1 japan:1 economic:2 development:1 century:1 south:1 wale:1 case:1 study:1 come:1 rely:1 one:1 form:1 word:1 developed:4 become:1 high:3 tech:1 mechanization:1 arable:1 farm:1 oppose:1 hand:1 picking:1 planting:1 united:1 state:1 corn:2 belt:1 combine:1 harvester:1 pick:1 spray:1 system:1 distribute:1 amount:1 insecticide:1 herbicide:1 fungicide:1 thus:1 prove:1 capital:1 invest:1 technological:1 advance:1 investment:1 allow:3 require:1 less:1 workforce:2 way:1 tend:1 small:1 percentage:2 activity:1 instead:1 secondary:1 tertiary:1 h:3 dwight:2 perkins:2 proceeding:2 academy:2 political:2 science:2 vol:2 china:2 developmental:2 experience:2 mar:2 maintain:2 even:1 far:2 due:1 excess:1 wealth:1 eu:1 subsidy:2 europe:1 provide:1 buffer:1 fluctuating:1 inflation:1 rate:1 price:2 produce:1 able:1 export:1 extraordinarily:1 low:2 make:1 extremely:1 competitive:1 poor:1 underdeveloped:1 free:1 market:1 policy:1 inexistent:1 tariff:1 counter:1 wto:1 ministerial:1 outcome:1 imbalanced:1 third:1 world:1 farmer:2 hit:1 unfair:1 rule:1 u:1 help:1 big:1 crush:1 renovate:1 see:1 also:1 three:1 hypothesis:1 curse:1 list:1 gdp:1 composition:1 theory:1 relativity:1 reference:1 read:1 cameron:1 general:2 social:2 history:1 historia:1 económica:1 maria:1 inés:1 barbero:1 rubén:1 l:1 berenblum:1 fernando:1 r:1 garcía:1 molina:1 jorge:1 saborido:1 |@bigram raw_material:3 animal_husbandry:1 combine_harvester:1 secondary_tertiary:1 |
2,122 | Adhemar_of_Le_Puy | A mitred Adhémar de Monteil carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade Adhemar (also known as Adémar, Aimar, or Aelarz) de Monteil (died August 1, 1098), one of the principal figures of the First Crusade, was bishop of Puy-en-Velay from before 1087. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council) and having been named apostolic legate and appointed to lead the crusade by Pope Urban II, he accompanied Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often quarrelled with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader of the crusade. Adhemar negotiated with Alexius I Comnenus at Constantinople, reestablished at Nicaea some discipline among the crusaders, fought a crucial role at the Battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the siege of Antioch through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. After the capture of the city in June, 1098, and the subsequent siege led by Kerbogha, Adhemar organized a procession through the streets, and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to desert the city. He was extremely skeptical of Peter Bartholomew's discovery in Antioch of the Holy Lance, especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale. When Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but he died on August 1, 1098, probably of typhus. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved, and the march to Jerusalem was delayed for months. However, the lower-class foot soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader; some of them claimed to have been visited by his ghost during the siege of Jerusalem, and reported that Adhemar instructed them to hold another procession around the walls. This was done, and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in 1099. External links Medieval Sourcebook: Speech by Urban II at Council of Clermont, 1095 (Five versions of the Speech) References | Adhemar_of_Le_Puy |@lemmatized mitred:1 adhémar:1 de:2 monteil:2 carry:1 holy:3 lance:2 one:2 battle:2 first:2 crusade:6 adhemar:9 also:1 know:2 adémar:1 aimar:1 aelarz:1 die:2 august:2 principal:1 figure:1 bishop:1 puy:1 en:1 velay:1 council:4 clermont:2 show:1 great:1 zeal:1 evidence:1 urban:3 ii:3 confer:1 name:1 apostolic:1 legate:1 appoint:1 lead:2 pope:1 accompany:1 raymond:2 iv:1 count:1 toulouse:1 east:1 whilst:1 leader:3 often:1 quarrel:1 leadership:2 always:1 recognize:1 spiritual:1 negotiate:1 alexius:1 comnenus:1 constantinople:2 reestablish:1 nicaea:1 discipline:1 among:2 crusader:4 fight:1 crucial:1 role:1 dorylaeum:1 largely:1 responsible:1 sustain:1 morale:2 siege:3 antioch:2 various:1 religious:1 rite:1 include:1 fasting:1 special:1 observance:1 day:1 capture:1 city:2 june:1 subsequent:1 kerbogha:2 organize:2 procession:2 street:1 gate:1 lock:1 many:1 begin:1 panic:1 would:1 unable:1 desert:1 extremely:1 skeptical:1 peter:1 bartholomew:1 discovery:1 especially:1 relic:1 already:1 exist:1 however:2 willing:1 let:1 army:1 believe:1 real:1 raise:1 defeat:1 attempt:1 settle:1 dispute:2 probably:1 typhus:1 high:1 noble:1 go:1 unsolved:1 march:1 jerusalem:3 delay:1 month:1 low:1 class:1 foot:1 soldier:1 continue:1 think:1 claim:1 visit:1 ghost:1 report:1 instruct:1 hold:1 another:1 around:1 wall:1 take:1 external:1 link:1 medieval:1 sourcebook:1 speech:2 five:1 version:1 reference:1 |@bigram council_clermont:2 external_link:1 medieval_sourcebook:1 |
2,123 | J._G._Ballard | James Graham Ballard (15 November 1930 – 19 April 2009) was an English novelist and short story writer who was a prominent part of the science fiction New Wave movement. His best-known novels are the controversial Crash, an exploration of sexual fetishism connected to automobile accidents, and the loosely autobiographical Empire of the Sun, about his childhood internment by the Japanese during World War II after the invasion and conquest of Shanghai, where Ballard was born in the International Settlement. Both books were adapted into films, by David Cronenberg and Stephen Spielberg respectively. So distinctive was his work that the adjective "Ballardian" entered the language, defined by the Collins English Dictionary as "resembling or suggestive of the conditions described in J. G. Ballard's novels and stories, especially dystopian modernity, bleak man-made landscapes and the psychological effects of technological, social or environmental developments." Ballardian.com Ballardian, Collins English Dictionary. Ballard was diagnosed with prostate cancer in June 2006, which took his life in London in April 2009. Biography Shanghai Ballard's father was a chemist at a Manchester-headquartered textile firm, the Calico Printers Association, and became chairman and managing director of its subsidiary in Shanghai, the China Printing and Finishing Company. Ballard was born and raised in the Shanghai International Settlement, an area under foreign control where people "lived an American style of life". Pringle, D. (Ed.) and Ballard, J.G. (1982). "From Shanghai to Shepperton". Re/Search 8/9: J.G. Ballard: 112-124. ISBN 0-940642-08-5. He was sent to the Cathedral School in Shanghai. After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Ballard's family were forced to temporarily evacuate their suburban home and rent a house in downtown Shanghai to avoid the shells fired by Chinese and Japanese forces. After the Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese occupied the International Settlement. In early 1943 they began interning Allied civilians, and Ballard was sent to the Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center with his parents and younger sister. He spent over two years, the remainder of World War II, in the internment camp. His family lived in a small area in G block, a two-story residence for 40 families. He attended school in the camp, the teachers being camp inmates from a number of professions. These experiences formed the basis of Empire of the Sun, although Ballard exercised considerable artistic licence in writing the book, notably removing his parents from the bulk of the story. Ballard, J.G. (4 March 2006). "Look back at Empire". The Guardian. Retrieved on 25 April, 2009. jgballard.ca. Retrieved March 11, 2006. It is often supposed that Ballard's exposure to the atrocities of war at an impressionable age explains the apocalyptic and violent nature of much of his fiction. Cowley, J. (4 November 2001). "The Ballard of Shanghai jail". The Observer. Retrieved on 25 April 2009. Hall, C. "JG Ballard: Extreme Metaphor: A Crash Course In The Fiction Of JG Ballard". Retrieved on 25 April 2009. Livingstone, D.B. (1996?). "J.G. Ballard: Crash: Prophet with Honour". Retrieved 12 March 2006. Martin Amis wrote that Empire of the Sun "gives shape to what shaped him." However, Ballard's own account of the experience was more nuanced: "I don't think you can go through the experience of war without one's perceptions of the world being forever changed. The reassuring stage set that everyday reality in the suburban west presents to us is torn down; you see the ragged scaffolding, and then you see the truth beyond that, and it can be a frightening experience." But also: "I have—I won't say happy—not unpleasant memories of the camp. [...] I remember a lot of the casual brutality and beatings-up that went on—but at the same we children were playing a hundred and one games all the time!" England and Canada In 1946, after the end of the war, his mother returned to England with Ballard and his sister on the SS Arrawa. They lived in the outskirts of Plymouth, and he attended The Leys School in Cambridge. After a couple of years his mother and sister returned to China, rejoining Ballard's father, leaving Ballard to live with his grandparents when not boarding at school. In 1949 he went on to study medicine at King's College, Cambridge, with the intention of becoming a psychiatrist. At university, Ballard was writing avant-garde fiction heavily influenced by psychoanalysis and surrealist painters. At this time, he wanted to become a writer as well as pursue a medical career. In May 1951, when Ballard was in his second year at King's, his short story "The Violent Noon" "The Violent Noon" , a Hemingwayesque pastiche written to please the contest's jury, won a crime story competition and was published in the student newspaper Varsity. Encouraged by the publication of his story and realising that clinical medicine would not leave him time to write, Ballard abandoned his medical studies in 1952 and went to the University of London to read English Literature. However, he was asked to leave at the end of the year. Ballard then worked as a copywriter for an advertising agency and as an encyclopaedia salesman. He kept writing short fiction but found it impossible to get published. In 1953 Ballard joined the RAF and was sent to the RCAF flight-training base in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada. There he discovered science fiction in American magazines. While in the RAF, he also wrote his first science fiction story, "Passport to Eternity", as a pastiche and summary of the American science fiction he had read. Ballard left the RAF in 1954 after two years and returned to England. In 1955 he married Helen Mary Matthews and settled in Chiswick. Their first child, of three, was born in 1956, and his first published science fiction story, "Prima Belladonna", was printed in the December issue of New Worlds that year. The editor of New Worlds, Edward J. Carnell, would remain an important supporter of Ballard's writing and would publish nearly all of his early stories. From 1957, Ballard worked as assistant editor on the scientific journal Chemistry and Industry. His interest in art led to his involvement in the emerging Pop Art movement, and in the late fifties he exhibited a number of collages that represented his ideas for a new kind of novel. Ballard's avant-garde inclinations did not sit comfortably in the science fiction mainstream of that time, which held attitudes he considered philistine. Briefly attending the 1957 Science Fiction Convention in London, Ballard left disillusioned and demoralised and did not write another story for a year. By the late 1960s, however, he had become an editor of the avant-garde Ambit magazine, which was more in keeping with his aesthetic ideals. Full-time writing career In 1960 Ballard moved with his family to the middle-class London suburb of Shepperton in Surrey. Finding that commuting to work did not leave him time to write, Ballard decided he had to make a break and become a full-time writer. He wrote his first novel, The Wind from Nowhere, over a two-week holiday simply to gain a foothold as a professional writer, not intending it as a "serious novel"; in books published later, it is omitted from the list of his works. When it was successfully published in January 1962, he quit his job at Chemistry and Industry, and from then on supported himself and his family as a writer. Later that year his second novel, The Drowned World, was published, establishing Ballard as a notable figure in the fledgling New Wave movement. Collections of his stories started getting published, and he began a period of great literary productivity, while pushing to expand the scope of acceptable material for science fiction with such stories as "The Terminal Beach". In 1964 Ballard's wife Mary died suddenly of pneumonia, leaving him to raise their three children – James, Fay and Bea Ballard – by himself. The autobiographical novel The Kindness of Women gives a different, fictionalized account of her death. Ballard never remarried, however, a few years later his friend and fellow author Michael Moorcock introduced him to Claire Walsh, who became his partner off and on for the rest of his life (in fact he died at her London residence) "Author J. G. Ballard dies at 78", Deseret News, 20 April 2009, p. A12 , and is often referred to in his writings as "Claire Churchill". After the profound shock of his wife's death, Ballard began in 1965 to write the stories that became The Atrocity Exhibition, while continuing to produce stories within the science fiction genre. The Atrocity Exhibition () proved controversial – it was the subject of an obscenity trial, and in the United States, publisher Doubleday destroyed almost the entire print run before it was distributed – but it gained Ballard recognition as a literary writer. It remains one of his seminal works, and was filmed in 2001. Along with the book, he also produced a 75-hour installation for the ICA called The Assassination Weapon, the title of one of the book's chapters, featuring a film about a deranged H-bomber pilot projected simultaneously on three screens to the sound of cars crashing. Another chapter of The Atrocity Exhibition is titled "Crash!", and in 1970 Ballard organised an exhibition of crashed cars at the New Arts Laboratory, simply called "Crashed Cars". The crashed vehicles were displayed without commentary, inspiring vitriolic responses and vandalism. Ballard, J.G. (1993). The Atrocity Exhibition (expanded and annotated edition). ISBN 0-00-711686-1. In both the story and the art exhibition, Ballard explored the sexual potential of car crashes, a preoccupation which culminated in the novel Crash in . The main character of Crash is called James Ballard and lives in Shepperton (though other biographical details do not match the writer), and curiosity about the relationship between the character and his author gained fuel when Ballard suffered a serious automobile accident shortly after completing the novel. Regardless of real-life basis, Crash proved just as controversial as The Atrocity Exhibition, especially when it was later filmed by David Cronenberg. Although Ballard published several novels and short-story collections throughout the seventies and eighties, his breakthrough into the mainstream came only with Empire of the Sun in , based on his years in Shanghai and the Lunghua internment camp. It became a bestseller, Collinson, G. "Empire of the Sun". BBC Four article on the film and novel. Retrieved on 25 April 2009. was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and awarded the Guardian Fiction Prize and James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. It made Ballard known to a wider audience, although the books that followed failed to achieve the same degree of success. Empire of the Sun was filmed by Steven Spielberg in 1987, starring a young Christian Bale as Jim (Ballard). Ballard himself appears briefly in the film, and he has described the experience of seeing his childhood memories reenacted and reinterpreted as bizarre. Ballard continued to write until the end of his life, and also contributed occasional journalism and criticism to the British press. Of his later novels, Super-Cannes () was particularly well received , winning the regional Commonwealth Writers' Prize. Contemporary Writers: J. G. Ballard. Retrieved on 25 April, 2009. Ballard was offered a CBE in 2003, but refused, calling it "a Ruritanian charade that helps to prop up our top-heavy monarchy". In June 2006, he was diagnosed with terminal prostate cancer, which metastasised to his spine and ribs. The last of his books published in his lifetime was the autobiography Miracles of Life, written after his diagnosis. His final published short story, The Dying Fall, appeared in issue 106 of Interzone, a British sci-fi magazine. It was reproduced in The Guardian on 25 April 2009. Ballard, JG. The Dying Fall, The Guardian, 25 April 2009. Posthumous publication In October 2008, before his death, Ballard's literary agent Margaret Hanbury brought a manuscript from Ballard with the working title Conversations with My Physician: The Meaning, if Any, of Life to the Frankfurt Book Fair. The physician in question is oncologist Professor Jonathan Waxman of Imperial College, London, who was treating Ballard for prostate cancer. While it is in part a book about cancer, and Ballard's struggle with it, it reportedly moves on to broader themes. Hanbury is in conversation with publishers. Dystopian fiction Those who know Ballard from his autobiographical novels will not be prepared for the subject matter that Ballard most commonly pursues, as his most common genre is dystopia. His most celebrated novel in this regard is Crash, in which cars symbolise the mechanisation of the world and man's capacity to destroy himself with the technology he creates; the characters (the protagonist, called Ballard, included) become increasingly obsessed with the violent psychosexuality of car crashes in general, and celebrity car crashes in particular. Ballard's disturbing novel was turned into a controversial—and likewise disturbing—cerebral film by David Cronenberg. Particularly revered among Ballard's admirers is his short story collection Vermilion Sands, set in an eponymous desert resort town inhabited by forgotten starlets, insane heirs, very eccentric artists, and the merchants and bizarre servants who provide for them. Each story features peculiarly exotic technology such as poetry-composing computers, orchids with operatic voices and egos to match, phototropic self-painting canvasses, etc. In keeping with Ballard's central themes, most notably technologically mediated masochism, these tawdry and weird technologies service the dark and hidden desires and schemes of the human castaways who occupy Vermilion Sands, typically with psychologically grotesque and physically fatal results. In his introduction to Vermilion Sands, Ballard cites this as his favorite collection. In a similar vein, his collection Memories of the Space Age explores many varieties of individual and collective psychological fallout from—and initial deep archetypal motivations for—the American space exploration boom of the 1960s and 1970s. In addition to his novels, Ballard made extensive use of the short story form. Many of his earliest published works in the 1950s and 1960s were short stories. Television On 13 December 1965, BBC Two screened an adaptation of the short story "Thirteen to Centaurus" directed by Peter Potter. The one-hour drama formed part of the first season of Out of the Unknown and starred Donald Houston as Dr Francis and James Hunter as Abel Granger. In 2003, Ballard's short story "The Enormous Space" (first published in the Science fiction magazine Interzone in 1989, subsequently printed in the collection of Ballard's short stories War Fever) was adapted into an hour-long television film for the BBC entitled Home by Richard Curson Smith, who also directed it. The plot follows a middle class man who chooses to abandon the outside world and restrict himself to his house, becoming a hermit. Critique and influence Ballard's fiction is sophisticated, often bizarre, and a constant challenge to the cognitive and aesthetic preconceptions of his readers. As Martin Amis has written: "Ballard is quite unlike anyone else; indeed, he seems to address a different - a disused - part of the reader's brain." Because of this tendency to upset readers in order to enlighten them, Ballard does not enjoy a mass-market following, but he is recognised by critics as one of the most prominent English writers. He has been influential beyond his mass market success; he is cited as perhaps the most important forebear of the cyberpunk movement by Bruce Sterling in his introduction to the seminal Mirrorshades anthology. Also, his parody of American politics, the pamphlet "Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan", which was subsequently included as a chapter in his experimental novel The Atrocity Exhibition, was photocopied and distributed by pranksters at the 1980 Republican National Convention. In the early 1970s, Bill Butler, a bookseller in Brighton, was prosecuted under UK obscenity laws for selling the pamphlet. According to literary theorist Brian McHale, The Atrocity Exhibition is a "postmodernist text based on science fiction topoi" Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction ISBN 978-0415045131 Luckhurst, Roger. "Border Policing: Postmodernism and Science Fiction" Science Fiction Studies (November 1991) Early magazine printing of one of the tales eventually included in The Atrocity Exhibition (1969). In Simulacra and Simulation, Jean Baudrillard hailed Crash as the first great novel of the universe of simulation. Lee Killough directly cites Ballard's seminal Vermilion Sands short stories as the inspiration for her collection Aventine, also a backwater resort for celebrities and eccentrics where bizarre or frivolous novelty technology facilitates the expression of dark intents and drives. Terry Dowling's milieu of Twilight Beach is also influenced by the stories of Vermilion Sands and other Ballard works. Ballard also had an interest in the relationship between various media. In the early 1970s, he was one of the trustees of the Institute for Research in Art and Technology. In popular music Ballard has had a notable influence on popular music, where his work has been used as a basis for lyrical imagery, particularly amongst British post-punk groups. Examples include albums such as Metamatic by John Foxx, various songs by Joy Division (most famously "The Atrocity Exhibition" from Closer), the song "Down in the Park" by Gary Numan and "Warm Leatherette" by The Normal. Songwriters Trevor Horn and Bruce Woolley credit Ballard's story, "The Sound-Sweep," with inspiring The Buggles' hit, "Video Killed the Radio Star", and Buggles' second album included a song entitled "Vermillion Sands." The 1978 post-punk band Comsat Angels took their name from one of Ballard's short stories. Interview with Stephen Fellows, 2006 Works Novels The Wind From Nowhere () The Drowned World () The Burning World (; also The Drought, ) The Crystal World () Crash () Concrete Island () High Rise () The Unlimited Dream Company () Hello America ()Empire of the Sun () The Day of Creation () Running Wild () The Kindness of Women () Rushing to Paradise () Cocaine Nights () Super-Cannes () Millennium People () Kingdom Come () Short story collections The Voices of Time and Other Stories () Billennium (1962) Passport to Eternity () The Four-Dimensional Nightmare (1963) The Terminal Beach () The Impossible Man () The Venus Hunters () The Overloaded Man (1967) The Disaster Area (1967) The Day of Forever (1967) The Atrocity Exhibition (, also Love and Napalm: Export USA, ) Vermilion Sands ()Chronopolis and Other Stories (1971) Low-Flying Aircraft and Other Stories () The Best of J. G. Ballard () The Best Short Stories of J. G. Ballard () Myths of the Near Future () The Voices of Time () Memories of the Space Age () War Fever () The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard () None of the "complete" collections are in fact fully exhaustive, since they contain only some of the Atrocity Exhibition stories. The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 1 () The Complete Short Stories of J. G. Ballard: Volume 2 (2006) Other A User's Guide to the Millennium: Essays and Reviews () Miracles of Life (Autobiography; ) Adaptations Films When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth () dir. Val Guest Crash! () dir. Harley Cokliss Sellars, S. (10 August 2007). "Crash! Full-Tilt Autogeddon". Ballardian.com. Retrieved on 25 April, 2009. Empire of the Sun () dir. Steven Spielberg Crash () dir. David Cronenberg The Atrocity Exhibition () dir. Jonathan Weiss REEL23: The Atrocity Exhibition. Retrieved on 25 April, 2009. Aparelho Voador a Baixa Altitude (), dir. Solveig Nordlund. (Portuguese adaptation of the short story "Low Flying Aircraft") Television Thirteen to Centaurus () dir. Peter Potter (BBC Two) Home () dir. Richard Curson Smith (BBC Four) References Notes Bibliography Ballard, J.G. (1984). Empire of the Sun. ISBN 0-00-654700-1. Ballard, J.G. (1991). The Kindness of Women. ISBN 0-00-654701-X. Ballard, J.G. (1993). The Atrocity Exhibition (expanded and annotated edition). ISBN 0-00-711686-1. Ballard, J.G. (2006). "Look back at Empire". The Guardian, March 4, 2006. Baxter, J. (2001). "J.G. Ballard". The Literary Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 11, 2006. Collins English Dictionary. ISBN 0-00-719153-7. Quoted in Ballardian: The World of JG Ballard. Retrieved March 11, 2006. Cowley, J. (2001). "The Ballard of Shanghai jail". Review of The Complete Stories by J.G. Ballard. The Observer, November 4, 2001. Retrieved March 11, 2006. Delville, Michel. J.G. Ballard. Plymouth: Northcote House, 1998. Gasiorek, A. (2005). "J. G. Ballard". Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719070532 Hall, C. "Extreme Metaphor: A Crash Course in the Fiction of JG Ballard". Retrieved March 11, 2006. Livingstone, D.B. (1996?). "Prophet with Honour". Retrieved March 12, 2006. Luckhurst, R. (1998). "The Angle Between Two Walls: The Fiction of J. G. Ballard". Liverpool University Press. ISBN 9780853238317 McGrath, R. JG Ballard Book Collection. Retrieved March 11, 2006. Oramus, Dominika. Grave New World. Warsaw: University of Warsaw, 2007. Pringle, David, Earth is the Alien Planet: J.G. Ballard's Four-Dimensional Nightmare, San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1979. Pringle, David (ed.) and Ballard, J.G. (1982). "From Shanghai to Shepperton". Re/Search 8/9: J.G. Ballard: 112-124. ISBN 0-940642-08-5. Stephenson, Gregory, Out of the Night and Into the Dream: A Thematic Study of the Fiction of J.G. Ballard, New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. V. Vale (ed.) (2005). "J.G. Ballard: Conversations" (excerpts). RE/Search Publications. ISBN 1-889307-13-0 V. Vale (ed.) and Ryan, Mike (ed). (2005). "J.G. Ballard: Quotes" (excerpts). RE/Search Publications. ISBN 1-889307-12-2 External links fan sites jgballard.com – Unofficial site with extensive links Ballardian: The World of JG Ballard J.G. Ballard Collection & Archive J.G. Ballard Excerpts - Excerpts of interviews with Ballard, including his writings and essays on Ballard, from RE/Search articles, reviews and essays The Marriage of Reason and Nightmare, City Journal, Winter 2008 Miracles of Life reviewed by Karl Miller in the TLS, March 12, 2008 J.G. Ballard: The Glow of the Prophet Diane Johnson article on Ballard from The New York Review of Books source material Manuscripts for The Unlimited Dream Company at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin J. G. Ballard and his family on the list of the interment camp at Japan Center for Asian Historical Records obituaries and remembrances Obituary in the Times Online Obituary by John Clute in The Independent Obituary in the New York Times Obituary in the Los Angeles Times Quotes from other writers on BBC News More writers' reactions in The Guardian A short appreciation in The New Yorker Tribute by V. 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2,124 | Geographic_information_system | A geographic information system (GIS), or geographical information system, captures, stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. Technically, GIS is geographic information systems which includes mapping software and its application with remote sensing, land surveying, aerial photography, mathematics, photogrammetry, geography, and tools that can be implemented with GIS software. Still, many refer to "geographic information system" as GIS even though it doesn't cover all tools connected to topology. In the strictest sense, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. In a more generic sense, GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic Information Science is the science underlying the geographic concepts, applications and systems, taught in degree and GIS Certificate programs at many universities. Applications GIS technology can be used for scientific investigations, resource management, asset management, archaeology, environmental impact assessment, urban planning, cartography, criminology, geographic history, marketing, logistics, Prospectivity Mapping, and other purposes. For example, GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a natural disaster, GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection from pollution, or GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to take advantage of a previously under-served market. History of development About 15,500 years ago, on the walls of caves near Lascaux, France, Cro-Magnon hunters drew pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic in comparison to modern technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of modern GIS, an image associated with attribute information. In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method. His study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump (the Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected terminating the outbreak) within the heart of the cholera outbreak. E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's 1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854 While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time. The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were separated into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research would lead to general purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s. The year 1962 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, it was called the "Canada Geographic Information System" (CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)—an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS," particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built the largest digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available in a commercial form. In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965-1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and 'ODYSSEY' -- which served as literal and inspirational sources for subsequent commercial development—to universities, research centers, and corporations worldwide. By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) and CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. In parallel, the development of two public domain systems began in the late 1970s and early 1980s. MOSS, the Map Overlay and Statistical System project started in 1977 in Fort Collins, Colorado under the auspices of the Western Energy and Land Use Team (WELUT) and the US Fish and Wildlife Service. GRASS GIS was begun in 1982 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering Research Laboratory (USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet the need of the United States military for software for land management and environmental planning. The later 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of GIS on Unix workstations and the personal computer. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, there are a growing number of free, open source GIS packages which run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. GIS software Geographic information can be accessed, transferred, transformed, overlaid, processed and displayed using numerous software applications. Within industry, commercial offerings from companies such as Autodesk, Bentley Systems, ESRI, Intergraph, Manifold System, Mapinfo and Smallworld dominate, offering an entire suite of tools. Government and military departments often use custom software, open source products such as GRASS or uDig, or more specialized products that meet a well defined need. Although free tools exist to view GIS datasets, public access to geographic information is dominated by online resources such as Google Earth and interactive web mapping. Background Originally up to the late 1990s, when GIS data was mostly based on large computers and used to maintain internal records, software was a stand-alone product. However with increased access to the internet and networks and demand for distributed geographic data grew, GIS software gradually changed its entire outlook to the delivery of data over a network. GIS software is now usually marketed as combination of various interoperable applications and APIs. and functionalities on an existing system to suit the requirements of a customer. It helps to automate many complex processes without worrying about underlying algorithms and processing steps in conventional GIS software. Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a computer-aided design (CAD) program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery (both from satellite and aerial sources), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing). Relating information from different sources You might be able to tell which wetlands dry up at certain times of the year. Using information from many different sources in many different forms, GIS can help with such analysis. The primary requirement for the source data consists of knowing the locations for the variables. Location may be annotated by x, y, and z coordinates of longitude, latitude, and elevation, or by other geocode systems like ZIP Codes or by highway mile markers. Any variable that can be located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Several computer databases that can be directly entered into a GIS are being produced by government agencies and non-government organizations. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS. A GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be analyzed to produce a map-like layer of digital information about vegetative covers. Another fairly recently developed resource for naming GIS objects is the Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names (GTGN), which is a structured vocabulary containing around 1,000,000 names and other information about places. http://gis.ednet.ns.ca/gis_uses_in_US.htm Likewise, census or hydrological tabular data can be converted to map-like form, serving as layers of thematic information in a GIS. Data representation GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital data. Real world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both abstractions: Raster and Vector. Raster A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image represented in grids. Anyone who is familiar with digital photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of an image. A combination of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly used scalable vector graphics which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image is concerned with the output as representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to computer, the raster data type will reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information regarding elevation, a DEM, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, LANDSAT. Digital elevation model, map (image), and vector data Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells, with each cell storing a single value. Raster data can be images (raster images) with each pixel (or cell) containing a color value. Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as temperature, or a null value if no data is available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in ground units. Raster data is stored in various formats; from a standard file-based structure of TIF, JPEG, etc. to binary large object (BLOB) data stored directly in a relational database management system (RDBMS) similar to other vector-based feature classes. Database storage, when properly indexed, typically allows for quicker retrieval of the raster data but can require storage of millions of significantly-sized records. Vector A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements: points for wells, lines for rivers, and a polygon for the lake. In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features as geometrical shapes. Different geographical features are expressed by different types of geometry: Points Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed by a single point reference; in other words, simple location. For example, the locations of wells, peak elevations, features of interest or trailheads. Points convey the least amount of information of these file types. Points can also be used to represent areas when displayed at a small scale. For example, cities on a map of the world would be represented by points rather than polygons. No measurements are possible with point features. Lines or polylines One-dimensional lines or polylines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads, railroads, trails, and topographic lines. Again, as with point features, linear features displayed at a small scale will be represented as linear features rather than as a polygon. Line features can measure distance. Polygons Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the earth's surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types. Polygon features can measure perimeter and area. Each of these geometries is linked to a row in a database that describes their attributes. For example, a database that describes lakes may contain a lake's depth, water quality, pollution level. This information can be used to make a map to describe a particular attribute of the dataset. For example, lakes could be coloured depending on level of pollution. Different geometries can also be compared. For example, the GIS could be used to identify all wells (point geometry) that are within of a lake (polygon geometry) that has a high level of pollution. Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. Contour lines and triangulated irregular networks (TIN) are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represent the terrain surface. Advantages and disadvantages There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality. Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that, depending on the resolution of the raster file, may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify combining vector layers from different sources. Vector data is more compatible with relational database environments. They can be part of a relational table as a normal column and processed using a multitude of operators. The file size for vector data is usually much smaller for storage and sharing than raster data. Image or raster data can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data depending on the resolution. Another advantage of vector data is that it is easy to update and maintain. For example, a new highway is added. The raster image will have to be completely reproduced, but the vector data, "roads," can be easily updated by adding the missing road segment. In addition, vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for "networks" such as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. For example, with vector data attributed with the characteristics of roads, ports, and airfields, allows the analyst to query for the best route or method of transportation. In the vector data, the analyst can query the data for the largest port with an airfield within 60 miles and a connecting road that is at least two lane highway. Raster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays. Non-spatial data Additional non-spatial data can also be stored along with the spatial data represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data contains attributes of the feature. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in another table. There is also software being developed to support spatial and non-spatial decision-making. In this software, the solutions to spatial problems are integrated with solutions to non-spatial problems. The end result it is hoped with these Flexible Spatial Decision-Making Support Systems (FSDSS) Gao, Shan. Paynter, John. & David Sundaram, (2004) "Flexible Support for Spatial Decision-Making" Proc. of the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 5-8 pp. 10] will be that non experts can use GIS and spatial criteria with their other non spatial criteria to view solutions to multi-criteria problems that will support decision making. Data capture Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called Coordinate Geometry (COGO). Positions from a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) like Global Positioning System (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and LIDAR, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites. The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover. When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data, this includes additional information about the objects represented in the system. After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected. Raster-to-vector translation Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed in the late 1960s by NASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false colour rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional Fourier transforms. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another. Projections, coordinate systems and registration A property ownership map and a soils map might show data at different scales. Map information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo other manipulations—projection and coordinate conversions, for example—that integrate them into a GIS. The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy (e.g., North American Datum, 1927 - NAD27 - works well in North America, but not in Europe). See datum (geodesy) for more information. Projection is a fundamental component of map making. A projection is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium—paper or a computer screen. Different projections are used for different types of maps because each projection particularly suits certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See Map projection for more information. Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and coordinate system. For images, this process is called rectification. Today, even laypeople are aware of GPS used for locating in terms of latitude, longitude and height. Many people are aware of Google Earth and even GIS. In this scenario, however, majority of us misunderstands latitude and longitude. Authalic coordinates are what generally conceived as latitude and longitude, in which the Earth is assumed as spherical in shape. In day-to-day life, the coordinates we see on maps such as those from GPS are geodetic latitude and longitude. It is also imperative to know the datum of the map in use; and if the datum is changed, any selected location can have different geodetic coordinates. Spatial analysis with GIS Given the vast range of spatial analysis techniques that have been developed over the past half century, any summary or review can only cover the subject to a limited depth. This is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities or as optional toolsets, add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances such facilities are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), whilst in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one’s own analytical tools or variants. The website Geospatial Analysis and associated book/ebook attempt to provide a reasonably comprehensive guide to the subject. Geospatial Analysis - a comprehensive guide. 2nd edition © 2006-2008 de Smith, Goodchild, Longley The impact of these myriad paths to perform spatial analysis create a new dimension to business intelligence termed "spatial intelligence" which, when delivered via intranet, democratizes access to operational sorts not usually privy to this type of information. Data modeling It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS. Topological modeling In recent years, has there been any gas stations or factories operating next to a swamp? Any within two miles (3 km) and uphill from a swamp? A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else). Networks If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland reserve? A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modeling in order to represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Network modelling is commonly employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling. Cartographic modeling An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest cover layer (light green) is at the bottom, with the topographic layer over it. Next up is the stream layer, then the boundary layer, then the road layer. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the pond layer was located just below the stream layer, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds. The term "cartographic modeling" was (probably) coined by Dana Tomlin in his PhD dissertation and later in his book which has the term in the title. Cartographic modeling refers to a process where several thematic layers of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models. Map overlay The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines or polygons) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area. Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset. In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra," through a function that combines the values of each raster's matrix. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon. Automated cartography Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as a (semi)automated process of making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, within which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS functionality is used. Cartographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy format. Powerful analysis techniques with different data representation can produce high-quality maps within a short time period. The main problem in Automated Cartography is to use a single set of data to produce multiple products at a variety of scales, a technique known as Generalization. Geostatistics Geostatistics is a point-pattern analysis that produces field predictions from data points. It is a way of looking at the statistical properties of those special data. It is different from general applications of statistics because it employs the use of graph theory and matrix algebra to reduce the number of parameters in the data. Only the second-order properties of the GIS data are analyzed. When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the Pacific Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is required in order to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable. Hillshade model derived from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain. Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a Spatial Autocorrelation Principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity. Digital elevation models (DEM), triangulated irregular networks (TIN), Edge finding algorithms, Theissen Polygons, Fourier analysis, Weighted moving averages, Inverse Distance Weighted, Moving averages, Kriging, Spline, and Trend surface analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data. Address Geocoding Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel lots and address locations. A reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations are interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The GIS will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. It should be noted that there are several (potentially dangerous) caveats that are often overlooked when using interpolation. See the full entry for Geocoding for more information. Various algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses differ. Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the post office, may not entirely match the reference theme. There could be variations in street name spelling, community name, etc. Consequently, the user generally has the ability to make matching criteria more stringent, or to relax those parameters so that more addresses will be mapped. Care must be taken to review the results so as not to map addresses incorrectly due to overzealous matching parameters. Reverse geocoding Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range. Data output and cartography Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS but production quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data. Cartographic work serves two major functions: First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (AJAX, Java, Flash, etc). Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill. Graphic display techniques Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief. Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of San Mateo County, California. The digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black. The accompanying Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information. A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the three-dimensional perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day. An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat loss data. Spatial ETL Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional Extract, Transform, Load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en-route. Future GeaBios - tiny WMS/WFS client (Flash/DHTML) Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. These developments will, in turn, result in a much wider use of the technology throughout science, government, business, and industry, with applications including real estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable development, natural resources, landscape architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based services (LBS). LBS allows GPS enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed assets (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant), mobile assets (friends, children, police car) or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing. These services continue to develop with the increased integration of GPS functionality with increasingly powerful mobile electronics (cell phones, PDAs, laptops). OGC standards OGC standards help GIS tools communicate. The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 334 companies, government agencies and universities participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) protocols include Web Map Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS). GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications. Compliant Products are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site. Implementing Products are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry. Web mapping In recent years there has been an explosion of mapping applications on the web such as Google Maps and Live Maps. These websites give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data. Some of them, like Google Maps and OpenLayers, expose an API that enable users to create custom applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Other applications for publishing geographic information on the web include MapInfo's MapXtreme or PlanAcess or Stratus Connect, Cadcorp's GeognoSIS, Intergraph's GeoMedia WebMap (TM), ESRI's ArcIMS, ArcGIS Server, Autodesk's Mapguide, SeaTrails' AtlasAlive, and the open source MapServer. In recent years web mapping services have begun to adopt features more common in GIS. Services such as Google Maps and Live Maps allow users to annotate maps and share the maps with others. Global change, climate history program and prediction of its impact Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information sources can combine in modes that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems. Through a function known as visualization, a GIS can be used to produce images - not just maps, but drawings, animations, and other cartographic products. These images allow researchers to view their subjects in ways that literally never have been seen before. The images are often invaluable for conveying the technical concepts of GIS study subjects to non-scientists. Prediction of the impact of climate change inherently involves many uncertainties stemming from data and models. GIS incorporated with uncertainty theory has been used to model the coastal impact of climate change, including inundation due to sea-level rise and storm erosion. Adding the dimension of time The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years. As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic, known as a normalized vegetation index, represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer. The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR and more recently the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. More sensors will follow, generating ever greater amounts of data. GIS and related technology will help greatly in the management and analysis of these large volumes of data, allowing for better understanding of terrestrial processes and better management of human activities to maintain world economic vitality and environmental quality. In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the US Census. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS. Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions. These systems are known as Spatial Decision Support Systems. Semantics Tools and technologies emerging from the W3C's Semantic Web Activity are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms. Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, reasoning that a land cover type classified as Deciduous Needleleaf Trees in one dataset is a specialization of land cover type Forest in another more roughly-classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Very deep and comprehensive ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the Hydrology Ontology developed by the Ordnance Survey in the United Kingdom and the SWEET ontologies developed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web. Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita -- Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference. Society With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social implications of GIS. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context. Other related topics include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation. See also AM/FM/GIS At-location mapping Automotive navigation system Cartography Comparison of GIS software Clearinghouse Crime Mapping Digital raster graphic Distributed GIS Geodesy Geoinformatics Geographic Data Files Geographic information science Geographic information systems in China Geoinformation Geomatics GIS and aquatic science GIS applications GIS Day GIS in archaeology Historical GIS Institute of Geoinformatics & Remote Sensing List of GIS software Map database management The National States Geographic Information Council Open Source Geospatial Foundation Open GIS Consortium Participatory GIS Participatory 3D Modeling Public Participation GIS Pictometry Remote sensing TerraLook Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER), a US standard for GIS data Traditional knowledge GIS UNIGIS, international university collaboration on GIS education Virtual globe ZIP codes References Footnotes Notations IGRS-GIS Institute of Geoinformatics & Remote Sensing Further reading Berry, J.K. (1993) Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books. Bolstad, P. (2005) GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Second Edition. White Bear Lake, MN: Eider Press, 543 pp. Burrough, P.A. and McDonnell, R.A. (1998) Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 327 pp. Chang, K. (2007) Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition. McGraw Hill. Coulman, Ross (2001 - present) Numerous GIS White Papers de Smith M J, Goodchild M F, Longley P A (2007) Geospatial analysis: A comprehensive guide to principles, techniques and software tools", 2nd edition, Troubador, UK available free online at: Elangovan,K (2006)"GIS: Fundamentals, Applications and Implementations", New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi"208 pp. Harvey, Francis(2008) A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts. The Guilford Press, 31 pp. Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006) An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems. Prentice Hall. 3rd edition. Longley, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2005) Geographic Information Systems and Science. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition. Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997) "Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow. Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) Time-integrative GIS. Management and analysis of spatio-temporal data, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer. Sajeevan G (2008) Latitude and longitude – A misunderstanding, Current Science: March 2008. Vol 94. No 5. 568 pp. Available online at: Sajeevan G (2006) Customise and empower, www.geospatialtoday.com: April 2006. 40 pp. Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003) Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. Tomlinson, R.F., (2005) Thinking About GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers. ESRI Press. 328 pp. Wise, S. (2002) GIS Basics. London: Taylor & Francis. Worboys, Michael, and Matt Duckham. (2004) GIS: a computing perspective. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Wheatley, David and Gillings, Mark (2002) Spatial Technology and Archaeology. The Archaeological Application of GIS. London, New York, Taylor & Francis. External links Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI) - A leading producer of GIS software Federal Geographic Data Committee — United States federal government standards agency. Geographic Information System (GIS) Educational website — Educational site with PDF lessons and videos to accompany free GIS software. GIS for Beginners - A knol article explaining GIS in very simple terms GIS Lounge - Information site for GIS. GITA - Geospatial Information & Technology Association. GISWiki.NEWS.Reader - Searchable feed aggregator for a large collection of GIS news, mostly in English. National States Geographic Information Council (NSGIC) Open Forum on Participatory Geographic Information Systems and Technologies - a global network of PGIS/PPGIS English-speaking practitioners and researchers with Spanish, Portuguese and French-speaking chapters. Open Geospatial Consortium, Inc. Open Source Geospatial Foundation Planet Geospatial - feed aggregator for GIS related blogs. USGS GIS Poster — Frequently cited "What is GIS" poster. 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2,125 | Military_of_Comoros | The military resources of the Comoros (Armée nationale de développement) consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) on Mayotte. Military branches: Comorian Security Force Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 136,914 (2000 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 81,477 (2000 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% Aircraft inventory The Comorian Security Force operates only 4 aircraft. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Eurocopter Ecureuil || || utility helicopter || AS 350B || 1 || |----- | Let L-410 Turbolet || || transport || L-410UVP || 2 || |----- | Mil Mi-14 Haze || || SAR|| Mi-14Pzh || 1 || |} In addition to the CSF, the Police Force operates a further 6 aircraft available for paramilitary duties. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aermacchi SF-260 || || liaison || SF 260CSF 260W || 23 || |----- | Cessna 402 || || utility || || 1 || |} Navy 2 Yamayuri patrol boats - 41 tons full load - commissioned 1981 References See also Comoros | Military_of_Comoros |@lemmatized military:10 resource:2 comoros:3 armée:1 nationale:1 de:1 développement:1 consist:1 small:3 standing:1 army:1 member:2 police:2 force:5 well:1 defense:2 treaty:1 france:3 provide:1 naval:1 protection:1 territorial:1 water:1 training:1 comorian:3 personnel:1 air:1 surveillance:1 maintain:2 troop:1 presence:1 government:1 request:1 maritime:1 base:1 foreign:1 legion:1 detachment:1 dlem:1 mayotte:1 branch:1 security:2 manpower:2 availability:1 male:2 age:2 est:2 fit:1 service:3 expenditure:2 dollar:1 figure:1 na:2 percent:1 gdp:1 aircraft:7 inventory:3 operate:2 style:12 text:12 align:12 left:12 background:12 aacccc:12 origin:2 type:2 version:2 world:2 aerospace:2 source:2 book:2 aviation:2 week:2 space:2 technology:2 january:2 note:2 eurocopter:1 ecureuil:1 utility:2 helicopter:1 let:1 l:2 turbolet:1 transport:1 mil:1 mi:2 haze:1 sar:1 addition:1 csf:1 available:1 paramilitary:1 duty:1 aermacchi:1 sf:2 liaison:1 cessna:1 navy:1 yamayuri:1 patrol:1 boat:1 ton:1 full:1 load:1 commissioned:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 align_left:12 background_aacccc:12 inventory_aerospace:2 eurocopter_ecureuil:1 ecureuil_utility:1 utility_helicopter:1 mil_mi:1 cessna_utility:1 patrol_boat:1 load_commissioned:1 |
2,126 | François_d'Aguilon | François d'Aguilon (also d'Aguillon or in Latin Franciscus Aguilonius) (4 January 1567, Brussels (Belgium) – 20 March 1617, Tournai (Belgium), was a Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist and architect. He became a Jesuit in 1586. In 1611, he started a special school of mathematics, in Antwerp, which intended to perpetuate the mathematical research and study in the Jesuit society. This school produced geometers like André Tacquet and Jean-Charles della Faille. Illustration by Rubens for "Opticorum libri sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles", by François d'Aiguillon. It demonstrates how the projection is computed. His book, Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles (Six Books of Optics, useful for philosophers and mathematicians alike), published in Antwerp in 1613, was illustrated by famous painter Peter Paul Rubens. It was notable for containing the principles of the stereographic and the orthographic projections, and it inspired the works of Desargues and Christiaan Huygens. He died in Antwerp. References http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/aguilon.htm Further reading | François_d'Aguilon |@lemmatized françois:2 aguilon:2 also:1 aguillon:1 latin:1 franciscus:1 aguilonius:1 january:1 brussels:1 belgium:2 march:1 tournai:1 belgian:1 jesuit:3 mathematician:2 physicist:1 architect:1 become:1 start:1 special:1 school:2 mathematics:1 antwerp:3 intend:1 perpetuate:1 mathematical:1 research:1 study:1 society:1 produce:1 geometer:1 like:1 andré:1 tacquet:1 jean:1 charles:1 della:1 faille:1 illustration:1 rubens:2 opticorum:2 libri:2 sex:2 philosophis:2 juxta:2 ac:2 mathematicis:2 utiles:2 aiguillon:1 demonstrate:1 projection:2 compute:1 book:2 six:1 optic:1 useful:1 philosopher:1 alike:1 publish:1 illustrate:1 famous:1 painter:1 peter:1 paul:1 notable:1 contain:1 principle:1 stereographic:1 orthographic:1 inspire:1 work:1 desargues:1 christiaan:1 huygens:1 die:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 faculty:1 fairfield:1 edu:1 jmac:1 sj:1 scientist:1 htm:1 reading:1 |@bigram brussels_belgium:1 paul_rubens:1 orthographic_projection:1 christiaan_huygens:1 http_www:1 |
2,127 | Antlia | Antlia (, genitive Antliae , from Ancient Greek ἀντλία) is a constellation in the southern sky. Its name means "pump" and it specifically represents an air pump. The stars comprising Antlia are faint, and the constellation was not created until the eighteenth century. Beginning at the north, Antlia is bordered by Hydra the sea snake, Pyxis the compass, Vela the sails, and Centaurus the centaur. History Antlia was created by the French astronomer Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, who created fourteen constellations for the southern sky to fill some faint regions. It was originally denominated Antlia pneumatica to commemorate the air pump invented by the French physicist Denis Papin. The International Astronomical Union subsequently adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations. There is no mythology attached to Antlia as Lacaille discontinued the tradition of giving names from mythology to constellations and instead chose names mostly from scientific instruments. This constellation has not 3, but 4 main stars. Notable features See also: List of stars in Antlia Antlia is devoid of bright stars. The brightest star is α Antliae, a magnitude 4.25m orange giant. Antlia contains the following deep sky objects: NGC 2997, a spiral galaxy of type which is inclined 45° to our line of sight. NGC 3132, a planetary nebula, also called the Eight-burst Nebula or Southern Ring Nebula. At its heart is a binary star system. The Antlia Dwarf, a 14.8m dwarf spheroidal galaxy that belongs to our Local Group of galaxies. It was discovered only as recently as 1997. APOD: April 23, 1997 - Antlia: A New Galactic Neighbor Citations References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Antlia WIKISKY.ORG: Antlia Star Tales – Antlia | Antlia |@lemmatized antlia:14 genitive:1 antliae:2 ancient:1 greek:1 ἀντλία:1 constellation:7 southern:3 sky:3 name:3 mean:1 pump:3 specifically:1 represent:1 air:2 star:8 comprise:1 faint:2 create:3 eighteenth:1 century:1 begin:1 north:1 border:1 hydra:1 sea:1 snake:1 pyxis:1 compass:1 vela:1 sail:1 centaurus:1 centaur:1 history:1 french:2 astronomer:1 abbé:1 nicolas:1 louis:1 de:1 lacaille:2 fourteen:1 fill:1 region:1 originally:1 denominate:1 pneumatica:1 commemorate:1 invent:1 physicist:1 denis:1 papin:1 international:1 astronomical:1 union:1 subsequently:1 adopt:1 one:1 modern:1 mythology:2 attach:1 discontinue:1 tradition:1 give:1 instead:1 choose:1 mostly:1 scientific:1 instrument:1 main:1 notable:1 feature:1 see:1 also:2 list:1 devoid:1 bright:2 α:1 magnitude:1 orange:1 giant:1 contain:1 following:1 deep:1 object:1 ngc:2 spiral:1 galaxy:3 type:1 inclined:1 line:1 sight:1 planetary:1 nebula:3 call:1 eight:1 burst:1 ring:1 heart:1 binary:1 system:1 dwarf:2 spheroidal:1 belong:1 local:1 group:1 discover:1 recently:1 apod:1 april:1 new:1 galactic:1 neighbor:1 citation:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:1 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 nightskyinfo:1 com:1 wikisky:1 org:1 tale:1 |@bigram spiral_galaxy:1 planetary_nebula:1 dwarf_spheroidal:1 spheroidal_galaxy:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 |
2,128 | Deicide_(band) | Deicide is an American death metal band formed in 1987. Their first two albums, Deicide and Legion, are ranked second and third place in best-selling death metal albums of the SoundScan era. History As Amon (1987-1989) Deicide was formed in Tampa, Florida July 21 1987, after guitarist Brian Hoffman called Glen Benton, replying to an advertisement the latter had placed in a local music magazine. They are influenced by bands such as Destruction, Sodom, Venom, Bathory, Possessed, Death and Slayer. Within days the band, consisting of Benton (bass/vocals), Hoffman, Hoffman's brother Eric (guitars) and Steve Asheim (drums), had been named Amon after the Egyptian deity. Mudrian, Albert (2004). In Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore, Feral House, ISBN 1-932595-04-X, pp. 90-91. Within a month, Amon had recorded crude Feasting the Beast 8-track demo in Benton's garage and had started playing the occasional gig in the Tampa area. Mudrian (2004), as above. In 1989, Amon recorded their second demo, Sacrificial, at Morrisound with producer Scott Burns. However, before being known as Amon, the band was known as Carnage: "Carnage consisted of 5 members the 2 members were let go. Glen was found in a local music magazine. We had him play bass. And another singer was hired. He could not phrase properly so he was let go. Then we decided have Glen sing. Amon was brought into this world."- Eric Hoffman DEICIDE Interview with Eric Hoffman Malevolent Creation guitarist Phil Fasciana recalls an early Amon show: "It was like Slayer intensified a thousand times." "I guess Amon had hollowed out a mannequin and filled it with fuckin' blood and guts from a butcher shop... and then they threw the fuckin' thing on the floor. Morbid Angel had these pit bulls with them back then and they were just tearing the meat up. It was a really weird scene, man. There was blood and meat everywhere." "Behind the Crooked Cross." Decibel: 72-78. As Deicide (1989-2004) Benton reportedly stormed into Roadrunner Records' A&R man Monte Connors' office and presented him with the demo, saying, "Sign us, you fucking asshole!" The next day contracts were issued to the band. Mudrian (2004), as above, p. 162. In 1989 the band's name was changed to Deicide at the request of Roadrunner Records, as Amon was the name of the house in the (then fellow Roadrunner artists) King Diamond album "Them". "Deicide" is defined as the act of killing a being of a divine nature, or a symbolic substitute for such a being; a deicide can also be one concerned in putting such a deity to death. Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary definition of 'deicide' "Me and my first wife were visiting family up in Buffalo and we went over to the city with a copy of the demo. Scott Burns had already sent it to Monte, though, and it was actually sitting on his desk. So I walked in and said, "I'm Glen Benton- here's another tape. Don't be an asshole- sign us. I wasn't even back in Buffalo yet when they called in with the contract offer." Deicide then released their self-titled debut album, also produced by Scott Burns at Morrisound, in 1990. Their debut featured re-recorded versions of all six of the Sacrificial tunes that had secured them their record deal. Both Eric and Brian tended to play technical solos at fast speeds and with overlapping riffs, which gave Deicide the definitive heavy sound and complex song structures. This lineup remained intact until November 25 2004 in the wake of increasing animosity between Glen Benton and the Hoffman brothers - allegedly in regards to royalties, publishing and the fact that they were Christians. Post-Hoffman brothers period (2004-present) Shortly after, the guitar roles were then filled by ex-Cannibal Corpse guitarist Jack Owen, and Vital Remains guitarist Dave Suzuki. Following the tour, Suzuki was replaced by Ralph Santolla, formerly of Death, Iced Earth and Sebastian Bach. Santolla stated he is a Catholic and this has received a small amount of shock and ridicule from some metal fans. In spite of this, Deicide's eighth studio album The Stench of Redemption album received rave reviews, and is one of their biggest sellers yet. On May 24, 2007, it was announced Ralph Santolla had left Deicide. Subsequently, he joined Florida's Obituary and appears on their album Xecutioner's Return as well as the tour. Then on July 20 2007 guitarist Jack Owen (ex-Cannibal Corpse) announced that Deicide is "on hiatus" and he has joined Ohio based death/thrash combo Estuary for touring purposes. The band did a Balkan tour, dubbed "Balkans AssassiNation Tour", in October 2007 alongside Krisiun, Incantation and Inactive Messiah. By November 2007 Deicide began work on its ninth studio album at Florida's Morrisound Studios. Entitled Till Death Do Us Part, the follow-up to 2006's The Stench of Redemption promises to be Deicide's "most savage and aggressive [offering] to date," according to a press release. Drummer Steve Asheim recorded drum tracks and Benton started recording vocals in December. By April 2008 two songs off this album were posted online. On January 6, 2009, Deicide posted a blog on their official Myspace page saying they had signed a worldwide record deal with Century Media, with Ralph Santolla returning to the band for a European tour. They are working on material for a summer 2009 release. Controversy Deicide has received considerable controversy relating to their albums and lyrics, which include vehement anti-Christian themes, such as "Fuck Your God","Behead The Prophet" and "Scars of the Crucifix", among others. This was reinforced by frontman Glen Benton branding an inverted cross into his forehead. Drummer Asheim of Deicide said "The whole point of Satanic music is to blaspheme against the church", "I don't believe in or worship a devil. Life is short enough without having to waste it doing this whole organised praying, hoping, wishing-type thing on some superior being". Ostensibly in order to prove his genuine Satanic nature, Benton claimed in the early 1990s that he would commit suicide at the age of 33, to "mirror" a lifespan opposite that of Jesus Christ. However, he passed that age in 2000 and did not commit suicide. In 2006, he stated that these statements had been "asinine remarks" and that "only cowards and losers" choose to kill themselves. Deicide has been banned from playing in several venues (such as Valparaiso, Chile over a promotional poster featuring Jesus Christ with a bullet hole in his forehead ) and with various festivals such as Hellfest, after several graves had been spray-painted with "When Satan Rules His World", which is a song from Deicide's 1995 album Once Upon the Cross. More recently, their music video for "Homage for Satan", which features blood-splattered zombies on a rampaging mission to capture a priest, was banned from UK music TV channel Scuzz. In the early 1990s, Deicide was on tour in Europe with Gorefest, a Dutch death metal band. In Stockholm, during Gorefest set, a bomb exploded in the club in which they were playing. The bomb was located to the rear of the stage, behind a heavy fire proof door. The explosion was big enough to deform the door and blow it off its hinges. Deicide managed to play three songs before the police decided to stop the concert and evacuate the club. At first, Benton blamed that attack on the Scandinavian black metal scene, where Deicide's brand of death metal was despised, but many people blamed animal rights activists who were angered at Deicide's lyrical themes of animal sacrifice. Members Current members Glen Benton - vocals, bass guitar (1987–present) Steve Asheim - drums (1987–present), guitar on Till Death Do Us Part Jack Owen - guitar (2004–present) Past members Brian Hoffman - guitar (1987–2004) Eric Hoffman - guitar (1987–2004) Ralph Santolla - lead guitar (2005–2007), session member for Till Death Do Us Part, live for Winterfest tour (2009) Tour members Dave Suzuki - guitar (2004–2005) Seth Van Loo - vocals (2007), as substitute for Glen Benton Discography Studio albums Deicide (1990) Legion (1992) Once Upon the Cross (1995) Serpents of the Light (1997) Insineratehymn (2000) In Torment in Hell (2001) Scars of the Crucifix (2004) The Stench of Redemption (2006) Till Death Do Us Part (2008) Compilations Amon, Feasting the Beast (1993) The Best of Deicide (2003) Live albums When Satan Lives (1998) Doomsday L.A. (2007) DVDs When London Burns (2006) Doomsday L.A. (2007) Billboard charts 1992 Legion - Heatseekers 16 1995 Once Upon the Cross - Heatseekers 22 1997 Serpents of the Light - Heatseekers 17 2004 Scars of the Crucifix - Top Heatseekers 24 2004 Scars of the Crucifix - Top Independent Albums 18 2006 The Stench Of Redemption - Top Heatseekers 11 2006 The Stench Of Redemption - Top Independent Albums 21 2006 The Stench Of Redemption - Top Internet Albums 205 Further reading Mudrian, Albert (2004). Choosing Death:The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore, Feral House, ISBN 1-932595-04-X. References External links Official website Cruciblekk's Chronicles | Deicide_(band) |@lemmatized deicide:27 american:1 death:16 metal:8 band:9 form:2 first:3 two:2 album:16 legion:3 rank:1 second:2 third:1 place:2 best:2 sell:1 soundscan:1 era:1 history:3 amon:10 tampa:2 florida:3 july:2 guitarist:5 brian:3 hoffman:9 call:2 glen:8 benton:12 reply:1 advertisement:1 latter:1 local:2 music:5 magazine:2 influence:1 destruction:1 sodom:1 venom:1 bathory:1 possess:1 slayer:2 within:2 day:2 consist:2 bass:3 vocal:4 brother:2 eric:5 guitar:9 steve:3 asheim:4 drums:1 name:3 egyptian:1 deity:2 mudrian:4 albert:2 choose:3 improbable:2 grindcore:2 feral:2 house:3 isbn:2 x:2 pp:1 month:1 record:8 crude:1 feast:2 beast:2 track:2 demo:4 garage:1 start:2 play:6 occasional:1 gig:1 area:1 sacrificial:2 morrisound:3 producer:1 scott:3 burn:4 however:2 know:2 carnage:2 member:7 let:2 go:3 find:1 another:2 singer:1 hire:1 could:1 phrase:1 properly:1 decide:2 sing:1 bring:1 world:2 interview:1 malevolent:1 creation:1 phil:1 fasciana:1 recall:1 early:3 show:1 like:1 intensify:1 thousand:1 time:1 guess:1 hollow:1 mannequin:1 fill:2 fuckin:2 blood:3 gut:1 butcher:1 shop:1 throw:1 thing:2 floor:1 morbid:1 angel:1 pit:1 bull:1 back:2 tear:1 meat:2 really:1 weird:1 scene:2 man:2 everywhere:1 behind:2 crooked:1 cross:5 decibel:1 reportedly:1 storm:1 roadrunner:3 r:1 monte:2 connors:1 office:1 present:5 say:4 sign:3 u:6 fuck:2 asshole:2 next:1 contract:2 issue:1 p:1 change:1 request:1 fellow:1 artist:1 king:1 diamond:1 define:1 act:1 kill:2 divine:1 nature:2 symbolic:1 substitute:2 also:2 one:2 concern:1 put:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:2 dictionary:1 definition:1 wife:1 visit:1 family:1 buffalo:2 city:1 copy:1 already:1 send:1 though:1 actually:1 sit:1 desk:1 walk:1 tape:1 even:1 yet:2 offer:2 release:3 self:1 title:1 debut:2 produce:1 feature:3 recorded:1 version:1 six:1 tune:1 secure:1 deal:2 tend:1 technical:1 solo:1 fast:1 speed:1 overlapping:1 riff:1 give:1 definitive:1 heavy:2 sound:1 complex:1 song:4 structure:1 lineup:1 remain:1 intact:1 november:2 wake:1 increase:1 animosity:1 brothers:1 allegedly:1 regard:1 royalty:1 publishing:1 fact:1 christian:2 post:3 period:1 shortly:1 role:1 ex:2 cannibal:2 corpse:2 jack:3 owen:3 vital:1 remains:1 dave:2 suzuki:3 follow:2 tour:9 replace:1 ralph:4 santolla:5 formerly:1 ice:1 earth:1 sebastian:1 bach:1 state:2 catholic:1 receive:3 small:1 amount:1 shock:1 ridicule:1 fan:1 spite:1 eighth:1 studio:4 stench:6 redemption:6 rave:1 review:1 big:2 seller:1 may:1 announce:2 leave:1 subsequently:1 join:2 obituary:1 appear:1 xecutioner:1 return:2 well:1 hiatus:1 ohio:1 base:1 thrash:1 combo:1 estuary:1 purpose:1 balkan:2 dub:1 assassination:1 october:1 alongside:1 krisiun:1 incantation:1 inactive:1 messiah:1 begin:1 work:2 ninth:1 entitle:1 till:4 part:4 promise:1 savage:1 aggressive:1 date:1 accord:1 press:1 drummer:2 drum:2 december:1 april:1 january:1 blog:1 official:2 myspace:1 page:1 worldwide:1 century:1 medium:1 european:1 material:1 summer:1 controversy:2 considerable:1 relate:1 lyric:1 include:1 vehement:1 anti:1 theme:2 god:1 behead:1 prophet:1 scar:4 crucifix:4 among:1 others:1 reinforce:1 frontman:1 brand:2 inverted:1 forehead:2 whole:2 point:1 satanic:2 blaspheme:1 church:1 believe:1 worship:1 devil:1 life:2 short:1 enough:2 without:1 waste:1 organise:1 praying:1 hop:1 wish:1 type:1 superior:1 ostensibly:1 order:1 prove:1 genuine:1 claim:1 would:1 commit:2 suicide:2 age:2 mirror:1 lifespan:1 opposite:1 jesus:2 christ:2 pass:1 statement:1 asinine:1 remark:1 coward:1 loser:1 ban:2 several:2 venue:1 valparaiso:1 chile:1 promotional:1 poster:1 bullet:1 hole:1 various:1 festival:1 hellfest:1 graf:1 spray:1 paint:1 satan:3 rule:1 upon:3 recently:1 video:1 homage:1 splattered:1 zombie:1 rampage:1 mission:1 capture:1 priest:1 uk:1 tv:1 channel:1 scuzz:1 europe:1 gorefest:2 dutch:1 stockholm:1 set:1 bomb:2 explode:1 club:2 locate:1 rear:1 stage:1 fire:1 proof:1 door:2 explosion:1 deform:1 blow:1 hinge:1 manage:1 three:1 police:1 stop:1 concert:1 evacuate:1 blame:2 attack:1 scandinavian:1 black:1 despise:1 many:1 people:1 animal:2 right:1 activist:1 anger:1 lyrical:1 sacrifice:1 current:1 past:1 lead:1 session:1 live:2 winterfest:1 seth:1 van:1 loo:1 discography:1 serpent:2 light:2 insineratehymn:1 torment:1 hell:1 compilation:1 doomsday:2 l:2 dvd:1 london:1 billboard:1 chart:1 heatseekers:5 top:5 independent:2 internet:1 reading:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 cruciblekk:1 chronicle:1 |@bigram tampa_florida:1 glen_benton:6 merriam_webster:1 ralph_santolla:4 sebastian_bach:1 stench_redemption:6 rave_review:1 myspace_page:1 commit_suicide:2 jesus_christ:2 promotional_poster:1 spray_paint:1 bomb_explode:1 lyrical_theme:1 bass_guitar:1 discography_studio:1 billboard_chart:1 external_link:1 |
2,129 | Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham | Soho House in Handsworth, Birmingham, a regular venue for meetings of the Lunar SocietyThe Lunar Society was a dinner club and informal learned society of prominent industrialists, natural philosophers and intellectuals who met regularly between 1765 and 1813 in Birmingham, England. At first called the Lunar Circle, 'Lunar Society' became the formal name by 1775. The name arose because the society would meet during the full moon, when the extra light made the journey home easier and safer (in the absence of street lighting). The members cheerfully referred to themselves as "lunaticks", a pun on lunatics. Venues included Erasmus Darwin's home in Lichfield, Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, and Great Barr Hall. Members Erasmus Darwin, one of the founders of the Lunar Society The members of the Lunar Society were very influential in Britain. Amongst those who attended meetings more or less regularly were Matthew Boulton, Erasmus Darwin, Samuel Galton Junior, James Keir, Joseph Priestley, Josiah Wedgwood, James Watt, John Whitehurst and William Withering. More peripheral characters and correspondents included Sir Richard Arkwright, John Baskerville, Thomas Beddoes, Thomas Day, Richard Lovell Edgeworth, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Anna Seward, William Small, John Smeaton, William Strutt, Thomas Wedgwood, John Wilkinson, Joseph Wright, James Wyatt, Samuel Wyatt, and Staffordshire member of parliament and investor John Levett. Antoine Lavoisier frequently corresponded with various members of the group, as did Benjamin Franklin, who also visited them in Birmingham on several occasions. As the members grew older and died, the Lunar Society ceased to be very active and was closed in 1813. Most former members had died by 1820. Both of naturalist Charles Darwin's grandfathers (Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgewood) were members of the Lunar Society. Among memorials to the Society and its members are the Moonstones; two statues of Watt and a statue of Boulton, Watt and Murdoch, by William Bloye; and the museum at Soho House – all in Birmingham, England. Modern Lunar Society In more recent times a new Lunar Society was formed in Birmingham, England by a group led by Dame Rachel Waterhouse. Its aim is to play a leading part in the development of the city and the wider region. Lunar Society award to Rachel Waterhouse In Italy, The Lunar Society was formed to divulge science and astronomy - The Lunar Society Italia See also Scottish Enlightenment Science and invention in Birmingham Further reading Reprint: ISBN 0416080103 References External links Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield Article in Science The Lunar Men who shaped the future (from the Birmingham Stories website) The modern Lunar Society Revolutionary Players website BBC Radio 4 In Our Time discussion The Lunar Society Italia | Lunar_Society_of_Birmingham |@lemmatized soho:3 house:4 handsworth:1 birmingham:7 regular:1 venue:2 meeting:2 lunar:16 societythe:1 society:16 dinner:1 club:1 informal:1 learn:1 prominent:1 industrialist:1 natural:1 philosopher:1 intellectual:1 meet:2 regularly:2 england:3 first:1 call:1 circle:1 become:1 formal:1 name:2 arose:1 would:1 full:1 moon:1 extra:1 light:2 make:1 journey:1 home:3 easy:1 safer:1 absence:1 street:1 member:9 cheerfully:1 refer:1 lunaticks:1 pun:1 lunatic:1 include:2 erasmus:5 darwin:6 lichfield:2 matthew:2 boulton:3 great:1 barr:1 hall:1 one:1 founder:1 influential:1 britain:1 amongst:1 attend:1 less:1 samuel:2 galton:1 junior:1 jam:1 keir:1 joseph:2 priestley:1 josiah:2 wedgwood:2 james:2 watt:3 john:5 whitehurst:1 william:4 withering:1 peripheral:1 character:1 correspondent:1 sir:1 richard:2 arkwright:1 baskerville:1 thomas:4 beddoes:1 day:1 lovell:1 edgeworth:1 benjamin:2 franklin:2 jefferson:1 anna:1 seward:1 small:1 smeaton:1 strutt:1 wilkinson:1 wright:1 wyatt:2 staffordshire:1 parliament:1 investor:1 levett:1 antoine:1 lavoisier:1 frequently:1 correspond:1 various:1 group:2 also:2 visit:1 several:1 occasion:1 grow:1 old:1 die:2 cease:1 active:1 close:1 former:1 naturalist:1 charles:1 grandfather:1 wedgewood:1 among:1 memorial:1 moonstone:1 two:1 statue:2 murdoch:1 bloye:1 museum:1 modern:2 recent:1 time:2 new:1 form:2 lead:1 dame:1 rachel:2 waterhouse:2 aim:1 play:1 leading:1 part:1 development:1 city:1 wider:1 region:1 award:1 italy:1 divulge:1 science:3 astronomy:1 italia:2 see:1 scottish:1 enlightenment:1 invention:1 reading:1 reprint:1 isbn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 men:1 shape:1 future:1 story:1 website:2 revolutionary:1 player:1 bbc:1 radio:1 discussion:1 |@bigram erasmus_darwin:5 matthew_boulton:2 joseph_priestley:1 josiah_wedgwood:1 richard_arkwright:1 benjamin_franklin:2 thomas_jefferson:1 john_smeaton:1 antoine_lavoisier:1 charles_darwin:1 boulton_watt:1 external_link:1 |
2,130 | Ambrosius_Aurelianus | Ambrosius Aurelianus, ; called Aurelius Ambrosius in the Historia Regum Britanniae and elsewhere, was a war leader of the Romano-British who won an important battle against the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, according to Gildas. Some scholars have speculated that he was the leader of the Britons at the Battle of Mons Badonicus and as such may have been a historical basis for King Arthur. He also appeared independently in the legends of the Britons, beginning with the 9th-century Historia Britonum. Aurelianus according to Gildas Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people that Gildas identifies by name in his sermon De Excidio Britanniae, and the only one named from the 5th century. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as "a gentleman who, perhaps alone of the Romans, had survived the shock of this notable storm. Certainly his parents, who had worn the purple, were slain by it. His descendants in our day have become greatly inferior to their grandfather's [avita] excellence." We know from Gildas that he was of high birth, and had Roman ancestry; he was presumably a Romano-Briton, rather than a Roman from elsewhere in the empire, though it is impossible to be sure. It also appears that Ambrosius was a Christian: Gildas says that he won his battles "with God's help". According to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: "Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens [meaning the Romano-British inhabitants] were victorious." Two points in this brief description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' family "had worn the purple": does this mean that Ambrosius was related to one of the Roman Emperors, perhaps the House of Theodosius or an usurper like Constantine III? This seems unlikely. Roman males of the senatorial class wore clothes with a purple band to denote their class, so the reference to purple may be to his aristocratic heritage. In addition, Roman military tribunes (tribuni militum), senior officers in Roman legions, wore a similar purple band, so the purple may refer to military leadership background in his family. It has also been suggested that "the purple" is a euphemism for blood, and therefore "wearing the purple" may be a reference to martyrdom. The second question is the meaning of the word avita: does it mean "ancestors", or did Gildas intend it to mean more specifically "grandfather"—thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of Mons Badonicus? The lack of information for this period inhibits accurate answers to these questions. Other accounts of Aurelianus Bede follows Gildas' account of Ambrosius in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, but in his Chronica Majora he dates Ambrosius' victory to the reign of the Emperor Zeno (AD 474-91). The Historia Britonum preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. The most significant of these is the story about Ambrosius, Vortigern, and the two dragons beneath Dinas Emrys, "Fortress of Ambrosius" in Chapters 40 – 42. This story was later retold with more detail by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his fictionalized Historia Regum Britanniae, conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of Merlin the visonary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native Celtic inhabitants of Britain over the Saxons and the Normans. Geoffrey also names him as one of three sons of Constantine III, along with Constans II and Uther Pendragon. But there are smaller snippets of tradition preserved in Historia Brittonum: in Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius; later, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, ESE of Amesbury near Salisbury), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus; lastly, in Chapter 48, it is said that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the kingdoms of Buellt and Gwrtheyrion by Ambrosius. It is not clear how these various traditions relate to each other or that they come from the same tradition, and it is very possible that these references are to a different Ambrosius. The Historia Brittonum dates the battle of Guoloph to "the twelfth year of Vortigern", by which 437 seems to be meant. This is perhaps a generation before the battle that Gildas says were commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus. At the end of the story in Chapters 40 - 42, Vortigern hands over to Ambrosius "the fortress, with all of the kingdoms of the western part of Britain." In Chapter 48 Ambrosius Aurelianus is described as "king among all the kings of the British nation." It is impossible to know to what degree he actually wielded political power, and over what area, but it is certainly possible that he ruled some part of England. Léon Fleuriot has suggested Ambrosius is identical to Riothamus, a Brythonic leader who fought a major battle against the Goths in France around the year 470. Fleuriot argues that Ambrosius led the Britons in the battle, in which he was defeated and forced to retreat to Burgundy. He then returned to Britain to continue the war against the Saxons. Léon Fleuriot, Les origines de la Bretagne: l’émigration, Paris,Payot, 1980, p. 170 Because Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown in the Historia Brittonum as being in conflict, some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius and the other by Vortigern. J. N. L. Myres built upon this suspicion and put forth the hypothesis that belief in Pelagianism reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Some later historians accepted this hypothesis as fact and have created a narrative of events in 5th century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of the conflict between these two figures is that the Historia Brittonum is preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in Powys. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the Historia Brittonum, which include his alleged practice of incest. Ambrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with Geoffrey's Historiae Regum Britanniae with the slightly garbled name Aurelius Ambrosius, now presented as son of a King Constantine. When King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, the two remaining sons, Ambrosius and Uther, still very young, are quickly hustled into exile in Brittany. (This does not fit with Gildas' account in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, when Vortigern's power has faded, the two brothers return from exile with a large army, destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. In Welsh, Ambrosius appears as Emrys Wledig. In Robert de Boron's Merlin he is called simply Pendragon and his younger brother is named Uter, which he changes to Uterpendragon after the death of the elder sibling. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from Wace's Roman de Brut. Wace usually only refers to li roi ("the king") without naming him, and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet Pendragon as the name of his brother. S. Appelbaum has suggested that Amesbury in Wiltshire might preserve in it the name of Ambrosius, and perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century. Place name scholars have found a number of place names through the Midland dialect regions of Britain that incorporate the ambre- element: Ombersley in Worcestershire, Ambrosden in Oxfordshire, Amberley in Herefordshire,Amberley in Gloucestershire and Amberley castle in West Sussex. These scholars have claimed this element represents an Old English word amor, the name of a woodland bird. However, Amesbury in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names. If we combine this etymology with the tradition reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth stating Ambrosius Aurelianus ordered the building of Stonehenge—which is located within the parish of Amesbury (and where Ambrosius was supposedly buried)—and with the presence of an Iron Age hill fort also in that parish, then it is extremely tempting to connect this shadowy figure with Amesbury. Aurelianus in fiction In Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, Aurelianus is depicted as the aging High King of Britain, a "too-ambitious" son of a Western Roman Emperor. His sister's son is Uther Pendragon, but Uther is described as not having any Roman blood. Aurelianus is unable to gather the leadership of the native Celts, who refuse to follow any but their own race. In Alfred Duggan's Conscience of the King, a historical novel about Cerdic, founder of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, Ambrosius Aurelianus is a Romano-British general who rose independently to military power, forming alliances with various British kings and setting out to drive the invading Saxons from Britain. Cerdic, who is of both Germanic and British descent and raised as a Roman citizen, served in his army as a young man. In the novel Ambrosius is a separate character from Arthur, or Artorius, who appears much later as a foe of Cerdic. In Stephen R. Lawhead's Pendragon Cycle, Aurelianus (most often referred to as "Aurelius") figures prominently, along with his brother Uther, in the second book of the series, Merlin. He is poisoned soon after becoming High King of Britain, and Uther succeeds him. Lawhead alters the standard Arthurian story somewhat, in that he has Aurelius marry Igraine and become the true father of King Arthur (Uther does marry his brother's widow, though). In Valerio Massimo Manfredi's The Last Legion, Aurelianus (here called "Aurelianus Ambrosius Ventidius") is a major character and is shown as one of the last loyal Romans, going to enormous lengths for his boy emperor Romulus Augustus, whose power has been wrested by the barbarian Odoacer. In this story, Romulus Augustus marries Igraine, and King Arthur is their son, and the sword of Julius Caesar becomes the legendary Excalibur in Britain. In the 2007 film version of the novel, he is played by Colin Firth and his name becomes "Aurelianus Caius Antonius". In both he is called "Aurelius" for short. Mary Stewart's The Crystal Cave follows Geoffrey of Monmouth in calling him Aurelius Ambrosius and portrays him as the father of Merlin, the elder brother of Uther (hence uncle of Arthur), an initiate of Mithras, and generally admired by everyone except the Saxons. Much of the book is set at his court in Brittany or during the campaign to retake his throne from Vortigern. Later books in the series show that Merlin's attitude toward Arthur is influenced by his belief that Arthur is a reincarnation of Ambrosius, who is seen through Merlin's eyes as a model of good kingship. In Rosemary Sutcliff's The Lantern Bearers Prince Ambrosius Aurelianus of Arfon drives out the Saxons by training his British army with Roman techniques and making effective use of cavalry. By the end of the novel, the elite cavalry wing is led by a dashing young warrior prince named Artos, whom Sutcliff postulates to be the real Arthur. In Jack Whyte's Camulod Chronicles, Ambrosius Aurelianus is the half-brother of Caius Merlyn Britannicus (Merlin) and helps him lead the people of Camulod (Camelot). In Stargate SG-1, Ambrosius and Arthur are one and the same. Merlin was an Ancient, fleeing from Atlantis and later Ascends, then comes back in order build the Sangraal, or Holy Grail, to defeat the Ori. Daniel Jackson also comments that it would mean that Ambrosius was 74 at the Battle of Mount Badon. 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2,131 | Fleetwood_Mac | Fleetwood Mac are a British/American rock band formed in 1967 which have experienced a high turnover of personnel and varied levels of success. From the band's inception through the end of 1974, no incarnation of Fleetwood Mac lasted as long as two years. The only member present in the band from the very beginning is its namesake drummer Mick Fleetwood. Bassist John McVie, despite his giving part of his name to the band, did not play on their first single nor at their first concerts. Keyboardist Christine McVie has, to date, appeared on all but two albums, either as a member or as a session musician. She also supplied the artwork for the album "Kiln House". The two most successful periods for the band were during the late 1960s British blues boom, when they were led by guitarist Peter Green, and from 1975 to 1987, with more pop-orientation, featuring Christine McVie, Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks. The band enjoyed more modest success in the intervening period between 1971 and 1974, with the line-up including Bob Welch, and also during the 1990s which saw more personnel changes before the return of Nicks and Buckingham in 1997, and more recently, the departure of Christine McVie. History Formation and early years (1967–1970) Fleetwood Mac were formed in 1967 in London when Peter Green left the British blues band John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Green had replaced guitarist Eric Clapton in the Bluesbreakers, and received critical acclaim for his work on their album "A Hard Road". After he had been in the Bluesbreakers for some time, Green asked if drummer Mick Fleetwood could replace Aynsley Dunbar. Green had been in two bands with Fleetwood — "Peter B's Looners" and the subsequent "Shotgun Express" (which featured a young vocalist named Rod Stewart). John Mayall agreed and Fleetwood became a member of the band. The Bluesbreakers now consisted of Green, Fleetwood, John McVie and Mayall. Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, in which Fleetwood, McVie and Green recorded five songs. The fifth song was an instrumental which Green named after the rhythm section, "Fleetwood Mac". Green contacted Fleetwood to form a new band. The pair desperately wanted McVie on bass and even named the band 'Fleetwood Mac' as a way to entice McVie. However McVie opted for the steady paycheque of the Mayall gig rather than the unknown of a new band. In the meantime Peter Green and Mick Fleetwood teamed up with talented slide player Jeremy Spencer and bassist Bob Brunning, who was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if and when McVie agreed to join. The Green, Fleetwood, Spencer, Brunning version of the band made its debut on August 13, 1967 at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival. Within weeks of this show, John McVie agreed to become the bassist for the band. Fleetwood Mac's first album, "Fleetwood Mac", was a no-frills blues album and was released on the Blue Horizon label in February 1968. In fact there were no other players on the album (except for the song "Long Grey Mare", which was recorded when Bob Brunning was in the band). The album was hugely successful in the UK, hitting no.4, though it did not have any singles on it. The band soon released two singles "Black Magic Woman" (later a big hit for Santana) and "Need Your Love So Bad". The band's second album, "Mr. Wonderful", was released in August 1968. Like the first it was an all-blues album, but this time they made a few changes. The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and PA system, rather than plugged into the board. This method provided the ideal environment for producing this style of music, and gave it an authentically vintage sound. They also added horns and featured a friend of the band on keyboards, Christine Perfect of Chicken Shack. Shortly after the release of their second album Fleetwood Mac added guitarist Danny Kirwan to their line-up at the tender age of 18. Green had been frustrated that Jeremy Spencer had little desire to contribute to Green's songs. Kirwan brought a harmony-rich sound that was indicative of his range of influence. A mature and accomplished self-taught guitarist, Kirwan's signature vibrato and unique style added a new dimension to an already complete band. With Kirwan the band released its first number one single in Europe, "Albatross". Around this time the band released its second American album, "English Rose", which contained half of "Mr. Wonderful", new songs from Kirwan, and its third European album called "The Pious Bird of Good Omen", which was a collection of singles, B-sides, and a selection of some work the band did with Eddie Boyd. When the band went to the United States in January 1969 they recorded many songs at the soon-to-close Chess Records Studio, with some blues legends of Chicago including Willie Dixon, Buddy Guy and Otis Spann. These would prove, however, to be Fleetwood Mac's last all-blues recordings. Along with their change of style the band was also going through some label changes. Up until this point they had been on Blue Horizon. With Kirwan in the band, however, the musical possibilities were too great for them to stay on a blues-only label. The band signed with the Immediate Records label and released "Man Of The World", another British and European hit single. For the B-side Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as "Earl Vince and the Valiants" and recorded "Someone's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite", typifying the more raucous rock 'n' roll side of the band. Immediate was in bad shape and the band shopped around for a new deal. Even though The Beatles wanted the band on Apple Records (Mick Fleetwood and George Harrison were brothers-in-law), the band's manager Clifford Davis decided to go with Warner Bros. Records, the label they have stayed with ever since. Their first album for Warner, released in September 1969, was the well-regarded "Then Play On". The American release of this album contains the song "Oh Well", featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997 and then again starting in 2009. "Then Play On", which was the band's first rock album, featured only the songs of Kirwan and Green. Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, recorded a solo album (he was backed by the rest of the band) which consisted of many 1950s-style rock and roll songs. In July 1969 Fleetwood Mac was the headliner of the Schaefer Music Festival in New York City's Central Park, along with The Byrds, Chuck Berry, Miles Davis, Led Zeppelin, B. B. King, The Beach Boys, Frank Zappa and Patti LaBelle. They re-appeared at the festival in 1970. Fleetwood Mac were arguably the most popular band in Europe at the time. However, Peter Green, the frontman of the band, was not in good health. He had unwittingly taken LSD in Munich, which contributed to the onset of his schizophrenia. http://www.mskinnermusic.com/links.html German author and filmmaker Rainer Langhans mentions in his autobiography that he and Uschi Obermaier met Peter Green in Munich, where they invited him to their "High-Fish-Commune". They were not really interested in Peter Green. They just wanted to get in contact with Mick Taylor: Langhans and Obermaier wished to organise a "Bavarian Woodstock". They wanted Jimi Hendrix and The Rolling Stones to be the leading acts of their Bavarian open air festival. They needed the 'Green God' just to get in contact with The Rolling Stones via Mick Taylor. Green's last hit with Fleetwood Mac was "The Green Manalishi (With the Two-Prong Crown)" (first recorded at the Boston Tea Party in February 1970 and later recorded by Judas Priest). Green's mental stability deteriorated, and he wanted to give all of the band's money to charity. The rest of the band did not concur. Green decided to leave the band. His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on May 20, 1970. During that show, the band went past their allotted time, and the power was shut off. Mick Fleetwood kept drumming. Transitional era (1970–1975) Danny and Jeremy were left with the task of having to fill up Peter's space in their shows and on their recordings. In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released Kiln House. Danny's songs moved the band in the direction of 70s rock. Meanwhile, Jeremy's contributions focused on re-creating the country-tinged "Sun Sound" of the late 1950s. Christine Perfect, who had retired from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, contributed to Kiln House, singing backup vocals, and drawing the album cover. Since the band was progressing and developing a new sound, Christine was asked to join the band. They also released a single at that time; "Dragonfly" b/w "The Purple Dancer" in the U.K. and certain European countries. Despite good notices in the press, the single was not a success and the B-side has only been reissued once, on a Reprise German-only "Best of" album, making it one of their most obscure songs. 1973 lineup with Christine McVie, Mick Fleetwood, Bob Weston, John McVie, and Bob Welch Christine Perfect was married to bassist John McVie, and made her first appearance with the band as Christine McVie at Bristol University in May 1969 just as she was leaving Chicken Shack. She had had success with the Etta James classic, "I'd Rather Go Blind", and was twice voted female artist of the year in England. Christine McVie played her first gig as an official member on August 6, 1970 in New Orleans. Columbia Records, which now owned Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released an album of previously unreleased material from the original Fleetwood Mac called The Original Fleetwood Mac. The album was relatively successful, and the band seemed to be gaining popularity again. While on tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to "get a magazine", but never returned. After several days of frantic searching, the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, the Children of God. Liable for the remaining shows on the tour, they convinced Peter Green to help finish the tour. He brought along his friend, Nigel Watson, who played the congas (twenty-five years later Green and Watson would collaborate again to form the Peter Green Splinter Group). The band replaced Jeremy’s portion of the set with 90 minute instrumental improvisations of "Black Magic Woman". Green, however, would only be back with Fleetwood Mac temporarily, so the band decided to search for a new guitarist. In the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a guitarist in their large country home, "Benifold", which they bought prior to the Kiln House tour. A friend of the band named Judy Wong recommended her high school friend, Bob Welch, who was living in Paris at the time. The band had a few meetings with Welch and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him or listening to any of his recordings. In September 1971, the band released Future Games. This album was radically different from anything the band had done up to that point. There were many new fans in America who were becoming more and more interested in the band. In Europe, CBS released Fleetwood Mac's first Greatest Hits package, which was predominantly composed of songs by Peter Green, though there was one song by Spencer and one by Kirwan. In 1972, six months after the release of Future Games, the band released the well-received album Bare Trees. Bare Trees featured Bob Welch's "Sentimental Lady", which would be a much bigger hit for him five years later when he re-recorded it for his album French Kiss, backed with Mick Fleetwood, Christine McVie, and Lindsey Buckingham, for a solo album. It also featured "Spare Me a Little of Your Love", a bright Christine McVie tune that would become a staple of the band's live act throughout the early-to-mid 1970s. While the band was doing well in the studio, their tours were more problematic. Danny Kirwan developed an alcohol dependency and became alienated from Welch and the McVies. It wasn't until he smashed his Les Paul Custom guitar, refused to go on stage one night, and criticised the band afterwards that Fleetwood finally decided that he had no choice but to fire Kirwan. The next two and a half years proved to be the most challenging for the band. In the three albums they would release in this period, they would constantly change line-ups. In September 1972, the band added guitarist Bob Weston and vocalist Dave Walker, formerly of Savoy Brown. Bob Weston was well known for playing slide guitar and had known the band from his touring period with Long John Baldry. Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown's road manager, John Courage. Mick, John, Christine, Welch, Weston, and Walker recorded Penguin, which was released in January 1973. After the tour, the band fired Walker because his vocal style and attitude did not fit in with the rest of the band. The remaining five carried on and recorded Mystery to Me six months later. This album contained the song "Hypnotized" which got a lot of airplay on the radio and became one of the band’s most recognisable songs to date. The band were justifiably proud of the new album and were poised to make it a hit. However, things were not well within the band. The McVies' marriage at this time was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each other, and John McVie's considerable alcohol abuse. During the tour, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood's wife, Jenny Boyd Fleetwood, the sister of Pattie Boyd Harrison. Fleetwood soon fired Weston and the tour was cancelled. Due to lack of touring, the album sold less than its predecessor. In what would be one of the more bizarre events in rock history, the band's manager, Clifford Davis, claimed that he owned the name Fleetwood Mac and put out a "fake Mac". Nobody in the "fake Mac" was ever officially in the real band, although some of them later acted as Danny Kirwan's studio band. Fans were told that Bob Welch and John McVie had quit the group, and that Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie would be joining the band at a later date, after getting some rest. Fleetwood Mac's road manager, John Courage, worked one show before he realised that the line being used was a lie. Courage ended up hiding the real Fleetwood Mac's equipment, which helped shorten the tour by the fake band. But the lawsuit that followed put the real Fleetwood Mac out of commission for almost a year. The issue was who actually owned the name "Fleetwood Mac". While it would seem obvious that the band was named after Fleetwood and McVie, they had signed contracts that showed the band forfeited the rights to the name. During this period, Welch stayed in Los Angeles and connected with entertainment attorneys. Welch quickly realised that the band was unknown to Warner Bros., and that if they wanted to change that, they would have to change their base of operation to Los Angeles. The rest of the band agreed immediately. Rock promoter Bill Graham wrote a letter to Warner Bros. to convince them that the "real" Fleetwood Mac were in fact Fleetwood, Welch and the McVies. While this did not end the legal battle, the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again. Instead of getting another manager, Fleetwood Mac decided to manage themselves. The fake Mac consisted of Elmer Gantry (vocals, guitar), Kirby Gregory (guitar), Paul Martinez (bass), John Wilkinson (keyboards) and Craig Collinge (drums). Gantry and Gregory went on to become members of Stretch, Gantry would later join the Alan Parsons Project and Martinez would eventually become a bassist for Robert Plant's solo efforts. After Warner Bros. made a record deal with the real Fleetwood Mac, the quartet released Heroes Are Hard to Find in September 1974. For the first time in its history, the band only had one guitarist. On the road, they added a second keyboardist. The first was Bobby Hunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch back in 1970. The second was Doug Graves, who was an engineer on Heroes Are Hard To Find. Neither lasted too long. This tour proved to be the last one for Bob Welch. The constant touring had taken its toll on Welch. He felt that he had hit the end of his creative road with the band. While his tenure wasn't a commercial success, Bob Welch provided musical and professional direction to the group, helped the band through three major crises, and left it in a situation where it had a record contract, a direct line to the record company, connections to industry insiders, no pressure from the record company, and a management situation that would help foster creativity. Thus, many feel that Bob Welch had laid the foundations for Fleetwood Mac's future. Moreover, this last tour enabled the Heroes album to reach a higher position on the American charts than any of the band's previous records. Mainstream success (1975–1987) After Welch announced that he was leaving the band, Fleetwood began searching for a possible replacement. While Fleetwood was scouting Van Nuys, California, the house engineer for California's Sound City Studios, Keith Olsen, played him a track titled "Frozen Love" (from Buckingham Nicks, Polydor PD 5058, September 1973), which he had mixed there for an American band, Buckingham Nicks. Fleetwood liked it, and was introduced to the guitarist from the band, Lindsey Buckingham, who coincidentally was at Sound City that day recording some demos. Fleetwood soon asked him to join. Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his musical partner and girlfriend, Stephanie "Stevie" Nicks, also become part of the band; Fleetwood agreed to this. In 1975, the new line-up released the self-titled Fleetwood Mac, which has since informally occasionally become known as the "White Album" due to its cover (not to be confused with The Beatles' White Album). The album proved to be a breakthrough for the band and became a huge hit (reaching #1 in the US). Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's "Over My Head" and "Say You Love Me", and Stevie Nicks' "Rhiannon" and "Landslide" (actually a hit twenty years later on The Dance album) (). But in 1976, with the success of the band also came the end of John and Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham's and Nicks' long term romantic relationship. Even Fleetwood was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife Jenny. Pressure was put on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-up album, which, when combined with its new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions, fuelled by large amounts of drug and alcohol consumption. The album the band members released in 1977 was Rumours, in which the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil experienced at that time. Critically acclaimed, it was the recipient of the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for 1977. Hit singles included Buckingham's "Go Your Own Way", Nicks' "Dreams" (), and Christine McVie's "Don't Stop" and "You Make Loving Fun". Buckingham's "Second Hand News", Nicks' "Gold Dust Woman" and "The Chain" (the only song written by all five bandmates) also received significant radio airplay. By 2003, Rumours had sold over 19 million copies in the U.S. alone (certified as a diamond album by the RIAA), and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, maintaining its status as one of the biggest-selling albums of all time . Buckingham was able to convince Fleetwood to allow his work on their next album to be more experimental and to work on tracks at home, then bring them to the band in the studio. His expanded creative role for the next album was influenced by an appreciation for New Wave music, specifically Gary Numan. The result of this was the quirky double album, Tusk, released in 1979. It spawned three hit singles; Lindsey Buckingham's "Tusk" (U.S. #8), which featured the USC Trojan Marching Band; Christine McVie's "Think About Me" (U.S. #20); and Stevie Nicks' seven minute opus "Sara" (U.S. #7). The last of those three was cut to 4½ minutes for both the hit single and the first CD-release of the album, but the unedited version has since been restored on the 1988 Greatest Hits compilation and the 2004 reissue of Tusk as well as Fleetwood Mac's 2002 release of The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac. Original guitarist Green also took part in the sessions of Tusk, but his playing for the Christine McVie track "Brown Eyes" is not credited on the album. Tusk remains one of Fleetwood Mac's most ambitious albums to date, although selling four million copies worldwide. This, in comparison to the huge sales of Rumours, inclined the label to deem the project a failure, laying the blame squarely with Buckingham himself. Fleetwood, however, blames the album's relative failure on account of a major U.S. radio station playing all 20 tracks in their entirety prior to release thus allowing for home taping. Additionally, Tusk was a double album, which increased its retail price tag in stores compared to that of a single album. In 1986, Camper Van Beethoven recorded their own version of "Tusk" while on holiday from recording the third Camper Van Beethoven album. The recording remained in their personal archives of unreleased material until 2001, when their version of Tusk was released. The band embarked on a huge 18-month tour to support and promote Tusk. They traveled extensively across the world, including the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Germany they shared the bill with reggae superstar Bob Marley. It was on this world tour that the band recorded music for the Fleetwood Mac Live album, which was released at the end of 1980. The next album, 1982's Mirage, following 1981 solo turns by Nicks (Bella Donna) and Buckingham (Law and Order), was a return to the more conventional. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow bandmembers and music business managers for the lesser commercial success enjoyed by Tusk. Recorded at a château in France, Mirage was an attempt to recapture the huge success of Rumours. Its hits included Christine McVie's "Hold Me" and "Love In Store" (each song being co-written by Robbie Patton and Jim Recor, respectively), Stevie Nicks' "Gypsy", and Lindsey Buckingham's "Oh Diane", which made the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham's "Eyes Of The World". Unlike the Tusk Tour, the band only embarked on a short tour of 18 American cities, the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video. It also headlined the first US Festival, for which the band was paid $500,000. Mirage was certified double platinum in the U.S. Following Mirage, the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Stevie Nicks released two more solo albums (1983's The Wild Heart and 1985's Rock a Little), Lindsey Buckingham issued Go Insane in 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made a self-titled album (yielding the Top 10 hit "Got A Hold On Me" and the Top 40 hit "Love Will Show Us How"). All three met with success but it was Nicks who became the most popular. However, also during this period, Mick Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for addiction problems, and John McVie had suffered an addiction-related seizure - all attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success. It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had finally broken up, however Buckingham commented that he was unhappy to allow Mirage to remain as the band's last effort. The Rumours line-up of Fleetwood Mac recorded one more album for the time being, Tango in the Night, in 1987. Initially, like various other Fleetwood Mac albums, the material started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a group project. The album went on to become their best-selling release since Rumours, especially in the UK where it hit no. 1 three times over the following year. The album sold three million copies in the USA and contained four hits: Christine McVie's "Little Lies" and "Everywhere" (the former being co-written with McVie's new husband Eddy Quintela), Sandy Stewart and Stevie Nicks' "Seven Wonders", and Lindsey Buckingham's "Big Love". "Family Man" and "Isn't It Midnight" were also released as singles, with lesser success. The band intended to tour as usual to support the album but Buckingham refused. According to Fleetwood, Buckingham withdrew from Fleetwood Mac following a heated, angry exchange in August 1987. Nicks and Christine McVie have also confirmed the infamous incident taking place during various interviews, including when the band were interviewed for the British music programme Rock Steady screened in March 1990. McVie herself described the incident, which took place in her house, as "ugly", Buckingham allegedly saying to those present, of Stevie Nicks, "get that schizophrenic bitch out of this house". However, years later on a 2001 VH-1 Behind The Music documentary on Lindsey Buckingham, both Fleetwood and Buckingham played down the incident. Broken Chain (1987–1997) Following Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band, Billy Burnette and Rick Vito. Billy was mainly added for his singing and songwriting skills and Rick for his lead guitar abilities. Burnette is the son of Dorsey Burnette and nephew of Johnny Burnette, both of The Rock and Roll Trio. He had already worked with Mick Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, did some session work with Stevie Nicks and even backed Lindsey Buckingham on Saturday Night Live. Furthermore, Fleetwood and Christine McVie played on his Try Me album in 1985. Vito, a Peter Green admirer, played with many artists from Bonnie Raitt to John Mayall, and even worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums. The 1987-88 "Shake The Cage" tour was the first outing for this line-up, and was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video (simply titled "Tango In The Night"), filmed at San Francisco's Cow Palace arena in December 1987. Capitalising on the success of Tango in the Night, the band continued with a "Greatest Hits" album in 1988. It featured singles from the 1975-88 era, and included two new compositions: "No Questions Asked" written by Nicks, and "As Long as You Follow" written by McVie and Quintela, which was released as a single in 1988 but only made #43 in the US and #66 in the UK. It did, however, reached #1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts. The Greatest Hits album, which peaked at #3 in the UK and #14 in the US (though has since sold over 8 million copies there), was dedicated to Buckingham by the band, with whom they had now reconciled. Following the Greatest Hits collection, Fleetwood Mac recorded Behind the Mask. With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure in the band (also evident in his solo works), and ended up with a more adult contemporary style from producer Greg Ladanyi. However, the album yielded only one Top 40 hit, McVie's "Save Me". Behind The Mask only achieved gold album status in the US, peaking at #18 on the Billboard album chart, though it entered the UK album chart at #1. It received mixed reviews, and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Lindsey Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance by playing on the title track). However, Rolling Stone magazine said that Vito and Burnette were "the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac" and the British "Q" Magazine also praised the album in their review. The subsequent "Behind The Mask" tour saw the band play sold out shows at London's Wembley Stadium, and on the final show in Los Angeles, the band were joined onstage by Buckingham. The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie's father died during the tour) though both stated that they would still record with the band. However, in 1991, both Nicks and Rick Vito announced they were leaving Fleetwood Mac altogether. In 1992, Fleetwood himself arranged a 4-disc box set spanning highlights from the band's 25 year history, titled "25 Years - The Chain" (an edited 2-disc set was also available). A notable inclusion in the box set was "Silver Springs", a Stevie Nicks composition that was recorded during the "Rumours" sessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B-side of "Go Your Own Way" instead. Nicks had requested use of the track for her 1991 "Best Of" compilation "TimeSpace", but Fleetwood had refused her request as he had planned to include it in this collection as something of a rarity. The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage, and is believed to be the main catalyst for Nicks leaving the band in 1991. The box set, however, also included a brand new Stevie Nicks/Rick Vito composition, "Paper Doll", which was released in the US as a single. As both members had left the band by this point, the track was presumably a leftover from the Behind The Mask sessions. There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, "Heart of Stone" and "Love Shines", the latter of which was released as a single in the UK and certain other territories. Lindsey Buckingham also contributed a new song, "Make Me a Mask," which bore all the markings of an insular Buckingham studio creation, devoid of input from other band members. Mick Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titled "My 25 Years In Fleetwood Mac". The volume featured many rare photographs and notes (written by Fleetwood himself) detailing the band's 25 year history. Some months after this, the Buckingham/Nicks/McVie/McVie/Fleetwood lineup reunited at the request of U.S. President Bill Clinton for his first Inaugural Ball in 1993. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's "Don't Stop" his campaign theme song. His subsequent request to perform it at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band, however this lineup had no intention to reunite again. Inspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, and Christine McVie recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, with Billy Burnette taking on lead guitar duties. However, just as they made the decision to continue, Billy Burnette announced in March 1993, that he was leaving the band to pursue a country album and an acting career. Bekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Mick Fleetwood's Zoo, was recruited. Solo singer/songwriter/guitarist and Traffic's Dave Mason, who had worked with Bekka's parents Delaney & Bonnie twenty five years earlier, was subsequently added. By March 1994, Billy Burnette, himself a good friend and co-songwriter with Delaney Bramlett, returned with Fleetwood's blessing. The band, minus Christine McVie, toured in 1994, opening for Crosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package with REO Speedwagon and Pat Benatar. The tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs from the initial 1967–1974 era. In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them. On October 10, 1995, Fleetwood Mac released the unsuccessful Time album. Although hitting the UK Top 60 for one week the album had zero impact in the US. It failed even to graze the Billboard Top 200 Albums chart, a stunning reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades. Shortly after the album's release, Christine McVie informed the band that the album was her last. Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed a country music duo, Bekka & Billy. Re-Connected Chain (1997–present) Just weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood announced that he was working with Lindsey Buckingham again. John McVie was soon added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks also enlisted Lindsey Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack. In May 1996, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie and Stevie Nicks made an appearance at a private party in Louisville, Kentucky prior to the Kentucky Derby (with Steve Winwood filling in for Lindsey Buckingham). A week later, the Twister film soundtrack was released, which featured the Stevie Nicks-Lindsey Buckingham duet, "Twisted", with Mick Fleetwood on drums. This eventually led to a full Rumours line-up reunion in the form of a live concert recorded on a Warner Bros. Burbank, California soundstage May 22, which resulted in the 1997 live album The Dance, returning Fleetwood Mac to the top of the US album charts for the first time in 15 years. The album returned Fleetwood Mac to their superstar commercial status that they had not enjoyed since their Tango in the Night album. The album was certified a 5 million seller by the RIAA. A successful arena tour followed the MTV premiere of The Dance, which kept the reunited Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary of their Rumours album. However, this would be the final foray of the classic 1970s lineup with Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham on the Say You Will Tour, 2003 In 1998, Fleetwood Mac (Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks, Lindsey Buckingham, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer and Danny Kirwan) was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and performed at the Grammy Awards program that year. They were also the recipients of the "Outstanding Contribution to Music" award at the BRIT Awards (British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year. In 1998, Christine McVie left the band and returned to the UK to retire from touring (though not from the music business entirely as she created a new album, In The Meantime, in 2004). Her departure left Buckingham and Nicks to sing all the lead vocals for the band's 2003 album, Say You Will, although Christine did contribute some backing vocals and keyboards. The album debuted at #3 on the Billboard 200 chart (#6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with "Peacekeeper" and the title track, and a successful world arena tour lasted through 2004. In interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo album Under the Skin, Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still in the cards. Recording plans have been put on hold for the foreseeable future. In a September 2007 interview Stevie Nicks gave to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, she noted that she is unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returns. Stevie Nicks: a survivor's story - Telegraph However in a recent interview, Mick Fleetwood said "...be very happy and hopeful that we will be working again. I can tell you everyone's going to be extremely excited about what's happening with Fleetwood Mac." The Fleetwood Mac Legacy New Projects 2008-2009 On March 14, 2008, the Associated Press reported that Sheryl Crow said that she will be working with Fleetwood Mac in 2009. Crow and Stevie Nicks collaborated a great deal in the past and she has stated that Nicks has been a great teacher and inspiration for her. In a subsequent interview with Buckingham, he said after discussions between the band and Crow, the potential collaboration with Crow "lost its momentum". On June 9, 2008, The New York Times reported that Irving Azoff is in the process of negotiating a deal with Wal-Mart for Fleetwood Mac's new album. The article states "...And Mr. Azoff said that he was already talking to Wal-Mart about an exclusive deal for Fleetwood Mac’s next release." In a June 2008 interview, Stevie Nicks denied that Sheryl Crow would be joining Fleetwood Mac as a replacement for Christine McVie. According to Stevie Nicks, "the group will start working on material and recording probably in October, and finish an album." http://www.stevie-nicks.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1543&Itemid=242 On October 7, 2008, Mick Fleetwood confirmed on the BBC's The One Show that the band were working in the studio and also announced plans for a world tour in 2009. In late 2008, Fleetwood Mac announced that the band would tour in 2009, beginning in March. As per the 2003-2004 tour, Christine McVie will not be featured in the lineup. The tour is branded as a "greatest hits" show entitled "Unleashed", although they will also play album tracks such as "Storms", "Gold Dust Woman", and "I Know I'm Not Wrong'. The first show was March 1, 2009, and in February they opened a slew of new dates. The tour coincides with a new CD/DVD version of "Rumours" which contains previously unreleased tracks and footage. http://www.pollstar.com/news/viewnews.pl?NewsID=12052 According to Billboard, Mick Fleetwood said during a teleconference with reporters on February 12, 2009 "This is the first time we've gone on the road without an album. This is truly a new experience for Fleetwood Mac to go out and play songs that we believe and hope people are going to be familiar with and love." Stevie Nicks stated that in regards to a new Fleetwood Mac album, "there isn't any plan at this point... for any album. We're going to get through this tour before deciding what to do with an album." Remasters The 1967-69 Blue Horizon albums Fleetwood Mac, Mr. Wonderful, The Pious Bird of Good Omen, Fleetwood Mac in Chicago and 1971 outtakes album The Original Fleetwood Mac have been fully remastered & reissued on CD, as have the 1975-79 Warner Brothers albums Fleetwood Mac, Rumours, and Tusk. Mirage and Tango in the Night are still awaiting the remaster treatment as are the Fleetwood Mac Live, Behind The Mask and Time albums. Discography Personnel + '''Fleetwood Mac personnel (1967) Peter Green - vocals, guitar Jeremy Spencer - vocals, guitar Bob Brunning - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (After McVie refused to join the band, they decided to go on with Brunning, with the understanding if McVie changed his mind, Brunning was out.) (1967-68) Peter Green - vocals, guitar Jeremy Spencer - vocals, guitar John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1968-70) Danny Kirwan - guitar, vocals Peter Green - vocals, guitar Jeremy Spencer - vocals, guitar John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1970) Danny Kirwan - guitar, vocals Jeremy Spencer - vocals, guitar John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1970-71) Danny Kirwan - guitar, vocals Jeremy Spencer - vocals, guitar Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (Peter Green filled in on guitars for the remainder of the tour after Spencer abruptly quit the band.) (1971-72) Bob Welch - vocals, guitar Danny Kirwan - guitar, vocals Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1972-73) Dave Walker - vocals Bob Weston - guitar Bob Welch - vocals, guitar Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1973-74) Bob Weston - guitar Bob Welch - vocals, guitar Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1974) Bob Welch - vocals, guitar Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1975-87) Lindsey Buckingham - guitar, vocals Stevie Nicks - vocals Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1988-92) Rick Vito - guitar, vocals Billy Burnette - guitar, vocals Stevie Nicks - vocals Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums (1993-96) Bekka Bramlett - vocals Dave Mason - guitar, vocals Billy Burnette - guitar, vocals Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums, percussion (1997-98) Stevie Nicks - vocals Lindsey Buckingham - guitar, vocals Christine McVie - keyboard, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums, percussion (1998–present) Stevie Nicks - vocals Lindsey Buckingham - guitar, vocals John McVie - bass Mick Fleetwood - drums, percussion See also Best selling music artists List of bands from England Silver, Murray "When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama," (Bonaventure Books, Savannah, 2005) in which the author recounts his days as a concert promoter in Atlanta, GA., and having brought Fleetwood Mac to town for the very first time in December 1969. References ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Allmusic The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001) External links The Official Fleetwood Mac Site RBMA Radio On Demand - Sound Obsession - Volume 4 - Fleetwood Mac Special - Kirk Degiorgio (The Beauty Room, As One) | Fleetwood_Mac |@lemmatized fleetwood:134 mac:75 british:7 american:6 rock:12 band:132 form:6 experience:3 high:4 turnover:1 personnel:4 varied:1 level:1 success:13 inception:1 end:7 incarnation:1 last:12 long:6 two:14 year:21 member:11 present:4 beginning:1 namesake:1 drummer:2 mick:37 bassist:5 john:35 mcvie:83 despite:2 give:6 part:5 name:9 play:16 first:21 single:18 concert:5 keyboardist:2 christine:47 date:5 appear:2 album:99 either:1 session:6 musician:1 also:28 supply:1 artwork:1 kiln:4 house:7 successful:7 period:6 late:4 blue:12 boom:1 lead:7 guitarist:12 peter:17 green:35 pop:1 orientation:1 feature:12 lindsey:20 buckingham:47 stevie:27 nick:46 enjoy:3 modest:1 intervening:1 line:9 include:9 bob:22 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2,132 | Gegenschein | Gegenschein ( German for "counter shine"), is a faint brightening of the night sky in the region of the antisolar point. Observation The gegenschein is so faint that it cannot be seen if there is any moonlight or light pollution, or if it falls in the vicinity of the Milky Way. The gegenschein appears as a softly glowing oval region a few degrees wide and 10–15° in length, oriented along the plane of the ecliptic. Explanation Like the zodiacal light the gegenschein is sunlight reflected by interplanetary dust. Most of this dust is orbiting the sun in about the ecliptic plane, with a possible concentration of particles at the L3 Earth-Sun Lagrangian point. It is distinguished from zodiacal light by its high angle of reflection of the incident sunlight on the dust particles. It forms a slightly more luminous, oval glow directly opposite the Sun within the band of luminous zodiacal light. The intensity of gegenschein is (relatively) enhanced because each dust particle is seen in full phase. History The gegenschein was first described by the French Jesuit astronomer and professor Esprit Pézenas (1692–1776) in 1730. Further observations were made by the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt during his South American journey from 1799 to 1803. It was also Humboldt who gave the phenomenon its German name Gegenschein. The Danish astronomer Theodor Brorsen published the first thorough investigations of the gegenschein in 1854. He was also the first to observe that the Zodiacal light can embrace the complete sky, because under near-perfect conditions a feeble light bridge connecting the Zodiacal light and the gegenschein can be observed. Besides, Brorsen had already proposed the correct explanation for the gegenschein (interplanetary dust reflections). See also Zodiacal Light Heiligenschein Sylvanshine References External links Astrophotographs of the gegenschein "Zodiacal Light and the Gegenschein", an essay by J. E. Littleton Astronomy Picture of the Day, May 7, 2008 | Gegenschein |@lemmatized gegenschein:12 german:3 counter:1 shine:1 faint:2 brightening:1 night:1 sky:2 region:2 antisolar:1 point:2 observation:2 cannot:1 see:3 moonlight:1 light:9 pollution:1 fall:1 vicinity:1 milky:1 way:1 appear:1 softly:1 glow:2 oval:2 degree:1 wide:1 length:1 orient:1 along:1 plane:2 ecliptic:2 explanation:2 like:1 zodiacal:7 sunlight:2 reflect:1 interplanetary:2 dust:5 orbit:1 sun:3 possible:1 concentration:1 particle:3 earth:1 lagrangian:1 distinguish:1 high:1 angle:1 reflection:2 incident:1 form:1 slightly:1 luminous:2 directly:1 opposite:1 within:1 band:1 intensity:1 relatively:1 enhance:1 full:1 phase:1 history:1 first:3 describe:1 french:1 jesuit:1 astronomer:2 professor:1 esprit:1 pézenas:1 make:1 explorer:1 alexander:1 von:1 humboldt:2 south:1 american:1 journey:1 also:3 give:1 phenomenon:1 name:1 danish:1 theodor:1 brorsen:2 publish:1 thorough:1 investigation:1 observe:2 embrace:1 complete:1 near:1 perfect:1 condition:1 feeble:1 bridge:1 connect:1 besides:1 already:1 propose:1 correct:1 heiligenschein:1 sylvanshine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 astrophotographs:1 essay:1 j:1 e:1 littleton:1 astronomy:1 picture:1 day:1 may:1 |@bigram milky_way:1 zodiacal_light:7 interplanetary_dust:2 von_humboldt:1 external_link:1 |
2,133 | Magnetic_resonance_imaging | Sagittal MR image of the knee Para-sagittal MRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts (nose and forehead in the back of the head) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), is primarily a medical imaging technique most commonly used in radiology to visualize the internal structure and function of the body. MRI provides much greater contrast between the different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. Unlike CT, it uses no ionizing radiation, but uses a powerful magnetic field to align the nuclear magnetization of (usually) hydrogen atoms in water in the body. Radio frequency (RF) fields are used to systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization, causing the hydrogen nuclei to produce a rotating magnetic field detectable by the scanner. This signal can be manipulated by additional magnetic fields to build up enough information to construct an image of the body. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a relatively new technology. The first MR image was published in 1973 and the first study performed on a human took place on July 3, 1977. Filler, AG (209): The history, development, and impact of computed imaging in neurological diagnosis and neurosurgery: CT, MRI, DTI: Nature Precedings DOI:10.1038/npre.2009.3267.2. Howstuffworks "How MRI Works" By comparison, the first human X-ray image was taken in 1895. Magnetic Resonance Imaging was developed from knowledge gained in the study of nuclear magnetic resonance. In its early years the technique was referred to as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). However, as the word nuclear was associated in the public mind with ionizing radiation exposure it is generally now referred to simply as MRI. Scientists still use the term NMRI when discussing non-medical devices operating on the same principles. The term Magnetic Resonance Tomography (MRT) is also sometimes used. How MRI works The body is mainly composed of water molecules which each contain two hydrogen nuclei or protons. When a person goes inside the powerful magnetic field of the scanner these protons align with the direction of the field. A second radio frequency electromagnetic field is then briefly turned on causing the protons to absorb some of its energy. When this field is turned off the protons release this energy at a radio frequency which can be detected by the scanner. The position of protons in the body can be determined by applying additional magnetic fields during the scan which allows an image of the body to be built up. These are created by turning gradients coils on and off which creates the knocking sounds heard during an MR scan. Diseased tissue, such as tumors, can be detected because the protons in different tissues return to their equilibrium state at different rates. By changing the parameters on the scanner this effect is used to create contrast between different types of body tissue. Contrast agents may be injected intravenously to enhance the appearance of blood vessels, tumors or inflammation. Contrast agents may also be directly injected into a joint in the case of arthrograms, MR images of joints. Unlike CT, scanning MRI uses no ionizing radiation and is generally a very safe procedure. Patients with some metal implants, cochlear implants, and cardiac pacemakers are prevented from having an MRI scan due to effects of the strong magnetic field and powerful radio frequency pulses. MRI is used to image every part of the body, and is particularly useful for neurological conditions, for disorders of the muscles and joints, for evaluating tumors, and for showing abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels. Physics principles Nuclear magnetism Modern 3 tesla clinical MRI scanner. Subatomic particles such as protons have the quantum mechanical property of spin. Certain nuclei such as 1H (protons), 2H, 3He, 23Na or 31P, have a non–zero spin and therefore a magnetic moment. In the case of the so-called spin-1/2 nuclei, such as 1H, there are two spin states, sometimes referred to as "up" and "down". Nuclei such as 12C have no unpaired neutrons or protons, and no net spin; however, the isotope 13C (referred to as "carbon 13") does. When these spins are placed in a strong external magnetic field they precess around an axis along the direction of the field. Protons align in two energy "eigenstates" (the "Zeeman effect"): one low-energy and one high-energy, which are separated by a certain splitting energy. Resonance and relaxation In the static magnetic fields commonly used in MRI, the energy difference between the nuclear spin states corresponds to a photon at radio frequency wavelengths. Resonant absorption of energy by the protons due to an external oscillating magnetic field will occur at the Larmor frequency for the particular nucleus. The net magnetization vector has two components. The longitudinal magnetization is due to a tiny excess of protons in the lower energy state. This gives a net polarization parallel to the external field. Application of an RF pulse can destroy (with a so-called 90° pulse) or even reverse (with a so-called 180° pulse) this polarization vector. The transverse magnetization is due to coherences forming between the two proton energy states following an RF pulse typically of 90°. This gives a net polarization perpendicular to the external field in the transverse plane. The recovery of longitudinal magnetization is called longitudinal or relaxation and occurs exponentially with a time constant . The loss of phase coherence in the transverse plane is called transverse or relaxation. is thus associated with the enthalpy of the spin system (the amount of spins in parallel/anti-parallel state) while is associated with its entropy (the amount of spins in phase). When the radio frequency pulse is turned off, the transverse vector component produces an oscillating magnetic field which induces a small current in the receiver coil. This signal is called the free induction decay (FID). In an idealized nuclear magnetic resonance experiment, the FID decays approximately exponentially with a time constant , but in practical MRI small differences in the static magnetic field at different spatial locations ("inhomogeneities") cause the Larmor frequency to vary across the body creating destructive interference which shortens the FID. The time constant for the observed decay of the FID is called the * ("T 2 star") relaxation time, and is always shorter than . Also, when the radio frequency pulse is turned off, the longitudinal magnetization starts to recover exponentially with a time constant . In MRI, the static magnetic field is caused to vary across the body (a field gradient), so that different spatial locations become associated with different precession frequencies. Usually these field gradients are pulsed, and it is the almost infinite variety of RF and gradient pulse sequences that gives MRI its versatility. Application of field gradient destroys the FID signal, but this can be recovered and measured by a refocusing gradient (to create a so-called "gradient echo"), or by a radio frequency pulse (to create a so-called "spin-echo"). The whole process can be repeated when some -relaxation has occurred and the thermal equilibrium of the spins has been more or less restored. Typically in soft tissues is around one second while and * are a few tens of milliseconds, but these values vary widely between different tissues (and different external magnetic fields), giving MRI its tremendous soft tissue contrast. Contrast agents work by altering (shortening) the relaxation parameters, especially . Imaging A number of schemes have been devised for combining field gradients and radio frequency excitation to create an image. One involves 2D or 3D reconstruction from projections, much as in Computed Tomography. Others involve building the image point-by-point or line-by-line. One even uses gradients in the RF field rather than the static field. Although each of these schemes is occasionally used in specialist applications, the majority of MR Images today are created either by the Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform (2DFT) technique with slice selection, or by the Three-Dimensional Fourier Transform (3DFT) technique. Another name for 2DFT is spin-warp. What follows here is a description of the 2DFT technique with slice selection. The 3DFT technique is rather similar except that there is no slice selection and phase-encoding is performed in two separate directions. Another scheme which is sometimes used, especially in brain scanning or where images are needed very rapidly, is called echo-planar imaging (EPI): In this case, each RF excitation is followed by a train of gradient echoes with different spatial encoding. Image contrast and contrast enhancement Image contrast is created by differences in the strength of the NMR signal recovered from different locations within the sample. This depends upon the relative density of excited nuclei (usually water protons), on differences in relaxation times (, and *) of those nuclei after the pulse sequence, and often on other parameters discussed under specialized MR scans. Contrast in most MR images is actually a mixture of all these effects, but careful design of the imaging pulse sequence allows one contrast mechanism to be emphasized while the others are minimized. The ability to choose different contrast mechanisms gives MRI tremendous flexibility. In the brain, -weighting causes the nerve connections of white matter to appear white, and the congregations of neurons of gray matter to appear gray, while cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) appears dark. The contrast of white matter, gray matter and cerebrospinal fluid is reversed using or * imaging, whereas proton-density-weighted imaging provides little contrast in healthy subjects. Additionally, functional parameters such as cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV) or blood oxygenation can affect , and * and so can be encoded with suitable pulse sequences. In some situations it is not possible to generate enough image contrast to adequately show the anatomy or pathology of interest by adjusting the imaging parameters alone, in which case a contrast agent may be administered. This can be as simple as water, taken orally, for imaging the stomach and small bowel. However, most contrast agents used in MRI are selected for their specific magnetic properties. Most commonly, a paramagnetic contrast agent (usually a gadolinium compound ) is given. Gadolinium-enhanced tissues and fluids appear extremely bright on -weighted images. This provides high sensitivity for detection of vascular tissues (e.g., tumors) and permits assessment of brain perfusion (e.g., in stroke). There have been concerns raised recently regarding the toxicity of gadolinium-based contrast agents and their impact on persons with impaired kidney function. The American College of Radiology released screening criteria for patients intended to be given gadolinium-based contrast agents to identify potential risk factors for negative reactions. Special actions may be taken, such as hemodialysis following a contrast MRI scan for renally-impaired patients. More recently, superparamagnetic contrast agents, e.g., iron oxide nanoparticles , have become available. These agents appear very dark on *-weighted images and may be used for liver imaging, as normal liver tissue retains the agent, but abnormal areas (e.g., scars, tumors) do not. They can also be taken orally, to improve visualization of the gastrointestinal tract, and to prevent water in the gastrointestinal tract from obscuring other organs (e.g., the pancreas). Diamagnetic agents such as barium sulfate have also been studied for potential use in the gastrointestinal tract, but are less frequently used. K-space In 1983 Ljunggren and Tweig independently introduced the k-space formalism, a technique that proved invaluable in unifying different MR imaging techniques. They showed that the demodulated MR signal generated by freely precessing nuclear spins in the presence of a linear magnetic field gradient equals the Fourier transform of the effective spin density, i.e. where: In other words, as time progresses the signal traces out a trajectory in k-space with the velocity vector of the trajectory proportional to the vector of the applied magnetic field gradient. By the term effective spin density we mean the true spin density corrected for the effects of preparation, decay, dephasing due to field inhomogeneity, flow, diffusion, etc. and any other phenomena that affect that amount of transverse magnetization available to induce signal in the RF probe. From the basic k-space formula, it follows immediately that we reconstruct an image simply by taking the inverse Fourier transform of the sampled data, viz. Using the k-space formalism, a number of seemingly complex ideas became simple. For example, it becomes very easy to understand the role of phase encoding (the so-called spin-warp method). In a standard spin echo or gradient echo scan, where the readout (or view) gradient is constant (e.g. ), a single line of k-space is scanned per RF excitation. When the phase encoding gradient is zero, the line scanned is the axis. When a non-zero phase-encoding pulse is added in between the RF excitation and the commencement of the readout gradient, this line moves up or down in k-space, i.e., we scan the line =constant. The k-space formalism also makes it very easy to compare different scanning techniques. In single-shot EPI, all of k-space is scanned in a single shot, following either a sinusoidal or zig-zag trajectory. Since alternating lines of k-space are scanned in opposite directions, this must be taken into account in the reconstruction. Multi-shot EPI and fast spin echo techniques acquire only part of k-space per excitation. In each shot, a different interleaved segment is acquired, and the shots are repeated until k-space is sufficiently well-covered. Since the data at the center of k-space represent lower spatial frequencies than the data at the edges of k-space, the value for the center of k-space determines the image's contrast. The importance of the center of k-space in determining image contrast can be exploited in more advanced imaging techniques. One such technique is spiral acquisition - a rotating magnetic field gradient is applied, causing the trajectory in k-space to spiral out from the center to the edge. Due to and * decay the signal is greatest at the start of the acquisition, hence acquiring the center of k-space first improves contrast to noise ratio (CNR) when compared to conventional zig-zag acquisitions, especially in the presence of rapid movement. Since and are conjugate variables (with respect to the Fourier transform) we can use the Nyquist theorem to show that the step in k-space determines the field of view of the image (maximum frequency that is correctly sampled) and the maximum value of k sampled determines the resolution, i.e. (these relationships apply to each axis [X, Y, and Z] independently). Example of a pulse sequence Simplified timing diagram for two-dimensional-Fourier-transform (2DFT) Spin Echo (SE) pulse sequence In the timing diagram, the horizontal axis represents time. The vertical axis represents: (top row) amplitude of radio frequency pulses; (middle rows) amplitudes of the three orthogonal magnetic field gradient pulses; and (bottom row) receiver analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Radio frequencies are transmitted at the Larmor frequency of the nuclide to be imaged. For example, for 1H in a magnetic field of 1T, a frequency of 42.5781 MHz would be employed. The three field gradients are labeled GX (typically corresponding to a patient's Left-to-Right direction and colored red in diagram), GY (typically corresponding to a patient's Front-to-Back direction and colored green in diagram), and GZ (typically corresponding to a patient's Head-to-Toe direction and colored blue in diagram). Where negative-going gradient pulses are shown, they represent reversal of the gradient direction, i.e., Right-to-Left, Back-to-Front or Toe-to-Head. For human scanning, gradient strengths of 1-100 mT/m are employed: Higher gradient strengths permit better resolution and faster imaging. The pulse sequence shown here would produce a transverse (axial) image. The first part of the pulse sequence, SS, achieves Slice Selection. A shaped pulse (shown here with a sinc modulation) causes a 90° (π/2 radian) nutation of longitudinal nuclear magnetization within a slab, or slice, creating transverse magnetization. The second part of the pulse sequence, PE, imparts a phase shift upon the slice-selected nuclear magnetization, varying with its location in the Y direction. The third part of the pulse sequence, another Slice Selection (of the same slice) uses another shaped pulse to cause a 180° (π radian) rotation of transverse nuclear magnetization within the slice. This transverse magnetisation refocuses to form a spin echo at a time TE. During the spin echo, a frequency-encoding (FE) or readout gradient is applied, making the resonant frequency of the nuclear magnetization vary with its location in the X direction. The signal is sampled nFE times by the ADC during this period, as represented by the vertical lines. Typically nFE of between 128 and 512 samples are taken. The longitudinal relaxation is then allowed to recover somewhat and after a time TR the whole sequence is repeated nPE times, but with the phase-encoding gradient incremented (indicated by the horizontal hatching in the green gradient block). Typically nPE of between 128 and 512 repetitions are made. The negative-going lobes in GX and GZ are imposed to ensure that, at time TE (the spin echo maximum), phase only encodes spatial location in the Y direction. Typically TE is between 5 ms and 100 ms, while TR is between 100 ms and 2000 ms. After the two-dimensional matrix (typical dimension between 128x128 and 512x512) has been acquired, producing the so-called K-space data, a two-dimensional Fourier transform is performed to provide the familiar MR image. Either the magnitude or phase of the Fourier transform can be taken, the former being far more common. Scanner construction and operation Schematic of construction of a cylindrical superconducting MR scanner The three systems described above form the major components of an MRI scanner: A static magnetic field, an RF transmitter and receiver, and three orthogonal, controllable magnetic gradients. Magnet The magnet is the largest and most expensive component of the scanner, and the remainder of the scanner is built around it. The strength of the magnet is measured in tesla (T). Clinical magnets generally have a field strength in the range 0.1—3.0 T, with research systems available up to 9.4 T for human use and 21 T for animal systems In vivo MR Imaging at 21.1 T . Just as important as the strength of the main magnet is its precision. The straightness of the magnetic lines within the center (or, as it is technically known, the iso-center) of the magnet needs to be near-perfect. This is known as homogeneity. Fluctuations (inhomogeneities in the field strength) within the scan region should be less than three parts per million (3 ppm). Three types of magnets have been used: Permanent magnet: Conventional magnets made from ferromagnetic materials (e.g., steel alloys containing rare earth elements such as neodymium) can be used to provide the static magnetic field. A permanent magnet that is powerful enough to be used in an MRI will be extremely large and bulky; they can weigh over 100 tonnes. Permanent magnet MRIs are very inexpensive to maintain; this cannot be said of the other types of MRI magnets, but there are significant drawbacks to using permanent magnets. They are only capable of achieving weak field strengths compared to other MRI magnets (usually less than 0.4 T) and they are of limited precision and stability. Permanent magnets also present special safety issues; since their magnetic fields cannot be "turned off," ferromagnetic objects are virtually impossible to remove from them once they come into direct contact. Permanent magnets also require special care when they are being brought to their site of installation. Resistive electromagnet: A solenoid wound from copper wire is an alternative to a permanent magnet. An advantage is low initial cost, but field strength and stability are limited. The electromagnet requires considerable electrical energy during operation which can make it expensive to operate. This design is essentially obsolete. Superconducting electromagnet: When a niobium-titanium or niobium-tin alloy is cooled by liquid helium to 4K (−269°C, −452°F) it becomes a superconductor, losing resistance to flow of electrical current. An electromagnet constructed with superconductors can have extremely high field strengths, with very high stability. The construction of such magnets is extremely costly, and the cryogenic helium is expensive and difficult to handle. However, despite their cost, helium cooled superconducting magnets are the most common type found in MRI scanners today. Most superconducting magnets have their coils of superconductive wire immersed in liquid helium, inside a vessel called a cryostat. Despite thermal insulation, ambient heat causes the helium to slowly boil off. Such magnets, therefore, require regular topping-up with liquid helium. Generally a cryocooler, also known as a coldhead, is used to recondense some helium vapor back into the liquid helium bath. Several manufacturers now offer 'cryogenless' scanners, where instead of being immersed in liquid helium the magnet wire is cooled directly by a cryocooler. Magnets are available in a variety of shapes. However, permanent magnets are most frequently 'C' shaped, and superconducting magnets most frequently cylindrical. However, C-shaped superconducting magnets and box-shaped permanent magnets have also been used. Magnetic field strength is an important factor in determining image quality. Higher magnetic fields increase signal-to-noise ratio, permitting higher resolution or faster scanning. However, higher field strengths require more costly magnets with higher maintenance costs, and have increased safety concerns. A field strength of 1.0 - 1.5 T is a good compromise between cost and performance for general medical use. However, for certain specialist uses (e.g., brain imaging) higher field strengths are desirable, with some hospitals now using 3.0 T scanners. Radio frequency system The radio frequency (RF) transmission system consists of an RF synthesizer, power amplifier and transmitting coil. This is usually built into the body of the scanner. The power of the transmitter is variable, but high-end scanners may have a peak output power of up to 35 kW, and be capable of sustaining average power of 1 kW. The receiver consists of the coil, pre-amplifier and signal processing system. While it is possible to scan using the integrated coil for RF transmission and MR signal reception, if a small region is being imaged, then better image quality (i.e., signal-to-noise ratio) is obtained by using a close-fitting smaller coil. A variety of coils are available which fit closely around parts of the body, e.g., the head, knee, wrist, breast, or internally, e.g., the rectum. A recent development in MRI technology has been the development of sophisticated multi-element phased array coils which are capable of acquiring multiple channels of data in parallel. This 'parallel imaging' technique uses unique acquisition schemes that allow for accelerated imaging, by replacing some of the spatial coding originating from the magnetic gradients with the spatial sensitivity of the different coil elements. However, the increased acceleration also reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and can create residual artifacts in the image reconstruction. Two frequently used parallel acquisition and reconstruction schemes are known as SENSE and GRAPPA. A detailed review of parallel imaging techniques can be found here: http://cfmriweb.ucsd.edu/ttliu/be280a_05/blaimer05.pdf Gradients Gradient coils are used to spatially encode the positions of protons by varying the magnetic field linearly across the imaging volume. The Larmor frequency will then vary as a function of position in the x, y and z-axes. Gradient coils are usually resistive electromagnets powered by sophisticated amplifiers which permit rapid and precise adjustments to their field strength and direction. Typical gradient systems are capable of producing gradients from 20 mT/m to 100 mT/m (i.e., in a 1.5 T magnet, when a maximal z-axis gradient is applied, the field strength may be 1.45 T at one end of a 1 m long bore and 1.55 T at the other . This unrealistically assumes that the gradient is linear out to the end of the magnet bore. While this assumption is fine for pedagogical purposes, in most commercial MRI systems the gradient droops significantly after a much smaller distance; indeed, the decease in the gradient field is the main delimiter of the useful field of view of a modern commercial MRI system. ). It is the magnetic gradients that determine the plane of imaging - because the orthogonal gradients can be combined freely, any plane can be selected for imaging. Scan speed is dependent on performance of the gradient system. Stronger gradients allow for faster imaging, or for higher resolution; similarly, gradients systems capable of faster switching can also permit faster scanning. However, gradient performance is limited by safety concerns over nerve stimulation. Some important characteristic of gradient amplifiers and gradient coil are slew rate and gradient strength. As mentioned earlier, a gradient coil will create an additional, linearly varying magnetic field that adds or subtracts from the main magnetic field. This additional magnetic field will have components in all 3 directions, viz. X, Y and Z; however, only the component along the magnetic field (usually called the Z-axis, hence denoted ) is useful for imaging. Along any given axis, the gradient will add to the magnetic field on one side of the zero position and subtract from it on the other side. Since the additional field is a gradient, it has units of gauss per cm or millitesla (mT) per meter. High performance gradient coils used in MRI are typically capable of producing a gradient magnetic field of approximate 30 mT per meter or higher for a 1.5 T MRI. The slew rate of a gradient system is a measure of how quickly the gradients can be ramped on or off. Typical higher performance gradients have a slew rate of up to 100-200 tesla per meter per second. The slew rate depends both on the gradient coil (it takes more time to ramp up or down a large coil than a small coil) and on the performance of the gradient amplifier (it takes a lot of voltage to overcome the inductance of the coil) and has adequate influence on image quality. Applications In clinical practice, MRI is used to distinguish pathologic tissue (such as a brain tumor) from normal tissue. One advantage of an MRI scan is that it is harmless to the patient. It uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiation in the radio frequency range. Compare this to CT scans and traditional X-rays which involve doses of ionizing radiation and may increase the risk of malignancy, especially in a fetus. While CT provides good spatial resolution (the ability to distinguish two structures an arbitrarily small distance from each other as separate), MRI provides comparable resolution with far better contrast resolution (the ability to distinguish the differences between two arbitrarily similar but not identical tissues). The basis of this ability is the complex library of pulse sequences that the modern medical MRI scanner includes, each of which is optimized to provide image contrast based on the chemical sensitivity of MRI. For example, with particular values of the echo time (TE) and the repetition time (TR), which are basic parameters of image acquisition, a sequence will take on the property of -weighting. On a -weighted scan, water- and fluid-containing tissues are bright (most modern sequences are actually fast sequences) and fat-containing tissues are dark. The reverse is true for -weighted images. Damaged tissue tends to develop edema, which makes a -weighted sequence sensitive for pathology, and generally able to distinguish pathologic tissue from normal tissue. With the addition of an additional radio frequency pulse and additional manipulation of the magnetic gradients, a -weighted sequence can be converted to a FLAIR sequence, in which free water is now dark, but edematous tissues remain bright. This sequence in particular is currently the most sensitive way to evaluate the brain for demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. The typical MRI examination consists of 5-20 sequences, each of which are chosen to provide a particular type of information about the subject tissues. This information is then synthesized by the interpreting physician. Basic MRI scans -weighted MRI -weighted scans use a gradient echo (GRE) sequence, with short TE and short TR. This is one of the basic types of MR contrast and is a commonly run clinical scan. The weighting can be increased (improving contrast) with the use of an inversion pulse as in an MP-RAGE sequence. Due to the short repetition time (TR) this scan can be run very fast allowing the collection of high resolution 3D datasets. A reducing gadolinium contrast agent is also commonly used, with a scan being collected before and after administration of contrast agent to compare the difference. In the brain -weighted scans provide good gray matter/white matter contrast. -weighted MRI -weighted scans use a spin echo (SE) sequence, with long TE and long TR. They have long been the clinical workhorse as the spin echo sequence is less susceptible to inhomogeneities in the magnetic field. They are particularly well suited to edema as they are sensitive to water content (edema is characterized by increased water content). *-weighted MRI * (pronounced "T 2 star") weighted scans use a gradient echo (GRE) sequence, with long TE and long TR. The gradient echo sequence used does not have the extra refocusing pulse used in spin echo so it is subject to additional losses above the normal decay (referred to as '), these taken together are called *. This also makes it more prone to susceptibility losses at air/tissue boundaries, but can increase contrast for certain types of tissue, such as venous blood. Spin density weighted MRI Spin density, also called proton density, weighted scans try to have no contrast from either or decay, the only signal change coming from differences in the amount of available spins. It uses a spin echo or sometimes a gradient echo sequence, with short TE and long TR. Specialized MRI scans Diffusion MRI Diffusion MRI measures the diffusion of water molecules in biological tissues. In an isotropic medium (inside a glass of water for example) water molecules naturally move randomly according to Brownian motion. In biological tissues however, the diffusion may be anisotropic. For example a molecule inside the axon of a neuron has a low probability of crossing the myelin membrane. Therefore the molecule will move principally along the axis of the neural fiber. If we know that molecules in a particular voxel diffuse principally in one direction we can make the assumption that the majority of the fibers in this area are going parallel to that direction. The recent development of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) enables diffusion to be measured in multiple directions and the fractional anisotropy in each direction to be calculated for each voxel. This enables researchers to make brain maps of fiber directions to examine the connectivity of different regions in the brain (using tractography) or to examine areas of neural degeneration and demyelination in diseases like Multiple Sclerosis. Another application of diffusion MRI is diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). Following an ischemic stroke, DWI is highly sensitive to the changes occurring in the lesion. It is speculated that increases in restriction (barriers) to water diffusion, as a result of cytotoxic edema (cellular swelling), is responsible for the increase in signal on a DWI scan. The DWI enhancement appears within 5–10 minutes of the onset of stroke symptoms (as compared with computed tomography, which often does not detect changes of acute infarct for up to 4–6 hours) and remains for up to two weeks. Coupled with imaging of cerebral perfusion, researchers can highlight regions of "perfusion/diffusion mismatch" that may indicate regions capable of salvage by reperfusion therapy. Like many other specialized applications, this technique is usually coupled with a fast image acquisition sequence, such as echo planar imaging sequence. Magnetization Transfer MRI Magnetization transfer (MT) refers to the transfer of longitudinal magnetization from free water protons to hydration water protons in NMR and MRI. In magnetic resonance imaging of molecular solutions, such as protein solutions, two types of water molecules, free (bulk) and hydration, are found. Free water protons have faster average rotational frequency and hence less fixed water molecules that may cause local field inhomogeneity. Because of this uniformity, most free water protons have resonance frequency lying narrowly around the normal proton resonance frequency of 63 MHz (at 1.5 tesla). This also results in slower transverse magnetization dephasing and hence longer . Conversely, hydration water molecules are slowed down by interaction with solute molecules and hence create field inhomogeneities that lead to wider resonance frequency spectrum. Fluid attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR) , is an inversion-recovery pulse sequence used to null signal from fluids. For example, it can be used in brain imaging to suppress Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) so as to bring out the periventricular hyperintense lesions, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) plaques. By carefully choosing the inversion time TI (the time between the inversion and excitation pulses), signal from any particular tissue can be suppressed. Magnetic resonance angiography Magnetic Resonance Angiography Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is used to generate pictures of the arteries in order to evaluate them for stenosis (abnormal narrowing) or aneurysms (vessel wall dilatations, at risk of rupture). MRA is often used to evaluate the arteries of the neck and brain, the thoracic and abdominal aorta, the renal arteries, and the legs (called a "run-off"). A variety of techniques can be used to generate the pictures, such as administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent (gadolinium) or using a technique known as "flow-related enhancement" (e.g. 2D and 3D time-of-flight sequences), where most of the signal on an image is due to blood which has recently moved into that plane, see also FLASH MRI. Techniques involving phase accumulation (known as phase contrast angiography) can also be used to generate flow velocity maps easily and accurately. Magnetic resonance venography (MRV) is a similar procedure that is used to image veins. In this method the tissue is now excited inferiorly while signal is gathered in the plane immediately superior to the excitation plane, and thus imaging the venous blood which has recently moved from the excited plane. Magnetic Resonance Gated Intracranial CSF Dynamics (MR-GILD) Magnetic resonance gated intracranial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)or liquor dynamics (MR-GILD) technique is an MR sequence based on bipolar gradient pulse used to demonstrate CSF pulsatile flow in ventricles, cisterns, aqueduct of Sylvius and entire intracranial CSF pathway. It is a method for analyzing CSF circulatory system dynamics in patients with CSF obstructive lesions such as normal pressure hydrocephalus. It also allows visualization of both arterial and venous pulsatile blood flow in vessels without use of contrast agents. . Diastolic time data acquisition (DTDA). Systolic time data acquisition (STDA). Magnetic resonance spectroscopy Magnetic resonance spectroscopy is used to measure the levels of different metabolites in body tissues. The MR signal produces a spectrum of resonances that correspond to different molecular arrangements of the isotope being "excited". This signature is used to diagnose certain metabolic disorders, especially those affecting the brain, . as well as to provide information on tumor metabolism. Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) combines both spectroscopic and imaging methods to produce spatially localized spectra from within the sample or patient. The spatial resolution is much lower (limited by the available SNR), but the spectra in each voxel contains information about many metabolites. Because the available signal is used to encode spatial and spectral information, MRSI requires high SNR achievable only at higher field strengths (1.5T and above). Functional MRI A fMRI scan showing regions of activation in orange, including the primary visual cortex (V1, BA17). Functional MRI (fMRI) measures signal changes in the brain that are due to changing neural activity. The brain is scanned at low resolution but at a rapid rate (typically once every 2–3 seconds). Increases in neural activity cause changes in the MR signal via * changes; this mechanism is referred to as the BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) effect. Increased neural activity causes an increased demand for oxygen, and the vascular system actually overcompensates for this, increasing the amount of oxygenated hemoglobin relative to deoxygenated hemoglobin. Because deoxygenated hemoglobin attenuates the MR signal, the vascular response leads to a signal increase that is related to the neural activity. The precise nature of the relationship between neural activity and the BOLD signal is a subject of current research. The BOLD effect also allows for the generation of high resolution 3D maps of the venous vasculature within neural tissue. While BOLD signal is the most common method employed for neuroscience studies in human subjects, the flexible nature of MR imaging provides means to sensitize the signal to other aspects of the blood supply. Alternative techniques employ arterial spin labeling (ASL) or weight the MRI signal by cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral blood volume (CBV). The CBV method requires injection of a class of MRI contrast agents that are now in human clinical trials. Because this method has been shown to be far more sensitive than the BOLD technique in preclinical studies, it may potentially expand the role of fMRI in clinical applications. The CBF method provides more quantitative information than the BOLD signal, albeit at a significant loss of detection sensitivity. Interventional MRI The lack of harmful effects on the patient and the operator make MRI well-suited for "interventional radiology", where the images produced by a MRI scanner are used to guide minimally-invasive procedures. Of course, such procedures must be done without any ferromagnetic instruments. A specialized growing subset of interventional MRI is that of intraoperative MRI in which the MRI is used in the surgical process. Some specialized MRI systems have been developed that allow imaging concurrent with the surgical procedure. More typical, however, is that the surgical procedure is temporarily interrupted so that MR images can be acquired to verify the success of the procedure or guide subsequent surgical work. Radiation therapy simulation Because of MRI's superior imaging of soft tissues, it is now being utilized to specifically locate tumors within the body in preparation for radiation therapy treatments. For therapy simulation, a patient is placed in specific, reproducible, body position and scanned. The MRI system then computes the precise location, shape and orientation of the tumor mass, correcting for any spatial distortion inherent in the system. The patient is then marked or tattooed with points which, when combined with the specific body position, will permit precise triangulation for radiation therapy. Current density imaging Current density imaging (CDI) endeavors to use the phase information from images to reconstruct current densities within a subject. Current density imaging works because electrical currents generate magnetic fields, which in turn affect the phase of the magnetic dipoles during an imaging sequence. To date no successful CDI has been performed using biological currents, but several studies have been published which involve applied currents through a pair of electrodes. Magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound In MRgFUS therapy, ultrasound beams are focused on a tissue - guided and controlled using MR thermal imaging - and due to the significant energy deposition at the focus, temperature within the tissue rises to more than 65°C, completely destroying it. This technology can achieve precise "ablation" of diseased tissue. MR imaging provides a three-dimensional view of the target tissue, allowing for precise focusing of ultrasound energy. The MR imaging provides quantitative, real-time, thermal images of the treated area. This allows the physician to ensure that the temperature generated during each cycle of ultrasound energy is sufficient to cause thermal ablation within the desired tissue and if not, to adapt the parameters to ensure effective treatment. Multinuclear imaging Hydrogen is the most frequently imaged nucleus in MRI because it is present in biological tissues in great abundance. However, any nucleus which has a net nuclear spin could potentially be imaged with MRI. Such nuclei include helium-3, carbon-13, fluorine-19, oxygen-17, sodium-23, phosphorus-31 and xenon-129. 23Na and 31P are naturally abundant in the body, so can be imaged directly. Gaseous isotopes such as ³He or 129Xe must be hyperpolarized and then inhaled as their nuclear density is too low to yield a useful signal under normal conditions. 17O, 13C and 19F can be administered in sufficient quantities in liquid form (e.g. 17O-water, 13C-glucose solutions or perfluorocarbons) that hyperpolarization is not a necessity. Multinuclear imaging is primarily a research technique at present. However, potential applications include functional imaging and imaging of organs poorly seen on 1H MRI (e.g. lungs and bones) or as alternative contrast agents. Inhaled hyperpolarized ³He can be used to image the distribution of air spaces within the lungs. Injectable solutions containing 13C or stabilized bubbles of hyperpolarized 129Xe have been studied as contrast agents for angiography and perfusion imaging. 31P can potentially provide information on bone density and structure, as well as functional imaging of the brain. Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) Susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI), is a new type of contrast in MRI different from spin density, , or imaging. This method exploits the susceptibility differences between tissues and uses a fully velocity compensated, three dimensional, RF spoiled, high-resolution, 3D gradient echo scan. This special data acquisition and image processing produces an enhanced contrast magnitude image very sensitive to venous blood, hemorrhage and iron storage. It is used to enhance the detection and diagnosis of tumors, vascular and neurovascular diseases (stroke and hemorrhage, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's), and also detects traumatic brain injuries that may not be diagnosed using other methods. More than twenty-eight publications, available at http://www.mrimaging.com Other specialized MRI techniques MRI is a new and active field of research and new methods and variants are often published when they are able to get better results in specific fields. Examples of these recent improvements are *-weighted turbo spin-echo ( TSE MRI), Double inversion recovery MRI (DIR-MRI) or Phase-sensitive inversion recovery MRI (PSIR-MRI), all of them able to improve imaging of the brain lesions . Another example is MP-RAGE (magnetization-prepared rapid acquisition with gradient echo) , which improves images of multiple sclerosis cortical lesions . Portable instruments Portable magnetic resonance instruments are available for use in education and field research. Using the principles of Earth's field NMR, they have no powerful polarizing magnet, so that such instruments can be small and relatively inexpensive. Some can be used for both EFNMR spectroscopy and MRI imaging Terranova-MRI Earth's Field MRI teaching system . The low strength of the Earth's field results in poor signal to noise ratios, requiring relatively long scan times to capture spectroscopic data or build up MRI images. Research with atomic magnetometers have discussed the possibility for cheap and portable MRI instruments without the large magnet. Blog comment: MRI versus CT A computed tomography (CT) scanner uses X-rays, a type of ionizing radiation, to acquire its images, making it a good tool for examining tissue composed of elements of a higher atomic number than the tissue surrounding them, such as bone and calcifications (calcium based) within the body (carbon based flesh), or of structures (vessels, bowel). MRI, on the other hand, uses non-ionizing radio frequency (RF) signals to acquire its images and is best suited for non-calcified tissue, though MR images can also be acquired from bones and teeth as well as fossils. CT may be enhanced by use of contrast agents containing elements of a higher atomic number than the surrounding flesh such as iodine or barium. Contrast agents for MRI are those which have paramagnetic properties, e.g. gadolinium and manganese. Both CT and MRI scanners can generate multiple two-dimensional cross-sections (slices) of tissue and three-dimensional reconstructions. Unlike CT, which uses only X-ray attenuation to generate image contrast, MRI has a long list of properties that may be used to generate image contrast. By variation of scanning parameters, tissue contrast can be altered and enhanced in various ways to detect different features. (See Applications above.) MRI can generate cross-sectional images in any plane (including oblique planes). In the past, CT was limited to acquiring images in the axial (or near axial) plane. The scans used to be called Computed Axial Tomography scans (CAT scans). However, the development of multi-detector CT scanners with near-isotropic resolution, allows the CT scanner to produce data that can be retrospectively reconstructed in any plane with minimal loss of image quality. For purposes of tumor detection and identification in the brain, MRI is generally superior. However, in the case of solid tumors of the abdomen and chest, CT is often preferred due to less motion artifact. Furthermore, CT usually is more widely available, faster, much less expensive, and may be less likely to require the person to be sedated or anesthetized. MRI is also best suited for cases when a patient is to undergo the exam several times successively in the short term, because, unlike CT, it does not expose the patient to the hazards of ionizing radiation. Economics of MRI MRI equipment is expensive. 1.5 tesla scanners often cost between $1 million and $1.5 million USD. 3.0 tesla scanners often cost between $2 million and $2.3 million USD. Construction of MRI suites can cost up to $500,000 USD, or more, depending on project scope. MRI scanners have been significant sources of revenue for healthcare providers in the US. This is because of favorable reimbursement rates from insurers and federal government programs. Insurance reimbursement is provided in two components, an equipment charge for the actual performance of the MRI scan and professional charge for the radiologist's review of the images and/or data. In the US Northeast, an equipment charge might be $3,500 and a professional charge might be $350. Stamford Hospital price quotation October 2008, Stamford CT US Some insurance companies require preapproval of an MRI procedure as a condition for coverage. In the US, the 2007 Deficit Reduction Act (DRA) significantly reduced reimbursement rates paid by federal insurance programs for the equipment component of many scans, shifting the economic landscape. Many private insurers have followed suit. Safety Implants and foreign bodies Pacemakers are generally considered an absolute contraindication towards MRI scanning, though highly specialized protocols have been developed to permit scanning of select pacing devices. Several cases of arrhythmia or death have been reported in patients with pacemakers who have undergone MRI scanning without appropriate precautions. Notably, the Medtronic company has received FDA approval for the first-ever clinical trial for a MR-Conditional pacemaker device, which has already received regulatory approval in Europe. Other electronic implants have varying contraindications, depending upon scanner technology, and implant properties, scanning protocols and anatomy being imaged. Many other forms of medical or biostimulation implants may be contraindicated for MRI scans. These may include vagus nerve stimulators, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators, loop recorders, insulin pumps, cochlear implants, deep brain stimulators, and many others. Medical device patients should always present complete information (manufacturer, model, serial number and date of implantation) about all implants to both the referring physician and to the radiologist or technologist before entering the room for the MRI scan. While these implants pose a current problem, scientists and manufacturers are working on improved designs which will further minimize the risks that MRI scans pose to medical device operations. One such development in the works is a nano-coating for implants intended to screen them from the radio frequency waves, helping to make MRI exams available to patients currently prohibited from receiving them. The current article for this is from New Scientist. Ferromagnetic foreign bodies (e.g. shell fragments), or metallic implants (e.g. surgical prostheses, aneurysm clips) are also potential risks, and safety aspects need to be considered on an individual basis. Interaction of the magnetic and radio frequency fields with such objects can lead to trauma due to movement of the object in the magnetic field, thermal injury from radio-frequency induction heating of the object, or failure of an implanted device. These issues are especially problematic when dealing with the eye. Most MRI centers require an orbital x-ray to be performed on anyone suspected of having metal fragments in their eyes, something not uncommon in metalworking. Because of its non-ferromagnetic nature and poor electrical conductivity, titanium and its alloys are useful for long term implants and surgical instruments intended for use in image-guided surgery. In particular, not only is titanium safe from movement from the magnetic field, but artifacts around the implant are less frequent and less severe than with more ferromagnetic materials e.g. stainless steel. Artifacts from metal frequently appear as regions of empty space around the implant - frequently called 'black-hole artifact' e.g. a 3mm titanium alloy coronary stent may appear as a 5mm diameter region of empty space on MRI, whereas around a stainless steel stent, the artifact may extend for 10-20 mm or more. In 2006, a new classification system for implants and ancillary clinical devices has been developed by ASTM International and is now the standard supported by the US Food and Drug Administration: MR Safe sign MR-Safe — The device or implant is completely non-magnetic, non-electrically conductive, and non-RF reactive, eliminating all of the primary potential threats during an MRI procedure. MR Conditional sign MR-Conditional — A device or implant that may contain magnetic, electrically conductive or RF-reactive components that is safe for operations in proximity to the MRI, provided the conditions for safe operation are defined and observed (such as 'tested safe to 1.5 teslas' or 'safe in magnetic fields below 500 gauss in strength'). MR Unsafe sign MR-Unsafe — Nearly self-explanatory, this category is reserved for objects that are significantly ferromagnetic and pose a clear and direct threat to persons and equipment within the magnet room. Though the current classification system was originally developed for regulatory-approved medical devices, it is being applied to all manner of items, appliances and equipment intended for use in the MR environment. In the case of pacemakers, the risk is thought to be primarily RF induction in the pacing electrodes/wires causing inappropriate pacing of the heart, rather than the magnetic field affecting the pacemaker itself. Much research and development is being undertaken, and many tools are being developed in order to predict the effects of the RF fields inside the body. Patients who have been prescribed MRI exams who are concerned about safety may be interested in the 10 Questions To Ask Your MRI Provider. MRI providers who wish to measure the degree to which they have effectively addressed the safety issues for patients and staff may be interested in the MRI Suite Safety Calculator provided through a radiology website. Projectile or missile effect As a result of the very high strength of the magnetic field needed to produce scans (frequently up to 60,000 times the earth's own magnetic field effects), there are several incidental safety issues addressed in MRI facilities. Missile-effect accidents, where ferromagnetic objects are attracted to the center of the magnet, have resulted in injury and death. Randal C. Archibold, "Hospital Details Failures Leading to M.R.I. Fatality", The New York Times, August 22, 2001 Donald G. McNeil Jr, "M.R.I.'s Strong Magnets Cited in Accidents ", The New York Times, August 19, 2005. A video simulation of a fatal projectile effect accident illustrates the extreme power that contemporary MRI equipment can exert on ferromagnetic objects. In order to help reduce the risks of projectile accidents, ferromagnetic objects and devices are typically prohibited in proximity to the MRI scanner, with non-ferromagnetic versions of many tools and devices typically retained by the scanning facility. Patients undergoing MRI examinations are required to remove all metallic objects, often by changing into a gown or scrubs. New ferromagnetic-only detection devices are proving highly effective in supplementing conventional screening techniques in many leading hospitals and imaging centers and are now recommended by the American College of Radiology's Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices: 2007, the United States' Veterans Administration's [http://www.Mednovus.com/downloads/VA_MRI_Design_Guide-08.pdfMRI Design Guide] and the Joint Commission's Sentinel Event Alert #38. The magnetic field and the associated risk of missile-effect accidents remains a permanent hazard — as superconductive MRI magnets retain their magnetic field, even in the event of a power outage. Radio frequency energy A powerful radio transmitter is needed for excitation of proton spins. This can heat the body to the point of risk of hyperthermia in patients, particularly in obese patients or those with thermoregulation disorders. Several countries have issued restrictions on the maximum specific absorption rate that a scanner may produce. Peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) The rapid switching on and off of the magnetic field gradients is capable of causing nerve stimulation. Volunteers report a twitching sensation when exposed to rapidly switched fields, particularly in their extremities. The reason the peripheral nerves are stimulated is that the changing field increases with distance from the center of the gradient coils (which more or less coincides with the center of the magnet). Note however that when imaging the head, the heart is far off-center and induction of even a tiny current into the heart must be avoided at all costs. Although PNS was not a problem for the slow, weak gradients used in the early days of MRI, the strong, rapidly-switched gradients used in techniques such as EPI, fMRI, diffusion MRI, etc. are indeed capable of inducing PNS. American and European regulatory agencies insist that manufacturers stay below specified dB/dt limits (dB/dt is the change in field per unit time) or else prove that no PNS is induced for any imaging sequence. As a result of dB/dt limitation, commercial MRI systems cannot use the full rated power of their gradient amplifiers. Acoustic noise Switching of field gradients causes a change in the Lorentz force experienced by the gradient coils, producing minute expansions and contractions of the coil itself. As the switching is typically in the audible frequency range, the resulting vibration produces loud noises (clicking or beeping). This is most marked with high-field machines and rapid-imaging techniques in which sound intensity can reach 120 dB(A) (equivalent to a jet engine at take-off) . Appropriate use of ear protection is essential for anyone inside the MRI scanner room during the examination. The Open University 2007: Understanding Cardiovascular Diseases, course book for the lesson SK121 Understanding cardiovascular diseases, printed by University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 9780749226770 (can be found at OUW), pages 220 and 224. Cryogens As described above in 'Scanner Construction And Operation', many MRI scanners rely on cryogenic liquids to enable superconducting capabilities of the electromagnetic coils within. Though the cryogenic liquids most frequently used are non-toxic, their physical properties present specific hazards. An emergency shut-down of a superconducting electromagnet, an operation known as "quenching", involves the rapid boiling of liquid helium from the device. If the rapidly expanding helium cannot be dissipated through an external vent, sometimes referred to as 'quench pipe', it may be released into the scanner room where it may cause displacement of the oxygen and present a risk of asphyxiation.<ref> page 22.</ref> Liquid helium, the most commonly used cryogen in MRI, undergoes near explosive expansion as it changes from liquid to a gaseous state. Rooms built in support of superconducting MRI equipment should be equipped with pressure relief mechanisms International Electrotechnical Commission 2008: Medical Electrical Equipment - Part 2-33: Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of magnetic resonance equipment for medical diagnosis, manufacturers' trade standards , published by International Electrotechnical Commission, ISBN 2-8318-9626-6 (can be found for purchase at ). and an exhaust fan, in addition to the required quench pipe. Since a quench results in rapid loss of all cryogens in the magnet, recommissioning the magnet is extremely expensive and time-consuming. Spontaneous quenches are uncommon, but may also be triggered by equipment malfunction, improper cryogen fill technique, contaminates inside the cryostat, or extreme magnetic or vibrational disturbances. Contrast agents The most commonly used intravenous contrast agents are based on chelates of gadolinium. In general, these agents have proved safer than the iodinated contrast agents used in X-ray radiography or CT. Anaphylactoid reactions are rare, occurring in approx. 0.03-0.1%. Of particular interest is the lower incidence of nephrotoxicity, compared with iodinated agents, when given at usual doses—this has made contrast-enhanced MRI scanning an option for patients with renal impairment, who would otherwise not be able to undergo contrast-enhanced CT. "ACR guideline, 2005" Although gadolinium agents have proved useful for patients with renal impairment, in patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis there is a risk of a rare but serious illness, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, that may be linked to the use of certain gadolinium-containing agents. The most frequently linked is gadodiamide, but other agents have been linked too. Although a causal link has not been definitively established, current guidelines in the United States are that dialysis patients should only receive gadolinium agents where essential, and that dialysis should be performed as soon as possible after the scan is complete, in order to remove the agent from the body promptly. "FDA Public Health Advisory: Gadolinium-containing Contrast Agents for Magnetic Resonance Imaging" In Europe where more gadolinium-containing agents are available, a classification of agents according to potential risks has been released. http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&dID=35149&noSaveAs=0&Rendition=WEB ismrm.org MRI Questions and Answers Pregnancy No effects of MRI on the fetus have been demonstrated. In particular, MRI avoids the use of ionizing radiation, to which the fetus is particularly sensitive. However, as a precaution, current guidelines recommend that pregnant women undergo MRI only when essential. This is particularly the case during the first trimester of pregnancy, as organogenesis takes place during this period. The concerns in pregnancy are the same as for MRI in general, but the fetus may be more sensitive to the effects—particularly to heating and to noise. However, one additional concern is the use of contrast agents; gadolinium compounds are known to cross the placenta and enter the fetal bloodstream, and it is recommended that their use be avoided. Despite these concerns, MRI is rapidly growing in importance as a way of diagnosing and monitoring congenital defects of the fetus because it can provide more diagnostic information than ultrasound and it lacks the ionizing radiation of CT. MRI without contrast agents is the imaging mode of choice for pre-surgical, in-utero diagnosis and evaluation of fetal tumors, primarily teratomas, facilitating open fetal surgery, other fetal interventions, and planning for procedures (such as the EXIT procedure) to safely deliver and treat babies whose defects would otherwise be fatal. Claustrophobia and discomfort Due to the construction of some MRI scanners, they can be potentially unpleasant to lie in. Older models of closed bore MRI systems feature a fairly long tube or tunnel. The part of the body being imaged needs to lie at the center of the magnet which is at the absolute center of the tunnel. Because scan times on these older scanners may be long (occasionally up to 40 minutes for the entire procedure), people with even mild claustrophobia are sometimes unable to tolerate an MRI scan without management. Modern scanners may have larger bores (up to 70 cm) and scan times are shorter. This means that claustrophobia is less of an issue, and many patients now find MRI an innocuous and easily tolerated procedure. Nervous patients may still find the following strategies helpful: Advance preparation visiting the scanner to see the room and practice lying on the table visualization techniques chemical sedation general anesthesia Coping while inside the scanner holding a "panic button" closing eyes as well as covering them (e.g. washcloth, eye mask) listening to music on headphones or watching a movie with a Head-mounted display while in the machine Scan Rooms with lighting, sound and images on the wall. Some rooms come with images on the walls or ceiling. Alternative scanner designs, such as open or upright systems, can also be helpful where these are available. Though open scanners have increased in popularity, they produce inferior scan quality because they operate at lower magnetic fields than closed scanners. However, commercial 1.5 Tesla open systems have recently become available, providing much better image quality than previous lower field strength open models Siemens Introduces First 1.5 Tesla Open Bore MRI . For babies and young children chemical sedation or general anesthesia are the norm, as these subjects cannot be instructed to hold still during the scanning session. Obese patients and pregnant women may find the MRI machine to be a tight fit. Pregnant women may also have difficulty lying on their backs for an hour or more without moving. Acoustic noise associated with the operation of an MRI scanner can also exacerbate the discomfort associated with the procedure. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) or Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy is a rare and serious syndrome that involves fibrosis of skin, joints, eyes, and internal organs. Its cause is not fully understood, but it seems to be associated with exposure to gadolinium (which is frequently used as a contrast substance for MRIs) in patients with severe kidney failure. Guidance Safety issues, including the potential for biostimulation device interference, movement of ferromagnetic bodies, and incidental localized heating, have been addressed in the American College of Radiology's White Paper on MR Safety which was originally published in 2002 and expanded in 2004. The ACR White Paper on MR Safety has been rewritten and was released early in 2007 under the new title ACR Guidance Document for Safe MR Practices. In December 2007, the Medicines in Healthcare product Regulation Agency (MHRA), a UK healthcare regulatory body, issued their Safety Guidelines for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Equipment in Clinical Use. In February 2008, the Joint Commission, a US healthcare accrediting organization, issued a Sentinel Event Alert #38, their highest patient safety advisory, on MRI safety issues. In July 2008, the United States Veterans Administration, a federal governmental agency serving the healthcare needs of former military personnel, issued a substantial revision to their MRI Design Guide which includes physical or facility safety considerations. The European Physical Agents Directive The European Physical Agents (Electromagnetic Fields) Directive is legislation adopted in European legislature. Originally scheduled to be required by the end of 2008, each individual state within the European Union must include this directive in its own law by the end of 2012. Some member nations passed complying legislation and are now attempting to repeal their state laws in expectation that the final version of the EU Physical Agents Directive will be substantially revised prior to the revised adoption date. The directive applies to occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields (not medical exposure) and was intended to limit workers’ acute exposure to strong electromagnetic fields, as may be found near electricity substations, radio or television transmitters or industrial equipment. However, the regulations impact significantly on MRI, with separate sections of the regulations limiting exposure to static magnetic fields, changing magnetic fields and radio frequency energy. Field strength limits are given which may not be exceeded for any period of time. An employer may commit a criminal offense by allowing a worker to exceed an exposure limit if that is how the Directive is implemented in a particular Member State. The Directive is based on the international consensus of established effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields, and in particular the advice of the European Commissions's advisor, the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The aims of the Directive, and the ICNIRP guidelines upon which it is based, are to prevent exposure to potentially harmful fields. The actual limits in the Directive are very similar to the limits advised by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, with the exception of the frequencies produced by the gradient coils, where the IEEE limits are significantly higher. Many Member States of the EU already have either specific EMF regulations or (as in the UK) a general requirement under workplace health and safety legislation to protect workers against electromagnetic fields. In almost all cases the existing regulations are aligned with the ICNIRP limits so that the Directive should, in theory, have little impact on any employer already meeting their legal responsibilities. The introduction of the Directive has brought to light an existing potential issue with occupational exposures to MRI fields. There are at present very few data on the number or types of MRI practice that might lead to exposures in excess of the levels of the Directive. HSE 2007,RR570:Assessment of electromagnetic fields around magnetic resonance (MRI) equipment. MCL-T Ltd, London There is a justifiable concern amongst MRI practitioners that if the Directive were to be enforced more vigorously than existing legislation, the use of MRI might be restricted, or working practices of MRI personnel might have to change. In the initial draft a limit of static field strength to 2 T was given. This has since been removed from the regulations, and whilst it is unlikely to be restored as it was without a strong justification, some restriction on static fields may be reintroduced after the matter has been considered more fully by ICNIRP. The effect of such a limit might be to restrict the installation, operation and maintenance of MRI scanners with magnets of 2 T and stronger. As the increase in field strength has been instrumental in developing higher resolution and higher performance scanners, this would be a significant step back. This is why it is unlikely to happen without strong justification. Individual government agencies and the European Commission have now formed a working group to examine the implications on MRI and to try to address the issue of occupational exposures to electromagnetic fields from MRI. 2003 Nobel Prize Reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of MRI in the medical field, Paul Lauterbur of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sir Peter Mansfield of the University of Nottingham were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". The Nobel Prize committee acknowledged Lauterbur's insight of using magnetic field gradients to introduce spatial localization, a discovery that allowed rapid acquisition of 2D images. Sir Peter Mansfield was credited with introducing the mathematical formalism and developing techniques for efficient gradient utilization and fast imaging. The actual research by Paul Lauterbur was done almost 30 years ago at Stony Brook University in Stony Brook, NY. The award was vigorously protested by Raymond Vahan Damadian, founder of FONAR Corporation, who claimed that he was the inventor of MRI, and that Lauterbur and Mansfield had merely refined the technology. Filler, AG (2009): The history, development, and impact of computed imaging in neurological diagnosis and neurosurgery: CT, MRI, DTI: Nature Precedings DOI: 10.1038/npre.2009.3267.2. An ad hoc group, called "The Friends of Raymond Damadian", took out full-page advertisements in the New York Times and The Washington Post entitled "The Shameful Wrong That Must Be Righted", demanding that he be awarded at least a share of the Nobel Prize H.F. Judson, "No Nobel Prize for whining", New York Times, 20 October 2003. Accessed 2006-11-02. . Also, in a letter to Physics Today, Herman Carr pointed out his own early use of field gradients for one-dimensional MR imaging . See also Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) Electron-spin resonance (spin physics) History of brain imaging Medical imaging Magnetic immunoassay Magnetic resonance microscopy Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) Magnetic resonance elastography Neuroimaging software Nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy Nobel Prize controversies Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Relaxation Robinson oscillator Rabi cycle Footnotes References External links BIGS-animation - Physics of MRI like spin, modification of spin or pulse sequences MDCT - Free Radiology Resource For Radiographers, Radiologists and Technical Assistants A Guided Tour of MRI: An introduction for laypeople National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Joseph P. Hornak, Ph.D. The Basics of MRI. Underlying physics and technical aspects. Video: What to Expect During Your MRI Exam from the Institute for Magnetic Resonance Safety, Education, and Research (IMRSER) 3D Animation Movie about MRI Exam Interactive Flash Animation on MRI - Online Magnetic Resonance Imaging physics and technique course'' International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine Article on helium scarcity and potential effects on NMR and MRI communities Danger of objects flying into the scanner Video compiled of MRI scans showing arachnoid cyst | Magnetic_resonance_imaging |@lemmatized sagittal:2 mr:39 image:94 knee:2 para:1 mri:156 head:7 aliasing:1 artifact:6 nose:1 forehead:1 back:6 magnetic:92 resonance:37 imaging:43 nuclear:16 nmri:3 primarily:4 medical:13 technique:30 commonly:7 use:97 radiology:7 visualize:1 internal:2 structure:4 function:3 body:27 provide:21 much:7 great:3 contrast:56 different:21 soft:4 tissue:41 compute:2 tomography:6 ct:22 make:14 especially:7 useful:7 neurological:4 brain:21 musculoskeletal:1 cardiovascular:3 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2,134 | Godzilla | Godzilla Alias: GojiraKing of the MonstersGigantis, the Fire MonsterMonster Zero-One First appearance: Godzilla (1954) Latest appearance: Godzilla: Final Wars (2004) Height: 50 Godzilla (1954) -100 Godzilla (Heisei) meters (164-328 feet) Weight: 20,000 - 60,000 tons Created by: Tomoyuki Tanaka Portrayed by: Shōwa Series:Haruo Nakajima Katsumi TezukaYū SekidaRyosaku TakasugiSeiji OnakaShinji TakagiIsao ZushiToru KawaiHeisei Series:Kenpachiro SatsumaMillennium Series:Tsutomu KitagawaMizuho Yoshida is a kaijū, a fictional Japanese giant monster. His first film was made in 1954, and since then, he has made many more appearances, and has become a pop-culture icon. In total, Godzilla has appeared in 28 films, all of which were produced by Toho Company Ltd. Godzilla has also appeared in numerous comic books, video games, and novels. In 1998, TriStar Pictures produced a remake set in New York City, starring Matthew Broderick; the film's name was simply Godzilla. Despite negative reviews and negative Godzilla fan reaction, the film was a financial success, taking in nearly $380 million worldwide and spawned an animated television series called Godzilla: The Series. Etymology Name is a combination of two Japanese words: , and , which is fitting because in one planning stage, Godzilla was described as "a cross between a gorilla and a whale", Steve Ryfle. Japan's Favourite Mon-Star. ECW Press, 1998. Pg.22 alluding to his size, power and aquatic origin. A popular story is that "Gojira" was actually the nickname of a hulking stagehand at Toho Studio. Gojira Media. Retrieved 2006-09-23 The story has not been verified, however, because in the 50 years since the film's original release, no one claiming to be the employee has ever stepped forward and no photographs have ever surfaced. Godzilla's name was spelled in kanji as (呉爾羅), but for sound only. Many Japanese books on Godzilla have referenced this, including B Media Books Special: Gojira Gahô, published by Take-Shobo in three different editions (1993, 1998 {{cite book - | year = 1998 - | title = B Media Books Special: The Godzilla Chronicles Ver. 2: The History of Toho Fantastic Movies, 1935-1998 - | location = Japan - | publisher = Take-Shobo - | id = ISBN 4-8124-0408-8 - }}, and 1999) There is disagreement as to how the monster's name should be pronounced. Purists use the Japanese pronunciation , but most favor the Anglicized rendering of its name, (with the first syllable pronounced like the word "god", and the rest rhyming with the last two syllables of "gorilla"). When Godzilla was created (and Japanese-to-English transliteration was less familiar), it is likely that the kana representing the second syllable was misinterpreted as ; in the Hepburn romanization system, Godzilla's name would have been rendered as "Gojira", whereas in the Kunrei romanization system it would have been rendered as "Gozira". Appearances Godzilla is the main character of all of the Godzilla films, though there are numerous different versions of the monster. The silver screen is not the only place Godzilla has appeared; there have been literary sources that have expanded the universe of Godzilla. The Godzilla universe, and the character itself have also starred in comic books, manga, Japanese television and two cartoons. Films Showa series The Showa-era Godzilla films were the first of the film series. In total, there are 15 Showa-era films, making them amount to over half the total Godzilla movies currently in existence. The first film was simply titled Godzilla. In this movie, Godzilla was portrayed as a terrible and destructive monster. Following the success of Godzilla, Toho started filming a sequel. In this sequel film, a second Godzilla was set up to fight another giant monster, named Anguirus. This second film started a trend for Godzilla movies, where Godzilla would fight other giant monsters. In this film as well, Godzilla was portrayed as a villain. This portrayal would continue for two more movies. In his fifth movie, Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster, Godzilla took the role of a hero. From that point onto the end of the Showa series, Godzilla stayed a hero, protecting Japan against attacks from other monsters, aliens, etc. At one point, Godzilla even adopted a son, Minilla, in Son of Godzilla, who would make appearances in later Showa-era films. The Showa-era movies played on a lot of fears and interests of people during the time period in which they were made. For instance, Godzilla was a movie designed to warn people about the use and testing of nuclear weapons. Likewise, Godzilla vs. Hedorah was designed to carry a message about the dangers of pollution. As space exploration and the Space Age were extremely popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s, many of Godzilla's movies revolved around Godzilla fighting alien monsters, or involved an alien invasion in some shape or form. For instance, in the movie Destroy All Monsters, an alien race had managed to take control of all of Earth's monsters, who were eventually freed from their control, and destroyed the aliens who had put them under control. Heisei series The Heisei-era Godzilla films were the second of the film series. In total, there were 7 Heisei-era films, making them amount to one fourth the total Godzilla movies in existence. The Heisei-era films differed drastically from the Showa-era films in a variety of ways. The most prominent difference is that Godzilla's outfit was changed to look much more intimidating than previous suits. Another significant difference is that Toho did away with Godzilla being the hero of the films. While occasionally Godzilla would take the role of Anti-hero, he was still consistently portrayed as hazardous to humanity throughout the films. What else changed was that the series was given an overall plotline. Each movie happened in some sort of sequence, and generally referenced previous movies to further the plot of the series. As in the Showa era, the first Godzilla movie of the Heisei era, The Return of Godzilla, Godzilla was the only monster to make an appearance. All succeeding Heisei-era movies would have Godzilla fight other giant monsters. Like the Showa series, Godzilla had a biological son, Baby Godzilla, as his own child. In the final Heisei-era movie, Godzilla vs. Destoroyah, it is shown that Godzilla dies, and his son matures and becomes just like Godzilla was. In much the same way that the Showa-era played on fears and interests of people during the time period of production, Heisei-era Godzilla films made some attempts at making statements on popular topics for their time period. One good example would be Godzilla vs. Biollante made explicit warnings against research involving genetic engineering. Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah touched very lightly on the subject of communism, implying a negative view on it, and introduced a time-travel plot. Other themes in the movies included commenting on research into hazardous material and environmental statements. Millennium Series The Millennium Series, Also called the Shinsei-era series, of Godzilla films are the third and currently final of the film series. There are 6 of these films, making them slightly under a fourth the total of the series. The Millenium Series attempts to bring Godzilla a little bit back to his roots by eliminating a few of the things that the Heisei-era films had done. The most notable of these changes are, with one exception, the lack of any real continuity in the movies. Godzilla is, however, still a hazard in the Millennium series, and is always destructive force who will occasionally act as the anti-hero. The Millennium series, like the Heisei and Showa era films played a little bit on the interests and fears of people, although the themes were much less emphasized in the films. One such instance is in Godzilla vs. Megaguirus, where the monster Megaguirus is created from an artificially-created black hole, touching on popular science-fiction plots. Television In Japan, Godzilla was a frequent guest star on the tokusatsu series Zone Fighter. In it, Godzilla occasionally fought alongside the protagonist against other monsters, including Gigan and King Ghidorah, two monsters who had previously appeared in Godzilla films. Godzilla made his American series debut in the 1978 Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning show Godzilla. In this series, Godzilla had a nephew, Godzooky. In addition to his trademark atomic breath, which simply changed to fire in the cartoon, he was given the power to shoot laser beams out of his eyes. Godzilla could be summoned by his human friends, sea-explorers on the ship USS Calico, with a signaling device or by the cry of Godzooky. The series ran until 1981. A second series, based on the 1998 US remake of Godzilla, aired on Fox Kids. The series featured a baby Godzilla which had grown to full size. Godzilla traveled around the world with a group of humans called H.E.A.T, including scientist Nick Tatopoulos, battling monsters. Godzilla had the abilities and physical forms of his parent, but the creators of the show gave him more powers and an attitude more resembling the original Japanese Godzilla. Literature Godzilla has been featured in comic books, most often in American productions (from Marvel Comics in the mid-1970s, and from Dark Horse Comics in the 1980s and 1990s). Japanese Godzilla manga comics are also available. The Marvel series told original stories and attempted to fit into the official Toho continuity, while avoiding direct references to it. It integrated Godzilla into the Marvel Universe. It was published from 1977 to 1979, fitting between the Showa Period movies and the Heisei Era. This series described the adventures and confrontations of Godzilla in the United States. The general plots of the series were similar to those of the Showa Period movies. However, other than Godzilla, all characters were new creations, albeit in familiar roles. Likewise, the JSDF are absent, but S.H.I.E.L.D. fills its role in the story. Characteristics Godzilla's appearance has changed over the years, but many of his characteristics have remained constant. His roar has remained the same, only changing in pitch, as has his approximate appearance: a giant, mutant dinosaur with rough, bumpy charcoal gray scales, a long powerful tail, and jagged, bone colored dorsal fins. Godzilla's iconic character design is a blended chimera inspired by various prehistoric reptiles, gleaned from children's dinosaur books and illustrations from an issue of Life magazine: Godzilla has the head and lower body of a Tyrannosaurus, a triple row of dorsal plates reminiscent of a Stegosaurus, the neck and forearms of Iguanodon and the tail and skin texture of a crocodile. William M. Tsutsui, Godzilla on My Mind: Fifty Years of the King of Monsters (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 23. Gojira Classic Media audio commentary Although his origins vary somewhat from film to film, he is always described as a prehistoric creature, who first appeared and attacked Japan at the beginning of the Atomic Age. In particular, mutation due to atomic radiation is presented as an explanation for his size and powers. The most notable of Godzilla's resulting abilities is a his atomic breath; a powerful heat ray of thermonuclear energy that he is able to fire from his mouth. Godzilla is also depicted as being resistant to damage thanks to a tough hide and an advanced healing factor. He is portrayed as being strong and dextrous, utilizing martial arts techniques in combat. Described as a transitional form between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates by Doctor Yamane in the original film, Godzilla is able to survive in the ocean for indefinite periods of time and is as adept a fighter underwater as he is on land. These particular abilities are portrayed consistently among Godzilla's many incarnations, though he also possesses skills, often employed as weapons of last resort that are only seen on rare occasions, such as his nuclear pulse, magnetic powers, and even the ability to fly. In popular culture Godzilla's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame Godzilla is one of the most recognizable symbols of Japanese popular culture worldwide and remains an important facet of Japanese films, embodying the kaiju subset of the tokusatsu genre. He has been considered a filmographic metaphor for the United States, as well as an allegory of nuclear weapons in general. The earlier Godzilla films, especially the original Godzilla, portrayed Godzilla as a frightening, nuclear monster. Godzilla represented the fears that many Japanese held about the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the possibility of recurrence. The Monster That Morphed Into a Metaphor, By Terrence Rafferty, May 2, 2004, NYTimes As the series progressed, so did Godzilla, changing into a less destructive and more heroic character as the films became geared towards children. Since then, the character has fallen somewhere in the middle, sometimes portrayed as a protector of the Earth (notably Japan) from external threats and other times as a bringer of destruction. Godzilla is also the second of only three fictional characters to have won the MTV Lifetime Achievement Award, which was awarded in 1996. Influence Godzilla as a name and image has influenced several products, among them are, the browser Mozilla which has a look-alike Godzilla monster as logotype. The rock group Blue Oyster Cult wrote the song Godzilla. References External links Official Website of Toho (Japanese) Godzilla Official Website (Japanese) | Godzilla |@lemmatized godzilla:96 alias:1 gojiraking:1 monstersgigantis:1 fire:3 monstermonster:1 zero:1 one:9 first:7 appearance:8 late:2 final:3 war:1 height:1 heisei:12 meter:1 foot:1 weight:1 ton:1 create:4 tomoyuki:1 tanaka:1 portray:7 shōwa:1 series:31 haruo:1 nakajima:1 katsumi:1 tezukayū:1 sekidaryosaku:1 takasugiseiji:1 onakashinji:1 takagiisao:1 zushitoru:1 kawaiheisei:1 kenpachiro:1 satsumamillennium:1 tsutomu:1 kitagawamizuho:1 yoshida:1 kaijū:1 fictional:2 japanese:13 giant:5 monster:21 film:37 make:12 since:3 many:6 become:3 pop:1 culture:3 icon:1 total:6 appear:5 produce:2 toho:7 company:1 ltd:1 also:7 numerous:2 comic:6 book:8 video:1 game:1 novel:1 tristar:1 picture:1 remake:2 set:2 new:3 york:2 city:1 star:5 matthew:1 broderick:1 name:8 simply:3 despite:1 negative:3 review:1 fan:1 reaction:1 financial:1 success:2 take:6 nearly:1 million:1 worldwide:2 spawn:1 animated:1 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2,135 | Japheth | Japheth (, Hebrew. יפת, Yafet, Greek Ιάφεθ , Iapheth , Latin Iafeth or Iapetus, Arabic: يافث) is one of the sons of Noah in the Bible. In Arabic citations, his name is normally given as Yafeth ibn Nuh (Japheth son of Noah). Order of birth He is most popularly regarded as the youngest son, though some traditions regard him as the eldest son. Genesis 10:21 refers to relative ages of Japheth and his brother Shem, but with sufficient ambiguity to have given rise to different translations. The verse is translated in the KJV as follows, "Unto Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder, even to him were children born". However, the Revised Standard Version gives, "To Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of Japheth, children were born." The place in Noah's family For those who take the genealogies of Genesis to be historically accurate, Japheth is commonly believed to be the father of the Europeans. The link between Japheth and the Europeans stems from Genesis 10:5, which states that the sons of Japheth moved to the "isles of the Gentiles," commonly believed to be the Greek isles. According to that book, Japheth and his two brothers formed the three major races: Japheth is the father of the Japhetic race Ham is the father of the Hamitic race Shem is the father of the Semitic race William Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part II contains a wry comment about people who claim to be related to royal families. Prince Hal notes of such people, ...they will be kin to us, or they will fetch it from Japhet. (II.ii 117-18) Genesis 10:5 was often interpreted to mean that the peoples of Europe were descended from Japheth. Clearly, then, any two Englishmen must have at least this one ancestor in common, and thus any individual could claim kinship with the king. Japhetic descendants Geographic identifications of Flavius Josephus, c. 100 AD; Japheth's sons shown in red In the Bible, Japheth is ascribed seven sons: Gomer, Magog, Tiras, Javan, Meshech, Tubal, and Madai. According to Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews I.6): "Japhet, the son of Noah, had seven sons: they inhabited so, that, beginning at the mountains Taurus and Amanus, they proceeded along Asia, as far as the river Tanais (Don), and along Europe to Cadiz; and settling themselves on the lands which they light upon, which none had inhabited before, they called the nations by their own names." Josephus subsequently detailed the nations supposed to have descended from the seven sons of Japheth. Among the nations various later writers have attempted to assign to them are as follows: Gomer: Armenians, Cimmerians, Scythians, Welsh, Irish, Germans, Huns, Turks, Franks. Magog: Scythians, Slavs, Mongols, Hungarians, Irish, Finns, Pamiris, Pashtuns Madai: Medes(Kurds), Indo-Iranians, Mitanni, Mannai, Persian , Tajiks, Balochis, Talishis, Mazandaris, Zazas, Sengesaris and Tati. According to the Book of Jubilees (10:35-36), Madai had married a daughter of Shem, and preferred to live among Shem's descendants, rather than dwell in Japheth's allotted inheritance beyond the Black Sea; so he begged his brothers-in-law, Elam, Asshur and Arphaxad, until he finally received from them the land that was named after him, Media. Javan: Greeks (Ionians) Tubal: Tabali, Georgians, Italics, Iberians, Basques Tiras: Thracians, Goths, Jutes, Teutons Meshech: Phrygians, Illyrians, Caucasian Iberia, Russians The "Book of Jasher", published in the 17th century, provides some new names for Japheth's grandchildren not seen in the Bible or any other source, and provided a much more detailed genealogy (see Japhetic). Ethnic legends In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville published his noted history, in which he traces the origins of most of the nations of Europe back to Japheth. Susan Reynolds, "Medieval origines gentium and the community of the realm," History, 68, 1983, pp. 375-90 Scholars in almost every European nation continuted to repeat and improve upon Saint Isidore's assertion of descent from Noah through Japheth into the nineteenth century.<ref>Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism; Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600-1800, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 29</ref> Georgian nationalist histories associate Japheth's sons with certain ancient tribes, called Tubals (Tabals, Tibarenoi in Greek) and Meshechs (Meshekhs/Mosokhs, Moschoi in Greek), who they claim represent non-Indo-European and non-Semitic, possibly "Proto-Iberian" tribes of Asia Minor of the 3rd-1st millennia BC. In the Polish tradition of Sarmatism, the Sarmatians were said to be descended from Japheth, son of Noah, enabling the Polish nobility to imagine themselves able to trace their ancestry directly to Noah. Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism; Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600-1800, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 29</ref> In Scotland, histories tracing the Scottish people to Japheth were published as late as George Chalmers well received Caledonia, published in 3 volumes from 1807 t0 1824.<ref>Colin Kidd, British Identities before Nationalism; Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600-1800, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 52 Proposed correlations with deities In the 19th century, Biblical syncretists associated the sons of Noah with ancient pagan gods. Japheth was identified by some scholars with figures from other mythologies, including Iapetus, the Greek Titan; the Indian figures Dyaus Pitar and Pra-Japati , and the Roman Iu-Pater or "Father Jove", which became Jupiter. Japhetic language The term "Japhetic" was also applied by William Jones and other early linguists to what became known as the Indo-European language group. In a different sense, it was also used by the Soviet linguist Nikolai Marr in his Japhetic theory. Japheth in literature Japheth is a major character in the Madeleine L'Engle novel Many Waters'' (1986, ISBN 0 374 34796 4). He is characterized as thoughtful and intelligent, a kind-hearted young man who is on good terms with feuding family members Noah and Lamech, with the seraphim, and with visiting time travelers Sandy and Dennys Murry. Depicted in the book as Noah's younger son, Japheth is barely into adulthood, but at Noah's instigation is already married. His equally kind wife, Oholiobama, is an unusually fair-skinned woman with black hair, who may have been sired by one of the nephilim. See also Caucasian race Mongoloid race Japhetic Whites Proto-Indo-Europeans Wives aboard the Ark Origin of the Armenians Notes External links Who are the sons of Japheth today? The Table of Nations Origins of Nations Newsletter Easton Bible dictionary about Japheth Smith's Bible Dictionary about Japheth International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: Japheth Japheth in the Jewish Encyclopedia Japheth's family tree at complete-bible-genealogy.com See also | Japheth |@lemmatized japheth:31 hebrew:1 יפת:1 yafet:1 greek:6 ιάφεθ:1 iapheth:1 latin:1 iafeth:1 iapetus:2 arabic:2 يافث:1 one:3 son:15 noah:11 bible:7 citation:1 name:4 normally:1 give:3 yafeth:1 ibn:1 nuh:1 order:1 birth:1 popularly:1 regard:2 young:3 though:1 tradition:2 eldest:1 genesis:4 refers:1 relative:1 age:1 brother:5 shem:6 sufficient:1 ambiguity:1 rise:1 different:2 translation:1 verse:1 translate:1 kjv:1 follow:2 unto:1 also:6 father:7 child:4 eber:2 elder:2 even:1 bear:2 however:1 revise:1 standard:2 version:1 place:1 family:4 take:1 genealogy:3 historically:1 accurate:1 commonly:2 believe:2 european:5 link:2 stem:1 state:1 move:1 isle:2 gentile:1 accord:3 book:4 two:2 form:1 three:1 major:2 race:6 japhetic:7 ham:1 hamitic:1 semitic:2 william:2 shakespeare:1 play:1 henry:1 iv:1 part:1 ii:3 contain:1 wry:1 comment:1 people:4 claim:3 relate:1 royal:1 prince:1 hal:1 note:2 kin:1 u:1 fetch:1 japhet:2 often:1 interpret:1 mean:1 europe:3 descend:3 clearly:1 englishman:1 must:1 least:1 ancestor:1 common:1 thus:1 individual:1 could:1 kinship:1 king:1 descendant:2 geographic:1 identification:1 flavius:1 josephus:3 c:1 ad:1 show:1 red:1 ascribed:1 seven:3 gomer:2 magog:2 tiras:2 javan:2 meshech:2 tubal:2 madai:3 antiquity:1 jew:1 inhabit:2 begin:1 mountain:1 taurus:1 amanus:1 proceed:1 along:2 asia:2 far:1 river:1 tanais:1 cadiz:1 settle:1 land:2 light:1 upon:2 none:1 call:2 nation:7 subsequently:1 detail:1 suppose:1 among:2 various:1 later:1 writer:1 attempt:1 assign:1 armenian:2 cimmerians:1 scythian:2 welsh:1 irish:2 german:1 hun:1 turk:1 frank:1 slav:1 mongol:1 hungarian:1 finns:1 pamiris:1 pashtuns:1 medes:1 kurd:1 indo:4 iranian:1 mitanni:1 mannai:1 persian:1 tajiks:1 balochi:1 talishis:1 mazandaris:1 zazas:1 sengesaris:1 tati:1 jubilee:1 marry:2 daughter:1 prefer:1 live:1 rather:1 dwell:1 allot:1 inheritance:1 beyond:1 black:2 sea:1 beg:1 law:1 elam:1 asshur:1 arphaxad:1 finally:1 receive:2 medium:1 ionian:1 tabali:1 georgian:2 italic:1 iberian:2 basque:1 thracian:1 goth:1 jute:1 teuton:1 phrygian:1 illyrian:1 caucasian:2 iberia:1 russians:1 jasher:1 publish:4 century:4 provide:2 new:1 grandchild:1 see:4 source:1 much:1 detailed:1 ethnic:1 legend:1 seventh:1 isidore:2 seville:1 noted:1 history:4 trace:3 origin:3 back:1 susan:1 reynolds:1 medieval:1 origines:1 gentium:1 community:1 realm:1 pp:1 scholar:2 almost:1 every:1 continuted:1 repeat:1 improve:1 saint:1 assertion:1 descent:1 nineteenth:1 ref:4 colin:3 kidd:3 british:3 identity:3 nationalism:3 ethnicity:3 nationhood:3 atlantic:3 world:3 cambridge:3 university:3 press:3 p:3 nationalist:1 associate:2 certain:1 ancient:2 tribe:2 tubals:1 tabals:1 tibarenoi:1 meshechs:1 meshekhs:1 mosokhs:1 moschoi:1 represent:1 non:2 possibly:1 proto:2 minor:1 millennium:1 bc:1 polish:2 sarmatism:1 sarmatians:1 say:1 enable:1 nobility:1 imagine:1 able:1 ancestry:1 directly:1 scotland:1 scottish:1 late:1 george:1 chalmers:1 well:1 caledonia:1 volume:1 proposed:1 correlation:1 deity:1 biblical:1 syncretists:1 pagan:1 god:1 identify:1 figure:2 mythology:1 include:1 titan:1 indian:1 dyaus:1 pitar:1 pra:1 japati:1 roman:1 iu:1 pater:1 jove:1 become:2 jupiter:1 language:2 term:2 apply:1 jones:1 early:1 linguist:2 know:1 group:1 sense:1 use:1 soviet:1 nikolai:1 marr:1 theory:1 literature:1 character:1 madeleine:1 l:1 engle:1 novel:1 many:1 water:1 isbn:1 characterize:1 thoughtful:1 intelligent:1 kind:2 hearted:1 man:1 good:1 feud:1 member:1 lamech:1 seraph:1 visiting:1 time:1 traveler:1 sandy:1 dennys:1 murry:1 depict:1 barely:1 adulthood:1 instigation:1 already:1 equally:1 wife:2 oholiobama:1 unusually:1 fair:1 skin:1 woman:1 hair:1 may:1 sire:1 nephilim:1 mongoloid:1 white:1 europeans:1 aboard:1 ark:1 external:1 today:1 table:1 newsletter:1 easton:1 dictionary:2 smith:1 international:1 encyclopedia:2 jewish:1 tree:1 complete:1 com:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 flavius_josephus:1 josephus_antiquity:1 indo_iranian:1 isidore_seville:1 nineteenth_century:1 indo_european:2 millennium_bc:1 proto_indo:1 external_link:1 easton_bible:1 |
2,136 | Denaturation_(biochemistry) | This egg's protein has undergone denaturation and loss of solubility, caused by the high temperature of the cooking process. Denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose their structure (tertiary and secondary structure) by application of some external stress or compound for example, treatment of proteins with strong acids or bases, high concentrations of inorganic salts, organic solvents (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), or heat. If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to communal aggregation. Denatured alcohol is an exception to this definition, as the term refers not to any alteration of the substance's structure but to the addition of toxins and other things to render it undrinkable. Common examples When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm. A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are largely egg albumins in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites opaque and solid. The skin which forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically "cooking" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/article4220254.ece Although denaturing egg whites is irreversible, in many other cases denaturing is reversible. Protein denaturation Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to communal aggregation. Communal aggregation is the phenomenon of aggregation of the hydrophobic proteins to come closer and form the bonding between them, so as to reduce the total area exposed to water. Background Proteins are quite long strands of amino acids linked together in specific sequences. A protein is created by ribosomes that "read" mRNA that is encoded by codons in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the genetic instruction, in a process known as translation. The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for example copper, zinc or iron. Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (spontaneously, and sometimes with enzymatic assistance), curling up on itself so that hydrophobic elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and hydrophilic elements end up on the outside. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment. When a protein is denatured, the secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds between the amino acids are left intact. Since the structure of the protein determines its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured. This is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active. How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure In quaternary structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted. Tertiary structure denaturation involves the disruption of: Covalent interactions between amino acid side chains (such as disulfide bridges between cysteine groups) Noncovalent dipole-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side chains (and the surrounding solvent) Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions between nonpolar amino acid side chains. In secondary structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration. Primary structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation. Loss of function Most biological proteins lose their biological function when denatured. For example, enzymes lose their activity, because the substrates can no longer bind to the active site, and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' transition states are no longer positioned to be able to do so. Reversibility and irreversibility In many proteins (unlike egg whites), denaturation is reversible (the proteins can regain their native state when the denaturing influence is removed). This was important historically, as it led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the DNA that codes for the protein. Nucleic acid denaturation The denaturation of nucleic acids such as DNA due to high temperatures, is the separation of a double strand into two single strands, which occurs when the hydrogen bonds between the strands are broken. This may occur during polymerase chain reaction. Nucleic acid strands realign when "normal" conditions are restored during annealing. If the conditions are restored too quickly, the nucleic acid strands may realign imperfectly. Denaturants Acids Acidic protein denaturants include: Acetic acid Trichloroacetic acid 12% in water Sulfosalicylic acid Solvents Most organic solvents are denaturing, including: Ethanol Methanol Acetone Cross linking reagents Cross linking agents for proteins include: Formaldehyde Glutaraldehyde Chaotropic agents Chaotropic agents include: Urea 6 - 8 mol/l Guanidinium chloride 6 mol/l Lithium perchlorate 4.5 mol/l Disulfide bond reducers Agents that break disulfide bonds by reduction include: 2-Mercaptoethanol Dithiothreitol TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine) Other Picric acid See also Protein folding Random coil Fixation (histology) References | Denaturation_(biochemistry) |@lemmatized egg:10 protein:33 undergone:1 denaturation:11 loss:4 solubility:3 cause:1 high:3 temperature:2 cooking:2 process:4 proteins:1 nucleic:5 acid:18 lose:4 structure:12 tertiary:3 secondary:3 application:1 external:1 stress:1 compound:1 example:6 treatment:1 strong:1 base:1 concentration:1 inorganic:1 salt:1 organic:2 solvent:4 e:1 g:1 alcohol:2 chloroform:1 heat:2 living:1 cell:3 denature:11 result:1 disruption:2 activity:2 possibly:1 death:1 denatured:3 exhibit:2 wide:2 range:2 characteristic:2 communal:3 aggregation:4 exception:1 definition:1 term:1 refer:1 alteration:1 substance:1 addition:1 toxin:1 thing:1 render:1 undrinkable:1 common:2 food:1 cook:2 become:3 boil:1 hard:1 cooked:1 meat:1 firm:1 classic:1 come:2 white:7 largely:1 albumin:1 water:3 fresh:1 transparent:1 liquid:1 thermally:1 unstable:1 turn:2 opaque:2 form:3 interconnected:1 solid:2 mass:1 transformation:1 effect:1 chemical:1 pour:1 beaker:1 acetone:2 also:2 skin:1 curdled:1 milk:1 another:1 cold:1 appetizer:1 know:2 ceviche:1 prepare:1 chemically:1 raw:1 fish:1 shellfish:1 acidic:2 citrus:1 marinade:1 without:1 http:1 www:1 timesonline:1 co:1 uk:1 tol:1 ece:1 although:1 irreversible:1 many:2 case:1 reversible:2 phenomenon:1 hydrophobic:2 close:1 bonding:1 reduce:1 total:1 area:1 expose:1 background:1 quite:1 long:1 strand:7 amino:8 link:3 together:2 specific:1 sequence:2 create:2 ribosome:1 read:1 mrna:1 encode:2 codon:1 gene:1 assemble:1 requisite:1 combination:1 genetic:1 instruction:1 translation:1 newly:1 undergo:1 posttranslational:1 modification:2 additional:1 atom:1 molecule:1 add:1 copper:1 zinc:1 iron:1 post:1 translational:1 complete:1 begin:1 fold:2 spontaneously:1 sometimes:1 enzymatic:1 assistance:1 curl:1 element:2 bury:1 deep:1 inside:1 hydrophilic:1 end:1 outside:1 final:1 shape:1 determine:2 interact:1 environment:1 alter:1 peptide:2 bond:5 leave:1 intact:1 since:1 function:4 longer:3 perform:1 contrast:1 intrinsically:1 unstructured:1 unfold:1 native:3 state:4 still:1 functionally:1 active:2 occur:3 level:1 quaternary:1 sub:1 unit:1 dissociate:1 spatial:1 arrangement:1 subunit:1 disrupt:2 involve:2 covalent:2 interaction:3 side:3 chain:4 disulfide:3 bridge:1 cysteine:1 group:1 noncovalent:1 dipole:3 polar:1 surround:1 van:1 der:1 waals:1 induced:1 nonpolar:1 regular:1 repeat:1 pattern:1 alpha:1 helix:1 beta:1 pleated:1 sheet:1 adopt:1 random:2 coil:2 configuration:1 primary:2 hold:1 biological:2 enzymes:1 substrate:2 bind:1 site:1 residue:1 stabilize:1 transition:1 position:1 able:1 reversibility:1 irreversibility:1 unlike:1 regain:1 denaturing:1 influence:1 remove:1 important:1 historically:1 lead:1 notion:1 information:1 need:1 assume:1 hence:1 dna:2 cod:1 due:1 separation:1 double:1 two:1 single:1 hydrogen:1 break:2 may:2 polymerase:1 reaction:1 realign:2 normal:1 condition:2 restore:2 anneal:1 quickly:1 imperfectly:1 denaturant:2 acids:1 include:5 acetic:1 trichloroacetic:1 sulfosalicylic:1 ethanol:1 methanol:1 cross:2 reagent:1 agent:4 formaldehyde:1 glutaraldehyde:1 chaotropic:2 urea:1 mol:3 l:3 guanidinium:1 chloride:1 lithium:1 perchlorate:1 reducer:1 reduction:1 mercaptoethanol:1 dithiothreitol:1 tcep:1 tris:1 carboxyethyl:1 phosphine:1 picric:1 see:1 fixation:1 histology:1 reference:1 |@bigram nucleic_acid:5 organic_solvent:2 denatured_protein:2 cooked_meat:1 denature_protein:2 fish_shellfish:1 http_www:1 www_timesonline:1 timesonline_co:1 uk_tol:1 amino_acid:8 posttranslational_modification:1 copper_zinc:1 post_translational:1 translational_modification:1 secondary_tertiary:1 peptide_bond:2 dipole_dipole:1 van_der:1 der_waals:1 induced_dipole:1 alpha_helix:1 pleated_sheet:1 protein_nucleic:1 hydrogen_bond:1 polymerase_chain:1 acetic_acid:1 ethanol_methanol:1 disulfide_bond:2 |
2,137 | Crony_capitalism | Crony capitalism is a pejorative term describing an allegedly capitalist economy in which success in business depends on close relationships between businesspeople and government officials. It may be exhibited by favoritism in the distribution of legal permits, government grants, special tax breaks, and so forth. Crony capitalism is believed to arise when political cronyism spills over into the business world; self-serving friendships and family ties between businessmen and the government influence the economy and society to the extent that it corrupts public-serving economic and political ideals. Crony capitalism in practice Transparency International's overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2007 In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players. While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they will present a unified front to the government in requesting subsidies or aid (sometimes called a trade association or industry trade group). Newcomers to a market may find it difficult to find loans or acquire shelf space to sell their product; in technological fields, they may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never invoke against each other. Distribution networks will refuse to aid the entrant. That said, there will still be competitors who "crack" the system when the legal barriers are light, especially where the old guard has become inefficient and is failing to meet the needs of the market. Of course, some of these upstarts may then join with the established networks to help deter any other new competitors. Examples of this have been argued to include the keiretsu of post-war Japan, the chaebol of South Korea, and the powerful families who control much of the investment in Latin America. Crony capitalism is generally associated with more virulent government intervention, however. Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems. Taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business; in practice, they are only erratically enforced. The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the good graces of political officials. Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, leading to fines or even jail time. States often said to exhibit crony capitalism include the People's Republic of China; India, especially up to the early 1990s when the manufacturing was strictly controlled by the Central Government, giving rise to the phrase of "Licence Raj"; Indonesia; Mexico; Brazil; Malaysia; Russia; Having it both ways on Economist.com accessed at December 30 2007 (subscription required) and most other ex-Soviet states. Critics claim that government connections are almost indispensable to business success in these countries. Wu Jinglian, one of China's leading economists Hu Shuli, crusading Chinese business journalist on Economist.com accessed at December 30 2007 (subscription required) and a longtime champion of its transition to free markets, says that it faces two starkly contrasting futures: a market economy under the rule of law or crony capitalism. The road ahead for capitalism in China on The McKinsey Quarterly accessed at December 30 2007 Cronyism in sections of an economy More direct government involvement can lead to specific areas of crony capitalism, even if the economy as a whole may be healthy. Governments will, often in good faith, establish government agencies to regulate an industry. However, the members of an industry have a very strong interest in the actions of a regulatory body, while the rest of the citizenry are only lightly affected. As a result, it is not uncommon for current industry players to gain control of the "watchdog" and use it against competitors. This phenomenon is known as regulatory capture. A famous early example in the United States would be the Interstate Commerce Commission, which was established in 1887 to regulate the railroad "robber barons;" instead, it quickly became controlled by the railroads, which set up a permit system that was used to deny access to new entrants and functionally legalized price fixing. A more modern example would be the case of Creekstone Farms. After the mad cow scare, Creekstone decided to test all its cows for mad cow disease. This would enable them to sell again to Japan, which had blocked import of all American beef that had not been completely tested. After the proper facilities had been built and the personnel hired to make such a change, the U.S. Department of Agriculture issued an injunction and refused to allow Creekstone to buy the kits necessary to test. Beef Giants & USDA Prevent Small Slaughterhouses from Testing for Mad Cow Disease on Organic Consumer Association accessed at December 30 2007 This allowed the larger beef producers to keep costs low and not be out-competed by a smaller rival. Creekstone sued the USDA in response for abrogating free competition in the market. Economist Paul Krugman commented that the incident showed that "the imperatives of crony capitalism trump[ed] professed faith in free markets," at least for the Department of Agriculture at the time. The military-industrial complex in the United States is often described as an example of crony capitalism in an industry. Connections with The Pentagon and lobbyists in Washington are described by critics as more important than actual competition, due to the political and secretive nature of defense contracts. In the Airbus-Boeing WTO dispute, Airbus (which receives subsidies from European governments outright) has stated Boeing receives similar subsidies, which are hidden as inefficient defense contracts. In another example, Bechtel, claiming that it should have had a chance to bid for certain contracts, said Halliburton had received no-bid contracts due to having cronies in the Bush administration. Gerald P. O'Driscoll former vice president at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac became classic examples of crony capitalism. Government backing let Fannie and Freddie dominate mortgage underwriting. "The politicians created the mortgage giants, which then returned some of the profits to the pols - sometimes directly, as campaign funds; sometimes as "contributions" to favored constituents." http://www.nypost.com/seven/09092008/postopinion/opedcolumnists/fannie_freddie_bailout_baloney_128135.htm Creation of crony capitalism in developing economies In its worst form, crony capitalism can devolve into simple corruption, where any pretense of a free market is dispensed with. Bribes to government officials are considered de rigueur and tax evasion is common; this is seen in many parts of Africa, for instance. This is sometimes called plutocracy (rule by wealth) or kleptocracy (rule by theft). Corrupt governments may favor one set of business owners who have close ties to the government over others. This may also be done with racial, religious, or ethnic favoritsm; for instance, Alawites in Syria have a disproportionate share of power in the government and business there. (President Assad is an Alawite.) This can be explained by considering personal relationships as a social network. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small interlocking group. Normally, this will be untenable to maintain in business; new entrants will affect the market. However, if business and government are entwined, then the government can maintain the small-hub network. Political viewpoints Critics of capitalism including socialists and other anti-capitalists often assert that crony capitalism is the inevitable result of any capitalist system. Jane Jacobs described it as a natural consequence of collusion between those managing power and trade. Since businesses make money and money leads to political power, business will inevitably use their power to influence governments. Much of the impetus behind campaign finance reform in the United States and in other countries is an attempt to prevent economic power being used to take political power. Capitalists oppose crony capitalism as well, but consider it an aberration brought on by governmental favors incompatible with true capitalism. In this view, crony capitalism is the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which requires active corporate lobbying to reduce red tape. These advocates point to the relatively higher levels of interaction between corporations and governments that are considered more socialist, taken to its maximum in the form of nationalization of industries. Even if the initial regulation was well-intentioned (to curb actual abuses), and even if the initial lobbying by corporations was well-intentioned (to reduce illogical regulations), the mixture of business and government eventually proves poisonous. In his book The Myth of the Robber Barons, Burton W. Folsom, Jr. distinguished those that engage in crony capitalism – designated by him "political entrepreneurs" – from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls "market entrepreneurs." Economists of the Austrian School also oppose crony capitalism, calling it "state corporatism" to emphasize the role of the state in the problem as well. Socialist economists have criticized the term as an ideologically motivated attempt to cast what is in their view the fundamental problems of capitalism as avoidable irregularities. The term "crony capitalism" made its first significant impact in the public arena as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis. This explanation is frequently dismissed as apologetics for failures of neoliberal policy and more fundamental weaknesses of market allocation. According to socialist economist Robin Hahnel, IMF officials Michel Camdessus and Stanley Fischer were quick to explain that the afflicted economies had only themselves to blame. Crony capitalism, lack of transparency, accounting procedures not up to international standards, and weak-kneed politicians too quick to spend and too afraid to tax were the problems according to IMF and US Treasury Department officials. The fact that the afflicted economies had been held up as paragons of virtue and IMF/World Bank success stories only a year before, the fact that neoliberalism’s only success story had been the Newly Industrialized Countries (NIC's) who were now in the tank, and the fact that the IMF and Treasury department story just didn’t fit the facts since the afflicted economies were no more rife with crony capitalism, lack of transparency, and weak-willed politicians than dozens of other economies untouched by the Asian financial crisis, simply did not matter. Hahnel, Robin. Panic Rules: Everything You Need to Know about the Global Economy, Pluto Press. Finally, some critics question whether the concept is meaningful at all, pointing out that personal factors influence business decisions in all economic systems that involve a government and that the existence of these factors is an insufficient explanation for why certain economic systems work better than others. See also Corporate welfare Corporatism Cronyism Iron triangle Patrimonialism Plutocracy Political families Political machine Regulatory capture Government-owned corporation References External links New York Times, "The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism" New York Times, "Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society." Joseph Stiglitz, "Crony capitalism American-style". Google Video, "Capitalism & Other Kids' Stuff". William Anderson, The Mises Institute, "Myths About Enron" Crony capitalism: The actors of change towards neoliberalism in Chile, by Patricio Imbert and Patricio Morales | Crony_capitalism |@lemmatized crony:25 capitalism:29 pejorative:1 term:3 describe:4 allegedly:1 capitalist:4 economy:11 success:4 business:15 depends:1 close:2 relationship:2 businesspeople:1 government:25 official:5 may:8 exhibit:2 favoritism:1 distribution:2 legal:2 permit:2 grant:1 special:2 tax:3 break:1 forth:1 believe:1 arise:1 political:11 cronyism:3 spill:1 world:2 self:1 serve:2 friendship:1 family:3 tie:2 businessmen:1 influence:3 society:2 extent:1 corrupt:2 public:2 economic:5 ideal:1 practice:2 transparency:3 international:2 overview:1 index:1 perception:1 corruption:2 light:2 form:4 consist:1 collusion:2 among:1 market:12 player:2 perhaps:1 lightly:2 compete:3 present:1 unified:1 front:1 request:1 subsidy:3 aid:3 sometimes:4 call:4 trade:3 association:2 industry:6 group:2 newcomer:1 find:2 difficult:1 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existence:1 insufficient:1 work:1 welfare:1 iron:1 triangle:1 patrimonialism:1 machine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 york:2 vladivostok:1 journal:1 gangland:1 cafe:1 joseph:1 stiglitz:1 google:1 video:1 kid:1 stuff:1 william:1 anderson:1 mi:1 institute:1 enron:1 actor:1 towards:1 chile:1 patricio:2 imbert:1 morale:1 |@bigram crony_capitalism:24 interstate_commerce:1 robber_baron:2 price_fixing:1 mad_cow:3 paul_krugman:1 airbus_boeing:1 vice_president:1 http_www:1 nypost_com:1 de_rigueur:1 tax_evasion:1 well_intentioned:2 folsom_jr:1 external_link:1 |
2,138 | Goodtimes_virus | The Goodtimes Virus was a computer virus hoax that spread during the early years of the Internet's popularity. Warnings about a computer virus named "Good Times" began being passed around among Internet users in 1994. The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an email bearing the subject header "Good Times" or "Goodtimes," hence the virus's name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread. The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves, were, in effect, virus-like. History The first recorded email warnings about the Good Times virus showed up on November 15, 1994. Good Times Virus Hoax FAQ, dated December 12, 1998, last retrieved on 13 March 2008 The first message was brief, a simple five sentence email with a Christmas greeting, advising recipients not to open email messages with subject "GOOD TIMES!!", as doing so would ruin their files. Later messages became more intricate. The most common versions -- the "Infinite loop" and "ASCII buffer" editions -- were much longer, containing descriptions of what exactly Good Times would do to the computer of someone who opened it, as well as comparisons to other viruses of the time, and references to an FCC warning. One of the demo videos included with the Windows 95 CDs was a music video entitled "Good Times". Discussions of this video and the artist were often criticised for "spreading the virus". Purported effects The longer version of the Good Times warning contained descriptions of what Good Times was supposedly capable of doing to computers. In addition to sending itself to every email address in a recipient's received or sent mail, the Good Times virus caused a wide variety of other nasty things to happen. For example, one version said that if an infected computer contained a hard drive, it could be destroyed. If Good Times was not stopped in time, an infected computer would enter an "nth-complexity infinite binary loop," (a meaningless term) damaging the processor. The "ASCII" buffer email described the mechanism of Good Times as a buffer overflow. Hoaxes similar to Good Times A number of computer virus hoaxes appeared in the wake of Good Times. These messages were similar in form to Good Times, warning users not to open messages bearing particular subject lines. Subject lines mentioned in these emails include: "Penpal greetings" Symantec.com - Penpal Greetings description, retrieved 13 March 2008 , "Free Money" Symantec.com - Free Money description, retrieved 13 March 2008 , "Deeyenda" Symantec.com - Deeyenda description, retrieved 13 March 2008 and "Invitation" Olympic Torch Invitation Virus Hoax description, retrieved 13 March 2008 , and "Win a Holiday" The Bad Times computer virus warning is generally considered to be a spoof of the Good Times warning. Viruses that function like Good Times Developments in mail systems, such as Microsoft Outlook, without sufficient thought as to the security implications, made viruses that indeed propagate themselves via email possible. Notable examples include the Melissa worm and the Anna Kournikova virus. In some cases, a user must open a document or program contained in an email message in order to spread the virus; in others, notably the Kak worm, merely opening or previewing an email message itself will trigger the virus. References | Goodtimes_virus |@lemmatized goodtimes:3 virus:20 computer:8 hoax:5 spread:3 early:1 year:1 internet:2 popularity:1 warning:7 name:2 good:17 time:20 begin:1 pass:1 around:1 among:1 user:3 supposedly:2 transmit:1 via:2 email:11 bear:2 subject:4 header:1 hence:1 recommend:1 delete:1 unread:1 describe:2 exist:1 effect:2 like:2 history:1 first:2 record:1 show:1 november:1 faq:1 date:1 december:1 last:1 retrieve:5 march:5 message:7 brief:1 simple:1 five:1 sentence:1 christmas:1 greeting:3 advise:1 recipient:2 open:5 would:3 ruin:1 file:1 later:1 become:1 intricate:1 common:1 version:3 infinite:2 loop:2 ascii:2 buffer:3 edition:1 much:1 long:2 contain:3 description:6 exactly:1 someone:1 well:1 comparison:1 reference:2 fcc:1 one:2 demo:1 video:3 include:3 window:1 cd:1 music:1 entitle:1 discussion:1 artist:1 often:1 criticise:1 purport:1 warn:3 contained:1 capable:1 addition:1 send:1 every:1 address:1 receive:1 sent:1 mail:2 cause:1 wide:1 variety:1 nasty:1 thing:1 happen:1 example:2 say:1 infected:2 hard:1 drive:1 could:1 destroy:1 stop:1 enter:1 nth:1 complexity:1 binary:1 meaningless:1 term:1 damage:1 processor:1 mechanism:1 overflow:1 similar:2 number:1 appear:1 wake:1 form:1 particular:1 line:2 mention:1 penpal:2 symantec:3 com:3 free:2 money:2 deeyenda:2 invitation:2 olympic:1 torch:1 win:1 holiday:1 bad:1 generally:1 consider:1 spoof:1 function:1 development:1 system:1 microsoft:1 outlook:1 without:1 sufficient:1 thought:1 security:1 implication:1 make:1 indeed:1 propagate:1 possible:1 notable:1 melissa:1 worm:2 anna:1 kournikova:1 case:1 must:1 document:1 program:1 order:1 others:1 notably:1 kak:1 merely:1 preview:1 trigger:1 |@bigram virus_hoax:4 buffer_overflow:1 olympic_torch:1 anna_kournikova:1 |
2,139 | Edsger_W._Dijkstra | Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (May 11, 1930 – August 6, 2002; ) was a Dutch computer scientist. He received the 1972 A. M. Turing Award for fundamental contributions in the area of programming languages, and was the Schlumberger Centennial Chair of Computer Sciences at The University of Texas at Austin from 1984 until 2000. Shortly before his death in 2002, he received the ACM PODC Influential Paper Award in distributed computing for his work in the subarea of self-stabilization. This annual award was renamed the Dijkstra Prize the following year, in his honour. Life and work Born in Rotterdam, Dijkstra studied theoretical physics at Leiden University, but he quickly realized he was more interested in computer science. Originally employed by the Mathematisch Centrum in Amsterdam, he held a professorship at the Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, worked as a research fellow for Burroughs Corporation in the early 1970s, and later held the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in Computer Sciences at The University of Texas at Austin, in the United States. He retired in 2000. Among his contributions to computer science is the shortest path-algorithm, also known as Dijkstra's algorithm; Reverse Polish Notation and related Shunting yard algorithm; the THE multiprogramming system; Banker's algorithm; the concept of operating system rings; and the semaphore construct for coordinating multiple processors and programs. Another concept due to Dijkstra in the field of distributed computing is that of self-stabilization – an alternative way to ensure the reliability of the system. Dijkstra's algorithm is used in SPF, Shortest Path First, which is used in the routing protocol OSPF, Open Shortest Path First. While he had programmed extensively in machine code in the 1950's, he was known for his low opinion of the GOTO statement in computer programming, writing a paper in 1965, and culminating in the 1968 article "A Case against the GO TO Statement" (EWD215), regarded as a major step towards the widespread deprecation of the GOTO statement and its effective replacement by structured control constructs, such as the while loop. This methodology was also called structured programming, the title of his 1972 book, coauthored with C.A.R. Hoare and Ole-Johan Dahl. The March 1968 ACM letter's famous title, "Go To Statement Considered Harmful", "Go To Statement Considered Harmful", Communications of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 147-148. was not the work of Dijkstra, but of Niklaus Wirth, then editor of Communications of the ACM. Dijkstra was known to be a fan of ALGOL 60, and worked on the team that implemented the first compiler for that language. Dijkstra and Jaap Zonneveld, who collaborated on the compiler, agreed not to shave until the project was completed. Dijkstra wrote two important papers in 1968, devoted to the structure of a multiprogramming operating system called THE, and to Co-operating Sequential Processes. He is famed for coining the popular programming phrase "2 or more, use a for", alluding to the fact that when you find yourself processing more than one instance of a data structure, it is time to encapsulate that logic inside a loop. From the 1970s, Dijkstra's chief interest was formal verification. The prevailing opinion at the time was that one should first write a program and then provide a mathematical proof of correctness. Dijkstra objected noting that the resulting proofs are long and cumbersome, and that the proof gives no insight as to how the program was developed. An alternative method is program derivation, to "develop proof and program hand in hand". One starts with a mathematical specification of what a program is supposed to do and applies mathematical transformations to the specification until it is turned into a program that can be executed. The resulting program is then known to be correct by construction. Much of Dijkstra's later work concerns ways to streamline mathematical argument. In a 2001 interview, he stated a desire for "elegance", whereby the correct approach would be to process thoughts mentally, rather than attempt to render them until they are complete. The analogy he made was to contrast the compositional approaches of Mozart and Beethoven. Dijkstra was one of the very early pioneers of the research on distributed computing. Some people even consider some of his papers to be those that established the field. In particular, his paper "Self-stabilizing Systems in Spite of Distributed Control" started the sub-field of self-stabilization. Dijkstra was known for his essays on programming; he was the first to make the claim that programming is so inherently difficult and complex that programmers need to harness every trick and abstraction possible in hopes of managing the complexity of it successfully. Dijkstra believed that computer science was more abstract than programming; he once said, "Computer Science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." He died in Nuenen, The Netherlands on August 6 2002 after a long struggle with cancer. The following year, the ACM (Association for Computing Machinery) PODC Influential Paper Award in distributed computing was renamed the Dijkstra Prize in his honour. EWDs and writing by hand Dijkstra was known for his habit of carefully composing manuscripts with his fountain pen. The manuscripts are called EWDs, since Dijkstra numbered them with EWD as prefix. Dijkstra would distribute photocopies of a new EWD among his colleagues; as many recipients photocopied and forwarded their copy, the EWDs spread throughout the international computer science community. The topics were computer science and mathematics, and included trip reports, letters, and speeches. More than 1300 EWDs have since been scanned, with a growing number transcribed to facilitate search, and are available online at the Dijkstra archive of the University of Texas University of Texas online EWD archive. . One of Dijkstra's sidelines was serving as Chairman of the Board of the fictional Mathematics Inc., a company that he imagined having commercialized the production of mathematical theorems in the same way that software companies had commercialized the production of computer programs. He invented a number of activities and challenges of Mathematics Inc. and documented them in several papers in the EWD series. The imaginary company had produced a proof of the Riemann Hypothesis but then had great difficulties collecting royalties from mathematicians who had proved results assuming the Riemann Hypothesis. The proof itself was a trade secret (EWD 475). Many of the company's proofs were rushed out the door and then much of the company's effort had to be spent on maintenance (EWD 539). A more successful effort was the Standard Proof for Pythagoras' Theorem, that replaced the more than 100 incompatible existing proofs (EWD427). Dijkstra described Mathematics Inc. as "the most exciting and most miserable business ever conceived" (EWD475). He claimed that by 1974 his fictional company was the world's leading mathematical industry with more than 75 percent of the world market (EWD443). Having invented much of the technology of software, Dijkstra eschewed the use of computers in his own work for many decades. Almost all EWDs appearing after 1972 were hand-written. When lecturing, he would write proofs in chalk on a blackboard rather than using overhead foils, let alone Powerpoint slides. Even after he succumbed to his UT colleagues’ encouragement and acquired a Macintosh computer, he used it only for e-mail and for browsing the World Wide Web. University of Texas, "In Memoriam Edsger Wybe Dijkstra." Awards and honors Among Dijkstra's awards and honours are: Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1971) Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (1971) The Association for Computing Machinery's A.M. Turing Award (1972) Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1975) Doctor of Science Honoris Causa from the Queen's University Belfast (1976) Computer Pioneer Charter Recipient from the IEEE Computer Society (1982) Honorary doctorate from the Athens University of Economics & Business, Greece (2001). See also Dijkstra's algorithm Dining philosophers problem "The Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science" Shunting yard algorithm Semaphore Footnotes References Writings by E.W. Dijkstra (EWD215) (EWD340) PDF, 1972 ACM Turing Award lecture (EWD498) From My Life (EWD1166) A Discipline of Programming, Prentice-Hall Series in Automatic Computation, 1976, ISBN 0-13-215871-X Selected Writings on Computing: A Personal Perspective, Texts and Monographs in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, 1982, ISBN 0-387-90652-5 A Method of Programming, E.W. Dijkstra, W.H.J. Feijen, J. Sterringa, Addison Wesley 1988, ISBN 0-201-17536-3 O.-J. Dahl, E. W. Dijkstra, C. A. R. Hoare Structured Programming, Academic Press, London, 1972 ISBN 0-12-200550-3 this volume includes an expanded version of the Notes on Structured Programming, including an extended example of using the structured approach to develop a backtracking algorithm to solve the 8 Queens problem. a pdf version of this book is available in the ACM Classic Books Series Others about Dijkstra, eulogies Biography Digidome Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1930–2002): A Portrait of a Genius (PDF) Obituary in Formal Aspects of Computing with a short biography How can we explain Edsger W. Dijkstra to those who didn't know him? by David Gries Dijkstra Eulogy by J Strother Moore In Memoriam Edsger Wybe Dijkstra by Mario Szegedy Photos of Edsger Dijkstra External links Oral history interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra. Dijkstra recounts his early education and training as a theoretical physicist and as a 'programmer'. Dijkstra describes his work developing software, and his activities at several early information processing conferences. Dijkstra discourses on the development of ALGOL 60 and the origins of computing science in Europe and America. Oral history interview 2001. Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. E. W. Dijkstra Archive Noorderlicht: Discipline in Thought Video interview, 2001-04-10 original here, only in Dutch, bandwidth options | Edsger_W._Dijkstra |@lemmatized edsger:7 wybe:4 dijkstra:41 may:1 august:2 dutch:2 computer:19 scientist:1 receive:2 turing:3 award:8 fundamental:1 contribution:2 area:1 programming:10 language:2 schlumberger:2 centennial:2 chair:2 science:14 university:10 texas:5 austin:2 shortly:1 death:1 acm:7 podc:2 influential:2 paper:7 distributed:4 computing:5 work:8 subarea:1 self:4 stabilization:3 annual:1 rename:2 prize:2 following:2 year:2 honour:3 life:2 bear:1 rotterdam:1 study:1 theoretical:2 physic:1 leiden:1 quickly:1 realize:1 interested:1 originally:1 employ:1 mathematisch:1 centrum:1 amsterdam:1 hold:2 professorship:1 eindhoven:1 technology:2 netherlands:3 research:2 fellow:2 burroughs:1 corporation:1 early:4 later:2 united:1 state:2 retire:1 among:3 short:4 path:3 algorithm:8 also:3 know:7 reverse:1 polish:1 notation:1 related:1 shunt:2 yard:2 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2,140 | Cabal | A cabal is a number of people united in some close design, usually to promote their private views and interests in a church, state, or other community, often by intrigue. Cabals are sometimes secret societies composed of a few designing persons, and at other times are manifestations of emergent behavior in society or governance on the part of a community of persons who have well established public affiliation or kinship. The term can also be used to refer to the designs of such persons or to the practical consequences of their emergent behavior, and also holds a general meaning of intrigue and conspiracy. Its usage carries strong connotations of shadowy corners, back rooms and insidious influence; a cabal is more evil and selective than, say, a faction, which is simply selfish. Because of this negative connotation, few organizations use the term to refer to themselves or their internal subdivisions. Among the exceptions is Discordianism, in which the term is used to refer to an identifiable group within the Discordian tradition, and in the Wawona Tribe, where "Cabal" is used to refer to an internal faction of hedonistic conspiratorial members with a revisionist view of the Crimean War Countway, Foust, Gilbert, Greene, Hurley, Lepper, and Stephens. Crimean Conspiracies (pages 19-45) New York: Goldman Press, 1944. . Origins of the word The term cabal derives from Kabbalah (a word that has numerous spelling variations), the mystical interpretation of the Hebrew scripture, and originally meant either an occult doctrine or a secret. It was introduced into English in the publication of Cabala, a curious medley of letters and papers of the reigns of James and Charles I that appeared in 1654. Cabala, sive Scrinia Sacra. Mysteries of State and Government in Letters of illustrious Persons and great Agents; in the Reigns of Henry the Eighth, Queen Elizabeth, King James and the late King Charls. In two Parts, in which the Secrets of Empire, and Publique manage of Affairs are contained. Cambridge History of English and American Literature (1907–21), vol VII, ch. viii.4 The Compleat Ambassador. Association with Charles II The term took on its present meaning from a group of ministers of King Charles II of England (Sir Thomas Clifford, Lord Arlington, the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley, and Lord Lauderdale), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled CABAL, and who were the signers of the public Treaty of Dover that allied England to France in a prospective war against the Dutch. Durant, Will and Ariel. The Age of Louis XIV. (page 277) New York: Simon And Schuster, 1963. It must be said, however, that the so-called Cabal Ministry can hardly be seen as such — the Scot Lauderdale was not much involved in English governance at all; while the Catholic ministers of the Cabal, Clifford and Arlington, were never much in sympathy with the Protestants, Buckingham and Ashley, nor did Buckingham and Ashley get on very well with each other. Thus, the "Cabal Ministry," never really unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by 1672; Lord Ashley, who became Earl of Shaftesbury, later became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. The explanation that the word originated as an acronym from the names of the group of ministers is a folk etymology, although the coincidence was noted at the time and could possibly have popularized its use. The group, who came to prominence after the fall of Charles's first prime minister, Lord Clarendon, in 1667, was rather called the Cabal because of its secretiveness and lack of responsibility to the "Country party" then run out of power. Use in relation to Computers and Usenet A Cabal room in use at Valve Software.During the rise of Usenet, the term was used as a semi-ironic description of the efforts of people to maintain some order over the chaotic, anarchic Usenet community (see backbone cabal). As in this specific case, references to an alleged cabal often fall within the realm of conspiracy theory. Valve Software, the creators of games such as Half-Life, use "Cabal Rooms" when working on projects such as new games or bug fixes. These rooms usually comprise 10-15 people, many computers and design technologies, and at least one whiteboard. (See adjacent image). Current usage Two recent examples of the use of the word Cabal came in an accusation by former United States Secretary of State Colin Powell's chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, who claimed that the Bush administration's foreign policy is run by a "Cheney-Rumsfeld cabal" implying a sinister intent. Former Powell Aide Says Bush Policy Is Run by 'Cabal' October 21, 2005, By Brian Knowlton (NYT); Foreign Desk And the second by British Prime Minister Gordon Brown has rallied the world community to support UN sanctions against Zimbabwe, denouncing the regime's leaders as a "criminal cabal". Zim led by 'criminal cabal': Africa: Zimbabwe: News24 Currently on the Comedy Central program The Daily Show, the phrase "a global cabal of Jews" is referenced from time to time, as a spoof on antisemitic conspiracy theories. The existence or otherwise of cabals has led to the Internet phenomenon originating on Usenet, "TINC" (standing for There Is No Cabal). Many Masonic conspiracy theories have pictured Freemasonry as an international secret cabal. See also Assassination Conspiracy (political) Emergence Espionage Controversies about Opus Dei Other negative words that arose from descriptions of religious extremism or religious sects include: Zealot Thug Hashshashin World on Fire/Market-dominant minorities Notes External links The Occult Technology of Power (webbed) Ken Birdwell, The Cabal: Valve’s Design Process For Creating Half-Life, (Game Developer Magazine, Dec 1999). | Cabal |@lemmatized cabal:24 number:1 people:3 unite:1 close:1 design:4 usually:2 promote:1 private:1 view:2 interest:1 church:1 state:4 community:4 often:2 intrigue:2 sometimes:1 secret:4 society:2 compose:1 designing:1 person:4 time:4 manifestation:1 emergent:2 behavior:2 governance:2 part:2 well:2 establish:1 public:2 affiliation:1 kinship:1 term:6 also:3 use:10 refer:4 practical:1 consequence:1 hold:1 general:1 meaning:2 conspiracy:6 usage:2 carry:1 strong:1 connotation:2 shadowy:1 corner:1 back:1 room:4 insidious:1 influence:1 evil:1 selective:1 say:3 faction:2 simply:1 selfish:1 negative:2 organization:1 internal:2 subdivision:1 among:1 exception:1 discordianism:1 identifiable:1 group:4 within:2 discordian:1 tradition:1 wawona:1 tribe:1 hedonistic:1 conspiratorial:1 member:2 revisionist:1 crimean:2 war:2 countway:1 foust:1 gilbert:1 greene:1 hurley:1 lepper:1 stephen:1 page:2 new:3 york:2 goldman:1 press:1 origin:1 word:5 derives:1 kabbalah:1 numerous:1 spell:2 variation:1 mystical:1 interpretation:1 hebrew:1 scripture:1 originally:1 mean:1 either:1 occult:2 doctrine:1 introduce:1 english:3 publication:1 cabala:2 curious:1 medley:1 letter:3 paper:1 reign:2 james:2 charles:5 appear:1 sive:1 scrinia:1 sacrum:1 mystery:1 government:1 illustrious:1 great:1 agent:1 henry:1 eighth:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 king:3 late:1 charls:1 two:2 empire:1 publique:1 manage:1 affair:1 contain:1 cambridge:1 history:1 american:1 literature:1 vol:1 vii:1 ch:1 viii:1 compleat:1 ambassador:1 association:1 ii:3 take:1 present:1 minister:5 england:2 sir:1 thomas:1 clifford:2 lord:5 arlington:2 duke:1 buckingham:3 ashley:4 lauderdale:2 whose:1 initial:1 coincidentally:1 signer:1 treaty:1 dover:1 ally:1 france:1 prospective:1 dutch:1 durant:1 ariel:1 age:1 louis:1 xiv:1 simon:1 schuster:1 must:1 however:1 call:2 ministry:2 hardly:1 see:4 scot:1 much:2 involve:1 catholic:1 never:2 sympathy:2 protestant:1 get:1 thus:1 really:1 unify:1 aim:1 fell:1 apart:1 become:2 earl:1 shaftesbury:1 later:1 one:2 fierce:1 opponent:1 explanation:1 originate:2 acronym:1 name:1 folk:1 etymology:1 although:1 coincidence:1 note:2 could:1 possibly:1 popularize:1 come:2 prominence:1 fall:2 first:1 prime:2 clarendon:1 rather:1 secretiveness:1 lack:1 responsibility:1 country:1 party:1 run:3 power:2 relation:1 computer:2 usenet:4 valve:3 software:2 rise:1 semi:1 ironic:1 description:2 effort:1 maintain:1 order:1 chaotic:1 anarchic:1 backbone:1 specific:1 case:1 reference:2 allege:1 realm:1 theory:3 creator:1 game:3 half:2 life:2 work:1 project:1 bug:1 fix:1 comprise:1 many:2 technology:2 least:1 whiteboard:1 adjacent:1 image:1 current:1 recent:1 example:1 accusation:1 former:2 united:1 secretary:1 colin:1 powell:2 chief:1 staff:1 lawrence:1 wilkerson:1 claim:1 bush:2 administration:1 foreign:2 policy:2 cheney:1 rumsfeld:1 imply:1 sinister:1 intent:1 aide:1 october:1 brian:1 knowlton:1 nyt:1 desk:1 second:1 british:1 gordon:1 brown:1 rally:1 world:2 support:1 un:1 sanction:1 zimbabwe:2 denounce:1 regime:1 leader:1 criminal:2 zim:1 lead:2 africa:1 currently:1 comedy:1 central:1 program:1 daily:1 show:1 phrase:1 global:1 jew:1 spoof:1 antisemitic:1 existence:1 otherwise:1 internet:1 phenomenon:1 tinc:1 stand:1 masonic:1 picture:1 freemasonry:1 international:1 assassination:1 political:1 emergence:1 espionage:1 controversy:1 opus:1 dei:1 arise:1 religious:2 extremism:1 sect:1 include:1 zealot:1 thug:1 hashshashin:1 fire:1 market:1 dominant:1 minority:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 ken:1 birdwell:1 process:1 create:1 developer:1 magazine:1 dec:1 |@bigram emergent_behavior:2 negative_connotation:1 queen_elizabeth:1 louis_xiv:1 simon_schuster:1 folk_etymology:1 prime_minister:2 bug_fix:1 colin_powell:1 chief_staff:1 external_link:1 |
2,141 | Boone,_North_Carolina | Boone is a town located in the Blue Ridge Mountains of western North Carolina, USA. Boone is the county seat of Watauga County. Boone is the home of Appalachian State University. The town is named for famous pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, and every summer since 1952 has hosted a outdoor amphitheatre portrayal of the life and times of its namesake. Boone Boone took its name from the famous pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, who on several occasions camped at a site generally agreed to be within the present city limits. Boone was served by the narrow gauge East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad (nicknamed "Tweetsie") until the flood of 1940. Boone is the home of Appalachian State University, a constituent member of the University of North Carolina. Appalachian State is the fifth largest university in the sixteen-campus system. Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute also operates a satellite campus in Boone. "Horn in the West", a dramatization of the life and times of Daniel Boone, has been performed in an outdoor amphitheatre above the town every summer since 1952. Its original "Daniel Boone" was Ned Austin. His "Hollywood Star" stands on a pedestal on King Street in downtown Boone. The late guitarist Michael Houser was born in Boone. He is best known as a founding member of and lead guitarist for the band Widespread Panic. The Grammy Award-winning guitar player Doc Watson also comes from the Boone area, as do many bluegrass musicians and Appalachian storytellers. Geography Daniel Boone statue on the campus of Appalachian State University Boone is located at (36.211364, -81.668657) and has an elevation of 3,266 feet (995.5 m) above mean sea level. An earlier survey gave the elevation as 3,332 ft and since then it has been published as having an elevation of 3,333 ft (1,016 m). Boone has the highest elevation of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River. As such, the climate of Boone is a subtropical variant of the humid continental climate zone, closer to that of Northern New England or the upper Midwest than the South. During summer, high temperatures in Boone are typically 78 °F (25 °C) or below, noticeably cooler than the lowland areas to the east and south, and summers are also considerably less humid than in other parts of the Carolinas. However, winters are long, harsh, and cold, with frequent sleet and snowfall. Blizzard-like conditions are not unusual during most winters. Boone typically receives on average nearly 40 inches of snowfall annually, which is far higher than the lowland areas in the rest of North Carolina, which usually receive under 10 inches of snowfall annually on average. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 13,472 people, 4,374 households, and 1,237 families residing in the town. The population density was 2,307.0 people per square mile (890.7/km²). There were 4,748 housing units at an average density of 813.0/sq mi (313.9/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 93.98% White, 3.42% Black or African American, 0.30% Native American, 1.19% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.46% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. 1.64% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 4,374 households out of which 9.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.0% were married couples living together, 5.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 71.7% were non-families. 38.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.97 and the average family size was 2.63. The age distribution is 5.8% under the age of 18, 65.9% from 18 to 24, 12.1% from 25 to 44, 9.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 21 years. Both the overall age distribution and the median age are typical for communities dominated by a large university, here Appalachian State. For every 100 females there are 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males. The median household income is $20,541, and the median family income is $49,762. Men had a median income of $28,060 versus $20,000 for women. The per capita income is $12,256. 37.0% of the population and 9.2% of families were below the poverty line. However, poverty statistics that are based on surveys of the entire population can be extremely misleading in communities dominated by students, such as Boone. Out of the total population, 6.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.1% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. These particular statistics are far less skewed by the overwhelming dominance of students in Boone's population. Media Newspaper Boone is served by three local newspapers. The Watauga Democrat is published on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday of each week. The Mountain Times and High Country Press are weekly publications. The Appalachian State University campus also has a newspaper, The Appalachian, published twice a week on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Radio WATA 1450 AM is predominantly News Talk. WASU 90.5 FM is a college radio station run from the Appalachian campus. MIX 102.3 WECR FM is an adult contemporary station, mostly music, also Carolina Tarheels sports network, and Carolina Panthers football. www.goblueridge.net is the station website. Development controversy Boone currently has zoning laws and defined urban/rural growth areas, but lacks a long-term land use plan that dictates how the city can grow. There is no clear indication as to the future of Boone's development. Some signs indicate that local government bodies are beginning to examine the long-term effects of development more closely – for example, a 2005 moratorium councilretreat that limited multi-family developments to 24 or fewer units while the town examined the impact of such developments. The North Carolina Department of Transportation plans to begin widening 1.2 miles of King Street / US 421 in 2009. As planned, the widening project will stop short of the historic downtown stretch of King Street, but will nonetheless displace 25 businesses and 63 residences east of that point. statedotpaves Points of interest Appalachian State University Blue Ridge Parkway Daniel Boone Native Gardens Horn in the West Howard's Knob Tweetsie Railroad Watauga River Elk Knob State Park See also Banner Elk, North Carolina Elizabethton, Tennessee Roan Mountain, Tennessee Roan Mountain State Park References External links Official Boone, NC website Boone Area Chamber of Commerce Boone Convention & Visitors Bureau AppalCART Public Transportation High Country Press The Mountain Times The Watauga Democrat Boone Radio Station News and Streaming Broadcasts Historical Boone Photos, Postcards, and Paper Cy Crumley ET&WNC Photo Collection High Country Host Boone Chamber of Commerce history and information Nightlife and dining | Boone,_North_Carolina |@lemmatized boone:33 town:7 locate:2 blue:2 ridge:2 mountain:5 western:2 north:6 carolina:9 usa:1 county:2 seat:1 watauga:4 home:2 appalachian:10 state:9 university:8 name:2 famous:2 pioneer:2 explorer:2 daniel:6 every:4 summer:4 since:3 host:2 outdoor:2 amphitheatre:2 portrayal:1 life:2 time:4 namesake:1 take:1 several:1 occasion:1 camp:1 site:1 generally:1 agree:1 within:1 present:2 city:2 limit:2 serve:2 narrow:1 gauge:1 east:4 tennessee:3 railroad:2 nicknamed:1 tweetsie:2 flood:1 constituent:1 member:2 fifth:1 large:2 sixteen:1 campus:5 system:1 caldwell:1 community:3 college:2 technical:1 institute:1 also:6 operate:1 satellite:1 horn:2 west:2 dramatization:1 perform:1 original:1 ned:1 austin:1 hollywood:1 star:1 stand:1 pedestal:1 king:3 street:3 downtown:2 late:1 guitarist:2 michael:1 houser:1 bear:1 best:1 know:1 founding:1 lead:1 band:1 widespread:1 panic:1 grammy:1 award:1 winning:1 guitar:1 player:1 doc:1 watson:1 come:1 area:5 many:1 bluegrass:1 musician:1 storyteller:1 geography:1 statue:1 elevation:4 foot:1 mean:1 sea:1 level:1 early:1 survey:2 give:1 ft:2 publish:3 high:6 size:3 population:7 mississippi:1 river:2 climate:2 subtropical:1 variant:1 humid:2 continental:1 zone:2 close:1 northern:1 new:1 england:1 upper:1 midwest:1 south:2 temperature:1 typically:2 f:1 c:1 noticeably:1 cool:1 lowland:2 considerably:1 less:2 part:1 however:2 winter:2 long:3 harsh:1 cold:1 frequent:1 sleet:1 snowfall:3 blizzard:1 like:1 condition:1 unusual:1 receive:2 average:5 nearly:1 inch:2 annually:2 far:2 rest:1 usually:1 demographic:1 census:1 people:2 household:5 family:6 reside:1 density:2 per:2 square:1 mile:2 housing:1 unit:2 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:2 asian:1 pacific:1 islander:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:10 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:3 together:1 female:3 householder:1 husband:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:3 distribution:2 median:5 overall:1 typical:1 dominate:2 male:2 income:4 men:1 versus:1 woman:1 capita:1 poverty:3 line:2 statistic:2 base:1 entire:1 extremely:1 misleading:1 student:2 total:1 particular:1 skew:1 overwhelming:1 dominance:1 medium:1 newspaper:3 three:1 local:2 democrat:2 monday:1 wednesday:1 friday:1 week:2 country:3 press:2 weekly:1 publication:1 twice:1 tuesday:1 thursday:1 radio:3 wata:1 predominantly:1 news:2 talk:1 wasu:1 fm:2 station:4 run:1 mix:1 wecr:1 adult:1 contemporary:1 mostly:1 music:1 tarheel:1 sport:1 network:1 panther:1 football:1 www:1 goblueridge:1 net:1 website:2 development:5 controversy:1 currently:1 law:1 defined:1 urban:1 rural:1 growth:1 lack:1 term:2 land:1 use:1 plan:3 dictate:1 grow:1 clear:1 indication:1 future:1 sign:1 indicate:1 government:1 body:1 begin:2 examine:2 effect:1 closely:1 example:1 moratorium:1 councilretreat:1 multi:1 impact:1 department:1 transportation:2 widen:1 u:1 widening:1 project:1 stop:1 short:1 historic:1 stretch:1 nonetheless:1 displace:1 business:1 residence:1 point:2 statedotpaves:1 interest:1 parkway:1 garden:1 howard:1 knob:2 elk:2 park:2 see:1 banner:1 elizabethton:1 roan:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 nc:1 chamber:2 commerce:2 convention:1 visitor:1 bureau:1 appalcart:1 public:1 stream:1 broadcast:1 historical:1 photo:2 postcard:1 paper:1 cy:1 crumley:1 et:1 wnc:1 collection:1 history:1 information:1 nightlife:1 dining:1 |@bigram north_carolina:6 daniel_boone:6 narrow_gauge:1 grammy_award:1 humid_continental:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:1 median_household:1 household_income:1 median_income:1 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 monday_wednesday:1 wednesday_friday:1 tuesday_thursday:1 carolina_panther:1 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:2 visitor_bureau:1 |
2,142 | Historian | Herodotus (5th century BC), one of the earliest nameable historians whose work survives. A historian is an individual who studies and writes about history, and is regarded as an authority on it. "historian". Wordnet.princeton.edu. Accessed 28 June 2008 Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all events in time. If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is a historian of prehistory. Although "historian" can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, it is reserved more recently for those who have acquired graduate degrees in the discipline. Herman, A. M. (1998). Occupational outlook handbook: 1998-99 edition. Indianapolis: JIST Works. Page 525. Some historians, though, are recognized by equivalent training and experience in the field. "Historian" became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century at roughly the same time that physicians also set standards for who could enter the field. The professional association of historians in the United States is the American Historical Association, founded in 1884. History analysis The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened" and "why or how it happened". Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy and linguistics. While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology. Historiography in Antiquity Herodotus and Thucydides were the founders of the discipline of history, although there are other notable Greek histories including Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Concerning Herodotus (5th century BC), one of the earliest nameable historians whose work survives, his recount of strange and unusual tales are gripping but not necessarily representative of the historical record. Despite this, The Histories of Herodotus displays some of the techniques of more modern historians. He interviewed witnesses, evaluated oral histories, studied multiple sources and then pronounced his particular version. Herodotus's works covered what was then the entire known world of the Greeks, or at least the part regarded as worthy of study, i.e., the peoples surrounding the Mediterranean. Herodotus was also known for visitng the various battle sites he wrote about, including the battle of Thermopylae. At about the same time, Thucydides pioneered a different form of history, one much closer to reportage. In his work, History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides wrote about a single long conflict that lasted 27 years between Athens and Sparta with its origins and results. But, as it was mainly within living memory and Thucydides himself was alive throughout the conflict and a participant in many of the events, there was less room for myths and tall tales. Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes (太史令) of the Han Dynasty and is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography because of his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian (史記), an overview of the history of China covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to Emperor Han Wudi (漢武帝). His work laid the foundation for later Chinese historiography. Li Chunfeng was a Chinese historian who wrote the history of the Jin dynasty. (漢武帝). Ibn Abd-el-Hakem was an Egyptian who wrote the History of the Conquest of Egypt and North Africa and Spain, which was the earliest Arab account of the Islamic conquests of those countries. Much like Herodotus' works, it mixes facts with legends, and was often quoted by later Islamic historians. Al-Jahiz was a famous Arab scholar and historian. Hamdani, an Arab historian,was the best representatives of Islamic culture during the last effective years of the Abbasid caliphate. Ali al-Masudi was an Arab historian, known as the “Herodotus of the Arabs.” Ibn Khaldun was a famous Arab Muslim historian and was the forefather of historiography and the philosophy of history. He is best known for his Muqaddimah "Prolegomenon". Much of the groundwork in creating the modern figure of the historian was done by Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755). His wide-ranging Spirit of the Laws (1748) spanned legal, geographical, cultural, economic, political and philosophical studies and was greatly influential in forging the fundamentally interdisciplinary historian. Referred to as "the first modern historian", Edward Gibbon wrote his grand opus, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (three vols., 1776–1788). However, some authors such as Christiansen regard ancient Greek author Polybius as the first historian of a modern kind, criticising sources and making unbiased judgements based on presumed neutral analysis; indeed, Livy used him as a source. Polybius, one of the first historians to attempt to present history as a sequence of causes and effects, carefully conducted his research—partly based on what he saw and partly on the communications of eye-witnesses and the participants in the events. Twentieth-century developments At the dawn of the twentieth century, Western history remained oriented toward the "great man theory" of history concerning , diplomacy, science and high politics. This point of view was predisposed toward the study of a small number of powerful men within a given socio-economic elite. More often than not, this has been furthered by the traditional whig school of thought, which holds that history is "protestant, progressive... [and] studies the past with reference to the present." Herbert Butterfield, The Whig Interpretation of History (New York: W.W. Norton, 1965), v, 3-4. This has been gradually been replaced with a more critical perspective. For example, it is a common misconception that Thomas Edison alone invented the incandescent light bulb; a traditional history might highlight Edison's invention at the expense of all others. In contrast, a modern history of Edison or the lightbulb mentions Joseph Wilson Swan, Heinrich Göbel, A.N. Lodygin, and Warren De la Rue in order to show that Edison's activities were one part of a group of inventors and rivals in the commercial deployment of the technology. Since the 1960s, history as an academic discipline has undergone several evolutions. These changes fostered advances in a number of areas previously disregarded in historiography. Formerly neglected topics have become the subject of academic study, such as the history of popular and mass culture, sexuality, cultural geography, and the lives of ordinary people. Revisionist histories have attempted to "set the record straight" by redefining the impression society holds of the past. Howard Zinn's 1980 book, A People's History of the United States was one of the first works of history to revolutionize the field, opting to describe, for example, the native Carib peoples who greeted Christopher Columbus, rather than the explorer himself. The 1978 work Orientalism, by Edward Said, argues in the same vein that the western approach to describing the Orient inherently characterizes it as inferior. Historians have also started investigating the histories of ideas surrounding various categories of people, such as gender (women's history), racial minorities (e.g. African-American history) or the disabled. More recently, historians have begun using the power of computers to pose new research questions to historical data in a methodology known as digital history. Education and profession Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education. bls.gov : Social Scientists, Other; This site delineates the requirements for Social scientists that work for the various levels of the US Government. (cf., The Ph.D. or an equivalent degree is a requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic research and administrative posts.) In addition, it is common, although not required, for many historians to have a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in their chosen areas of study. During the preparation of their thesis for this degree, many develop into their first book, since regular publishing activities are essential for advancement in academia. There is currently a great deal of controversy among academic historians regarding the possibility and desirability of the neutrality in historical scholarship. The job market for graduate historians is relatively limited. Historians typically work in libraries, universities, archival centers, government agencies (particularly heritage) and as freelance consultants. Many with an undergraduate history degree also may become involved with administrative or clerical professions and an undergraduate history degree is often used as a "stepping stone" to further studies such as a law degree. See also Denialism Great man theory Historical revisionism People's history Pseudohistory Public history Whig history Notes Bibliography Listed by date Richard B. Todd, ed. (2004). Dictionary of British Classicists, 1500–1960, Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 ISBN 1-85506-997-0. Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing. London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn ISBN 1-884964-33-8 Lateiner, D. (1989). The historical method of Herodotus. Phoenix, 23. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. John Cannon et al., eds. (1988). The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 ISBN 0-631-14708-X. Hartog, F. (1988). The mirror of Herodotus: the representation of the other in the writing of history. Berkeley: University of California Press. Erik Christiansen (1970). The Last Hundred Years of the Roman Republic, Odense: Andelsbogtrykkeriet Gottschalk, L. R. (1950). Understanding history; a primer of historical method. New York: Knopf Barnes, M. S. (1896). Studies in historical method. Heath's pedagogical library. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. Taylor, I. (1889). History of the transmission of ancient books to modern times, together with the process of historical proof: or, a concise account of the means by which the genuineness of ancient literature generally, and authenticity of historical works especially, are ascertained, including incidental remarks upon the relative strength of the evidence usually adduced in behalf of the Holy Scriptures. Liverpool: E. Howell. Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., Rawlinson, H. C., & Wilkinson, J. G. (1862). History of Herodotus. A new English version. London: John Murray. Véricour, L. R. d. (1850). Historical analysis of Christian civilisation. London: J. Chapman. Taylor, I. (1828). The process of historical proof. London: Printed for B. J. Holdsworth. | Historian |@lemmatized herodotus:12 century:5 bc:2 one:6 early:4 nameable:2 historian:34 whose:2 work:14 survive:2 individual:3 study:11 write:7 history:39 regard:5 authority:1 wordnet:1 princeton:1 edu:1 access:1 june:1 concern:3 continuous:1 methodical:1 narrative:2 research:4 past:3 event:5 relate:1 human:1 race:1 well:1 time:5 precede:1 prehistory:1 although:3 use:4 describe:3 amateur:1 professional:3 alike:1 reserve:1 recently:2 acquire:1 graduate:2 degree:7 discipline:4 herman:1 occupational:1 outlook:1 handbook:1 edition:1 indianapolis:1 jist:1 page:1 though:1 recognize:1 equivalent:2 training:1 experience:1 field:3 become:3 occupation:1 late:2 nineteenth:1 roughly:1 physician:1 also:5 set:2 standard:1 could:1 enter:1 association:2 united:2 state:2 american:2 historical:17 found:1 analysis:6 process:3 involve:1 investigation:1 compete:1 idea:2 fact:3 purported:1 create:2 coherent:1 explain:1 happen:2 modern:9 usually:2 draw:1 upon:2 social:3 science:2 include:4 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2,143 | Central_African_Republic | The Central African Republic (CAR) ( or Centrafrique ; Sango Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka), is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It borders Chad in the north, Sudan in the east, the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the south, and Cameroon in the west. Most of the CAR consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas but it also includes a Sahelo-Sudanese zone in the north and an equatorial forest zone in the south. Two thirds of the country lies in the basins of the Ubangi River, which flows south into the Congo River, while the remaining third lies in the basin of the Chari River, which flows north into Lake Chad. Since most of the territory is located in the Ubangi and Shari river basins, the French called the colony it carved out in this region Ubangi-Chari, or Oubangui-Chari in French. This French colony of Ubangi-Chari became a semi-autonomous territory of the French Community in 1958 and then an independent nation on 13 August 1960. For over three decades after independence, the CAR was ruled by presidents who were not chosen in multi-party democratic elections or who took power by force. Local discontent with this system was eventually reinforced by international pressure, following the end of the Cold War. The first multi-party democratic elections were held in 1993 with resources provided by the country's donors and help from the UN Office for Electoral Affairs. They brought Ange-Félix Patassé to power, but President Patassé lost popular support and was overthrown by French-backed General François Bozizé in 2003. General Bozizé won a democratic election in May 2005. In 2001 The Ecologist magazine estimated that Central African Republic is the world's leading country in sustainable development. HS Foreign 24.4.2001 - Did the Central African Republic surpass Finland in environmental affairs? Inability to pay workers in the public sector led to strikes in 2007, forcing the resignation of the government in early 2008. A new Prime Minister, Faustin-Archange Touadéra, was named on January 22, 2008. The Central African Republic is one of the poorest countries in the world and among the ten poorest countries in Africa. The Human Development Index for Central African Republic is 0.352, which gives the country a rank of 178th out of 179 countries with data. http://hdrstats.undp.org/2008/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CAF.html History Pre-history Between about 1000 BC and 1000 AD, Adamawa-Eastern-speaking peoples spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan and settled in most of the territory of the CAR. During the same period, a much smaller number of Bantu-speaking immigrants settled in Southwestern CAR and some Central Sudanic-speaking populations settled along the Oubangi. The majority of the CAR's inhabitants thus speak Adamawa-Eastern languages or Bantu languages belonging to the Niger-Congo family. A minority speak Central Sudanic languages of the Nilo-Saharan family. More recent immigrants include many Muslim merchants who most often speak Arabic or Hausa. Exposure to the outside world Until the early 1800s, the peoples of the CAR lived beyond the expanding Islamic frontier in the Sudanic zone of Africa and thus had relatively little contact with Abrahamic religions or northern economies. During the first decades of the nineteenth century, however, Muslim traders began increasingly to penetrate the region of the CAR and to cultivate special relations with local leaders in order to facilitate their trade and settlement in the region. The initial arrival of Muslim traders in the early 1800s was relatively peaceful and depended upon the support of local peoples, but after about 1850, slave traders with well-armed soldiers began to penetrate the region. Between c. 1860 and 1910, slave traders from Sudan, Chad, Cameroon, Dar al-Kuti in Northern CAR and Nzakara and Zande states in Southeastern CAR exported much of the population of Eastern CAR, a region with very few inhabitants today. French colonialism Oubangui-Chari in 1910European penetration of Central African territory began in the late nineteenth century during the so-called Scramble for Africa (c. 1875-1900). Count Savorgnan de Brazza took the lead in establishing the French Congo with headquarters in the city named after him, Brazzaville, and sent expeditions up the Ubangi River in an effort to expand France's claims to territory in Central Africa. King Leopold II of Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom also competed to establish their claims to territory in the Central African region. In 1889 the French established a post on the Ubangi River at Bangui, the future capital of Ubangi-Shari and the CAR. De Brazza then sent expeditions in 1890-91 up the Sangha River in what is now Southwestern CAR, up the center of the Ubangi basin toward Lake Chad, and eastward along the Ubangi River toward the Nile. De Brazza and the procolonial in France wished to expand the borders of the French Congo to link up with French territories in West Africa, North Africa and East Africa. In 1894, the French Congo's borders with Leopold II's Congo Free State and German Cameroon were fixed by diplomatic agreements. Then, in 1899, the French Congo's border with Sudan was fixed along the Congo-Nile watershed, leaving France without her much coveted outlet on the Nile and turning Southeastern Ubangi-Shari into a cul-de-sac. Once European negotiators agreed upon the borders of the French Congo, France had to decide how to pay for the costly occupation, administration, and development of the territory. The reported financial successes of Leopold II's concessionary companies in the Congo Free State convinced the French government in 1899 to grant 17 private companies large concessions in the Ubangi-Shari region. In return for the right to exploit these lands by buying local products and selling European goods, the companies promised to pay rent to the colonial state and to promote the development of their concessions. The companies employed European and African agents who frequently used extremely brutal and atrocious methods to force Central Africans to work for them. At the same time, the French colonial administration began to force Central Africans to pay taxes and to provide the state with free labor. The companies and French administration often collaborated in their efforts to force Central Africans to work for their benefit, but they also often found themselves at odds. Some French officials reported abuses committed by private company militias and even by their own colonial colleagues and troops, but efforts to bring these criminals to justice almost always failed. When news of atrocities committed against Central Africans by concessionary company employees and colonial officials or troops reached France and caused an outcry, there were investigations and some feeble attempts at reform, but the situation on the ground in Ubangi-Shari remained essentially the same. Stamp from 1924In the meantime, during the first decade of French colonial rule (c. 1900-1910), the rulers of African states in the Ubangi-Shari region increased their slave raiding activities and also their sale of local products to European companies and the colonial state. They took advantage of their treaties with the French to procure more weapons which were used to capture more slaves and so much of the eastern half of Ubangi-Shari was depopulated as a result of the export of Central Africans by local rulers during the first decade of colonial rule. Those who had power, Africans and Europeans, often made life miserable for those who did not have the power to resist. During the second decade of colonial rule (c. 1910-1920), armed employees of private companies and the colonial state continued to use brutal methods to deal with local populations who resisted forced labor but the power of local African rulers was destroyed and so slave raiding was greatly diminished. In 1911, the Sangha and Lobaye basins were ceded to Germany as part of an agreement which gave France a free-hand in Morocco and so Western Ubangi-Shari came under German rule until World War I, during which France reconquered this territory by using Central African troops. The third decade of colonial rule (1920-1930) was a period of transition during which a network of roads was built, cash crops were promoted, mobile health services were formed to combat sleeping sickness, and Protestant missions established stations in different parts of the country. New forms of forced labor were also introduced, however, as the French conscripted large numbers of Ubangians to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway and many of these recruits died of exhaustion and illness. In 1925 the French writer André Gide published Voyage au Congo in which he described the alarming consequences of conscription for the Congo-Ocean railroad and exposed the continuing atrocities committed against Central Africans in Western Ubangi-Shari by employees of the Forestry Company of Sangha-Ubangi, for example. In 1928 a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara 'war of the hoe handle' broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, perhaps the largest anticolonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence, once again, of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor. During the fourth decade of colonial rule (c. 1930-1940), cotton, tea, and coffee emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of diamonds and gold began in earnest. Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were thus able to fix the prices paid to cultivators in order to assure profits for their shareholders. Europeans established coffee plantations and Central Africans also began to cultivate coffee. The fifth decade of colonial rule (c. 1940-1950) was shaped by the Second World War and the political reforms which followed in its wake. In September 1940 pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari. Independence On 1 December 1958 the colony of Ubangi-Shari became an autonomous territory within the French Community and took the name Central African Republic. The founding father and president of the Conseil de Gouvernement, Barthélémy Boganda, died in a mysterious plane accident in 1959, just eight days before the last elections of the colonial era. On 13 August 1960 the Central African Republic gained its independence and two of Boganda's closest aides, Abel Goumba and David Dacko, became involved in a power struggle. With the backing of the French, Dacko took power and soon had Goumba arrested. By 1962 President Dacko had established a one-party state. On 31 December 1965 Dacko was overthrown in the Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état by Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa, who suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly. President Bokassa declared himself President for life in 1972, and named himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire on 4 December 1976. A year later, Emperor Bokassa crowned himself in a lavish and expensive ceremony that was ridiculed by much of the world. In 1979 France carried out a coup against Bokassa and "restored" Dacko to power. Dacko, in turn, was overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981. Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985. He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum. Membership in his new party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC) was voluntary. In 1987, semi-competitive elections to parliament were held and municipal elections were held in 1988. Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to compete. By 1990, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active. In May 1990 a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference but Kolingba refused this request and detained several opponents. Pressure from the United States, more reluctantly from France, and from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (France, USA, Germany, Japan, EU, World Bank and UN) finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992, with help from the UN Office of Electoral Affairs. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the results of the elections as a pretext for holding on to power, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from GIBAFOR to establish a "Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République" (Provisional National Political Council) (CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission" which included representatives from all political parties. When elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community, Ange-Félix Patassé came in first in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth after Abel Goumba and David Dacko. In the second round, Patassé won 53 percent of the vote while Goumba won 45.6 percent. Most of Patassé's support came from Gbaya, Kare and Kaba voters in seven heavily-populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less-populated prefectures in the south and east. Furthermore, Patassé's party, the Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People gained a simple but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé needed coalition partners. Patassé relieved former President Kolingba of his military rank of general in March 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes. Patassé also removed many Yakoma from important, lucrative posts in the government. Two hundred mostly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army. Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patassé's government was conducting a "witch hunt" against the Yakoma. A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 and promulgated on 14 January 1995, but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the practice of politics. In 1996-1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in its erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patassé's government were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension. On 25 January 1997, the Bangui Peace Accords were signed which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, the Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB). Mali's former president, Amadou Touré, served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997. The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the Mission des Nations Unies en RCA (MINURCA). In 1998 parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba' RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, which constituted a comeback, but in 1999, notwithstanding widespread public anger in urban centers with his corrupt rule, Patassé won free elections to become president for a second term. On 28 May 2001 rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General Francois N'Djadder Bedaya were shot, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba from over the river in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and by Libyan soldiers. In the aftermath of this failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui, that resulted in the destruction of many homes as well as the torture and murder of many opponents. Eventually Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him and so Bozizé fled with loyal troops to Chad. On 25 October 2002 Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patassé. François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba, "Mr. Clean", was named vice-president, which gave Bozizé's new government a positive image. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved. A national dialogue was held from 15 September to 27 October 2003, and Bozizé won a fair election that excluded Patassé, to be elected president on a second ballot, in May 2005. Humanitarian situation, peacebuilding and development The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous NGOs which provide services which the government fails to provide. As one UNDP official put it, the CAR is a country "sous serum," or a country metaphorically hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150). The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans. The country is self-sufficient in food crops, but much of the population lives at a subsistence level. Livestock development is hindered by the presence of the tsetse fly. In 2006 due to ongoing violence, over 50,000 in the country's north-west were at risk of starvation, and this was only averted thanks to United Nations support. Peacebuilding Commission places Central African Republic on agenda http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/pbc39.doc.htm On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic became the fourth country to be placed on the agenda of the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was set up in 2005 to help countries emerging from conflict avoid the slide back into war or chaos. The 31-member body agreed to take up the situation after a request from the government. Peacebuilding Fund http://www.unpbf.org/CAR.shtml The Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon declared on 8 January 2008 that the Central African Republic was eligible to receive assistance from the Peacebuilding Fund. Three priority areas were identified: 1) Security sector reform 2) Promotion of good governance and the rule of law and 3) Revitalization of communities affected by conflicts. Politics François Bozizé is President of the country. A new constitution was approved by voters in a referendum held on December 5, 2004. Full multiparty presidential and parliamentary elections were held in March 2005, Reuters AlertNet - CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: Polls results to be announced on 22 May, official says with a second round in May. Bozizé was declared the winner after a run-off vote. BBC NEWS World | Africa | Country profiles | Timeline: Central African Republic In February 2006, there were reports of widespread violence in the northern part of the CAR. BBC NEWS Africa | Thousands flee new CAR 'rebels' Thousands of refugees fled their homes, caught in the crossfire of battles between government troops and rebel forces. More than 7,000 people fled to neighboring Chad. Those who remained in the CAR told of government troops systematically killing men and boys suspected of cooperating with rebels. BBC NEWS Africa | Thousands flee from CAR violence Prefectures and sub-prefectures Prefectures of the Central African Republic The Central African Republic is divided into 14 administrative prefectures (préfectures), along with 2 economic prefectures (préfectures economiques) and one autonomous commune. The prefectures are further divided into 71 sub-prefectures (sous-préfectures). The prefectures include: Bamingui-Bangoran Basse-Kotto Haute-Kotto Haut-Mbomou Kémo Lobaye Mambéré-Kadéï Mbomou Nana-Mambéré Ombella-M'Poko Ouaka Ouham Ouham-Pendé Vakaga the two economic prefectures are Nana-Grébizi and Sangha-Mbaéré; the commune is Bangui. Geography Map of the Central African Republic The Central African Republic is a land-locked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by the countries of Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, typically about 1,640 feet (500 m) above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in southwest part of the country. To the northwest is the Yade Massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of 3,750 feet (1,143 m). At 240,519 mi² (622,984 km²), the Central African Republic is the world's 43rd-largest country (after Somalia). It is comparable in size to Ukraine, and is somewhat smaller than the US state of Texas. Ubangi River on the outskirts of Bangui. Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River, with the Mbomou River in the east merging with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River. In the west, the Sangha River flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the Nile river watershed. Estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest ranges up to 8%, with the densest parts in the south. The forest is highly diverse, and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo. [http://www.forestsmonitor.org/en/reports/540539 Sold Down the River (English) March 2001]. Forests Monitor. The deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace. The Forests of the Congo Basin: State of the Forest 2006. CARPE 13-Jul-07 The climate of the C.A.R. is generally tropical. The northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The northern regions have been subject to desertification, and the northeast is desert. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers. In the November 2008 issue of National Geographic, the Central African Republic was named the country least affected by light pollution. Economy A boy wearing a burnt lantern hat in the city of Birao, Central African Republic. The town was almost completely burnt down in March 2007 during fighting between rebels and government troops. The economy of the CAR is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame and plantains. The annual real GDP growth rate is just above 3%. The importance of foodcrops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Many rural and urban women also transform foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not "on the books" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine, for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans. Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely. Export trade is hindered by poor economic development, and the location of this country far from the coast. The wilderness regions of this country have potential as ecotourist destinations. The country is noted for its population of forest elephants. In the southwest, the Dzanga-Sangha National Park is a rain forest area. To the north, the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park has been well-populated with wildlife, including leopards, lions, and rhinos. To the northeast the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park. However the population of wildlife in these parks has severely diminished over the past 20 years due to poaching, particularly from the neighboring Sudan. The CAR is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The CAR is ranked 180 out of 181 on 'ease of business' in the 2009 Doing Business Report of the World Bank Group. The 'ease of business' ranking uses a composite index on regulations that enhance business activity and those that constrain it. http://www.doingbusiness.org/Documents/CountryProfiles/CAF.pdf Demographics The population has tripled since independence. In 1960 the population was 1,232,000. The population is 4,302,360. (February 2008 est.) Note: estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. The United Nations estimates that approximately 11% of the population aged 15 - 49 is HIV positive. Countries Only 3% of the country has antiretroviral therapy available, compared to 17% coverage in neighbouring countries of Chad and the Republic of the Congo. http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_GR_ANN3_en.pdf A village in the Central African Republic The nation is divided into over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, Sara 10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, and Yakoma 4%, with 2% others, including Europeans of mostly French descent. Religion Christians form 50 percent of the population, while 35 percent of the population maintain Indigenous beliefs, and Islam is practiced by approximately 15 percent of the country's population. the World Factbook There are many missionary groups operating in the country, including Lutherans, Baptists, Catholics, Grace Brethren, and Jehovah's Witnesses. While these missionaries are predominantly from the United States, France, Italy, and Spain, many are also from Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and other African countries. Many missionaries left the country due to fighting between rebel and government forces in 2002 and 2003. Many have now returned to the country and resumed their activities. U.S. Department of State the World Factbook Culture See also: List of writers from the Central African Republic Music of the Central African Republic Public holidays in the Central African Republic Miscellaneous topics Communications in the Central African Republic Foreign relations of the Central African Republic Military of the Central African Republic Transport in the Central African Republic List of people on stamps of Central African Republic Fédération du scoutisme centrafricain Central African Republic national football team See also List of Central African Republic-related topics References Further reading Kalck, Pierre, Historical Dictionary of the Central African Republic, 2004 Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006) ISBN 9781-4259-11980 Titley, Brian, Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa, 2002 External links Government Central African Republic Online Chief of State and Cabinet Members Overviews Country Profile from BBC News Central African Republic from UCB Libraries GovPubs News Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN – Central African Republic Central African Republic news headline links from AllAfrica.com RCA Info Cultural Baka Pygmies Culture and music of the first inhabitants of the Central African Republic, with photos and ethnographic notes Tourism Other location of Central African Republic on a 3D globe (Java) Central African Republic at Humanitarian and Development Partnership Team (HDPT) Central African Republic reports from Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers Johann Hari in Birao, Central African Republic Inside France's Secret War from The Independent, October 5, 2007 be-x-old:Цэнтральна-Афрыканская Рэспубліка | Central_African_Republic |@lemmatized central:60 african:63 republic:47 car:27 centrafrique:1 sango:1 ködörösêse:1 tî:1 bêafrîka:1 landlocked:1 country:45 africa:14 border:8 chad:8 north:6 sudan:6 east:4 congo:22 democratic:7 south:5 cameroon:5 west:4 consist:2 sudano:1 guinean:1 savanna:2 also:12 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2,144 | Mecha | Mecha, also known as meka or mechs, are walking vehicles controlled by a pilot, often appearing in anime, science fiction, or other genres involving a fantastic or futuristic element. Mecha are generally, though not necessarily, bipedal, with arms, hands, and fingers capable of grasping objects. A mecha that approximates the shape of a human body allows the use of martial arts movements and swordsmanship, ceremonial acts of honor, saluting, and other human mannerisms that cannot be performed using a tank or airplane. In most fiction in which they appear, mecha are war machines: essentially armored fighting vehicles with legs instead of treads or wheels. Some stories, such as the manga Patlabor and American miniatures game Battletech, also encompass mecha used for civilian purposes such as heavy construction work, police functions or firefighting. Some sci-fi universes posit that mecha are the primary means of combat, with conflicts sometimes being decided through gladiatorial matches. Others represent mecha as one component of an integrated military force, supported by and fighting alongside tanks, fighter aircraft, and infantry, functioning as a mechanical cavalry. The applications often highlight the theoretical usefulness of such a device, combining a tank's resilience and fire power with infantry's ability to cross unstable terrain. In other cases they are demonstrated with a greater versatility in armament, such as in the Armored Core series of video games where mecha can utilize their hands to carry a wide range of armament in the same manner as a person albeit on a much larger scale. The distinction between true mecha and their smaller cousins (and likely progenitors), the powered armor suits, is blurred; according to one definition, a mecha is piloted while a powered armor is worn. Anything large enough to have a cockpit where the pilot is seated is generally considered a mecha. The first occurrence of mecha in fiction is thought to be the novel The War of the Worlds by H. G. Wells where the Martians use tripod walkers very similar to mecha, but this fails to take into account that, thirty years before, Jules Verne published the La Maison à vapeur (The Steam House), which featured a steam-powered, piloted, mechanical elephant. The first occurrence of mecha robots being piloted by a user from within a cockpit was later introduced in the manga and anime series Mazinger Z by Go Nagai. Mark Gilson, "A Brief History of Japanese Robophilia", Leonardo 31 (5), p. 367–369 [368]. However, many have argued that the original idea for piloted mechanical suits should be attributed to Robert A. Heinlein. In his 1959 serial Starship Soldier, which was later published as a novel under the title Starship Troopers and then adapted for film in 1997. In his story, Heinlein writes about the soldiers being equipped with powered armor exoskeletons. Whether mecha was inspired by Heinlein's Starship Troopers or not, it was popularized by Japanese anime and manga. Rarely, mecha has been used in a fantasy convention, most notably in the anime series Aura Battler Dunbine, The Vision of Escaflowne and Maze. In those cases, the mecha designs are usually based on some alternative or 'lost' science-fiction technology from ancient times. Word origin and usage BattleMechs from the cover of the novel The Legend of the Jade Phoenix by Robert Thurston The term "mecha" is derived from the Japanese abbreviation for the English word "mechanical". In Japanese, "mecha" encompasses all mechanical objects, including cars, guns, computers, and other devices. In this sense, it is extended to humanoid, human-sized robots and such things as the boomers from Bubblegum Crisis, the similar replicants of Blade Runner, and cyborgs can be referred to as mecha, as well as mundane real-life objects such as industrial robots, cars and even toasters. The Japanese use the term or "giant robots" to distinguish limbed vehicles from other mechanical devices. The first widespread English language usage of the term was in the animated series Robotech which was an English dubbing and rewriting of three different anime and the terms usage since then has mostly associated in the west with either robotic (occasionally transforming) piloted vehicles or powered armored battlesuits which are worn akin to exoskeletons. There are exceptions; in the film A.I.: Artificial Intelligence, the word is used to describe "mechanicals" (robotic humanoids), as opposed to "orga" for "organics" (humans). Illustration of a Tripod from the 1906 French edition of The War of the Worlds With respect to powered armor suits, mecha typically do not refer to form fitting garments such as the Iron Man armor. Armored suit mecha tend to be much larger and bulkier than the wearer and the wearer's limbs may or may not actually extend completely into the respective limbs. The Life Model Decoys in the Marvel Comics miniseries Livewires and Artificial Intelligence refer to themselves as mecha. The term "mech" is used to describe such vehicles considerably more often in Western entertainment than in Asian entertainment. "Mech" as a term originated from BattleTech (where it is often written as 'Mech, short for BattleMech or OmniMech), and is not used in Japan in other contexts except as an unintentional misspelling of "mecha." (One exception is the Japanese version of BattleTech, which attempts to retain the English word.) In Japanese, "robot" is the more frequent term (see 'Other meanings' below). In the Japanese stories themselves, they are seldom known as "mecha". Japanese mecha Robot mecha are quite popular in Japanese manga, and by extension anime. In Western entertainment, they are occasionally seen in video games, especially the action, strategy and simulation genres, but the most well-known Western context for mecha is BattleTech. The original BattleTech—a tabletop strategy game—has been the basis of numerous games, such as Games Workshop's Warhammer 40,000 Titans and products in other media. Mechas in fiction In manga and anime In Japan, "robot anime" (known as "mecha anime" outside Japan) is a genre that features the vehicles and their pilots as the central plot points. Here, the average robot mecha are usually fourteen feet (4.3 m) tall at the smallest, outfitted with a wide variety of weapons, and quite frequently have tie-ins with toy manufacturers. The Gundam franchise is a prominent example: Gundam toys and model kits (produced by the Japanese toymaker Bandai) are ubiquitous in Japan. The size of mechas can vary according to the story and concepts involved. Some of them may not be considerably taller than a tank (Armored Trooper Votoms, Megazone 23), some may be a few stories tall (Gundam, Escaflowne) and others can be as tall as a skyscraper (Space Runaway Ideon, Evangelion). There are also mecha which are big enough to contain the population of an entire city (Macross), some the size of a small moon (Transformers, Diebuster) and some the size of a large galaxy (Getter Robo, Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann). Some are even implied to be able to be as large as the universe (Demonbane). The genre started with Mitsuteru Yokoyama's 1956 manga Tetsujin 28-go (which was later animated in 1963 and also released abroad as Gigantor). Its inclusion is debatable however, as the robot was controlled by remote instead of a cockpit in the machine. Not long after that the genre was largely defined by author Go Nagai, into something considerably more fantastical. Mazinger Z, his most famous creation, was not only the first successful Super Robot anime series, but also the pioneer of the genre staples like robots being piloted by the hero from within a cockpit and weapons that were activated by the hero calling out their names ("Rocket Punch!"). According to Go Nagai: This led to his creation of the Mazinger Z, which featured giant robots which were "piloted by means of a small flying car and command center that docked inside the head." It was also a pioneer in die-cast metal toys such as the Chogokin series in Japan and the Shogun Warriors in the U.S., that were (and still are) very popular with children and collectors. Robot/mecha anime and manga differ vastly in storytelling and animation quality from title to title, and content ranges all the way from children's shows to ones intended for an older teen or adult audience. Some robot mecha are capable of transformation (Macross, Zeta Gundam) or combining to form even bigger ones (see Beast King GoLion and Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann). Go Nagai is also often credited with inventing this in 1974 with the television series Getter Robo. The mecha genre, one of the oldest genres in anime, is still alive and well in the new millennium, with revival OVAs like Getter Robo: the Last Day and Mazinkaiser from the Super Robot tradition, the recent Mobile Suit Gundam 00 and Code Geass from the Real Robot genre, and Reideen, a recent remake of the 1975 hit series Brave Raideen. Other recent anime series in the mecha genre include Heroic Age and particularly Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann, a Super Robot anime with elements from the Real Robot genre. Not all mechas need be completely mechanical. Some have biological components with which to interface with their pilots, and some are partially biological themselves, such as "Neon Genesis Evangelion","Eureka Seven", and "Zoids" In film Perhaps the most well-known example of mecha in Western culture are the Walkers such as the AT-AT and AT-ST from the Star Wars series of films. The Hollywood movie Aliens featured a cargoloader as a civilian mecha (although this instance blurs the line between being a mecha or an exoskeleton). The film Robot Jox, featuring two giant mech fight scenes, is another example. In Matrix Revolutions Captain Mifune leads the human defense of Zion, piloting open-cockpit mecha-like machines called APUs against invading Sentinels. The tripods featured in The War of the Worlds, with advanced weaponry and dedicated piloting stations, are perhaps the forerunners of modern mecha. Mechagodzilla, from the Godzilla series, is a rather famous mech. In games Mecha are often featured in computer and console games. Because of their size and fictional power, mecha are quite popular subjects for games, both tabletop and electronic. One popular classic of mecha in games is the MechWarrior series of video games. Another game, Heavy Gear 2 offers a complex yet semi-realistic control system for its' mechas in both terrain and outer space warfare. Armored Core is one of the more popular Japanese franchises today, combining industrial customizable mech designs with fast-paced action. Rivalling Armored Core is Front Mission, a Turn based tactics series of games by Squaresoft. It features Japanese mech designs with more realistic physics, reserving the lightning speed common in the Japanese mecha genre to special machines. MechQuest also features numerous mecha, since it is the primary objective of the game. The player battles other mecha using an RPG-Style combat interface and is able to purchase other mecha using the in-game currency, which is acquired by winning battles. Older American Tabletop games, Battletech, uses hex-maps, miniatures & paper record sheets allows players to mech in tactical situations and record realistic damage, while add RPG elements when desired. Mecha-like bipedal tanks called metal gears are a recurring element in Metal Gear-series. The most iconic metal gear of the series is the Metal Gear REX featured in Metal Gear Solid. The most common feature of a metal gear is the capability to launch nuclear missiles (or in REX's case nuclear railgun-shells) though this feature is absent in the two newest models in the series; Metal Gears RAY and GEKKO. Unlike in many mech-featuring series, metal gears aren't numerous or widely used (except the small, unmanned GEKKOs). Most of the metal gears featured in the series are prototypes. In the series, they are usually called "the ultimate weapon" and "the missing link between infantry and artillery" (paralleling the missing link between men and apes). Mecha are also enemies of Crypto in the first Destroy all Humans! game. They're about the size of a house, and difficult to destroy. In the tabletop game Warhammer 40,000, the Tau use Mecha Battlesuits while the Adeptus Mechanicus use huge mechs called titans, the Orks also use huge, ragtag mechs called gargants. The Eldar also use their particular version of titans, which are often more agile and compact than their Imperial counterparts, as well as the smaller wraithlords (although the latter does not have a pilot as such, they are controlled by the spirit of a dead Eldar contained in a 'soulstone'). Another example is in the game Battlefield 2142, in which mecha fight alongside conventional military units such as infantry, tanks, gunships, and APCs in the European Union's and Pan-Asian Coalition's military forces. In the game Red Alert 3, a number of the vehicles of the Empire of the Rising Sun are referred to as mecha, since they are capable of transforming from ground or sea units to aerial fighters, granting them additional flexibility in battle. One such unit is called the Mecha Tengu. In the game MechScape (a new game from Jagex, soon to be released), mecha will feature. Other The Great Spirit is a forty million feet tall robot from the Bionicle mythos, which houses the Matoran Universe. There are also various other characters and species (such as the Exo Toa and the Bohrok) which can be considered mecha on a tiny scale. Also produced by Lego, the Exo-Force line featured Humans and machines battling each other in mechas, better known in the line as "Battle Machines". Mechas in real life Few prototypes are being made to build mecha-like vehicles in real life. Currently almost all of these are too slow or cumbersome to have any real application. Landwalker: A functioning prototype Japanese bipedal mecha being developed by Sakakibara Kikai. http://www.sakakibara-kikai.co.jp/ Sakakibara Kikai website (Japanese) A video on YouTube demonstrating the Landwalker T-52 Enryu: Translated name "Rescue Dragon", it is a 3.5 meter-tall hydraulically-operated robotic vehicle developed by Tmsuk. The vehicle has two hands, which copy the controller's movements. Its intended application is to open a path in the debris for the rescue team. Few companies and organizations are doing some research about it: Timberjack (John Deere subsidiary): A known tractor seller company, built a practical hexapod walking tractor to cut trees in forests. MPS (Mechanized Propulsion Systems Incorporated) allege they will build an "anime style" mecha within 25 years. They claim to be developing mecha for commercial, industrial, and eventually military use. MPS Website See also Specific mecha in media Powered exoskeleton Notes and references External links Mecha Gears Online Mecha Anime HQ: Extensive coverage on Gundams and other mecha. | Mecha |@lemmatized mecha:63 also:14 know:7 meka:1 mechs:3 walk:2 vehicle:10 control:4 pilot:12 often:7 appear:2 anime:16 science:2 fiction:5 genre:12 involve:2 fantastic:1 futuristic:1 element:4 generally:2 though:2 necessarily:1 bipedal:3 arm:1 hand:3 finger:1 capable:3 grasp:1 object:3 approximate:1 shape:1 human:7 body:1 allow:2 use:18 martial:1 art:1 movement:2 swordsmanship:1 ceremonial:1 act:1 honor:1 salute:1 mannerism:1 cannot:1 perform:1 tank:6 airplane:1 war:5 machine:6 essentially:1 armor:7 fight:4 legs:1 instead:2 tread:1 wheel:1 story:5 manga:7 patlabor:1 american:2 miniature:2 game:22 battletech:6 encompass:2 civilian:2 purpose:1 heavy:2 construction:1 work:1 police:1 function:3 firefighting:1 sci:1 fi:1 universes:1 posit:1 primary:2 mean:2 combat:2 conflict:1 sometimes:1 decide:1 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organization:1 research:1 timberjack:1 john:1 deere:1 subsidiary:1 tractor:2 seller:1 practical:1 hexapod:1 cut:1 tree:1 forest:1 mp:2 mechanized:1 propulsion:1 incorporate:1 allege:1 claim:1 commercial:1 eventually:1 specific:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 online:1 hq:1 extensive:1 coverage:1 gundams:1 |@bigram science_fiction:2 martial_art:1 sci_fi:1 jules_verne:1 la_maison:1 manga_anime:2 mazinger_z:3 go_nagai:4 robert_heinlein:1 starship_trooper:2 anime_manga:2 bubblegum_crisis:1 blade_runner:1 artificial_intelligence:2 armor_armored:1 marvel_comic:1 robot_mecha:4 mecha_anime:3 tall_skyscraper:1 suit_gundam:1 neon_genesis:1 genesis_evangelion:1 advanced_weaponry:1 http_www:1 john_deere:1 external_link:1 |
2,145 | Executive_(government) | In the study of political science the executive branch of government has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. Executive Branch, www.dictionary.reference.com The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the democratic idea of the separation of powers ...central to the democratic idea of Separation of Powers, www.reference.com . In many countries the term "government" connotes only the executive branch. However, this ambiguity fails to differentiate between despotic and democratic forms of government. In authoritarian systems (such as a dictatorship or absolute monarchy, where the different powers of government are assumed by one person), the executive branch ceases to exist since there is no other branch with which to share separate but equal governmental powers. The separation of powers system is designed to distribute authority away from the executive branch - an attempt to preserve individual liberty in response to tyrannical leadership throughout history. ...an attempt to preserve individual liberty, The Federalist Papers #51 The executive officer is not supposed to make laws (the role of the legislature), or interpret them (the role of the judiciary). The role of the executive is to enforce the law as written by the legislature and interpreted by the judicial system. Titles and positions of responsibility There are two roles which the top leadership of the executive branch fulfills; that of Head of State, and Head of Government. Head of State, www.reference.com The organizational structure of the executive branch will determine the relationship between the heads of state and government respectively. The Executive Branch also carry out laws. In a presidential system the executive is at once the Head of State and the Head of Government. Countries that model their government after the United States of America have a Head of State compared to other systems. The President of the United States is best described as the head of state for his or her role as the government's chief ambassador. However there is no constitutional foundation for any head of government in the United States since the separation of powers divides governmental authority amongst the branches with checks and balances over one another. The President of the United States can have significant power over public opinion through personal abilities of persuasion, however this is the natural effect of the executive office. Presidential System, www.reference.com President of the United States, www.reference.com The President also has authority over the bureaucracy of government agencies under the executive branch. In a parliamentary system the head of state is often a figurehead without much legal power other than persuasion over public opinion. Several methods exist for the selection of heads of state in parliamentary systems, including the hereditary succession of monarchs, election by parliament, or in some cases direct election by the people. The head of government however typically has real authority and usually is elected by parliament. In this system the head of government, commonly referred to as prime minister, can receive a vote of no confidence removing him or her from office and placing a new "government" in office with all new cabinet members and prime minister. Parliamentary System, www.reference.com This is the case for many countries in the Commonwealth of Nations except in the case of the United Kingdom itself. Great Britain's monarch is one of the world's most powerful, with rights to exercise great political power, yet due to convention these powers have been rarely exercised in modern history. British Monarchy, www.reference.com In a semi-presidential system the head of state is typically referred to as president, and the head of government is typically referred to as prime minister. The powers of each vary from country to country, but in each instance the nations which employ the semi-presidential system have combined attributes of the presidential and parliamentary systems. Semi-Presidential System, www.reference.com In France for example the President is elected directly by the people, and appoints the Prime Minister. References be-x-old:Выканаўчая ўлада | Executive_(government) |@lemmatized study:1 political:2 science:1 executive:13 branch:12 government:16 sole:1 authority:5 responsibility:2 daily:1 administration:1 state:15 bureaucracy:2 www:8 dictionary:1 reference:9 com:8 division:1 power:12 separate:2 central:2 democratic:3 idea:2 separation:4 many:2 country:5 term:1 connote:1 however:4 ambiguity:1 fail:1 differentiate:1 despotic:1 form:1 authoritarian:1 system:14 dictatorship:1 absolute:1 monarchy:2 different:1 assume:1 one:3 person:1 cease:1 exist:2 since:2 share:1 equal:1 governmental:2 design:1 distribute:1 away:1 attempt:2 preserve:2 individual:2 liberty:2 response:1 tyrannical:1 leadership:2 throughout:1 history:2 federalist:1 paper:1 officer:1 suppose:1 make:1 law:3 role:5 legislature:2 interpret:2 judiciary:1 enforce:1 write:1 judicial:1 title:1 position:1 two:1 top:1 fulfills:1 head:15 organizational:1 structure:1 determine:1 relationship:1 respectively:1 also:2 carry:1 presidential:6 model:1 united:6 america:1 compare:1 president:6 best:1 describe:1 chief:1 ambassador:1 constitutional:1 foundation:1 divide:1 amongst:1 check:1 balance:1 another:1 significant:1 public:2 opinion:2 personal:1 ability:1 persuasion:2 natural:1 effect:1 office:3 agency:1 parliamentary:4 often:1 figurehead:1 without:1 much:1 legal:1 several:1 method:1 selection:1 include:1 hereditary:1 succession:1 monarch:2 election:2 parliament:2 case:3 direct:1 people:2 typically:3 real:1 usually:1 elect:2 commonly:1 refer:3 prime:4 minister:4 receive:1 vote:1 confidence:1 remove:1 place:1 new:2 cabinet:1 member:1 commonwealth:1 nation:2 except:1 kingdom:1 great:2 britain:1 world:1 powerful:1 right:1 exercise:2 yet:1 due:1 convention:1 rarely:1 modern:1 british:1 semi:3 vary:1 instance:1 employ:1 combine:1 attribute:1 france:1 example:1 directly:1 appoint:1 x:1 old:1 выканаўчая:1 ўлада:1 |@bigram prime_minister:4 |
2,146 | Cymbal | Cymbals are a modern percussion instrument. Cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys; see cymbal making for a discussion of their manufacture. The greater majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note (see: crotales). Cymbals are used in many ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands, and marching groups. A staple requirement of the drum kit, at least one suspended cymbal and a pair of hi-hat cymbals can be found on it. Origins The origins of cymbals can be traced back to prehistoric times. The ancient Egyptian cymbals closely resembled modern instruments. The British Museum possesses two pairs of Egyptian cymbals which are thirteen centimetres in diameter, and one of which was found in the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician. Those used by the Assyrians were both plate- and cup-shaped, those of the Ancient Persians large-sized plates, made of brass, known as Sanj. The Greek cymbals were cup- or bell-shaped, and may be seen in the hands of innumerable fauns and satyrs in sculptures and on painted vases. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum, which itself derives from the Greek word kumbalom, meaning a small bowl. Parts of a cymbal Bell The center of a Cymbal, often raised to a bell-like shape. Bow The remaining surface of the Cymbal. Edge or rim The immediate circumference of the instrument. Hole The center of a Cymbal, usually where a string or strap is placed, or where it is mounted on a stand. Orchestral cymbals Cymbals offer a composer nearly endless amounts of color and effect. Their unique timbre allows them to project even against a full orchestra and through the heaviest of orchestrations and enhance articulation and nearly any dynamic. Cymbals have been utilized historically to suggest frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as seen in the Venus music in Wagner's Tannhäuser, Grieg's Peer Gynt suite, and Osmin's aria "O wie will ich triumphieren" from Mozart's Die Entführung aus dem Serail. Crash cymbals A pair of clash cymbals in profile. The bell is in green and the straps are in red. Orchestral crash cymbals are traditionally used in pairs, each one having a strap set in the bell of the cymbal by which they are held. Such a pair is known in various terms as a pair of clash cymbals, crash cymbals, or plates. The sound can be obtained by rubbing their edges together in a sliding movement for a "sizzle", striking them against each other in what is called a "crash", tapping the edge of one against the body of the other in what is called a "tap-crash", scraping the edge of one from the inside of the bell to the edge for a "scrape" or "zischen," or shutting the cymbals together and choking the sound in what is called a "hi-hat chick" or crush. A skilled player can obtain an enormous dynamic range from such a pair of cymbals. For example, in Beethoven's ninth symphony, the percussionist is employed to first play cymbals at pianissimo, adding a touch of colour rather than loud crash. Clash cymbals are usually damped by pressing them against the player's body. A composer may write laissez vibrer, "Let vibrate" (usually abbreviated l.v.), secco (dry), or equivalent indications on the score; more usually, the player must judge exactly when to damp the cymbals based on the written duration of crash and the context in which it occurs. Clash cymbals have traditionally been accompanied by the bass drum playing an identical part. This combination, played loudly, is an effective way to accentuate a note since the two instruments together contribute to both very low and very high frequency ranges and provide a satisfying "crash-bang-wallop". In older music the composer sometimes provided just one part for this pair of instruments, writing senza piatti or piatti soli (Italian: "without cymbals" or "cymbals only") if the bass drum is to remain silent. However, the modern convention is for the instruments to have independent parts. Clash cymbals evolved into the low-sock and from this to the modern hi-hat. Even in a modern drum kit, they remain paired with the bass drum as the two instruments which are played with the player's feet. However, hi-hat cymbals tend to be heavy with little taper, more similar to a ride cymbal than to a crash cymbal as found in a drum kit, and perform a ride rather than a crash function. Suspended cymbal Another use of cymbals is the suspended cymbal. This instrument takes its name from the traditional method of suspending the cymbal by means of a leather strap or rope, thus allowing the cymbal to vibrate as freely as possible for maximum musical effect. Early jazz drumming pioneers borrowed this style of cymbal mounting during the early 1900s and later drummers further developed this instrument in to the mounted horizontal or nearly horizontally mounted "crash" cymbals of a modern drum kit. Suspended cymbals can be played with sponge or cord wrapped mallets. The first known instance of using a sponge-headed mallet on a cymbal is the final chord of Hector Berlioz' Symphonie Fantastique. Composers sometimes specifically request other types of mallets like yard or felt mallets or timpani beaters for different attack and sustain qualities, although a cord-wrapped mallet is generally accepted by percussionists as the best implement to use on the instrument. Suspended cymbals can produce bright and slicing tones when forcefully struck, and give an eerie transparent "windy" sound when played quietly. A tremolo, or roll (played with two mallets alternately striking on opposing sides of the cymbal) can build in volume from almost inaudible to an overwhelming climax in a satisfyingly smooth manner (as in Humperdink's Mother Goose Suite). The edge of a suspended cymbal may be hit with shoulder of a drum stick to obtain a sound somewhat akin to that of a pair of clash cymbals. Other methods of playing include scraping a coin or a triangle beater rapidly across the ridges on the top of the cymbal, giving a "zing" sound (as in the fourth movement of Dvořák's Symphony No. 9). Other effects that can be used include drawing a cello or bass bow across the edge of the cymbal for a sound not unlike squealing car brakes. Ancient cymbals Ancient cymbals or tuned cymbals are much more rarely called for. Their timbre is entirely different, more like that of small hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given in by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller. Berlioz's Romeo and Juliet calls for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some old Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to F and B flat. The modern instruments descended from this line are the crotales. See also Cymbal alloys Cymbal making Drum Drum kit Percussion instrument Zill Manufacturers Avedis Zildjian Company Saluda Cymbals Italian Bellotti Cymbals Agean Cymbals Bosphorus Cymbals Meinl Paiste Sabian Stagg UFIP Yamaha Wuhan Istanbul cymbals Istanbul Agop Turk Masters Cymbals Masterworks TRX Cymbals Orion Alchemy/Istanbul Soultone Amedia See also :Category:Cymbal manufacturing companies. External links Cymbal Forum Discussion forum about cymbals. Saluda Cymbals World of Custom Cymbals CymbalPlanet.com Welcome to the World of Cymbals Accessory Fetish A Complete List of Cymbal Manufacturers Orchestral cymbal playing, with an excellent short history of cymbals References | Cymbal |@lemmatized cymbal:75 modern:7 percussion:3 instrument:13 consist:1 thin:1 normally:1 round:1 plate:4 various:2 alloy:2 see:6 make:3 discussion:2 manufacture:1 great:1 majority:1 indefinite:1 pitch:1 although:2 small:4 disc:1 shape:3 base:2 ancient:5 design:1 sound:7 definite:1 note:4 crotales:2 use:7 many:1 ensemble:2 range:3 orchestra:2 jazz:2 band:2 heavy:3 metal:1 march:1 group:1 staple:1 requirement:1 drum:11 kit:5 least:1 one:7 suspend:5 pair:10 hi:4 hat:4 find:3 origins:1 origin:1 trace:1 back:1 prehistoric:1 time:1 egyptian:2 closely:1 resemble:1 british:1 museum:1 posse:1 two:5 thirteen:1 centimetre:1 diameter:1 coffin:1 mummy:1 ankhhape:1 sacred:1 musician:1 assyrian:1 cup:2 shaped:1 persians:1 large:3 size:1 brass:1 know:3 sanj:1 greek:2 bell:7 may:3 hand:3 innumerable:1 faun:1 satyr:1 sculpture:1 painted:1 vas:1 word:2 derive:2 latin:1 cymbalum:1 kumbalom:1 mean:2 bowl:1 part:4 center:2 often:1 raise:1 like:3 bow:2 remain:3 surface:1 edge:8 rim:1 immediate:1 circumference:1 hole:1 usually:4 string:1 strap:4 place:1 mount:1 stand:1 orchestral:3 offer:1 composer:4 nearly:3 endless:1 amount:1 color:1 effect:3 unique:1 timbre:2 allow:2 project:1 even:2 full:2 orchestration:1 enhance:1 articulation:1 dynamic:2 utilize:1 historically:1 suggest:1 frenzy:1 fury:1 bacchanalian:1 revel:1 venus:1 music:2 wagner:1 tannhäuser:1 grieg:1 peer:1 gynt:1 suite:2 osmin:1 aria:1 wie:1 ich:1 triumphieren:1 mozart:1 die:1 entführung:1 aus:1 dem:1 serail:1 crash:11 clash:6 profile:1 green:1 red:1 traditionally:2 set:1 hold:1 term:1 obtain:3 rub:1 together:3 sliding:1 movement:2 sizzle:1 strike:3 call:5 tap:2 body:2 scrap:2 inside:1 scrape:1 zischen:1 shut:1 choke:1 chick:1 crush:1 skilled:1 player:4 enormous:1 example:1 beethoven:1 ninth:1 symphony:2 percussionist:2 employ:1 first:2 play:8 pianissimo:1 add:1 touch:1 colour:1 rather:2 loud:1 damp:2 press:1 write:3 laissez:1 vibrer:1 let:1 vibrate:2 abbreviate:1 l:1 v:1 secco:1 dry:1 equivalent:1 indication:1 score:1 must:1 judge:1 exactly:1 duration:1 context:1 occur:1 accompany:1 bass:4 identical:1 combination:1 loudly:1 effective:1 way:1 accentuate:1 since:1 contribute:1 low:2 high:2 frequency:1 provide:2 satisfying:1 bang:1 wallop:1 old:2 sometimes:2 senza:1 piatti:2 solo:1 italian:2 without:1 silent:1 however:2 convention:1 independent:1 evolve:1 sock:1 paired:1 foot:1 tend:1 little:1 taper:1 similar:1 ride:2 perform:1 function:1 another:1 suspended:2 take:1 name:1 traditional:1 method:2 leather:1 rope:1 thus:1 freely:1 possible:1 maximum:1 musical:1 early:2 pioneer:1 borrow:1 style:1 mounting:1 late:1 drummer:1 far:1 develop:1 mounted:2 horizontal:1 horizontally:1 sponge:2 cord:2 wrap:1 mallet:6 instance:1 head:1 final:1 chord:1 hector:1 berlioz:2 symphonie:1 fantastique:1 specifically:1 request:1 type:1 yard:1 felt:1 timpani:1 beater:2 different:2 attack:1 sustain:1 quality:1 wrapped:1 generally:1 accept:1 best:1 implement:1 produce:1 bright:1 slice:1 tone:1 forcefully:1 give:3 eerie:1 transparent:1 windy:1 quietly:1 tremolo:1 roll:1 alternately:1 oppose:1 side:1 build:1 volume:1 almost:1 inaudible:1 overwhelming:1 climax:1 satisfyingly:1 smooth:1 manner:1 humperdink:1 mother:1 goose:1 hit:1 shoulder:1 stick:1 somewhat:1 akin:1 include:2 coin:1 triangle:1 rapidly:1 across:2 ridge:1 top:1 zing:1 fourth:1 dvořák:1 draw:1 cello:1 unlike:1 squeal:1 car:1 brake:1 tune:2 much:1 rarely:1 entirely:1 keyed:1 harmonica:1 struck:1 proportion:1 thicker:1 romeo:1 juliet:1 model:1 pompeian:1 crown:1 piece:1 f:1 b:1 flat:1 descend:1 line:1 also:2 zill:1 manufacturer:2 avedis:1 zildjian:1 company:2 saluda:2 bellotti:1 agean:1 bosphorus:1 meinl:1 paiste:1 sabian:1 stagg:1 ufip:1 yamaha:1 wuhan:1 istanbul:3 agop:1 turk:1 master:1 masterworks:1 trx:1 orion:1 alchemy:1 soultone:1 amedia:1 category:1 manufacturing:1 external:1 link:1 forum:2 world:2 custom:1 cymbalplanet:1 com:1 welcome:1 accessory:1 fetish:1 complete:1 list:1 playing:1 excellent:1 short:1 history:1 reference:1 |@bigram percussion_instrument:2 drum_kit:5 suspend_cymbal:5 hi_hat:4 hat_cymbal:2 closely_resemble:1 peer_gynt:1 aus_dem:1 crash_cymbal:5 clash_cymbal:6 beethoven_ninth:1 ninth_symphony:1 ride_cymbal:1 leather_strap:1 hector_berlioz:1 romeo_juliet:1 external_link:1 |
2,147 | Circumcision_and_law | There is a dispute over whether this article relates to male circumcision only or to both male and female circumcision. Discussion is here. There have been laws about circumcision dating back to ancient times. In a number of modern states, circumcision of males is presumed to be legal, but under certain circumstances, more general laws, such as laws about assault or child custody, may sometimes be interpreted as applying to situations involving male circumcision. Some countries have placed restrictions on circumcision. History There are ancient religious requirements for circumcision. The Hebrew Bible commands Jews to circumcise their male children on the eighth day of life and also to circumcise their male slaves (). See Brit milah (the Hebrew name for ritual circumcision). Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision. King Antiochus IV, of Syria, the occupying power of Judea in 170 BC, outlawed circumcision on penalty of death. This led to the Maccabean Revolt. According to the Historia Augusta, the Roman emperor Hadrian issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire, The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome triggering the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt of 132 AD. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter. Antoninus Pius permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons. However, it forbade the circumcision of non-Jews that were either foreign-slaves or non-Jewish members of the household, contrary to It also made it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.03.29 Antoninus Pius exempted the Egyptian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. Modern Law Australia A non-binding research paper of the Queensland Law Reform Commission (Circumcision of Male Infants) concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. QLRC: Circumcision of Male Infants No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. In 1997 a man won $A10,000 for nervous shock after he was forcibly circumcised in a drunken attack. In 1999, a Perth man won $A360,000 in damages after a doctor admitted he botched a circumcision operation at birth which left the man with a badly deformed penis. Man Receives $360,000 Compensation for Childhood Circumcision In 2002, Queensland police charged a father with grievous bodily harm for having his two sons, then aged nine and five, circumcised without the knowledge and against the wishes of the mother. The mother and father were in a family court dispute. The charges were dropped when the police prosecutor revealed that he did not have all family court paperwork in court and the magistrate refused to grant an adjournment. Mother's Fury as Boys Circumcised In 2007, the Tasmanian President of the Australian Medical Association, Haydn Walters, stated that they would support a call to ban circumcision for non-medical, non-religious reasons. Canada The circumcision of Canadian female children whether performed in Canada or in other countries is "Aggravated Assault", an offence under the Criminal Code of Canada. Circumcision of male children is legal but highly discouraged and is not paid for by any provincial or territorial government health insurance plans. Egypt In June 2007, Egypt banned all female circumcision. The practice, which affects both Muslim and Christian women in Egypt and goes back to the time of the pharaohs, was banned in 1997 but doctors were allowed to operate "in exceptional cases". Health Minister Hatem al-Gabali decided to ban every doctor and member of the medical profession, in public or private establishments, from carrying out a clitoridectomy. (Broken link?) England and Wales Male circumcision has traditionally been presumed to be legal under British law. One 1999 case, Re "J" (child's religious upbringing and circumcision) Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision) said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 has led to some speculation that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear. Circumcision After the Human Rights Act 1998 In 2001 the General Medical Council had found a doctor who had botched circumcision operations guilty of abusing his professional position and that he had acted "inappropriately and irresponsibly", BBC News | HEALTH | Circumcision doctors 'abused position' and struck him off the register Circumcision case GP told he can resume career . A doctor who had referred patients to him, and who had pressured a mother into agreeing to the surgery, was also condemned. He was put on an 18 month period of review and retraining, and was allowed to resume unrestricted practice as a doctor in March 2003, after a committee found that he had complied with conditions it placed on him. According to the Northern Echo, he "told the committee he has now changed his approach to circumcision referrals, accepting that most cases can be treated without the need for surgery." In 2003, a man who did not have medical qualifications was charged with unlawful wounding and deception after two boys needed blood transfusions and corrective surgery after being circumcised by him. BBC NEWS | UK | England | London | Circumcision 'doctor' denies wounding boys He was cleared at the direction of the judge, who was told there were no formal rules concerning circumcision. It was also not regulated by the General Medical Council. icNetwork - Local and regional news, sport, entertainment and classifieds across the UK In 2005 a Muslim man had his son circumcised against the wishes of the child's mother who was the custodial parent. He was found not guilty of assault occasioning actual bodily harm by a majority verdict of the jury. icNetwork - Local and regional news, sport, entertainment and classifieds across the UK Fox and Thomson (2005) argue that consent cannot be given for non-therapeutic circumcision. A covenant with the status quo? Male circumcision and the new BMA guidance to doctors They say there is "no compelling legal authority for the common view that circumcision is lawful." Finland In August 2006, a Finnish court ruled that the circumcision of a four-year-old boy arranged by his mother, who is Muslim, to be an illegal assault. The boy's father, who had not been consulted, reported the incident to the police. A local prosecutor stated that the prohibition of genital mutilation is not gender-specific in Finnish law. A lawyer for the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health stated that there is neither legislation nor prohibition on male circumcision, and that "the operations have been performed on the basis of common law." The case was appealed and in October 2008 the Finnish Supreme Court ruled that the circumcision, " carried out for religious and social reasons and in a medical manner, did not have the earmarks of a criminal offence. It pointed out in its ruling that the circumcision of Muslim boys is an established tradition and an integral part of the identity of Muslim men". http://yle.fi/news/id104896.html In 2008, the Finnish government was reported to be considering a new law to legalise circumcision if the practitioner is a doctor and if the child consents. Germany In October 2006, a Turkish national who performed ritual circumcisions on seven boys was convicted of causing dangerous bodily harm by the state court in Düsseldorf. The Raw Story | Germany fines circumciser for initiation of 7 boys In September 2007, a Frankfurt am Main appeals court found that the circumcision of an 11 year old boy without his approval was an unlawful personal injury. Reportedly, the boy, whose parents are divorced, was visiting his Muslim father during a vacation when his father forced him to be ritually circumcised . According to a report by the German ddp press agency, the boy, who lives with his mother, plans to sue his father for 10,000 Euro. Breaking News - JTA, Jewish & Israel News Ireland In October 2005 a Nigerian man was cleared of a charge of reckless endangerment over the death of a baby from haemorrhage and shock after he had circumcised the child. The judge directed the jury not to "bring what he called their white western values to bear when they were deciding this case" and after deliberating for an hour and a half they found the defendant not guilty. RTÉ News: Nigerian cleared over circumcision death Israel In Israel, an attempt to have circumcision ruled illegal was rejected by the Israeli Supreme Court. NOCIRC NEWSLTTR reordered2 Netherlands When Ayaan Hirsi Ali was a Member of the Netherlands Parliament she asked it to consider making the circumcision of male children unlawful. Dutch MP wants ban on male circumcision . In May 2008 a father who had his two sons, aged 3 and 6 circumcised against the will of their mother was found not guilty of causing them serious physical harm but was given a 6 week suspended jail sentence for taking the boys away from their mother against her will. DutchNews.nl - Father 'not guilty' in circumcision case South Africa The Children's Act 2007 makes the circumcision of male children under 16 unlawful except for religious or medical reasons. Eastern Cape Province passed a law (Application of Health Standards in Traditional Circumcision Act 2001) to regulate traditional circumcision, which causes the death or mutilation of many youths by traditional surgeons each year CRIN - Violence Study - SOUTH AFRICA: Clamping down on botched circumcisions IRIN In-Depth | Southern Africa | South Africa | SOUTH AFRICA: Clamping down on botched circumcisions | HIV/AIDS (PlusNews) | In-Depth . Among other provisions, the minimum age for circumcision is age 18. In January 2008 a teenager sued his father and traditional leaders for forcibly circumcising him, demanding an apology. Teen sues father after forced circumcision In May 2008 the case was adjourned indefinitely because papers had not been served on Eastern Cape traditional leaders. Daily Dispatch Online Sweden In 2001, Sweden allowed only persons certified by the National Board of Health to circumcise infants. It required a medical doctor or an anesthesia nurse to accompany the circumciser and for anaesthetic to be applied beforehand. After the first two months of life circumcisions could only be performed by a physician. Swedish Jews and Muslims objected to the law, and in 2001, the World Jewish Congress stated that it was "the first legal restriction on Jewish religious practice in Europe since the Nazi era." However, in 2006, the U.S. State Department stated, in a report on Sweden, that most Jewish mohels had been certified under the law and 3000 Muslim and 40-50 Jewish boys were circumcised each year. The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reviewed the law in 2005 and recommended that it be maintained. United States In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful. However, some believe that the circumcision of a child violates general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who circumcise children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery. Informed Consent for Neonatal Circumcision MGM Bill is currently lobbying to extend the ban on female circumcision to males, arguing that banning female circumcision but allowing male circumcision violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. MGMbill.org Disputes between parents Occasionally the courts are asked to make a ruling when parents cannot agree on whether or not to circumcise a child. In January and July 2001 disputes between parents in New Jersey and Kansas over circumcision were resolved when requests to have the boys circumcised were withdrawn Accord Not To Circumcise Son Still Leaves Heated Legal Debate Agreement reached in circumcision case . In June 2001 a Nevada court settled a dispute over circumcision between two parents but put a strict gag order on the terms of the settlement http://www.reviewjournal.com/cgi-bin/printable.cgi?/lvrj_home/2001/Jun-25-Mon-2001/news/16387263.html . On 14 July 2004 a mother appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court to prevent the circumcision of her son after a county court and the Court of Appeals had denied her a writ of prohibition http://www.examiner.net/stories/071504/new_071504018.shtml . However, in early August 2004, before the Supreme Court had given its ruling, the father, who had custody of the boy, had him circumcised http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/news/local/9359979.htm . In September 2004 the North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child with her permission. North Dakota Supreme Court rejects circumcision appeal In February 2004 in California, a man argued that he was Hebrew and circumcised his son out of religious duty. The judge ruled "it is only illegal if one mutilates a female -- there is nothing in the penal code about a male child." Couple rescued from flood gets children back . However, in December 2004 in Vancouver, Washington, a man was convicted of second degree child assault after he attempted to circumcise his son with a hunting knife and was sentenced to serve three years in jail. Circumcision Attempt - Father sentenced to three years In October 2006 a judge in Chicago granted an injunction blocking the circumcision of a 9 year old boy. "The judge said the boy could decide for himself whether to be circumcised when he turns 18." Judge protects child's legal right to bodily integrity In November 2007, the Oregon Supreme Court heard arguments from a divorced Oregon couple over the circumcision of their son. The father wants his son, who turned 13 on 2 March 2008, to be circumcised; the child's mother opposes the procedure. The parents dispute whether the boy is in favor of the procedure. A group opposed to circumcision filed briefs in support of the mother's position, while some Jewish groups filed a brief in support of the father. On 25 January 2008, the Court returned the case to the trial court with instructions to determine whether the child agrees or objects to the proposed circumcision. Oregon Judicial Department Appellate Court Opinions The father appealed to the US Supreme Court to allow him to have his son circumcised Dad appeals teen son's circumcision to U.S. Supreme Court - Breaking News Updates from Portland and Oregon - The Oregonian - OregonLive.com but his appeal was rejected. The case now returns to the trial court. http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/oregonian/index.ssf?/base/news/1223344525313320.xml&coll=7&thispage=1 CNN reported in 2005 that a California group has submitted to Congress a bill entitled the "Male Genital Mutilation Bill". The report stated that while it unlikely the bill will go anywhere in the near future, it raises important questions about gender equality, religious freedom, and the protection of children. In March 2009 a Fulton County, Ga., State Court jury awarded $2.3 million in damages to a 4-year-old boy and his mother for a botched circumcision in which too much tissue was removed causing permanent disfigurement. USSR In the USSR, before glasnost, Jewish ritual circumcision was forbidden. Soviet Jews Of All Ages Seek Circumcision Forced Circumcision There have been instances of circumcisions forced on people against their will. In Africa, forced circumcisions have occurred in Kenya in 2002, 2006 and in the ethnic conflicts that followed the election on 27 December 2007 , and also among the Bagishu people of Eastern Uganda (2007), and the Xhosa of South Africa (2004). Forced circumcisions also occurred in ethnic/religious conflicts in the Sudan (2003), during the Armenian Genocide (1915–1918), and also as part of forced religious conversions in both Pakistan (2004) and Indonesia (2001). There was a report of forced circumcisions during an anti-Greek pogrom in Turkey in 1955. In a case of sexual assault in Queensland, Australia (1997), a district court awarded a man damages for nervous shock after a botched attempt to circumcise him with a broken beer bottle in a drunken attack. Making Australian legal history, the award was made against the assailant for unlawful wounding. "Man sues for circumcision", (October 9, 1997) Daily Dispatch References External links William E. Brigman. Circumcision as Child Abuse: The Legal and Constitutional Issues. 23 J Fam Law 337 (1985). Ross Povenmire. Do Parents Have the Legal Authority to Consent to the Surgical Amputation of Normal, Healthy Tissue From Their Infant Children?: The Practice of Circumcision in the United States. 7 Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 87 (1998–1999). Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault? 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). The authors are leading anti-circumcision campaigners. Amicus curiae briefs filed in Oregon circumcision case: Amicus Brief without attachments (Doctors Opposing Circumcision) Amicus Brief on the Merits (Doctors Opposing Circumcision) Amicus Brief on the Merits (American Jewish Congress, American Jewish Committee, Anti-Defamation League, and Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America) | Circumcision_and_law |@lemmatized dispute:6 whether:6 article:1 relate:1 male:23 circumcision:99 female:6 discussion:1 law:20 date:2 back:3 ancient:5 time:2 number:2 modern:2 state:13 presume:2 legal:10 certain:1 circumstance:1 general:4 assault:8 child:32 custody:3 may:5 sometimes:1 interpret:1 apply:2 situation:1 involve:1 country:2 place:2 restriction:2 history:2 religious:11 requirement:1 hebrew:3 bible:1 command:1 jew:5 circumcise:28 eighth:1 day:1 life:2 also:8 slave:2 see:1 brit:1 milah:1 name:1 ritual:3 ban:10 greek:2 prize:1 foreskin:2 disapproved:1 jewish:16 custom:1 king:1 antiochus:1 iv:1 syria:1 occupy:1 power:1 judea:1 bc:1 outlaw:1 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2,148 | Dominican_Republic | The Dominican Republic (; ) is a nation on the island of Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are occupied by two countries, Saint Martin being the other. Both by area and population, the Dominican Republic is the second largest Caribbean island nation (after Cuba), with 48,442 km² and an estimated 10.1 million people. Context: Estimaciones; Población en Tiempo Real Inhabited by Taínos since the 7th century, the Dominican Republic was reached by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and became the site of the first permanent European settlement in the Americas, namely Santo Domingo, the country's capital and Spain's first capital in the New World. In Santo Domingo stand, among other firsts in the Americas, the first university, cathedral, and castle, the latter two in the Ciudad Colonial area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. After three centuries of Spanish rule, with French and Haitian interludes, the country became independent in 1821 but was quickly taken over by Haiti. It attained independence in 1844, but mostly suffered political turmoil and tyranny, and as well a brief return to Spanish rule, over the next 72 years. United States occupation 1916-24 and a subsequent, calm 6–year period were followed by the military dictatorship of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina to 1961. The last civil war, in 1965, ended with U.S. intervention, followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquin Balaguer, to 1978. Since 1978, the Dominican Republic has moved strongly toward representative democracy. The Dominican Republic has also adopted a liberal economic model, which has made it perhaps the largest economy in the region. Though long known for sugar production, the economy is now dominated by services. The country's economic progress is exemplified by its advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, income maldistribution, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems. Migration is a major issue affecting the D.R., as there are large flows of migrants to and from the country. Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues in the Dominican Republic. The total population of Haitian origin is estimated at 800,000. A large Dominican diaspora exists, most of it in the United States, where it comprises 1.2 million. They contribute to the development of the Dominican Republic, as they send billions of dollars to the D.R., amounting to one-tenth of the GDP. The Dominican Republic has become the Caribbean's leading tourist destination; the country's year–round golf courses are among the top attractions. In this mountainous country is located the Caribbean's highest mountain, Pico Duarte, as is Lake Enriquillo, the Caribbean's largest lake. Quisqueya, as Dominicans often call their country, has a mild average temperature (26 °C) and is outstanding for its great biological diversity. Music and sport are of the highest importance in Dominican culture, with merengue and baseball preferred. History The Taínos The inhabitants of Hispaniola were displaced by the Taínos, an Arawakan-speaking people, circa A.D. 600. The Taínos called the island Kiskeya or Quisqueya, meaning "mother of the earth", as well as Haití or Aytí, and Bohio. They engaged in farming and fishing, and hunting and gathering. For much of the 15th century, the Taíno tribe was being driven to the Northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because of raids by fierce Caribs. "1492 and Multiculturalism". by Robert Royal in "The Intercollegiate Review" (Spring 1992, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 3-10) There are widely varying estimates of the population of Hispaniola in 1492, including one hundred thousand, three hundred thousand, and four hundred thousand to two million. By 1492 the island was divided into five chiefdoms. Within a few years following the arrival of Europeans the population of Taínos had declined drastically, due to changes in lifestyle, smallpox and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans, "History of Smallpox - Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services. intermarriage, and enslavement. By 1711 the Taíno numbered just 21,000. The last record of pure Taíno natives in the country was from an 1864 account by a Spanish soldier during the Restoration War, who wrote of Taínos shooting at Spanish soldiers and fleeing. Taíno cave paintings can still be seen in a variety of caves around the country. Remnants of the Taino culture still live on. Their designs of ancient pottery are still used today by skilled ceramic artisans in the small artisan village of Higüerito, Moca. Spanish rule Christopher Columbus landed at Môle Saint-Nicolas, in northwest present-day Haiti, on December 5, 1492, during his first voyage. He claimed the island for Spain and named it La Española. Eighteen days later his flagship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haitien. Columbus was forced to leave 39 men, who built a fort named La Navidad (Christmas, or The Nativity). He then sailed east, exploring the northern coast of what is now the Dominican Republic, after which he returned to Spain. He sailed back to America three more times, and was buried in Santo Domingo upon his death in 1506. After initially friendly relations, the Taínos resisted the conquest. One of the earliest leaders to fight against the Spanish was the female Chief Anacaona of Xaragua, in the southwest, who married Chief Caonabo of Maguana, of the center and south of the island. She was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. Other notables who resisted include Chief Guacanagari, Chief Guamá, and Chief Hatuey, the latter of whom later fled to Cuba and helped fight the Spaniards there. Chief Enriquillo fought victoriously against the Spanish in the Baoruco Mountain Range, in the southwest, to gain freedom for himself and his people in a part of the island for a time. By the late 1500s, the majority of Taíno people had died from European infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, from mistreatment, suicide, the breakup of family unity, starvation, forced labor, torture, and war with the Spaniards. Most scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, infectious disease was the overwhelming cause of the Taíno population decline. The Taíno survived mostly in racially mixed form, and today most Dominicans have Taíno ancestry. Some scholars believe that Bartolomé de las Casas exaggerated the Indian population decline in an effort to persuade King Carlos to intervene, and that encomenderos also exaggerated it, in order to receive permission to import more African slaves. Moreover, censuses of the time did not account for the number of Indians who fled into remote communities, where they often joined with runaway Africans, called cimarrones, producing zambos. There were also confusing issues with racial categorization, as Mestizos who were culturally Spanish were counted as Spaniards. In addition some Zambos were categorized as black and some Indians as Mulattos. In 1496 Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city of Nueva Isabela (New Isabella), now Santo Domingo, in the south of Hispaniola. It was one of the first Spanish settlements (the previous ones had also been on Hispaniola), and became Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created a plantation economy on Hispaniola, particularly from the second half of the 16th century. The island became a springboard for European conquest of the Caribbean islands, called Las Antillas (The Antilles), and soon after, the American mainland. For decades, Santo Domingo was the headquarters of Spanish colonial power in the New World. But after the Spanish conquest of the mainland empires of the Aztecs and Incas, the importance of Hispaniola declined and Spain paid less attention to it. French bucaneers settled in the western part of the island, and by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded the area to France. With colonial settlement and the development of a plantation economy dependent on slave labor, it grew into the wealthy colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), with four times (500,000 vs. 125,000) as much population as Spanish Santo Domingo by the end of the 18th century. By then, enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue outnumbered whites and freedmen by nine to one. French rule France came to own the whole island in 1795, when by the Peace of Basel Spain ceded Santo Domingo as a consequence of the French Revolutionary Wars. At the time, Saint–Domingue's slaves, led by Toussaint Louverture, were in revolt against France. In 1801 Toussaint Louverture captured Santo Domingo from the French, thus gaining control of the entire island. In 1802 an army sent by Napoleon captured Toussaint Louverture and sent him to France as prisoner. However, Toussaint Louverture's successors, and yellow fever, succeeded in expelling the French again from Saint-Domingue. There the rebels declared the independence of Haiti in 1804, while to the east, France continued to rule Spanish Santo Domingo. In 1808, following Napoleon's invasion of Spain, the criollos of Santo Domingo revolted against French rule and, with the aid of Great Britain (Spain's ally) and Haiti, returned Santo Domingo to Spanish control. Ephemeral independence and Haitian occupation After a dozen years of Spanish rule and failed independence plots by various groups, Santo Domingo's former administrator, Lieutenant–Governor José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence as the state of Haití Español (Spanish Haiti), on November 30, 1821. He requested admission to Simón Bolívar's nation of Gran Colombia, but Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, invaded just nine weeks later, in February 1822. As Toussaint Louverture had done the first time, the Haitians abolished slavery. But they also nationalized all public property; most private property, including all the property of landowners who had left in the wake of the invasion; much Church property; as well as all property belonging to the former rulers, the Spanish Crown. All levels of education suffered collapse; the university was shut down, as it was starved both of resources and students, since young Dominican men from 16 to 25-years-old were drafted into the Haitian army. Haiti imposed a "heavy tribute" on the Dominican people. Many whites fled Santo Domingo for Puerto Rico and Cuba (both still under Spanish rule), Venezuela, and elsewhere. Boyer changed the Dominican economic system to place more emphasis on cash crops to be grown on large plantations, reformed the tax system, and allowed foreign trade. But the new system was widely opposed by Dominican farmers, although it produced a boom in sugar and coffee production. Boyer's troops, which included many Dominicans, were unpaid, and had to "forage and sack" from Dominican civilians. In the end the economy faltered and taxation became more onerous. Rebellions occurred even by freed Dominican slaves, while Dominicans and Haitians worked together to oust Boyer from power. Anti–Haitian movements of several kinds — pro–independence, pro–Spanish, pro–French, pro–British, pro–United States — gathered force following the overthrow of Boyer in 1843. Independence In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention. p147–149 - Ramón Matías Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez (the latter of partly African ancestry), despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte and they are the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. On February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios (Trinitarians), declared the independence from Haiti. They were backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher from El Seibo, who became general of the army of the nascent Republic. The Dominican Republic's first Constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled after the United States Constitution. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Threatening the nation's independence were renewed Haitian invasions occurring in 1844, 1845-49, 1849-55, and 1855-56. Meanwhile, archrivals Santana and Buenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to another power: Santana favored Spain, and Báez the United States. The voluntary colony and the Restoration republic General Gregorio Luperón, Restoration hero and later President of the Republic. In 1861, after imprisoning, silencing, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana signed a pact with the Spanish Crown and reverted the Dominican nation to colonial status, the only Latin American country to do so. His ostensible aim was to protect the nation from another Haitian annexation. But opponents launched the War of the Restoration in 1863, led by a group of men including Santiago Rodríguez and Benito Monción, among others. General Gregorio Luperón distinguished himself at the end of the war. Haitian authorities, fearful of the re-establishment of Spain as colonial power on their border, gave refuge and supplies to Dominican revolutionaries. The United States, then fighting its own Civil War, vigorously protested the Spanish action. After two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in 1865. Political hardship again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. In 1869 it was the turn of Báez to act on his plan of annexing the country to the United States, where President Ulysses S. Grant was supportive. An agreement was made, which included a U.S. a payment of 1.5 million dollars for Dominican debt repayment. But the United States Senate refused approval on June 30, 1870, on a vote of 28-28, two-thirds being required. One reason for President Grant's support was providing a home where U.S. freedmen could live free of harassment by Southern whites. Ulises 'Lilís' Heureaux, President of the Republic 1882-84, 1886-99 Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878. A new generation was thence in charge, with the passing of Santana (he died in 1864) and Báez from the scene. Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of General Ulises Heureaux. "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, enjoyed a period of popularity. He was, however, "a consummate dissembler", who put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state. Heureaux's rule became progressively more despotic and he all the more unpopular. In 1899 he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized, and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants, both from the Old World and the New. From 1902 on, short–lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay Heureaux's debts, faced the threat of military intervention by France and other European creditor powers. U.S. interventions and occupation U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the future Panama Canal, as the canal was already under construction. He made a small military intervention to ward off the European powers, proclaimed his famous Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and in 1905 obtained Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, then the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic, and assumed responsibility for said debt. After six years in power, President Ramón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux) was assassinated in 1911. The result was several years of great political instability and civil war. U.S. mediation by the William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time. A political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling Dominicans to choose a president or see the U.S. impose one. A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president (1899–1902) Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power. In order to achieve a more broadly supported government, Jimenes named opposition individuals to his Cabinet. But this brought no peace and, with his former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U.S. offer of military aid against Arias, Jimenes resigned on May 7, 1916. The 1916 occupation by U.S. Marines Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic. U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and had control of the country two months later. The military government established by the U.S., led by Rear Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by Dominicans. Some Cabinet posts had to be filled by U.S. naval officers, as Dominicans refused to serve in the administration. Press and radio censorship was imposed, as were limits on public speech. Guerrilla war against the U.S. forces was met with a vigorous, "often brutal" response. But the occupation regime, which kept most Dominican laws and institutions, had its positive effects. It largely pacified the country, revived the economy, reduced the Dominican debt, built a road network that at last connected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. Opposition to the occupation continued, however, and after World War I it increased in the U.S. as well. There, President Warren G. Harding (1921–23), Wilson's successor, worked to end the occupation, as he had promised to do during his campaign. U.S. government ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924. The victor was former president (1902–03) Horacio Vásquez Lajara, who had cooperated with the U.S. He was inaugurated on July 13, and the last U.S. forces left in September. Vásquez gave the country six years of good government, in which political and civil rights were respected and the economy grew strongly, in a peaceful atmosphere. The Trujillo Era When Vásquez attempted to win another term, opponents rebelled in February, 1930, in secret alliance with the commander of the National Army (the former National Guard), General Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, by which the latter remained 'neutral' in face of the rebellion. Vásquez resigned. Trujillo then stood for election himself, and in May was elected president virtually unopposed, after a campaign of violence in which he eliminated his strongest opponents. There was considerable economic growth during Trujillo's long and iron-fisted regime, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. There was progress in healthcare, education, and transportation, with the building of hospitals and clinics, schools, and roads and harbors. Trujillo also carried out an important housing construction program and instituted a pension plan. He finally negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti in 1935, and achieved the early end, in 1941, of the 1906 agreement with the U.S. He made the country debt-free in 1947, a proud achievement for Dominicans for decades to come. But all this was accompanied by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terroristic methods against the opposition. Moreover, Trujillo's megalomania was on display in his renaming after himself the capital city Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo (Trujillo City), the nation's — and the Caribbean's — highest mountain Pico Duarte (Duarte Peak) to Pico Trujillo, and many towns and a province. Some other places he renamed after members of his family. In 1937 Trujillo (who was himself one-quarter Haitian), in an event known as the Parsley Massacre or, in the Dominican Republic, as El Corte (The Cutting), ordered the Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border. The Army killed an estimated 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians over six days, from the night of October 2, 1937 through October 8, 1937. To avoid leaving evidence of the Army's involvement, the soldiers used machetes rather than bullets. The soldiers of Trujillo were said to have interrogated anyone with dark skin, using the shibboleth perejil (parsley) to tell Haitians from Dominicans; the trilled 'R' of perejil was of difficult pronunciation for Haitians. As a result of the massacre, the Dominican Republic agreed to pay Haiti US$750,000, later reduced to US$525,000. On November 25, 1960 Trujillo killed three of the four Mirabal Sisters, nicknamed Las Mariposas (The Butterflies). The victims were Patria Mercedes Mirabal (born on February 27, 1924), Argentina Minerva Mirabal (born on March 12, 1926), and Antonia María Teresa Mirabal (born on October 15, 1935). Minerva was an aspiring lawyer who was extremely opposed to Trujillo's dictatorship since Trujillo had begun to make rude sexual advances towards her. The sisters have received many honors posthumously, and have many memorials in various cities in the Dominican Republic. Salcedo, their home province, changed its name to Hermanas Mirabal Province (Mirabal Sisters Province). The International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on the anniversary of their deaths. The lives and resistance of Las Mariposas is told in In the Time of Butterflies by Julia Alvarez. For a long time, the US supported the Trujillo government, as did the Roman Catholic Church, and the Dominican elite. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition, the massacre of border Haitians, and Trujillo's plots against other countries. The US believed Trujillo was the lesser of two or more evils. The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan president, Rómulo Betancourt. Trujillo was assassinated on May 30, 1961 in Santo Domingo. It has been postulated that "the CIA arranged, planned and executed the assassination using their elite paramilitary operations officers" from the Special Activities Division. The Dominican Republic and the United States: from imperialism to transnationalism,By G. Pope Atkins, Larman Curtis Wilson,Contributor Larman Curtis Wilson,Published by University of Georgia Press, 1998ISBN 0820319317, 9780820319315 Post-Trujillo A democratically elected government under leftist Juan Bosch took office in February, 1963, but was overthrown in September. After nineteen months of military rule, a pro-Bosch revolt broke out in April, 1965. U.S. president Lyndon Johnson, concerned over the possible takeover of the revolt by pro-Castro or other communists who might create a "second Cuba", sent the Marines days later, in Operation Powerpack. "We don't propose to sit here in a rocking chair with our hands folded and let the Communist set up any government in the western hemisphere", Johnson said. The forces were soon joined by comparatively small contingents from the Organization of American States. They remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections in 1966 won by Joaquín Balaguer, who had been Trujillo's last puppet–president. Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties, ostensibly to prevent pro–Castro or pro–communist parties from gaining power in the country. His rule was further criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massive Columbus Lighthouse, completed in a subsequent tenure in 1992. Balaguer's sister, Ema, helped in these efforts. She became well known amongst the poor for donating sewing machines, toys and building schools. 1978 to present In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded in the presidency by opposition candidate Antonio Guzmán Fernández, of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Another PRD win in 1982 followed, under Salvador Jorge Blanco. Under the PRD presidents, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of relative freedom and basic human rights. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986, and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, this last time just defeating PRD candidate José Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing on international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. This time Leonel Fernández achieved the first–ever win for the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), which Bosch founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD (also founded by Bosch). In 2000 the PRD's Hipólito Mejía won the election when his main opponents Danilo Medina (PLD) and a very old Joaquín Balaguer decided not to force a runoff after Mejía got 49.8% in the first round. In 2004 Fernández was elected again, defeating President Mejía, and reelected in 2008 against the PRD's Miguel Vargas Maldonado, a former minister in Mejía's government. Fernández and the PLD are credited with a number of initiatives that have moved the country forward technologically, such as the construction of the Metro Railway ("El Metro"), available for public use since January 2009. Government National Palace in Santo Domingo. The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy, with national powers divided among independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The President of the Dominican Republic appoints the Cabinet, executes laws passed by the Congress, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for 4–year terms. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Congress composed of the Senate (with 32 members) and the Chamber of Deputies (with 178 members). The Dominican Republic has a multi–party political system with national elections every 2 years (alternating between presidential elections and congressional/municipal elections). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four. International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair. Elections are supervised by a Central Elections Board (JCE) of 9 members chosen for a four–year term by each newly elected Senate. JCE decisions on electoral matters are final. Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16–member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which comprises the President, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non–governing–party member. One other Supreme Court Justice acts as secretary of the Council, a non–voting position. The Supreme Court has sole authority over management of the court system and alone hears actions against the president, designated members of his Cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session. The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 31 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo). They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives. Politics The country becomes highly politicized during election campaigns, as millions of dollars are spent in propaganda. The political system is characterized by clientelism, which has corrupted it throughout the years. There are many political parties and interest groups and, new on the scene, civil organizations. The three major parties are the conservative Social Christian Reformist Party (Spanish: Partido Reformista Social Cristiano [PRSC]), in power 1966–78 and 1986–96; the social democratic Dominican Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Dominicano [PRD]), in power in 1963, 1978–86, and 2000–04); and the increasingly conservative Dominican Liberation Party (Spanish: Partido de la Liberación Dominicana [PLD]), in power 1996–2000 and since 2004. The presidential elections of 2008 were held on May 16, 2008, with incumbent Leonel Fernandez winning with 53% of the vote. He defeated Miguel Vargas Maldonado, of the PRD, who achieved a 40.48% share of the vote. Amable Aristy, of the PRSC, achieved 4.59% of the vote. Other minority candidates, which includes former Attorney General Guillermo Moreno from the Movement for Independence, Unity and Change (Movimiento Independencia, Unidad y Cambio [MIUCA]) and PRSC former presidential candidate and defector Eduardo Estrella obtained less than 1% of the vote. Provinces and municipalities The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces. Additionally, the national capital, Distrito Nacional (National District), is contained within Santo Domingo. The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singular municipio). They are the second–level political and administrative subdivisions of the country. Azua Bahoruco Barahona Dajabón Distrito Nacional Duarte Elías Piña El Seibo Espaillat Hato Mayor Hermanas Mirabal<ol start=12> <li> Independencia <li> La Altagracia <li> La Romana <li> La Vega <li> María Trinidad Sánchez <li> Monseñor Nouel <li> Monte Cristi <li> Monte Plata <li> Pedernales <li> Peravia <li> Puerto Plata<li> Samaná <li> Sánchez Ramírez <li> San Cristóbal <li> San José de Ocoa <li> San Juan <li> San Pedro de Macorís <li> Santiago <li> Santiago Rodríguez <li> Santo Domingo <li> Valverde * The national capital is the city of Santo Domingo, in the Distrito Nacional (D.N.). Geography Map of the Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic is situated on the eastern part of the second-largest island in the Greater Antilles, Hispaniola. It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio with Haiti. The whole country measures an area of 48,442 km² (or 48,730 km², or 48,921 km² ) making it the second largest country in the Antilles, after Cuba. The country's capital and greatest metropolitan area, Santo Domingo, is located on the southern coast. There are many small offshore islands and cays that are part of the Dominican territory. The two largest islands near shore are Saona, in the southeast, and Beata, in the southwest. To the north, at distances of , are three extensive, largely submerged banks, which geographically are a southeast continuation of the Bahamas: Navidad Bank, Silver Bank, and Mouchoir Bank. Navidad Bank and Silver Bank have been officially claimed by the Dominican Republic. The country's mainland has four important mountain ranges. The most northerly is the Cordillera Septentrional ("Northern Mountain Range"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town of Monte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to the Samaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast. The highest range in the Dominican Republic — indeed, in the whole of the West Indies — is the Cordillera Central ("Central Mountain Range"). It gradually bends southwards and finishes near the town of Azua, on the Caribbean coast. In the Cordillera Central are found the four highest peaks in the Caribbean: Pico Duarte ( above sea level), La Pelona (, La Rucilla () and Pico Yaque (). Bust of Duarte on top of Pico Duarte, with La Pelona in the background. In the southwest corner of the country, south of the Cordillera Central, there are two other ranges. The more northerly of the two is the Sierra de Neiba, while in the south the Sierra de Bahoruco is a continuation of the Massif de la Selle in Haiti. There are other, minor mountain ranges, such as the Cordillera Oriental ("Eastern Mountain Range"), Sierra Martín García, Sierra de Yamasá and Sierra de Samaná. Between the Central and Northern mountain ranges lies the rich and fertile Cibao valley. This major valley is home to the city of Santiago and most of the farming areas in the nation. Rather less productive is the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Central Cordillera. Still more arid is the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco. Much of the land in the Enriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment. There are other smaller valleys in the mountains, such as the Constanza, Jarabacoa, Villa Altagracia, and Bonao valleys. Cayo Levantado in Samana Bay is one of the many cays in the D.R. The Llano Costero del Caribe ("Caribbean Coastal Plain") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic. Stretching north and east of Santo Domingo, it contains many sugar plantations in the savannahs that are common there. West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River. Another large plain is the Plena de Azua ("Azua Plain"), a very dry region in Azua Province. A few other small coastal plains are in the northern coast and in the Pedernales Peninsula. South shore of Lake Enriquillo, looking northward to the Sierra de Neiba Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic. The Yaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river. It carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay, in the northwest. Likewise, the Yuna River serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay, in the northeast. Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River, tributary of the Yaque del Sur, which empties into the Caribbean, in the south. The Artibonito is the longest river of Hispaniola and flows westward into Haiti. There are many lakes and coastal lagoons. The largest lake is Enriquillo, a salt lake at below sea level, the lowest point in the Caribbean. Other important lakes are Laguna de Rincón or Cabral, with freshwater, and Laguna de Oviedo, a lagoon with brackish water. Climate The climate is sunny most of the time. Weather in the winter has a low of about 31 degrees Fahrenheit, and so in the summer temperatures easily get into the hundreds. Environmental issues Bajos de Haina, west of Santo Domingo, was included on the Blacksmith Institute's list of the world's 10 most polluted places, released in October 2006, due to lead poisoning by a battery recycling smelter closed in 1999. Cleanup of the site began in 2008, but children continue to be born with high lead levels, causing learning disabilities, impaired physical growth and kidney damage. Symbols and name Some of the important symbols include the flag, the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titled Himno Nacional. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternate interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and unity amongst Dominicans. In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag. The national flower is that of the West Indian Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). The national bird is the Cigua Palmera or Palmchat (Dulus dominicus). For most of its history (up to independence) the colony was known by the name of its present capital, Santo Domingo. At present, the Dominican Republic is one of the few countries in the world with a demonym–based name (as the Czech Republic, et al.). For example, the French Republic is generally known as France, but the Dominican Republic has no such equivalent – although the name "Quisqueya" is used sometimes. Economy Santo Domingo, the capital of the Republic and its largest city. The Dominican Republic has the largest or second largest economy in Central America and the Caribbean. It is a lower middle-income developing country, with a 2007 GDP per capita of $9,208, in PPP terms, which is relatively high in Latin America. In the trimester of January–March 2007 it experienced an exceptional growth of 9.1% in its GDP, which was actually below the previous year's 10.9% in the same period. Growth was led by imports, followed by exports, with finance and foreign investment the next largest factors. Santiago de los Caballeros, the second largest city in the country The D.R. is primarily dependent on natural resources and government services. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and Free Trade Zones), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place, behind mining, in terms of export earnings. The service sector in general has experienced growth in recent years, as has construction. Free Trade Zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. Real estate tourism alone accounted for $1.5 billion in earnings for 2007. Remittances from Dominicans living abroad amounted to nearly $3.2 billion in 2007. Sector of NACO, in Santo Domingo, with a view of Tiradentes Avenue Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage, which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices. Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign private debt. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered a recession. La Trinitaria in Santiago de Los Caballeros is an area of increasing development.This recession followed the collapse of the second–largest commercial bank in the country, Baninter, linked to a major incident of fraud valued at $3.5 billion, during the administration of President Hipólito Mejía (2000-2004). The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 while inflation ballooned by over 27%. All defendants, including the star of the trial, Ramon Baez Figueroa, were found guilty and convicted; one subpoena failed to be delivered upon the United States denial of extradition. According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked #71 in the world for resource availability, #79 for human development, and #14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor. Currency The Dominican peso (DOP, or RD$) is the national currency, although United States dollars (USD) and euros (EUR) are also accepted at most tourist sites. The U.S. dollar is implicated in almost all commercial transactions of the Dominican Republic; such dollarization is common in high inflation economies. The peso was worth the same as the USD until the 1980s, but has depreciated. The exchange rate in 1993 was 14.00 pesos per USD and 16.00 pesos in 2000, but it jumped to 53.00 pesos per USD in 2003. In 2004, the exchange rate was back down to around 31.00 pesos per USD. As of February 2009 the exchange rate was 1 DOP = 0.0281 USD, i.e. 35.65 DOP per USD; 1 DOP = 0.022 euros (EUR, or €); and 1 DOP = 2.74 Japanese yen (JPY, or ¥). And peso to yen, peso to euro. Tourism Tourism is fueling the Dominican Republic's economic growth. For example, the contribution of travel and tourism to employment is expected to rise from 550,000 jobs in 2008 — 14.4% of total employment or 1 in every 7 jobs — to 743,000 jobs — 14.2% of total employment or 1 in every 7.1 jobs by 2018. With the construction of projects like Cap Cana, San Souci Port in Santo Domingo, and Moon Palace Resort in Punta Cana, the Dominican Republic expects increased tourism activity in the upcoming year. Ecotourism has been a topic increasingly important in the nation, with towns like Jarabacoa and neighboring Constanza, and locations like the Pico Duarte, Bahia de Las Aguilas and others becoming more significant in attempts to increase direct benefits from tourism. Demographics Population The population of the Dominican Republic in 2007 was estimated by the United Nations at 9,760,000, which placed it number 82 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In that year approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, while 35% of the population was under 15 years of age. There were 103 males for every 100 females in the country in 2007. According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2006–2007 is 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 at 10,121,000. It was estimated by the Dominican government that the population density in 2007 was 192 per km² (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas. The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city, Santo Domingo, had a population of 3,014,000 in 2007. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros (pop. 756,098), La Romana (pop. 250,000), San Pedro de Macorís, San Francisco de Macorís, Puerto Plata, and La Vega. Per the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 2.3%. Dominican Republic - Population Encyclopedia of the Nations Ethnic composition Right|Dominican girls at carnival, in Taíno garments and makeup (2005) The ethnic composition of the Dominican population is 73% mixed race, 16% White and 11% Black. The mixed population is a racial mixture of black, white, and to an extent, Taíno heritage. The country's population includes a large Haitian minority. A smaller, yet significant presence of East Asians (primarily ethnic Chinese and Japanese) can be found throughout the population. Other ethnic groups in the country include Middle Easterners — primarily Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians — Spaniards, Germans, Italians, Portuguese, Irish, Corsicans, French, and Americans. Racial issues As elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, the Spanish colony of Hispaniola employed a social system known as casta, wherein Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) occupied the highest echelon. These were followed, in descending order of status, by: criollos, castizos, mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, zambos, and black slaves. The stigma of this stratification persisted, reaching its culmination in the Trujillo regime, as the dictator used racial persecution and nationalistic fervor against Haitians. According to a study by the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute, about 90% of the contemporary Dominican population has African ancestry. However, most Dominicans do not self-identify as black, in contrast to people of African ancestry in other countries. A variety of terms are used to represent a range of skintones, such as morena (brown), canela (red/brown) ["cinnamon"], India (Indian), blanca oscura (dark white), and trigueño (literally "wheat colored", which is the English equivalent of olive skin), among others. Many have claimed that this represents a reluctance to self-identify with African descent and the culture of the freed slaves. According to Dr. Miguel Anibal Perdomo, professor of Dominican Identity and Literature at Hunter College in New York City, "There was a sense of 'deculturación' among the African slaves of Hispaniola. [There was] an attempt to erase any vestiges of African culture from the Dominican Republic. We were, in some way, brainwashed and we've become westernized." However, this view is not universal, as many also claim that Dominican culture is simply different and rejects the racial categorizations of other regions. Ramona Hernández, director of the Dominican Studies Institute at City College of New York asserts that the terms were originally a defense against racism: "During the Trujillo regime, people who were dark skinned were rejected, so they created their own mechanism to fight it." She went on to explain, "When you ask, 'What are you?' they don't give you the answer you want ... saying we don't want to deal with our blackness is simply what you want to hear." The Dominican Republic is not unique in this respect, either. In a 1976 census survey conducted in Brazil, respondents described their skin color in 136 distinct terms. Religions The Dominican Republic is 95.2% Christian, including 88.6% Roman Catholic and 4.2% Protestant. Recent but small scale immigration, as well as proselytizing, has brought other religions, with the following shares of the population: Spiritist: 2.2%, Buddhist: 0.10%, Bahá'í: 0.1%, Islam: 0.02%, Judaism: 0.01%, Chinese Folk Religion: 0.1%, and Dominican Vudu (no census). Roman Catholicism was introduced by Columbus and Spanish missionaries. Religion wasn’t really the foundation of their entire society, as it was in other parts of the world at the time, and most of the population didn’t attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, most of the education in the country was based upon the Catholic religion, as the Bible was required in the curricula of all public schools. Children would use religious–based dialogue when greeting a relative or parent. For example: a child would say "Bless me, mother", and the mother would reply "May God bless you". The nation has two patroness saints: Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia (Our Lady Of High Grace) is the patroness of the Dominican people, and Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes (Our Lady Of Mercy) is the patroness of the Dominican Republic. The Catholic Church began to lose popularity in the late 1800s. This was due to a lack of funding, of priests, and of support programs. During the same time, the Protestant evangelical movement began to gain support. Religious tension between Catholics and Protestants in the country has been rare. There has always been religious freedom throughout the entire country. Not until the 1950s were restrictions placed upon churches by Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was even put into place, with his assassination. Judaism appeared in the Dominican Republic in the late 1930s. During World War II, a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city of Sosúa. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since. Education Primary education is officially free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 14, although those who live in isolated areas have limited access to schooling. Primary schooling is followed by a two–year intermediate school and a four–year secondary course, after which a diploma called the bachillerato (high school diploma) is awarded. Relatively few lower–income students succeed in reaching this level, due to financial hardships and limitation due to location. Most of the wealthier students attend private schools, which are frequently sponsored by religious institutions. Some public and private vocational schools are available, particularly in the field of agriculture, but this too reaches only a tiny percentage of the population. Health statistics In 2007 the Dominican Republic had a birth rate of 22.91 per 1000, and a death rate of 5.32 per 1000. Dengue is endemic to the country and there are cases of malaria. There is currently a mission based in the United States to combat the AIDS rate in the Dominican Republic. On the 18 December 2008, the William J. Clinton Foundation released a list of all contributors. It included COPRESIDA-Secretariado Tecnico, a Dominican Republic government agency formed to fight AIDS, which gave between US$10–25 million to the Foundation. Contributor Information to the William J. Clinton Foundation Crime The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for Colombian drugs destined to Europe as well as the United States and Canada. Why Harlem Drug Cops Don't Discuss Race; RaceMatters.org (2001) Money laundering via the Dominican Republic is favored by Colombian drug cartels for the ease of illicit financial transactions. In 2004 it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States had come through the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering. A 1995 report stated that social pressures and poverty — which was then increasing — had led to a rise in prostitution. Though prostitution is legal and the age of consent is 18, child prostitution is a growing phenomenon in impoverished areas. In an environment where young girls are often denied employment opportunities offered to boys, prostitution frequently becomes a source of supplementary income. UNICEF estimated in 1994 that at least 25,000 children were involved in the Dominican sex trade, 63% of that figure being girls. Immigration The Haitian occupation government (1822-1844) invited free blacks and fugitives from the United States to settle on the island. In the late 1800s and early 1900s large groups immigrated to the country from Venezuela and Puerto Rico; two of the country's former presidents and life long political rivals, Juan Bosch and Joaquín Balaguer, had Puerto Rican parents. In the 20th century, many Chinese, Arabs (primarily from Lebanon and Syria), Japanese and to a lesser degree Koreans settled in the country, working as agricultural laborers and merchants. Waves of Chinese immigrants, the latter ones fleeing the Chinese Communist People's Liberation Army (PLA), arrived and worked in mines and building railroads. The current Chinese Dominican population totals 15,000. The Arab community is also rising at an increasing rate. Estimates are at 3,400. Japanese immigrants, who mostly work in the business districts and markets, are at an estimate of 1,900 living in the country. The Korean presence is minor but evident at a population of 500. In addition, there are descendants of immigrants who came from other Caribbean islands, including St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Antigua, St. Vincent, Montserrat, Tortola, St. Croix, St. Thomas, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the cities of San Pedro de Macoris and Puerto Plata. They are believed to number 28,000. Before and during World War II 800 Jewish refugees moved to the Dominican Republic, and many of their descendants live in the town of Sosúa. Nationwide, there are an estimated 100 Jews left. Immigration from Europe and the United States is at an all time high. There are 88,000 Spaniards, 82,000 Americans (in 1999), 40,000 Italians, 1,900 French, 1,400 Britons, and 800 Germans. Illegal Haitian immigration A border watch tower to control illegal immigration from Haiti, located in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic Haiti is much poorer than the Dominican Republic. In 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor and 48% were illiterate; in 2002, over two-thirds of the labor force lacked formal jobs. The country's per capita GDP (PPP) was $1,400 in 2008, or less than one-sixth of the Dominican figure. As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates speaking of 800,000 Haitians in the country, while some put the Haitian–born population as high as one million. They usually work at low-paying and unskilled labor jobs, including construction work, household cleaning, and in sugar plantations. Working conditions on these sugar plantations have caused controversy, including allegations that they border on slavery. Moreover, as their parents are denied Dominican nationality because they are deemed to be transient residents, due to their illegal or undocumented status; and as Haiti also denies them nationality (Haiti's Constitution states in Title II, Article 11 that "Any person born of a Haitian father or Haitian mother who are themselves native-born Haitians and have never renounced their nationality possesses Haitian nationality at the time of birth.") because of lack of proper documents or witnesses, children of illegal Haitian immigrants are often stateless and denied services, such as basic health care. There are also frequent physical attacks on, and roundups of adult immigrants. A large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain much-needed medical attention for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers. In 2005 Dominican President Leonel Fernández criticized collective expulsions of Haitians as having taken place "in an abusive and inhuman way." After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origins, Dominican Foreign Minister Carlos Morales Troncoso issued a formal statement denouncing it and asserting that "Our border with Haiti has its problems, this is our reality and it must be understood. It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security with xenophobia..." Emigration The Dominican Republic has experienced three distinct waves of emigration in the second half of the twentieth century. The first period began in 1961, when a coalition of high-ranking Dominicans, with assistance from the CIA, assassinated General Rafael Trujillo, the nation's military dictator. In the wake of his death, fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies, and political uncertainty in general, spurred migration from the island. In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic and eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain American visas. International Migration in the Dominican Republic; Thomas K. Morrison, Richard Sinkin; International Migration Review, Vol. 16, No. 4, Special Issue: International Migration and Development (Winter, 1982), pp. 819-836; doi:10.2307/2546161 From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals. In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of emigration from the island nation. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high, facilitated by the social networks of now-established Dominican communities in the United States. Migration Trends in Six Latin American Countries Culture Carnaval of La Vega, one of the most famous carnivals in the country. The culture of the Dominican Republic, like its Caribbean neighbors, is a blend of the cultures of the European colonists, African slaves, and Taíno natives. Spanish, also known as Castellano (Castilian) is the official language. Other languages, among them English, French, German, Italian, and Chinese are also spoken to varying degrees. European, African and Taíno cultural elements are most prominent in food, family structure, religion and music. Many Arawak/Taíno names and words are used in daily conversation and for many foods native to the DR. Cuisine Dominican cuisine is predominantly made up of a combination of Spanish, Taíno, and African influences over the last few centuries. The typical cuisine is quite similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries, but many of the names of dishes are different. One breakfast dish consists of eggs and mangú (mashed, boiled plantain). For heartier versions, these are accompanied by deep-fried meat (typically Dominican salami) and/or cheese. Similarly to Spain, lunch is generally the largest and most important meal of the day. Lunch usually consists of rice, some type of meat (chicken, beef, pork, or fish), beans, and a side portion of salad. "La Bandera" (literally, The Flag), the most popular lunch dish, consists of meat and red beans on white rice. Dominican cuisine usually accommodates all the food groups, incorporating meat or seafood; rice, potatoes, or plantains; and is accompanied by some other type of vegetable or salad. However, meals usually heavily favor starches and meats over dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made with sofrito, which is a mix of local herbs and spices sautéed to bring out all of the dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast, bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient in quipes or tipili (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican dishes include chicharrón, yuca, casabe, and pastelitos (empanadas), batata, pasteles en hoja, (ground-roots pockets) chimichurris, plátanos maduros (ripe plantain), and tostones. Some treats Dominicans enjoy are arroz con dulce (or arroz con leche), bizcocho dominicano (lit. Dominican cake), habichuelas con dulce (sweet creamed beans), flan, frío frío (snow cones), dulce de leche, and caña (sugarcane). The beverages Dominicans enjoy include Morir Soñando, rum, beer, Mama Juana, batida (smoothie), mabí, and coffee. Music Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for the creation of the musical style called merengue, a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (it varies wildly) based on musical elements like drums, brass, and chorded instruments, as well as some elements unique to the music style of the DR. It includes the use of the tambora (Dominican drum), accordion, and güira. Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, and piano or keyboard. Well-known merengue singers include singer/songwriter Juan Luis Guerra, Fernando Villalona, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Toño Rosario, Johnny Ventura, and Milly Quezada. Merengue became popular in the United States, mostly on the East Coast, during the 1980s and 90s, when many Dominican artists, among them Victor Roque y La Gran Manzana, Henry Hierro, Zacarias Ferraira, Aventura, Milly, and Jocelyn Y Los Vecinos, residing in the U.S. (particularly New York) started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay. The emergence of bachata, along with an increase in the number of Dominicans living among other Latino groups in New York, New Jersey, and Florida have contributed to Dominican music's overall growth in popularity. Dominican singer Juan Luis Guerra in concert, 2005. Bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years. Its subjects are often romantic; especially prevalent are tales of heartbreak and sadness. In fact, the original name for the genre was amargue ("bitterness," or "bitter music", or blues music), until the rather ambiguous (and mood-neutral) term bachata became popular. Bachata grew out of, and is still closely related to, the pan-Latin American romantic style called bolero. Over time, it has been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles. Particularly among the young, a genre that has been growing in popularity in recent years in the Dominican Republic is Dominican rap. Also known as Rap del Patio ("yard rap") it is rap music created by Dominican crews and solo artists. Originating in the early 2000s with crews such as Charles Family, successful rappers such as Lapiz Conciente, Vakero, Toxic Crow, and R-1 emerged. The youth have embraced the music, sometimes over merengue, merengue típico, bachata, as well as salsa, and, most recently, reggaeton. It must be noted that Dominican rap differs from reggaeton in the fact that Dominican rap does not use the traditional Dem Bow rhythm frequently used in reggaeton, instead using more hip hop-influenced beats. As well, Dominican rap focuses on urban themes such as money, women, and poverty, similarly to American rap. Sports Dominican native and Major League Baseball player David Ortiz (facing front) Baseball is by far the most popular sport in the Dominican Republic today. After the United States, the Dominican Republic has the second-highest number of baseball players in Major League Baseball (MLB). Some of the Dominican players have been regarded as among the best in the game. Historically, the Dominican Republic has been linked to MLB since Ozzie Virgil, Sr. became the first Dominican to play in the league. Among the outstanding MLB players born in the Dominican are: Manny Ramirez, David Ortiz, Pedro Martinez, Albert Pujols, José Reyes, Hanley Ramirez, Miguel Tejada, Juan Marichal, and Sammy Sosa. Olympic gold medalist and world champion over 400 m hurdles Félix Sánchez hails from the Dominican Republic, as does current defensive end for the San Diego Chargers (National Football League [NFL]), Luis Castillo. Castillo was the cover athlete for the Spanish language version of Madden NFL 08. The National Basketball Association (NBA) also has had players from the Dominican Republic. Boxing is one of the more important sports after baseball, and the country has produced scores of world-class fighters and world champions. Holidays Date Name January 1 New Year's Day Non-working day. January 6 Catholic day of the Epiphany Movable. January 21 Dia de la Altagracia Non-working day. Patroness Day (Catholic). January 26 Duarte's Day Movable. Founding Father. February 27 Independence Day Non-working day. National Day. (Variable date) Holy Week Working days, except Good Friday.A Catholic holiday. May 1 Labour Day Movable. Last Sunday of May Mother's Day (Variable date) Catholic Corpus Christi Non-working day. A Thursday in May or June (60 days after Easter Sunday). August 16 Restoration Day Non-working day. September 24 Virgen de las Mercedes Non-working day. A Patroness Day (Catholic) November 6 Constitution Day Movable. December 25 Christmas Day Non-working day. Birth of Jesus Christ Notes: Non-working holidays are not moved to another day. If a movable holiday falls on Saturday, Sunday or Monday then it is not moved to another day. If it falls on Tuesday or Wednesday, the holiday is moved to the previous Monday. If it falls on Thursday or Friday, the holiday is moved to the next Monday. Military Congress authorizes a combined military force of 44,000 active duty personnel. Actual active duty strength is approximately 32,000. However, approximately 50% of those are used for non-military activities such as security providers for government-owned non-military facilities, highway toll stations, prisons, forestry work, state enterprises, and private businesses. The Commander in Chief of the military is the President. The principal missions are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The army, larger than the other services combined with approximately 20,000 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry brigades, a combat support brigade, and a combat service support brigade. The air force operates two main bases, one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region near Puerto Plata. The navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast, and maintains 12 operational vessels. In the Caribbean, only Cuba has a larger military force. The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The Secretary of the Armed Forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). Additionally, the armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD). The Dominican National Police force contains 32,000 agents. The police are not part of the Dominican armed forces, but share some overlapping security functions. Sixty-three percent of the force serve in areas outside traditional police functions, similar to the situation of their military counterparts. Services and transportation Boeing 737-800 at Cibao International Airport in Santiago, DR There are two transportation services in the Dominican Republic: one controlled by the government, through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (O.T.T.T.) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA); and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA). The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas, such as Santo Domingo and Santiago, for very inexpensive prices. In December 2006, the price was DOP$5.00 (US$0.15), and air-conditioned bus rides were priced at DOP$10 (US$0.30). It should be noted that most OMSA buses are currently in very poor condition, and OMSA has been criticized for its inability to fully meet the people's needs. FENATRANO and CONATRA offer their services with voladoras (vans) or conchos (cars), which have routes in most parts of the cities. These cars have roofs painted in yellow or green in order to identify them. The cars have scheduled days to work, depending on the color of the roof, and have been described as unsafe. Communications The Dominican Republic's commercial radio stations and television stations are in the process of transferring to the digital spectrum via HD Radio and HDTV. The reported speeds are from 256 kbit/s / 128 kbit/s for residential services, up to 5 Mbit/s / 1 Mbit/s for residential service. For commercial service there are speeds from 256 kbit/s up to 154 Mbit/s. (Each set of numbers denotes downstream/upstream speed; i.e. to the user/from the user.) The Dominican Republic has a well–developed telecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone services and landline services. The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL, Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones. The Dominican Republic offers cable Internet and DSL in most parts of the country, and many Internet service providers offer 3G wireless internet service. Projects to extend Wi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo. On February 1, 2007, Verizon changed the names of its wireless services to Claro and CODETEL. The company has been owned since 2006 by Carlos Slim Helú's América Móvil. Claro is now the official name of the Wireless Division, and CODETEL (the original Compañia Dominicana de Teléfonos) is the updated name for the Verizon Dominicana landline and broadband provider. Highways The Dominican Republic has five major highways, which take travelers to every important town in the country. The three major highways are Autopista Duarte, Autopista del Este, and Autopista del Sur, which go to the north, east, and western side of the country. A new, 106–kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country’s northeastern peninsula is now operating. Travelers may now arrive in the Samana Peninsula in less than two hours. Most routes interconnecting small towns in the country are unpaved, but are improving. Ports The Port of Santo Domingo, with its location in the Caribbean, is well suited for flexible itinerary planning and has excellent support, road, and airport infrastructure within the Santo Domingo region, which facilitate access and transfers. The port is suitable for both turnaround and transit calls. Haina Port, located just 20 km west of Santo Domingo, is one of the most important port in the Dominican Republic. About 70% of all cargo, excluding Caucedo and free zone exports/imports, is moved through this port. DP World’s terminal Multimodal Caucedo maritime terminal and logistic center operates under the Free Zone Regime. Actually 85% of Free Zone exports to United States is shipped from Caucedo terminal. Multimodal Caucedo port is also able to act as a trans-shipment hub to the Caribbean and Latin America for Asia specifically Japan as a door to the American market. Puerto Plata Port is the main commercial port on the north coast of the Dominican Republic. Boca Chica Port is located about 20 miles east of the capital city and 5 miles of the International airport Las Americas. Currently the port is almost exclusively used for containers and some lumber, newsprint and homogeneous cargoes. San Pedro de Macoris Port is located on the Higuamo river. This port is mainly used to discharge bulk fertilizer. Cement clinker, coal, wheat, diesel and LPG. It is also used to export sugar and molasses produced by several sugar cane mills in the region. La Romana Port belong to Central Romana Corporation which is a private company established in 1911 and has the largest sugar mill I the country. The following six local ports are a single pier with berth facility: Samana Port (Arroyo Barruk/Puerto Duarte) is located in the Samana Bay. Manzanillo Port is located very close to the Haitian border. Cabo Rojo Port is located southeast to the border. Barahona port is located in the bay of Neyba. Azua Port also called Puerto Vuejo is located at Ocoa Bay. Palenque Port is located southwest of Santo Domingo. http://www.cei-rd.gov.do/download/brochures/Investment-brochure.pdf Electricity Electrical services have been a headache for the population, as well as the business and other areas for more than 40 years. Due to mismanagement from the government, no administration has been able to cope with this problem. In 1998, three regional electricity distribution systems were privatized via sale of 50% of shares to foreign operators; in an unexpected decision, the Mejía administration repurchased all foreign-owned shares in two of these systems in late 2003. The third, serving the eastern provinces, is operated by U.S. concerns and is 50% U.S.-owned. Industry experts estimated distribution losses for 2006 surpassed 40%, primarily due to low collection rates, theft, and corruption. At the close of 2006, the government had exceeded its budget for electricity subsidies, spending close to U.S. $650 million. Household and general electrical service is delivered at 110 volts alternating at 60 Hz; electrically powered items from the United States work with no modifications. The majority of the country has access to electricity. Still, in 2007 some areas have outages lasting as long as 20 hours a day. Tourist areas tend to have more reliable power, as do business, travel, healthcare, and vital infrastructure. The situation improved in 2006, with 200 circuits (40% of the total) providing permanent electricity, as 85% of electric demand overall was met and blackouts were reduced from 6.3 hours per day to 3.7. Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%. The electricity sector is highly politicized. Debts, including government debt, amount to more than U.S. $500 million. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies. See also References Further reading External links Government Presidency of the Dominican Republic Chief of State and Cabinet Members World Bank Dominican Republic General information Dominican Republic at UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Official Website of the Ministry of Tourism of the Dominican Republic Dominican Republic guide Social Development Official Website of the IDDI, Instituto Dominicano de Desarrollo Integral be-x-old:Дамініканская Рэспубліка | Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized dominican:167 republic:88 nation:24 island:23 hispaniola:12 part:11 great:7 antilles:4 archipelago:1 caribbean:20 region:9 western:4 third:5 occupy:3 haiti:19 make:11 one:26 two:22 country:65 saint:7 martin:1 area:17 population:32 second:12 large:28 cuba:6 estimated:3 million:9 people:12 context:1 estimaciones:1 población:1 en:2 tiempo:1 real:3 inhabit:1 taínos:7 since:11 century:8 reach:6 christopher:3 columbus:6 become:18 site:5 first:14 permanent:3 european:10 settlement:4 america:7 namely:1 santo:41 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2,149 | Paul_Ehrlich | Paul Ehrlich (14 March 1854 – 20 August 1915) was a German scientist in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy, and Nobel laureate. He is noted for his research in autoimmunity, calling it "horror autotoxicus". He coined the term "chemotherapy" and popularized the concept of a "magic bullet". He is credited with the first empirical observation of the blood-brain barrier and the development of the first antibacterial drug in modern medicine. Biography Early years Paul Ehrlich was born into a Jewish family in Strehlen, in the German Kingdom of Prussia, Province of Silesia, (now in Poland). As a schoolboy and student of medicine he was interested in staining microscopic tissue substances. Research In his dissertation at the University of Leipzig, he picked up the topic again ("Contributions to the Theory and Practice of Histological Staining", Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis der histologischen Färbung). He married Hedwig Pinkus (then aged 19) in 1883. The couple had two daughters, named Stephanie and Marianne. After his clinical education and habilitation ("The Need of the Organism for Oxygen ", Das Sauerstoffbedürfnis des Organismus) at the Charité in Berlin in 1886 he received a call from Robert Koch to join the Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin (1891). Ehrlich spent two years in Egypt, recovering from tuberculosis. Thereafter he worked with his friend Emil Adolf von Behring on the development of the diphtheria serum. Dr Paul Ehrlich & Dr Hata Sahachiro These works inspired Ehrlich's famous side-chain theory (Seitenkettentheorie) from 1897. This theory explained the effects of serum and enabled measurement of the amount of antigen. In 1896 Ehrlich became the director of the newly founded Institute of Serum Research and Examination (Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung) in Steglitz (Berlin). In 1899 the institute was moved to Frankfurt (Main) and extended into the Royal Institute of Experimental Therapy (Institut für experimentelle Therapie). Here Ehrlich researched chemotherapy and infectious diseases. In 1904 Ehrlich became honorary professor of the University of Göttingen. Herman A. Metz. Solving medical mysteries by help of animals. The New York Times, 28 January 1912 Ehrlich received the Nobel Prize for Medicine together with Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in 1908. In 1906 he discovered the structural formula of atoxyl, a chemical compound which had been shown to be able to treat sleeping sickness. Following this discovery, he tried to create a less toxic version of the medicament. In 1909 he and his student Sahachiro Hata developed Salvarsan, a treatment effective against syphilis. Personal life Ehrlich died of a stroke in Bad Homburg in 1915, aged 61. He is buried in the Juedischer Friedhof on Rat Beil Straße in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Legacy His life is depicted in the movie Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet, which focused on Salvarsan (arsphenamine, "compound 606"), his cure for syphilis. His work illuminated the existence of the blood-brain barrier. The "magic bullet" concept comes from the experience of 19th century German chemists with selectively staining tissues for histological examination, and in particular, selectively staining bacteria (Ehrlich was an exceptionally gifted histological chemist, and invented the precursor technique to Gram staining bacteria). Ehrlich reasoned that if a compound could be made that selectively targeted a disease-causing organism, then a toxin for that organism could be delivered along with the agent of selectivity. Hence, a "magic bullet" would be created that killed only the organism targeted. A problem with the use of the magic bullet concept as it emerged from its histological roots is that people confused the dye with the agent of tissue selectivity and antibiotic activity. Prontosil, a sulfa drug whose active component is sulfanilamide, is a classic example of the fact that color is not essential to antibacterial activity. The concept of a "magic bullet" was fully realized with the invention of monoclonal antibodies. Paul Ehrlich's life and achievements were filmed 1940 in Hollywood by William Dieterle in Dr. Ehrlich’s Magic Bullet with Edward G. Robinson in the title role. See also German inventors and discoverers References External links Nobel Museum: Biography of Paul Ehrlich Paul Ehrlich, pharmaceutical achiever Paul Ehrlich's publications (ordered chronologically, as full-text PDF) Film Annotations Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet Bernhard Witkop (1999) Paul Ehrlich and His Magic Bullets—Revisited Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 143:4 p.540–557. 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2,150 | Hermes | Hermes(; Greek ) is the Messenger of the Gods in Greek mythology. An Olympian god, he is also the patron of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them, of shepherds and cowherds, of thieves and road travelers, of orators and wit, of literature and poets, of athletics, of weights and measures, of invention, of general commerce, and of the cunning of thieves and liars. Walter Burkert, Greek Religion 1985 section III.2.8; "Hermes." Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online. Retrieved October 04, 2006. His symbols include the tortoise, the cock, the winged sandals, and the caduceus. The analogous Roman deity is Mercury. The Homeric hymn to Hermes invokes him as the one "of many shifts (polytropos), blandly cunning, a robber, a cattle driver, a bringer of dreams, a watcher by night, a thief at the gates, one who was soon to show forth wonderful deeds among the deathless gods." Hymn to Hermes 13. The word polutropos ("of many shifts, turning many ways, of many devices, ingenious, or much wandering") is also used to describe Odysseus in the first line of the Odyssey. He protects and takes care of all the travelers, miscreants, harlots, old crones and thieves that pray to him or cross his path. He is athletic and is always looking out for runners, or any athletes with injuries who need his help. Hermes is a messenger from the gods to humans, sharing this role with Iris. An interpreter who bridges the boundaries with strangers is a hermeneus. Hermes gives us our word "hermeneutics" for the art of interpreting hidden meaning. In Greek a lucky find was a hermaion. Hermes delivered messages from Olympus to the mortal world. He wears shoes with wings on them and uses them to fly freely between the mortal and immortal world. Hermes was the youngest of the Olympian gods. Hermes, as an inventor of fire, In the Homeric hymn, "after he had fed the loud-bellowing cattle... he gathered much wood and sought the craft of fire. He took a splendid laurel branch, gripped it in his palm, and twirled it in pomegranate wood" (lines 105, 108-10) is a parallel of the Titan, Prometheus. In addition to the syrinx and the lyre, Hermes was believed to have invented many types of racing and the sport of wrestling, and therefore was a patron of athletes. "First Inventors ... Mercurius [Hermes] first taught wrestling to mortals." - Hyginus (c.1st CE), Fabulae 277. According to prominent folklorist Yeleazar Meletinsky, Hermes is a deified trickster. Meletinsky, Introduzione (1993), p. 131 Hermes also served as a psychopomp, or an escort for the dead to help them find their way to the afterlife (the Underworld in the Greek myths). In many Greek myths, Hermes was depicted as the only god besides Hades, Persephone, Hecate, and Thanatos who could enter and leave the Underworld without hindrance. Along with escorting the dead, Hermes often helped travelers have a safe and easy journey. Many Greeks would sacrifice to Hermes before any trip. In the fully-developed Olympian pantheon, Hermes was the son of Zeus and the Pleiade Maia, a daughter of the Titan Atlas. Hermes' symbols were the cock of the tortoise, and he can be recognized by his purse or pouch, winged sandals, winged cap, and the herald's staff, the kerykeion. Hermes was the god of thieves because he was very cunning and shrewd and was a thief himself from the night he was born, when he slipped away from Maia and ran away to steal his elder brother Apollo's cattle. In the Roman adaptation of the Greek religion (see interpretatio romana), Hermes was identified with the Roman god Mercury, who, though inherited from the Etruscans, developed many similar characteristics, such as being the patron of commerce. Etymology Giambologna's Mercury in fountain of the Alameda Central, Mexico City. The name Hermes has been thought, ever since Karl Otfried Müller's demonstration, K.O. Müller, Handbuch der Archäologie 1848. to be derived from the Greek word herma (), which denotes a square or rectangular pillar with the head of Hermes (usually with a beard) adorning the top of the pillar, and ithyphallic male genitals below; however, due to the god's attestation in the Mycenaean pantheon, as Hermes Araoia ("Ram Hermes") in Linear B inscriptions at Pylos and Mycenaean Knossos (Ventris and Chadwick), the connection is more likely to have moved the opposite way, from deity to pillar representations. From the subsequent association of these cairns — which were used in Athens to ward off evil and also as road and boundary markers all over Greece — Hermes acquired patronage over land travel. Epithets of Hermes Argeiphontes Hermes' epithet Argeiphontes (Latin Argicida), or Argus-slayer, recalls his slaying of the hundred eyed giant Argus Panoptes, who was watching over the heifer-nymph Io in the sanctuary of Queen Hera herself in Argos. Putting Argus to sleep, Hermes used a spell to close all of Argus' eyes and then slew the giant. Argus' eyes were then put into the tail of the peacock, symbol of the goddess Hera. Logios His epithet of Logios is the representation of the god in the act of speaking, as orator, or as the god of eloquence. Indeed, together with Athena, he was the standard divine representation of eloquence in classical Greece. The Homeric Hymn to Hermes (probably 6th century BCE) describes Hermes making a successful speech from the cradle to defend himself from the (true) charge of cattle theft. Somewhat later, Proclus' commentary on Plato's Republic describes Hermes as the god of persuasion. Yet later, Neoplatonists viewed Hermes Logios more mystically as origin of a "Hermaic chain" of light and radiance emanating from the divine intellect (nous). This epithet also produced a sculptural type. The cap badge of the British Royal Signal Corps bears a representation of Giambologna's Mercury Other Other epithets included: Agoraeus, of the agora Acacesius, of Acacus Charidotes, giver of charm Criophorus, ram-bearer Cyllenius, born on Mount Cyllene Diaktoros, the messenger Dolios, the schemer Enagonios, lord of contests Enodios, on the road Epimelius, keeper of flocks Eriounios, luck bringer Polygius Psychopompos, conveyor of souls Cult Mercury by Hendrick Goltzius, 1611 (Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem) General article: Cult (religion). Though temples to Hermes existed throughout Greece, a major center of his cult was at Pheneos in Arcadia, where festivals in his honor were called Hermoea. As a crosser of boundaries, Hermes Psychopompos''' ("conductor of the soul") was a psychopomp, meaning he brought newly-dead souls to the Underworld and Hades. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hermes conducted Persephone the Kore (young girl or virgin), safely back to Demeter. He also brought dreams to living mortals. Among the Hellenes, as the related word herma ("a boundary stone, crossing point") would suggest, Hermes embodied the spirit of crossing-over: He was seen to be manifest in any kind of interchange, transfer, transgressions, transcendence, transition, transit or traversal, all of which involve some form of crossing in some sense. This explains his connection with transitions in one’s fortune -- with the interchanges of goods, words and information involved in trade, interpretation, oration, writing -- with the way in which the wind may transfer objects from one place to another, and with the transition to the afterlife. Many graffito dedications to Hermes have been found in the Athenian Agora, in keeping with his epithet of Agoraios and his role as patron of commerce. Originally, Hermes was depicted as an older, bearded, phallic god, but in the late 4th century BCE, the traditional Hermes was reimagined as an athletic youth (illustration, top right). Statues of the new type of Hermes stood at stadiums and gymnasiums throughout Greece. Hermai/Herms Lee Lawrie, Hermes (1939). Library of Congress John Adams Building, Washington, D.C. In Ancient Greece, Hermes was a phallic god of boundaries. His name, in the form herma, was applied to a wayside marker pile of stones; each traveller added a stone to the pile. In the 6th century BCE, Hipparchos, the son of Pisistratus, replaced the cairns that marked the midway point between each village deme at the central agora of Athens with a square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of Hermes with a beard. An erect phallus rose from the base. In the more primitive Mount Kyllini or Cyllenian herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a carved phallus. In Athens, herms were placed outside houses for good luck. "That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an Olympian god is astounding," Walter Burkert remarked (Burkert 1985). In 415 BCE, when the Athenian fleet was about to set sail for Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War, all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized one night. The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or from the anti-war faction within Athens itself. Socrates' pupil Alcibiades was suspected of involvement, and Socrates indirectly paid for the impiety with his life. From these origins, hermai moved into the repertory of Classical architecture. Hermes' iconography Hermes was usually portrayed wearing a broad-brimmed traveler's hat or a winged cap (petasus), wearing winged sandals (talaria), and carrying his Near Eastern herald's staff -- either a caduceus entwined by serpents, or a kerykeion topped with a symbol similar to the astrological symbol of Taurus the bull. Hermes wore the garments of a traveler, worker, or shepherd. He was represented by purses or bags, cocks (illustration, left), and tortoises. When depicted as Hermes Logios, he was the divine symbol of eloquence, generally shown speaking with one arm raised for emphasis. Birth Hermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. As the story is told in the Homeric Hymn, the Hymn to Hermes, Maia was a nymph, but Greeks generally applied the name to a midwife or a wise and gentle old woman; so the nymph appears to have been an ancient one, or more probably a goddess. At any rate, she was one of the Pleiades, daughters of Atlas, taking refuge in a cave of Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. They were discovered by the local king, Acacus, who raised Hermes as his foster son. The infant Hermes was precocious. His first day he invented the lyre. By nightfall, he had rustled the immortal cattle of Apollo. For the first sacrifice, the taboos surrounding the sacred kine of Apollo had to be transgressed, and the trickster god of boundaries was the one to do it. Hermes drove the cattle back to Greece and hid them, and covered their tracks. When Apollo accused Hermes, Maia said that it could not be him because he was with her the whole night. However, Zeus entered the argument and said that Hermes did steal the cattle and they should be returned. While arguing with Apollo, Hermes began to play his lyre. The instrument enchanted Apollo and he agreed to let Hermes keep the cattle in exchange for the lyre. Hermes' offspring Pan The satyr-like Greek god of nature, shepherds and flocks, Pan was often said to be the son of Hermes through the nymph Dryope. In the Homeric Hymn to Pan, Pan's mother ran away from the newborn god in fright from his goat-like appearance. Hermaphroditus Hermaphroditus was an immortal son of Hermes through Aphrodite. He was changed into an intersex person when the gods literally granted the nymph Salmacis' wish that they never separate. Priapus The god Priapus was a son of Hermes and Aphrodite. In Priapus, Hermes' phallic origins survived. According to other sources, Priapus was a son of Dionysus and Aphrodite Eros According to some sources, the mischievous winged god of love Eros, son of Aphrodite, was sired by Hermes, though the gods Ares and Hephaestus were also among those said to be the sire, whereas in the Theogeny, Hesiod claims that Eros was born of nothing before the Gods. Eros' Roman name was Cupid. Tyche The goddess of prosperity, Tyche (Greek ), or Fortuna, was sometimes said to be the daughter of Hermes and Aphrodite Abderus Abderus was devoured by the Mares of Diomedes. He had gone to the Mares with his friend Heracles. Autolycus Autolycus, the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and grandfather of Odysseus. List of Hermes' consorts and children Hermes with petasus, talaria and caduceus: Mercury fastening his sandals, by François Rude, (Musée du Louvre) Aglaurus Athenian priestess Eumolpus warlord Amphion King of Thebes in Boiotia Antheus Antianeira Malian princess Echion Argonaut Apemosyne Cretan princess Aphrodite Eros (in one tradition) Epoties King of Troy and died in Athena arms when the war was over. Hermaphroditus Peitho Priapus (in some traditions) Rhodos Tyche Carmentis Arcadian nymph Evander founder of Latium Chione Phocian princess Autolycus thief Chryses priest of Apollo Crocus who died and became the crocus flower Dryope Arcadian nymph Pan rustic god Eupolomia Phthian princess Aethalides Argonaut herald Herse Athenian priestess Cephalus hunter (Also Ceryx) Pandrosus Athenian priestess Ceryx Eleusinian herald Peitho ("Persuasion" his wife according to Nonnos) Penelope Arcadian nymph (or wife of Odysseus) Pan (according to one tradition) Persephone (according to one tradition) Perseus Polymele (daughter of Phylas according to Iliad) Eudorus (myrmidon; soldier in Trojan War) Sicilian nymph Daphnis rustic poet Theobula Eleian princess Myrtilus charioteer Therses Born of the urine of Hermes, Poseidon and Zeus Orion giant hunter (in one tradition) Unknown mothers Abderus squire of Heracles Hermes in myth The Iliad In Homer's Iliad, Hermes helps King Priam of Troy (Ilium) sneak into the Achaean (Greek) encampment to confront Achilles and convince him to return Hector's body. The body of Sarpedon is carried away from the battlefield of Troy by the twin winged gods, Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death). The pair are depicted clothed in armour, and are overseen by Hermes Psychopompos (Guide of the Dead). The scene appears in book 16 of Homer's Iliad: "[Apollon] gave him [the dead Sarpedon] into the charge of swift messengers to carry him, of Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), who are twin brothers, and these two presently laid him down within the rich countryside of broad Lykia." Homer, Iliad 16.681 The Odyssey In book 5, Hermes is sent to demand from Calypso Odysseus's release from the island of Ogygia; in book 10, he protects Odysseus from Circe by bestowing upon him a herb, moly, which protects him from her soporific spell. Hermes also appears in book 24, where he plays the role of psychopomp and leads the freshly slain suitors and disloyal maids to the underworld. Odysseus, the main character of the Odyssey, is of matrilineal descent from Hermes. Perseus Hermes aided Perseus in killing the gorgon (Medusa) by giving Perseus his winged sandals and Zeus' sickle. He also gave Perseus Hades' helmet of invisibility and told him to use it so that Medusa's immortal sisters could not see him. Athena helped Perseus as well by lending him her polished shield. Hermes also guided Perseus to the Underworld. Prometheus In the ancient play Prometheus Bound, attributed to Aeschylus, Zeus sends Hermes to confront the enchained Titan Prometheus about a prophecy of the Titan's that Zeus would be overthrown. Hermes scolds Prometheus for being unreasonable and willing to endure torture, but Prometheus refuses to give him details about the prophecy. Herse/Aglaurus/Pandrosus When Hermes loved Herse, one of three sisters who served Athena as priestesses or parthenos, her jealous older sister Aglaurus stood between them. Hermes changed Aglaurus to stone. Hermes then impregnated Aglaurus while she was stone. Cephalus was the son of Hermes and Herse. Hermes had another son, Ceryx, who was said to be the offspring of either Herse or Herse's other sister, Pandrosus. With Aglaurus, Hermes was the father of Eumolpus. Other stories In the story of the musician Orpheus, Hermes brought Eurydice back to Hades after Orpheus failed to bring her back to life when he looked back toward her after Hades told him not to. Hermes helped to protect the infant god Dionysus from Hera, after Hera destroyed Dionysus' mortal mother Semele through her jealousy that Semele had conceived an immortal son of Zeus. Hermes changed the Minyades into bats. Hermes learned from the Thriae the arts of fortune-telling and divination. When the gods created Pandora, it was Hermes who brought her to mortals and bestowed upon her a strong sense of curiosity. King Atreus of Mycenae retook the throne from his brother Thyestes using advice he received from the trickster Hermes. Thyestes agreed to give the kingdom back when the sun moved backwards in the sky, a feat that Zeus accomplished. Atreus retook the throne and banished Thyestes. Diogenes, speaking in jest, related the myth of Hermes taking pity on his son Pan, who was pining for Echo but unable to get a hold of her, and teaching him the trick of masturbation to relieve his suffering. Pan later taught the habit to shepherds. Dio Chrysostom, Discourses, vi.20 Battus, a shepherd from Pylos, witnessed Hermes stealing Apollo's cattle. Though he promised his silence, he told many others. Hermes turned him to stone. Hermes in classical art The most famous depiction of Hermes in classical art is perhaps the Hermes and Dionysus group by Praxiteles, son of Kephisodotos, which is dated to about 360-350 BC. The group shows Hermes playing with the baby Dionysus, and although we have lost the hand that held the baby's interest, it is probable that it held a bunch of grapes (a nod to the fact that Dionysus became the god of wine). Pop Culture Hermes bestows the gift of super speed and flight to Wonder Woman in her origin story. The winged sandal of Hermes is used as the icon of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. Hermes' caduceus is used as a symbol of health and medicine. In the video game, Shin Megami Tensei: Persona 3, Hermes is the initial persona of Junpei Iori. In the book Gods Behaving Badly, Hermes lives with several other Olympic gods in a modern London townhouse. In the cartoon Futurama, Hermes Conrad is named so due to his bureaucratic role in Planet Express; processing and delivering statistics. Notes References Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) Kerenyi, Karl, 1944. Hermes der Seelenführer. Ventris, Michael and Chadwick, John (1956). Documents in Mycenaean Greek. Second edition (1974). (Cambridge UP) ISBN 0-521-08558-6. Meletinskii, Eleazar M. 1986, Vvedenie v istoričeskuû poétiku éposa i romana. Moscow, Nauka. Introduzione alla poetica storica dell'epos e del romanzo (1993) External links Theoi Project, Hermes stories from original sources & images from classical art Cult & Statues of Hermes The Myths of Hermes Ventris and Chadwick: Gods found in Mycenaean Greece: a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' second edition (Cambridge 1973) | Hermes |@lemmatized hermes:106 greek:15 messenger:4 god:31 mythology:1 olympian:4 also:11 patron:4 boundary:7 traveler:6 cross:5 shepherd:5 cowherd:1 thief:8 road:3 orator:2 wit:1 literature:1 poet:2 athletics:1 weight:1 measure:1 invention:1 general:2 commerce:3 cunning:3 liar:1 walter:3 burkert:4 religion:4 section:1 iii:1 encyclopedia:2 mythica:2 online:1 retrieve:1 october:1 symbol:7 include:2 tortoise:3 cock:3 winged:5 sandal:6 caduceus:4 analogous:1 roman:4 deity:2 mercury:6 homeric:6 hymn:8 invokes:1 one:14 many:10 shift:2 polytropos:1 blandly:1 robber:1 cattle:9 driver:1 bringer:2 dream:2 watcher:1 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2,151 | Handloading | Components of a modern rifle cartridge. Top-to-bottom: Copper-jacketed bullet, smokeless powder granules, brass case, Boxer primer. Handloading or reloading is the process of loading firearm cartridges or shotgun shells by assembling the individual components (case/shotshell, primer, powder, and bullet/shot), rather than purchasing completely-assembled, factory-loaded cartridges. Generally only Boxer-primed cases (see internal ballistics) are reloaded. Nonte, chapter 1, "Handloading, What and Why" Historically, handloading referred to the private manufacture of cartridges and shells using all newly-manufactured components, whereas reloading referred to the private manufacture of cartridges and shells using previously-fired cartridge brass and shells with new bullets, shot, primers, and powder. In modern usage, however, no distinction is made in these terms, and they are considered synonymous. Reasons for handloading Economy, increased accuracy, and performance are common motivations for handloading cartridges. Reloading fired cases can save the shooter money, or provides the shooter with more, and higher quality, ammunition for a given budget. Reloading may not be cost effective for occasional shooters, as it takes time to recoup the cost of the required equipment, but those who shoot on a regular basis will see benefit. Besides economy, the ability to customize the performance of the ammunition is a common goal. Hunters may desire cartridges with specialized bullets or specific performance as regards bullet and velocity. Target shooters seek the best achievable accuracy, as well as the best shot-to-shot consistency. Many handloaders customize their cartridges to their specific firearms, usually in pursuit of accuracy: they can assemble precision ammunition using cartridge cases that have been fire formed in the chamber of a specific firearm. Handloaders also have the flexibility to make reduced-power rounds for hunting rifles, such as handloading to an equivalent of a milder-recoiling rifle (e.g., .243 Winchester), to encourage recoil-averse hunters to become proficient with a full power hunting rifle. Rather than purchasing a special purpose rifle, which is often outgrown within only one or two hunting seasons, a single rifle can be used with special handloaded rounds until such time that more powerful rounds are desired and become appropriate. This use of specialized handloading techniques often provides significant cost savings, especially in the case where a hunter in a family already has a full power rifle and a new hunter in the family wishes to learn the sport. Collectors of obsolete firearms often have to handload because cartridges are no longer commercially produced. Handloaders can also create cartridges for which there are no commercial equivalents - wildcat cartridges. Nonte, chapter 14, "Case Forming: Making What You Need from What You've Got" As with any hobby, the pure enjoyment of the reloading process may be the most important benefit. There are three aspects to ballistics: internal ballistics, external ballistics, and terminal ballistics. Internal ballistics refers to things which happen inside the firearm during and after firing but before the bullet leaves the muzzle. The handloading process can realize increased accuracy and precision through improved consistency of manufacture, by selecting the optimal weight and profile of the bullet, and tailoring the velocity of the bullet. Each cartridge reloaded can have each component carefully matched to the rest of the cartridges in the batch. Brass cases can be matched by volume and weight, bullets by weight and bearing surface, powder charges by weight, type, and case filling (the amount of empty space between the top of the charge and the base of the bullet). In addition to these items that are considered critical, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also have an effect on its uniformity/consistency and optimal shape/size; dies used to size the cartridges can be matched to a given weapon's chamber. Modern handloading equipment enables a firearm owner to tailor fresh ammunition to a specific firearm, and to precisely-measured tolerances far exceeding the comparatively wide tolerances within which commercial ammunition manufacturers operate. Where the most extreme accuracy is demanded, such as in rifle benchrest shooting, handloading is a fundamental prerequisite for success. Equipment Hornady single stage reloading press with die The basic piece of equipment for handloading is the press. A press is a device that uses compound leverage to push the cases into the dies that perform the loading operations. Nonte, chapter 2, "Choosing Tools and Equipment" Presses vary from simple, inexpensive single stage models, to complex progressive models that will eject a loaded cartridge with each pull of a lever, at rates of 10 rounds a minute. Presses Presses are often categorized by the letter of the alphabet that they most resemble: "O", "C", and "H". The sturdiest presses, suitable for bullet swaging functions as well as for normal reloading die usage, are of the "O" type. Heavy steel completely encloses the single die on these presses. Equally sturdy presses for all but bullet swaging use often resemble the letter "C". Both steel and aluminum construction are seen with "C" presses. Some users prefer "C" style presses over "O" presses, as there is more room to place bullets into cartridge mouths on "C" presses. Shotshell style presses, intended for non-batch use, for which each shotshell or cartridge is cycled through the dies before commencing onto the next shotshell or cartridge to be reloaded, commonly resemble the letter "H". Single stage presses, generally of the "O" or "C" types, are the simplest. They perform one step on one case at a time. When using a single stage press, cases are loaded in batches, one step for each cartridge per batch at a time. Batches are kept small, about 20-50 cases at a time, so that a batch is never left in a partially-completed state, as high humidity and light can degrade the powder. Single stage presses are commonly most used for high-precision rifle cartridge handloading, but may be used for high-precision reloading of all cartridge types, and for working up loads (developing loading recipes) for ultimately manufacturing large numbers of cartridges on a progressive press. Turret presses, most commonly of the "C" type, are similar to single stage presses, but permit mounting all of the dies for one cartridge (or sometimes two cartridges) simultaneously, with each die being installed and correctly locked in position with lock rings onto the press at the same time. Batch operations are performed similar as to on a single stage press, but to switch dies, the turret is simply rotated, placing another die in position. Although turret presses operate much like single stage presses, they eliminate much of the setup time required in positioning individual dies correctly. Progressive presses handle several shells at once, with each pull of the lever performing a single step on all the cases at once. Progressive presses hold all the dies needed, plus a powder measure and a primer feed, and often also include an additional station where the powder levels are checked, to prevent over or under charges. Progressive presses also often feature case feeds that will hold hundreds of cases to be loaded, and all the user has to do is hold the bullet in place over the appropriate case mouth, and pull the lever. Shotshell presses are a special case, and are generally a single unit of the "H" configuration that handles all functions. Shotshell reloading is similar to cartridge reloading, except that instead of a bullet, a wadding and a measure of shot are used, and after loading the shot, the shell is crimped shut. The shotshell loader contains stations to resize the shell, measure powder, load the wad, measure shot, and crimp the shell. Due to the low cost of modern plastic shotshells, and the additional complexity of reloading fired shells, shotshell handloading is not as popular as cartridge handloading. Dies Reloading dies and shell holders for 7.5mm Swiss Dies are generally sold in sets of two or three dies, depending on the shape of the case. A three die set is needed for straight cases, while a two die set is used for bottlenecked cases. The first die of either set performs the sizing and decapping operation. The middle die in a three die set is used to expand the case mouth of straight cases, while in a two die set the entire neck is expanded as the case is extracted from the first die. The last die in the set seats the bullet and may apply a crimp. Special crimping dies are often used to apply a stronger crimp after the bullet is seated. Progressive presses sometimes use an additional "die" to meter powder into the case (though it is arguably not a real die as it does not shape the case). Standard dies are made from hardened steel, and require that the case be lubricated, for the resizing operation, which requires a large amount of force. Rifle cartridges require lubrication of every case, due to the large amount of force required, while smaller, thinner handgun cartridges can get away with alternating lubricated and unlubricated cases. Carbide dies have a ring of tungsten carbide, which is far harder and slicker than tool steel, and so carbide dies do not require lubrication. Modern reloading dies are generally standardized with 7/8-14 (or, for the case of .50 BMG dies, with 1-1/4x12) threads and are interchangeable with all common brands of presses, although older dies may use other threads and be press-specific. Dies for bottle neck cases usually are supplied in sets of at least two dies, though sometimes a third is added for crimping. This is an extra operation and is not needed unless a gun's magazine or action design requires crimped ammunition for safe operation, such as autoloading firearms, where the cycling of the action may push the bullet back in the case, resulting in poor accuracy and increased pressures. Nonte, chapter 7, "Loading for Handguns" Crimping is also sometimes recommended to achieve full velocity for bullets, through increasing pressures so as to make powders burn more efficiently, and for heavy recoiling loads, to prevent bullets from moving under recoil. For FMJ bullets mounted in bottle neck cases, roll crimping is generally not ever used unless a cannelure is present on the bullet, to prevent causing bullet deformation when crimping. Rimless, straight wall cases, on the other hand, require a taper crimp, because they headspace on the case mouth; roll crimping causes headspacing problems on these cartridges. Rimmed, belted, or bottleneck cartridges, however, generally can safely be roll crimped when needed. Three dies are normally supplied for straight walled cases, with an optional fourth die for crimping. Crimps for straight wall cases may be taper crimps, suitable for rimless cartridges used in autoloaders, or roll crimps, which are best for rimmed cartridges such as are used in revolvers. There are also some specialty dies worth mentioning. Bump dies are designed to move the shoulder of a bottleneck case back just a bit to facilitate chambering. These are frequently used in conjunction with neck dies, as the bump die itself does not manipulate the neck of the case whatsoever. A bump die can be a very useful tool to anyone who owns a fine shooting rifle with a chamber that is cut to minimum headspace dimensions, as the die allows the case to be fitted to this unique chamber. Another die is the "hand die". A hand die has no threads and is operated - as the name suggests - by hand or by use of a hand operated arbor press. Hand dies are available for most popular cartridges, and although available as full-length resizing dies, they are most commonly seen as neck sizing dies. These use an interchangeable insert to size the neck, and these inserts come in .001 steps so that the user can custom fit the neck of the case to his own chamber or have greater control over neck tension on the bullet. Shellholders A shellholder, generally sold separately, is needed to hold the case in place as it is forced into and out of the dies. The reason shellholders are sold separately is that many cartridges share the same base dimensions, and a single shellholder can service many different cases. Shellholders are also specialized, and will generally only fit a certain make of reloading press, while modern dies are standardized and will fit a wide variety of presses. Different shell holders than used for dies are also required for use with some hand priming tools (e.g., Lee Autoprime tool.) Scale Hornady Powder Scale A precision scale is a near necessity for reloading. While it is possible to load using nothing but a powder measure and a weight to volume conversion chart, this greatly limits the precision with which a load can be adjusted, increasing the danger for accidentally overloading cartridges with powder for loads near or at the maximum safe load. With a powder scale, an adjustable powder measure can be calibrated more precisely for the powder in question, and spot checks can be made during loading to make sure that the measure is not drifting. With a powder trickler, a charge can be measured directly into the scale, giving the most accurate measure. A scale also allows bullets and cases to be sorted by weight, which can increase consistency further. Sorting bullets by weight has obvious benefits, as each set of matched bullets will perform more consistently. Sorting cases by weight is done to group cases by case wall thickness, and match cases with similar interior volumes. Military cases, for example, tend to be thicker, while cases that have been reloaded numerous times will have thinner walls due to brass flowing forward under firing, and excess case length being later trimmed from the case mouth. Priming tool RCBS Priming Tool Single stage presses often do not provide an easy way to prime cases. Various add-on tools can be used for priming the case on the down-stroke, or a separate tool can be used. Since cases loaded with a single stage press are done in steps, with the die being changed between steps, a purpose made priming tool is often faster than trying to integrate a priming step to a press step. A purpose made tool is also often more consistent than a model that fits on a single stage press, resulting in a more consistent primer seating depth. Powder measure Hornady Powder Measure Beginning reloading kits often include a weight to volume conversion chart for a selection of common powders, and a set of powder volume measures graduated in small increments. By adding the various measures of powder a desired charge can be measured out with a safe degree of accuracy. However, since multiple measures of powder are often needed, and since powder lots may vary slightly in density, a scale accurate to 0.10 grain (6.5 mg) is desirable. Bullet puller Impact Bullet Puller from RCBS Like any complex process, mistakes in handloading are easy to make. A bullet puller allows the handloader to disassemble mistakes. Most pullers use inertia to pull the bullet; they are shaped like hammers, and the case is locked in place inside. A sharp blow on a hard surface will suddenly stop the case, and the inertia of the heavy bullet will pull it free of the case in a few blows, trapping the powder and bullet in the body of the puller. Collet type pullers are also available, which use a caliber-specific clamp to grip the bullet, while the loading press is used to pull the case downwards. It is essential that the collet be a good match for the bullet diameter, because a poor match can result in significant deformation of the bullet. Bullet pullers are also used to disassemble loaded ammunition of questionable provenance or undesirable configuration, so that the components can be salvaged for re-use. Surplus military ammunition is often pulled for components, particularly the cartridge cases, which are often difficult to obtain for older foreign military rifles. Military ammunition is often tightly sealed, to make it resistant to water and rough handling, such as in machine gun feeding mechanisms. In this case, the seal between the bullet and cartridge can prevent the bullet puller from functioning. Pushing the bullet into the case slightly with a seating die will break the seal, and allow the bullet to be pulled. Primers are a more problematic issue. If a primer is not seated deeply enough, the cartridge (if loaded) can be pulled, and the primer re-seated with the seating tool. Primers that must be removed are frequently deactivated first—either firing the primed case in the appropriate firearm, or soaking in penetrating oil, which penetrates the water resistant coatings in the primer. Components pulled from loaded cartridges should be reused with care. Unknown or potentially contaminated powders, contaminated primers, and bullets that are damaged or incorrectly sized can all cause dangerous conditions upon firing. Case trimmer Hornady Manual Case Trimmer Cases, especially bottleneck cases, will stretch upon firing. How much stretch is based on load pressure, cartridge design, chamber size, and other variables. Periodically cases need to be trimmed to bring them back into proper specifications. Most reloading manuals list both a trim size and a max length. Long cases can create a safety hazard through improper headspace and possible increased pressure. Several kinds of case trimmers are available. Die-based trimmers have an open top, and allow the case to be trimmed with a file during the loading process. Manual trimmers usually have a base that has a shellholder at one end and a cutting bit at the opposite end, with a locking mechanism to hold the case tight and in alignment with the axis of the cutter, similar to a small lathe. Typically the devices is cranked by hand, but sometimes they have attachments to allow the use of a drill or powered screwdriver. Powered case trimmers are also available. They usually consist of a motor (electric drills are sometimes used) and special dies or fittings that hold the case to be trimmed at the appropriate length, letting the motor do the work of trimming. Primer pocket tools Primer pocket cleaning tools are used to remove residual combustion debris remaining in the primer pocket; both brush designs and single blade designs are commonly used. Dirty primer pockets can prevent setting primers at, or below, the cartridge head. Primer pocket reamers or swagers are used to remove military crimps in primer pockets. Primer pocket uniformer tools are used to achieve a uniform primer pocket depth. These are small endmills with a fixed depth-spacing ring attached, and are mounted either in a handle for use as a handtool, or are sometimes mounted in a battery-operated screwdriver. Some commercial cartridges (notably Sellier & Bellot) use large rifle primers that are thinner than the SAAMI standards common in the United States, and will not permit seating a Boxer primer manufactured to U.S. standards; the use of a primer pocket uniformer tool on such brass avoids setting Boxer primers high when reloading, which would be a safety issue. Two sizes of primer pocket uniformer tools exist, the larger one is for large rifle (0.130" nominal depth) primer pockets and the smaller one is used for uniforming small rifle/pistol primer pockets. Flash hole uniforming tools are used to remove any burrs, which are residual brass remaining from the manufacturing punching operation used in creating flash holes. These tools resemble primer pocket uniformer tools, except being thinner, and commonly include deburring, chamfering, and uniforming functions. The purpose of these tools is to achieve a more equal distribution of flame from the primer to ignite the powder charge, resulting in consistent ignition from case to case. Materials required 223 Remington brass The following materials are needed for handloading ammunition: Nonte, chapter 3, "Cartridge Components" Cases or shotshell hulls. For shotshells, plastic or paper cases can be reloaded, though plastic is more durable. Steel and aluminum cases do not have the correct qualities for reloading, so a brass case is essential (although nickel plated brass cases, while not as reformable as plain brass, can also be reloaded) Smokeless powder of an appropriate type. Generally, handgun cartridges and shotshells use faster powders, rifle cartridges use slower powder. Powder is generally of the "smokeless" type in modern cartridges, although on occasion the older "black" powder more commonly known as "gunpowder" may be used. Bullets, or shot and wads for shotshells. Primers Case lubricant may also be needed, depending on the dies used. Reloading process The operations performed when handloading are: Nonte, chapter 4, "Loading Metallic Cartridges" Case cleaning (optional, recommended for fired cases) Case inspection (look for cracks or other defects; discard visibly imperfect cases. Bent case mouths may be repaired during resizing) Lubricate cases (carbide dies do not require lubrication) Size/Resize the case (for previously fired cases, primer is pressed out in this step with most die sets) Ream or swage crimp from primer pocket (reloading military cases only), or mill the primer pocket depth using a primer pocket uniformer tool Measure and trim the case length (as needed; rarely required with handgun cases) Deburr, ream case mouth and size case neck (optional, as-needed; trimmed cases need to be deburred); some bench rest shooters also do outside neck turning at this stage, to make the cartridge case have uniform thickness so that the bullet will be released with the most uniformity Clean primer pocket (optional; primer pockets will have deposits from combustion) and do flash hole uniforming (optional, generally, only bench rest shooters do this) Expand or chamfer case mouth (not required with boattail rifle bullets) Clean the lubricant from the cases Seat a new primer (primer pockets often become loose after multiple loadings; a lack of effort being required to seat new primers indicates a loose primer pocket; cases with loose primer pockets are usually discarded, after crushing the case to prevent its reuse) Add a measured amount of powder (critical step; incorrect powder charges are extremely dangerous, both underweight as well as overweight) Seat the bullet in the case for the correct cartridge overall length (OAL) and for aligning bullet cannelure (if present) with case mouth Crimp the bullet in place (optional; some may hold the bullet with neck tension alone) Cartridge inspection Case Tumbler When previously-fired cases are used, they must be inspected before loading. Cases that are dirty or tarnished are often polished in a tumbler to remove oxidation and allow easier inspection of the case. Cleaning in a tumbler will also clean the interior of cases, which is often considered important for handloading high-precision target rounds. Cracked necks, non-reloadable cases (steel, aluminum, or Berdan primed cases), and signs of head separation are all reasons to reject a case. Cases are measured for length, and any that are over the recommended length are trimmed down to the minimum length. Competition shooters will also sort cases by brand and weight to ensure consistency. Removal of the primer, called decapping, is usually done with a die containing a steel pin that punches out the primer. Berdan primed cases require a different technique, either a hydraulic ram or a hook that punctures the case and levers it out from the bottom. Military cases have crimped-in primers, and decapping leaves a slight ridge that inhibits seating a new primer. A reamer or a swage is used to remove this crimp. When a cartridge is fired, the internal pressure expands the case to fit the chamber in a process called obturation. To allow ease of chambering the cartridge when it is reloaded, the case is swaged back to size. Competition shooters, using bolt action rifles which are capable of camming a tight case into place, often resize only the neck of the cartridge, called neck sizing, as opposed to the normal full length resizing process. Neck sizing is only useful for cartridges to be re-fired in the same firearm, as the brass may be slightly oversized in some dimensions for other chambers, but the precise fit of case to chamber will allow greater consistency and therefore greater potential accuracy. Some believe that neck sizing will permit a larger number of reloads with a given case in contrast to full size resizing, although this is controversial. Semi-automatic rifles and rifles with SAAMI minimum chamber dimensions often require a special small base resizing die, that sizes further down the case than normal dies, and allows for more reliable feeding. Once the case is sized down, the inside of the neck of the case will actually be slightly smaller than the bullet diameter. To allow the bullet to be seated, the end of the neck is slightly expanded to allow the bullet to start into the case. Boattailed bullets need very little expansion, while unjacketed lead bullets require more expansion to prevent shaving of lead when the bullet is seated. Large Rifle primers Priming the case is the most dangerous step of the loading process, since the primers are pressure sensitive. The use of safety glasses or goggles during priming operations can provide valuable protection in the rare event that an accidental detonation takes place. Seating a Boxer primer not only places the primer in the case, it also seats the anvil of the primer down onto the priming compound, in effect arming the primer. A correctly seated primer will sit slightly below the surface of the case. A primer that protrudes from the case may cause a number of problems, including what is known as a slam fire which is the firing of a case before the action is properly locked when chambering a round. This may either damage the gun, and/or injure the shooter. A protruding primer will also tend to hang when feeding, and the anvil will not be seated correctly so the primer may not fire when hit by the firing pin. Primer pockets may need to be cleaned with a primer pocket brush to remove deposits that prevent the primer from being properly seated. Berdan primers must also be seated carefully, and since the anvil is part of the case, the anvil must be inspected before the primer is seated. For reloading cartridges intended for use in military-surplus firearms, rifles especially, "hard" primers are most commonly used instead of commercial "soft" primers. The use of "hard" primers avoids slamfires when loading finished cartridges in the military-surplus firearm. Such primers are available to handloaders commercially. The quantity of gunpowder is specified by weight, but almost always measured by volume, especially in larger scale operations. A powder scale is needed to determine the correct mass thrown by the powder measure, as loads are specified with a precision of 0.10 grain (6.5 mg). One grain is 1/7000 of a pound. Competition shooters will generally throw a slightly underweight charge, and use a powder trickler to add few granules of powder at a time to the charge to bring it to the exact weight desired for maximum consistency. Special care is needed when charging large capacity cases with fast burning, low volume powders. In this instance, it is possible to put two charges of powder in a case without overflowing the case, which can lead to dangerously high pressures and a significant chance of bursting the chamber of the firearm. Non-magnum revolver cartridges are the easiest to do this with, as they generally have relatively large cases, and tend to perform well with small charges of fast powders. Some powders meter (measure by volume) better than others due to the shape of each granule. When using volume to meter each charge, it is important to regularly check the charge weight on a scale throughout the process. Competition shooters also often sort bullets by weight, often down to 0.10 grain (6.5 mg) increments. The bullet is placed in the case mouth by hand, and then seated with the press. At this point, the expanded case mouth is also sized back down. A crimp can optionally be added, either by the seating die or with a separate die. Taper crimps are used for cases that are held in the chamber by the case mouth, while roll crimps may be used for cases that headspace on a rim or on the cartridge neck. Roll crimps hold the bullet far more securely, and are preferred in situations, such as magnum revolvers, where recoil velocities are significant. A tight crimp also helps to delay the start of the bullet's motion, which can increase chamber pressures, and help develop full power from slower burning powders (see internal ballistics). Legal aspects Since many countries heavily restrict the civilian possession of ammunition and ammunition components, including primers and smokeless powder, handloading may be explicitly or implicitly illegal in certain countries. Even without specific restrictions on powder and primers, they may be covered under other laws governing explosive materials. Handloading may require study and passing an exam to acquire a handloading permit prior to being allowed to handload ammunition in some jurisdictions. This is done to avoid catastrophic accidents caused by lack of knowledge/skill as much as possible, and also allows the government to maintain information on who reloads their own cartridges. The standards organization C.I.P. rules that the products of handloaders that do not comply with the C.I.P. ammunition approval rules for (commercial) ammunition manufacturers cannot be legally sold in C.I.P. member states. Handloaded ammunition is not recommended for defensive use. Experts point to potential legal liabilities that the shooter incurs if using handloaded ammunition for defense, such as an implied malice on the part of the shooter, as the use of handloaded ammunition may give the impression that "regular bullets weren't deadly enough". Additionally, forensic reconstruction of a shooting relies on using identical ammunition from the manufacturer, where handloaded ammunition cannot be guaranteed identical to the ammunition used in the shooting, since "the defendant literally manufactured the evidence". Many firearms manufacturers abdicate responsibility for the operation and safety of their arm when untested ammunition is fired. Generally, this means that the maker's warranty is void and the manufacturer not liable for any damage to the gun or personal injury if handloaded ammunition is used which exceeded established limits for a particular arm. This arises because firearm manufacturers point out that while they have some influence and scope for redress with ammunition manufacturers, they have no such influence over the actions of incompetent or over-ambitious individuals who assemble ammunition. Atypical handloading Berdan primers, with their off-center flash holes and lack of self contained anvil, are more difficult to work with than the easily removed Boxer primers. The primers may be punctured and pried out from the rear, or extracted with hydraulic pressure. Primers must be selected carefully, as there are more sizes of Berdan primers than the standard large and small pistol, large and small rifle of Boxer primers. The case must also be inspected carefully to make sure the anvil has not been damaged, because this could result in a failure to fire. Nonte, chapter 15, "Problems and Solutions" It is typically agreed that rimfire cartridges (e.g. .22 Long Rifle) are not hand-loaded, although there are some shooters that unload commercial rimfire cartridges, and use the primed case to make their own loads, or to generate special rimfire wildcat cartridges. These cartridges are highly labor intensive to produce. Reloading Techniques: .22 Win. Magnum Rimfire, Performance Shooter, April 1996 Some shooters desiring to reload for obsolete rimfire cartridges alter the firearm in question to function as a centerfire, which allows them to reload. Often it is possible to reform cases from similarly sized ammunition which is in production, and this is the most economical way of obtaining brass for obscure or out of production calibers. Even if custom brass must be manufactured, this is often far less expensive than purchasing rare, out of production ammunition. Cartridges like the .56-50 Spencer, for example, are not readily obtainable in rimfire form, but can be made from shortened .50-70 cartridges or even purchased in loaded form from specialty dealers. Supplier of loaded, centerfire .56-50 cartridges An unusual solution to the problem of obtaining ammunition for the very old pinfire cartridges is even available. This solution uses specialized cartridges that use a removable pin and anvil which hold a percussion cap of the type use in caplock firearms. To reload a fired case, the pin is removed, allowing the anvil to slide out; a percussion cap is placed in the anvil, it is re-inserted, and the pin serves to lock the anvil in place, as well as to ignite the percussion cap. Shotshell reloading is sometimes done for scatter shot loads, consisting of multiple wads separating groups of shot, which are intended for use at short distance hunting of birds. Similarly, shotshell reloading for buck shot loads and non-lethal "bean bag" loads are sometimes handloaded. These types of shotshells are rarely handloaded. Nonte, chapter 12, "Special-Purpose Shotshell Loads" Accuracy tips Several different powder samples Precision and consistency are key to developing accurate ammunition. Various methods are used to ensure that ammunition components are as consistent as possible. Since the firearm is also a variable in the accuracy equation, careful tuning of the load to a particular firearm can yield significant accuracy improvements. What affects the accuracy of ammunition? Cases The internal volume of the cartridge case, or case capacity, has a significant impact on the pressure developed during ignition, which has a great impact on the velocity of the bullet. Cases from different manufacturers can vary in wall thickness, and as cases are repeatedly fired and reloaded the brass flows up to the neck and is trimmed off, increasing capacity as well as weakening the case. The first step to ensuring consistent case capacity is sorting the cases by headstamp, so each lot of cases is from the same manufacturer and/or year. A further step would be to then weigh these cases, and sort by case weight. The neck of the case is another variable, since this determines how tightly the bullet is held in place during ignition. Inconsistent neck thickness and neck tension will result in variations in pressure during ignition. These variables can be addressed by annealing and thinning the neck, as well as by careful control of the crimping operation. Bullets Bullets must be well balanced and consistent in weight, shape, and seating depth to ensure that they correctly engage the rifling, exit the barrel at a consistent velocity, and fly straight. Buying bullets from a high quality source will help ensure quality, but for ultimate accuracy some shooters will measure even the best bullets, and reject all but the most consistent. Measurement of the weight is the easiest, and bullets that are out of round can be detected by rotating the bullet while measuring with a micrometer. There is even a device available that will detect changes in jacket thickness and internal voids in jacketed rifle bullets, though its high cost makes it prohibitively expensive for all but the most dedicated shooters. The transition from case to barrel is also very important. If the bullets have to travel a varying distance from the case to the point where they engage the rifling, then this can result in variations in pressure and velocity. The bearing surface of the bullet should ideally be seated as close as possible to the rifling. Since it is bearing surface that matters here, it is important that the bullets have a consistent bearing surface. Load tuning Tuning load to gun can also yield great increases in accuracy, especially for standard, non-accurized rifles. Different rifles, even of the same make and model, will often react differently to the same ammunition. The handloader is afforded a wider selection of bullet weights than can readily be found in commercially-loaded ammunition, and there are many different powders that can be used for any given cartridge. Trying a range of bullets and a variety of powders will determine what combination of bullet and powder gives the most consistent velocities and accuracies. Careful adjustment of the amount of powder can give the velocity that best fits the natural harmonics of the barrel (see accurize and internal ballistics). For ultimate accuracy and performance, the handloader also has the option of using a wildcat cartridge; wildcats are the result of shaping the cartridge and chamber themselves to a specific end, and the results push the envelope of velocity, energy, and accuracy. Most, but not all, reloads perform best when the powder selected fills 95% or more of the case (by volume). Cost considerations Those who reload with the primary goal of maximizing accuracy or terminal performance may end up paying more per reloaded round than for commercial ammunition--this is especially true for military calibers which are commonly available as surplus. Maximum performance, however, requires the highest quality components, which are usually the most expensive. Reloaders who reload with the primary goal of saving money on ammunition, however, can make a few tradeoffs to realize significant cost savings with a minimal sacrifice in quality. Nonte, chapter 5, "Selecting the Best Load" Bullets .270 Caliber Sierra Bullets While the case is usually the most expensive component of a cartridge, the bullet is usually the most expensive part of the reloaded round, especially with handgun ammunition. It is also the best place to save money with handgun ammunition. This is because the bullets are used one time, and the case lasts for many reloadings. For the truly frugal, the cheapest method of obtaining bullets intended for use at low to moderate velocities is to cast them. This requires a set of bullet molds, which are available from a number of sources, and a source of known quality lead. Linotype and automotive wheelweights are often used as sources of lead that are blended together in a molten state to achieve the desired Brinell hardness. Other sources of scrap lead, such as recovered bullets, lead cable sheathing, lead pipe, or even lead-acid battery plates, can yield usable lead with some degree of effort, including purification and measuring of hardness. Nonte, chapter 8, "Casting and Swaging Bullets" Other advantages of casting bullets, or swaging them from lead wire (which is pricier but avoids many quality control issues of casting) is the ability to precisely control many attributes of the resulting bullet. Custom bullet molds are available from a number of sources, allowing the handloader to pick the exact weight, shape, and diameter of the bullet to fit the cartridge, firearm, and intended use. A good example of where this is useful is for shooters of older military surplus firearms, which often exhibit widely-varying bore and groove diameters; by making bullets specifically intended for the firearm in question, accuracy of the resulting cartridges can be significantly increased. Cast bullets are also the cheapest bullets to buy, though generally only handgun bullets are available in this form. Some firearms manufacturers, such as those using polygonal rifling like Glock and H&K, advise against the use of cast bullets. For shooters who would like to shoot cast bullets, aftermarket barrels are generally available for these models with conventional rifling, and the cost of the barrel can generally be recouped in ammunition savings after a few thousand rounds. Soft lead bullets are generally used in handguns with velocities of 1000 ft/s (300 m/s) or lower, while harder cast bullets may be used, with careful powder selection, in rifles with velocities of 2000 ft/s (600 m/s) or slightly more. Low Pressure & High Velocity with Cast Bullets, from Jesse's Hunting and Outdoors The limit is the point at which the powder gas temperature and pressure starts to melt the base of the bullet, and leave a thin coating of molten and re-solidified lead in the bore of the gun—a process called leading the bore. Cast lead bullets may also be fired in full power magnum handgun rounds like the .44 Magnum with the addition of a gas check, which is a thin zinc or copper washer or cup that is crimped over a tiny heel on the base of appropriate cast bullets. This provides protection for the base of the bullet, and allows velocities of over 1500 ft/s (450 m/s) in handguns, with little or no leading of the bore. Nonte, chapter 10, "Lead Bullet Loads for Rifles" Most shooters prefer jacketed bullets, especially in rifles and pistols. The hard jacket material, generally copper or brass, resists deformation and handles far higher pressures and temperatures than lead. Several companies offer swaging presses (both manual and hydraulic) that will manufacture on a small scale jacketed bullets that can rival or surpass the quality of commercial jacketed bullets. Two swaging equipment manufacturers offer equipment and dies designed to turn .22 Long Rifle cases into brass jackets for .22 caliber (5.56 mm) bullets. Corbin, maker of commercial and consumer grade bullet swaging equipment, including the equipment to turn .22 LR cases into jacketed bullets Handloaders have the choice to swage but most choose to purchase pre-made jacketed bullets, due to the obscure nature of swaging and the specialized equipment. The process of manufacturing a jacketed bullet is far more complex than for a cast bullet; first, the jacket must be punched from a metal sheet of precise thickness, filled with a premeasured lead core, and then swaged into shape with a high pressure press in multiple steps. This involved process makes jacketed bullets far more expensive on average than cast bullets. Further complicating this are the requirements for controlled expansion bullets (see terminal ballistics), which require a tight bond between the jacket and the core. Premium expanding bullets are, with match grade bullets, at the top tier in expense. A more economical alternative was made available to the handloader in the 1980s, the copper plated bullet. Ranier Ballistics has been making plated bullets since 1983. Copper plated bullets are lead bullets that are electroplated with a copper jacket. While thinner than a swaged bullet jacket, the plated jacket is far thicker than normal electroplate, and provides significant structural integrity to the bullet. Since the jacket provides the strength, soft lead can be used, which allows bullets to be swaged or cast into shape before plating. While not strong enough for most rifle cartridges, plated bullets work well in many handgun rounds, with a recommended maximum velocity of 1250 ft/s (375 m/s). Ranier Ballistics plated bullet FAQ, listing maximum recommended velocity Plated bullets fall between cast and traditional jacketed bullets in price. While originally sold only to handloaders as an inexpensive substitute for jacketed bullets, the plated bullet has come far. The ammunition manufacturer Speer now offers the Gold Dot line, commercially loaded premium handgun ammunition using copper plated hollow point bullets. Speer Gold Dot desription and patent number Patent 5,079,814, for an electroplated hollow point bullet (the Speer Gold Dot) The strong bond between jacket and core created by the electroplating process makes expanding bullets hold together very well, and the Gold Dot line is now in use by many police departments. Comparison of various 9 x 19 mm expanding bullet loads, including the Speer Gold Dot plated bullet Maximizing case life Digital calipers for measuring case length Since the case is the single most expensive part of a loaded round, the more times a case can be re-used, the better. Cases that are loaded to a moderate pressure will generally last longer, as they will not be work hardened or flow under pressure as much as cases loaded to higher pressures. Use of moderate pressure loads extends the life of the case significantly, not to mention saving quite a bit of wear and tear on the barrel. Work hardening can cause cracks to occur in the neck as the hardened brass loses its malleability, and is unable to survive swaging back into shape during the resizing operation. Rifle brass tends to flow towards the neck (this is why rifle brass must be trimmed periodically) and this takes brass away from the rear of the case. Eventually, this will show as a bright ring near the base of the cartridge, just in front of the thick web of brass at the base. If brass is used after this ring appears, it risks a crack, or worse, a complete head separation, which will leave the forward portion of the brass lodged in the chamber of the gun. This generally requires a special stuck case removal tool to extract, so it is very undesirable to have a head separation. With bottlenecked cartridge cases, choosing the right sizing die can also have an impact. Full length sizing of cartridges is often thought to greatly shorten case life by work hardening the full length of the case, which can cause the case neck to split, although some studies show that the number of reloads possible with a case is essentially the same for either full length sizing as for neck sizing only if the issue is one of neck hardening. If the reloaded cartridges are going to be used in the same firearm in which they were previously fired, though, and if that firearm has a bolt action or other action with a strong camming action on closing, then full length resizing may not be needed. A collet neck sizing die can be used to size just the case neck enough to hold the bullet, and leave the rest of the case unsized. The resulting cartridge should be able to fit back into the specific rifle that previously fired it, though the fit will be tight and require more force to chamber than a full length resized case, especially on rifles with factory chambers which tend to be out of round. The use of a neck sizing die in conjunction with moderate pressure loads may extend the life of the case significantly by minimizing the amount of case that is work hardened or stretched. This is especially true for reloads intended for military rifles with intentionally large chambers such as the Lee-Enfield in .303 British. The use of partial length or neck sizing for cartridges used in such large chambers permits effectively switching the headspacing from relying on the rim of a rimmed cartridge to the shoulder of the bottle neck transition instead, increasing the number of times a rimmed military cartridge can be reloaded from once to perhaps 5 or more times, all while avoiding dangerous incipient head separations. One final form of limiting case wear is, unfortunately, limited strictly to benchrest shooters with custom-cut chambers. The chamber of these rifles is cut so that there is just enough room, typically just a few thousandths of an inch, in the neck area. The result of using this type of chamber is that fired rounds don't require any resizing whatsoever once the case is fired. The brass will 'spring back' a bit after firing, and will properly hold a new bullet without further manipulation. Some refer to this as a 'fitted' neck, however it is a function of both the carefully cut precision neck and the case adjusted to fit with very little clearance. Work hardening happens to all cases, even low pressure handgun cases. The sudden increase in pressure upon firing hits the brass like a hammer, changing its crystalline structure and making it more brittle. The neck of the case, if it becomes too brittle, will be incapable of standing the strain of resizing, expanding, crimping, and firing, and will split during loading or firing. While a neck split during firing is not a significant danger, a split neck will render the case incapable of holding the bullet in place, so the case must be discarded or recycled as a wildcat cartridge of shorter overall length, allowing the split section to be removed. The simplest way to decrease the effects of work hardening is to decrease the pressure in the case. Loading to the minimum power level listed in the reloading manual, instead of the maximum, can significantly increase case life. Slower powders generally also have lower pressure peaks, and may be a good choice. , p. 175 Annealing brass to make it softer and less brittle is fairly easy, but annealing cartridge cases is a more complex matter. Since the base of the case must be hard, it cannot be annealed. What is needed is a form of heat treatment called differential hardening, where heat is carefully applied to part of the case until the desired softness is reached, and then the heat treatment process is halted by rapidly cooling the case. Since annealing brass requires heating it to about 660 F (350 C), the heating must be done in such a way as to heat the neck to that temperature, while preventing the base of the case from being heated and losing its hardness. The traditional way is to stand the cases in a shallow pan full of water, then heat the necks of the cases with a torch, but this method makes it difficult to get an even heating of the entire case neck. A temperature sensitive crayon can be used at the point to which it is to be annealed, which is just behind the shoulder for bottlenecked cartridges, or at the bottom of the bullet seating depth for straight wall cartridges. The neck of the case is placed in a propane torch flame and heated it until the crayon mark changes color, indicating the correct temperature. Once the correct temperature is reached the case is completely quenched in water to stop the annealing process at the desired hardness. Failing to keep the base of the case cool can anneal the case near the head, where it must remain hard to function properly. Gun Tests article on case annealing. Another approach is to immerse the case mouth in a molten alloy of lead that is at the desired annealing temperature for a few seconds, then quickly shake off the lead and quench the case. Cases that have small cracks at the neck may not be a complete loss. Many cartridges, both commercial and wildcats, can be made by shortening a longer cartridge. For example, a .223 Remington can be shortened to become a .222 Remington, which can further be shortened to become a .221 Fireball. Similarly, .30-06 Springfield can become .308 Winchester, which can become .308 x 1.5 or any number of specialized benchrest shooting cartridges. Since the cracking is likely due to a brittle neck, the cases should be annealed before attempting to reform them, or the crack may propagate and ruin the newly-formed shorter case as well. Minimizing powder cost Powder is another significant cost of reloading, and one over which the handloader has significant control. In addition to the obvious step of using a minimum charge, rather than a full power one, significant cost savings may be obtained through careful powder choice. Given the same bullet and cartridge, a faster burning powder will generally use a smaller charge of powder than required with a slower powder. For example, a .44 Magnum firing a 240 grain lead semi-wadcutter could be loaded with either Accurate Arms #2, a very fast pistol powder, or #9, a very slow pistol powder. When using the minimum loads, 9.0 grains (0.58 g) of AA #2 yield a velocity of 1126 ft/s (343 m/s), and 19.5 grains (1.26 g) of #9 yield 1364 ft/s (416 m/s). For the same amount of powder, AA #2 can produce approximately twice as many rounds, yet both powders cost the same per weight. The tradeoff comes in terms of power and accuracy; AA #2 is designed for small cases, and will burn inconsistently in the large .44 Magnum case. AA #9, however, will fill the case much better, and the slow burn rate of AA #9 is ideal for magnum handgun rounds, producing 20% higher velocities (at maximum levels) while still producing less pressure than the fast burning AA #2. A medium burning powder might actually be a better choice, as it could split the difference in powder weights while delivering more power and accuracy than the fastest powder. Accurate Arms, source of loading information for fast vs. slow powder comparison One solution that is applicable to revolvers in particular is the possibility of using a reduced-volume case. Cartridges such as .357 Magnum and .44 Magnum are just longer versions of their parent rounds of .38 Special and .44 Special, and the shorter rounds will fire in the longer chambers with no problems. The reduced case capacity allows greater accuracy with even lighter loads. A .44 Special loaded with a minimum load of AA #2 uses only 4.2 grains (0.27 g) of powder, and produces a modest 771 ft/s (235 m/s). Other resources Ballistics Powley Computer Muzzle Energy Calculator Cartridge information Cartridges of the World 8th Edition, Book by Frank Barnes, DBI Books, 1997, ISBN 0-87349-178-5 Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders vol I, Book by P.O. Ackley; Plaza Publishing, 1962, ISBN 978-9992948811 Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders vol II, Book by P.O. Ackley; Plaza Publishing, 1966, ASIN B000BGII48 The Handloader's Manual of Cartridge Conversions, Book by John J. Donnelly, Stoeger Publishing, 1987, ISBN 978-0883172698 Designing and Forming Custom Cartridges, Book by Ken Howell, Precision Shooting, 1995, ISBN 0-9643623-0-9 Cartridge Dimensions at Steves Pages Cartridge Dimensions at 6mmBR.com Cartridge history, loading, and dimensions at ReloadBench.com Reloading Accurate Online load data Barnes Reloading Manual Number 3; Edited by Dave Scovill, LP, 2001 Black Powder Handbook & Loading Manual, 2nd Edition; Book by Sam Fadala, Lyman Publications, 2001 UPC #011516971005 Handloads.com Hodgdon Online Reloading Info * Lapua Shooting and Reloading Manual 2nd Edition; Book by Nammo Lapua, LP, 2000, ISBN 951-97156-2-2 Waters, Ken, Ken Waters' Notebook, Wolfe Publishing Co, 2006, ISBN 1-879356-61-9 Modern Reloading; Book by Richard Lee, LP, 1996 Sierra Reloading Manual 5th Edition; Book by Sierra Bullets, LP, 2003 Speer Reloading Manual Number 13; Book by Speer, Blount, Inc., 1998 References External links MidwayUSA's Application charts and reloading information Reloading the 303 British The Firearm FAQ on Reloading, A walkthrough of the reloading process, with instructional videos. 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2,152 | Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen | Declaration of the Rights of Man: Revolutionary patriotism borrows familiar iconography of the Ten Commandments. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen () is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, the rights of Man are universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. Although it establishes fundamental rights for French citizens and all men without exception, it addresses neither the status of women nor slavery; despite that, it is a precursor document to international human rights instruments. History The last article of Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted 26 August or 27 August, 1789 Some sources say 27 August because the debate was not officially closed. by the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante), during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. It was prepared and proposed by the marquis de Lafayette. Thomas Jefferson's autobiography at Yale Law School's Avalon Project A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793 was later adopted. The 1789 Declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good." First Article, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents," eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy. While it set forth fundamental rights, not only for French citizens but for "all men without exception," it did not make any statement about the status of women, nor did it explicitly address slavery. The French First Republic abolished slavery in 1794 but it was re-instituted under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802. The Declaration is considered to be a precursor to modern international human rights instruments. Historical context The Declaration was a step in the transition of France from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Many of the principles in the declaration directly oppose the institutions and usages of the ancien régime of pre-revolutionary France. France soon became a republic, and this document remains fundamental: the principles set forth in the declaration are of constitutional value in present-day French law and may be invoked in opposing legislation or other government activities. The concepts in the declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the Age of Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the English philosopher John Locke and developed by Jean Jacques Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment, and by Enlightenment principles of human rights contained in the U.S. Declaration of Independence (4 July 1776), of which the delegates were fully aware. The American Declaration was in part based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights developed by George Mason in June 1776, themselves based on the 1689 English Bill of Rights, published a full century before the French version. By comparison, few French in 1789 were vividly aware of these precedents of the American declaration. Thomas Jefferson, primary author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence, was at the time in France as a U.S. diplomat http://sc94.ameslab.gov/TOUR/tjefferson.html , and was in correspondence with members of the French National Constituent Assembly. Substance This statement of principles was the beginning of a much more radical re-ordering of society. Six weeks after the storming of the Bastille, and barely three weeks after the abolition of feudalism, the Declaration put forward a doctrine of popular sovereignty and equal opportunity: "(From Article III) – The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it." This contrasts with the pre-revolutionary situation in France, where the political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the divine right of kings. (From Article VI) – "All the citizens, being equal in [the eyes of the law], are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents." Again, this strikingly contrasts with the pre-revolutionary division of French society in three estates (the clergy, the aristocracy, and the rest of the populace, known as the Third Estate), where the first two estates had special rights. Specifically, it contradicts the idea of people being born into a nobility or other special class of the population, and enjoying (or being deprived of) special rights for this reason. All citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression". The Declaration argues that the need for law derives from the fact that "...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights". Thus, the declaration sees law as an "expression of the general will", intended to promote this equality of rights and to forbid "only actions harmful to the society". Before the adoption of the declaration those of the laboring class which had made up the Third Estate during the Old Regime had few rights, if any. Only the First and Second Estates enjoyed the luxuries of a just society. The adoption of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen gave the lower class a new identity. They were no longer a group that could be trampled on by the upper classes; they had their individual rights and the ability to be active French citizens. Now the former Third Estate was welcome to fair judicial hearings and appropriate due process. During the Old Regime the laboring class was unfairly represented because their representatives were concerned only with personal agendas and not the desires of those they were meant to represent. Article XII of The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen states “The guarantee of the rights of man and citizen requires a public force; this force then is instituted for the advantage of all and not for the personal benefit of those to whom it is entrusted.” This article guarantees the protection of the people’s rights and also guarantees that, unlike in the Old Regime, people in positions of power will not abuse their positions for personal gains. Such a promise shows notable improvement in the conditions for French citizens since the fall of the Old Regime. The declaration then goes on to address another primary concern of the working class citizens, taxes. The Old Regime tax policy made it so that the Church and the nobility were excused from taxation. Only the Third Estate was required to pay a tax to the government. Often this tax was so steep that those who were forced to pay it could not even afford it. Article XIII of the declaration abolishes the idea of Old Regime taxation and introduces a new, more equal approach to taxes: “A general tax is indispensable for the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration; it ought to be equally apportioned among all citizens according to their means.” This new tax policy greatly benefited the working class because not only did it split up taxation among all French citizens, it also assured the less fortunate that their taxes would not be too high. Instead they would be taxed according to their financial situation. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen offered working men basic liberties that they were previously denied, eliminated the threat of corrupt and self-serving positions of power at any level, and gave them their individual rights and no longer treated the lower class workers as a mob that could be oppressed and controlled. The Declaration puts forward several provisions similar to those in the United States Constitution (1787) and the United States Bill of Rights (1789, and adopted after the Declaration). Like the U.S. Constitution, it discusses the need to provide for the common defense and states some broad principles of taxation, especially equality before taxation (a striking difference from the pre-revolutionary era, when the Church and the nobility were exempted from most taxes). It also specifies a public right to an accounting from public agents as to how they have discharged the public trust. The declaration prohibits ex post facto application of criminal law and proclaims the presumption of innocence, prohibiting undue duress to the suspect. In pre-revolutionary France, while technically one was considered guilty only after having been sentenced by the appropriate authorities, the royal courts, known as parlements, made ample use of torture to extract confessions, and gave few rights to the defense — therefore, it would have been very likely that one would have been convicted and sentenced, if one had been suspected. It provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and a slightly weaker guarantee of freedom of religion — "provided that [...the] manifestation [...of their religious opinions] does not trouble the public order established by the law". It asserts the rights of property, while reserving a public right of eminent domain: "(From Article XVII) - Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity [that is, compensation]." The Declaration is largely individualistic, not addressing freedom of assembly or liberty of association. These principles did acquire a constitutional value, from the provisions of the Constitution of the French Fourth Republic, under which, unlike at the time of the Revolution, they were understood to extend to women and various ethnic groups. Omissions The Declaration, as originally understood, recognized most rights as belonging only to males; the declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters meeting at the Hôtel Massiac. The club of reactionary colonial proprietors meeting since July 1789 at the Hôtel Massiac were opposed to representation in the Assemblée of France's overseas dominions, for fear "that this would expose delicate colonial issues to the hazards of debate in the Assembly," as Robin Blackburn expressed it (Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776-1848 [1988:174f]); see also the speech of Jean-Baptiste Belley Sometime after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, the women of France presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equality. The Declaration's failure to include women was objected to by Olympe de Gouges in her 1791 Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen. Women were finally given these rights with the adoption of the 1946 Constitution of the French Fourth Republic. Similarly, despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, the slave revolt on Saint-Domingue that became the Haitian Revolution took inspiration from its words, as discussed in C.L.R. James' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins. Effect today According to the preamble of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and the current constitution), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been canceled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil Constitutionnel ("Constitutional Council of France") or the Conseil d'État ("Council of State"). Many of the principles in the 1789 declaration have far-reaching implications nowadays: Taxation legislation or practices that seem to make some unwarranted difference between citizens are struck down as anticonstitutional. Suggestions of positive discrimination on ethnic grounds are rejected because they infringe on the principle of equality, since they would establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater rights. The declaration has also influenced and inspired rights-based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was translated as soon as 1793-94 by Colombian Antonio Nariño, who published it despite the Inquisition and was imprisoned ten years for it. In 2003, the document was listed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register. See also Human rights in France Moral universalism Natural law and natural rights Progressive tax Universality Comparison to other bills of rights Poland: Henrician Articles and Pacta Conventa (1573) England: Bill of Rights of 1689 Scotland: Claim of Right (1689) United States: United States Bill of Rights (1791) United Nations: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Europe: European Convention on Human Rights (1950), Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000) India: Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens (1952) Canada: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982) Notes External links The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen | Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen |@lemmatized declaration:43 right:60 man:13 revolutionary:6 patriotism:1 borrows:1 familiar:1 iconography:1 ten:2 commandment:1 citizen:24 fundamental:6 document:4 french:18 revolution:5 define:2 individual:5 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2,153 | Neutrino | Neutrinos are elementary particles that often travel close to the speed of light, lack an electric charge, are able to pass through ordinary matter almost undisturbed and are thus extremely difficult to detect. Neutrinos have a minuscule, but nonzero mass. They are usually denoted by the Greek letter ν(nu). Neutrinos are created as a result of certain types of radioactive decay or nuclear reactions such as those that take place in the Sun, in nuclear reactors, or when cosmic rays hit atoms. There are three types, or "flavors", of neutrinos: electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos; each type also has an antimatter partner, called an antineutrino. Electron neutrinos or antineutrinos are generated whenever neutrons change into protons or vice versa, the two forms of beta decay. Interactions involving neutrinos are generally mediated by the weak force. Most neutrinos passing through the Earth emanate from the Sun, and more than 50 trillion solar electron neutrinos pass through the human body every second. MIT News Office, "Experiment confirms famous physics model" April 18, 2007 History Observation of a neutrino hitting a proton in a bubble chamber. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph. The neutrino was first postulated in 1930 by Wolfgang Pauli to preserve conservation of energy, conservation of momentum, and conservation of angular momentum in beta decay – the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. Pauli theorized that an undetected particle was carrying away the observed difference between the energy, momentum, and angular momentum of the initial and final particles. The current name neutrino was coined by Enrico Fermi, who developed the first theory describing neutrino interactions, as a pun on neutrone, the Italian name of the neutron: neutrone seems to use the -one suffix (even though it is a complete word, not a compound), which in Italian indicates a large object, whereas -ino indicates a small one. In 1942 Kan-Chang Wang first proposed to use beta-capture to experimentally detect neutrinos. In 1956 Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines, F. B. Harrison, H. W. Kruse, and A. D. McGuire published the article "Detection of the Free Neutrino: a Confirmation" in Science, a result that was rewarded with the 1995 Nobel Prize. In this experiment, now known as the neutrino experiment, neutrinos created in a nuclear reactor by beta decay were shot into protons producing neutrons and positrons both of which could be detected. It is now known that both the proposed and the observed particles were antineutrinos. In 1962 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger showed that more than one type of neutrino exists by first detecting interactions of the muon neutrino (already hypothesised with the name neutretto ), which earned them the 1988 Nobel Prize. When a third type of lepton, the tau, was discovered in 1975 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator, it too was expected to have an associated neutrino. First evidence for this third neutrino type came from the observation of missing energy and momentum in tau decays analogous to the beta decay leading to the discovery of the neutrino. The first detection of tau neutrino interactions was announced in summer of 2000 by the DONUT collaboration at Fermilab, making it the latest particle of the Standard Model to have been directly observed; its existence had already been inferred by both theoretical consistency and experimental data from LEP. Starting in the late 1960s, several experiments found that the number of electron neutrinos arriving from the sun was between one third and one half the number predicted by the Standard Solar Model, a discrepancy which became known as the solar neutrino problem and remained unresolved for some thirty years. The Standard Model of particle physics formerly assumed that neutrinos were massless and couldn't change flavor. However, nonzero neutrino mass and accompanying flavor oscillation remained a possibility. A practical method for investigating neutrino masses (that is, flavor oscillation) was first suggested by Bruno Pontecorvo in 1957 using an analogy with the neutral kaon system; over the subsequent 10 years he developed the mathematical formalism and the modern formulation of vacuum oscillations. In 1985 Stanislav Mikheyev and Alexei Smirnov (expanding on 1978 work by Lincoln Wolfenstein) noted that flavor oscillations can be modified when neutrinos propagate through matter. This so-called MSW effect is important to understand neutrinos emitted by the Sun, which pass through its dense atmosphere on their way to detectors on Earth. Starting in 1998, experiments began to show that solar and atmospheric neutrinos change flavors (see Super-Kamiokande, Sudbury Neutrino Observatory). This resolved the solar neutrino problem: the electron neutrinos produced in the sun had partly changed into other flavors which the experiments could not detect. Although individual experiments, such as the set of solar neutrino experiments, are consistent with non-oscillatory mechanisms of neutrino flavor conversion, taken altogether, neutrino experiments imply the existence of neutrino oscillations. Especially relevant in this context are the reactor experiment KamLAND and the accelerator experiments such as MINOS. The KamLAND experiment has indeed identified oscillations as the neutrino flavor conversion mechanism involved in the solar electron neutrinos. Similarly MINOS confirms the oscillation of atmospheric neutrinos and gives a better determination of the mass squared splitting. Raymond Davis Jr. and Masatoshi Koshiba were jointly awarded the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physics. Ray Davis for his pioneer work on cosmic neutrinos and Koshiba for the first real time observation of supernova neutrinos. The detection of solar neutrinos, and of neutrinos of SN 1987A supernova in 1987 marked the beginning of neutrino astronomy. Properties The neutrino has half-integer spin () and is therefore a fermion. Neutrinos interact primarily through the weak force. The discovery of neutrino flavor oscillations implies that neutrinos have mass. The existence of a neutrino mass strongly suggests the existence of a tiny neutrino magnetic moment of the order of Bohr magneton allowing the possibility that neutrinos may interact electromagnetically as well. An experiment done by C. S. Wu at Columbia University showed that neutrinos always have left-handed chirality. It is very hard to uniquely identify neutrino interactions among the natural background of radioactivity. For this reason, in early experiments a special reaction channel was chosen to facilitate the identification: the interaction of an antineutrino with one of the hydrogen nuclei in the water molecules. A hydrogen nucleus is a single proton, so simultaneous nuclear interactions, which would occur within a heavier nucleus, don't need to be considered for the detection experiment. Within a cubic metre of water placed right outside a nuclear reactor, only relatively few such interactions can be recorded, but the setup is now used for measuring the reactor's plutonium production rate. Neutrinos traveling through matter, in general, undergo a process analogous to light traveling through a transparent material. This process is not directly observable because it doesn't produce ionizing radiation, but gives rise to the MSW effect. Only a small fraction of the neutrino's energy is transferred to the material. Neutrinos can interact with a more heavy nucleus changing it to another nucleus. This process is used in radiochemical neutrino detectors. In this case, the energy levels and spin states within the target nucleus have to be taken into account to estimate the probability for an interaction. In general the interaction probability increases with the number of neutrons and protons within a nucleus. Types of neutrinos +Neutrinos in the Standard Model of elementary particlesFermionSymbolMass Since neutrino flavor eigenstates are not the same as neutrino mass eigenstates (see neutrino oscillation), the given masses are actually mass expectation values. If the mass of a neutrino could be measured directly, the value would always be that of one of the three mass eigenstates: ν1, ν2, and ν3. In practice, the mass cannot be measured directly. Instead it is measured by looking at the shape of the endpoint of the energy spectrum in particle decays. This sort of measurement directly measures the expectation value of the mass; it is not sensitive to any of the mass eigenstates separately. Generation 1 (electron) Electron neutrino < 2.2 eV Electron antineutrino < 2.2 eVGeneration 2 (muon) Muon neutrino < 170 keV Muon antineutrino < 170 keVGeneration 3 (tau) Tau neutrino < 15.5 MeV Tau antineutrino < 15.5 MeV There are three known types (flavors) of neutrinos: electron neutrino νe, muon neutrino νμ and tau neutrino ντ, named after their partner leptons in the Standard Model (see table at right). The current best measurement of the number of neutrino types comes from observing the decay of the Z boson. This particle can decay into any light neutrino and its antineutrino, and the more types of light neutrinos available, the shorter the lifetime of the Z boson. Measurements of the Z lifetime have shown that the number of light neutrino types (with "light" meaning of less than half the Z mass) is 3. The correspondence between the six quarks in the Standard Model and the six leptons, among them the three neutrinos, suggests to physicists' intuition that there should be exactly three types of neutrino. However, actual proof that there are only three kinds of neutrinos remains an elusive goal of particle physics. The possibility of sterile neutrinos — relatively light neutrinos which do not participate in the weak interaction but which could be created through flavor oscillation (see below) — is unaffected by these Z-boson-based measurements, and the existence of such particles is in fact hinted by experimental data from the LSND experiment. However, the currently running MiniBooNE experiment suggested, until recently, that sterile neutrinos are not required to explain the experimental data, although the latest research into this area is on-going and anomalies in the MiniBooNE data may allow for exotic neutrino types, including sterile neutrinos. Flavor oscillations Neutrinos are most often created or detected with a well defined flavor (electron, muon, tau). However, in a phenomenon known as neutrino flavor oscillation, neutrinos are able to oscillate between the three available flavors while they propagate through space. Specifically, this occurs because the neutrino flavor eigenstates are not the same as the neutrino mass eigenstates (simply called 1, 2, 3). This allows for a neutrino that was produced as an electron neutrino at a given location to have a calculable probability to be detected as either a muon or tau neutrino after it has traveled to another location. This quantum mechanical effect was first hinted by the discrepancy between the number of electron neutrinos detected from the Sun's core failing to match the expected numbers, dubbed as the "solar neutrino problem." In the Standard Model the existence of flavor oscillations implies a nonzero neutrino mass, because the amount of mixing between neutrino flavors at a given time depends on the differences in their squared-masses. It is possible that the neutrino and antineutrino are in fact the same particle, a hypothesis first proposed by the Italian physicist Ettore Majorana. The neutrino could transform into an antineutrino (and vice versa) by flipping the orientation of its spin state. This is called the Neutrigga Theory. This change in spin would require the neutrino and antineutrino to have nonzero mass, and therefore travel slower than light, because such a spin flip caused only by a change in point of view, can take place only if inertial frames of reference exist that move faster than the particle: such a particle has a spin of one orientation when seen from a frame which moves slower than the particle, but the opposite spin when observed from a frame that moves faster than the particle. Speed Before the idea of neutrino oscillations came up, it was generally assumed that neutrinos travel at the speed of light. The question of neutrino velocity is closely related to their mass. According to relativity, if neutrinos are massless, they must travel at the speed of light. However, if they carry a mass, they cannot reach the speed of light. In the early 1980s, first measurements of neutrino speed were done using pulsed pion beams (produced by pulsed proton beams hitting a target). The pions decayed producing neutrinos, and the neutrino interactions observed within a time window in a detector at a distance were consistent with the speed of light. This measurement has been repeated using the MINOS detectors, which found the speed of 3 GeV neutrinos to be . While the central value is higher than the speed of light, the uncertainty is great enough that it is very likely that the true velocity is not greater than the speed of light. This measurement set an upper bound on the mass of the muon neutrino of 50 MeV at 99% confidence. Measurement of neutrino velocity with the MINOS detectors and NuMI neutrino beam, Adamson et al., The same observation was made, on a somewhat larger scale, with supernova 1987a. The neutrinos from the supernova were detected within a time window that was consistent with a speed of light for the neutrinos. So far, the question of neutrino masses cannot be decided based on measurements of the neutrino speed. Mass The Standard Model of particle physics assumed that neutrinos are massless, although adding massive neutrinos to the basic framework is not difficult. Indeed, the experimentally established phenomenon of neutrino oscillation requires neutrinos to have nonzero masses. The strongest upper limit on the masses of neutrinos comes from cosmology: the Big Bang model predicts that there is a fixed ratio between the number of neutrinos and the number of photons in the cosmic microwave background. If the total energy of all three types of neutrinos exceeded an average of 50 electronvolts per neutrino, there would be so much mass in the universe that it would collapse. This limit can be circumvented by assuming that the neutrino is unstable; however, there are limits within the Standard Model that make this difficult. A much more stringent constraint comes from a careful analysis of cosmological data, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation, galaxy surveys and the Lyman-alpha forest. These indicate that the sum of the neutrino masses must be less than 0.3 electronvolt. In 1998, research results at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector determined that neutrinos do indeed flavor oscillate, and therefore have mass. While this shows that neutrinos have mass, the absolute neutrino mass scale is still not known. This is due to the fact that neutrino oscillations are sensitive only to the difference in the squares of the masses. The best estimate of the difference in the squares of the masses of mass eigenstates 1 and 2 was published by KamLAND in 2005: Δm212 = 0.000079 eV2. In 2006, the MINOS experiment measured oscillations from an intense muon neutrino beam, determining the difference in the squares of the masses between neutrino mass eigenstates 2 and 3. The initial results indicate |Δm322| = 0.0027 eV2, consistent with previous results from Super-K. Since |Δm322| is the difference of two squared masses, at least one of them has to have a value which is at least the square root of this value. Thus, there exists at least one neutrino mass eigenstate with a mass of at least 0.04 eV. Currently a number of efforts are under way to directly determine the absolute neutrino mass scale in laboratory experiments. The methods applied involve nuclear beta decay (KATRIN and MARE) or neutrinoless double beta decay (e.g. GERDA, CUORE/Cuoricino, NEMO 3 and others). In 2006, the US-based Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search (MINOS) experiment detected flavour oscillations which theoretically suggests that neutrinos have mass, a characteristic not accounted for by the Standard Model. Handedness Experimental results show that (nearly) all produced and observed neutrinos have left-handed helicities (spins antiparallel to momenta), and all antineutrinos have right-handed helicities, within the margin of error. In the massless limit, it means that only one of two possible chiralities is observed for either particle. These are the only chiralities included in the Standard Model of particle interactions. It is possible that their counterparts (right-handed neutrinos and left-handed antineutrinos) simply do not exist. If they do, their properties are substantially different from observable neutrinos and antineutrinos. It is theorized that they are either very heavy (on the order of GUT scale—see Seesaw mechanism), do not participate in weak interaction (so-called sterile neutrinos), or both. The existence of nonzero neutrino masses somewhat complicates the situation. Neutrinos are produced in weak interactions as chirality eigenstates. However, chirality of a massive particle is not a constant of motion; helicity is, but the chirality operator does not share eigenstates with the helicity operator. Free neutrinos propagate as mixtures of left- and right-handed helicity states, with mixing amplitudes on the order of . This does not significantly affect the experiments, because neutrinos involved are nearly always ultrarelativistic, and thus mixing amplitudes are vanishingly small (for example, most solar neutrinos have energies on the order of 100 keV–1 MeV, so the fraction of neutrinos with "wrong" helicity among them cannot exceed 10-10). Neutrino sources Artificially produced neutrinos Nuclear reactors are the major source of human-generated neutrinos. Anti-neutrinos are made in the beta-decay of neutron-rich daughter fragments in the fission process. Generally, the four main isotopes contributing to the anti-neutrino flux are: uranium-235, uranium-238, plutonium-239, plutonium-241 (e.g. the anti-neutrinos emitted during beta-minus decay of their respective fission fragments). The average nuclear fission releases about 200 MeV of energy, of which roughly 6% (or 9 MeV, depending on quoted reference) are radiated away as anti-neutrinos. For a typical nuclear reactor with a thermal power of 4,000 MW (megawatts) and an electrical power generation of 1,300 MW, this corresponds to a total power production of 4,250 MW, of which 250 MW is radiated away as anti-neutrino radiation. This is to say, 250 MW of fission energy is lost from this reactor and does not appear as heat, since the anti-neutrinos penetrate all normal building materials essentially tracelessly. The energy spectrum depends, for example, on the degree to which the fuel is burned. There is no established experimental method to measure the flux of low energy anti-neutrinos. Only anti-neutrinos with an energy above threshold of 1.8 MeV can be uniquely identified (see neutrino detection below). An estimated 3% of all anti-neutrinos from a nuclear reactor carry an energy above this threshold. An average nuclear power plant may generate over 1020 anti-neutrinos per second above this threshold, and a much larger number which cannot be seen with present detector technology. Some particle accelerators have been used to make neutrino beams. The technique is to smash protons into a fixed target, producing charged pions or kaons. These unstable particles are then magnetically focused into a long tunnel where they decay while in flight. Because of the relativistic boost of the decaying particle the neutrinos are produced as a beam rather than isotropically. Efforts to construct an accelerator facility where neutrinos are produced through muon decays are ongoing. Such a setup is generally known as a neutrino factory. Nuclear bombs also produce very large quantities of neutrinos. Fred Reines and Clyde Cowan considered the detection of neutrinos from a bomb prior to their search for reactor neutrinos. Geologically produced neutrinos Neutrinos are produced as a result of natural background radiation. In particular, the decay chains of uranium-238 and thorium-232 isotopes, as well as potassium-40, include beta decays which emit anti-neutrinos. These so-called geoneutrinos can provide valuable information on the Earth's interior. A first indication for geoneutrinos was found by the KamLAND experiment in 2005. KamLAND's main background in the geoneutrino measurement are the anti-neutrinos coming from reactors. Several future experiments aim at improving the geoneutrino measurement and these will necessarily have to be far away from reactors. Solar neutrinos (proton-proton chain) in the Standard Solar Model Atmospheric neutrinos Atmospheric neutrinos result from the interaction of cosmic rays with atomic nuclei in the Earth's atmosphere, creating showers of particles, many of which are unstable and produce neutrinos when they decay. A collaboration of particle physicists from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), India, Osaka City University, Japan and Durham University, UK recorded the first cosmic ray neutrino interaction in an underground laboratory in KGF gold mines in India in 1965. Solar neutrinos Solar neutrinos originate from the nuclear fusion powering the sun and other stars. The details of the operation of the sun are explained by the Standard Solar Model. In short: when four protons fuse to become one helium nucleus, two of them have to convert into neutrons, and each such conversion releases one electron neutrino. The sun sends enormous numbers of neutrinos in all directions. Every second, about 65 billion (6.5×1010) solar neutrinos pass through every square centimeter on Earth that faces the sun. Since neutrinos are insignificantly absorbed by the mass of the Earth, the surface area on the side of the Earth opposite the Sun receives about the same number of neutrinos as the side facing the Sun. Supernova SN 1987A Neutrinos are an important product of Types Ib, Ic and II (core-collapse) supernovae. In such events, the density at the core becomes so high (1017 kg/m3) that the degeneracy of electrons is not enough to prevent protons and electrons from combining to form a neutron and an electron neutrino. A second and more important neutrino source is the thermal energy (100 billion kelvins) of the newly formed neutron core, which is dissipated via the formation of neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all flavors. Most of the energy produced in supernovas is thus radiated away in the form of an immense burst of neutrinos. The first experimental evidence of this phenomenon came in 1987, when neutrinos from supernova 1987A were detected. The water-based detectors Kamiokande II and IMB detected 11 and 8 antineutrinos of thermal origin, respectively, while the gallium-71-based Baksan detector found 5 neutrinos (lepton number = 1) of either thermal or electron-capture origin, in a burst lasting less than 13 seconds. It is thought that neutrinos would also be produced from other events such as the collision of neutron stars. What was particularly interesting about this event was that the neutrino signature of the supernova arrived at earth approximately 18 hours before the arrival of the first photon signature (Warning: compare with SNEWS where the delay is stated as being 3 hours!). The exceptionally weak interaction with normal matter allowed the neutrinos to pass through the churning mass of the exploding star, while the electromagnetic photons were retarded, with the photon signature of the supernova not being released until the outermost layers of the star were superheated and released a much brighter visible light signature, observed telescopically on earth some 18 hours after the neutrinos had already arrived. This shows how weakly interacting neutrinos truly are. Because neutrinos interact so little with matter, it is thought that a supernova's neutrino emissions carry information about the innermost regions of the explosion. Much of the visible light comes from the decay of radioactive elements produced by the supernova shock wave, and even light from the explosion itself is scattered by dense and turbulent gases. Neutrinos, on the other hand, pass through these gases, providing information about the supernova core (where the densities were large enough to influence the neutrino signal). Furthermore, the neutrino burst is expected to reach Earth before any electromagnetic waves, including visible light, gamma rays or radio waves. The exact time delay is unknown, but for a Type II supernova, astronomers expect the neutrino flood to be released seconds after the stellar core collapse, while the first electromagnetic signal may be hours or days later. The SNEWS project uses a network of neutrino detectors to monitor the sky for candidate supernova events; it is hoped that the neutrino signal will provide a useful advance warning of an exploding star. The energy of supernova neutrinos ranges from a few to several tens of MeV. However, the sites where cosmic rays are accelerated are expected to produce neutrinos that are one million times more energetic or more, produced from turbulent gaseous environments left over by supernova explosions: the supernova remnants. The connection between cosmic rays and supernova remnants was suggested by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky, shown to be consistent with the cosmic ray losses of the Milky Way if the efficiency of acceleration is about 10 percent by Ginzburg and Syrovatsky, and it is supported by a specific mechanism called "shock wave acceleration" based on Fermi ideas (which is still under development). The very high energy neutrinos are still to be seen, but this branch of neutrino astronomy is just in its infancy. The main existing or forthcoming experiments that aim at observing very high energy neutrinos from our galaxy are Baikal, AMANDA, IceCube, Antares, NEMO and Nestor. Related information is provided by very high energy gamma ray observatories, such as HESS and MAGIC. Indeed, the collisions of cosmic rays are supposed to produce charged pions, whose decay give the neutrinos, and also neutral pions, whose decay give gamma rays: the environment of a supernova remnant is transparent to both types of radiation. Still higher energy neutrinos, resulting from the interactions of extragalactic cosmic rays, could be observed with the Pierre Auger Observatory or with the dedicated experiment named ANITA. Cosmic background radiation It is thought that, just like the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the Big Bang, there is a background of low energy neutrinos in our Universe. In the 1980s it was proposed that these may be the explanation for the dark matter thought to exist in the universe. Neutrinos have one important advantage over most other dark matter candidates: we know they exist. However, they also have serious problems. From particle experiments, it is known that neutrinos are very light. This means that they move at speeds close to the speed of light. Thus, dark matter made from neutrinos is termed "hot dark matter". The problem is that being fast moving, the neutrinos would tend to have spread out evenly in the universe before cosmological expansion made them cold enough to congregate in clumps. This would cause the part of dark matter made of neutrinos to be smeared out and unable to cause the large galactic structures that we see. Further, these same galaxies and groups of galaxies appear to be surrounded by dark matter which is not fast enough to escape from those galaxies. Presumably this matter provided the gravitational nucleus for formation. This implies that neutrinos make up only a small part of the total amount of dark matter. From cosmological arguments, relic background neutrinos are estimated to have density of 56 of each type per cubic centimeter and temperature 1.9 K (1.7×10-4 eV) if they are massless, much colder if their mass exceeds 0.001 eV. Although their density is quite high, due to extremely low neutrino cross-sections at sub-eV energies, the relic neutrino background has not yet been observed in the laboratory. In contrast, boron-8 solar neutrinos — which are emitted with a higher energy — have been detected definitively despite having a space density that is lower than that of relic neutrinos by some 6 orders of magnitude. Neutrino induced fission Very much like neutrons do in nuclear reactors, neutrinos can induce fission reactions within heavy nuclei . So far, this reaction has not been measured in a laboratory, but is predicted to happen within stars and supernovae. The process affects the abundance of isotopes seen in the universe . Neutrino detection Because neutrinos are very weakly interacting, neutrino detectors must be very large in order to detect a significant number of neutrinos. Neutrino detectors are often built underground in order to isolate the detector from cosmic rays and other background radiation. Antineutrinos were first detected in the 1950s near a nuclear reactor. Reines and Cowan used two targets containing a solution of cadmium chloride in water. Two scintillation detectors were placed next to the cadmium targets. Antineutrinos with an energy above the threshold of 1.8 MeV caused charged current interactions with the protons in the water, producing positrons and neutrons. The resulting positron annihilations with electrons created photons with an energy of about 0.5 MeV. Pairs of photons in coincidence could be detected by the two scintillation detectors above and below the target. The neutrons were captured by cadmium nuclei resulting in gamma rays of about 8 MeV that were detected a few microseconds after the photons from a positron annihilation event. Since then, various detection methods have been used. Super Kamiokande is a large volume of water surrounded by photomultiplier tubes that watch for the Cherenkov radiation emitted when an incoming neutrino creates an electron or muon in the water. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is similar, but uses heavy water as the detecting medium, which uses the same effects, but also allows the additional reaction any-flavor neutrino photo-dissociation of deuterium, resulting in a free neutron which is then detected from gamma radiation after chlorine-capture. Other detectors have consisted of large volumes of chlorine or gallium which are periodically checked for excesses of argon or germanium, respectively, which are created by electron-neutrinos interacting with the original substance. MINOS uses a solid plastic scintillator coupled to photomultiplier tubes, while Borexino uses a liquid pseudocumene scintillator also watched by photomultiplier tubes and the proposed NOνA detector will use liquid scintillator watched by avalanche photodiodes. Motivation for scientific interest in the neutrino The neutrino is of scientific interest because it can make an exceptional probe for environments that are typically concealed from the standpoint of other observation techniques, such as optical and radio observation. The first such use of neutrinos was proposed in the early 20th century for observation of the core of the Sun. Direct optical observation of the solar core is impossible due to the diffusion of electromagnetic radiation by the huge amount of matter surrounding the core. On the other hand, neutrinos generated in stellar fusion reactions interact very weakly with matter, and pass through the sun with few interactions. While photons emitted by the solar core may require some 40,000 years to diffuse to the outer layers of the Sun, neutrinos are virtually unimpeded and cross this distance at nearly the speed of light. J.N. Bahcall, Neutrino Astrophysics, Cambridge, 1989. Neutrinos are also useful for probing astrophysical sources beyond our solar system. Neutrinos are the only known particles that are not significantly attenuated by their travel through the interstellar medium. Optical photons can be obscured or diffused by dust, gas and background radiation. High-energy cosmic rays, in the form of fast-moving protons and atomic nuclei, are not able to travel more than about 100 megaparsecs due to the GZK cutoff. Neutrinos can travel this and greater distances with very little attenuation. The galactic core of the Milky Way is completely obscured by dense gas and numerous bright objects. Neutrinos produced in the galactic core will be measurable by Earth-based neutrino telescopes in the next decade. Another important use of the neutrino is in the observation of supernovae, the explosions that end the lives of highly massive stars. The core collapse phase of a supernova is an almost unimaginably dense and energetic event. It is so dense that no known particles are able to escape the advancing core front except for neutrinos. Consequently, supernovae are known to release approximately 99% of their energy in a rapid (10 second) burst of neutrinos. As a result, neutrinos are a very useful probe for these important events. Determining the mass of the neutrino (see above) is also an important test of cosmology (see Dark matter). Many other important uses of the neutrino may be imagined in the future. It is clear that the astrophysical significance of the neutrino as an observational technique is comparable with all other known techniques, and is therefore a major focus of study in astrophysical communities. In particle physics the main virtue of studying neutrinos is that they are typically the lowest mass, and hence lowest energy examples of particles theorized in extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics. For example, one would expect that if there is a fourth class of fermions beyond the electron, muon, and tau generations of particles, that a fourth generation neutrino would be the easiest to generate in a particle accelerator. Neutrinos could also be used for studying quantum gravity effects. Because they are not affected by either the strong interaction or electromagnetism (unless they have a magnetic moment), and because they are not normally found in composite particles (unlike quarks) or prone to near instantaneous decay (like many other standard model particles) it might be possible to isolate and measure gravitational effects on neutrinos at a quantum level. See also List of neutrino experiments Neutrino factory Notes References Neutrino Oscillations, Masses And Mixing: W.M.Alberico, Torino University&S.M. Bilenky, Dubna NRI; 2003;http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0306239v1 Bumfiel, Geoff. "The Milky Way's Hidden Black Hole." Scientific American 01 Oct 2001 1-2. 26 Jan 2009 <http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=the-milky-ways-hidden-bla>. External links NEUTRINO UNBOUND: On-line review and e-archive on Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics Nova: The Ghost Particle: Documentary on US public television from WGBH SNEWS: Using neutrino detectors to receive early warning of supernovae Measuring the density of the earth's core with neutrinos John Bahcall Website Universe submerged in a sea of chilled neutrinos, New Scientist, 5 March 2008 | Neutrino |@lemmatized neutrino:243 elementary:2 particle:35 often:3 travel:10 close:2 speed:15 light:22 lack:1 electric:1 charge:3 able:4 pass:4 ordinary:1 matter:16 almost:2 undisturbed:1 thus:5 extremely:2 difficult:3 detect:19 minuscule:1 nonzero:6 mass:48 usually:1 denote:1 greek:1 letter:1 ν:1 nu:1 create:8 result:13 certain:1 type:18 radioactive:2 decay:24 nuclear:15 reaction:6 take:4 place:4 sun:15 reactor:14 cosmic:15 ray:15 hit:3 atom:1 three:9 flavor:23 electron:23 muon:13 tau:11 also:11 antimatter:1 partner:2 call:7 antineutrino:19 neutrinos:21 generate:5 whenever:1 neutron:14 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2,154 | Goshen,_Indiana | Goshen () is a city located in Elkhart County, Indiana, United States. It is the smaller of the two principal cities of the Elkhart-Goshen Metropolitan Statistical Area, which in turn is part of the South Bend-Elkhart-Mishawaka Combined Statistical Area. It is the county seat of Elkhart County and located in the northern Indiana region known as Michiana. Goshen is located 10 miles south of Elkhart, 25 miles southeast of South Bend, 120 east of Chicago, and 150 miles north of Indianapolis. According to a 2008 estimate, Goshen's population is 31,800. Best places to live 2008 - City details: Goshen, IN - from MONEY Magazine The city is known as a center of manufacturing for recreational vehicles and accessories, the home of Goshen College, a nationally recognized liberal arts college, and home to the Elkhart County 4-H Fair, the second largest county fair in the United States. Purdue Alumni Club of Elkhart County Geography Goshen is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.4 square miles (34.7 km²), of which, 13.2 square miles (34.2 km²) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.5 km²) of it (1.57%) is water. The Elkhart River winds its way through the city and through a dam on the south side making the Goshen Dam Pond. Rock Run Creek also runs through town. The city is divided north/south by Main Street and east/west by Lincoln Avenue. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 29,383 people, 10,675 households, and 7,088 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,227.7 people per square mile (860.1/km²). There were 11,264 housing units at an average density of 854.0/sq mi (329.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 83.15% White, 1.53% Black or African American, 0.26% Native American, 1.10% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 12.00% from other races, and 1.94% from two or more races. 19.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 10,675 households out of which 32.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.8% were married couples living together, 10.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% were non-families. 27.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.14. In the city the population was spread out with 25.9% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $39,383, and the median income for a family was $46,877. Males had a median income of $32,159 versus $23,290 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,899. About 6.0% of families and 9.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over. There is a distinct economic/social divide between the north and south sides of the city, the north side being regarded as the area north of the Norfolk Southern Railway tracks. Many of the city's poor and disadvantaged live in this part of the city. South of Pike Street is considered the "old money" area of the city and many old houses and a brick street have been preserved. This area, including the business district and adjacent residential areas (from the railroad south to Purl Street and from the industrial canal east to Cottage Avenue) has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Goshen Historic District. http://www.nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com/IN/Elkhart/state.html Elkhart County courthouse in Goshen. Historic District The Goshen Historic district, added in 1983 to the National Registor of Historic Places National Register of Historical Places - INDIANA (IN), Elkhart County is bounded by Pike, RR, Cottage, Plymouth, Main, Purl, the Canal, and Second Sts. with the Elkhart County Courthouse at its center. Recreation Goshen has four parks and has a few different greenways and trails winding through the city. One of which runs along the old Mill Race and hydraulic canal which was once used to power an old hydroelectric power plant. Plans drawn up in 2005 call for the plant to be reopened and redevelopment to begin along the canal. Microsoft PowerPoint - Goshen River Race Redevelopment Project 91505B.ppt The Elkhart County Fairgrounds are also located in the city, where in late July, the Elkhart County Fair is held. It is the largest county fair in Indiana and the second largest in attendance in the United States. Welcome to the Official Site For Elkhart County, INDIANA The Goshen Air Show is also an annual event that takes place at the Goshen Municipal Airport. http://www.freedomfestgoshen.com In 2007, Downtown Goshen, Inc., a public-private partnership formed from the merger of Face of the City and the Downtown Action Team, started a First Fridays program. Occurring year round, First Fridays happens on the first Friday of each month with stores open until 9, music and other entertainment, and other events occurring within Goshen's downtown district. Fame Goshen is the subject of a documentary on immigration, Fuerza. It was made by students at Goshen College who are part of Soluz Films. Goshen is known for the invention of the sirk; which is a covering for shoes with a cloth inside and rubber outside. One simply puts their shoe inside and zips from toe-to-top to prevent shoes from getting wet. This can also be worn to cover a small portion of the bottom of the pants. The South side Wal-Mart is rumored to be the first Wal-Mart in the United States to provide a covered stable for its frequent Amish customers. In fact, it was the Amish that built the stable with lumber and other supplies donated by Wal-Mart. Raising the barn in Amish country | Discount Store News | Find Articles at BNET.com In 2005, Goshen based soccer club FC Indiana became the first North American women's team ever to win league and cup double by winning the Women's Premier Soccer League national championship and the US Open Cup national championship. In April 2006, Goshen was the site for an immigration march. Officials estimate that about 2000 to 3000 people marched from Linway Plaza to the County Courthouse. That is a remarkable number of people given that Goshen's total population is just under 30,000. http://www.goshen.edu/bulletin/Current_Issue/features/fuerza Famous Residents Film director Howard Hawks (May 30, 1896 - December 16, 1977) was born in Goshen, Indiana. The director of dozens of films, his 1941 film "Sergeant York" won him an Academy Award nomination for Best Director. Other notable films directed by Hawks include "Scarface" (1932); "Bringing Up Baby" (1938); "Only Angels Have Wings" (1939); "His Girl Friday" (1940); "To Have and To Have Not" (1944); "The Big Sleep" (1946); "Red River" (1948); "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" (1953); and "Rio Bravo" (1959). Soap box racer Justin Yoder was born and lives in Goshen, Indiana. He is in a wheelchair. Former Notre Dame and NFL quarterback Rick Mirer is a native of Goshen. He was the quarterback of the Goshen High School Redskins and his number, 12, is now retired there. During his years quarterbacking at Notre Dame, he was often referred to as "The Rifleman" and "The Goldenboy." During his time at ND and in the NFL, Mirer had many nicknames. Among these were "The Goshen Motion." His father, Ken, coached the Goshen High School football team to a class AA state title in 1978. Screenwriter James C. Strouse is a native of Goshen, Indiana. In 2005, his first film "Lonesome Jim" was filmed in Goshen, Indiana by actor Steve Buscemi. He is currently producing his second film, "Grace Is Gone" scheduled for release in 2007. Actor, comedian, and ADR artist Philip Proctor was born in Goshen in 1940. He's best known for his work with the comedy troupe Firesign Theatre. Infamy This double tornado hit the Midway Trailer Court northwest of Goshen on U.S. 33, Palm Sunday, 1965. On April 11, 1965, a super outbreak of tornadoes struck the Midwest. Although the most famous pair of tornadoes devastated Dunlap, Indiana, between Goshen and Elkhart; another F4 tornado occurred on Goshen's Southeast side, killing five people. Weather Events: 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part II: Sunday Evening In 1999, officer Thomas Goodwin became Goshen's first, and to date, only police officer killed in the line of duty, at a shooting in the northwest part of town. A large playground in municipal Shanklin Park was built and dedicated in his memory. On December 6, 2001, Goshen was featured on national and international news networks due to a shooting at the Nu-Wood factory. While initial reports said that 35 people had been shot, the actual facts were that the gunman, Robert Wissman, killed one co-worker (plant general manager Greg Oswald), wounded 6 others, and then took his own life. Goshen is the setting of the 2007 movie Elsewhere, which tells of unsolved crime and mass corruption in the area. See also Elkhart County, Indiana Elkhart, Indiana Michiana References External links Goshen city government website Goshen Chamber of Commerce Goshen on citydata.com - collection of statistics and graphs of Goshen demographics. | Goshen,_Indiana |@lemmatized goshen:43 city:20 locate:5 elkhart:18 county:15 indiana:13 united:5 state:7 small:2 two:2 principal:1 metropolitan:1 statistical:2 area:8 turn:1 part:5 south:9 bend:2 mishawaka:1 combine:1 seat:1 northern:1 region:1 know:4 michiana:2 mile:7 southeast:2 east:3 chicago:1 north:6 indianapolis:1 accord:2 estimate:2 population:6 best:3 place:6 live:5 detail:1 money:2 magazine:1 center:2 manufacture:1 recreational:1 vehicle:1 accessory:1 home:2 college:3 nationally:1 recognize:1 liberal:1 art:1 h:1 fair:4 second:4 large:4 purdue:1 alumni:1 club:2 geography:1 census:2 bureau:1 total:2 square:4 land:1 water:1 river:3 wind:2 way:1 dam:2 side:5 make:3 pond:1 rock:1 run:3 creek:1 also:5 town:2 divide:2 main:2 street:4 west:1 lincoln:1 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2,155 | Jack_Kirby | Jacob Kurtzberg (August 28, 1917 – February 6, 1994), Jack Kirby, Social Security Death Index details, FamilySearch better known by the pen name Jack Kirby, was an American comic book artist, writer and editor. Growing up poor in New York City, Kurtzberg entered the nascent comics industry in the 1930s. He drew various comic strips under different pseudonyms, ultimately settling on Jack Kirby. In 1941, Kirby and writer Joe Simon created the highly successful superhero character Captain America for Timely Comics. During the 1940s, Kirby would create a number of comics for various publishers, often teamed with Simon. After serving in World War II, Kirby returned to comics and worked in a variety of genres. He contributed to a number of publishers, including Archie Comics and DC Comics, but ultimately found himself at Timely's 1950s iteration, Atlas Comics. In the 1960s, Kirby co-created many of Marvel Comics' major characters including the Fantastic Four, the X-Men, and the Hulk along with writer-editor Stan Lee. Despite the high sales and critical acclaim of the Lee-Kirby titles, Kirby felt treated unfairly, and left the company in 1970 for rival DC Comics. While working for DC, Kirby created his Fourth World saga, which spanned several comics titles. While these and other titles proved commercially unsuccessful and were canceled, several of their characters and the Fourth World mythos have continued as a significant part of the DC Comics universe. Kirby returned to Marvel briefly in the mid- to late 1970s, then ventured into television animation and independent comics. In his later years, Kirby received great recognition for his career accomplishments, and is regarded by historians and fans as one of the major innovators and most influential creators in the comic-book medium. Biography Early life Kirby was born in August 1917 in New York City. His father was an Austrian Jewish immigrant who earned a living as a garment-factory worker. Growing up on Suffolk Street, Kirby was often involved in street fights with other kids, he later said that "fighting became second nature. I began to like it." Through his youth Kirby desired to escape his neighborhood. He liked to draw and sought out places he could learn more about art. Jones, Gerard. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book (Basic Books, 2004; trade paperback ISBN 0-465-03657-0), p. 195-96 Essentially self-taught, Evanier, Mark. Kirby: King of Comics. Abrams, 2008. ISBN 081099447X, p. 34 Kirby cited among his influences the comic strip artists Milton Caniff, Hal Foster, and Alex Raymond, as well as such editorial cartoonists as C. H. Sykes, "Ding" Darling, and Rollin Kirby. He was rejected by the Educational Alliance because he "[drew] too fast with charcoal", according to Kirby. He later found an outlet for his skills by drawing cartoons for the newspaper of the Boys Brotherhood Republic, a "miniature city" on East 3rd Street where street kids ran their own government. Jones, p. 196 Kirby enrolled at the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn, at what he said was age 14, leaving after a week. "I wasn't the kind of student that Pratt was looking for. They wanted people who would work on something forever. I didn't want to work on any project forever. I intended to get things done". Interview, The Comics Journal #134 (February 1990), reprinted in George, Milo, ed., The Comics Journal Library, Volume One: Jack Kirby (Fantagraphics Books, 2002) ISBN 1-56097-466-4, p. 22 Entry into comics Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941). Cover art by Kirby & Joe Simon. Per his own sometimes-unreliable memory, Kirby joined the Lincoln Newspaper Syndicate in 1936, working there on newspaper comic strips and on single-panel advice cartoons such as Your Health Comes First!!! (under the pseudonym "Jack Curtiss"). He remained until late 1939, then worked for the movie animation company Fleischer Studios as an "inbetweener" (an artist who fills in the action between major-movement frames) on Popeye cartoons. "I went from Lincoln to Fleischer," he recalled. "From Fleischer I had to get out in a hurry because I couldn't take that kind of thing," describing it as "a factory in a sense, like my father's factory. They were manufacturing pictures." Interview, The Comics Journal #134, reprinted in George, p. 24 Around that time, the American comic book industry was booming. Kirby began writing and drawing for the comic-book packager Eisner & Iger, one of a handful of firms creating comics on demand for publishers. Through that company, Kirby did what he remembers as his first comic book work, for Wild Boy Magazine. Interview, The Nostalgia Journal #30 (November 1976), reprinted in George, p. 3 This included such strips as the science fiction adventure The Diary of Dr. Hayward (under the pseudonym "Curt Davis"), the Western crimefighter strip Wilton of the West (as "Fred Sande"), the swashbuckler strip The Count of Monte Cristo (again as "Jack Curtiss"), and the humor strips Abdul Jones (as "Ted Grey)" and Socko the Seadog (as "Teddy"), all variously for Jumbo Comics and other Eisner-Iger clients. He ultimately settled on the pen name Jack Kirby because it reminded him of actor James Cagney. However, he took offense to those who suggested he changed his name in order to hide his Jewish heritage. Jones, p. 197 In the summer of 1940, Kirby and his family moved to Brooklyn. There, Kirby met Rosalind "Roz" Goldstein, who lived in his family's apartment building. The pair began dating soon afterward. Ro, p. 14 Kirby proposed to Goldstein on her eighteenth birthday, and the two became engaged. Ro, p. 16 Partnership with Joe Simon Kirby moved on to comic-book publisher and newspaper syndicator Fox Feature Syndicate, earning a then-reasonable $15 a week salary. He began exploring superhero narrative with the comic strip The Blue Beetle (January-March 1940), starring a character created by the pseudonymous Charles Nicholas, a house name that Kirby retained for the three-month-long strip. During this time, Kirby met and began collaborating with cartoonist and Fox editor Joe Simon, who in addition to his staff work continued to freelance. Simon recalled in 1988, "I loved Jack's work and the first time I saw it I couldn't believe what I was seeing. He asked if we could do some freelance work together. I was delighted and I took him over to my little office. We worked from the second issue of Blue Bolt..." "More Than Your Average Joe" (excerpts from Joe Simon's panels at 1998 Comi-Con International), Jack Kirby Collector #25 (August 1999) After leaving Fox and landing at pulp magazine publisher Martin Goodman's Timely Comics (the future Marvel Comics), created the patriotic superhero Captain America in late 1940. Simon cut a deal with Goodman that gave him and Kirby 15 percent of the profits from the strip as well as salaried positions as the company's editor and art director, respectively. The first issue of Captain America Comics, released in early 1941, sold out in days, and the second issue's print run was set at over a million copies. The title's success established the team as a notable creative force in the industry. Jones, p. 200 After the first issue was published, Simon asked Kirby to join the Timely staff as the company's art director. Ro, p. 21 Despite the success of the Captain America character, Simon felt that Goodman was not paying the pair the promised percentage of profits, and so sought work for the two of them at National Comics (later named DC Comics). Ro, p. 25 Kirby and Simon negotiated a deal that would pay them a combined $500 a week, as opposed to the $75 and $85 they respectively earned at Timely. Ro, p. 25-26 Fearing that Goodman would not pay them if he found out they were moving to National, the pair kept the deal a secret while they continued producing work for the company. Eventually the staff at Timely (most of whom were relatives of Goodman) found out, so Kirby and Simon left after they completed their work on Captain America Comics. Ro, p. 29 Kirby and Simon spent their first weeks at National trying to come up with characters while the company attempted to find out how to use the pair. Ro, p. 28 After a few failed editor-assigned ghosting assignments, National's Jack Liebowitz told them to just do what you want" since they were being paid anyway. The pair then revamped the Sandman strip in Adventure Comics and created the superhero Manhunter. Ro, p. 30 In July 1942 they began the Boy Commandos strip. The ongoing Boy Commandos series, launched later that same year, sold over a million copies a month, becoming National's third best-selling title. Ro, p. 32 Marriage and World War II Kirby married Roz Goldstein on May 23, 1942. Evanier, King of Comics, p. 57 The same year that he married, he changed his name legally from Jacob Kurtzberg to Jack Kirby. With World War II underway, Liebowitz expected that Simon and Kirby would be drafted, so he asked the artists to create an inventory of material to be published in their absence. The pair hired writers, inkers, letters, and colorists in order to create a year's worth of material. Kirby was drafted into the U.S. Army on June 7, 1943. Ro, p. 33 After basic training at Camp Stewart, near Atlanta, Georgia, he was assigned to Company F of the 11th Infantry. Evanier, p. 67 landed on Omaha Beach in Normandy on August 23, 1944, two-and-a-half months after D-Day, though Kirby's reminiscences would place his arrival just 10 days after. Kirby recalled that a lieutenant, learning that comics artist Kirby was in his command, made him a scout who would advance into towns and draw reconnaissance maps and pictures. Ro, p. 35 Kirby and his wife corresponded regularly by v-mail, with Roz sending "him a letter a day" while she worked in a lingerie shop and lived with her mother. Ro, p. 40 During the winter of 1944, Kirby suffered severe frostbite on his lower extremities and was taken to a hospital in London, England, for recovery. Doctors considered amputating Kirby's legs, but he eventually recovered from the frostbite. Ro, p. 40-41 He returned to the United States in January 1945, assigned to Camp Butner in North Carolina, where he spent the last six months of his service as part of the motor pool. Kirby was honorably discharged as a private first class on July 20, 1945, having received a combat infantry badge and a European/African/Middle Eastern Theater ribbon with a bronze battle star. Evanier, p. 69 Ro, p. 42 Postwar career Young Romance #1 (October 1947). Cover art by Kirby & Simon. After returning from the army, Kirby's first daughter, Susan, was born on December 6, 1945. Simon arranged for work for Kirby and himself at Harvey Comics. Ro, p. 45 There through the early 1950s, Simon and Kirby created such titles as the the kid-gang adventure Boy Explorers Comics, the kid-gang western Boys' Ranch, and the superhero comics Stuntman, and, in vogue with the fad for 3-D movies, Captain 3-D. The duo additionally freelanced for Hillman Periodicals (the crime fiction comic Real Clue Crime) and for Crestwood Publications (Justice Traps the Guilty). Kirby and Simon found success in the postwar period by creating romance comics. Simon, inspired by Macfadden Publications' romantic-confession magazine True Story, transplanted the idea to comic books and with Kirby created a first-issue mock-up of Young Romance. Simon, Joe, with Jim Simon. The Comic Book Makers (Crestwood/II, 1990) ISBN 1-887591-35-4; reissued (Vanguard Productions, 2003) ISBN 1-887591-35-4, pp. 123-125 Showing it to Crestwood general manager Maurice Rosenfeld, Simon asked for 50% of the comic's profits. Crestwood publishers Teddy Epstein and Mike Bleier agreed, stipulating that the creators would take no money up front Evanier, King of Comics. p. 72 Young Romance #1 (September/October 1947) "became Jack and Joe's biggest hit in years". Ro, p. 46 Indeed, the pioneering title sold a staggering 92% of its print run, inspiring Crestwood to increase the print run by the third issue to triple the initial number of copies. Howell, Richard, "Introduction" to Real Love - The Best of the Simon and Kirby Romance Comics 1940s-1950s (Eclipse Books, 1988) Initially published bimonthly, Young Romance quickly became a monthly title and produced the spin-off Young Love — together the two titles sold two million copies per month, according to Simon Simon, p. 125 — later joined by Young Brides and In Love, the latter "featuring full-length romance stories". Young Romance spawned dozens of imitators from publishers such as Timely, Fawcett, Quality, and Fox Features Syndicate. Despite the glut, the Simon & Kirby romance titles continued to sell millions of copies a month, which allowed Kirby to buy a house for his family in Mineola, Long Island. Kirby's second child, Neal, was born in May 1948. His third child, Barbara, was born in November 1952. In order to support his family, Kirby worked harder, assisted by the deal Simon arranged for the pair that gave them 50 percent of the profits for their work. Ro, p. 51-52 Bitter that Atlas Comics (formerly Timely) had relaunched Captain America in a new series, in 1954, Kirby and Simon created Fighting American; Simon recalled, "We thought we'd show them how to do Captain American". Ro, p. 52 While the comic book initially portrayed the protagonist as anti-Communist, in the aftermath of the Army-McCarthy hearings Simon and Kirby turned it into a satire. Ro, p. 54 After Simon Sky Masters by Kirby & Wally Wood. At the urging of a Crestwood/Prize salesman, Kirby and Simon launched their own comics company, Mainline Publications. Titles included Bullseye: Western Scout, Foxhole, In Love, and Police Trap. After the duo rearranged and republished artwork from an old Crestwood story in In Love, Crestwood refused to pay Simon and Kirby. Ro, p. 55 After reviewing Crestwood's finances, the pair's attorney's stated hat the company owed them $130,000 over the past seven years. Crestwood paid them $10,000 in addition to their recent delayed payments. However, the partnership between Kirby and Simon had become strained. Ro, p. 56 Simon left the industry for a career in advertising, while Kirby continued to freelance. He was instrumental in the creation of Archie Comics' The Fly and The Double Life of Private Strong, reuniting briefly with Joe Simon. He also drew some issues of Classics Illustrated. For DC Comics, then known as National Comics, Kirby co-created with writers Dick and Dave Wood the non-superpowered adventuring quartet the Challengers of the Unknown in Showcase #6 (February 1957), while also contributing to such anthologies as House of Mystery. During 30 months at DC, Kirby drew slightly more than 600 pages, which included 11 six-page Green Arrow stories in World's Finest Comics and Adventure Comics that, in a rarity, Kirby inked himself. Mark Evanier, Introduction, The Green Arrow by Jack Kirby (DC Comics, New York, 2001, ISBN 6194123064): "All were inked by Jack with the aid of his dear spouse, Rosalind. She would trace his pencil work with a static pen line; he would then take a brush, put in all the shadows and bold areas and, where necessary, heavy-up the lines she'd laid down. (Jack hated inking and only did it because he needed the money. After departing DC this time, he almost never inked his own work again.)" Kirby recast the archer as a science-fiction hero, moving him away from his Batman-formula roots, but in the process alienating Green Arrow co-creator Mort Weisinger. Ro, p. 61 He also began drawing a newspaper comic strip, Sky Masters of the Space Force, written by the Wood brothers and initially inked by the unrelated Wally Wood. Evanier, King of Comics, pp. 103-106 Kirby left National Comics due largely to a contractual dispute in which editor Jack Schiff, who had been involved in getting Kirby and the Wood brothers the Sky Masters contract, claimed he was due royalties from Kirby's share of the strip's profits. Schiff successfully sued Kirby. Evanier, King of Comics, p. 109 Some DC editors also had criticized him over art details, such as not drawing "the shoelaces on a cavalryman's boots" and showing a Native American "mounting his horse from the wrong side." Ro, p. 91 Marvel Comics in the Silver Age One of comics' most iconic covers: The Avengers #4 (March 1964). Art by Kirby & George Roussos. Kirby returned to work with Stan Lee on the cusp of the company's evolution from its 1950s incarnation as Atlas Comics (previously Timely Comics) to become Marvel. Inker Frank Giacoia approached Lee for work, but when informed that Atlas artists inked their own pencils, suggested he could "get Kirby back here to pencil some stuff." Ro, p. 60 Kirby was still working on DC's Challengers of the Unknown, but also searching for work from other publishers, with little success. Continuing with DC on such titles as House of Mystery and House of Secrets, Kirby drew occasional stories for Atlas, including the Lone Ranger-like Black Rider and the Fu Manchu stand-in Yellow Claw. Kirby's freelance work appeared in five issues cover-dated December 1956 and February 1957. They were Astonishing #56 (4 pp.), Strange Tales of the Unusual #7 (4 pp.), Quick-Trigger Western #16 (5 pp.), and Yellow Claw #2-3 (19 pp. each). Kirby began working at Atlas. Because of the poor page rates, Kirby had to spend 12 to 14 hours at his drawing table at home, producing eight to ten pages of artwork a day. Jones, p. 282 His first published work at Atlas was the cover of and the seven-page story "I Discovered the Secret of the Flying Saucers" in Strange Worlds #1 (December 1958). Initially with Christopher Rule as his regular inker, and later Dick Ayers, Kirby drew across all genres, from romance to war comics, crime stories to Westerns, but made his mark primarily with a series of supernatural-fantasy and science fiction stories featuring giant, drive-in movie-style monsters with names like Groot, the Thing from Planet X; Grottu, King of the Insects; and Fin Fang Foom for the company's many anthology series, such as Amazing Adventures, Strange Tales, Tales to Astonish, Tales of Suspense, and World of Fantasy. His bizarre designs of powerful, unearthly creatures proved a hit with readers. Then, with Marvel editor-in-chief Lee, Kirby began working on superhero comics again, beginning with The Fantastic Four #1 (November 1961). The landmark series became a hit that revolutionized the industry with its comparative naturalism and, eventually, a cosmic purview informed by Kirby's seemingly boundless imagination — one coincidentally well-matched with the consciousness-expanding youth culture of the 1960s. For almost a decade, Kirby provided Marvel's house style, co-creating with Stan Lee many of the Marvel characters and designing their visual motifs. At Lee's request, he often provided new-to-Marvel artists "breakdown" layouts, over which they would pencil in order to become acquainted with the Marvel look. As artist Gil Kane described, Highlights besides the Fantastic Four include Thor, the Hulk, Iron Man, the original X-Men, the Silver Surfer, Doctor Doom, Galactus, Uatu the Watcher, Magneto, Ego the Living Planet, the Inhumans and their hidden city of Attilan, and the Black Panther — comics' first known black superhero — and his African nation of Wakanda. Simon and Kirby's Captain America was also incorporated into Marvel's continuity with Kirby approving Lee's idea of partially remaking the character as a man out of his time and regretting the death of his sidekick. In 1968 and 1969, Joe Simon was involved in litigation with Marvel Comics over the ownership of Captain America, initiated by Marvel after Simon registered the copyright renewal for Captain America in his own name. According to Simon, Kirby agreed to support the company in the litigation and, as part of a deal Kirby made with publisher Martin Goodman, signed over to Marvel any rights he might have had to the character. Simon, p. 205 Kirby continued to expand the medium's boundaries, devising photo-collage covers and interiors, developing new drawing techniques such as the method for depicting energy fields now known as "Kirby Dots," and other experiments. Kracklin' Kirby: Tracing the advent of Kirby Krackle by Shane Foley, from Jack Kirby Collector #33 (November 2001) Yet he grew increasingly dissatisfied with working at Marvel. There have been a number of reasons given for this dissatisfaction, including resentment over Stan Lee's increasing media prominence, a lack of full creative control, anger over breaches of perceived promises by publisher Martin Goodman, and frustration over Marvel's failure to credit him specifically for his story plotting and for his character creations and co-creations. Evanier, King of Comics, p. 126-163 Groth, Gary. "Interview III: 'I've never done anything halfheartedly.'" The Comics Journal Library Volume 1: Jack Kirby (2002). p 19-49. ISBN 1560974346 (Originally published in The Comics Journal, 134 February 1990) He began to both script and draw some secondary features for Marvel, such as "The Inhumans" in Amazing Adventures and horror stories for the anthology title Chamber of Darkness, and received full credit for doing so; but he eventually left the company in 1970 for rival DC Comics, under editorial director Carmine Infantino. DC Comics and the Fourth World saga The New Gods #1 (March 1971) Cover art by Kirby & Don Heck. Kirby spent nearly two years negotiating a deal to move to DC Comics. Ro, p.139 Kirby returned to DC in late 1970, signing a three-year contract with an option for two additional years. Ro, p. 143 He produced a series of inter-linked titles under the blanket sobriquet "The Fourth World" including a trilogy of new titles, New Gods, Mister Miracle, and The Forever People, as well as the Superman title, Superman’s Pal Jimmy Olsen. Kirby picked the latter book because the series was without a stable creative team and he did not want to cost anyone a job. Evanier, Mark. "Afterword." Jack Kirby's Fourth World Omnibus; Volume 1, New York: DC Comics, 2007. The central villain of the Fourth World series, Darkseid, and some of the Fourth World concepts, appeared in Jimmy Olsen before the launch of the other Fourth World books, giving the new titles greater exposure to potential buyers. Kirby later produced other DC titles such as OMAC, Kamandi, The Demon, and, together with former partner Joe Simon for one last time, a new incarnation of the Sandman. Return to Marvel Kirby then returned to Marvel Comics where he both wrote and drew Captain America and created the series The Eternals, which featured a race of inscrutable alien giants, the Celestials, whose behind-the-scenes intervention influenced the evolution of life on Earth. Kirby’s other Marvel creations in this period include Devil Dinosaur, Machine Man, and an adaptation and expansion of the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey as well as an abortive attempt to do the same for the classic television series, The Prisoner. Hatfield, Charles Once Upon A Time: Kirby's Prisoner, The Jack Kirby Collector #11 He also wrote and drew The Black Panther and did numerous covers across the line. Film and animation Still dissatisfied with Marvel's treatment of him, and with the company's refusal to provide health and other employment benefits, Kirby left Marvel to work in animation. In that field, he did designs for Turbo Teen, Thundarr the Barbarian and other animated television series. He also worked on The Fantastic Four cartoon show, reuniting him with scriptwriter Stan Lee. He illustrated an adaptation of the Walt Disney movie The Black Hole for Walt Disney’s Treasury of Classic Tales syndicated comic strip in 1979-80. In 1979, Kirby drew concept art for film producer Barry Geller's script treatment adapting Roger Zelazny's science fiction novel, Lord of Light, for which Geller had purchased the rights. Geller, who additionally imagined using Kirby's set designs for a Colorado theme park to be called Science Fiction Land, announced his plans at a November press conference attended by Kirby, former NFL American football star and prospective cast-member Rosey Grier, and others. While the film did not come to fruition, Kirby's drawings were used for the C.I.A.'s "Canadian caper", in which some members of the U.S. embassy in Tehran, Iran, who had avoided capture in the Iran hostage crisis, were able to escape the country posing as members of a movie location-scouting crew. Joshuah Bearman. "How the CIA Used a Fake Sci-Fi Flick to Rescue Americans from Tehran", Wired issue 15.05, posted April 4, 2007. Final years and death Topps Comics' Bombast #1 (April 1993). Cover art by Kirby In the early 1980s, Pacific Comics, a new, non-newsstand comic book publisher, made a then-groundbreaking deal with Kirby to publish a creator-owned series Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers, Morrow, John "The Captain Victory Connection" (collected in The Collected Jack Kirby Collector Volume 1, TwoMorrows Publishing, ISBN 1893905004. page 105) followed by a second called Silver Star, which Image Comics has been working on collecting. One Fan's Opinion by Erik Larsen, Comic Book Resources, February 18, 2007 SDCC '07: Erik Larsen, Eric Stephenson on Image's Kirby Plans, Newsarama, July 29, 2007 The Current Image: Erik Larsen on Jack Kirby's Silver Star, Newsarama, May 2, 2007 This, together with similar actions by other independent comics publishers as Eclipse Comics where he co-created Destroyer Duck to help Steve Gerber fight in his case versus Marvel, Destroyer Duck at Don Markstein's Toonopedia helped establish a precedent to end the monopoly of the work for hire system, wherein comics creators, even freelancers, had owned no rights to characters they created. Kirby also retained ownership of characters used by Topps Comics beginning in 1993, for a set of series in what the company dubbed "The Kirbyverse". Evanier, p. 207 These titles were derived mainly from designs and concepts that Kirby had kept in his files, some intended initially for the by-then-defunct Pacific Comics, and then licensed to Topps for what would become the "Jack Kirby's Secret City Saga" mythos. Cooke, Jon B. "Twilight at Topps" (in The Jack Kirby Collector #21, collected in The Collected Jack Kirby Collector, TwoMorrows Publishing, 220 pages, 2006, ISBN 1893905578 ,pages 149-153) On February 6, 1994, Kirby died at age 76 of heart failure in his Thousand Oaks, California home and is buried at the Pierce Brothers Valley Oaks Memorial Park, Westlake Village, California. . Accessed February 21, 2009 Legacy The New York Times, in a Sunday op-ed piece written more than a decade after his death, said Kirby Michael Chabon, in his afterword to the Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, writes Kirby's daughter, Lisa Kirby, announced in early 2006 that she and co-writer Steve Robertson, with artist Mike Thibodeaux, plan to publish via the Marvel Comics Icon imprint, a six-issue limited series, Jack Kirby’s Galactic Bounty Hunters, featuring characters and concepts created by her father for Captain Victory. Lisa Kirby, Mike Thibodeaux, & Tom Brevoort on Galactic Bounty Hunters, Newsarama, September 29, 2006 The series has been reprinted in both hardcover and paperback. Marvel also posthumously published a "lost" Kirby/Lee Fantastic Four story. SDCC '06: Marvel to Publish "Lost" Lee/Kirby FF Issue, Newsarama, July 22, 2006 Several Kirby images are among those on the "Marvel Super Heroes" set of commemorative stamps issued by the U.S. Postal Service on July 27, 2007. "Postal Service Previews 2007 Commemorative Stamp Program" (Oct. 25, 2006 press release) Ten of the stamps are portraits of individual Marvel characters and the other 10 stamps depict individual Marvel Comic book covers. According to the credits printed on the back of the pane, Kirby's artwork is featured on: Captain America, The Thing, Silver Surfer, The Amazing Spider-Man #1, The Incredible Hulk #1, Captain America #100, The X-Men #1, and The Fantastic Four #3. The season three episode of Superman: The Animated Series "Apokolips...Now! Part II" was dedicated to Jack Kirby. Awards and honors Jack Kirby received a great deal of recognition over the course of his career, including the 1967 Alley Award for Best Pencil Artist. 1967 Alley Awards The following year he was runner-up behind Jim Steranko. His other Alley Awards were: 1963: Favorite Short Story - "The Human Torch Meets Captain America,", by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, Strange Tales #114 1963 Alley Awards 1964: 1964 Alley Awards Best Novel - "Captain America Joins the Avengers", by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, from The Avengers #4 Best New Strip or Book - "Captain America", by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, in Tales of Suspense 1965: Best Short Story - "The Origin of the Red Skull", by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, Tales of Suspense #66 1965 Alley Awards 1966: Best Professional Work, Regular Short Feature - "Tales of Asgard" by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, in The Mighty Thor 1966 Alley Awards 1967: Best Professional Work, Regular Short Feature - (tie) "Tales of Asgard" and "Tales of the Inhumans", both by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, in The Mighty Thor 1968: 1968 Alley Awards Best Professional Work, Best Regular Short Feature - "Tales of the Inhumans", by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby, in The Mighty Thor Best Professional Work, Hall of Fame - Fantastic Four, by Stan Lee & Jack Kirby; Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., by Jim Steranko Mark Hanerfeld, who counted the votes, first listed Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. as the winner. Later, he noticed that he had counted votes for a) "Fantastic Four by Jack Kirby", b) "Fantastic Four by Stan Lee", and c) "Fantastic Four by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby", separately. Had they been counted as one feature, these votes combined would have given the Fantastic Four the victory. Kirby won a Shazam Award for Special Achievement by an Individual in 1971 for his "Fourth World" series in Forever People, New Gods, Mister Miracle, and Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen. 1971 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards He was inducted into the Shazam Awards Hall of Fame in 1975. 1975 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards In 1987 he was an inaugural inductee into The Will Eisner Award Hall. Will Eisner Comic Industry Award: Summary of Winners 1993 saw him receive the Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award at that year's Eisner Awards. The Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award His work was honored posthumously in 1998. The collection of his New Gods material, Jack Kirby's New Gods by Jack Kirby, edited by Bob Kahan won both the Harvey Award for Best Domestic Reprint Project 1998 Harvey Award Nominees and Winners and the Eisner Award for Best Archival Collection/Project. 1998 Will Eisner Comic Industry Award Nominees The Jack Kirby Awards and Jack Kirby Hall of Fame were named in his honor. With Will Eisner, Robert Crumb, Harvey Kurtzman, Gary Panter and Chris Ware, Kirby was among the artists honored in the exhibition "Masters of American Comics" at the Jewish Museum in New York City, New York, from September 16, 2006 to January 28, 2007. The Jewish Museum - Special Exhibition - Masters of American Comics See you in the funny papers, The New York Times, October 13, 2006 Bibliography Notes References Evanier, Mark. Kirby: King of Comics. Abrams, 2008. ISBN 081099447X George, Milo, ed. The Comics Journal Library, Volume One: Jack Kirby. Fantagraphics Books, 2002. ISBN 1-56097-466-4 Jones, Gerard. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book. Basic Books, 2004. ISBN 0-465-03656-2 Ro, Ronin. Tales to Astonish: Jack Kirby, Stan Lee and the American Comic Book Revolution. Bloomsbury, 2004. ISBN 1-58234-345-4 External links The Jack Kirby Museum & Research Center POV Online: "Jack Kirby", by Mark Evanier (includes Jack Kirby FAQ) "Jack Kirby Heroes Thrive in Comic Books and Film", by Elvis Mitchell, The New York Times, August 27, 2003 "Roz Kirby Interview Excerpts", The Jack Kirby Collector #10, April 1966 Creations of Jack Kirby at the Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe The Monsters of Jack Kirby | Jack_Kirby |@lemmatized jacob:2 kurtzberg:3 august:5 february:8 jack:51 kirby:162 social:1 security:1 death:4 index:1 detail:2 familysearch:1 good:1 know:4 pen:3 name:9 american:10 comic:103 book:26 artist:11 writer:6 editor:8 grow:3 poor:2 new:22 york:9 city:6 enter:1 nascent:1 industry:7 draw:18 various:2 strip:16 different:1 pseudonym:3 ultimately:3 settle:2 joe:11 simon:42 create:20 highly:1 successful:1 superhero:7 character:14 captain:21 america:16 timely:9 would:13 number:4 publisher:12 often:3 team:3 serve:1 world:15 war:4 ii:5 return:8 work:38 variety:1 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2,156 | Hans_Baldung | Beheading of St Dorothea by Baldung, 1516 Hans Baldung, known as Hans Baldung Grien/Grün (c. 1480 - 1545) was a German Renaissance artist in painting and printmaking in woodcut. He was considered the most gifted student of Albrecht Dürer. Life The son of a lawyer, he was born Hans Baldung at Schwäbisch Gmünd in Swabia, Germany and moved to Strassburg in 1492. He was the only male member of his family not to attend university, a background unusual for an artist at the time. His uncle became a doctor to the Emperor. He spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg im Breisgau. Grien joined Dürer's Nuremberg workshop in 1503, likely following initial training in Strassburg, and stayed until 1507. He seems to have been left in charge of the workshop during Dürer's second trip to Italy. It is presumed that he acquired his nickname of "Grien" (meaning "green") in Nuremberg; the workshop seems to have had three Hanses in it at one point. He later included it in his monogram, and it has also been suggested that it came from "grienhals", a German word for witch. In his later trip to the Netherlands in 1521 Dürer's diary shows that he took with him and sold prints by Baldung. On Dürer's death Baldung was sent a lock of his hair, which suggests a close friendship. Three Ages of Woman and Death 1510 Oil on limewood,48 x 32,5 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna In 1509 Baldung purchased a citizenship of the city of Strassburg (then a German city, now in France), and lived there till 1513. He then moved to Freiburg im Breisgau after being contacted to paint a large altarpiece for the Freiburg Münster, which he finished in 1516 (still in situ). He returned to Strassburg in 1517, and died as a member of the town council in 1545. He had married Margarethe Herlin, from a prominent family in the city, and owned a number of properties. Work The earliest pictures assigned to him by some are altar-pieces with the monogram H. B. interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at Karlsruhe. "The Martyrdom of St Sebastian and the Epiphany" (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for the market-church of Halle in Saxony. Baldung's prints, though Düreresque, are very individual in style, and often in subject. They show little direct Italian influence. His paintings are less important than his prints. He worked mainly in woodcut, although he made six engravings, one very fine. He joined in the fashion for chiaroscuro woodcuts, adding a tone block to a woodcut of 1510. Most of his hundreds of woodcuts were commissioned for books, as was usual at the time; his "single-leaf" woodcuts (ie prints not for book illustration) are fewer than 100, though no two catalogues agree as to the exact number. He was extremely interested in witches and made many images of them in different media, including several very beautiful drawings finished with bodycolour, which are more erotic than his treatments in other techniques. Witch and Dragon. Drawing with bodycolour (b/w repro) Without absolute correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and baroque. Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines. (1911) His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. His Eve, the Serpent and Death (National Museum of Canada) shows his strengths well. We may pass lightly over the "Epiphany" of 1507, the "Crucifixion" of 1512, or the "Stoning of Stephen" of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force in the "Dance of Death" of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the Madonna of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grün's best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the Coronation of the Virgin, and the Twelve Apostles, the Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight into Egypt, and the Crucifixion, with portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin Schongauer bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V, as well as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden, as early as 1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at Karlsruhe. Like Dürer and Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove. References Bartrum,Giulia; German Renaissance Prints, 1490-1550; British Museum Press, 1995, ISBN 0-7141-2604-7 See also Early Renaissance painting Old master print External links Article: Sacred and Profane: Christian Imagery and Witchcraft in Prints by Hans Baldung Grien, by Stan Parchin Biography and examples of work at the "WebMuseum" by Nicolas Pioch Biography and examples of work at "Olga's gallery" Works Catholic Encyclopedia article Hans Baldung in the "A World History of Art" Several of Baldung's witches and erotic prints | Hans_Baldung |@lemmatized beheading:1 st:2 dorothea:1 baldung:11 han:6 know:2 grien:4 grün:4 c:1 german:4 renaissance:3 artist:2 painting:2 printmaking:1 woodcut:6 consider:1 gifted:1 student:1 albrecht:1 dürer:6 life:2 son:1 lawyer:1 bear:1 schwäbisch:1 gmünd:1 swabia:1 germany:1 move:2 strassburg:5 male:1 member:2 family:3 attend:1 university:1 background:1 unusual:1 time:2 uncle:1 become:2 doctor:1 emperor:2 spend:1 great:1 part:1 freiburg:4 im:2 breisgau:2 join:2 nuremberg:2 workshop:3 likely:1 follow:1 initial:1 training:1 stay:1 seem:2 leave:1 charge:1 second:1 trip:2 italy:1 presume:1 acquire:1 nickname:1 mean:1 green:2 three:2 one:3 point:1 later:1 include:2 monogram:2 also:2 suggest:2 come:1 grienhals:1 word:1 witch:4 late:2 netherlands:1 diary:1 show:4 take:1 sell:1 print:9 death:4 send:1 lock:1 hair:1 close:1 friendship:1 age:1 woman:1 oil:1 limewood:1 x:1 cm:1 kunsthistorisches:1 museum:6 vienna:2 purchase:1 citizenship:1 city:3 france:1 live:1 till:1 contact:1 paint:3 large:1 altarpiece:2 münster:1 finish:2 still:2 situ:1 return:1 die:1 town:1 council:1 marry:1 margarethe:1 herlin:1 prominent:1 number:2 property:1 work:7 early:4 picture:3 assign:1 altar:1 piece:1 h:1 b:2 interlace:1 date:1 monastery:1 chapel:1 lichtenthal:1 near:1 baden:4 another:1 portrait:4 maximilian:2 drawn:1 leaf:2 sketch:1 book:3 room:1 karlsruhe:2 martyrdom:1 sebastian:1 epiphany:2 berlin:2 fruit:1 labour:1 market:1 church:1 halle:1 saxony:1 though:3 düreresque:1 individual:1 style:1 often:2 subject:1 little:1 direct:1 italian:1 influence:1 less:1 important:1 mainly:2 although:1 make:2 six:1 engraving:1 fine:1 fashion:1 chiaroscuro:1 add:1 tone:1 block:1 hundred:1 commission:1 usual:1 single:1 ie:1 illustration:1 two:1 catalogue:1 agree:1 exact:1 extremely:1 interested:1 many:1 image:1 different:1 medium:1 several:2 beautiful:1 drawing:1 bodycolour:2 erotic:2 treatment:1 technique:1 dragon:1 draw:2 w:1 repro:1 without:1 absolute:1 correctness:1 draughtsman:1 conception:1 human:1 form:1 unpleasant:1 whilst:1 questionable:1 taste:1 ornament:1 equally:1 profuse:1 baroque:1 nothing:1 remarkable:1 pug:1 like:2 shape:2 face:1 unless:1 except:1 coarseness:1 extremity:1 trace:1 apparent:1 feeling:1 atmosphere:1 light:1 shade:1 commonly:1 call:1 correggio:1 north:1 composition:1 curious:1 medley:1 glare:1 heterogeneous:1 colour:1 pure:1 black:1 contrast:1 pale:1 yellow:1 dirty:1 grey:1 impure:1 red:1 glow:1 flesh:1 mere:1 glaze:1 feature:1 indicate:1 line:1 interesting:1 wild:1 fantastic:1 strength:1 display:1 eve:1 serpent:1 national:1 canada:1 strengths:1 well:3 may:1 pass:1 lightly:1 crucifixion:2 stoning:1 stephen:1 force:1 dance:1 basel:1 madonna:1 liechtenstein:1 gallery:4 best:1 effort:1 coronation:1 virgin:1 twelve:1 apostle:1 annunciation:1 visitation:1 nativity:1 flight:1 egypt:1 donor:1 execute:1 fanciful:1 power:1 martin:1 schongauer:1 bequeath:1 swabian:1 school:1 painter:1 likeness:1 charles:1 v:1 bust:1 margrave:2 philip:1 munich:1 tell:1 u:1 connect:1 reign:1 period:1 sitting:1 christopher:1 ottilia:1 wife:1 child:1 contain:1 grand:1 ducal:1 cranach:1 hearty:1 supporter:1 reformation:1 present:1 diet:1 augsburg:1 woodcuts:1 represent:1 luther:1 protection:1 holy:1 ghost:1 hover:1 dove:1 reference:1 bartrum:1 giulia:1 british:1 press:1 isbn:1 see:1 old:1 master:1 external:1 link:1 article:2 sacred:1 profane:1 christian:1 imagery:1 witchcraft:1 stan:1 parchin:1 biography:2 example:2 webmuseum:1 nicolas:1 pioch:1 olga:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 world:1 history:1 art:1 |@bigram han_baldung:5 albrecht_dürer:1 freiburg_im:2 im_breisgau:2 baden_baden:1 pale_yellow:1 twelve_apostle:1 martin_schongauer:1 grand_ducal:1 diet_augsburg:1 holy_ghost:1 external_link:1 olga_gallery:1 |
2,157 | Newton_(platform) | The Newton platform was an early personal digital assistant hardware/software platform developed by Apple Computer (now Apple Inc.). Development was started in 1989 and officially ended on February 27, 1998. Some electronic engineering and the manufacture of Apple's Newton devices was done in Japan by the Sharp Corporation. Most Newton devices were based on the ARM 610 RISC processor and all featured handwriting recognition software. Most Newton devices were developed and marketed by Apple (this includes the whole MessagePad line and the eMate 300), but other companies, notably Sharp, Motorola, and Digital Ocean, also released devices that ran the Newton OS. None was as successful as Apple's devices. Development The Newton project was a PDA platform. The PDA category did not exist for most of Newton's genesis, and the "personal digital assistant" term itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by Apple's then-CEO John Sculley http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/john-sculley-newton-origin.html , the driving force behind the project. Newton was intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing. For most of its design lifecycle Newton had a large-format screen, more internal memory, and an object-oriented graphics kernel. One of the original motivating use cases for the design was known as the "Architect Scenario", in which Newton's designers imagined a residential architect working quickly with a client to sketch, clean up, and interactively modify a simple two-dimensional home plan. For a portion of the Newton's development cycle (roughly the middle third), the project's intended programming language was Dylan though in fact the language and environment never matured enough for any applications to be successfully written. Dylan was a small, efficient object-oriented Lisp variant that still retains some interest. Although it was efficient (for its day, and considering its substantial run-time dynamism), Dylan never lived up to its developers' performance expectations and was a tough sell for a development team unaccustomed to Lisp programming. When the move was made to a smaller form factor (designed by Jonathan Ive), "Who Is Jonathan Ive?", BusinessWeek "cyber elite: Jonathan Ive", Time Dylan was relegated to experimental status in the "Bauhaus Project" and eventually canceled outright. Its replacement, NewtonScript, which had garbage collection, tight integration with the "soup" storage and user-interface toolkit, and was specifically designed to run in small RAM/large ROM environments. It was mostly developed by Walter Smith from 1992 to 1993. The project missed its original goals to reinvent personal computing, and then to rewrite contemporary application programming. The Newton project fell victim to project slippage, scope creep, and a growing fear that it would interfere with Macintosh sales. It was reinvented as a PDA platform which would be a complementary Macintosh peripheral instead of a stand-alone computer which might compete with the Macintosh. Product details Application software Most Newton devices were pre-loaded with a variety of software to aid in personal data organization and management. This included such applications as Notes, Names, and Dates, as well as a variety of productivity tools such as a calculator, conversion calculators (metric conversions, currency conversions, etc), time-zone maps, etc. In later/2.x versions of the Newton OS these applications were refined, and new ones were added, such as the Works word processor and the Newton Internet Enabler, as well as the inclusion of bundled 3rd party applications, such as the QuickFigure Works spreadsheet (a "lite" version of Pelicanware's QuickFigure Pro), Pocket Quicken, the NetHopper web browser, and the EnRoute email client. Various Newton applications had full import/export capabilities with popular desktop office suite and PIM (Personal Information Manager) application file formats, primarily by making use of Apple's bundled Newton Connection Utilities and also the Newton Connection Kit, which was sold separately and only worked for Newton devices that used the 1.x versions of the Newton OS. Notes The Notes application allowed users to create small documents that could contain text that had been typed, or that had been recognized from handwriting, as well as free-hand sketches, "Shapes", and "ink text". Photograph of screen displaying Checklist, some bullet points checked and/or "collapsed" In version 2.0 of the Newton OS, the Notes application (as well as Names) could accept what Apple termed "stationery", 3rd-party created plug-in modules that could extend the functionality of the basic applications. One of the new types of Notes stationery added to Newton OS 2.0 was a hierarchical, bullet-ed, collapsible, multi-line "Checklist", an implementation of outliner software. This could be used for organizing thoughts, priorities, "to do" lists, planning steps and sub-tasks, etc. Each bullet point could contain as many lines of text as desired. A bullet point could be dragged and placed underneath another bullet point, thus forming a hierarchical outline/tree. When a bullet point was dragged, the entire sub-tree of child bullet points underneath it (if any) would be dragged along as well. If a bullet point had child bullet points, tapping the hollow parent bullet point once would "roll up" or collapse all the children ("windowshade" effect). The parent bullet point would become a solid black circle and all the children would disappear. Tapping the parent bullet point again would make the children re-appear. Because this functionality arrived in Newton OS 2.0, several third parties made similar software before for OS 1.x Newton machines, the most notable of which was Dyno Notepad, released in 1993. Names The Names application was used for storing contacts. Contacts created either on the Newton device or on a Windows or Macintosh desktop PIM could be synchronized to each other. Apple Computer. "Newton Connection Utilities ReadMe", Apple, July 24, 1997 Apple Computer. "Newton Connection Utilities Features", Newton Source Entering a date in Names for fields such as birthday or anniversary automatically created corresponding repeating events in the Dates application. Each contact had an attached free-form notes field available to it, that could contain any mix of interleaved text, ink text, Shapes, or Sketches. Like Notes, Names could be extended by developers, to create special new categories of contacts with specialized pre-defined fields. Names shipped with 3 types of contacts, "people", "companies", and "groups", but a developer could define new types, for instance "client", "patient", etc. Alone Software, Inc. also created a Newton software package called the Stationery Construction Kit, which allowed users to make stationery themselves without aid of any other tools. Dates Dates supplied calendar, events, meeting, and alarms functions, including an integrated "to do" list manager. It offered many different display and navigation styles, including a list view, graphical day "time blocking" view, or a week, month, or year grid. As with Names and Notes, Dates items created either on the Newton or on a Windows or Macintosh desktop PIM could be synchronized to each other. Operating system and programming environment The Newton OS consists of three layers. At the lowest level, a microkernel handles resources like tasks and memory. On top of the microkernel, the bulk of the operating system is implemented in C++, including the communications layer, handwriting recognition, and the NewtonScript environment. The top layer consists of built-in and user installed applications written in NewtonScript. NewtonScript is an advanced object-oriented programming language, developed by Apple employee Walter Smith Walter Smith’s home page . Some programmers complained at the $1000 cost of the Toolbox programming environment (although later, it was made available free of charge). Additionally, it required learning a new way of programming. Despite this, many third party and shareware applications are available for Newton. The Newton Toolkit (NTK), an integrated environment tailored to the graphical nature of the Newton platform, was developed specifically for developing applications for the Newton platform and included a graphical view editor, a template browser, and an interactive inspector window for debugging. Initially, it was only available for Macintosh computers, and later a Microsoft Windows version was developed. The Technical Lead for the Newton Toolkit was Norberto Menendez; other engineers on the team were Ben Sharpe and Peter Potrebic. Data storage Data in Newton is stored in object-oriented databases known as soups. One of the innovative aspects of Newton is that soups are available to all programs; and programs can operate cross-soup; meaning that the calendar can refer to names in the address book; a note in the notepad can be converted to an appointment, and so forth; and the soups can be programmer-extended—a new address book enhancement can be built on the data from the existing address book. The soup system also made it easy to synchronize data, and the Newton Connection tools could be used for importing and exporting data. Among many file formats are the Rich Text Format, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Works, and many more. Another consequence of the data-object soup is that objects can extend built-in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that Newton users can sometimes not distinguish which program or add-on object is responsible for the various features on their own system, because the advanced nature of Newton devices makes it easy to accept such add-ons. A user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long-forgotten downloaded extension was missing. Data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves is tossed in the "Storage" area of the "Extras" drawer in 2.x Newton devices; on 1.x systems, they can only be found or removed in the Memory section of the built-in Prefs application, in the Card slip (also built-in), or with third-party tools such as NewtCase. There is no built-in distinction between types of data in that area. For example, an installed application's icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list. Finally, the data soup concept works well for data like addresses, which benefit from being shared cross-functionally, but it works poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents. Later, the 2.0 release of the Newton OS introduced Virtual Binary Objects to alleviate the problem of handling large data objects. Package installation, capacity planning, and disaster recovery Several software utilities which accommodate data transfer to and from a host system exist for the following platforms: Mac OS Mac OS X Amiga OS UNIX Linux Microsoft Windows See Apple Newton Software --> Backup for further details. Newton technology after cancellation Before the Newton project was canceled, it was "spun off" into an Apple wholly owned subsidiary company, Newton Inc., but was reabsorbed several months later when Steve Jobs ousted Apple CEO Gil Amelio and resumed control of Apple. Two ex-Apple Newton developers founded Pixo, the company that created the iPod's OS. Speculation continued for several years that Apple might release a new PDA with some Newton technology or collaborate with Palm. Feeding a bit of speculation, Apple put the "Print Recognizer" part of the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition system into Mac OS X version 10.2 (known as "Jaguar"). It can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen. This technology, known as "Inkwell", appears in the System Preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in. Whether Apple will ever extensively utilize such technology again in a handheld device remains to be seen. However, in the iPhone 2.0 software release, Apple has incorporated Chinese character recognition, when drawn with a finger. An Easter egg in Print Recognizer on the Newton (write "ROSETTA! ROSETTA! ROSETTA!", and the Newton will insert "ROSETTA! ROSETTA! Hey, that's me!" instead) was present in Inkwell in Mac OS 10.2 and 10.3, but seems to have been removed in 10.4. Larry Yaeger was the author of the original Rosetta recognizer on the Newton, and was also responsible for porting it to Mac OS X. http://wwnc.newtontalk.net/2004/program/larryyaeger/slides-larryyaeger.pdf The Rosetta name was later used for Apple's PowerPC emulation layer for Intel-based Macs. At an All Things Digital conference in 2004, Steve Jobs made reference to a new "Apple PDA" (likely kind of a successor to the Newton) which the company had developed but had decided not to bring to market. AppleInsider | Jobs: Apple developed, but did not ship Apple PDA Newton emulation Since 2004, the Einstein Project Kallisys | Newton | Einstein Project has been working on emulating the Newton for use as an alternate OS on other platforms. It is currently available for the Sharp Zaurus, Apple's Mac OS X, Nokia 770 and N800, Microsoft Windows and the PepperPad 3. The emulator is an open source project, but requires an original Newton ROM to be installed in order to function. Future A possible Newton revival has been a common source of speculation among the Macintosh user base; when patents for a tablet based Macintosh were applied for Appleinsider, Euro filing reveals Apple handheld design images, August 13, 2004 , rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new Tablet PC style Macintosh. Initial reports began to surface in December 2008, that Apple has been ordering netbook-class touchscreen panels. However, speculation about a new mobile computing product from Apple began to accelerate in April-May 2009. Media, insider, and analyst opinions rely heavily on recent patents relating to multitouch sensitivity for more complex computing devices, comments from Timothy D. Cook on an April 22 conference call, and Apple's 2009 acquisition of PA semi. Apple has been experimenting for years with large form tablet devices. Prior to these developments, there have been persistent rumors about a so-called "iTablet" or the release of a Macbook Touch. However, in an article posted by Tech Crunch in the final days of 2008 Large Form iPod Touch To Launch in Fall 09, December 30, 2008 , they stated that Apple is planning on releasing a large screen version of the iPod Touch with a screen 7 or 9 inches in size. They said a prototype of said device had been handled by one of their 3 independent sources and Apple is now talking to OEM's in Asia for the purpose of mass production. With the availability of the iTunes App Store which features over 35,000 applications, and the widespread acceptance and success of the iPhone user interface, it is widely believed that now is the time to market such a device, possibly based on the same interface and operating system currently utilized by the iPhone / iPod Touch. References External links Newton technical documents for programmers NewtonScript Programming: NewtonScript is the native programming language for all MessagePads The Newton Application Architecture Newton Tool Kit (NTK) Integrated Development Environment Manual A quick introduction to programming in NewtonScript using NTK The NewtonScript Programming Language (Apple Manual). Newton Programmer's Guide, OS 2.0 Newton Programmer's Guide, OS 2.1 Addendum Newton Programmer's Reference, OS 2.0 Newton OS 2.1 Engineering Documents Explanation of NewtonScript Prototyping Newton User Interface Specification Guide | Newton_(platform) |@lemmatized newton:68 platform:8 early:1 personal:6 digital:4 assistant:2 hardware:1 software:11 develop:9 apple:34 computer:5 inc:3 development:7 start:1 officially:1 end:1 february:1 electronic:1 engineering:2 manufacture:1 device:16 japan:1 sharp:3 corporation:1 base:5 arm:1 risc:1 processor:2 feature:4 handwrite:4 recognition:4 market:3 include:6 whole:1 messagepad:1 line:3 emate:1 company:5 notably:1 motorola:1 ocean:1 also:6 release:7 run:3 none:1 successful:1 project:11 pda:6 category:2 exist:3 genesis:1 term:2 coin:1 relatively:1 late:2 cycle:2 ceo:2 john:2 sculley:2 http:2 lowendmac:1 com:1 orchard:1 origin:1 html:1 driving:1 force:1 behind:1 intend:2 complete:1 reinvention:1 computing:3 design:5 lifecycle:1 large:6 format:4 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2,158 | Barrister | A barrister is a lawyer found in many common law jurisdictions that employ a split profession (as opposed to a fused profession) in relation to legal representation. In split professions, the other types of lawyers are mainly solicitors. Solicitors have more direct contact with the clients, whereas barristers often only become involved in a case once advocacy before a court is needed by the client. Barristers are also engaged by solicitors to provide specialist advice on points of law. Barristers are rarely instructed by clients directly (although this occurs frequently in tax matters). Instead, the client's solicitors will instruct a barrister on behalf of the client when appropriate. The historical difference between the two professions—and the only essential difference in England and Wales today—is that a solicitor is an attorney, which means they can act in the place of their client for legal purposes (as in signing contracts), and may conduct litigation by making applications to the court, writing letters in litigation to the client's opponent and so on. A barrister is not an attorney and is usually forbidden, either by law or professional rules or both, from "conducting" litigation. This means that while the barrister speaks on the client's behalf in court, the barrister does so when instructed by a solicitor. This difference in function explains many of the practical differences between the two professions. Many countries such as the United States do not observe a distinction between barristers and solicitors. Attorneys are permitted to conduct all aspects of litigation and appear before those courts where they have been admitted to the bar. Practical differences between barristers and solicitors An artist's rendition of an early 20th century English barrister The practical difference between the two professions is twofold: The barrister will usually be the lawyer who represents litigants as their advocate before the courts of that jurisdiction. A barrister will usually have rights of audience in the higher courts, whereas other legal professionals will have more limited access, or will need to take additional qualifications to do so. In this regard, the profession of barrister corresponds to that part of the role of legal professionals found in civil law jurisdictions relating to appearing in trials or pleading cases before the courts.Barristers used to have a major role in trial preparation, including drafting pleadings and reviewing evidence. In some areas of law, that is still the case. In others, it is relatively common for a barrister to only receive a "brief" from an instructing solicitor to represent a client at trial a day or two before the hearing. Part of this is cost. Barristers are entitled to a "brief fee" when a brief is delivered, and this represents the bulk of their fee in relation to any trial. They are then usually entitled to a "refresher" for each day of the trial after the first. As many trials settle in the last few days before the hearing, many solicitors seek to save costs by delaying delivery of the brief until the last possible moment. Barristers often have a more specialised knowledge of case-law and precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with an unusual point of law, they sometimes seek the "opinion of counsel" on the issue. In insurance contracts there is often the requirement to seek the expert opinion of counsel where the policy contains what is known as "a QC clause". However, in many countries, the traditional divisions are breaking down. Barristers used to enjoy a monopoly on appearances before the higher courts, but in most countries this has now been abolished, and solicitor advocates can generally appear for clients at trial. Increasingly, firms of solicitors are keeping even the most advanced advisory and litigation work in-house for economic and client relationship reasons. Similarly, the prohibition on barristers taking instructions directly from the public has also been widely abolished, but in practice, direct instruction is still a rarity in most jurisdictions, partly because barristers with narrow specialisations or who are only really trained for advocacy are not equipped to provide general advice to members of the public. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships (although in England and Wales the Clementi report has recommended the abolition of this restriction). However, barristers normally band together into "chambers" to share clerks (administrators) and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a distinctly corporate feel. Some barristers, on the other hand, are employed by firms of solicitors, banks or corporations as in-house legal advisers. In court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England and Wales, barristers usually wear a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands and a gown. As of January 2008 Solicitor advocates will also be entitled to wear a wig, but will wear a different gown. Practice Direction Common law division In the common tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer—that is as legal adviser and advocate—were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions, the other being the office of solicitor. An often-used (but not entirely accurate) parallel is the medical profession, in that a solicitor, like a general practitioner is the regular point of contact for a client, who will only be referred to a barrister (or, to continue the metaphor, a consultant) for specialist advisory or advocacy services. There is no difference in the level of complexity in the practice of law by the different branches of the profession, though barristers tend to be instructed in complex litigation and in certain other specialist fields. Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern legal age, some countries which had a split legal profession are now characterised by having a fused profession; all persons entitled to practice as a barrister are also entitled to practice as a solicitor, and vice versa. In practice, the distinction may be non-existent, minor, or marked, depending on the jurisdiction. And in others, Scotland and Ireland for example, there is little overlap. Where the profession is split, it is the solicitor who works directly with the client, and who is responsible for engaging a qualified and experienced barrister appropriate to the budget of the client and the nature of his or her case. Conventionally, barristers (also known as "Counsel") will have little or no direct contact with their "lay clients", particularly without the presence or involvement of the solicitor or "professional client" that has engaged them. All correspondence, enquiries, invoices, etc. will be addressed to the solicitor, who is primarily responsible for the barristers' fees. Barristers, unlike solicitors, have full rights of audience, allowing them to appear before any court in the jurisdiction. Generally, solicitors only have rights of audience before the lower courts. However, some solicitors in England and Wales and Scotland are certified as solicitor advocates and, as such, are qualified to represent clients as an advocate in the higher courts in England and Wales or in Scotland. Justifications The reasons for a split profession are largely historical, however a number of reasons are still advanced for maintaining split professions: Having an independent barrister reviewing a cause of action gives the client a fresh and independent opinion from an expert in the field, something that rarely happens in jurisdictions with fused professions. Having recourse to all of the specialist barristers at the bar enables smaller firms, who could not maintain large specialist departments, to compete with larger firms. A barrister acts as a check on the solicitor conducting the trial; if it becomes apparent that the claim or defence has not been properly conducted by the solicitor prior to trial, the barrister can (and usually has a duty to) advise the client of a separate possible claim against the solicitor. Having trials conducted by experienced specialist advocates makes for smoother, more professionally run trials. Against that, a number of disadvantages are put forward: A multiplicity of legal advisors leads to higher costs (something that caused no small amount of concern to Sir David Clementi in his review of the English legal profession). As barristers are dependent upon solicitors for referrals of work, it is open to question how willing barristers are to criticise those who instruct them to the client. Barristers are sometimes criticised for being "over-specialised" and not having sufficient general expertise outside of their fields in some highly specialised fields. Regulation Barristers are regulated by the Bar for the jurisdiction in which they practise, and in some countries, by the Inn of Court to which they belong. In some countries, there is external regulation, although where this exists it is frequently criticised as inimical to the independence of the profession as defender of the citizen against the state. Inns of Court, where they exist, regulate admission to the profession. Inns of Court are independent societies that are titularly responsible for the training, admission (calling) and discipline of barristers. Where they exist, a person may only be called to the Bar by an Inn, of which she or he must first become a member. In fact, historically, call to and success at the Bar to some extent depended upon the social connections made during one's early life. A Bar collectively describes all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction. While as a minimum the Bar is an association embracing all its members, it is usually the case, either de facto or de jure, that the Bar will be invested with regulatory powers in relation into the manner in which barristers conduct practice. Barristers in England and Wales Gray's Inn, London Although England and Wales are separate in some aspects of the political structure of the United Kingdom, they compose a single legal jurisdiction. Accordingly, they are served by a single bar. The profession of barrister in England and Wales is a separate profession from that of solicitor. It is, however, possible to hold the qualification of both barrister and solicitor at the same time. It is not necessary to be disbarred in order to qualify as a solicitor. Barristers are regulated by the Bar Standards Board, a division of the General Council of the Bar. A barrister must be a member of one of the Inns of Court, which traditionally educated and regulated barristers. There are four Inns of Court: The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, and The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple. All are situated in central London, near the Royal Courts of Justice. They perform scholastic and social roles, and in all cases, provide financial aid to student barristers (subject to merit) through scholarships. It is the Inns that actually "call" the student to the Bar at a ceremony similar to a graduation. Social functions include dining with other members and guests and hosting other events. Student barristers must take a Bar Vocational Course (BVC) (usually one year full-time) at one of the institutions authorised by the Bar Council to offer the BVC. On successful completion of the BVC student barristers are "called" to the bar by their respective inns and are elevated to the degree of "Barrister". However, before they can practise independently they must first undertake twelve months of pupillage. The first six months of this period is spent shadowing more senior practitioners, after which pupil barristers may begin to undertake some court work of their own. Following successful completion of this stage, most barristers then join a set of Chambers, a group of counsel who share the costs of premises and support staff whilst remaining individually self-employed. In December 2004 there were just over 11,500 barristers in independent practice, of whom about ten percent are Queen's Counsel and the remainder are junior barristers. Many barristers (about 2,800) are employed in companies as 'in-house' counsel, or by local or national government or in academic institutions. Direct Public Access to Barristers Certain barristers in England and Wales are now instructed directly by members of the public. Public Access Directory of The Bar Council Members of the public may engage the services of the barrister directly through the barrister's clerk; a solicitor is not involved at any stage. Barristers undertaking public access work can provide legal advice and representation in court in almost all areas of law (see the Public Access Information on the Bar Council website) and are entitled to represent clients in any court or tribunal in England and Wales. Once instructions from a client are accepted, it is the barrister (rather than the solicitor) who advises and guides the client through the relevant legal procedure or litigation. Before a barrister can undertake Public Access work, he must have completed a special course. At present, about 1 in 20 barristers have so qualified. There is also a separate scheme called 'Licensed Access', available to certain nominated classes of professional client; it is not open to the general public. The ability of barristers to accept such instructions is a recent development; it results from a change in the rules set down by the General Council of the Bar in July 2004. The Public Access Scheme has been introduced as part of the drive to open up the legal system to the public and to make it easier and cheaper to obtain access to legal advice. It further reduces the distinction between solicitors and barristers. The distinction remains however because there are certain aspects of a solicitor's role that a barrister is not able to undertake. Barristers in Northern Ireland In April 2003 there were 554 barristers in independent practice in Northern Ireland. 66 were Queen's Counsel (QCs), barristers who have earned a high reputation and are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor as senior advocates and advisers. Those barristers who are not QCs are called Junior Counsel and are styled "BL" or "Barrister-at-Law". The term "junior" is often misleading since many members of the Junior Bar are experienced barristers with considerable expertise. Benchers are, and have been for centuries, the governing bodies of the four Inns of Court in London and King's Inns, Dublin. The Benchers of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland governed the Inn until the enactment of the Constitution of the Inn in 1983, which provides that the government of the Inn is shared between the Benchers, the Executive Council of the Inn and members of the Inn assembled in General Meeting. The Executive Council (through its Education Committee) is responsible for considering Memorials submitted by applicants for admission as students of the Inn and by Bar students of the Inn for admission to the degree of Barrister-at-Law and making recommendations to the Benchers. The final decisions on these Memorials are taken by the Benchers. The Benchers also have the exclusive power of expelling or suspending a Bar student and of disbarring a barrister or suspending a barrister from practice. The Executive Council is also involved with: education; fees of students; calling counsel to the Bar, although call to the Bar is performed by the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland on the invitation of the Benchers; administration of the Bar Library (to which all practising members of the Bar belong); and liaising with corresponding bodies in other countries. The Bar Council is responsible for the maintenance of the standards, honour and independence of the Bar and, through its Professional Conduct Committee, receives and investigates complaints against members of the Bar in their professional capacity. Advocates in Scotland and the Channel Islands In Scotland an advocate is, in all respects except name, a barrister, but there are significant differences in professional practice. In Scotland, admission to and the conduct of the profession is regulated by Faculty of Advocates (as opposed to an Inn). In the Bailiwick of Jersey, there are solicitors (called Ecrivains) and Advocates. Both in the Bailiwick of Jersey and in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, Advocates of the Royal Court perform the functions of both solicitors and barristers. Barristers and solicitors in Canada In Canada (except Quebec), the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, and many lawyers refer to themselves with both names, even if they do not practice in both areas. In colloquial parlance within the Canadian legal profession, lawyers often term themselves as "litigators" (or "barristers"), or as "solicitors", depending on the nature of their law practice though some may in effect practice as both litigators and solicitors. However, "litigators" would generally perform all litigation functions traditionally performed by barristers and solicitors; in contrast, those terming themselves "solicitors" would generally limit themselves to legal work not involving practice before the courts (not even in a preparatory manner as performed by solicitors in England), though some might practise before chambers judges. The situation is somewhat different in Quebec as a result of its civil law tradition. The profession of solicitor, or avoué, never took hold in colonial Quebec, so attorneys Here the term attorney may be preferable as an avocat is very much like an American attorney in that he/she may be both a trial and case lawyer. (avocats) have traditionally been a fused profession, arguing and preparing cases, whereas the other type of lawyer, civil-law notaries (notaires), fill most of a solicitor's roles - except those related to advocacy. However, a number of areas of non-contentious private law are not monopolized by civil-law notaries, so that attorneys often specialise as either trial attorneys, i.e., barristers, or case attorneys, i.e., solicitors. The only exception is that attorneys cannot draw up notarial acts. Most large law firms in Quebec are firms of attorneys who perform the full range of legal services of law firms in common-law provinces. Barristers in Ireland In the Republic of Ireland, entry to the bar is given to those on whom a Barrister-at-Law (abbreviated to "B.L.") degree has been conferred. The conferral of such degrees is exclusively by The Honorable Society of King’s Inns. Senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar, when they may describe themselves as Senior Counsel ("S.C."). Admission to the Inner Bar is made by declaration before the Supreme Court, patents of precedence having been granted by the Government. The profession is governed by the Bar Council. There is a single Inn that has retained (or at least has not delegated) its educational responsibilities: The Honorable Society of King’s Inns, (note: the historical spelling variant Honorable not the contemporary Honourable) located near to the Four Courts, the premises of the High Court and Supreme Court (as well as the Dublin Circuit Court). Unlike barristers in England and Wales, Irish barristers are sole practitioners and may not form chambers or partnerships. In order to practice, a newly qualified barrister is apprenticed to a more senior barrister of at least 7 years' experience. This apprenticeship is known as pupillage or devilling. Devilling is compulsory and lasts for one legal year. It is common to devil for a second year in a less formal arrangement but this is not compulsory. Barristers and solicitors in Australia In the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland there is a split profession. Each state Bar Association has the functions of Inns of Court. Counsel dress in the traditional English manner (wig, gown and jabot) before higher courts, although are no longer robed for appearances in lower jurisdictions. In Victoria, Western Australia, the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia, the professions of barristers and solicitors are fused, but nonetheless an independent bar is in existence, regulated by those States' Legal Practice Boards. A similar arrangement exists in New Zealand. In Tasmania (Australia) the profession is fused although a very small number of practitioners operate as an independent bar. Senior barristers appointed as "silks" are now referred to as "Senior Counsel" and append the letters S.C. to their names. "Queen's Counsel" are no longer appointed, except by the Federal Government and in the Northern Territory; however those who were appointed as Q.C. have the choice of either becoming S.C. or retaining the older title. (Since only people appointed before the system changed can be a QC the name retains a certain cachet, so most of the remaining QCs have been happy to keep it.) Barristers in Hong Kong The legal profession in Hong Kong is also divided into two branches: barristers (where the Cantonese name daai lut si, 大律師 is also used) and solicitors (where the Cantonese name lut si, 律師 is also used). In Hong Kong, the rank of Queen's Counsel was granted prior to the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997. After the handover to China, the rank has been replaced by Senior Counsel (postnominal SC). Senior Counsel may still, however, style themselves as silks, like their British counterparts. Barristers in South Korea The legal profession in South Korea is also divided into two branches: barristers and solicitors. Lawyer means barrister. Judicial scrivener{司法書士} renamed to 법무사. Barristers in Japan The legal profession in Japan is also divided into two branches: barristers and solicitors. Lawyer means barrister. Japanese solicitor is Judicial scrivener(司法書士). Barristers in other jurisdictions The United States does not draw a distinction between barristers and solicitors; all lawyers (who have passed a bar examination and have been admitted to practice) may argue in the courts of the state in which they are admitted. However, some state appellate courts require attorneys to obtain a separate certificate of admission to plead and practice in the appellate court. Federal courts require specific admission to that court's bar in order to practice before it. At the State appellate level and in Federal courts, there is generally no separate examination process, although some U.S. district courts require an examination on practices and procedures in their specific courts. Unless an examination is required, admission is usually granted as a matter of course to any licensed attorney in the state where the court is located. Some federal courts will grant admission to any attorney licensed in any U.S. jurisdiction. Spain has a division which generally corresponds to the division in Britain between barristers/advocates and solicitors. Procuradores represent the interests of a litigant in court, while abogados is the general term for other lawyers. Procuradores are regulated by Royal Decree 2046 of 1982, which approved the General Statute of the Procuradores, and the Organic Law no.6 of 1985. The General Statute regulates the qualifications and conduct of the procuradores. Thus, obligations to act pro bono are laid down by Article 13. In Germany, lawyers may only plead at the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof) if they are admitted to that court. § 78 of the Zivilprozessordnung. Fewer than 50 lawyers are admitted to the Bundesgerichtshof; As of 25 September 2007. See the list of lawyers admitted to the Bundesgerichtshof: those lawyers may not plead at other courts, do in practice deal with litigation only, and are usually instructed by a lawyer who represented the client at lower courts. However, those restrictions do not apply to criminal cases, and not to pleadings at courts of the other court systems (neither to the labour, administrative, taxation, and social courts, nor to the EU court system). In Nigeria, there is no formal distinction between barristers and solicitors. All lawyers who pass the bar examination and are called to the Nigerian bar by the Body of Benchers of the Nigerian Bar may argue in any Federal trial or appellate court as well as any of the courts in Nigeria's 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory. The Legal Practitioner's Act refers to Nigerian lawyers as Legal Practitioners, and following their call to the bar, Nigerian lawyers are required to enrol or enter their names in the register or Roll of Legal Practitioners kept at the Supreme Court. Perhaps for this reason, a Nigerian lawyer is also often referred to as a Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria, and many Nigerian lawyers term themselves Barrister-at-Law complete with the postnominal initials "B.L.". The vast majority of Nigerian lawyers combine contentious and non-contentious work, although there is a growing tendency for practitioners in the bigger practices to specialise in one or the other. In colloquial parlance within the Nigerian legal profession, lawyers may for this reason be referred to as "litigators" or as "solicitors". Consistent with the practice in England and elsewhere in the Commonwealth, senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar by conferment of the rank of Senior Advocate of Nigeria (SAN). In France, attorneys (avocats) are very much like their Quebec counterparts and are not separated out, except, traditionally, at court. However, legal reforms have left the only true solicitors, known as avoué, operating and mandatory at all courts of appeal. Attorneys may specialize as trial attorneys and legal advisors, known respectively as avocat plaidant and avocat consultant. All attorneys must pass the bar examination to be admitted to general practice, but in order to have right of audience at a given court, an attorney must join that court's bar. In South Africa the employment and practice of barristers (known as Advocates) is consistent with the Commonwealth. Advocates carry the rank of Junior and Senior Counsel (SC), and are mostly briefed and paid by solicitors. They are usually employed in the higher courts, particularly the Appeal Courts where they often appear as specialist counsel. South African solicitors follow a practice of referring cases to Counsel for an opinion before proceeding with a case, when Counsel in question practices as a specialist in the case law at stake. Aspirant Advocates currently spend 8 months in pupillage (formerly only three months) before being admitted to the bar in their respective provincial or judicial jurisdictions. The term 'Advocate' is sometimes used in South Africa as a title, e. g. 'Advocate John Doe, SC' ('Advokaat' in Afrikaans) in the same fashion as 'Dr. John Doe' for a medical doctor. Barristers in fiction There have been a number of famous portrayals of barristers in fiction: Sydney Carton in the novel A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. The character of "Archie Leach", played by John Cleese in A Fish Called Wanda. Rumpole of the Bailey, written by real-life barrister, John Mortimer QC. Kavanagh QC, played by John Thaw. Lewis Eliot in the "Strangers and Brothers" sequence by C. P. Snow. Several of the characters in the Hilary Tamar mysteries written by real-life barrister Sarah Caudwell. The character of "Mark Darcy", in Bridget Jones's Diary. Verily Cooper in Orson Scott Card's fantasy series "The Tales of Alvin Maker" Cedric Munroe played by Lennie James in Outlaw. "Sir Wilfrid Robarts", played by Charles Laughton in the Billy Wilder film of the Agatha Christie novel Witness for the Prosecution. Sergeant-at-Law in The Canterbury Tales written by Geoffrey Chaucer. Everard Logan played by Sir Laurence Olivier in The Divorce of Lady X. Sir Robert Morton played by Jeremy Northam in The Winslow Boy film 1999 See also Advocate Bar association Junior barrister Queen's Counsel Senior Counsel Solicitor Solicitor Advocate Serjeant-at-law External links Australia Australian Bar Association (barristers in the Commonwealth of Australia) Bar Association of New South Wales (Australia) Victorian Bar Association (Australia) Queensland Bar Association (Australia) South Australian Bar Association (Australia) Western Australian Bar Association (Australia) UK and Ireland The Inner Temple Bar Council (barristers in England and Wales) Bar Library of Northern Ireland Faculty of Advocates in Scotland Irish Bar Council (barristers in the Republic of Ireland) Other countries Hong Kong Bar Association (barristers in Hong Kong) Law Society of Hong Kong (solicitors in Hong Kong) Canadian Bar Association Footnotes | Barrister |@lemmatized barrister:119 lawyer:24 find:2 many:10 common:6 law:27 jurisdiction:14 employ:5 split:8 profession:37 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2,159 | Hamster | Hamsters are rodents belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae. The subfamily contains about 24 species, classified in six or seven genera. Fox, Sue. 2006. Hamsters. T.F.H. Publications Inc. The name hamster is derived from the German verb hamstern, which means "to hoard" because hamsters have expandable cheek pouches lined with fur to store their food. The word hamstern itself comes from earlier OHG hamustro, from ORuss choměstorǔ, which is either a blend of the root of Russ khomiak "hamster" and a Baltic word (cf. Lith staras "hamster") Doublas Harper, The Online Etymology Dictionary, s.v. "hamster" (2001) <http://www.etymonline.com>. or of Iranian origin (cf. Av hamaēstar "oppressor") Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, s.v. "hamster" (May 29, 2008) <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hamster>. . Although the Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) was first described scientifically in 1839, it was not until 1930 that researchers were able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters. Barrie, Anmarie. 1995. Hamsters as a New Pet. T.F.H. Publications Inc., NJ. Zoologist Israeli Aharoni first found and captured hamsters in Syria that to this day all pet hamsters in the world are descended from. Fritzsche, Peter. 2008. Hamsters: A Complete Pet Owner’s Manual. Barron’s Educational Series Inc., NY. Hamster behaviour can vary depending on their environment, genetics, and interaction with people. Because they are easy to breed in captivity, hamsters are often used as lab animals in more economically developed countries. Hamsters have also become established as popular small pets. Hamsters are crepuscular. In the wild, they burrow underground in the daylight to avoid being caught by predators. Their diet contains a variety of foods, including dried food, berries, nuts, fresh fruits and vegetables. In the wild they will eat any wheat, nuts and small bits of fruit and vegetables that they might find lying around on the ground, and will occasionally eat small insects such as small crickets or mealworms. They have elongated fur-lined pouches on both sides of their heads which extend to their shoulders, which they stuff full of food to be brought back to the colony or to be eaten later. Characteristics Hamsters are stout-bodied, with tails much shorter than body length, and have small furry ears, short stocky legs, and wide feet. Their thick, silky fur, which can be long or short, can be black, grey, white, brown, buff, yellow, "sapphire", "champagne" or red depending on the species, or a mix of any of those colors. Two species of hamsters belonging to the genus Phodopus (Phodopus campbelli, Campbell's Dwarf Hamster, and Phodopus sungorus, the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster) and also two of the species of the genus Cricetulus, (Cricetulus barabensis, the Chinese Striped Hamster, and Cricetulus griseus, the Chinese Dwarf Hamster) have a dark stripe down the head to tail. The species of genus Phodopus are the smallest, with bodies 5.5 to 10.5 cm (about 2 to 4 inches) long; the largest is the common hamster (Cricetus cricetus), measuring up to 34 cm (about 13.5 inches) long, not including a short tail of up to 6 cm (2-1/4 inches). The Angora hamster, also known as the long-haired or Teddy Bear hamster, which is a type of the Syrian Hamster is the second largest hamster breed, measuring up to 18 cm (about 7 inches) long. Hamsters have poor eyesight; they are nearsighted and colorblind. However, they have an acute sense of smell and are able to hear extremely well. Hamsters can use their sense of smell to detect gender, locate food, and detect pheremones. They are also particularly sensitive to high pitched noises and can hear and communicate in the ultrasonic range. The tail is sometimes difficult to see; usually it is not very long (about 1/6th the length of their body) with exception of the Chinese dwarf hamster whose tail is the same length as the body. On a long haired hamster it is barely visible. Hamsters are very flexible, and their bones are somewhat fragile. They are extremely susceptible to rapid temperature changes and drafts, as well as extreme heat or cold. Hamsters are hindgut fermenters and must eat their own feces in order to digest their food a second time. This practice is called coprophagy and is necessary for the hamster to obtain the proper nutrients from its food. Hamsters are omnivorous. They eat most things, and although they should regularly be given a diet of normal hamster food (which most pet shops stock) it is enjoyable for both yourself and the hamster to experiment with other things, such as vegetables and fruits (though these should be removed once they go rotten or bad) seeds, nuts, boiled egg and shop bought hamster treats like yoghurt drops. Pet stores sell a variety of treats that are suitable for hamsters. One characteristic of rodents that is highly visible in hamsters is their sharp incisors. They have two pairs in the front of their mouths and these incisors never stop growing and thus must be regularly worn down. Hamsters carry food in their spacious cheek pouches to their underground storage chambers. When full, their cheeks can make their heads double (or even triple) in size. Hamsters in the Middle East have been known to hunt in packs to find insects for food. "hamster." Encyclopædia Britannica. Standard Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Behaviour Golden hamster grooming Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) are generally solitary and may fight to the death if put together, whereas some of dwarf hamster species can get along with others of the same species. Hamsters are primarily considered crepuscular because they live underground during most of the day, only leaving their burrows about an hour before sundown and then returning when it gets dark. At one point they were considered nocturnal because they are active all night. Some species have been observed to be more nocturnal than others. All hamsters are excellent diggers, constructing burrows with one or more entrances and with galleries that are connected to chambers for nesting, food storage, and other activities. They will also appropriate tunnels made by other mammals; the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus sungorus), for instance, uses paths and burrows of the pika. Although hamsters do not hibernate per se, they do “close down” a number of systems, such as breathing and heartbeat rate, for short periods of time. These periods of torpor can last up to seven to ten days. Hamsters are known to stockpile large amounts of food, making it is possible to leave them alone for a few days without food. Reproduction A mother Golden Hamster with pups under one week old. Hamsters become fertile at different ages depending on their species, but this can be from one month to three months of age. The female’s reproductive life only lasts about 18 months, but male hamsters remain fertile much longer. Females are in heat approximately every four days, indicated by a reddening of genital areas. Breeding season is from April to October, with two to five litters of 1 to 13 young being born after a gestation period of 16 to 23 days. Gestation lasts 16 to 18 days for Syrian hamsters, 18 to 21 days for the Russian hamsters, 21 to 23 days for Chinese hamsters and 23 to 30 for Roborovski Hamsters. The average litter for Syrians is about 7, but can be as great as 24, which is the maximum number of pups that can be contained in the uterus. Campbell's Dwarf Hamsters tend to have 4 to 8 in a litter but can have up to 14. Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamsters tend to have slightly smaller litters, as do Chinese and Roborovski hamsters. Siberian hamsters form close, monogamous bonds with their mates. If separated, they may become very depressed. This happens especially in males. Males will become inactive, eat more, and even show some behavioural changes similar to some types of depression in humans. This can even cause obesity in the hamster. Chinese hamster females are known for being aggressive toward the male if kept together for too long. In some cases, male Chinese hamsters have died after being attacked by the female. If breeding Chinese hamsters, it is recommended to separate the pair after mating or the hamsters will attack each other. Golden hamster females are also very aggressive toward male hamsters and must be separated immediately after breeding in order to prevent an attack. Female hamsters are also particularly sensitive to disturbances while giving birth and may even eat her own young if she thinks they are in danger, although sometimes she is just carrying the pups in her cheek pouches. Hamsters are born hairless and blind in a nest which the mother will have prepared in advance. She uses shredded material such as leaves in the wild but prefers cotton or toilet paper in captivity. After one week they begin to explore outside the nest. They are completely weaned after three weeks, or four for Roborovski Hamsters. Most breeders will sell the hamsters to shops when the hamsters are anywhere from two to nine weeks old. Mating and longevity Syrian hamsters typically live no more than two to three years in captivity, less than that in the wild. Russian Hamsters (Campbell's and Winter White) live approximately 1.5 to 2 years in captivity, and Chinese Hamsters 2.5 to 3 years. The smaller Roborovski Hamster often lives to 3 to 3.5 years in captivity. Both Syrian and Russian hamsters mature quickly and can begin reproducing at a young age (4–5 weeks), whereas Chinese hamsters will usually begin reproducing at 2–3 months of age, and Roborovskis at 3–4 months of age. Left to their own devices, hamsters will produce several litters a year with several pups in each litter. When seen from above, a sexually mature female hamster has a trim tail line; a male's tail line bulges on both sides. This might not be very visible in all species. Male hamsters typically have very large testes in relation to their body size. Before sexual maturity occurs at about 4–6 weeks, it is more difficult to determine a young hamster's sex. When examined, female hamsters have their anal and genital openings close together, whereas males have these two holes farther apart (the penis is usually withdrawn into the coat and thus appears as a hole or pink pimple). Hamsters as pets The best-known species of hamster is the Syrian or Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus), which is the type of hamster most commonly kept as a pet. It is also sometimes called a "fancy" hamster. Pet stores also have taken to calling them "honey bears," "panda bears," "black bears," "European black bears," "polar bears," "teddy bears," and "Dalmatian", depending on their coloration. There are also several variations, including long-haired varieties that grow hair several centimeters long and often require special care. British zoologist Leonard Goodwin claimed that most hamsters kept in the United Kingdom were descended from the colony he introduced for medical research purposes during the Second World War. Other hamsters that are kept as pets are the four species of "dwarf hamster". Campbell's Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus campbelli) is the most common of the four — they are also sometimes called "Russian Dwarfs"; however, many hamsters are from Russia, and so this ambiguous name does not distinguish them from other species appropriately. The coat of the Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster (Phodopus sungorus) turns almost white during winter (when the hours of daylight decrease). The Roborovski Hamster (Phodopus roborovskii) is extremely small and fast, making it difficult to keep as a pet. The Chinese Hamster (Cricetulus griseus), although not technically a true "dwarf hamster", is the only hamster with a prehensile tail (about 4cm long) - most hamsters have very short, non-prehensile tails. Many breeders also show their hamsters and so breed towards producing a good healthy show hamster with a view to keeping one or two themselves so quality and temperament are of vital importance when planning the breeding. Although breeders of show hamsters specialise in breeding show hamsters, there are also owners who have bred their pet hamsters. These may be the result of a planned or unplanned pregnancy but the hamsters have usually been cared for well and handled regularly, so make very suitable pets. Buying a hamster directly from a breeder means that there is the opportunity to see the parents and know the dates of birth. In Australia and New Zealand it is illegal to keep hamsters as pets as 'escapees' could breed in the wild and become 'feral' pest animals. Classification Taxonomists generally disagree about the most appropriate placement of the subfamily Cricetinae within the superfamily Muroidea. Some place it in a family Cricetidae that also includes voles, lemmings, and New World rats and mice; others group all these into a large family called Muridae. Their evolutionary history is recorded by 15 extinct fossil genera and extends back 11.2 million to 16.4 million years to the Middle Miocene Epoch in Europe and North Africa; in Asia it extends 6 million to 11 million years. Four of the seven living genera include extinct species. One extinct hamster of Cricetus, for example, lived in North Africa during the Middle Miocene, but the only extant member of that genus is the common hamster of Eurasia. Subfamily Cricetinae Genus Allocricetulus Species A. curtatus - Mongolian Hamster Species A. eversmanni - Kazakh Hamster, also called Eversmann's Hamster Genus Cansumys Species C. canus - Gansu Hamster Genus Cricetulus Species C. alticola - Ladak Hamster Species C. barabensis, including "C. pseudogriseus" and "C. obscurus" - Chinese Striped Hamster, also called Chinese Hamster; Striped Dwarf Hamster Species C. griseus - Chinese (Dwarf) Hamster, also called Rat Hamster Species C. kamensis - Tibetan Hamster Species C. longicaudatus - Long-tailed Hamster Species C. migratorius - Armenian Hamster, also called Migratory Grey Hamster; Grey Hamster; Grey Dwarf Hamster; Migratory Hamster Species C. sokolovi - Sokolov's Hamster Genus Cricetus Species C. cricetus - European Hamster, also called Common Hamster or Black-Bellied Field Hamster Species C. nehringi - Rummanian Hamster Genus Mesocricetus - Golden Hamsters Species M. auratus - Syrian Hamster, also called the Golden Hamster or "Teddy Bear" hamster Species M. brandti - Turkish hamster, also called Brandt's Hamster; Azerbaijani Hamster Species M. newtoni - Romanian Hamster Species M. raddei - Ciscaucasian Hamster Genus Phodopus - Dwarf Hamsters Species P. campbelli - Campbell's Russian Dwarf Hamster Species P. roborovskii - Roborovski Hamster, the smallest and fastest of the hamster species Species P. sungorus - Winter White Russian Dwarf Hamster Genus Tscherskia Species T. triton - Greater Long-tailed Hamster, also called Korean Hamster Relationships among hamster species Neumann et al. (2006) conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 12 of the above 17 species of hamster using DNA sequence from three genes: 12S rRNA, cytochrome b, and von Willebrand factor. They uncovered the following relationships: Phodopus group The genus Phodopus was found to represent the earliest split among hamsters. Their analysis included both species. The results of another study (Lebedev et al., 2003) may suggest that Cricetulus kamensis (and presumably the related C. alticola) might belong to either this Phodopus group or hold a similar basal position. Mesocricetus group The genus Mesocricetus also form a clade. Their analysis included all four species, with M. auratus and M. raddei forming one subclade and M. brandti and M. newtoni another. Remaining genera The remaining genera of hamsters formed a third major clade. Two of the three sampled species within Cricetulus represent the earliest split. This clade contains Cricetulus barabensis (and presumably the related C. sokolovi) and Cricetulus longicaudatus. Miscellaneous The remaining clade contains members of Allocricetulus, Tscherskia, Cricetus, and Cricetulus migratorius. Allocricetulus and C\\' were sister taxa. Cricetulus migratorius was their next closest relative, and Tscherskia was basal. Similar animals Note that there are some rodents which are sometimes called "hamsters" that are not currently classified in the hamster subfamily Cricetinae. These include the Maned Hamster or Crested Hamster, which is really the Maned Rat (Lophiomys imhausi), although not nearly as marketable under that name. Others are the mouse-like hamsters (Calomyscus spp.), and the white-tailed rat (Mystromys albicaudatus). See also Tales of the Riverbank The Hampster Dance Hamtaro Richard Hammond References Notes Resources Lebedev, V. S., N. V. Ivanova, N. K. Pavlova, and A. B. Poltoraus. 2003. Molecular phylogeny of the Palearctic hamsters. In Proceedings of the International Conference Devoted to the 90th Anniversary of Prof. I. M. Gromov on Systematics, Phylogeny and Paleontology of Small Mammals (A. Averianov and N. Abramson eds.). St. Petersburg. Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. In Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds.). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Neumann, K., J. Michaux, V. Lebedev, N. Yigit, E. Colak, N. Ivanova, A. Poltoraus, A. Surov, G. Markov, S. Maak, S. Neumann, R. Gattermann. 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the Cricetinae subfamily based on the mitochondrial cytochrome b'' and 12S rRNA genes and the nuclear vWF gene. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, in press; Available online 17 February 2006. External links How to Care for Hamsters National Hamster Council (UK) New York Hamster House | Hamster |@lemmatized hamster:165 rodent:3 belong:3 subfamily:6 cricetinae:5 contain:5 specie:38 classify:2 six:1 seven:3 genus:18 fox:1 sue:1 f:2 h:2 publication:2 inc:3 name:3 derive:1 german:1 verb:1 hamstern:2 mean:2 hoard:1 expandable:1 cheek:4 pouch:4 line:3 fur:3 store:3 food:13 word:2 come:1 early:3 ohg:1 hamustro:1 oruss:1 choměstorǔ:1 either:2 blend:1 root:1 rus:1 khomiak:1 baltic:1 cf:2 lith:1 staras:1 doublas:1 harper:1 online:2 etymology:1 dictionary:3 v:5 http:2 www:2 etymonline:1 com:2 iranian:1 origin:1 av:1 hamaēstar:1 oppressor:1 merriam:2 webster:2 collegiate:1 may:6 although:7 golden:7 mesocricetus:6 auratus:5 first:2 describe:1 scientifically:1 researcher:1 able:2 successfully:1 breed:9 domesticate:1 barrie:1 anmarie:1 new:4 pet:14 nj:1 zoologist:2 israeli:1 aharoni:1 find:4 capture:1 syria:1 day:9 world:4 descend:2 fritzsche:1 peter:1 complete:1 owner:2 manual:1 barron:1 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2,160 | Oath_of_office | An oath of office is an oath or affirmation a person takes before undertaking the duties of an office, usually a position in government or within a religious body, although such oaths are sometimes required of officers of other organizations. Such oaths are often required by the laws of the state, religious body, or other organization before the person may actually exercise the powers of the office or any religious body. It may be administered at an inauguration, coronation, enthronement, or other ceremony connected with the taking up of office itself, or it may be administered privately. In some cases it may be administered privately and then repeated during a public ceremony. Some oaths of office are a statement of loyalty to a constitution or other legal text or to a person or other office-holder (e.g., an oath to support the constitution of the state, or of loyalty to the king). Under the laws of a state it may be considered treason or a high crime to betray a sworn oath of office. Commonwealth Realms Commonwealth realms share the same person as their individual monarch. There is only one coronation ceremony, held in the United Kingdom, wherein the Coronation Oath is taken. The Oath includes elements pertaining to the monarch's role as Supreme Governor of the Church of England as well as the oath-taker's separate roles as monarch of his or her other realms. Coronation Oath The Coronation Oath (from the Order of Service for the Coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953) is administered in the form of questions: Archbishop of Canterbury: Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the Peoples of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and of your Possessions and the other Territories to any of them belonging or pertaining, according to their respective laws and customs? Queen: I solemnly promise so to do. Archbishop: Will you to your power cause Law and Justice, in Mercy, to be executed in all your judgements? Queen: I will. Archbishop: Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the Laws of God and the true profession of the Gospel? Will you to the utmost of your power maintain in the United Kingdom the Protestant Reformed Religion established by law? Will you maintain and preserve inviolably the settlement of the Church of England, and the doctrine, worship, discipline, and government thereof, as by law established in England? And will you preserve unto the Bishops and Clergy of England, and to the Churches there committed to their charge, all such rights and privileges, as by law do or shall appertain to them or any of them? Queen: All this I promise to do. Then the Queen, arising out of her chair, supported by peers and with the Sword of State being carried before her, goes to the altar to make her solemn oath in the sight of all the people to observe the premises by laying her right hand upon the Holy Gospel in the great Bible (which was before carried in the procession and is now brought from the altar by the archbishop, and tendered to her as she kneels upon the steps), saying: Queen: The things which I have here before promised, I will perform and keep. So help me God. Then the Queen kisses the Bible and signs the Oath. United Kingdom Oath of Allegiance and Official Oath The Oath of Allegiance and the Official Oath, as set out in the Promissory Oaths Act 1868 are required to be taken by various office-holders. The Oath of Allegiance is in the following form: I, NAME, do swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, her heirs and successors, according to law. So help me God. The Official Oath is in the following form: I, NAME, do swear that I will well and truly serve Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth in the office of .... So help me God. The Oath of Allegiance and Official Oath shall be tendered to and taken by each of the following office-holders as soon as may be after his acceptance of office: First Lord of the Treasury Chancellor of the Exchequer Lord Chancellor Lord President of the Council Lord Privy Seal Secretaries of State President of the Board of Trade Lord Steward Lord Chamberlain Earl Marshal Master of the Horse Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster Paymaster General Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland (the First Minister of Scotland) Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland Lord Clerk Register Advocate General for Scotland Lord Justice Clerk. The Oath as to England is to be tendered by the Clerk of the Council, and taken in presence of Her Majesty in Council, or otherwise as Her Majesty shall direct. The Oath as to Scotland is to be tendered by the Lord President of the Court of Session at a sitting of the Court. Parliamentarians Members of the House of Commons or of the House of Lords are required to take the oath of allegiance at the beginning of a new Parliament, as well as after a Demise of the Crown. Section 84 of the Scotland Act 1998 requires members of the Scottish Parliament to take the Oath of Allegiance at a meeting of the Parliament. Members of the Scottish Executive and junior Scottish Ministers are additionally required to take the Official Oath. Section 20 of the Government of Wales Act 1998 requires members of the National Assembly for Wales to take the oath of allegiance. A Welsh form of the Oath is prescribed by the National Assembly for Wales (Oath of Allegiance in Welsh) Order 1999. Judicial Oath I, NAME, do swear that I will well and truly serve our Sovereign Lady Queen Elizabeth in the office of ...., and I will do right to all manner of people after the laws and usages of this realm (colony), without fear or favour, affection or ill will. So help me God The Judicial Oath and the Oath of Allegiance (see above) are to be taken by each of the following- Lord Chief Justice Master of the Rolls Recorder of London Justices of the Peace Lord Justice General and Lord President of the Court of Session Lord Justice Clerk Judges of the Court of Session Temporary judges of the Court of Session and High Court of Justiciary appointed under section 35(3) of the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions)(Scotland) Act 1990 Sheriffs principal In Northern Ireland all references to the Sovereign were removed by the Justice (Northern Ireland) Act 2002. Section 19(2) provides that the oath is — I, NAME, do swear that I will well and faithfully serve in the office of ...., etc and Section 19(3) provides that the affirmation and declaration is — I, NAME, do solemnly and sincerely and truly affirm and declare that I will well and faithfully serve in the office of ...., etc Military Oath All recruits to the British Army, Royal Air Force must take an oath of allegiance upon joining these armed forces, a process known as "attestation". Those who believe in God use the following words: Others replace the words "swear by Almighty God" with "solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm". Canada Governor General The Governor General is required to take the "Oath for the due execution of the Office of Our Governor General and Commander-in-Chief in and over Canada, and for the due impartial administration of justice." Australia Governor-General The Governor-General is required to take two oaths at their swearing-in: an Oath of Allegiance and Oath of Office. The Oath of Allegiance is in the form: The Oath of Office take the form: Members of Parliament Commonwealth Members of Parliament are required to take an oath or affirmation of allegiance before taking their seats after election. The wording of the oath is set out in the Commonwealth Constitution and takes the form: China, Republic of (Taiwan) In Taiwan, oath of office is required to be taken by the President-elect before he assuming office. The Oath of office for the President of the Republic of China is specified in the Constitution of the Republic of China (Article 48): Croatia Before assuming duty, the President-elect of the Republic takes oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court swearing loyalty to the Constitution: "I solemnly swear to perform the duty of the President of the Republic of Croatia conscientiously and responsibly, to the benefit of the Croatian people and all Croatian citizens. As a Head of the Croatian State, I will keep the Constitution and laws, care for the respect of the Constitutional order of the Republic of Croatia, cherish proper and fair action of all bodies of state authority and keep the independence, existence and unity of the of Croatian State. So help me God!" Belarus The Constitution of Belarus requires the president-elect to recite the following oath before taking office: "Assuming the office of President of the Republic of Belarus, I solemnly swear to faithfully serve the people of the Republic of Belarus, to respect and safeguard the rights and liberties of man and citizen, to abide by and protect the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, and to discharge strictly and conscientiously the lofty duties that have been bestowed upon me". Brazil The affirmation required by the Constitution of Brazil to be taken by the president-elect upon entering into office is as follows: "I promise to preserve, defend and uphold the Constitution, observe the Laws, promote the general welfare of the Brazilian people, and to sustain the union, the integrity and the independence of Brazil." The vice-president is required to take the same pledge. The affirmations of office required of members of the National Congress of Brazil are specifyed in the rules of procedure of each house (the Chamber of Deputies and Senate) The internal rules of the Supreme Federal Court sets out the affirmation that must be taken by justices upon their investiture. Other judges make different affirmations, as provided for by law or in the internal rules of each Court. The Constitution and laws of the several states and the organic laws of the municipalities also specify affirmations that must be made by the key officers of those entities. Fiji In Fiji, the oath of office for the President of Fiji and Vice-President of Fiji are set out in Chapter 17 of the Constitution of Fiji. Finland General oath of office. In Finland, the oath of office The part concerning the oath of office follows the decree on oath and affirmation of office and oath and affirmation of judge. ([Asetus virkavalasta ja virkavakuutuksesta sekä tuomarinvalasta ja tuomarinvakuutuksesta 23.12.1987/1183 Asetus virkavalasta ja virkavakuutuksesta sekä tuomarinvalasta ja tuomarinvakuutuksesta 1183/1987]). Retrieved 1-9-2008. is sworn by The Chancellor of Justice and the Assistant Chancellor of Justice The chief of staff () of the office of the President of Finland, the following officials of the Council of State, the office of the Chancellor of Justice or of any government ministry: heads of office () the secretaries and under-secretaries of state () heads of section () heads of central agencies provincial governors heads of diplomatic or consular missions all career military personnel of Finnish Defence Forces and the Finnish Border Guard prison governors The oath of office is: Those who do not want to swear the religious oath may give an affirmation. In this case, the words "promise and swear before allmighty and all-knowing God" are replaced by "promise and affirm by my honour and by my conscience". Policemen and some other persons executing justice make a written affirmation of office instead of an oath. The text of the affirmation is In Finnish practice, the oaths of office are given only once. If the person who has given an oath or affirmation moves to another duty where such oath is required, the oath is not given anew. Presidential affirmation of office The President of Finland gives the following affirmation of office Finnish constitution. Section 56. Retrieved 1-9-2008. Oath of Judge Finnish judges and justices of all courts are required to give the following oath Code of judicial procedure (4/1734), 1st Chapter, section 7. Retrieved 1-9-2008 Those taking an affirmation do not use the parts involving God. All Finnish cabinet ministers are required to give both the general oath or affirmation of office and the oath of judge, unless they have given these oaths and affirmations before. Like the general oath of office, the oath of judge is given only once. Military oath All Finnish conscripts are required to give the military oath or affirmation. The oath or affirmation is given in the end of the basic training using the formula:<ref>[http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2007/20071443 Decree on conscription (Valtioneuvoston asetus asevelvollisuudesta (1443/2007).] Retrieved 2008-01-09. </ref> Germany The oath of office of the President, Chancellor, and the members of the federal government of Germany is as follows:I swear (or affirm) that I will dedicate my efforts to the well-being of the German people, promote their welfare, protect them from harm, uphold and defend the Basic Law and the laws of the Federation, perform my duties conscientiously, and do justice to all. So help me God.The religious affirmation may be omitted. The first chancellor to do this was Gerhard Schröder in 1998. Each of the 16 Länder (states) has its own oath of office for the Governors and Ministers, also for the state employees. The oath for soldiers in Germany reads as follows: I swear (conscripts: vow) to serve loyally the Federal Republic of Germany and to defend bravely the justice and freedom of the German people. So help me God (the religious affirmation is not added for conscripts since the vow is not an actual oath). Depending on the oath's interpretation, the following translation is also possible:I swear (conscripts: vow) to serve loyally the Federal Republic of Germany and to defend bravely justice and the freedom of the German people. So help me God (the religious affirmation is not added for conscripts since the vow is not an actual oath). The oath for federal employees: I swear to protect the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany and all valid laws within the Federal Republic and to fulfill my duties of the office faithfully, so help me God. Guatemala Article 181 of the Guatemalan Constitution provides that the incoming president of Guatemala should raises his/her right arm up to shoulder-level before the President of the Congress of Guatemala and say the following oath of office in Spanish: I promise to make and to keep the political constitution of the Republic Of Guatemala and the laws that came from it,and loyaly and faithfully love to my country the position of President of the Republic that the public has given me legally and legitimate, looking above all for the good and the prosperity of the country so help me God; and if i don't do it as such that the nation should demand it from me". Afterwards, the outgoing President passes him the Guatemalan flag (the Banda Presidential) , which is worn from his/her left shoulder to his/her right rib, to the new President along with the presidential pin and with the Constitutional Collar. Ghana The oath of office of the President of Ghana is as follows: I, (name), having been elected to the high office of President of the Republic of Ghana do in the name of the Almighty God swear (or do solemnly affirm) that I will be faithful and true to the Republic of Ghana; that I will at all times preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana; and that I dedicate myself to the service and well-being of the people of the Republic of Ghana and to do right to all manner of persons. I further solemnly swear (or solemnly affirm) that should I at any time break this oath of office I shall submit myself to the laws of the Republic of Ghana and suffer the penalty for it. For members of the Parliament of Ghana, the oath is: I, (name), having been elected a member of Parliament do in the name of the Almighty God swear (or do solemnly affirm) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Republic of Ghana as by law established; that I will uphold, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana; and that I will faithfully and conscientiously discharge the duties of a member of Parliament. Hong Kong The oath of office for the Chief Executive is as follows: I, [Name], swear that, in the office of Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, I will uphold the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, bear allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and serve the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conscientiously, dutifully, in full accordance with the law, honestly and with integrity, and be held accountable to the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The oath of office for the Principal Officials is as follows: I swear that, in the office of [OFFICE] of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, I will uphold the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, bear allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and serve the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conscientiously, dutifully, in full accordance with the law, honestly and with integrity. The oath of office for the unofficial members of the Executive Council is as follows: I swear that, being appointed to the Executive Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, I will uphold the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, bear allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and serve the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conscientiously, dutifully, in full accordance with the law, honestly and with integrity. The oath of office for the members of the Legislative Council is as follows: I swear that, being a member of the Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, I will uphold the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, bear allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China and serve the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conscientiously, dutifully, in full accordance with the law, honestly and with integrity. The oath of office of judges is as follows: I swear that, in the Office of a Judge of the Judiciary of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, I will uphold the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, bear allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, serve the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region conscientiously, dutifully, in full accordance with the law, honestly and with integrity, safeguard the law and administer justice without fear or favour, self-interest or deceit. During the colonial era, the Governors of Hong Kong were required by Hong Kong Royal Instructions and Hong Kong Letters Patent to take the Oath of Allegiance, the Official Oath and the Judicial Oath of the United Kingdom before assuming the office. India The oath of office for the President of India is as follows: I, [name], do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President (or discharge the functions of the President) of the Republic of India, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law, and that I will devote myself to the service and well-being of the people of Republic of India. The oath of office for the Vice-President of India is as follows: I, [name], do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, and that I will faithfully discharge the duty upon which I am about to enter. The oath of office of Judges of a High Court is as follows: I, [name], having been appointed Chief Justice (or a Judge) of the High Court at (or of) ... do swear (or affirm) that the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgment perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will and that I will uphold the Constitution and the laws. Indonesia Based on the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia in article 9 about the Oath of office and Promise of President and Vice-President: Before assuming office, the President and the Vice-President shall take the oath of office according to their religions, or solemnly promise before the People's Consultative Assembly or the People's Representative Council as follows: "In the name of God Almighty, I swear that I will perform the duties of the President (Vice-President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my ability and as justly as possible, and that I will strictly observe the Constitution and consistently implement the law and regulations in the service of the country and the people." The President's/Vice-President's Promise: "I solemnly promise that I will perform the duties of the President (Vice-President) of the Republic of Indonesia to the best of my ability and as justly as possible, and that I will strictly observe the constitution and consistently implement the law and regulations in the service of the country and the people." Iran The oath of office for the President of Iran is as follows: I, as the President, upon the Holy Qur'an and in the presence of the Iranian nation, do hereby swear in the name of Almighty God to safeguard the official Faith, the system of the Islamic republic and the Constitution of the country; to use all my talents and abilities in the discharge of responsibilities undertaken by me; to devote myself to the service of the people, glory of the country, promotion of religion and morality, support of right and propagation of justice; to refrain from being autocratic; to protect the freedom and dignity of individuals and the rights of the Nation recognized by the Constitution; to spare no efforts in safeguarding the frontiers and the political, economic and cultural freedoms of the country; to guard the power entrusted to me by the Nation as a sacred trust like an honest and faithful trustee, by seeking help from God and following the example of the Prophet of Islam and the sacred Imams, peace be upon them, and to entrust it to the one elected by the Nation after me. For members of the Majlis of Iran, the oath is: In the presence of the Holy Qur'an I swear to God Almighty and undertake upon my human dignity to protect the sanctity of Islam and safeguard the achievements of the Islamic Revolution of Iranian people and the essentials of the Islamic Republic, to uphold the trust placed in us by the Nation as a just trustee, to observe piety and honesty in the discharge of my functions as a representative of the people, to remain always faithful and true to the independence and dignity of the country, protection of rights of the Nation and service to people, to defend the Constitution, and to uphold the independence of the country and the freedom and interests of the people in words, writings and comments. According to the Iranian Constitution, MPs belonging to religious minorities may swear by the holy books of their respective faiths. Israel In Israel, the Basic Laws specify oaths of office of high-ranking members of the government. For the President of Israel, there is a "Declaration of Loyalty": I pledge to maintain loyalty to the State of Israel and to its laws and to faithfully fulfill my duties as President of the State. President of Israel website, http://www.president.gov.il/defaults/default_en.asp, "The Presidency":"As an Institution": "The President: Excerpts from the Basic Law": subheading "Declaration of Loyalty". In the Knesset, the oath of office (or "declaration of allegiance") is as follows: Oldest member of Knesset or chairperson: I pledge myself to bear allegiance to the State of Israel and faithfully to discharge my mandate in the Knesset. I pledge myself to bear allegiance to the State of Israel and faithfully to discharge my mandate in the Knesset. Each other member of the Knesset, in turn: "I pledge myself". Knesset website, "Basic Law: The Knesset - 1958", http://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic2_eng.htm . (The repetition is mandated, not an accident or a typo, as you can see in point 14.) The Prime Minister of Israel has to make the following "declaration of allegiance" upon taking office: I (name) pledge myself as Prime Minister to bear allegiance to the State of Israel and to its laws, to carry out faithfully my functions as Prime Minister and to comply with the decisions of the Knesset. Knesset website, "Basic Law: The Government - 1968 (Original Version)", point 16, "Declaration of allegiance". http://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic1_eng.htm Each of the other Ministers have to swear: I (name) pledge myself as a member of the Government to bear allegiance to the State of Israel and to its laws, to carry out faithfully my functions as a member of the Government and to comply with the decisions of the Knesset. Knesset website, "Basic Law: The Government - 1968 (Original Version)", point 16, "Declaration of allegiance". http://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basic1_eng.htm Italy The oath of office of the President of the Republic is: I swear to be faithful to the Republic and to loyally observe its Constitution. The oath for the Prime Minister is: I swear to be faithful to the Republic; to observe the Constitution and laws; and to exercise my duties in the exclusive interest of the Nation. http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-05-08-italy-premier_N.htm Lebanon In Lebanon, the president must take the following oath before the Parliament: I swear by Almighty God to observe the Constitution and the Laws of the Lebanese Nation and to maintain the independence of Lebanon and its territorial integrity. Mexico Article 87 of the Mexican Constitution provides that the incoming president of Mexico should raises his/her right arm up to shoulder-level before the Congress of Mexico and say the following oath of office in Spanish: I promise to make and to keep the political constitution of the United Mexican States and the laws that from it derive, and with loyalty and patriotism the position of the Republic that the the public has given me, looking above all for the good and the prosperity of the Union; and if I don't the nation should demand it from me. Afterwards, the outgoing President passes him the Mexican flag (the Banda Presidential), which is worn from his/her left shoulder to his/her right rib, to the new President. Moldova Article 79 of the Constitution of Moldova provides that the President, no more than 45 days after his election, and before the Parliament and Constitutional Court, gives the following oath: "I solemnly swear to devote all my personal strength and abilities to the advancement and prosperity of the Republic of Moldova, to always abide by the Constitution and the laws of the country, to defend democracy, the fundamental rights and freedoms of man, and the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of Moldova". Netherlands King The oath of office for the monarch of the Netherlands, which in accordance with Article 32 of the Constitution is to be declared as soon as possible after the King or Queen takes office in a public united meeting of the States-General in the capital of Amsterdam, is as follows:I swear (affirm) to the peoples of the Kingdom that I will always observe and uphold the Statute for the Kingdom and the Constitution. I swear (affirm) that I will defend and preserve, with all My power, the independence and territory of the Kingdom; that I will protect the freedom and the rights of all Dutchmen and all residents, and will employ for the maintenance and promotion of the welfare, all the means which the laws place at My disposal, as a good and true King should do.So help me, God Almighty! (This I affirm!)After this declaration the chairman of the States-General, in the name of the States-General, the States of the Netherlands Antilles and the States of Aruba, pronounces the following solemn declaration:We receive you and do homage to you as King in the name of the peoples of the Kingdom and by virtue of the Statute for the Kingdom and the Constitution; we swear (affirm) that we will uphold your inviolability and the rights of your crown. We swear (affirm) that we will do everything that good and true States-General, States of the Netherlands Antilles and States of Aruba should do.So help us, God Almighty!(This we affirm!)The declaration shall then be sworn or confirmed by each of the members individually. Ministers, state secretaries and members of Parliament The oath of office for ministers and state secretaries, which shall be administered by the King, and for members of Parliament is as follows:I swear (declare) that in order to be appointed minister / state secretary / member of the States-General, I have not promised or given, directly or indirectly, any gifts or presents to any person under whatsoever name or pretext.I swear (declare and affirm) that in order to do or refrain from doing anything whatsoever in this office, I have not accepted and will not accept, directly or indirectly, any promises or presents from anyone whomsoever.I swear (affirm) allegiance to the King, to the Statute for the Kingdom and to the Constitution.I swear (affirm) that I will faithfully perform all the duties which the office lays upon me. So help me, God Almighty!(This I declare and affirm!)Civil servants The oath of office for civil servants is as follows:I swear/affirm allegiance to the King and that I will recpect the Constitution and all other laws of our country;I swear/declare that in relation to my appointment, I have not provided, directly or indirectly, any false information whatsoever;I swear/declare that in relation to my appointment, I have not given or promised and will not give or promise anything to any person whatsoever;I swear/declare that in relation to my appointment, I have not accepted or promised and will not accept or promise any gifts or presents whatsoever;I swear/affirm that I will faithfully perform all the duties which the office lays upon me and that I keep secret everything which, in relation to my office, is told me confidentially or in which I should see the confidential character, to others than whom I obliged to inform by virtue of my office;I swear/affirm that I will behave as a good civil servant should do, that I will be careful, honest and reliable and that I will do nothing that harms the prestige of the office.So help me God Almighty! / This I declare and affirm!Norway As soon as the King, being of age, accedes to the Government, he shall take the following oath before the Storting: "I promise and swear that I will govern the Kingdom of Norway in accordance with its Constitution and Laws; so help me God, the Almighty and Omniscient." If the Storting is not in session at the time, the oath shall be made in writing in the Council of State and be repeated solemnly by the King at the first subsequent Storting. Pakistan The oath of office of the President of Pakistan is as follows: I, ____________, do solemnly swear that I am a Muslim and believe in the Unity and Oneness of Almighty Allah, the Books of Allah, the Holy Quran being the last of them, the Prophethood of Muhammad (peace be upon him) as the last of the Prophets and that there can be no Prophet after him, the Day of Judgment, and all the requirements and teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah: That I will bear true faith and allegiance to Pakistan: That, as President of Pakistan, I will discharge my duties, and perform my functions, honestly, to the best of my ability, faithfully in accordance with the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well- being and prosperity of Pakistan: That I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions: That I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan: That, in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favor, affection or ill- will: And that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as President of Pakistan, except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as President. May Allah Almighty help and guide me (A'meen). The oath of office of the Prime Minister of Pakistan is as follows: I, ____________, do swear solemnly that l am a Muslim and believe in the Unity and Oneness of Almighty Allah, the Books of Allah, the Holy Quran being the last of them, the Prophethood of Muhammad (peace be upon him) as the last of the Prophets and that there can be no Prophet after him, the Day of Judgment, and all the requirements and teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah: That I will bear true faith and allegiance to Pakistan: That, as Prime Minister of Pakistan, I will discharge my duties, and perform my functions, hon-estly, to the best of my ability, faithfully in accordance with the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the law, and always in the interest of the sovereignty, integrity, solidarity, well- being and prosperity of Pakistan: That I will strive to preserve the Islamic Ideology which is the basis for the creation of Pakistan: That I will not allow my personal interest to influence my official conduct or my official decisions: That I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan: That, in all circumstances, I will do right to all manner of people, according to law, without fear or favor, affection or ill- will: And that I will not directly or indirectly communicate or reveal to any person any matter which shall be brought under my consideration or shall become known to me as Prime Minister except as may be required for the due discharge of my duties as Prime Minister. May Allah Almighty help and guide me (A'meen) Philippines The oath of office of the President of the Philippines is as follows:I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully and conscientiously fulfill my duties as President of the Philippines, preserve and defend its Constitution, execute its laws, do justice to every man, and consecrate myself to the service of the Nation. So help me God. (The last sentence is to be omitted if making an affirmation.) Poland PresidentAssuming, by the will of the Nation, the office of President of the Republic of Poland, I do solemnly swear to be faithful to the provisions of the Constitution; I pledge that I shall steadfastly safeguard the dignity of the Nation, the independence and security of the State, and also that the good of the Homeland and the prosperity of its citizens shall forever remain my supreme obligation. Chapter V, The Constitution of the Republic of Poland Prime Minister, Deputy Prime Minister, MinisterAssuming this office of Prime Minister (Deputy Prime Minister, minister) I do solemnly swear to be faithful to the provisions of the Constitution and other laws of the Republic of Poland, and that the good of the Homeland and the prosperity of its citizens shall forever remain my supreme obligation. Chapter VI, The Constitution of the Republic of Poland "So help me God" (Tak mi dopomóż Bóg) formula at the end is optional. Sejm Members and SenatorsI do solemnly swear to perform my duties to the Nation diligently and conscientiously, to safeguard the sovereignty and interests of the State, to do all within my power for the prosperity of the Homeland and the well-being of its citizens, and to observe the Constitution and other laws of the Republic of Poland. Chapter IV, The Constitution of the Republic of Poland "So help me God" (Tak mi dopomóż Bóg) formula at the end is optional. Portugal The Constitution of Portugal requires that the following oath be taken by the President-elect upon entering into office: I swear by my honour faithfully to discharge the functions in which I become invested and to defend, uphold, and see to it that the Constitution of the Portuguese Republic be upheld.Romania Article 82 of the Constitution of Romania provides that the President, before the Chamber of Deputies and Senate in joint session, gives the following oath: "I solemnly swear that I will dedicate all my strength and the best of my abilities for the spiritual and material welfare of the Romanian people, to abide by the Constitution and laws of the country, to defend democracy, the fundamental rights and freedoms of my fellow citizens, Romania's sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity. So help me God!" Russia The oath of office of the President of Russia is prescribed in the Constitution of Russia, in Chapter 4 (The President of the Russian Federation), Article 82:1. When taking office the President of the Russian Federation shall take the following oath of loyalty to the people:"I swear in exercising the powers of the President of the Russian Federation to respect and safeguard the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, to observe and protect the Constitution of the Russian Federation, to protect the sovereignty and independence, security and integrity of the State, to faithfully serve the people."2. The oath shall be taken in a solemn atmosphere in the presence of members of the Council of the Federation, deputies of the State Duma and judges of the Constitution Court of the Russian Federation. Chapter 4. The President of the Russian Federation | The Constitution of the Russian Federation Singapore The oath of office of the President of Singapore is as follows:I, (name), having been elected President of the Republic of Singapore, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully discharge my duties as such to the best of my ability without fear or favor, affection or ill-will, and without regard to any previous affiliation with any political party, and that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Republic, and that I will preserve, protect, and defend its Constitution.For members of the Parliament of Singapore, it is:I, (name), having been elected as a Member of the Parliament of Singapore, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully discharge my duties as such to the best of my ability, that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Republic of Singapore, and that I will preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore. South Africa The oath of office of the President of South Africa is as follows:In the presence of those assembled here and in full realisation of the high calling I assume as President in the service of the Republic of South Africa I, (name), do hereby swear (or solemnly affirm) to be faithful to the Republic of South Africa, and do solemnly and sincerely promise at all times to promote that which will advance and to oppose all that may harm the Republic; to obey, observe, uphold and maintain the Constitution and all other Law of the Republic; to discharge my duties with all my strength and talents to the best of my knowledge and ability and true to the dictates of my conscience; to do justice to all; and to devote myself to the well-being of the Republic and all its people. (So help me God)For members of the Parliament of South Africa, the oath is:I, (name), do hereby swear (or solemnly affirm) to be faithful to the Republic of South Africa and solemnly promise to perform my functions as a member of the National Assembly/National Council of Provinces to the best of my ability. (So help me God) Spain The Spanish Constitution requires the King to take the following oath as soon as practicable after ascending to the Throne and before performing any other official duty: I swear faithfully to discharge My functions, to sustain and see to it that the Constitution and the Laws are sustained, and to respect the rights of the citizens and of the autonomous communities. The heir to the Crown, upon becoming of age, and any Regents, upon taking office, are required by the Constitution to take the same oath, adding to it a vow of allegiance to the King. Sweden A judge, whether a legally trained judge or a lay judge (nämndeman) shall take the following oath before assuming the duties of office: I (name) promise and affirm on my honour and conscience that I will and shall impartially, as to the rich as well as to the poor, administer justice in all matters to the best of my ability and conscience, and judge according to the law of the Realm of Sweden; that I will never manipulate the law or further injustice for kinship, relation by marriage, friendship, envy, ill-will, or fear, nor for bribes or gifts, or any other cause in whatever guise it may appear; nor will I declare guilty one who is innocent, or innocent one who is guilty. Neither before nor after the pronouncement of the judgment of the court shall I disclose to the litigants or to other persons the in camera deliberations of the court. All this, as a honest and righteous judge, I will and shall faithfully observe. Chapter 4, Section 11, Swedish Code of Judicial Procedure United States In the United States, the oath of office for the President of the United States is specified in the U.S. Constitution (Article II, Section 1): I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States. The oath may be sworn or affirmed (in which case it is called an affirmation instead of oath). Although not present in the text of the Constitution, it is customary for modern presidents to say "so help me God" after the end of the oath. For officers other than the President, the expression "So help me God" is explicitly prescribed, but the Judiciary Act of 1789 also explains when it can be omitted: (specifically for oaths taken by court clerks), "Which words, so help me God, shall be omitted in all cases where an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath." Judiciary Act of 1789, Sec. 7. Accessed 2009-01-24. The Constitution specifies in Article VI, clause 3: "The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." For other officials, including members of Congress, it specifies they "shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation to support this constitution." At the start of each new U.S. Congress, in January of every odd-numbered year, those newly elected or re-elected Congressmen - the entire House of Representatives and one-third of the Senate - must recite an oath: I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God. This oath is also taken by the Vice President, members of the Cabinet, and all other civil and military officers and federal employees other than the President. While the oath-taking dates back to the First Congress in 1789, the current oath is a product of the 1860s, drafted by Civil War-era members of Congress intent on ensnaring traitors. In 1789, the 1st United States Congress created a fourteen-word oath to fulfill the constitutional requirement: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution of the United States." It also passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established an additional oath taken by federal judges: I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will administer justice without respect to persons, and do equal right to the poor and to the rich, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform all the duties incumbent on me, according to the best of my abilities and understanding, agreeably to the Constitution, and laws of the United States. So help me God. The outbreak of the Civil War quickly transformed the routine act of oath-taking into one of enormous significance. In April 1861, a time of uncertain and shifting loyalties, President Abraham Lincoln ordered all federal civilian employees within the executive branch to take an expanded oath. When Congress convened for a brief emergency session in July, members echoed the president's action by enacting legislation requiring employees to take the expanded oath in support of the Union. This oath is the earliest direct predecessor of the modern version of the oath. When Congress returned for its regular session in December 1861, members who believed that the Union had as much to fear from northern traitors as southern soldiers again revised the oath, adding a new first section known as the "Ironclad Test Oath." The war-inspired Test Oath, signed into law on July 2, 1862, required "every person elected or appointed to any office ... under the Government of the United States ... excepting the President of the United States" to swear or affirm that they had never previously engaged in criminal or disloyal conduct. Those government employees who failed to take the 1862 Test Oath would not receive a salary; those who swore falsely would be prosecuted for perjury and forever denied federal employment. The 1862 oath's second section incorporated a different rendering of the hastily drafted 1861 oath. Although Congress did not extend coverage of the Ironclad Test Oath to its own members, many took it voluntarily. Angered by those who refused this symbolic act during a wartime crisis, and determined to prevent the eventual return of prewar southern leaders to positions of power in the national government, congressional hard-liners eventually succeeded by 1864 in making the Test Oath mandatory for all members. The Senate then revised its rules to require that members not only take the Test Oath orally, but also that they "subscribe" to it by signing a printed copy. This condition reflected a wartime practice in which military and civilian authorities required anyone wishing to do business with the federal government to sign a copy of the Test Oath. The current practice of newly sworn senators signing individual pages in an oath book dates from this period. As tensions cooled during the decade following the Civil War, Congress enacted private legislation permitting particular former Confederates to take only the second section of the 1862 oath. An 1868 public law prescribed this alternative oath for "any person who has participated in the late rebellion, and from whom all legal disabilities arising therefrom have been removed by act of Congress." Northerners immediately pointed to the new law's unfair double standard that required loyal Unionists to take the Test Oath's harsh first section while permitting ex-Confederates to ignore it. In 1884, a new generation of lawmakers quietly repealed the first section of the Test Oath, leaving intact the current affirmation of constitutional allegiance. The oaths of state and local officials are largely patterned on these. Typical would be the oath taken by all New York government officials: I solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution of the United States, and the Constitution of the State of New York, (and the Charter of the City of New York, e.g.), and that I will faithfully discharge the duties of the office of (mayor of the City of New York, e.g.) to the best of my ability. (So help me God is traditionally added.) Federal judicial oaths In the United States, federal judges are required to take not just one, but two oaths. The first oath is this: , Oaths of justices and judges I, XXX XXX, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will administer justice without respect to persons, and do equal right to the poor and to the rich, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform all the duties incumbent upon me as XXX under the Constitution and laws of the United States. So help me God. The second oath that federal judges must take is this: }, Oath of Office I, AB, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God. Federal statute specifically says that the latter oath "does not affect other oaths required by law." }, Oath of Office. Military Oaths - Federal and State See United States Uniformed Services Oath of Office. Religious bodies - Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church requires all of its clergy before ordination and most of those promoted to positions of authority to make a "Profession of Faith," as below. It is very similar to the Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed (referred to as the Symbol of Faith). I, N., with firm faith believe and profess everything that is contained in the Symbol of Faith: namely: I believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen. I believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten not made, one in Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation, he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate of the Virgin Mary, and became man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshiped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. I believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. With firm faith, I also believe everything contained in the Word of God, whether written or handed down in Tradition, which the Church, either by a solemn judgement or by the ordinary and universal Magisterium, sets forth to be believed as divinely revealed. I also firmly accept and hold each and everything definitively proposed by the Church regarding teaching on faith and morals. Moreover, I adhere with religious submission of will and intellect to the teachings which either the Roman pontiff or the College of Bishops enunciate when they exercise their authentic Magisterium, even if they do not intend to proclaim these teachings by a definitive act. Further, all of those promoted to positions of authority (vicars general, judicial vicars, episcopal vicars, pastors of parishes and superiors within religious orders) or with teaching responsibilities (rectors of seminaries, professors at seminaries, heads or Catholic universities or professors on the faculties of Catholic colleges and universities who teach subjects involving religion), and all those ordained deacons (and therefore all those who will also later be ordained priests) to take the following "Oath of Fidelity" I, N., in assuming the office of __________, promise that in my words and in my actions I shall always preserve communion with the Catholic Church. With great care and fidelity I shall carry out the duties incumbent on me toward the Church, both universal and particular, in which, according to the provisions of the law, I have been called to exercise my service. In fulfilling the charge entrusted to me in the name of the Church, I shall hold fast to the deposit of faith in its entirety; I shall faithfully hand it on and explain it, and I shall avoid any teachings contrary to it. I shall follow and foster the common discipline of the entire Church and I shall maintain the observance of all ecclesiastical laws, especially those contained in the Code of Canon Law. With Christian obedience I shall follow what the Bishops, as authentic doctors and teachers of the faith, declare, or what they, as those who govern the Church, establish. I shall also faithfully assist the diocesan Bishops, so that the apostolic activity, exercised in the name and by mandate of the Church, may be carried out in communion with the Church. So help me God, and God's Holy Gospels on which I place my hand. See also Oath of allegiance Oath of enlistment Oath of citizenship List of U.S. presidential swearing-ins External links U.S. Senate: Oath of Office U.S. Code, Title 5, Sec. 3331: Oath of Office Pictures of various world leaders taking their oaths of office References | Oath_of_office |@lemmatized oath:177 office:107 affirmation:30 person:16 take:58 undertake:3 duty:33 usually:1 position:6 government:18 within:5 religious:12 body:5 although:3 sometimes:1 require:34 officer:5 organization:2 often:1 law:79 state:60 may:17 actually:1 exercise:6 power:10 administer:9 inauguration:1 coronation:6 enthronement:1 ceremony:3 connect:1 privately:2 case:4 repeat:2 public:6 statement:1 loyalty:9 constitution:79 legal:2 text:3 holder:3 e:3 g:3 support:10 king:12 consider:1 treason:1 high:7 crime:1 betray:1 sworn:1 commonwealth:4 realm:5 share:1 individual:3 monarch:4 one:12 hold:4 united:25 kingdom:13 wherein:1 include:2 element:1 pertain:1 role:2 supreme:4 governor:10 church:15 england:5 well:16 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2,161 | Alois_Alzheimer | Aloysius "Alois" Alzheimer, (pron. [ˡa:loˌis ˡaltshɑɪmɐ̯], 14 June 1864 - 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist and a colleague of Emil Kraepelin. Alzheimer is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin would later identify as Alzheimer's disease. Biography Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown. "Marktbreit: Alzheimer´s Birthplace" Alzheimer attended Aschaffenburg, Tübingen, Berlin, and Würzburg universities. He received a medical degree at Würzburg University in 1887. In the following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women, before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt am Main: the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for lunatics and epileptics). Emil Sioli was the dean of that asylum (1852-1922). Another neurologist, Franz Nissl (1860-1919), began to work in that same asylum with Alzheimer, and they knew each other. Much of Alzheimer's later work on brain pathology made use of Nissl's method of silver staining of the histological sections. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie. He never wrote a book that he could call his own. Auguste Deter. In 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt Asylum named Mrs. Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory. This patient would become his obsession over the coming years. In April 1906, Mrs. D. died and Alzheimer had the patient records and the brain sent to Munich where he was working at Kraepelin's lab. Together with two Italian physicians, he would use the staining techniques to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. A speech given on 3 November 1906 would be the first time the pathology and the clinical symptoms of presenile dementia would be presented together. Through extremely fortunate circumstances the original microscope preparations on which Alzheimer based his description of the disease were rediscovered some years ago in Munich and his findings could thus be reevaluated. .Alzheimer's grave in Frankfurt Since German was lingua franca of science (and especially of psychiatry) of the time, Kraepelin's use of Alzheimer's disease in a textbook would make the name famous. By 1911, the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US. In mid-December 1915, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on the way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in 1912. Most probably he had a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever and kidney failure. He died of heart failure at the age of 51 in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). See also Gaetano Perusini External links Who Named It? - Alois Alzheimer Alzheimer's: 100 years on Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Disease Research - Prof. Dr. Christian Haass Bibliography of secondary sources on Alois Alzheimer and Alzheimer's disease, selected from peer-reviewed journals. Graeber Manuel B. "Alois Alzheimer (1864-1915)" International Brain Research Organization References | Alois_Alzheimer |@lemmatized aloysius:1 alois:5 alzheimer:21 pron:1 ˡa:1 loˌis:1 ˡaltshɑɪmɐ:1 june:1 december:2 german:2 psychiatrist:1 neuropathologist:1 colleague:1 emil:2 kraepelin:4 credit:1 identify:3 first:2 publish:1 case:1 presenile:2 dementia:2 would:6 later:2 disease:6 biography:2 bear:1 marktbreit:2 bavaria:1 father:1 serve:1 office:2 notary:1 public:1 family:1 hometown:1 birthplace:1 attend:1 aschaffenburg:1 tübingen:1 berlin:1 würzburg:2 university:4 receive:1 medical:1 degree:1 following:1 year:5 spend:1 five:1 month:1 assist:1 mentally:1 ill:2 woman:1 take:1 city:1 mental:1 asylum:5 frankfurt:3 main:1 städtische:1 anstalt:1 für:2 irre:1 und:2 epileptische:1 lunatic:1 epileptic:1 sioli:1 dean:1 another:1 neurologist:1 franz:1 nissl:2 begin:1 work:3 know:1 much:1 brain:4 pathology:2 make:2 use:4 method:1 silver:1 staining:1 histological:1 section:1 co:2 founder:1 publisher:1 journal:2 zeitschrift:1 die:3 gesamte:1 neurologie:1 psychiatrie:1 never:1 write:1 book:1 could:2 call:1 auguste:2 deter:2 observe:1 patient:5 name:3 mr:2 old:1 strange:1 behavioral:1 symptom:2 include:1 loss:1 short:1 term:1 memory:1 become:1 obsession:1 come:1 april:1 record:1 send:1 munich:3 lab:1 together:2 two:1 italian:1 physician:2 stain:1 technique:1 amyloid:1 plaque:1 neurofibrillary:1 tangle:1 speech:1 give:1 november:1 time:2 clinical:1 present:1 extremely:1 fortunate:1 circumstance:1 original:1 microscope:1 preparation:1 base:1 description:1 rediscover:1 ago:1 finding:1 thus:1 reevaluate:1 grave:1 since:1 lingua:1 franca:1 science:1 especially:1 psychiatry:2 textbook:1 famous:1 european:1 diagnose:1 u:1 mid:1 fell:1 train:1 way:1 breslau:2 appoint:1 professor:1 probably:1 streptococcal:1 infection:1 subsequent:1 rheumatic:1 fever:1 kidney:1 failure:2 heart:1 age:1 wrocław:1 poland:1 see:1 also:1 gaetano:1 perusini:1 external:1 link:1 international:2 research:3 organization:2 ludwig:1 maximilians:1 laboratory:1 neurodegenerative:1 prof:1 dr:1 christian:1 haass:1 bibliography:1 secondary:1 source:1 select:1 peer:1 review:1 graeber:1 manuel:1 b:1 reference:1 |@bigram alois_alzheimer:5 emil_kraepelin:1 alzheimer_disease:3 mentally_ill:1 zeitschrift_für:1 lingua_franca:1 rheumatic_fever:1 external_link:1 neurodegenerative_disease:1 prof_dr:1 peer_review:1 |
2,162 | Citizenship | Citizenship refers to a person's membership in a political community such as a country or city. It has different legal definitions in different countries. In countries with democratic institutions, usually only citizens are allowed to vote, or to carry a passport from that country. Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and responsibilities. "Active citizenship" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public service, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, schools in some countries provide citizenship education. Supranational citizenship In recent years, some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. European Union (EU) citizenship The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the amended EC Treaty Treaty of Rome (consolidated version) states that Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace national citizenship. The amended EC Treaty establishes certain minimal rights for EU citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guarantees a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provides a limited right to free movement and residence in Member States other than that of which the EU citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights. Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States (Articles 39, 43, 49 EC), which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. Polis citizenship The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. In those days citizenship was not seen as a public matter, separated from the private life of the individual person. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one’s everyday life in the polis. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: “To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!” This form of citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly. However, an important aspect of polis citizenship was exclusivity. Citizenship in ancient Greece and Rome, as well as Medieval cities that practiced polis citizenship, was exclusive and inequality of status was widely accepted. Citizens had a much higher status than non-citizens: Women, slaves or ‘barbarians’. For example, women were seen to be irrational and incapable of political participation (although some, most notably Plato, disagreed). Methods used to determine whether someone could be a citizen or not could be based on wealth (the amount of taxes one paid), political participation, or heritage (both parents had to be born in the polis). In the Roman Empire, polis citizenship changed form: Citizenship was expanded from small scale communities to the entire empire. Romans realised that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Citizenship in the Roman era was no longer a status of political agency; it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. Honorary citizenship Some countries extend "honorary citizenship" to those whom they consider to be especially admirable or worthy of the distinction. By act of United States Congress and presidential assent, honorary United States citizenship has been awarded to only six individuals. Honorary Canadian citizenship requires the unanimous approval of Parliament. The only people to ever receive honorary Canadian citizenship are Raoul Wallenberg posthumously in 1985, Nelson Mandela in 2001, the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso in 2006, and Aung San Suu Kyi in 2007. In 2002 South Korea awarded honorary citizenship to Dutch football (soccer) coach Guus Hiddink who successfully and unexpectedly took the national team to the semi-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. Honorary citizenship was also awarded to Hines Ward, a black Korean American football player, in 2006 for his efforts to minimize discrimination in Korea against half-Koreans. American actress Angelina Jolie received an honorary Cambodian citizenship in 2005 due to her humanitarian efforts. Cricketers Matthew Hayden and Herschelle Gibbs were awarded honorary citizenship of St. Kitts and Nevis in March 2007 due to their record-breaking innings' in the 2007 Cricket World Cup. In Germany the honorary citizenship is awarded by cities, towns and sometimes federal states. The honorary citizenship ends with the death of the honoured, or, in exceptional cases, when it is taken away by the council or parliament of the city, town, or state. In the case of war criminals, all such honours were taken away by "Article VIII, section II, letter i of the directive 38 of the Allied Control Council for Germany" on October 12, 1946. In some cases, honorary citizenship was taken away from members of the former GDR regime, e.g. Erich Honecker, after the collapse of the GDR in 1989/90. Historically, many states limited citizenship to only a proportion of their population, thereby creating a citizen class with political rights superior to other sections of the population, but equal with each other. The classical example of a limited citizenry was Athens where slaves, women, and resident foreigners (called metics) were excluded from political rights. The Roman Republic forms another example (see Roman citizenship), and, more recently, the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had some of the same characteristics. School subject Citizenship has been introduced as a compulsory subject of the National Curriculum in state-run schools in England. Some state schools offer an examination in this subject, all state schools have a statutory requirement to report student's progress in Citizenship. Citizenship is not offered as a normal General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools. Only some schools offer this subject as a GCSE course, and this is usually not a compulsory subject. Some schools may even give students an option, whether to study Citizenship or not at GCSE. All 14-16 year-olds must study Citizenship, but there are no exams, few assessments and is quite a different subject. In Wales the model used is Personal and Social Education. Citizenship is not taught as a subject in Scottish schools, however they do teach a subject called "Modern Studies" which covers the social, political and economic study of local, national and international issues. It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). Responsibilities or duties of citizenship The legally enforceable duties of citizenship vary depending on one's country, and may include such items as: paying taxes (although tourists and illegal aliens also pay some taxes such as sales taxes,etc) serving on a jury Voting serving in the country's armed forces when called upon (in the US even illegal immigrants must serve in case of a draft ). obeying the criminal laws enacted by one's government, even while abroad. Purely ethical and moral duties tend to include: demonstrating commitment and loyalty to the political community and state constructively criticizing the conditions of political and civic life participating to improve the quality of political and civic life respecting the rights of others defending one's own rights and the rights of others against those who would abuse them References Bibliography External links Citizenship of the European Union The Concept of Citizenship in Education for Democracy Time for Citizenship A UK-based website for primary schools Cidadania - Interdisciplinary theater company about Citizenship Open citizenship of Wirtland - Free application for citizenship in Wirtland, an experimental web-based sovereign entity | Citizenship |@lemmatized citizenship:54 refers:1 person:3 membership:1 political:14 community:11 country:9 city:4 different:3 legal:1 definition:1 democratic:1 institution:1 usually:2 citizen:18 allow:1 vote:3 carry:2 passport:1 status:4 social:4 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2,163 | Oxygen | Oxygen (, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys) (acid, literally "sharp," from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter) is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly reactive nonmetallic period 2 element that readily forms compounds (notably oxides) with almost all other elements. At standard temperature and pressure two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless, odorless, tasteless diatomic gas with the formula . Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen and helium Emsley 2001, p.297 and the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.9% of the volume of air. All major classes of structural molecules in living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, contain oxygen, as do the major inorganic compounds that comprise animal shells, teeth, and bone. Oxygen in the form of is produced from water by cyanobacteria, algae and plants during photosynthesis and is used in cellular respiration for all complex life. Oxygen is toxic to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until began to accumulate in the atmosphere 2.5 billion years ago. Another form (allotrope) of oxygen, ozone (), helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation with the high-altitude ozone layer, but is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. Oxygen was independently discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Uppsala, in 1773 or earlier, and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire, in 1774, but Priestley is often given priority because his publication came out in print first. The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. Oxygen is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquefied air, use of zeolites to remove carbon dioxide and nitrogen from air, electrolysis of water and other means. Uses of oxygen include the production of steel, plastics and textiles; rocket propellant; oxygen therapy; and life support in aircraft, submarines, spaceflight and diving. Characteristics Structure At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas with the molecular formula , in which the two oxygen atoms are chemically bonded to each other with a spin triplet electron configuration. This bond has a bond order of two, and is often simplified in description as a double bond or as a combination of one two-electron bond and two three-electron bonds. Triplet oxygen is the ground state of the molecule. The electron configuration of the molecule has two unpaired electrons occupying two degenerate molecular orbitals. An orbital is a concept from quantum mechanics that models an electron as a wave-like particle that has a spacial distribution about an atom or molecule. These orbitals are classified as antibonding (weakening the bond order from three to two), so the diatomic oxygen bond is weaker than the diatomic nitrogen triple bond in which all bonding molecular orbitals are filled, but some antibonding orbitals are not. In normal triplet form, molecules are paramagnetic—they form a magnet in the presence of a magnetic field—because of the spin magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons in the molecule, and the negative exchange energy between neighboring molecules. Liquid oxygen is attracted to a magnet to a sufficient extent that, in laboratory demonstrations, a bridge of liquid oxygen may be supported against its own weight between the poles of a powerful magnet. Oxygen's paramagnetism can be used analytically in paramagnetic oxygen gas analysers that determine the purity of gaseous oxygen. () Singlet oxygen, a name given to several higher-energy species of molecular in which all the electron spins are paired, is much more reactive towards common organic molecules. In nature, singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlight. Krieger-Liszkay 2005, 337-46 It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength, Harrison 1990 and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen. Wentworth 2002 Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues. Hirayama 1994, 149-150 Allotropes Ozone is a rare gas on Earth found mostly in the stratosphere The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen, . It has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ·mol-1. This is the form that is used by complex forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration (see Biological role) and is the form that is a major part of the Earth's atmosphere (see Occurrence). Other aspects of are covered in the remainder of this article. Trioxygen () is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Stwertka 1998, p.48 Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, however, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. Stwertka 1998, p.49 The metastable molecule tetraoxygen () was discovered in 2001, Cacace 2001, 4062 and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen. It was proven in 2006 in that phase, created by pressurizing to 20 GPa, is in fact a rhombohedral cluster. Lundegaard 2006, 201–04 This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either or and may therefore be used in rocket fuel. A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa Desgreniers 1990, 1117–22 and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes superconducting. Shimizu 1998, 767–69 Physical properties Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen; water contains approximately 1 molecule of for every 2 molecules of , compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L−1) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L−1). At 25 °C and 1 atm of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, whereas seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter. Evans & Claiborne 2006, 88 At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water. Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (−182.95 °C, −297.31 °F), and freezes at 54.36 K (−218.79 °C, −361.82 °F). Lide 2003, Section 4 Both liquid and solid are clear substances with a light sky-blue color caused by absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the sky, which is due to Rayleigh scattering of blue light). High-purity liquid is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air; Liquid oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials. Isotopes and stellar origin Late in a massive star's life, 16O concentrates in the O-shell, 17O in the H-shell and 18O in the He-shell Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes, 16O, 17O, and 18O, with 16O being the most abundant (99.762% natural abundance). Oxygen isotopes range in mass number from 12 to 28. Most 16O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in stars but some is made in the neon burning process. Meyer 2005, 9022 17O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle, making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars. Most 18O is produced when 14N (made abundant from CNO burning) captures a 4He nucleus, making 18O common in the helium-rich zones of stars. Fourteen radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 15O with a half-life of 122.24 seconds (s) and 14O with a half-life of 70.606 s. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 27 s and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 83 milliseconds. The most common decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 16O is electron capture to yield nitrogen, and the most common mode for the isotopes heavier than 18O is beta decay to yield fluorine. Occurrence Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element, by mass, in our biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass and is the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 21.0% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 1015 tonnes). Emsley 2001, p.298 Figures given are for values up to above the surface Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% by volume) and Venus have far lower concentrations. However, the surrounding these other planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide. Cold water holds more dissolved . The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while respiration and decay remove it from the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year. Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of at lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content. From The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters by H.W. Harvey, 1955, citing C.J.J. Fox, "On the coefficients of absorption of atmospheric gases in sea water", Publ. Circ. Cons. Explor. Mer, no. 41, 1907. Harvey however notes that according to later articles in Nature the values appear to be about 3% too high. Polluted water may have reduced amounts of in it, depleted by decaying algae and other biomaterials (see eutrophication). Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water's biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of needed to restore it to a normal concentration. Emsley 2001, p.301 Biological role Photosynthesis and respiration Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. Green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on earth and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Fenical 1983, "Marine Plants" A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is: Brown 2003, 958 6 + 6 + photons → + 6 (or simply carbon dioxide + water + sunlight → glucose + dioxygen) Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons. Thylakoid membranes are part of chloroplasts in algae and plants while they simply are one of many membrane structures in cyanobacteria. In fact, chloroplasts are thought to have evolved from cyanobacteria that were once symbiotic partners with the progenerators of plants and algae. Many steps are involved, but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to synthesize ATP via photophosphorylation. Raven 2005, 115–27 The remaining after oxidation of the water molecule is released into the atmosphere. Water oxidation is catalyzed by a manganese-containing enzyme complex known as the oxygen evolving complex (OEC) or water-splitting complex found associated with the lumenal side of thylakoid membranes. Manganese is an important cofactor, and calcium and chloride are also required for the reaction to occur.(Raven 2005) Molecular dioxygen, , is essential for cellular respiration in all aerobic organisms. Oxygen is used in mitochondria to help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during oxidative phosphorylation. The reaction for aerobic respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis and is simplified as: + 6 → 6 + 6 + 2880 kJ·mol-1 In vertebrates, is diffused through membranes in the lungs and into red blood cells. Hemoglobin binds , changing its color from bluish red to bright red. CO2 is released from another part of hemoglobin (see Bohr effect) Other animals use hemocyanin (molluscs and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and lobsters). A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cc of . Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion (O2−) and hydrogen peroxide (), are dangerous by-products of oxygen use in organisms. Parts of the immune system of higher organisms, however, create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack. An adult human in rest inhales 1.8 to 2.4 grams of oxygen per minute. "For humans, the normal volume is 6-8 liters per minute." This amounts to more than 6 billion tonnes of oxygen inhaled by humanity per year. (1.8 grams)*(60 minutes)*(24 hours)*(365 days)*(6.6 billion people)/1,000,000=6.24 billion tonnes Build-up in the atmosphere O2 build-up in Earth's atmosphere: 1) no O2 produced; 2) O2 produced, but absorbed in oceans & seabed rock; 3) O2 starts to gas out of the oceans, but is absorbed by land surfaces and formation of ozone layer; 4-5) O2 sinks filled and the gas accumulates Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic era (between 2.5 and 1.6 billion years ago). At first, the oxygen combined with dissolved iron in the oceans to form banded iron formations. Free oxygen started to gas out of the oceans 2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago. Campbell 2005, 522–23 The presence of large amounts of dissolved and free oxygen in the oceans and atmosphere may have driven most of the anaerobic organisms then living to extinction during the oxygen catastrophe about 2.4 billion years ago. However, cellular respiration using O2 enables aerobic organisms to produce much more ATP than anaerobic organisms, helping the former to dominate Earth's biosphere. Freeman 2005, 214, 586 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration of allowed for the evolution of eukaryotic cells and ultimately complex multicellular organisms such as plants and animals. Since the beginning of the Cambrian era 540 million years ago, levels have fluctuated between 15% and 30% by volume. Berner 1999, 10955–57 Towards the end of the Carboniferous era (about 300 million years ago) atmospheric levels reached a maximum of 35% by volume, allowing insects and amphibians to grow much larger than today's species. Human activities, including the burning of 7 billion tonnes of fossil fuels each year have had very little effect on the amount of free oxygen in the atmosphere. At the current rate of photosynthesis it would take about 2,000 years to regenerate the entire in the present atmosphere. Dole 1965, 5–27 History Early experiments Philo's experiment inspired later investigators One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the second century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck. Jastrow 1936, 171 Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.499. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion. English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus or just nitroaereus. Britannica contributors 1911, "John Mayow" In one experiment he found that placing either a mouse or a lit candle in a closed container over water caused the water to rise and replace one-fourteenth of the air's volume before extinguishing the subjects. World of Chemistry contributors 2005, "John Mayow" From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion. Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. He also thought that the lungs separate nitroaereus from air and pass it into the blood and that animal heat and muscle movement result from the reaction of nitroaereus with certain substances in the body. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract "De respiratione". Phlogiston theory Stahl helped develop and popularize the phlogiston theory. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as an element. Emsley 2001, p.299 This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl by 1731, Morris 2003 phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. Highly combustible materials that leave little residue, such as wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston; whereas non-combustible substances that corrode, such as iron, contained very little. Air did not play a role in phlogiston theory, nor were any initial quantitative experiments conducted to test the idea; instead, it was based on observations of what happens when something burns, that most common objects appear to become lighter and seem to lose something in the process. The fact that a substance like wood actually gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the gaseous combustion products. Indeed one of the first clues that the phlogiston theory was incorrect was that metals, too, gain weight in rusting (when they were supposedly losing phlogiston). Carl Wilhelm Scheele beat Priestley to the discovery but published afterwards. Discovery Oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772. Scheele called the gas 'fire air' because it was the only known supporter of combustion. He wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire, which he sent to his publisher in 1775. However, that document was not published until 1777. Emsley 2001, p.300 Joseph Priestley is usually given priority in the discovery In the meantime, an experiment was conducted by the British clergyman Joseph Priestley on August 1, 1774 focused sunlight on mercuric oxide (HgO) inside a glass tube, which liberated a gas he named 'dephlogisticated air'. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.500 He noted that candles burned brighter in the gas and that a mouse was more active and lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas himself, he wrote: "The feeling of it to my lungs was not sensibly different from that of common air, but I fancied that my breast felt peculiarly light and easy for some time afterwards." Priestley published his findings in 1775 in a paper titled "An Account of Further Discoveries in Air" which was included in the second volume of his book titled Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. Priestley 1775, 384–94 Because he published his findings first, Priestley is usually given priority in the discovery. The noted French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier later claimed to have discovered the new substance independently. However, Priestley visited Lavoisier in October 1774 and told him about his experiment and how he liberated the new gas. Scheele also posted a letter to Lavoisier on September 30, 1774 that described his own discovery of the previously unknown substance, but Lavoisier never acknowledged receiving it (a copy of the letter was found in Scheele's belongings after his death). Lavoisier's contribution What Lavoisier did indisputably do (although this was disputed at the time) was to conduct the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and give the first correct explanation of how combustion works. He used these and similar experiments, all started in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element. Antoine Lavoisier discredited the Phlogiston theory In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion were documented in his book Sur la combustion en général, which was published in 1777. In that work, he proved that air is a mixture of two gases; 'vital air', which is essential to combustion and respiration, and azote (Gk. "lifeless"), which did not support either. Azote later became nitrogen in English, although it has kept the name in French and several other European languages. Lavoisier renamed 'vital air' to oxygène in 1777 from the Greek roots (oxys) (acid, literally "sharp," from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), because he mistakenly believed that oxygen was a constituent of all acids. Mellor 1939 Chemists eventually determined that Lavoisier was wrong in this regard, but by that time it was too late, the name had taken. Actually, the gas that could more appropriately have been given the description, "acid producer," is hydrogen. Oxygen entered the English language despite opposition by English scientists and the fact that the Englishman Priestley had first isolated the gas and written about it. This is partly due to a poem praising the gas titled "Oxygen" in the popular book The Botanic Garden (1791) by Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin. Later history Robert H. Goddard and a liquid oxygen-gasoline rocket John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monoatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the atomic mass of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. Roscoe 1883, 38 However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860. Part of this rejection was due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity towards atoms of the same element, and part was due to apparent exceptions to Avogadro's law that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules. By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied, and its components isolated, by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on December 22, 1877 to the French Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing his discovery of liquid oxygen. Daintith 1994, p.707 Just two days later, French physicist Louis Paul Cailletet announced his own method of liquefying molecular oxygen. Only a few drops of the liquid were produced in either case so no meaningful analysis could be conducted. Oxygen was liquified in stable state for the first time on March 29, 1877 by Polish scientists from Jagiellonian University, Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski. Poland - Culture, Science and Media. Condensation of oxygen and nitrogen. Retrieved on 2008-10-04. In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen to study. Emsley 2001, p.303 The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them. How Products are Made contributors, "Oxygen" Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed . This method of welding and cutting metal later became common. In 1923 the American scientist Robert H. Goddard became the first person to develop a rocket engine; the engine used gasoline for fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Goddard successfully flew a small liquid-fueled rocket 56 m at 97 km/h on March 16, 1926 in Auburn, Massachusetts, USA. Industrial production Two major methods are employed to produce 100 million tonnes of extracted from air for industrial uses annually. The most common method is to fractionally distill liquefied air into its various components, with nitrogen distilling as a vapor while oxygen is left as a liquid. Hoffman electrolysis apparatus used in electrolysis of water. The other major method of producing gas involves passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90% to 93% . Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed, by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. After a set cycle time the operation of the two beds is interchanged, thereby allowing for a continuous supply of gaseous oxygen to be pumped through a pipeline. This is known as pressure swing adsorption. Oxygen gas is increasingly obtained by these non-cryogenic technologies (see also the related vacuum swing adsorption). Oxygen gas can also be produced through electrolysis of water into molecular oxygen and hydrogen. DC electricity must be used: if AC is used, the gases in each limb consist of hydrogen and oxygen in the explosive ratio 2:1. Contrary to popular belief, the 2:1 ratio observed in the DC electrolysis of acidified water does not prove that the empirical formula of water is H2O unless certain assumptions are made about the molecular formulae of hydrogen and oxygen themselves. A similar method is the electrocatalytic evolution from oxides and oxoacids. Chemical catalysts can be used as well, such as in chemical oxygen generators or oxygen candles that are used as part of the life-support equipment on submarines, and are still part of standard equipment on commercial airliners in case of depressurization emergencies. Another air separation technology involves forcing air to dissolve through ceramic membranes based on zirconium dioxide by either high pressure or an electric current, to produce nearly pure gas. In large quantities, the price of liquid oxygen in 2001 was approximately $0.21/kg. Since the primary cost of production is the energy cost of liquefying the air, the production cost will change as energy cost varies. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one litre of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and 20 °C. Such tankers are used to refill bulk liquid oxygen storage containers, which stand outside hospitals and other institutions with a need for large volumes of pure oxygen gas. Liquid oxygen is passed through heat exchangers, which convert the cryogenic liquid into gas before it enters the building. Oxygen is also stored and shipped in smaller cylinders containing the compressed gas; a form that is useful in certain portable medical applications and oxy-fuel welding and cutting. Applications Medical An oxygen concentrator in an emphysema patient's house Uptake of from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders, and any disease that impairs the body's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.510 Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals, the patient's home, or increasingly by portable devices. Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation, but have since been replaced mostly by the use of oxygen masks or nasal cannulas. Hyperbaric (high-pressure) medicine uses special oxygen chambers to increase the partial pressure of around the patient and, when needed, the medical staff. Carbon monoxide poisoning, gas gangrene, and decompression sickness (the 'bends') are sometimes treated using these devices. Increased concentration in the lungs helps to displace carbon monoxide from the heme group of hemoglobin. Oxygen gas is poisonous to the anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene, so increasing its partial pressure helps kill them. Decompression sickness occurs in divers who decompress too quickly after a dive, resulting in bubbles of inert gas, mostly nitrogen and helium, forming in their blood. Increasing the pressure of as soon as possible is part of the treatment. Oxygen is also used medically for patients who require mechanical ventilation, often at concentrations above 21% found in ambient air. Life support and recreational use Low pressure pure is used in space suits A notable application of as a low-pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits, which surround their occupant's body with pressurized air. These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one third normal pressure, resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of . This trade-off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain flexible spacesuits. Scuba divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered , but most often use normal pressure, and/or mixtures of oxygen and air. Pure or nearly pure use in diving at higher-than-sea-level pressures is usually limited to rebreather, decompression, or emergency treatment use at relatively shallow depths (~ 6 meters depth, or less). Deeper diving requires significant dilution of with other gases, such as nitrogen or helium, to help prevent oxygen toxicity. People who climb mountains or fly in non-pressurized fixed-wing aircraft sometimes have supplemental supplies. The reason is that increasing the proportion of oxygen in the breathing gas at low pressure acts to augment the inspired partial pressure nearer to that found at sea-level. Passengers traveling in (pressurized) commercial airplanes have an emergency supply of automatically supplied to them in case of cabin depressurization. Sudden cabin pressure loss activates chemical oxygen generators above each seat, causing oxygen masks to drop and forcing iron filings into the sodium chlorate inside the canister. A steady stream of oxygen gas is produced by the exothermic reaction. However, even this may pose a danger if inappropriately triggered: a ValuJet airplane crashed after use-date-expired canisters, which were being shipped in the cargo hold, activated and caused fire. The canisters were mis-labeled as empty, and carried against dangerous goods regulations. ) Oxygen, as a supposed mild euphoric, has a history of recreational use in oxygen bars and in sports. Oxygen bars are establishments, found in Japan, California, and Las Vegas, Nevada since the late 1990s that offer higher than normal exposure for a fee. Professional athletes, especially in American football, also sometimes go off field between plays to wear oxygen masks in order to get a supposed "boost" in performance. However, the reality of a pharmacological effect is doubtful; a placebo or psychological boost being the most plausible explanation. Available studies support a performance boost from enriched mixtures only if they are breathed during actual aerobic exercise. Other recreational uses include pyrotechnic applications, such as George Goble's five-second ignition of barbecue grills. Industrial Most commercially produced is used to smelt iron into steel. Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen. In this process, is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, SO2 and CO2. The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1700 °C. Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry. Ethylene is reacted with to create ethylene oxide, which, in turn, is converted into ethylene glycol; the primary feeder material used to manufacture a host of products, including antifreeze and polyester polymers (the precursors of many plastics and fabrics). Most of the remaining 20% of commercially produced oxygen is used in medical applications, metal cutting and welding, as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, and in water treatment. Oxygen is used in oxyacetylene welding burning acetylene with to produce a very hot flame. In this process, metal up to 60 cm thick is first heated with a small oxy-acetylene flame and then quickly cut by a large stream of . Cook & Lauer 1968, p.508 Rocket propulsion requires a fuel and an oxidizer. Larger rockets use liquid oxygen as their oxidizer, which is mixed and ignited with the fuel for propulsion. Scientific 500 million years of climate change vs 18O Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine what the climate was like millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope, oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12% heavier oxygen-18; this disparity increases at lower temperatures. Emsley 2001, p.304 During periods of lower global temperatures, snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate. Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples that are up to several hundreds of thousands of years old. Planetary geologists have measured different abundances of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth, the Moon, Mars, and meteorites, but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the Sun, believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula. However, analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen-16 than does the Earth. The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth. Oxygen presents two spectrophotometric absorption bands peaking at the wavelengths 687 and 760 nm. Some remote sensing scientists have proposed using the measurement of the radiance coming from vegetation canopies in those bands to characterize plant health status from a satellite platform. Miller et al. 2003 This approach exploits the fact that in those bands it is possible to discriminate the vegetation's reflectance from its fluorescence, which is much weaker. The measurement is technically difficult owing to the low signal-to-noise ratio and the physical structure of vegetation; but it has been proposed as a possible method of monitoring the carbon cycle from satellites on a global scale. Compounds Water (H2O) is the most familiar oxygen compound. The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state −1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997, 28 Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon: −1/2 (superoxides), −1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental, hypofluorous acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1 (dioxygen difluoride), and +2 (oxygen difluoride). Oxides and other inorganic compounds Water (H2O) is the oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound. Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction (about 23.3 kJ·mol−1 per hydrogen atom) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule. Maksyutenko et al. 2006 These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15% closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just Van der Waals forces. Also, since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the charge difference makes it a polar molecule. The interactions between the different dipoles of each molecule cause a net attraction force. Oxides, such as iron oxide or rust form when oxygen combines with other elements. Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements at elevated temperatures to give corresponding oxides. However, some elements readily form oxides at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the rusting of iron is an example. The surface of metals like aluminium and titanium are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Some of the transition metal oxides are found in nature as non-stoichiometric compounds, with a slightly less metal than the chemical formula would show. For example, the natural occurring FeO (wüstite) is actually written as , where x is usually around 0.05. Smart 2005, 214 Oxygen as a compound is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide (). The earth's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon (silica , found in granite and sand), aluminium (aluminium oxide , in bauxite and corundum), iron (iron(III) oxide , in hematite and rust) and other metals. The rest of the Earth's crust is also made of oxygen compounds, in particular calcium carbonate (in limestone) and silicates (in feldspars). Water-soluble silicates in the form of , , and are used as detergents and adhesives. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.507 Oxygen also acts as a ligand for transition metals, forming metal–O2 bonds with the iridium atom in Vaska's complex, Crabtree 2001, 152 with the platinum in , Cook & Lauer 1968, p.505 and with the iron center of the heme group of hemoglobin. Organic compounds and biomolecules Acetone is an important feeder material in the chemical industry(oxygen is in red, carbon in black and hydrogen in white). Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (R-C(O)-NR2). There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone ((CH3)2CO) and phenol (C6H5OH) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substances. Other important organic compounds that contain oxygen are: glycerol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, citric acid, acetic anhydride, and acetamide. Epoxides are ethers in which the oxygen atom is part of a ring of three atoms. Oxygen reacts spontaneously with many organic compounds at or below room temperature in a process called autoxidation. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.506 Most of the organic compounds that contain oxygen are not made by direct action of . Organic compounds important in industry and commerce that are made by direct oxidation of a precursor include ethylene oxide and peracetic acid. Oxygen represents more than 40% of the molecular mass of the ATP molecule. The element is found in almost all biomolecules that are important to (or generated by) life. Only a few common complex biomolecules, such as squalene and the carotenes, contain no oxygen. Of the organic compounds with biological relevance, carbohydrates contain the largest proportion by mass of oxygen. All fats, fatty acids, amino acids, and proteins contain oxygen (due to the presence of carbonyl groups in these acids and their ester residues). Oxygen also occurs in phosphate (PO43−) groups in the biologically important energy-carrying molecules ATP and ADP, in the backbone and the purines (except adenine) and pyrimidines of RNA and DNA, and in bones as calcium phosphate and hydroxylapatite. Precautions Toxicity Oxygen gas () can be toxic at elevated partial pressures, leading to convulsions and other health problems. Since 's partial pressure is the fraction of times the total pressure, elevated partial pressures can occur either from high fraction in breathing gas or from high breathing gas pressure, or a combination of both. Cook & Lauer 1968, p.511 Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), or 2.5 times the normal sea-level partial pressure of about 21 kPa. Therefore, air supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of 30% by volume (about 30 kPa at standard pressure). At one time, premature babies were placed in incubators containing -rich air, but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by it. Oxygen toxicity occurs when lungs take in a higher than normal O2 partial pressure, which can occur in deep scuba diving. Breathing pure in space applications, such as in some modern space suits, or in early spacecraft such as Apollo, causes no damage due to the low total pressures used. In the case of spacesuits, the partial pressure in the breathing gas is, in general, about 30 kPa (1.4 times normal), and the resulting partial pressure in the astronaut's arterial blood is only marginally more than normal sea-level partial pressure (see arterial blood gas). Oxygen toxicity to the lungs and central nervous system can also occur in deep scuba diving and surface supplied diving. Prolonged breathing of an air mixture with an partial pressure more than 60 kPa can eventually lead to permanent pulmonary fibrosis. Exposure to a partial pressures greater than 160 kPa may lead to convulsions (normally fatal for divers). Acute oxygen toxicity can occur by breathing an air mixture with 21% at 66 m or more of depth while the same thing can occur by breathing 100% at only 6 m. Donald 1992 Combustion and other hazards Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; however, an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Werley 1991 Oxygen itself is not the fuel, but the oxidant. Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire. Pure at higher than normal pressure and a spark led to a fire and the loss of the Apollo 1 crew. Concentrated will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. Steel pipes and storage vessels used to store and transmit both gaseous and liquid oxygen will act as a fuel; and therefore the design and manufacture of systems requires special training to ensure that ignition sources are minimized. The fire that killed the Apollo 1 crew on a test launch pad spread so rapidly because the capsule was pressurized with pure but at slightly more than atmospheric pressure, instead of the ⅓ normal pressure that would be used in a mission. No single ignition source of the fire was conclusively identified, although some evidence points to arc from an electrical spark). (Report of Apollo 204 Review Board NASA Historical Reference Collection, NASA History Office, NASA HQ, Washington, DC) Chiles 2001 Liquid oxygen spills, if allowed to soak into organic matter, such as wood, petrochemicals, and asphalt can cause these materials to detonate unpredictably on subsequent mechanical impact. As with other cryogenic liquids, on contact with the human body it can cause burns to the skin and the eyes. See also Oxygen compounds Hypoxia, a lack of oxygen Hypoxia (environmental) for depletion in aquatic ecology Optode for a method of measuring concentration in solution Oxygen Catastrophe The sudden rise in Oxygen in the atmosphere around 2.4B years ago Oxygen isotope ratio cycle Oxygen sensor Winkler test for dissolved oxygen Notes and citations References External links Oxidizing Agents > Oxygen Oxygen (O2) Properties, Uses, Applications Roald Hoffmann article on "The Story of O" WebElements.com – Oxygen | Oxygen |@lemmatized oxygen:195 greek:3 root:2 ὀξύς:1 oxys:2 acid:16 literally:4 sharp:2 taste:2 γενής:2 genēs:2 producer:4 begetter:2 element:18 atomic:5 number:2 represent:2 symbol:1 member:1 chalcogen:1 group:6 periodic:1 table:1 highly:4 reactive:6 nonmetallic:1 period:2 readily:2 form:24 compound:22 notably:1 oxides:1 almost:5 standard:5 temperature:12 pressure:41 two:15 atom:12 bind:2 dioxygen:5 colorless:2 odorless:2 tasteless:1 diatomic:5 gas:49 formula:7 third:3 abundant:6 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2,164 | B-boying | REDIRECT Breakdance | B-boying |@lemmatized redirect:1 breakdance:1 |@bigram |
2,165 | Indo-Iranian_languages | The Indo-Iranian language group constitutes the easternmost extant branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It consists of three language groups: the Indo-Aryan (including Dardic), Iranian and Nuristani. The term Aryan languages is occasionally still used to refer to the Indo-Iranian languages Numeral Types and Changes Worldwide, by Jadranka (EDT) Gvozdanovic, Language Arts & Disciplines,1999, Page 221 . The speakers of the Proto-Indo-Iranian language, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are usually associated with the late 3rd millennium BC Sintashta-Petrovka culture of Central Asia. Their expansion is believed to have been connected with the invention of the chariot. The contemporary Indo-Iranian languages form the largest sub-branch of Indo-European, with more than one billion speakers in total, stretching from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) to Xinjiang (Sariqoli) and East India or Bangladesh. SIL in a 2005 estimate counts a total of 308 varieties, the largest in terms of native speakers being Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, ca. 540 million), Bengali (ca. 200 million), Punjabi (ca. 120 million), Marathi and Persian (ca. 70 million each), Gujarati (ca. 45 million), Pashto (40 million), Oriya (ca. 30 million), Kurdish (ca. 40 million) and Sindhi (ca. 20 million ). Indo-Iranian languages were once spoken across a wider area still. The Scythians were described by Roman writer Strabo as inhabiting the lands to the north of the Black Sea in present-day Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. The river-names Don, Dnieper, Danube etc. are of Indo-Iranian origin. The so-called Migration Period saw Indo-Iranian languages disappear from Eastern Europe with the arrival of the Turkic-speaking Pechenegs and others by the eighth century AD. The oldest attested Indo-Iranian languages are Vedic Sanskrit (ancient Indian), Avestan and Old Persian (two ancient Iranian languages). But there are written instances of a fourth language in Northern Mesopotamia which is considered to be Indo-Aryan. They are attested in documents from the ancient empire of Mitanni and the Hittites of Anatolia. Subdivisions Iranian Group: Eastern Iranian Northeastern Avestan (extinct) Scythian (extinct) Saka (extinct) Ossetian Sarikoli Sogdian (extinct) Yaghnobi Bactrian (extinct) Southeastern Pashto Pamiri Ormurri-Parachi Western Iranian Northwestern Dari language of Zoroastrians Balochi Gilaki Kurdish Mazanadarani (Tapurian) Parthian (extinct) Talysh Deilami Zazaki Southwestern ("Persid") Old Persian (extinct) Middle Persian (extinct) New Persian (eastern & western dialects) Tajik Luri / Bakhtiari Tat Indo-Aryan Group: Vedic Sanskrit Sanskrit Pāli Central Zone Hindustani Hindi Urdu Romani/Romany Eastern Zone (Magadhan Prakrit languages) Angika Assamese Bengali Bhojpuri Magadhi Maithili Oriya Northern Zone (Pahari languages) Nepali Northwestern Zone Dardic languages (sometimes still classified separately): Dameli Domaaki Gawar-Bati Kalsha-mun Kashmiri Khowar Kohistani Ningalami Pashayi Palula Shina Shumashti Punjabi Sindhi Khojki Kutchi Rajasthani Southern Zone (also known as Insular Indo-Aryan) Dhivehi / Mahl Sinhala Western Zone Gujarati Konkani Marathi Nuristani languages: Ashkunu (Ashkun) Kamkata-viri (Bashgali) Vasi-vari (Prasuni) Tregami Kalasha-ala (Waigali) References Bibliography Chakrabarti,Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 8170741289 abstract of the study of Minoan language and its link with Indo-Iranian (Hubert La Marle) Indo-Iranian Languages and Peoples, edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Published 2002 for the British Academy by Oxford University Press See also Language families and languages | Indo-Iranian_languages |@lemmatized indo:17 iranian:16 language:20 group:4 constitute:1 easternmost:1 extant:1 branch:2 european:2 family:2 consist:1 three:1 aryan:5 include:1 dardic:2 nuristani:2 term:2 occasionally:1 still:3 use:1 refer:1 languages:2 numeral:1 type:1 change:1 worldwide:1 jadranka:1 edt:1 gvozdanovic:1 art:1 discipline:1 page:1 speaker:3 proto:2 hypothetical:1 usually:1 associate:1 late:1 millennium:1 bc:1 sintashta:1 petrovka:1 culture:1 central:2 asia:1 expansion:1 believe:1 connect:1 invention:1 chariot:1 contemporary:1 form:1 large:2 sub:1 one:1 billion:1 total:2 stretch:1 europe:2 romani:2 caucasus:1 ossetian:2 xinjiang:1 sariqoli:1 east:1 india:1 bangladesh:1 sil:1 estimate:1 count:1 variety:1 native:1 hindustani:2 hindi:2 urdu:2 ca:8 million:9 bengali:3 punjabi:2 marathi:2 persian:5 gujarati:2 pashto:2 oriya:2 kurdish:2 sindhi:2 speak:1 across:1 wider:1 area:1 scythian:2 describe:1 roman:1 writer:1 strabo:1 inhabit:1 land:1 north:1 black:1 sea:1 present:1 day:1 ukraine:1 moldova:1 romania:1 river:1 name:1 dnieper:1 danube:1 etc:1 origin:1 call:1 migration:1 period:1 saw:1 disappear:1 eastern:4 arrival:1 turkic:1 speaking:1 pechenegs:1 others:1 eighth:1 century:1 ad:1 old:3 attested:1 vedic:2 sanskrit:3 ancient:3 indian:1 avestan:2 two:1 write:1 instance:1 fourth:1 northern:2 mesopotamia:1 consider:1 attest:1 document:1 empire:1 mitanni:1 hittite:1 anatolia:1 subdivision:1 northeastern:1 extinct:8 saka:1 sarikoli:1 sogdian:1 yaghnobi:1 bactrian:1 southeastern:1 pamiri:1 ormurri:1 parachi:1 western:3 northwestern:2 dari:1 zoroastrian:1 balochi:1 gilaki:1 mazanadarani:1 tapurian:1 parthian:1 talysh:1 deilami:1 zazaki:1 southwestern:1 persid:1 middle:1 new:1 dialect:1 tajik:1 luri:1 bakhtiari:1 tat:1 pāli:1 zone:6 romany:1 magadhan:1 prakrit:1 angika:1 assamese:1 bhojpuri:1 magadhi:1 maithili:1 pahari:1 nepali:1 sometimes:1 classify:1 separately:1 dameli:1 domaaki:1 gawar:1 bati:1 kalsha:1 mun:1 kashmiri:1 khowar:1 kohistani:1 ningalami:1 pashayi:1 palula:1 shina:1 shumashti:1 khojki:1 kutchi:1 rajasthani:1 southern:1 also:2 know:1 insular:1 dhivehi:1 mahl:1 sinhala:1 konkani:1 ashkunu:1 ashkun:1 kamkata:1 viri:1 bashgali:1 vasi:1 vari:1 prasuni:1 tregami:1 kalasha:1 ala:1 waigali:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 chakrabarti:1 byomkes:1 comparative:1 study:2 santali:1 calcutta:1 k:1 p:1 bagchi:1 co:1 isbn:1 abstract:1 minoan:1 link:1 hubert:1 la:1 marle:1 people:1 edit:1 nicholas:1 sims:1 williams:1 publish:1 british:1 academy:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 see:1 |@bigram indo_iranian:11 indo_european:2 indo_aryan:4 proto_indo:2 millennium_bc:1 hindi_urdu:2 vedic_sanskrit:2 study_santali:1 santali_bengali:1 sims_williams:1 |
2,166 | Grizzly_bear | {{Taxobox | name = Grizzly Bear | status = LC | status_system = iucn2.3 | image = Grizzlybears ChrisServheenUSFWS.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Ursus arctos horribilis | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Mammalia | ordo = Carnivora | familia = Ursidae | genus = Ursus | species = U. arctos | subspecies = U. a. horribilis | trinomial = Ursus arctos horribilis | trinomial_authority = (Ord, 1815) | range_map = Ursus arctos horribilis map.svg | range_map_width = 240px | range_map_caption = Shrinking distribution during post-glacial, historic and present time. }} The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), also known as the silvertip bear', is a subspecies of brown bear (Ursus arctos) that lives in the uplands of western North America. Grizzlies are normally solitary active animals, but in coastal areas the grizzly congregates alongside streams, lakes, rivers, and ponds during the salmon spawn. Every other year, females (sows) produce one to four young (commonly two) which are small and weigh only about 500 grams (one pound). A sow is protective of her offspring and will attack if she thinks she or her cubs are threatened. Grizzly Bears are very aggressive animals that will take anything as a threat. Description Male grizzly bears can reach weights of more than , but more typically weigh to . http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=90 The females are on average 38% smaller, at about 250-350 pounds (114-160 kilograms), http://www.fws.gov/mountain%2Dprairie/species/mammals/grizzly/ an example of sexual dimorphism. On average, grizzly bears stand about 1 meter (3.3 ft) at the shoulder when on all fours and 2 meters (6.6 ft) on their hind legs http://www.mountainnature.com/wildlife/Bears/BearID.htm , but males often stand 2.44 meters (8 ft) or more on their hind legs. On average, grizzly bears from the Yukon River area are about 20% smaller than typical grizzlies. The Bear Facts - Types of bears in the Yukon, Yukon Education Student Network Their coloring ranges widely depending on geographic areas, from blond to deep brown red or even grey. The grizzly has a large hump over the shoulders, which is a muscle mass used to power the forelimbs in digging. The hind legs are more powerful, however. The muscles in the lower legs provide enough strength for the bear to stand up and even walk short distances on its hind legs, giving it a better view of its surroundings. The head is large and round with a concave facial profile. In spite of their massive size, these bears can run at speeds of up to 56 kilometres per hour (35 miles per hour). However, they are slower running downhill rather than uphill because of the large hump of muscle over the shoulders. They have very thick fur to keep them warm in brutal, windy, and snowy winters. Grizzlies can be distinguished from most other brown bear subspecies by their proportionately longer claws and cranial profile which resembles that of the polar bear. Compared to other North American brown bear subspecies, a grizzly has a silver tipped pelt and is smaller in size. This size difference is due to the lesser availability of food in the grizzlies' landlocked habitats. Brown bear, Grizzly bear or Kodiak bear? They are similar in size, colour and behaviour to the Siberian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos collaris). Brown Bear Hunting in Russia A grizzly bear skull Name The word "grizzly" in its name refers to "grizzled" or grey hairs in its fur, but when naturalist George Ord formally named the bear in 1815 he misunderstood the word as "grisly", to produce its biological Latin specific or subspecific name "horribilis". Range The current range of the grizzly bear extends from Alaska, south through much of western Canada, and into portions of the northwestern United States including Idaho, Montana, Washington and Wyoming, extending as far south as Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, but is most commonly found in Canada. There may still be a small population in Colorado in the southern San Juan Mountains. In September 2007 a hunter produced evidence of grizzly rehabilitation in the Selway-Bitterroot ecosystem by killing a male grizzly. Grizzly shot in Selway-Bitterroot from the Missoulian website Its original range also included much of the Great Plains and the southwestern states, but it has been extirpated in most of those areas. The grizzly currently enjoys legal protection in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and European countries. However, it is expected that its re-population of its former range will be a slow process, due equally to the ramifications of reintroducing such a large animal to areas which are prized for agriculture and livestock and also to the bear's slow reproductive habits (bears invest a good deal of time in raising young). There are currently about 60,000 wild grizzly bears located throughout North America. These bears weigh from 100 to 1200 pounds. Brown bears (of which the grizzly bear is a subspecies) can live up to thirty years in the wild, though twenty to twenty-five is normal. Grizzly Bear from the Defenders of Wildlife website Diet A mother grizzly with a cub Although grizzlies are of the order Carnivora and have the digestive system of a carnivore, they are actually omnivores since their diet consists of both plants and animals. They have been known to prey on large mammals such as moose, deer, sheep, elk, bison, caribou and even black bears. Grizzly bears feed on fish such as salmon, trout, and bass, and those with access to a more protein-enriched diet in coastal areas potentially grow larger than interior individuals. Grizzly bears readily scavenge food, behaviour that can lead them into conflict with other species, such as wolves and humans. A few have been known to eat humans. http://books.google.com/books?id=gFlz6UKGqrcC&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=grizzly+bear+devoured+victim&source=bl&ots=algzT0_VKL&sig=KgD1BiVJ9avoLUsCJ2bbbg47mp4&hl=en The grizzly bears that reside in the American Rocky Mountains are not as large as Canadian or Alaskan sub-species. This is due, in part, to the richness of their diet which in Yellowstone consists of whitebark pine pine nuts, roots, tubers, grasses, various rodents, army cutworm moths and scavenged carcasses, none of which match the fat content of the salmon available in Alaska and British Columbia. During early spring, as the bears emerge from their dens, elk and bison calves are actively sought. The bear moves in a zig-zag pattern, nose to the ground, hoping to find unsuspecting animals to feed on. In preparation for winter, bears gain hundreds of kilograms of fat, during a period of hyperphagia, before going into a state of false hibernation. The bear often waits for a substantial snowstorm before it enters its den, such behaviour lessening the chances that predators will be able to locate the den. The dens themselves are typically located at elevations above 6,000 feet on northern-facing slopes. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether grizzly bears technically hibernate. Much of the debate revolves around body temperature and the ability of the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. Grizzly bears have the ability to "partially" recycle their body wastes during this period. In some areas where food is plentiful year round, grizzly bears skip hibernation altogether. Interspecies competition Female grizzly bear in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.Most notable in Yellowstone have been the interactions between grey wolves and grizzly bears. Since the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone, many visitors have witnessed a once common struggle between a keystone species, the grizzly bear, and its historic rival, the grey wolf. The interactions of U. arctos horribilis'' with the wolves of Yellowstone have been under considerable study. Typically, the conflict will be over a carcass, which is commonly an elk killed by wolves. The grizzly bear uses its keen sense of smell to locate the kill. Then the wolves and grizzly will play a game of cat and mouse. One wolf may try to distract the bear while the others feed. The bear then may retaliate by chasing the wolves. If the wolves become aggressive with the bear it is normally in the form of quick nips at its hind legs. Thus, the bear will sit down and ease its ability to protect itself in a full circle. Rarely do interactions such as these end in death or serious injury to either animal. One carcass simply isn't usually worth the risk to the wolves if the bear has the upper hand (due to strength and size) or to the bear (if the wolves are too numerous or persistent). Over time, it seems the grizzly bears have benefited from the presence of the grey wolf because of increased food availability. Black bears generally stay out of grizzly territory but the grizzly may occasionally enter black bear terrain to obtain food sources both bears enjoy, such as pine nuts, acorns, and berries. When a black bear sees a grizzly coming it either turns tail and runs or climbs a tree. Black bears are not strong competition for prey because they have a more herbivorous diet. Confrontations are rare because of the difference in size, habitat, and diet of the bear species. When this happens it is usually with the grizzly being the aggressor. The black bear will only fight when it is a smaller grizzly such as a yearling or when the black bear has no other choice but to defend itself. This usually results in the black bear's death. Cougars however, generally give the bears a wide berth. Grizzlies have less competition with cougars than with other predators such as coyotes, wolves, and other bears. When a grizzly descends on a cougar feeding on its kill, the cougar usually gives way to the bear. When a cougar does stand its ground, the cougar will use its superior agility and its claws to harass the bear yet stay out of its reach until one of them gives up, usually the cat. Coyotes, foxes, and wolverines are generally regarded as pests to the grizzlies rather than competition, though coyotes and wolverines may compete for smaller prey such as rabbits and deer. All three will try to scavenge whatever they can from the bears. Wolverines are aggressive enough to occasionally persist until the bear ambles on, leaving more than normal scraps for the smaller animal. Attacks on humans Grizzlies are considered by some experts to be the most aggressive bears, even by the standards of brown bears. Interspecies conflict. Which animal is the ultimate carnivore? Aggressive behaviour in grizzly bears is favored by numerous selection variables. Unlike the smaller black bears, adult grizzlies are too large to escape danger by climbing trees, so they respond to danger by standing their ground and warding off their attackers. Increased aggressiveness also assists female grizzlies in better ensuring the survival of their young to reproductive age. Why are grizzly bears more aggressive than our black bears? Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, being responsible for 70% of grizzly-caused human fatalities. How Dangerous are Black Bears Historically, bears have competed with other large predators for food, which also favors increased aggression. Campers are warned to hang food, garbage, and toiletries out of reach of bears, or to use a secure bear cache Grizzly bears normally avoid contact with people. In spite of their obvious physical advantages and many opportunities, they almost never view humans as prey. Even so, they can be extremely dangerous animals. Most grizzly bear attacks result from a bear that has been surprised at very close range, especially if it has a supply of food to protect, or female grizzlies protecting their offspring. In recent years, some grizzly bears appear to have learned to home in on the sound of hunters' gunshots in late fall as a source of potential food, and inattentive hunters have been attacked by bears trying to appropriate their kills. It is imperative for all campers in areas inhabited by grizzly to maintain a clean campsite. Reports have indicated that something as innocuous as a tube of lip balm can entice a bear to come near a campsite in search of food. Any bear that is conditioned to finding food around campsites will almost always return and expect the same reward. The bear is then a threat to campers and itself, and park rangers may be forced to kill it. For back-country campers, hanging food between trees at a height unreachable to bears is a common procedure, although some grizzlies can climb and reach hanging food in other ways. An alternative to hanging food is to use a bear canister. The Sierra Club wants the Forest Service to require everyone who enters a national forest in grizzly bear country to carry bear spray. Spokeswoman Heidi Godwin said in a news release: "The proper use of bear pepper spray will reduce human injuries caused by bears, reduce the number of grizzly bears killed in self defence, and help promote the recovery and survival of the grizzly bear." Bear Pepper Spray Legal status The grizzly bear is listed as threatened in the contiguous United States, and endangered in parts of Canada. In May 2002, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the Prairie population (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba range) of grizzly bears as being extirpated in Canada . In Alaska and parts of Canada however, the grizzly is still legally shot for sport by hunters. On January 9, 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species. In March 2007, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service "de-listed"the population, effectively removing Endangered Species Act protections for grizzlies in the Yellowstone National Park area. Protection Within the United States, the US Fish and Wildlife Service concentrates its effort to restore grizzly bears in six recovery areas. These are Northern Continental Divide (Montana), Yellowstone (Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho); Cabinet-Yaak (Montana and Idaho), Selway-Bitterroot (Montana and Idaho), Selkirk (Idaho and Washington), and North Cascades (Washington). The grizzly population in each of these areas is estimated at approximately 750 in the Northern Continental Divide, 550 in Yellowstone, 40 in the Yaak portion of the Cabinet-Yaak and 15 in the Cabinet portion, 105 in the Selkirks, 10-20 in the North Cascades, and 0 in the Bitterroots. Knibb, David, Grizzly Wars: The Public Fight Over the Great Bear pp. 164-213 (Eastern Washington University Press 2008). ISBN 978-1-59766-037-2. These are only estimates because it is impossible to conduct a precise census and bears move in and out of these areas. In the recovery areas that adjoin Canada, bears also move back and forth across the international boundary. As mentioned below, the Fish and Wildlife Service has de-listed grizzlies in Yellowstone. It also claims that the Cabinet-Yaak and Selkirk areas are linked through British Columbia. This claim is disputed. Knibb, David, Grizzly Wars: The Public Fight Over the Great Bear pp. 202-04 (Eastern Washington University Press 2008). ISBN 978-1-59766-037-2. All national parks, such as Banff National Park, Yellowstone and Grand Teton, and Theodore Roosevelt National Park have laws and regulations in place to protect the bears. Even so, grizzlies are not always safe in parks. In Glacier National Park in Montana and Banff National Park in Alberta, grizzlies are regularly killed by trains as they scavenge for grain that has leaked from poorly maintained grain cars. Roadkills on park roads are another problem. The primary limiting factors for grizzly bears in Alberta and elsewhere are human-caused mortality, unmitigated road access, and habitat loss, alienation and fragmentation. In the Central Rocky Mountains Ecosystem most bears died within a few hundred metres of roads and trails. On March 22, 2007, The U.S. Federal Government stated that Grizzly bears in and around Yellowstone National Park (Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem) no longer need Endangered Species Act protection. Several environmental organizations including the NRDC have since brought legal suit against the federal government to re-list the grizzly bear. Farther north, in Alberta, Canada, intense DNA hair-snagging studies on 2000 showed the grizzly population to be increasing faster than what it was formerly believed to be, and Alberta Sustainable Resource Development calculated a population of 841 bears. In 2002, the Endangered Species Conservation Committee recommended that the Alberta grizzly bear population be designated as Threatened due to recent estimates of grizzly bear mortality rates that indicated that the population was in decline. A recovery plan released by the Provincial government in March 2008 indicates that the grizzly population is lower than previously believed. The Provincial government has so far resisted efforts to designate its declining population of about 700 grizzlies (previously estimated at as high as 842) as endangered. Environment Canada consider the Grizzly bear to a "special concern" species, as it is particularly sensitive to human activities and natural threats. In Alberta and British Columbia, the species is considered to be at risk. Recently the International Union for Conservation of Nature moved the Grizzly bear to "Lower Risk Least Concern" status on the IUCN Red List. The Mexican Grizzly Bear is extinct. See also List of fatal bear attacks in North America by decade Grizzly-polar bear hybrid Grizzly Peak (Berkeley Hills) Notes References CBC News article on possible "grolar bear" (Polar Bear/Grizzly Bear hybrid) Committee On The Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos) in Canada, 2002 2.1 MB PDF file. External links Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Grizzly Bear UN Works Grizzly Bear Management, recovery plans and DNA hair-snagging studies Alberta SRD, Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife on Alberta Anatomy of a Grizzly Bear, from The Grizzly Man Diaries mini-series at Discovery Channel Grizzly Bears In the USA and the North Cascades. 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2,167 | Hanukkah | Hanukkah (, , alt. Chanukah), also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday commemorating the rededication of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabean Revolt of the 2nd century BCE. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, and may occur from late November to late December on the Gregorian calendar. The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a special candelabrum, the nine-branched Menorah or Hanukiah, one light on each night of the holiday, progressing to eight on the final night. An extra light called a shamash (Hebrew: "guard" or "servant") is also lit each night for the purpose of lighting the others, and is given a distinct location, usually above or below the rest. Origins of the holiday From the Hebrew word for "dedication" or "consecration", marks the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalum after its desecration by the forces of Antiochus IV and commemorates the "miracle of the container of oil". According to the Talmud, at the re-dedication following the victory of the Maccabees over the Seleucid Empire, there was only enough consecrated olive oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days, which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate fresh olive oil. Hanukkah is also mentioned in the deuterocanonical books of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees. 1 Maccabees states: "For eight days they celebrated the rededication of the altar. Then Judah and his brothers and the entire congregation of Israel decreed that the days of the rededication... should be observed... every year... for eight days. (1 Mac. 4:56–59)" According to 2 Maccabees, "the Jews celebrated joyfully for eight days as on the feast of Booths." The martyrdom of Hannah and her seven sons has also been linked to Hanukkah. According to the Talmudic story Talmud Gittin 57b tells a story of a woman and her seven sons killed by "Caesar". The name "Hannah" is not stated. and 2 Maccabees, a Jewish woman named Hannah and her seven sons were tortured and executed by Antiochus for refusing to worship an idol, which would have been a violation of Jewish law. Name The name "Hanukkah" derives from the Hebrew verb "חנך", meaning "to dedicate". On Hanukkah, the Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple. See also Maharsha on Talmud Shabbat 21b In the Jewish tradition, many homiletical explanations have been given for the name: The name can be broken down into "חנו", from the Hebrew word for encampment, and the Hebrew letters כ"ה, which stand for the 26th day of Kislev, the day on which the holiday begins: Hence, the Jews sat in their camp, that is, they rested fighting, on the 25th day of Kislev. Ran on Rif 9b Hanukkah is also the Hebrew acronym for "ח' נרות והלכה כבית הלל" meaning "eight candles as determined by House of Hillel". This is a reference to the disagreement between two rabbinical schools of thought—Hillel and the House of Shammai—on the proper way to light Hanukkah candles. Shammai said that eight candles should be lit from the start, and reduced by one candle every night, whereas Hillel argued in favor of starting with one candle and lighting an additional one every night. Jewish law adopted the position of Hillel. Historical sources Mishna The story of Hanukkah, along with its laws and customs, is entirely missing from the Mishna outside of a single passing reference, (Megillah 3:6). A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice By Isaac Klein p.227 Rav Nissim Gaon postulates in his Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud that information on the holiday is commonplace to the point that Rabbinical explanation is unnecessary. Reuvain Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, authors could not have included discussion of Hanukkah as the Roman occupiers would not have tolerated the overt nationalism inherent in the story. In the Talmud The miracle of Hanukkah is described in the Talmud. The Gemara, in tractate Shabbat 21 focuses on Shabbat candles and moves to Hanukkah candles and says that after the forces of Antiochus IV had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still sealed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, and miraculously, that oil burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready). http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Talmud/shabbat2.html The Talmud presents three options: The law requires only one light each night per household, A better practice is to light one light each night for each member of the household The most preferred practise is to vary the number of lights each night. Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door or in the window closest to the street. Rashi, in a note to Shabbat 21b, says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. In the Septuagint and other sources The story of Hanukkah is alluded to in the book of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees of the Septuagint but Hanukkah is not specially mentioned; rather, a story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18 et seq according to which the relighting of the altar fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which occurred on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee. The Books of Maccabees are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), but are part of deuterocanonical historical and religious material preserved in the Septuagint. The Tanakh ends with the consequences following the events of Purim, and had already been codified many centuries earlier by the Men of the Great Assembly (Anshei Knesset HaGedolah). Another source is the Megillat Antiochus. This work (also known as "Megillat HaHasmonaim", or "Megillat Hanukkah") is in both Aramaic and Hebrew; the Hebrew version is a literal translation from the Aramaic original. Recent scholarship dates it to somewhere between the 2nd and 5th Centuries, probably in the 2nd Century, with the Hebrew dating to the seventh century. The Scroll Of The Hasmoneans It was published for the first time in Mantua in 1557. Saadia Gaon, who translated it into Arabic in the 9th Century, ascribed it to the Maccabees themselves, disputed by some, since it gives dates as so many years before the destruction of the second temple in 70 CE. The Scroll of Antiochus The Hebrew text with an English translation can be found in the Siddur of Philip Birnbaum. The story Around 200 BCE Jews lived as an autonomous people in the Land of Israel, also referred to as Judea, which at that time was controlled by the Seleucid king of Syria. The Jewish people were originally granted religious freedom but after their revolt against the Hellenists, Epiphanes was angered. Traditional view By 175 BCE Antiochus IV Epiphanes ascended to the Seleucid throne. At first little changed, but under his reign, the Temple in Jerusalem was looted, Jews were massacred, and Judaism was effectively outlawed. In 167 BCE Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. As was the normal practice of the Hellenic religion when sacrificing to the Greek gods, pigs were sacrificed on the altar to Zeus. Antiochus's actions proved to be a major miscalculation as they provoked a large-scale revolt. Mattathias, a Jewish priest, and his five sons Jochanan, Simeon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer"). By 166 BCE Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 165 BCE the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted by Judah Maccabee and his brothers to celebrate this event. 1 Macc. iv. 59 After recovering Jerusalem and the Temple, Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the Talmud, olive oil was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was required to burn throughout the night every night. But there was only enough oil to burn for one day, yet miraculously, it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of oil for the menorah. An eight day festival was declared by the Jewish sages to commemorate this miracle. Hanukkah lamp unearthed near Jerusalem, c. 1900. The version of the story in 1 Maccabees, on the other hand, states that an eight day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon rededication of the altar, and makes no mention of the miracle of the oil. 1 Macc. iv. 36 A number of historians believe that the reason for the eight day celebration was that the first Hanukkah was in effect a belated celebration of the festivals of Sukkot and Shemini Atzeret. Macc. x. 6 and i. 9 During the war the Jews were not able to celebrate Sukkot/Shemini Atzeret properly; the combined festivals also last eight days, and the Sukkot festivities featured the lighting of lamps in the Temple (Suk.v. 2-4). The historian Josephus Jewish Antiquities xii. 7, § 7, #323 mentions the eight-day festival and its customs, but does not tell us the origin of the eight day lighting custom. Given that his audience was Hellenized Romans, perhaps his silence on the origin of the eight-day custom is due to its miraculous nature. In any event, he does report that lights were kindled in the household and the popular name of the festival was, therefore the "Festival of Lights" ("And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights"). It has also been noted that the number eight has special significance in Jewish theology, as representing transcendence and the Jewish People's special role in human history. Seven is the number of days of creation, that is, of completion of the material cosmos, and also of the classical planets. Eight, being one step beyond seven, represents the Infinite. Hence, the Eighth Day of the Assembly festival, mentioned above, is according to Jewish Law a festival for Jews only (unlike Sukkot, when all peoples were welcome in Jerusalem). Similarly, the rite of brit milah (circumcision), which brings a Jewish male into God's Covenant, is performed on the eighth day. Hence, Hanukkah's eight days (in celebration of monotheistic morality's victory over Hellenistic humanism) have great symbolic importance for practicing Jews. Modern perception Most modern scholars argue that the king was in fact intervening in an internal civil war between the traditionalist Jews in the country and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem. According to Joseph P. Schultz: Modern scholarship on the other hand considers the Maccabean revolt less as an uprising against foreign oppresion than as a civil war between the orthodox and reformist parties in the Jewish camp. These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew/Aramaic names like Onias contesting with hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus. In particular Jason's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism. Other authors point to possible socio/economic in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war. What begun in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned the traditional religion of a whole people. Tchrikover, Victor. Hellenistic Civilization and the Jews. Hanukkah rituals Various menorot used for Hanukkah. 12th through 19th century, CE Hanukkah is celebrated by a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday. Some are family-based and others are communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals. Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh. Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 670:1 People go to work as usual, but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although, in Israel, schools close for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, and fried foods are eaten. Kindling the Hanukkah lights The primary ritual, according to Jewish law and custom, is to light a single light each night for eight nights. As a universally practiced "beautification" of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night. Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 671:2 An extra light called a shamash, meaning guard or servant is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher or lower than the others. The purpose of the extra light is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tracate Shabbat 21b–23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah story. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shamash candle would be available and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some light the shamash candle first and then use it to light the others. Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 673:1 So all together, including the shamash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shamash). A modern Tiffany Hanukkah menorah The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room. Most Jewish homes have a special candelabrum or oil lamp holder for Hanukkah, which holds eight lights plus the additional shamash light. The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without," so that passers-by should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle. Accordingly lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazim to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardim light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most Hasidic groups, light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the mezuzah, so that when one passes through the door he is surrounded by the holiness of mitzvoth. Bronze Pal-Bell oil-burning Hanukkah menorah from Israel circa 1948, by Maurice Ascalon. Time of lighting Hanukkah lights should burn for at least one half hour after it gets dark. The custom of the Vilna Gaon observed by many residents of Jerusalem as the custom of the city, is to light at sundown, although most Hassidim light later, even in Jerusalem. Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later, because they fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights. Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour, so on most days this requirement can be met by lighting the candles when it is dark outside. Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on the Shabbat itself, the candles must be lit before sunset. However, they must remain lit until the regular time—thirty minutes after nightfall—and inexpensive Hanukkah candles do not burn long enough to meet the requirement. A simple solution is to use longer candles, or the traditional oil lamps. In keeping with the above-stated prohibition, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first, followed by the Shabbat candles which signify its onset. Blessings over the candles Grand Rabbi Israel Abraham Portugal of Skulen Hasidism lighting Hanukkah lights Typically three blessings (Brachot singular Brachah) are recited during this eight-day festival. On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings; on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two. Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 676:1-2 The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle, lamp, or electric) is lit on the right side of the Menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first candle and so on, proceeding from right to left over the eight nights. On each night, the leftmost candle is lit first, and lighting proceeds from left to right. For the full text of the blessings, see List of Jewish prayers and blessings: Hanukkah. Hanerot Halalu During or after the lights are kindled the hymn Hanerot Halalu is recited. There are several differing versions; the version presented here is recited in many Ashkenazic communities: Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 676:4 Ashkenazic version: Transliteration English Hanneirot hallalu anachnu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha We light these lights for the miracles and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your holy priests. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make ordinary use of them except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations. Maoz Tzur Each night after the lighting of the candles, while remaining within sight of the candles, Ashkenazim (and, in recent decades, some Sephardim and Mizrahim in Western countries) usually sing the hymn Ma'oz Tzur written in Medieval Germany. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, and praises God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, and the Hasmonean victory). Other customs After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing various other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Various Hasidic and Sefardic traditions have additional prayers that are recited both before and after lighting the Hanukkah lights. This includes the recitation of many Psalms, most notably Psalms 30, 67, and 91 (many Hasidim recite Psalm 91 seven times after lighting the lamps, as was taught by the Baal Shem Tov), as well as other prayers and hymns, each congregation according to its own custom. In North America it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. Additions to the daily prayers An addition is made to the "hoda'ah" (thanksgiving) benediction in the Amidah, called Al ha-Nissim ("On/about the Miracles"). Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 682:1 This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons. The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the Hallel Psalms are sung during each morning service and the Tachanun penitential prayers are omitted. The Torah is read every day in the synagogue, the first day beginning from Numbers 6:22 (according to some customs, Numbers 7:1), and the last day ending with Numbers 8:4. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, Jewish Sabbaths (Saturdays). The weekly Torah portion for the first Sabbath is almost always Miketz, telling of Joseph's dream and his enslavement in Egypt. The Haftarah reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is Zechariah 2:14–4:7. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the Haftarah reading is from I Kings 7:40–50. The Hanukkah menorah is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings. The menorah is not lit on the Sabbath, but rather prior to the beginning of the Sabbath at night and not at all during the day. During the Middle Ages "Megillat Antiochus" was read in the Italian synagogues on Hanukkah just as the Book of Esther is read on Purim. It still forms part of the liturgy of the Yemenite Jews. Zot Hanukkah The last day of Hanukkah is known as Zot Hanukkah, from the verse read on this day in the synagogue (Numbers 7:84, Zot Chanukat Hamizbe'ach, "This was the dedication of the altar"). According to the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism, this day is the final "seal" of the High Holiday season of Yom Kippur, and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other Gmar chatimah tovah ("may you be sealed totally for good"), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers. Judith and Holofernes Judith with the head of Holofernes by Cristofano Allori The eating of dairy foods, especially cheese, on Hanukkah is a minor custom that has its roots in the story of Judith. The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the Tanach, records that, Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews is cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened, and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated. There is a longstanding Jewish tradition that Judith was the daughter of Yochanan the Kohen Gadol (and consequently a sister of Mattathias the Hasmonean and an aunt of Judah the Maccabee). In the Rema's gloss on the Shulchan Aruch he writes “There are authorities (Kol Bo and the RaN) who say that one should eat cheese on Hanukkah, because the miracle was performed with milk that Judith fed the enemy.” Rema on Shulkhan Arukh Orach Chayim 670:2 The Chofetz Chaim there adds in his Mishna Berurah on the words “that Judith fed,” “She was the daughter of Yochanan, the Kohen Gadol. There was a decree that every espoused bride should submit to the dignitary first before the consummation of her marriage. She fed cheese to the head of the oppressors in order to intoxicate him and cut his head and they all fled.” Mishna Berurah 670:2:10 Generally women are exempt in Jewish law from time bound positive commandments, however the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles “for they too were involved in the miracle.” Babylonian Talmud: Shabbat 23a This account of Judith’s involvement with the events of Chanukah serves to explain the requirement of women to participate in the rituals of Hanukkah and the origins of the custom of eating dairy during the holiday. Interaction with modernity and with other traditions The classical rabbis downplayed the military and nationalistic dimensions of Hanukkah, and some even interpreted the emphasis upon the story of the miracle oil as a diversion away from the struggle with empires that had led to the disastrous downfall of Jerusalem to the Romans. With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, these themes were rapidly reconsidered. In modern Israel, Hanukkah was transformed into a celebration of military strength, a kind of antidote to what was perceived as the idea of the powerless Diaspora Jew that the Zionists felt that the Jews in the State of Israel needed to psychologically overcome. In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter half of the twentieth century, including large numbers of secular Jews, who wanted a Jewish alternative to the Christmas celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. Though it was traditional to give "gelt" or money coins to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has changed into gifts in order to prevent Jewish children from feeling left out of the Christmas gift giving. While Hanukkah traditionally speaking is only a minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, Hanukkah has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday. Green Hanukkah Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah's "miracle of the oil", emphasizing reflection on energy conservation and energy independence. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life's renewable energy campaign. Shalom Center on Hannukah and the environment Jerusalem Post: Green Hanukkia' campaign sparks ire Coalition on Environment and Jewish Life (COEJL): Green Hannukah ceremony Hanukkah music There are several songs associated with the festival of Hanukkah. The most well known in English-speaking countries include "Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel" and "Chanukah, Oh Chanukah". In Israel, Hanukkah has become something of a national holiday. A large number of songs have been written on Hanukkah themes, perhaps more so than for any other Jewish holiday. Some of the most well known are "Hanukkiah Li Yesh" ("I Have a Hanukkah Menora"), "Kad Katan" ("A Small Jug"), "S'vivon Sov Sov Sov" ("Dreidel, Spin and Spin"), Haneirot Halolu" ("These Candles which we light"), "Mi Yimalel" (Who can Retell") and "Ner Li, Ner Li" ("I have a Candle"). Hanukkah foods Sufganiyot with jelly. There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably olive oil), as the original miracle of the Hanukkah menorah involved the discovery of a small flask of pure olive oil used by the Jewish High Priest, the Kohen Gadol. This small batch of olive oil was only supposed to last one day, and instead it lasted eight. Accordingly, potato pancakes, known as latkes in Yiddish, are traditionally associated with Hanukkah, especially among Ashkenazi families, as they are prepared by frying in oil. Similarly, many Sephardic, Polish and Israeli families have the custom of eating all kinds of jam-filled doughnuts (), (bimuelos, or sufganiyot) which are deep-fried in oil. There is also a tradition of eating dairy products on Hannukah that is recorded in rabbinic literature. This custom is seen as a commemoration of the involvement of Judith and thus women in the events of Hannukah (see Judith and Holofernes above). Hanukkah games Dreidel Dreidel The dreidel, or sevivon in Hebrew, is a four-sided spinning top that children play with on Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter. These letters are an acronym for the Hebrew words נס גדול היה שם (Nes Gadol Haya Sham, "A great miracle happened there"), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the Beit Hamikdash. נ (Nun) ג (Gimel) ה (Hey) ש (Shin) In Israel, the fourth side of most dreidels is inscribed with the letter פ (Pe), rendering the acronym נס גדול היה פה (Nes Gadol Haya Po, "A great miracle happened here"), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel. Some stores in Haredi neighbourhoods may sell the traditional Shin dreidels. Some Jewish commentators ascribe symbolic significance to the markings on the dreidel. One commentary, for example, connects the four letters with the four exiles to which the nation of Israel was historically subject: Babylonia, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Ohr Somayach :: Chanukah :: The Secret of the Dreidel After lighting the Hanukkah menorah, it is customary in many homes to play the dreidel game: Each player starts out with 10 or 15 coins (real or of chocolate), nuts, raisins, candies or other markers, and places one marker in the "pot." The first player spins the dreidel, and depending on which side the dreidel falls on, either wins a marker from the pot or gives up part of his stash. The code (based on a Yiddish version of the game) is as follows: Nun–nisht, "nothing"–nothing happens and the next player spins Gimel–gants, "all"–the player takes the entire pot Hey–halb, "half"–the player takes half of the pot, rounding up if there is an odd number Shin–shtel ayn, "put in"–the player puts one marker in the pot Another version differs: Nun–nim, "take"–the player takes one from the pot Gimel–gib, "give"–the player puts one in the pot Hey–halb, "half"–the player takes half of the pot, rounding up if there is an odd number Shin–shtil, "still" (as in "stillness")–nothing happens and the next player spins The game may last until one person has won everything. Some say the dreidel game is played to commemorate a game devised by the Jews to camouflage the fact that they were studying Torah, which was outlawed by Greeks. The Jews would gather in caves to study, posting a lookout to alert the group to the presence of Greek soldiers. If soldiers were spotted, the Jews would hide their scrolls and spin tops, so the Greeks thought they were gambling, not learning. Hanukkah gelt Hanukkah gelt (Yiddish for "money") is often distributed to children to enhance their enjoyment of the holiday. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or other relatives may give larger sums as an official Hanukkah gift. In Israel, Hanukkah gelt is known as dmei Hanukkah. Many Hasidic Rebbes distribute coins to those who visit them during Hanukkah. Hasidic Jews consider this to be an auspicious blessing from the Rebbe, and a segulah for success. Rabbi Abraham P. Bloch has written that “The tradition of giving money (Chanukah gelt) to children is of long standing. The custom had its origin in the seventeenth-century practice of Polish Jewry to give money to their small children for distribution to their teachers. In time, as children demanded their due, money was also given to children to keep for themselves. Teen-age boys soon came in for their share. According to Magen Avraham (18th cent.), it was the custom for poor yeshiva students to visit homes of Jewish benefactors who dispensed Chanukah money (Orach Chaim 670). The rabbis approved of the custom of giving money on Chanukah because it publicized the story of the miracle of the oil.” The Biblical and Historical Background of Jewish Customs and Ceremonies by Abraham P. Bloch. Published by KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 1980. Pp. 277. Twentieth-century American chocolatiers picked up on the gift/coin concept by creating chocolate gelt. Alternative spellings based on transliterating Hebrew letters Spelling variations are due to transliteration of Hebrew Chet Nun Vav Kaf Hey In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written or . It is most commonly transliterated to English as Chanukah or Hanukkah, the latter because the sound represented by "CH" ([], similar to the Scottish pronunciation of "loch") essentially does not exist in the modern English language. Furthermore, the letter "heth" (), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) than in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. Moreover, the 'kaf' consonant is geminate in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal Ḥeth can lead to the spelling "Hanukkah"; while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no geminate and velar Ḥeth leads to the spelling "Chanukah". Common variants Hanukkah (in North America and Australia, also common in UK) Chanukah (in the UK, also common in North America) YIVO variant Khanike (YIVO standard transliteration from the Yiddish and/or Ashkenazic pronunciation of the Hebrew) Background Chronology 198 BCE: Armies of the Seleucid King Antiochus III (Antiochus the Great) oust Ptolemy V from Judea and Samaria. 175 BCE: Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne. 168 BCE: Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and Judaism is outlawed. 167 BCE: Antiochus orders an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. Mattathias, and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabe (Judah The Hammer). 166 BCE: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until 63 BCE 165 BCE: The Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy is successful. The Temple is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah). 142 BCE: Establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged. This inaugurates a period of great geographical expansion, population growth, and religious, cultural and social development. 139 BCE: The Roman Senate recognizes Jewish autonomy. 130 BCE: Antiochus VII besieges Jerusalem, but withdraws. 131 BCE: Antiochus VII dies. The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom throws off Syrian rule completely 96 BCE: An eight year civil war begins. 83 BCE: Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the Jordan River. 63 BCE: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end due to rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the Roman Republic to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf. The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. Twelve thousand Jews are massacred as Romans enter Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea. Battles of the Maccabean revolt There were a number of key battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks: Listed alphabetically: Battle of Adasa (Judas Maccabeus leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.) Battle of Beth Horon (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of Seron.) Battle of Beth-zechariah (Elazar the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabess, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.) Battle of Beth Zur (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of Lysias, recapturing Jerusalem.) Dathema (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.) Battle of Elasa (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of King Demetrius and Bacchides. He is succeeded by Jonathan Maccabaeus and Simon Maccabaeus who continue to lead the Jews in battle.) Battle of Emmaus (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of Lysias and Georgias). Battle of Wadi Haramia. When Hanukkah occurs The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the Hebrew calendar. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of Kislev and concludes on the 2nd or 3rd day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset, whereas the Gregorian calendar begins the day at midnight. So, the first day of Hanukkah actually begins at sunset of the day immediately before the date noted on Gregorian calendars. Hanukkah according to the Gregorian calendar Hanukkah begins at sundown on the evening before the date shown. December 22, 2000 December 10, 2001 November 30, 2002 December 20, 2003 December 8, 2004 December 26, 2005 December 16, 2006 December 5, 2007 December 22, 2008 December 12, 2009 December 2, 2010 December 21, 2011 December 9, 2012 November 28, 2013 December 17, 2014 December 7, 2015 December 25, 2016 December 13, 2017 December 3, 2018 December 23, 2019 See also Hasmonean Maccabees Jewish holidays County of Allegheny v. ACLU on the constitutionality of Hanukkah displays on public property in the U.S. Hanukkah bush Hellenistic Judaism References External links General English translation of Megillas Antiochus Songs Hanukkah songsheets Hanukkah songs Recipes Traditional Hanukkah recipes About Kosher Hanukkah recipes Wiki-Recipe.org Hanukkah recipes Video Video: Lighting Hanukkah Menorah How-To The Grand Rabbi of Satmar lighting the Hanukkah Menorah | Hanukkah |@lemmatized hanukkah:103 alt:1 chanukah:11 also:18 know:9 festival:14 light:68 eight:29 day:49 jewish:46 holiday:17 commemorate:4 rededication:6 holy:3 temple:18 jerusalem:14 time:16 maccabean:3 revolt:8 century:10 bce:20 observe:4 night:28 start:4 kislev:6 accord:15 hebrew:28 calendar:6 may:8 occur:4 late:2 november:3 december:19 gregorian:4 kindling:1 special:5 candelabrum:2 nine:2 branch:1 menorah:15 hanukiah:1 one:28 progress:1 final:2 extra:4 call:4 shamash:7 guard:2 servant:2 lit:6 purpose:3 others:4 give:16 distinct:2 location:2 usually:4 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2,168 | Derek_Walcott | Derek Alton Walcott (born January 23, 1930) is a Caribbean poet, playwright, writer and visual artist. Born in Castries, St. Lucia, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1992. His work, which developed independently of the schools of magic realism emerging in both South America and Europe at around the time of his birth, is intensely related to the symbolism of myth and its relationship to culture. He is best known for his epic poem Omeros, a reworking of Homeric story and tradition into a journey around the Caribbean and beyond to the American West and London. Walcott founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop in 1959, which has produced his plays (and others) since that time, and remains active with its Board of Directors. He also founded Boston Playwrights' Theatre at Boston University in 1981 with the hope of creating a home for new plays in Boston, Massachusetts. Walcott retired from teaching poetry and drama in the Creative Writing Department at Boston University in 2007. He continues to give readings and lectures throughout the world. He divides his time between his home in the Caribbean and New York City. In 2009 he withdrew his candidacy for the position of Oxford Professor of Poetry after what some sources referred to as a smear campaign was launched against him. Cole, Olivia. "Nobel Winner Quits Oxford Poetry Race Over Sex Claims.", in The London Evening Standard, May 12, 2009. Walcott as playwright and theorist Walcott has published more than twenty plays. The majority of these plays have been produced by the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, and have also been widely staged elsewhere. Many of them deal, either directly or indirectly, with the liminal status of the West Indies in the postcolonial period. Epistemological, ontological, economical, political, and social themes make regular appearances in Walcott's plays. In his 1970 essay on art (and specifically theatre) in his native region, What the Twilight Says: An Overture (published in Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays; see bibliography), Walcott bemoans the lasting effects of over 400 years of colonial rule. He reflects on the West Indies as colonized space, and the problems presented by a region with little in the way of truly indigenous forms, and with little national or nationalist identity. He states: “...we are all strangers here (10). [...] Our bodies think in one language and move in another...”(31). In this manner, Walcott shifts his poetic language between formal English and patois to highlight the linguistic dexterity of the Caribbean people. While recognising the profound psychological and material wrongs of the colonial project, Walcott simultaneously celebrates the hybridisation of Antillean cultures. His epic poem Omeros exposes the complex cultural strains that converge in his native St. Lucia, celebrating at once the European, Amerindian, and African heritage shared by the islanders. Discussions of epistemological effects of colonization inform plays such as Ti-Jean and his Brothers and Pantomime. One of the eponymous brothers in Ti-Jean and his Brothers (Mi-Jean) is shown to have much information, but to truly know nothing. Every line Mi-Jean recites is rote knowledge gained from the coloniser, and as such is unable to be synthesized and thus is inapplicable to his existence as colonised person. Walcott probes the colonial dialectic in his two-hander Pantomime. In the play, Walcott revisions the story of Robinson Crusoe / Man Friday in an effort to destabilize the colonial power constructs. Reversing the roles of master / servant, Walcott temporarily lends to Trinidadian Jackson, a guest house factotum and calypso singer, the role of Crusoe, with Harry, a British ex-patriate and owner, the identity of “Thursday,” thus resetting Daniel Defoe's legend in pre-colonial days. Recalling his fascination with the Edenic concept on naming ("Muse" 3-5), Walcott highlights the problem that faces the Caribbean writer by having Jackson re-appropriate the material objects around him, re-christening them in a pseudo-African language, calling the table “patamba,” the chair “banda,” etc, recalling the poesía negra's use of jitanjáfora (jitanjáfora is a term for the use of onomatopoeia in Spanish) mentioned earlier. The scene at first reflects Jackson’s agency: he has the ability to resurrect the language of his ancestors and regain ownership of the material of his island, teaching his minion Harry, the Anglo Thursday, his new tongue and establishing authority over his surroundings. The impossibility of his mission surfaces, however, as Jackson immediately forgets the words he had just spoken: Harry: "You never called anything by the same name twice." Jackson's inability to resurrect a dead language reflects the Caribbean's lack of a single, discernible cultural history; Harry's retort reveals the violence inherent in the linguistic indoctrination of the colonial powers: language through the barrel of a gun. Walcott writes in English, the language of Trinidad, but he also makes full use of the local dialects, or what Barbadian writer Edward Kamau Brathwaite calls “nation language,” and portrays Jackson as code-switching throughout the play to reveal his culture’s linguistic dexterity. Walcott's plays weave together a variety of forms; including those of the folktale, morality play, allegory, fable, ritual and myth; as well as using emblematic and mythological characters to address issues in non-realistic ways. Allegations of sexual harassment In 1981 Walcott was accused of sexual harassment of a freshman woman student at Harvard. In 1996 he reached a settlement in a lawsuit for sexual harassment of a student at Boston University. Griffiths, Sian and Jack Grimston. "Sex Pest File Gives Oxford Poetry Race a Nasty Edge.", in The Sunday Times, May 10, 2009 Works Poetry collections Years are linked to "[year] in poetry" articles: 1948 25 Poems 1949 Epitaph for the Young: Xll Cantos 1951 Poems 1962 In a Green Night: Poems 1948—60 1964 Selected Poems 1965 The Castaway and Other Poems 1969 The Gulf and Other Poems 1973 Another Life 1976 Sea Grapes 1979 The Star-Apple Kingdom 1981 Selected Poetry 1981 The Fortunate Traveller 1983 The Caribbean Poetry of Derek Walcott and the Art of Romare Bearden 1984 Midsummer 1986 Collected Poems, 1948-1984 1987 The Arkansas Testament 1990 Omeros 1997 The Bounty 2000 Tiepolo's Hound 2004 The Prodigal 2007 Selected Poems (Edited, selected, and with an introduction by Edward Baugh) Forthcoming "White Egrets" Plays (1950) Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes (1951) Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production (1953) Wine of the Country (1954) The Sea at Dauphin: A Play in One Act (1957) Ione (1958) Drums and Colours: An Epic Drama (1958) Ti-Jean and His Brothers (1966) Malcochon: or, Six in the Rain (1967) Dream on Monkey Mountain (1970) In a Fine Castle (1974) The Joker of Seville (1974) The Charlatan (1976) O Babylon! (1977) Remembrance (1978) Pantomime (1980) The Joker of Seville and O Babylon!: Two Plays (1982) The Isle Is Full of Noises (1986) Three Plays (The Last Carnival, Beef, No Chicken, and A Branch of the Blue Nile) (1991) Steel (1993) Odyssey: A Stage Version (1997) The Capeman (lyrics, in collaboration with Paul Simon) (2002) Walker and The Ghost Dance Further reading Baer, William, ed. Conversations with Derek Walcott. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1996. Baugh, Edward, Derek Walcott: Memory as Vision: Another Life. London: Longman, 1978. Baugh, Edward, Derek Walcott. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Breslin, Paul. Nobody's Nation: Reading Derek Walcott. Chicago: U. Chicago, 2001. ISBN 0-226-07426-9 Brown, Stewart, ed., The Art of Derek Walcott. Chester Springs, PA.: Dufour, 1991; Bridgend: Seren Books, 1992. Burnett, Paula, Derek Walcott: Politics and Poetics. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. Hamner, Robert D., Ed. Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott. Washington, D.C.: Three Continents, 1993. ISBN 0-89410-142-0 Hamner, Robert D. Derek Walcott. Updated Edition. Twayne's World Authors Series. TWAS 600. New York: Twayne, 1993. Heaney, Seamus, ‘The Murmur of Malvern’, in The Government of the Tongue: The 1986 T. S. Eliot Memorial Lectures and Other Critical Writings. London: Faber and Faber, 1988, pp. 23-29. King, Bruce, Derek Walcott and West Indian Drama: ‘Not Only a Playwright But a Company’: The Trinidad Theatre Workshop 1959-1993. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. King, Bruce, Derek Walcott, A Caribbean Life. Oxford: OUP, 2000. Lennard, John, 'Derek Walcott' in Jay Parini, ed., World Writers in English. 2 vols, New York & London: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2004, II.721–46. Parker, Michael and Roger Starkey, Eds. New Casebooks: Postcolonial Literatures: Achebe, Ngugi, Desai, Walcott. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0-333-60801-1 Sinnewe, Dirk, Divided to the Vein? Derek Walcott’s Drama and the Formation of Cultural Identities. Saarbrücken: Königshausen und Neumann, 2001 [Reihe Saarbrücker Beiträge 17]. ISBN 3-8260-2073-1 Terada, Rei, Derek Walcott’s Poetry: American Mimicry. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992. Thieme, John, Derek Walcott. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1999. Walcott, Derek. Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays. New York: Farrar, 1970. ISBN 0-374-50860-7 See also Black Nobel Prize laureates References External links Nobel Laureate Derek Walcott Postcolonialweb.org on Walcott Trinidad Theatre Workshop Lannan Foundation Reading and Conversation With Glyn Maxwell International Poetry Forum Readings (scroll down) Boston Playwrights' Theatre Open Source (radio show) with Christopher Lydon: Calabash ‘08: First, the fireworks... 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2,169 | Emotion | An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotions are subjective experiences, or experienced from an individual point of view. Emotion is often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means 'out' and movere means 'move'. Emotional Competency discussion of emotion The related term "motivation" is also derived from movere. No definitive taxonomy of emotions exists, though numerous taxonomies have been proposed. Some categorizations include: 'Cognitive' versus 'non-cognitive' emotions Instinctual emotions (from the amygdala), versus cognitive emotions (from the prefrontal cortex). Basic versus complex: where base emotions lead to more complex ones. Categorization based on duration: Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (e.g. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. love). A related distinction is between the emotion and the results of the emotion, principally behaviours and emotional expressions. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emotional state, such as crying, fighting or fleeing. Yet again, if one can have the emotion without the corresponding behaviour then we may consider the behaviour not to be essential to the emotion. The James-Lange theory posits that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The functionalist approach to emotions (e.g. Nico Frijda) holds that emotions have evolved for a particular function, such as to keep the subject safe. Classification Basic and complex categories, where some are modified in some way to form complex emotions (e.g. Paul Ekman). In one model, the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Robert Plutchik proposed a three-dimensional "circumplex model" which describes the relations among emotions. This model is similar to a color wheel. The vertical dimension represents intensity, and the circle represents degrees of similarity among the emotions. He posited eight primary emotion dimensions arranged as four pairs of opposites. Some have also argued for the existence of meta-emotions which are emotions about emotions., "Meta-emotions". Another important means of distinguishing emotions concerns their occurrence in time. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (e.g. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. love). The latter could be regarded as a long term tendency to have an emotion regarding a certain object rather than an emotion proper (though this is disputed). A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists (e.g. Klaus Scherer, 2005) place emotions within a more general category of 'affective states' where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (e.g. hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits. Theories Theories about emotions stretch back at least as far as the Ancient Greek Stoics, as well as Plato and Aristotle. We also see sophisticated theories in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes See Philip Fisher (1999) Wonder, The Rainbow and the Aesthetics of Rare Experiences for an introduction , Baruch Spinoza See for instance Antonio Damasio (2005) Looking for Spinoza. and David Hume. Later theories of emotions tend to be informed by advances in empirical research. Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work. Somatic theories Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favour in the 20th Century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo, António Damásio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurological evidence. James-Lange theory William James, in the article 'What is an Emotion?' (Mind, 9, 1884: 188-205), argued that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, so this position is known as the James-Lange theory. This theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says 'the perception of bodily changes as they occur IS the emotion.' James further claims that 'we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.' This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emotion is induced. Laird, James, Feelings: the Perception of Self, Oxford University Press Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (e.g. in laughter therapy, dance therapy). The James-Lange theory is often misunderstood because it seems counter-intuitive. Most people believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: i.e. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared." The James-Lange theory, conversely, asserts that first we react to a situation (running away and crying happen before the emotion), and then we interpret our actions into an emotional response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us. Neurobiological theories Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (e.g., dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. In mammals, primates, and human beings, feelings are displayed as emotion cues. For example, the human emotion of love is proposed to have evolved from paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulated gyrus) designed for the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured millions of years before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord. They evolved prior to the earliest mammalian ancestors, as far back as the jawless fishes, to control motor function. Presumably, before the mammalian brain, life in the non-verbal world was automatic, preconscious, and predictable. The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the arrival of night-active mammals, circa 180 million years ago, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. In the Jurassic Period, the mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept — one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what was later to become our limbic brain. Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are, while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance. Neurobiological Theories of Emotion: Prefrontal Cortex There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that cause positive approach. Kringelbach, M. L., O’Doherty, J. O., Rolls, E. T., & Andrews, C. (2003). Activation of the human orbitofrontal cortex to a liquid food stimulus is correlated with its subjective pleasantness. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 1064-1071. If attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selective activation of that region of the brain should cause a stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demonstrated for moderately attractive visual stimuli Drake, R. A. (1987). Effects of gaze manipulation on aesthetic judgments: Hemisphere priming of affect. Acta Psychologica, 65, 91-99. and replicated and extended to include negative stimuli. Merckelbach, H., & van Oppen, P. (1989). Effects of gaze manipulation on subjective evaluation of neutral and phobia-relevant stimuli: A comment on Drake's (1987) 'Effects of gaze manipulation on aesthetic judgments: Hemisphere priming of affect.' Acta Psychologica, 70, 147-151. Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex made opposing predictions. The Valence Model predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was supported. Harmon-Jones, E., Vaughn-Scott, K., Mohr, S., Sigelman, J., & Harmon-Jones, C. (2004). The effect of manipulated sympathy and anger on left and right frontal cortical activity. Emotion, 4, 95-101. This still left open the question of whether the opposite of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmoving with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Support for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness Schmidt, L. A. (1999). Frontal brain electrical activity in shyness and sociability. Psychological Science, 10, 316-320. and research on behavioral inhibition. Garavan, H., Ross, T. J., & Stein, E. A. (1999). Right hemispheric dominance of inhibitory control: An event-related functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96, 8301-8306. Research that tested the competing hypotheses generated by all four models also supported the Action Tendency Model. Drake, R. A., & Myers, L. R. (2006). Visual attention, emotion, and action tendency: Feeling active or passive. Cognition and Emotion, 20, 608-622. Wacker, J., Chavanon, M.-L., Leue, A., & Stemmler, G. (2008). Is running away right? The behavioral activation–behavioral inhibition model of anterior asymmetry. Emotion, 8, 232-249. Cognitive theories There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. This, argued by Richard Lazarus, is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have intentionality. Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. An influential theory here is that of Lazarus. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (e.g. The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example. It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behaviour. see the Heuristic-Systematic Model, or HSM, (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989) under . Also see the index entry for "Emotion" in "Beyond Rationality: The Search for Wisdom in a Troubled Time" by Kenneth R. Hammond and in "Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets" by Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Perceptual theory A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasises the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognised by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings. Affective Events Theory This a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts.) This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes - a “series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme”. This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, Reflections on Affective Events Theory published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005. Cannon-Bard theory In the Cannon-Bard theory, Walter Bradford Cannon argued against the dominance of the James-Lange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Where James argued that emotional behaviour often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates typical behaviour. Two-factor theory Another cognitive theory is the Singer-Schachter theory. This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. Hence the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz (2004) Gut Reactions. Component process model A recent version of the cognitive theory comes from which regards emotions more broadly as the synchronization of many different bodily and cognitive components. Emotions are identified with the overall process whereby low-level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger bodily reactions, behaviors, feelings, and actions. Disciplinary approaches Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning are examined. Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that it plays in human culture and social interactions. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities; some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions in human activities. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet(), an email distribution list comprised of a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. The list was established in January, 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe. In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In criminology, a social science approach to the study of crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of "toughness", aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making. In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (e.g., sensory-emotional values, and matters of taste and sentiment), and the philosophy of music. In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals. Evolutionary biology Perspectives on emotions from evolution theory were initiated in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin, Charles (1872). The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Note: This book was originally published in 1872, but has been reprinted many times thereafter by different publishers Darwin's original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore, animals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see emotion in animals). Evidence of universality in the human case has been provided by Paul Ekman's seminal research on facial expression. Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Important neurological advances were made from these perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio. American evolutionary biologist Robert Trivers argues that moral emotions are based on the principal of reciprocal altruism. The notion of group selection is of particular relevance. This theory posits the different emotions have different reciprocal effects. Sympathy prompts a person to offer the first favor, particularly to someone in need for whom the help would go the furthest. Anger protects a person against cheaters who accept a favor without reciprocating, by making him want to punish the ingrate or sever the relationship. Gratitude impels a beneficiary to reward those who helped him in the past. Finally, guilt prompts a cheater who is in danger of being found out, by making them want to repair the relationship by redressing the misdeed. As well, guilty feelings encourage a cheater who has been caught to advertise or promise that he will behave better in the future. For more information see evolution of emotion. Sociology We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many – sometimes conflicting – demands upon us which originate from various entities studied by sociology on a micro level – such as social roles and 'feeling rules' the everyday social interactions and situations are shaped by – and, on a macro level, by social institutions, discourses, ideologies etc. For example, (post-)modern marriage is, on one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it. The sociology of emotions also focuses on general attitude changes in a population. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Psychotherapy Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive component of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach human emotions differently. While, for example, the school of Re-evaluation Counseling propose that distressing emotions are to be relieved by "discharging" them - hence crying, laughing, sweating, shaking, and trembling. Counseling recovery processes - RC website Other more cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet other approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary gestalt therapy On Emotion - an article from Manchester Gestalt Centre website ). Computer science In the 2000s, in research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002 . In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, Cited by Tao and Tan. the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper "Affective Computing" MIT Technical Report #321 (Abstract), 1995 on affective computing. Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. Notable theorists In the late nineteenth century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842 – 1910) and Carl Lange (1834 - 1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James-Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the twentieth century have passed away in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903-2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922-2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert Simon (1916-2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928-2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923-2008) a Polish-American social psychologist who specializes in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation. In addition, an American philosopher, Robert C. Solomon (1942 – 2007), contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003). Influential theorists who are still active include psychologists, neurologists, and philosophers including: Lisa Feldman Barrett - Social philosopher and psychologist specializing in affective science and human emotion. John Cacioppo - from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson of Social neuroscience. António Damásio (1944- ) - Portuguese behavioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the US Richard Davidson American psychologist and neuroscientist who pioneered the discipline of affective neuroscience. Paul Ekman (1934- ) - Psychologist specializing in study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions Barbara Fredrickson - Social psychologist who specializes in emotions and positive psychology. Nico Frijda (1927- ) - Dutch psychologist who specializes in human emotions, especially facial expressions Peter Goldie - British philosopher who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character Joseph E. LeDoux (1949- ) - American neuroscientist who studies the biological underpinnings of memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of fear Jesse Prinz - American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness Klaus Scherer (1943- ) - Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion Ronald de Sousa (1940- ) - English-Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of biology. Arlie Russell Hochschild (1940- ) - American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations. See also Affect (psychology) Affect measures Emotion in animals Emotions and culture Emotion and memory Emotional expression Empathy Feeling List of emotions Mood (psychology) Sex and emotion Sociology of emotions Somatic markers hypothesis References Further reading Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007).The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: University Fernando Pessoa Press. Ekman, P. (1999). "Basic Emotions". In: T. Dalgleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press. Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley: University of California Press. LeDoux, J. E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic. Scherer, K. (2005). What are emotions and how can they be measured? Social Science Information Vol. 44, No. 4: 695-729. Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience External links Facial Emotion Expression Lab CNX.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book) Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Humaine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal Swiss Center for Affective Sciences The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion University of Arizona: Salk Institute: Emotion Home Page | Emotion |@lemmatized emotion:177 mental:5 physiological:6 state:16 associate:2 wide:1 variety:1 feeling:13 thought:3 behavior:10 subjective:3 experience:14 individual:1 point:1 view:2 often:10 mood:5 temperament:1 personality:2 disposition:4 english:2 word:2 derive:2 french:1 émouvoir:1 base:10 latin:1 emovere:1 e:23 variant:1 ex:1 mean:3 movere:2 move:2 emotional:23 competency:1 discussion:2 related:4 term:2 motivation:1 also:15 definitive:1 taxonomy:2 exists:1 though:3 numerous:2 propose:8 categorization:2 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2,170 | Transport_in_Angola | Transport in Angola comprises: Railways total: 2,761 km narrow gauge: mainly 2,638 km of Cape gauge, 1067 mm or 3’ 6’’. There is also 123 km of 0.600-m gauge (2002) There are three separate lines which do not link up. The major railway is the Benguela railway. A fourth system once linked Gunza and Gabala. Railways in Angola suffered a lot of damage in the civil war, particularly the Benguela railway. A $4b project is proposed to restore the lines, and even to extend the system. It was reported in January 2008 that the repair of the Northern Line (a.k.a. Luanda Railway), started in October 2003 will be completed by August 2008. The work was carried out by the Chinese firm MEC-TEC. Angola: Repair of Luanda Railway Complete in August A link to Namibia is partly under construction. Railway links to adjacent countries Republic of Congo - no - same gauge DR Congo - no - Lobito - Lubumbashi restoration of link proposed. Namibia - no - same gauge - links proposed and partially under construction in 2005. Zambia - no Maps UNJLC Map Map Towns served by rail North line (Luanda Railway) (originally 1000 mm gauge converted to 1067 mm in 1950s) Luanda - port - capital Caxito - branch terminus Ndalatando Golungo Alto - branch terminus Zenza do Itombel - junction Dondo - branch terminus Malanje - terminus Musseques Viana Middle line (610 mm gauge) Gunza - port Gabala - terminus at mine Central line (Benguela Railway) ( Always 1067 mm gauge) Benguela - port Lobito - port Cubal Ganda - junction Huambo - workshops Kuito Camacupa Cuemba Chicala Luena Luau - border with Congo Dilolo, Congo South Line (Moçâmedes Railway) ( originally 600 mm gauge but was converted to 1067 mm gauge in the 1950s. http://53.1911encyclopedia.org/Angola_%28Portuguese_West_Africa%29 ) Namibe - port Bibala Lubango - (246 km) - junction Matala - intermediate station Dongo - (500 km) - junction Cubango Cuchi Menongue - terminus (756 km) Lubango - junction Chiange - branch terminus (150 km) which may be extended to link with Namibia. Dongo, Huila, Angola - junction Cassinga - iron ore Chamutete - branch terminus Proposed Cuvelai Ondjiva - provincial capital Santa Clara - near border Timeline 2008 July 2008 - 1000 km connection to Republic of Congo proposed Railways Africa - NORTHERN ANGOLAN RAIL LINK-UP 2007 26 October, 2007 - talks between Angola and Namibia regarding the link between Namibia and Chamutete. Railways Africa - ANGOLA-NAMIBIA LINK Specifications Brakes: Air - twin pipe for passenger cars Couplers: AAR Alliance with 10A contour http://www.icf.gov.in/html/angola_write-up.pdf Highways total: 76,626 km paved: 19,156 km unpaved: 57,470 km (1997 est.) Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. Whilst a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads, though. Many companies are coming into the country from China and surrounding nations to help improve road surfaces. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Progress to complete the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made in the right directions. Waterways 1,295 km navigable Pipelines crude oil 179 km Ports and harbors Atlantic Ocean from North to South Ambriz Cabinda Luanda - railhead for Malanje Lobito - railhead for Congo Malongo Namibe - railhead for Menongue Porto Amboim Soyo Merchant marine Airports 243 (2002) Airports - with paved runways total: 32 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 1 (2002 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 211 (2002) over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 30 914 to 1,523 m: 95 under 914 m: 80 (2002 est.) National Airline TAAG Angola Airlines References This article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2003. | Transport_in_Angola |@lemmatized transport:1 angola:9 comprises:1 railway:13 total:4 km:13 narrow:1 gauge:10 mainly:1 cape:1 mm:7 also:1 three:1 separate:1 line:7 link:10 major:1 benguela:4 fourth:1 system:2 gunza:2 gabala:2 suffer:1 lot:1 damage:1 civil:1 war:2 particularly:1 project:1 propose:5 restore:1 even:1 extend:2 report:1 january:1 repair:2 northern:2 k:1 luanda:5 start:1 october:2 complete:4 august:2 work:1 carry:1 chinese:1 firm:1 mec:1 tec:1 namibia:6 partly:1 construction:2 adjacent:1 country:3 republic:2 congo:6 dr:1 lobito:3 lubumbashi:1 restoration:2 partially:1 zambia:1 map:3 unjlc:1 town:2 serve:1 rail:2 north:2 originally:2 convert:2 port:6 capital:2 caxito:1 branch:5 terminus:8 ndalatando:1 golungo:1 alto:1 zenza:1 itombel:1 junction:6 dondo:1 malanje:2 musseques:1 viana:1 middle:1 mine:1 central:1 always:1 cubal:1 ganda:1 huambo:1 workshop:1 kuito:1 camacupa:1 cuemba:1 chicala:1 luena:1 luau:1 border:2 dilolo:1 south:2 moçâmedes:1 http:2 org:1 namibe:3 bibala:1 lubango:3 matala:1 intermediate:1 station:1 dongo:2 cubango:1 cuchi:1 menongue:2 chiange:1 may:1 huila:1 cassinga:1 iron:1 ore:1 chamutete:2 cuvelai:1 ondjiva:1 provincial:1 santa:1 clara:1 near:1 timeline:1 july:1 connection:1 africa:2 angolan:2 talk:1 regard:1 specification:1 brake:1 air:1 twin:1 pipe:1 passenger:1 car:1 coupler:1 aar:1 alliance:1 contour:1 www:1 icf:1 gov:1 html:1 pdf:1 highway:2 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:3 travel:1 outside:1 city:1 case:1 within:2 often:1 best:1 advise:1 without:1 four:2 vehicle:1 whilst:1 reasonable:1 road:7 infrastructure:2 exist:1 time:1 take:2 toll:1 surface:3 leave:1 many:5 severely:1 potholed:1 litter:1 broken:1 asphalt:1 area:1 driver:1 establish:1 alternate:1 track:1 avoid:1 bad:1 part:1 although:1 careful:1 attention:1 must:1 pay:1 presence:1 absence:1 landmine:1 warn:1 marker:1 side:1 government:1 contract:1 though:1 company:1 come:2 china:1 surround:1 nation:1 help:1 improve:1 example:1 recently:1 funding:1 european:2 union:1 comparable:1 main:1 route:1 progress:1 likely:1 decade:1 substantial:1 effort:1 already:1 make:1 right:1 direction:1 waterway:1 navigable:1 pipeline:1 crude:1 oil:1 harbor:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 ambriz:1 cabinda:1 railhead:3 malongo:1 porto:1 amboim:1 soyo:1 merchant:1 marine:1 airports:2 runway:2 airport:1 national:1 airline:2 taag:1 reference:1 article:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 benguela_railway:3 republic_congo:2 iron_ore:1 santa_clara:1 angola_namibia:2 http_www:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 toll_road:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 atlantic_ocean:1 merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
2,171 | Edward_Jenner | Edward Jenner, (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England. Jenner is widely credited as the pioneer of smallpox vaccine, and is sometimes referred to as the 'Father of Immunology'. http://sundaytimes.lk/080601/FunDay/famous.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/jenner_edward.shtml http://www.dinweb.org/dinweb/DINMuseum/Edward%20Jenner.asp Early life Edward Jenner was born on 17 May 1749 (6 May Old Style) in Berkeley. Jenner then trained in Chipping Sodbury, Gloucestershire as an apprentice to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon, for eight years from the age of 14. In 1770 Jenner went up to surgery and anatomy under the surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's, University of London. Hunter was a noted experimentalist, and later a fellow of the Royal Society. William Osler records that Jenner was a student to whom Hunter repeated William Harvey's advice, very famous in medical circles (and characteristically Enlightenment), "Don't think, try". Jenner therefore was early noticed by men famous for advancing the practice and institutions of surgery. Hunter remained in correspondence with him over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773 he became a successful general practitioner and surgeon, practicing in purpose-built premises at Berkeley. Jenner and others formed a medical society in Rodborough, Gloucestershire, meeting to read papers on medical subjects and dine together. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia and valvular disease of the heart and commented on cowpox. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the previously misunderstood life of the cuckoo in the nest. Common Cuckoo Jenner's description of the newly hatched cuckoo pushing its host's eggs and fledglings from the nest was confirmed in the 20th century when photography became feasible. Having observed the behavior, he demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it—the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back which is not present after 12 days of life, in which it cups eggs and other chicks to push them out of the nest. It had been assumed that the adult bird did this but the adult does not remain in the area for sufficiently long. His findings were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1787 . He married Catherine Kingscote (died 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788 having met her when balloons were hot science, and he and other Fellows were experimenting with them. His trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, owned by Anthony Kingscote, Catherine being one of his three daughters. In 1792, he obtained his M.D. from the University of St Andrews. Smallpox Around this time smallpox was greatly feared, as one in three of those who contracted the disease died, and those who survived were often badly disfigured. Voltaire, a few years later, recorded that 60% of people caught smallpox, with 20% of the population dying of it. In the years following 1770 there were at least six people in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) who had successfully tested the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans. Plett PC (2006)."[Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner]" (in German). Sudhoffs Arch 90 (2): 219–32. For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty had successfully induced immunity in his wife and two children with cowpox during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work some twenty years later that the procedure became widely understood. Indeed it is generally believed that Jenner was unaware of Jesty's success and arrived at his conclusions independently. Jenner's Initial Theory <tr><td>In fact he thought the initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called "the grease", and that this was transferred to cows by farmworkers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox. From that point on he was correct, the complication probably arose from coincidence. Noting the common observation that milkmaids did not generally get smallpox, Jenner theorized that the pus in the blisters which milkmaids received from cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected the milkmaids from smallpox. He may have had the advantage of hearing stories of Benjamin Jesty and others who deliberately arranged cowpox infection of their families, and then noticed a reduced smallpox risk in those families. On 14 May 1796, Jenner tested his theory by inoculating James Phipps,{1788-1853} a young boy of 8 years old, with material from the cowpox blisters of the hand of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom , Edward Jenner Museum , whose hide hangs on the wall of the library at St George's medical school (now in Tooting). Blossom's hide commemorates one of the school's most renowned alumni. Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper on vaccination. Jenner inoculated Phipps with cowpox pus in both arms on the same day. The inoculation was accomplished by scraping the pus from Nelmes' blisters onto a piece of wood then transferring this to Phipps' arms. This produced a fever and some uneasiness but no great illness. Later, he injected Phipps with variolous material, which would have been the routine attempt to produce immunity at that time. No disease followed. Jenner reported that later the boy was again challenged with variolacious material and again showed no sign of infection. Known: that smallpox was more dangerous than variolation and cowpox less dangerous than variolation. The hypothesis tested: That infection with cowpox would give immunity to smallpox. The test: If variolation failed to produce an infection, Phipps was shown to be immune to smallpox. The consequence: Immunity to smallpox could be induced much more safely. He continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, who did not publish the initial report. After improvement and further work, he published a report of twenty-three cases. Some of his conclusions were correct, and some erroneous—modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make this easier to repeat. The medical establishment, as cautious then as now, considered his findings for some time before accepting them. Eventually vaccination was accepted, and in 1840 the British government banned variolation- the use of the smallpox itself- and provided vaccination- using cowpox- free of charge. (See Vaccination acts) 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages. Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented his continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and the King in petitioning Parliament and was granted £10,000 for his work on vaccination. In 1806 he was granted another £20,000 for his continuing work. In 1803 in London he became involved with the Jennerian Institution', a society concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. In 1808, with government aid, this society became the National Vaccine Establishment. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its foundation in 1805, and subsequently presented to them a number of papers. This is now the Royal Society of Medicine. Returning to London in 1811 he observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination occurring. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by the previous vaccination. In 1821 he was appointed Physician Extraordinary to King George IV, a considerable national honour, and was made Mayor of Berkeley and Justice of the Peace. He continued his interests in natural history. In 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his Observations on the Migration of Birds to the Royal Society. Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed. He never fully recovered, and eventually died of an apparent stroke (he had suffered a previous stroke) on 26 January 1823, aged 73. He was survived by one son and one daughter, his elder son having died of tuberculosis at the age of 21. Legacy In 1980, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease. This was the result of coordinated public health efforts by many people, but vaccination was an essential component. And although it was declared eradicated, some samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia in the United States, and State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia. The importance of his work does not stop there. His vaccine also laid the groundwork for modern-day discoveries in immunology, and the field he began may someday lead to cures for arthritis, AIDS, and many other diseases of our time. http://www.essortment.com/all/edwardjennersm_rmfk.htm Monuments Bronze in Kensington Gardens Jenner's house is now a small museum housing among other things the horns of the cow, Blossom. It lies in the Gloucestershire village of Berkeley. Jenner was buried in the chancel of the parish church of Berkeley. A statue, by Robert William Sievier, was erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral. A statue was erected in Trafalgar Square, later moved to Kensington Gardens. Near the small Gloucestershire village of Uley, Downham Hill is locally known as 'Smallpox Hill', with a possible connection to Jenner's local work with the disease. St George's, University of London has a wing named after him as well as a bust of him. A small grouping of villages in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, United States, were named in honour of Jenner by early 19th century English settlers, including what are now the towns of Jenners, Jenner Township, Jenner Crossroads and Jennerstown, Pennsylvania. There is a section at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital known as the Edward Jenner Ward where blood is taken specifically Also a ward at Northwick Park Hospital is named after him, called Jenner Ward Publications 1798 An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ 1799 Further Observations on the Variolœ Vaccinœ 1800 A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolœ Vaccinœ 40pgs 1801 The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation 12pgs See also Vaccine Vaccination Inoculation History of science Footnotes References Papers at the Royal College of Physicians Baron, John M.D. F.R.S., "The Life of Edward Jenner MD LLD FRS", Henry Colburn, London, 1827. Edward Jenner, the man and his work. BMJ 1949 E Ashworth Underwood Fisher, Richard B., "Edward Jenner 1749-1823," Andre Deutsch, London, 1991. Ordnance Survey showing reference to Smallpox Hil: http://explore.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/os_routes/show/1539 External links "EDWARD JENNER." LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia. © 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow. Jenner's papers on vaccination: http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/ A digitized copy of An inquiry into the causes and effects of the variola vaccine'' (1798), from the Posner Memorial Collection at Carnegie Mellon The Edward Jenner Museum & Old Cyder House Conference Centre: http://www.jennermuseum.com The Evolution of Modern Medicine. Osler, W Flickr images tagged Edward Jenner Flickr images tagged Temple of Vaccinia | Edward_Jenner |@lemmatized edward:12 jenner:40 may:6 january:3 english:2 scientist:1 study:2 natural:3 surroundings:1 berkeley:6 gloucestershire:6 england:2 widely:2 credit:1 pioneer:1 smallpox:20 vaccine:7 sometimes:1 refer:1 father:1 immunology:2 http:7 sundaytimes:1 lk:1 funday:1 famous:3 html:1 www:5 bbc:1 co:2 uk:2 history:4 shtml:1 dinweb:2 org:1 dinmuseum:1 asp:1 early:3 life:5 bear:1 old:3 style:1 train:1 chip:1 sodbury:1 apprentice:1 daniel:1 ludlow:1 surgeon:3 eight:1 year:6 age:3 go:1 surgery:2 anatomy:1 john:2 hunter:4 others:3 st:4 george:4 university:3 london:6 noted:1 experimentalist:1 later:6 fellow:3 royal:9 society:12 william:3 osler:2 record:2 student:1 repeat:2 harvey:1 advice:1 medical:7 circle:1 characteristically:1 enlightenment:1 think:2 try:1 therefore:1 notice:2 men:1 advance:1 practice:3 institution:2 remain:3 correspondence:1 propose:1 return:2 native:1 countryside:1 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2,172 | James_Beard | James Andrew Beard (May 5, 1903 – January 21, 1985) was an American chef and food writer. Importance James Beard is the central figure in the story of the establishment of a gourmet American food identity. He was an eccentric personality who brought French cooking to the American middle and upper classes in the 1950s. Many consider him the father of American-style gourmet cooking. His legacy lives on in twenty books, numerous writings, his own foundation, and his foundation's annual Beard awards in various culinary genres. Background Beard was born in Portland, Oregon, to Elizabeth and John Beard. His mother operated a boarding house and his father worked at the city's customs house. The family vacationed on the Pacific coast in Gearhart, Oregon. Here Beard was exposed to the unique local foods of the Pacific Northwest, including seafood and wild berries. James Beard’s earliest memory of food was the Lewis and Clark Exposition of 1905 when he was just two years old. Beard in his memoir recalls: “I was taken to the exposition two or three times. The thing that remained in my mind above all others — I think it marked my life — was watching Triscuits and shredded wheat biscuits being made. Isn’t that crazy? At two years old that memory was made. It intrigued the hell out of me.” James Beard, "A James Beard Memoir," The James Beard Celebration Cookbook, Ed. Barbara Kafka (New York: Wings Books, 1990) 25. Beard started his life bedridden with malaria at the age of three. David Kamp, The United States of Arugula: The Sun Dried, Cold-pressed, Dark-Roasted, Extra Virgin Story of the American Food Revolution, 1st paperback (New York: Broadway Books, 2006) 19. Beard's sickness gave him time to eat and enjoy the food prepared by his mother and their Chinese helper. Kamp 19. Beard's early childhood and the influence that Chinese cooking had on him helped prepare him for a later life at the forefront of culinary American chic. According to Beard he was raised by Thema and Let who instilled a passion for Chinese culture. James Beard, "A James Beard Memoir," 20. According to David Kamp, “in 1940 — he realized that part of his mission [as a food connoisseur] was to defend the pleasure of real cooking and fresh ingredients against the assault of the Jell-O-mold people and the domestic scientists." Kamp 20. Beard lived in France in the 1920s. Kamp 42. Consequently, Beard experienced French cuisine at bistros. As a result of Beard's exposure and subsequent influence of French culinary culture he became a Francophile. Education According to the James Beard Foundation, "After a brief stint at Reed College in Portland," "Who Was James Beard?" The James Beard Foundation (25 Nov 2007) <http://www.jamesbeard.org/about/beard.shtml>. (from which he was expelled in 1922 for homosexual activity Loughery, p. 173 ) "in 1923 Beard went on the road with a theatrical troupe. He lived abroad for several years studying voice and theater, but returned to the United States for good in 1927". Career He trained initially as a singer and actor, and moved to New York City in 1937. Not having much luck in the theater, he and his friend, Bill Rhodes, capitalized on the cocktail party craze by opening a catering company, "Hors D'Oeuvre, Inc.", which led the publication of Beard's first cookbook, Hors D'Oeuvre and Canapés, a compilation of his catering recipes. Rationing difficulties during World War II brought his catering business to a halt. In 1946, he appeared on an early televised cooking show, I Love to Eat, on NBC, and thus began his rise as an eminent American food authority. According to Julia Child, Beard was on the culinary road map in 1940 with the publication of his first book, Hors d’Oeuvre and Canapés. James Beard, Assisted Jose Wilson, Illustrated Karl Stuecklen, Introduction Julia Child, and Forward Mike Bittman, James Beard Beard on Food: The Best Recipes and Kitchen Wisdom from the Dean of American Cooking, 3rd. (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007)Childs Vi. Beard started out with a catering business in New York followed by lecturing, teaching, and writing both books and articles. Childs Vi. Child states, “Through the years he gradually became not only the leading culinary figure in the country, but ‘The Dean of American Cuisine’.” According to the James Beard Foundation website: “In 1955, he established The James Beard Cooking School. He continued to teach cooking to men and women for the next 30 years, both at his own schools (in New York City and Seaside, Oregon), and around the country at women's clubs, other cooking schools, and civic groups. He was a tireless traveler, bringing his message of good food, honestly prepared with fresh, wholesome, American ingredients, to a country just becoming aware of its own culinary heritage.” James Beard Foundation James Beard brought French cooking to the American middle and upper classes in the 1950s. Beard starred on TV as a cooking personality. David Kamp notes that this show was the first cooking show on TV. Kamp 55. Kamp contrasts Dione Lucas’s cooking show and cooking school with that of James Beard, noting also that their prominence in the 1950s marked the emergence of a New York-based, nationally- and internationally-known sophisticated food culture. Kamp 57 Kamp notes, "It was in this decade [the 1950s] that Beard made his name as 'James Beard,' the brand name, the face and belly of American gastronomy." Kamp 58. Kamp points out that Beard was able to meet Alice B. Toklas on a trip to Paris, Kamp 60. illustrating Beard’s extensive network of fellow food celebrities that would follow him throughout his life and carry on his legacy after his death. Beard entered into an endorsement project with the Green Giant canned food company. Kamp 62 Kamp explains that Beard felt that he was a “gastronomic whore” for doing so. Kamp 62. Apparently massed produced food that was neither fresh, local or seasonal was a betrayal of Beard’s gastronomic beliefs, but this was rooted in his desire to pay for his cooking schools. In 1981, along with friend Gael Greene, Beard founded Citymeals-on-Wheels, which continues to help feed the home-bound elderly in New York City. Beard continued throughout the rest of his career to sign endorsement deals promoting products that he might otherwise have not endsorsed, had it not been for financial constraints. In comparison Craig Claiborne, another one of America's great gastronomic figures, died in obscurity, unrecognized for his accomplishments and unknown to "anyone under the age of fifty." Kamp 291. David Kamp contrasts Claiborne with James Beard who died in 1985 as beloved and surrounded by friends unlike Claiborne. Personal life Julia Child accurately sums up Beard's personal life in a brief description: “Beard was the quintessential American cook. Well-educated and well-traveled during his eighty-two years, he was familiar with many cuisines but he remained fundamentally American. He was a big man, over six feet tall, with a big belly, and huge hands. An endearing and always lively teacher, he loved people, loved his work, loved gossip, loved to eat, loved a good time." Child Vi. Child's summary makes two significant omissions. The first is that he was homosexual. Beard’s memoir states: "By the time I was seven, I knew that I was gay. I think it’s time to talk about that now." James Beard, The James Beard Celebration Cookbook, Ed. Barbara Kafka (William Morrow & Co, 1990) at 24. ISBN 0688076378 The second was Beard’s own admission of possessing "until I was about forty-five, I guess a really violent temper." Beard, "A James Beard Memoir," 20-21. Mark Bittman (who did not know Beard personally) describes him in a similar way: "In a time when serious cooking meant French Cooking, Beard was quintessentially American, a westerner whose mother ran a boardinghouse, a man who grew up with hotcakes and salmon and meatloaf in his blood. A man who was born a hundred years ago on the other side of the county, in a city, Portland, that at the time was every bit as cosmopolitan as, say, Allegheny PA." James Beard, Assisted Jose Wilson, Illustrated Karl Stuecklen, Introduction Julia Child, and Forward Mike Bittman, James Beard Beard on Food: The Best Recipes and Kitchen Wisdom from the Dean of American Cooking, 3rd. (New York: Bloomsbury, 2007)Bittman viii. Beard died January 21, 1985 in New York City, New York, United States of heart failure at the age of 81. He was cremated, and his ashes were scattered over the beach in Gearhart, Oregon, United States, where he spent his summers as a child. Foundation The James Beard Foundation was set up in Beard's honor to provide scholarships to aspiring food professionals and to champion the American culinary tradition — which Beard helped create. Kamp 294. The Beard Foundation had boasted of its giving of scholarships but in 2003 it only gave $29,000 of its $4 million dollar fund to scholarships. For a time the foundation was plagued by scandal; in 2004 its head, Leonard Pickell, resigned and was imprisoned for grand larceny and in 2005 the board of trustees resigned. Since that time it has instituted a new ethics policy and selected a new president, both actions explicitly targeted at preventing further abuse. The foundation continues to experience some financial difficulty; it has operated at a deficit for several consecutive years, though the size of that deficit has decreased since Pickell's departure. Questions Linger for Beard Foundation - New York Times Beard's legacy: the James Beard House & the James Beard Awards Taken at the James Beard House, January 2007 After Beard's death in 1985, Julia Child had the idea to preserve his home in New York City as the gathering place it was throughout his life. Peter Kump, a former student of Beard's and the founder of the Institute of Culinary Education (formerly Peter Kump's New York Cooking School), spearheaded the effort to purchase the house and create the James Beard Foundation. Beard's renovated brownstone is located at 167 West 12th Street, in the heart of Greenwich Village. It is North America's only historical culinary center, a place where Foundation members, the press, and the general public are encouraged to savor the creations of both established and emerging chefs from across the country and around the globe. The annual James Beard Foundation Awards are given at the industry's biggest party, part of a fortnight of activities that celebrate fine cuisine and Beard's birthday. Held on the first Monday in May, the Awards ceremony honors the finest chefs, restaurants, journalists, cookbook authors, restaurant designers, and electronic media professionals in the country. It culminates in a reception featuring a tasting of the signature dishes of more than 30 of the James Beard Foundation's very best chefs. A quarterly magazine, Beard House, is a comprehensive compendium of the best in culinary journalism. The foundation also publishes the James Beard Foundation Restaurant Directory, a directory of all chefs who have either presented a meal at the Beard House or have participated in one of the foundation's out-of-House fundraising events. Quotations "There is absolutely no substitute for the best. Good food cannot be made of inferior ingredients masked with high flavor. It is true thrift to use the best ingredients available and to waste nothing." Beard, James, Illustrated Alice Provensen, and Illustrated Martin Provensen, The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert, 1st. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1949)13. "I’m going to break one of the rules of the trade here. I’m going to tell you some of the secrets of improvisation. Just remember — it’s always a good idea to follow the directions exactly the first time you try a recipe. But from then on, you’re on your own." James Beard, and Illustrated Pat Stewart, The Best Of Beard: Great Recipes From a Great Cook (New York: Western Publishing Company, Inc. 1974) 6. Works James Beard (1903 – 1985): The Complete Works Hors d’Oeuvre and Canapés 1940, M. Barrows & Co. Revised in 1963 and 1985. Cook It Outdoors 1941 (M. Barrows & Co.) Fowl and Game Cookery 1944 (M. Barrows & Co.) The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert 1949 (Simon and Schuster) Re titled in 1982 as The Fireside Cookbook. Paris Cuisine 1952 (Little, Brown) Beard co-wrote Paris Cuisine with British journalist Alexander Watt. The Complete Book of Barbecue & Rotisserie Cooking 1954 (Maco Magazine Corp.) [Re titled in 1958 as New Barbecue Cookbook, in 1966 as Jim Beard’s Barbecue Cookbook, and in 1967 as James Beard’s Barbecue Cookbook.] Complete Cookbook for Entertaining 1954 (Maco Magazine Corp.) How to Eat Better for Less Money 1954 (Simon and Schuster) James Beard’s Fish Cookery 1954 (Little, Brown) [Re titled in 1976 and 1987 (paperback) as James Beard’s New Fish Cookery.] Casserole Cookbook 1955 (Maco Magazine Corp.) The Complete Book of Outdoor Cookery 1955 (Doubleday) The James Beard Cookbook 1959 (Dell Publishing Co.) Revised in 1961, 1970, 1987 (paperback), and 1996. Treasury of Outdoor Cooking 1960 (Golden Press) Delights & Prejudices: A Memoir with Recipes 1964 (Atheneum) Revised in 1981 and 1990. James Beard’s Menus for Entertaining 1965 (Delacorte Press) How to Eat (and Drink) Your Way through a French (or Italian) Menu 1971 (Atheneum) James Beard’s American Cookery 1972 (Little, Brown) Beard on Bread 1973 (Knopf) Revised in 1995 (paperback) James Beard Cooks with Corning 1973 Beard on Food 1974 (Knopf) New Recipes for the Cuisinart Food Processor 1976 James Beard’s Theory & Practice of Good Cooking 1977 (Knopf) Revised in 1978, 1986, and 1990. The New James Beard 1981 (Knopf) Revised in 1989. Beard on Pasta 1983 (Knopf) The Grand Grand Marnier Cookbook Benson & Hedges 100’s Presents: 100 of the World’s Greatest Recipes by James Beard 1976 The James Beard Cookbook on CuisineVu 1987 James Beard’s Simple Foods 1993 (Macmillan) Love and Kisses and a Halo of Truffles 1994 (Arcade) Edited by John Ferrone The James Beard Cookbooks 1997 (Thames and Hudson) Edited by John Ferrone The Armchair James Beard 1999 (The Lyons Press) Edited by John Ferrone "Who Was James Beard?" The James Beard Foundation (25 Nov 2007) Archival Collection The James Beard Papers are housed in the Fales Library at New York University. The Fales Library Guide to the James Beard Papers Notes References Beard, James. "A James Beard Memoir." The James Beard Celebration Cookbook. Ed. Barbara Kafka. New York: Wings Books, 1990. Beard, James, Assisted Jose Wilson, Illustrated Karl Stuecklen, Introduction Julia Child, and Forward Mike Bittman. James Beard Beard on Food: The Best Recipes and Kitchen Wisdom from the Dean of American Cooking. 3rd. New York: Bloomsbury, 2007. Beard, James, Illustrated Alice Provensen, and Illustrated Martin Provensen. The Fireside Cook Book: A Complete Guide to Fine Cooking for Beginner and Expert. 1st. New York: Simon And Schuster, 1949. Beard, James, and Illustrated Pat Stewart. The Best of Beard: Great Recipes From a Great Cook. New York: Western Publishing Company, Inc., 1974. Clark, Robert. James Beard: A Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. (Later reissued as The Solace of Food: A Life of James Beard. Hanover, NH, 1998). Kamp, David. The United States of Arugula: The Sun Dried, Cold-pressed, Dark-Roasted, Extra Virgin Story of the American Food Revolution. 1st paperback. New York: Broadway Books, 2006. Loughery, John (1998). The Other Side of Silence – Men's Lives and Gay Identities: A Twentieth-Century History. New York, Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0805038965. External links The Fales Library Guide to the James Beard Papers James Beard Foundation James Beard Foundation Awards Notable Oregonians: James Beard — Food Expert/Writer from Oregon Blue Book James Beard Audio Recordings James Beard Quotes | James_Beard |@lemmatized james:57 andrew:1 beard:124 may:2 january:3 american:20 chef:5 food:24 writer:2 importance:1 central:1 figure:3 story:3 establishment:1 gourmet:2 identity:2 eccentric:1 personality:2 bring:4 french:6 cooking:22 middle:2 upper:2 class:2 many:2 consider:1 father:2 style:1 legacy:3 live:3 twenty:1 book:13 numerous:1 writing:1 foundation:22 annual:2 award:5 various:1 culinary:10 genre:1 background:1 bear:2 portland:3 oregon:5 elizabeth:1 john:5 mother:3 operate:2 boarding:1 house:9 work:4 city:7 custom:1 family:1 vacation:1 pacific:2 coast:1 gearhart:2 expose:1 unique:1 local:2 northwest:1 include:1 seafood:1 wild:1 berry:1 early:3 memory:2 lewis:1 clark:2 exposition:2 two:5 year:8 old:2 memoir:7 recall:1 take:2 three:2 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title:3 little:3 brown:3 british:1 alexander:1 watt:1 barbecue:4 rotisserie:1 maco:3 corp:3 jim:1 entertain:2 less:1 money:1 fish:2 casserole:1 outdoor:2 doubleday:1 dell:1 treasury:1 golden:1 delight:1 prejudice:1 atheneum:2 menu:2 delacorte:1 drink:1 italian:1 bread:1 knopf:5 corn:1 cuisinart:1 processor:1 theory:1 practice:1 pasta:1 marnier:1 benson:1 hedge:1 cuisinevu:1 simple:1 macmillan:1 kiss:1 halo:1 truffle:1 arcade:1 edit:3 ferrone:3 cookbooks:1 thames:1 hudson:1 armchair:1 lyon:1 archival:1 collection:1 paper:3 fales:3 library:3 university:1 reference:1 robert:1 biography:1 harpercollins:1 later:1 reissue:1 solace:1 hanover:1 nh:1 silence:1 twentieth:1 century:1 history:1 henry:1 holt:1 external:1 link:1 notable:1 oregonian:1 blue:1 audio:1 recording:1 quote:1 |@bigram portland_oregon:1 lewis_clark:1 jam_beard:12 http_www:1 hors_oeuvre:4 beard_beard:3 kitchen_wisdom:3 nationally_internationally:1 william_morrow:1 cremate_ash:1 ash_scatter:1 board_trustee:1 greenwich_village:1 simon_schuster:4 delacorte_press:1 benson_hedge:1 thames_hudson:1 fales_library:3 twentieth_century:1 external_link:1 |
2,173 | Aliphatic_compound | In organic chemistry, compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds, which contain benzene rings or similar rings of atoms, and aliphatic compounds (G. aleiphar, fat, oil), which do not contain aromatic rings. Aliphatic compounds can be cyclic, like cyclohexane, or acyclic, like hexane. They also can be saturated, like hexane, or unsaturated, like hexene. In aliphatic compounds, carbon atoms can be joined together in straight chains, branched chains, or non-aromatic rings (in which case they are called alicyclic). They can be joined by single bonds (alkanes), double bonds (alkenes), or triple bonds (alkynes). Besides hydrogen, other elements can be bound to the carbon chain, the most common being oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine. The simplest aliphatic compound is methane (CH4). Aliphatics include alkanes (e.g. paraffin hydrocarbons), alkenes (e.g. ethylene) and alkynes (e.g. acetylene). Fatty acids consist of an unbranched aliphatic tail attached to a carboxyl group. Most aliphatic compounds are flammable, allowing the use of hydrocarbons as fuel, such as methane in Bunsen burners, and acetylene in welding. Examples See also Aromatic compound Carbon-carbon bond References | Aliphatic_compound |@lemmatized organic:1 chemistry:1 compound:8 compose:1 carbon:5 hydrogen:2 divide:1 two:1 class:1 aromatic:4 contain:2 benzene:1 ring:4 similar:1 atom:2 aliphatic:6 g:4 aleiphar:1 fat:1 oil:1 cyclic:1 like:4 cyclohexane:1 acyclic:1 hexane:2 also:2 saturate:1 unsaturated:1 hexene:1 join:2 together:1 straight:1 chain:3 branch:1 non:1 case:1 call:1 alicyclic:1 single:1 bond:4 alkane:2 double:1 alkene:2 triple:1 alkyne:2 besides:1 element:1 bind:1 common:1 oxygen:1 nitrogen:1 sulfur:1 chlorine:1 simple:1 methane:2 aliphatics:1 include:1 e:3 paraffin:1 hydrocarbon:2 ethylene:1 acetylene:2 fatty:1 acid:1 consist:1 unbranched:1 tail:1 attach:1 carboxyl:1 group:1 flammable:1 allow:1 use:1 fuel:1 bunsen:1 burner:1 weld:1 example:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram organic_chemistry:1 aromatic_compound:2 benzene_ring:1 aliphatic_compound:5 aromatic_ring:2 carbon_atom:1 nitrogen_sulfur:1 fatty_acid:1 aliphatic_tail:1 |
2,174 | Mikhail_Kalashnikov | Lieutenant General Mikhail Timofeyevich Kalashnikov (, Mihail Timofeevič Kalašnikov) (born November 10, 1919 in Russia's southern Altai region) is a famous Russian small arms designer, most famous for his AK-47, frequently called the Kalashnikov or AK. Early life Kalashnikov was conscripted into the Red Army in 1938, and became a tank driver-mechanic, achieving the rank of senior sergeant (tank commander) serving on the T-34s of the 24th Tank Regiment, 12th Tank Division p.27 Perechen No.6 stationed in Stryi This was derived from the site that mentioned where the tank regiment Kalashnikov served with was located, and a mention of another veteran who served there МЕЛЮХИН Андрей Егорович before the regiment retreated after the failed counterattack at Brody. He was wounded in combat during the defence of Bryansk and released for six months recuperation due to illness. While in the hospital, he overheard some soldiers complaining about the current Soviet rifles. He also had bad experiences with the standard infantry weapons at the time, so he was inspired to start constructing a new rifle for the Soviet military. During this time Kalashnikov began designing a submachine gun while in the hospital after being wounded in the Battle of Bryansk http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,288456,00.html AK-47 Inventor Doesn't Lose Sleep Over Havoc Wrought With His Invention . Although his first submachine gun design was not accepted to service, his talents as a designer were noticed. From 1942 onwards Kalashnikov was assigned to the Central Scientific-developmental Firing Range for Rifle Firearms of the Chief Artillery Directorate of RKKA. In 1944, he designed a gas-operated carbine for the new 7.62 x 39 mm cartridge; this weapon, influenced by the Garand self-loading rifle, lost out to the new Simonov carbine which would be eventually adopted as the SKS; but it became a basis for his entry in an assault rifle competition in 1946 Bolotin, D.N, "Soviet Small-Arms and Ammunition", pp 69-70 and 115. . His winning entry, the "Mikhtim" (so named by taking the first letters of his name and patronymic Mikhail Timofeyevich) became the prototype for the development of a family of prototype rifles Kalashnikov, Mikhail, "How and Why I Produced My Submachine Gun", in Sputnik: A Digest of Soviet Press, Novosti Press Agency, Moscow, June 1983, pp 70-75. . This process culminated in 1947, when he designed the AK-47 (standing for Avtomat Kalashnikova model 1947). In 1949, the AK-47 assault rifle became the Soviet Army's standard issue rifle; after that, the design became Kalashnikov's most famous invention. Later career Monument to Kalashnikov in Izhevsk. After WWII, as General Designer of small arms for the Soviet Army, his design subordinates included the Germans Hugo Schmeisser (of MP 40 fame) and Werner Grüner (of MG 42 fame) and a pioneer in sheet metal embossing technology in the 1950s. Over the course of his career he evolved the basic design into a weapons family. The AKM ("Avtomat Kalashnikov Modernizirovanniy" - Automatic Kalashnikov Modernised) first appeared in 1963, which was lighter and cheaper to manufacture due to the use of a stamped steel receiver (in place of the AK47's milled steel receiver), and contained detail improvements such as a re-shaped stock and muzzle compensator. From the AKM he developed a squad automatic weapon variant, known as the RPK (Ruchnoi pulemyot Kalashnikova - Kalashnikov light machine gun), and also the PK (Pulemyot Kalashnikova - Kalashnikov machine gun), which used the more powerful 7.62×54R of the Mosin-Nagant rifle. The PK series is a general purpose machine gun, which is cartridge belt-fed, not magazine-fed, as it is intended to fill the heavy tripod-mounted sustained fire role as well as the light, bipod-mounted role. The common characteristics of his weapons are the simple, elegant engineering and their ruggedness and ease of maintenance in all operating conditions. Since 1949, Mikhail Kalashnikov has lived and worked in Izhevsk, Udmurtia. He told Reuters Television, "I've always wanted to improve and expand on the good name of my weapon by doing good things." The legacy of Kalashnikov's rifles as the most popular assault rifles has prompted him to state that http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/jul/30/russia.kateconnolly Kate Connolly, Berlin bureau, The Guardian, Tuesday July 30, 2002 "I'm proud of my invention, but I'm sad that it is used by terrorists," he said on a visit to Germany, adding: "I would prefer to have invented a machine that people could use and that would help farmers with their work - for example a lawnmower." Mikhail Kalashnikov was twice named Hero of Socialist Labor. In 1998, he was awarded an Order of Saint Andrew the Protoclete (orden Svyatogo Andreya Pervozvannogo). He holds an advanced degree of Doctor of Technical Sciences. Despite estimates of some 100 million AK-47 assault rifles circulating, General Kalashnikov claims he has not profited and that he only receives a state pension. Coming soon - the Kalashnikov brolly? Merchandise named for General Kalashnikov, such as umbrellas and knives, are being produced by German company Marken Marketing International (MMI), based in Solingen. Kalashnikov lends his name to an umbrella", Kate Connolly, Berlin bureau, 17/02/2003, http://www.dailytelegraph.co.uk/ One of the items is a knife named for the AK-74. Care for a Kalashnikov Umbrella?, THE MOSCOW TIMES Citations "My work is my life, and my life is my work. I invented this assault rifle to defend my country. Today, I am proud that it has become for many synonymous with liberty." "It is the Germans who are responsible for the fact that I became a fabricator of arms. If not for them, I would have constructed agricultural machines. (...) If someone asks me how I can sleep at night knowing that my arms have killed millions of people, I respond that I have no problem sleeping, my conscience is clean. I constructed arms to defend my country." "I am still ready to shake hands with anyone who designs a better assault rifle than mine." References Further reading Hodges, Michael. AK47: the Story of the People's Gun. London: Sceptre, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 0340921048). External links 'I sleep soundly' - Interview with and article on Mikhail Kalashnikov at the age of 83, from The Guardian newspaper. The Biography of the Main Gun Designer Mikhail Timofeevich Kalashnikov Mikhail Kalashnikov backs weapons control BBC NEWS Profile: Mikhail Kalashnikov Free illustrated virtual guided tour of the Museum of Mikhail Kalashnikov The life of Mikhail Kalashnikov On the AK-47's military and social effects on history Kalashnikov's Vodka Mikhail Kalashnikov with Elena Joly: The Gun that Changed the World | Mikhail_Kalashnikov |@lemmatized lieutenant:1 general:5 mikhail:12 timofeyevich:2 kalashnikov:29 mihail:1 timofeevič:1 kalašnikov:1 born:1 november:1 russia:2 southern:1 altai:1 region:1 famous:3 russian:1 small:3 arm:6 designer:4 ak:8 frequently:1 call:1 early:1 life:4 conscript:1 red:1 army:3 become:7 tank:5 driver:1 mechanic:1 achieve:1 rank:1 senior:1 sergeant:1 commander:1 serve:3 regiment:3 division:1 p:1 perechen:1 station:1 stryi:1 derive:1 site:1 mention:2 locate:1 another:1 veteran:1 мелюхин:1 андрей:1 егорович:1 retreat:1 failed:1 counterattack:1 brody:1 wound:2 combat:1 defence:1 bryansk:2 release:1 six:1 month:1 recuperation:1 due:2 illness:1 hospital:2 overhear:1 soldier:1 complain:1 current:1 soviet:6 rifle:14 also:2 bad:1 experience:1 standard:2 infantry:1 weapon:7 time:3 inspire:1 start:1 construct:3 new:3 military:2 begin:1 design:8 submachine:3 gun:9 battle:1 http:3 www:3 foxnews:1 com:1 story:2 html:1 inventor:1 lose:2 sleep:3 havoc:1 wrought:1 invention:3 although:1 first:3 accept:1 service:1 talent:1 notice:1 onwards:1 assign:1 central:1 scientific:1 developmental:1 firing:1 range:1 firearm:1 chief:1 artillery:1 directorate:1 rkka:1 gas:1 operated:1 carbine:2 x:1 mm:1 cartridge:2 influence:1 garand:1 self:1 loading:1 simonov:1 would:4 eventually:1 adopt:1 sks:1 basis:1 entry:2 assault:6 competition:1 bolotin:1 n:1 ammunition:1 pp:2 win:1 mikhtim:1 name:7 take:1 letter:1 patronymic:1 prototype:2 development:1 family:2 produce:2 sputnik:1 digest:1 press:2 novosti:1 agency:1 moscow:2 june:1 process:1 culminate:1 stand:1 avtomat:2 kalashnikova:3 model:1 issue:1 later:1 career:2 monument:1 izhevsk:2 wwii:1 subordinate:1 include:1 german:3 hugo:1 schmeisser:1 mp:1 fame:2 werner:1 grüner:1 mg:1 pioneer:1 sheet:1 metal:1 emboss:1 technology:1 course:1 evolve:1 basic:1 akm:2 modernizirovanniy:1 automatic:2 modernise:1 appear:1 light:3 cheap:1 manufacture:1 use:4 stamped:1 steel:2 receiver:2 place:1 mill:1 contain:1 detail:1 improvement:1 shaped:1 stock:1 muzzle:1 compensator:1 develop:1 squad:1 variant:1 know:2 rpk:1 ruchnoi:1 pulemyot:2 machine:5 pk:2 powerful:1 mosin:1 nagant:1 series:1 purpose:1 belt:1 fed:2 magazine:1 intend:1 fill:1 heavy:1 tripod:1 mount:1 sustained:1 fire:1 role:2 well:1 bipod:1 mounted:1 common:1 characteristic:1 simple:1 elegant:1 engineering:1 ruggedness:1 ease:1 maintenance:1 operating:1 condition:1 since:1 live:1 work:4 udmurtia:1 tell:1 reuters:1 television:1 always:1 want:1 improve:1 expand:1 good:3 thing:1 legacy:1 popular:1 prompt:1 state:2 guardian:3 co:2 uk:2 world:2 jul:1 kateconnolly:1 kate:2 connolly:2 berlin:2 bureau:2 tuesday:1 july:1 proud:2 sad:1 terrorist:1 say:1 visit:1 germany:1 add:1 prefer:1 invent:2 people:3 could:1 help:1 farmer:1 example:1 lawnmower:1 twice:1 hero:1 socialist:1 labor:1 award:1 order:1 saint:1 andrew:1 protoclete:1 orden:1 svyatogo:1 andreya:1 pervozvannogo:1 hold:1 advanced:1 degree:1 doctor:1 technical:1 science:1 despite:1 estimate:1 million:2 circulate:1 claim:1 profit:1 receive:1 pension:1 come:1 soon:1 brolly:1 merchandise:1 umbrella:3 knife:2 company:1 marken:1 market:1 international:1 mmi:1 base:1 solingen:1 lend:1 dailytelegraph:1 one:1 item:1 care:1 citation:1 defend:2 country:2 today:1 many:1 synonymous:1 liberty:1 responsible:1 fact:1 fabricator:1 agricultural:1 someone:1 ask:1 night:1 kill:1 respond:1 problem:1 sleeping:1 conscience:1 clean:1 still:1 ready:1 shake:1 hand:1 anyone:1 mine:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 hodges:1 michael:1 london:1 sceptre:1 hardcover:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 soundly:1 interview:1 article:1 age:1 newspaper:1 biography:1 main:1 timofeevich:1 back:1 control:1 bbc:1 news:1 profile:1 free:1 illustrate:1 virtual:1 guide:1 tour:1 museum:1 social:1 effect:1 history:1 vodka:1 elena:1 joly:1 change:1 |@bigram submachine_gun:3 http_www:3 foxnews_com:1 assault_rifle:6 ak_assault:2 mikhail_kalashnikov:8 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
2,175 | Ellipse | An ellipse obtained as the intersection of a cone with a plane. In mathematics, an ellipse (from Greek ἔλλειψις elleipsis, a "falling short") is the finite or bounded case of a conic section, the geometric shape that results from cutting a circular conical or cylindrical surface with an oblique plane (the other two cases being the parabola and the hyperbola). It is also the locus of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same constant. Ellipses also arise as images of a circle or a sphere under parallel projection, and some cases of perspective projection. Indeed, circles are special cases of ellipses. An ellipse is also the closed and bounded case of an implicit curve of degree 2, and of a rational curve of degree 2. It is also the simplest Lissajous figure, formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are sinusoids with the same frequency. Elements of an ellipse The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties. An ellipse is a smooth closed curve which is symmetric about its center. The distance between antipodal points on the ellipse, or pairs of points whose midpoint is at the center of the ellipse, is maximum and minimum along two perpendicular directions, the major axis or transverse diameter, and the minor axis or conjugate diameter . The semimajor axis (denoted by a in the figure) and the semiminor axis (denoted by b in the figure) are one half of the major and minor diameters, respectively. These are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the major and minor semi-axes, John Herschel (1842) A Treatise on Astronomy, page 256 John Lankford (1996), History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia, page 194 , the major and minor semiaxes V. Prasolov and V. Tikhomirov (2001), Geometry, page 80 Donald Fenna (2006), Cartographic science: a compendium of map projections, with derivations, page 24 , or major radius and minor radius. Autocad release 13: command reference, page 216 David Salomon (2006), Curves and surfaces for computer graphics, page 365 CRC Press (2004), The CRC handbook of mechanical engineering, page 11-8 The Mathematical Association of America (1976), The American Mathematical Monthly, vol. 83, page 207 When a and b are equal, the foci coincide with the center, and the ellipse becomes a circle with radius a=b. There are two special points F1 and F2 on the ellipse's major axis, on either side of the center, such that the sum of the distances from any point of the ellipse to those two points is constant and equal to the major diameter (2 a). Each of these two points is called a focus of the ellipse. The eccentricity of an ellipse, usually denoted by ε or e, is the ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis. The eccentricity is necessarily between 0 and 1; it is zero if and only if a=b, in which case the ellipse is a circle. As the eccentricity tends to 1, the ellipse becomes more elongated, and the ratio a/b tends to infinity. The distance ae from a focal point to the centre is called the linear eccentricity of the ellipse. Drawing ellipses The pins-and-string method 300|Two pins, a loop and a pen method An ellipse can be drawn using two pins, a length of string, and a pencil: Push the pins into the paper at two points, which will become the ellipse's foci. Tie the string into a loose loop around the two pins. Pull the loop taut with the pencil's tip, so as to form a triangle. Move the pencil around, while keeping the string taut, and its tip will trace out an ellipse. To draw an ellipse inscribed within a specified rectangle, tangent to its four sides at their midpoint, one must first determine the positon of the foci and the length of the loop: Let A,B,C,D be the corners of the rectangle, in clockwise order, with A-B being one of the long sides. Draw a circle centered on A, having radius the short side A-D. From corner B draw a tangent to the circle. The length L of this tangent is the distance between the foci. Draw two perpendicular lines through the center of the rectangle and parallel to its sides; these will be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Place the foci on the major axis, symmetrically, at distance L/2 from the center. To adjust the length of the string loop, insert a pin at one focus, and another pin at the opposite end of the major diameter. Loop the string around the two pins and tie it taut. Other methods An ellipse can also be drawn using a ruler, a set square, and a pencil: Draw two perpendicular lines M,N on the paper; these will be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Mark three points A, B, C on the ruler. With one hand, move the ruler onto the paper, turning and sliding it so as to keep point A always on line M, and B on line N. With the other hand, keep the pencil's tip on the paper, following point C of the ruler. The tip will trace out an ellipse. This method can be implemented with a router to cut ellipses from board material Woodworking videos showing how to cut ellipses with a router. The ellipsograph is a mechanical device that implements this principle. The ruler is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point C) at one end, and two adjustable side pins (points A and B) that slide into two perpendicular slots cut into a a metal plate. Ellipses in physics Elliptical reflectors and acoustics If the water surface is disturbed at one focus of an elliptical tank, the circular waves created by that disturbance, after being reflected by the walls, will converge simultaneously to a single point — the second focus. This is a consequence of the total travel length being the same along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci. Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic mirror, all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an ellipsoidal mirror (specifically, a prolate spheroid), this property will hold for all rays out of the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear fluorescent lamp along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some document scanners. Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a person standing at the other focus remarkably well. The effect is even more evident under a vaulted roof shaped as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a whisper chamber. The same effect can be demonstraed with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance. Examples are the National Statuary Hall at the U.S. Capitol (where John Quincy Adams is said to have used this property for eavesdropping on political matters), at an exhibit on sound at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, in front of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Foellinger Auditorium, and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in the Alhambra. Planetary orbits In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler explained that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses in his first law of planetary motion. Later, Isaac Newton explained this as a corollary of his law of universal gravitation. More generally, in the gravitational two-body problem, if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are similar ellipses with the common barycenter being one of the foci of each ellipse. The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus. Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially-directed attraction force whose strength is inversely proportional to distance. Thus, in principle, the motion of two oppositely-charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclusion ignores losses due to electromagnetic radiation and quantum effects which become significant when the particles are moving at high speed.) Harmonic oscillators The general solution for a harmonic oscillator in two or more dimensions is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two dimensions, or of a mass attached to a fixed point by a perfectly elastic spring. Unlike Keplerian orbits, however, these "harmonic orbits" have the center of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and have fairly simple equations of motion. Phase visualization In electronics, the relative phase of two sinusoidal signals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an oscilloscope. If the display is an ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out of phase. Elliptical gears Two gears with the same elliptical outline, each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the proper angle, will turn smoothly while maintaining contact at all times. Alternatively, they can be connected by a link chain or timing belt. Such elliptical gears may be used in mechanical equipment to vary the torque or angular speed during each turn of the driving axle. Optics In a material that is optically anisotropic (birefringent), the refractive index depends on the direction of the light. The dependency can be described by an index ellipsoid. (If the material is optically isotropic, this ellipsoid is a sphere.) Mathematical definitions and properties In Euclidean geometry Definition In Euclidean geometry, an ellipse is usually defined as the bounded case of a conic section, or as the locus of the points such that the distances to two fixed points is constant. The equivalence of these two definitions can be proved using the Dandelin spheres. Eccentricity The eccentricity of the ellipse is The distance from the center to either focus is ae. Directrix Each focus F of the ellipse is associated to a line D perpendicular to the major axis (the directrix) such that the distance from any point on the ellipse to F is a constant fraction of its distance from D. This property (which can be proved using the Dandelin spheres) can be taken as another definition of the ellipse. The ratio between the two distances is the eccentricity e of the ellipse; so the distance from the center to the directrix is a/e. Ellipse as hypotrochoid The ellipse is a special case of the hypotrochoid when R=2r. 300|An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with R=2r. Area The area enclosed by an ellipse is πab, where (as before) a and b are one-half of the ellipse's major and minor axes respectively. Circumference The circumference of an ellipse is , where the function is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind. The exact infinite series is: or A good approximation is Ramanujan's: or better approximation: For the special case where the minor axis is half the major axis, we can use: or the better approximation More generally, the arc length of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by an incomplete elliptic integral. The inverse function, the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the elliptic functions. In projective geometry In projective geometry, an ellipse can be defined as the set of all points of intersection between corresponding lines of two pencils of lines which are related by a projective map. By projective duality, an ellipse can be defined also as the envelope of all lines that connect corresponding points of two lines which are related by a projective map. This definition also generates hyperbolas and parabolas. However, in projective geometry every conic section is equivalent to an ellipse. A parabola is an ellipse that is tangent to the line at infinity Ω, and the hyperbola is an ellipse that crosses Ω. An ellipse is also the result of projecting a circle, sphere, or ellipse in three dimensions onto a plane, by parallel lines. It is also the result of conical (perspective) projection any of those geometric objects from a point O onto a plane P, provided that the plane Q that goes through through O and is parallel to P does not cut the object. The image of an ellipse by any affine map is an ellipse, and so is the image of an ellipse by any projective map M such that the line M-1(Ω) does not touch or cross the ellipse. In analytic geometry General ellipse In analytic geometry, the ellipse is defined as the set of points of the Cartesian plane that satisfy the implicit equation provided that F is not zero and is positive; or of the form with Canonical form By a proper choice of coordinate system, the ellipse can be described by the canonical implicit equation Here are the point coordinates in the canonical system, whose origin is the center of the ellipse, whose -axis is the unit vector parallel to the major axis, and whose -axis is the perpendicular vector That is, and . In this system, the center is the origin and the foci are and . Any ellipse can be obtained by rotation and translation of a canonical ellipse with the proper semi-diameters. Moreover, any canonical ellipse can be obtained by scaling the unit circle of , defined by the equation by factors a and b along the two axes. For an ellipse in canonical form, we have The distances from a point on the ellipse to the left and right foci are and , respectively. In trigonometry General parametric form An ellipse in general position can be expressed parametrically as the path of a point , where for . Here is the center of the ellipse, and is the angle between the -axis and the major axis of the ellipse. Parametric form in canonical position For an ellipse in canonical position (center at origin, major axis along the X-axis), the equation simplifies to Note that the parameter t (called the eccentric anomaly in astronomy) is not the angle of with the X-axis. Polar form relative to center For an ellipse in canonical position, with the origin at the center, the position as a function of the angle with the X-axis is Polar form relative to focus Polar coordinates for the ellipse, with origin at F1| Using polar coordinates with the origin at a focus and with along the major axis, the ellipse's polar equation is where the sign in the denominator is positive if the origin is at F2 and negative if the origin is at F1. The latter case is illustrated on the right. The angle is called the true anomaly of the point. The numerator of this formula is the semi-latus rectum of the ellipse, usually denoted . It is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the major axis. Ellipse, showing semi-latus rectum Gauss-mapped form The Gauss-mapped equation of the ellipse gives the coordinates of the point on the ellipse where the normal makes an angle with the X-axis: Angular eccentricity The angular eccentricity is the angle whose sine is the eccentricity e; that is, Degrees of freedom An ellipse in the plane has five degrees of freedom, the same as as a general conic section. Said another way, the set of all ellipses in the plane, with any natural metric (such as the Hausdorff distance) is a five-dimensional manifold. These degrees can be identified with the coefficients of the implicit equation. In comparison, circles have only three degrees of freedom, while parabolas have four. Ellipses in computer graphics Drawing an ellipse as a graphics primitive is common in standard display libraries, such as the Macintosh QuickDraw API, the Windows Graphics Device Interface (GDI) and the Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF). Often such libraries are limited and can only draw an ellipse with either the major axis or the minor axis horizontal. Jack Bresenham at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit. An efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by Jerry Van Aken (IEEE CG&A, Sept. 1984). The following is example JavaScript code using the parametric formula for an ellipse to calculate a set of points. The ellipse can be then approximated by connecting the points with lines. /* * This functions returns an array containing 36 points to draw an * ellipse. * * @param x {double} X coordinate * @param y {double} Y coordinate * @param a {double} Semimajor axis * @param b {double} Semiminor axis * @param angle {double} Angle of the ellipse */ function calculateEllipse(x, y, a, b, angle, steps) { if (steps == null) steps = 36; var points = []; // Angle is given by Degree Value var beta = -angle * (Math.PI / 180); //(Math.PI/180) converts Degree Value into Radians var sinbeta = Math.sin(beta); var cosbeta = Math.cos(beta); for (var i = 0; i < 360; i += 360 / steps) { var alpha = i * (Math.PI / 180) ; var sinalpha = Math.sin(alpha); var cosalpha = Math.cos(alpha); var X = x + (a * cosalpha * cosbeta - b * sinalpha * sinbeta); var Y = y + (a * cosalpha * sinbeta + b * sinalpha * cosbeta); points.push(new OpenLayers.Geometry.Point(X, Y)); } return points; } One beneficial consequence of using the parametric formula is that the density of points is greatest where there is the most curvature. Thus, the change in slope between each successive point is small, reducing the apparent "jaggedness" of the approximation. See also Apollonius of Perga, the classical authority Ellipsoid, a higher dimensional analog of an ellipse Spheroid, the ellipsoids obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major or minor axis. Superellipse, a generalization of an ellipse that can look more rectangular or more "pointy" Hyperbola Parabola Oval True, eccentric, and mean anomaly Matrix representation of conic sections Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion Ellipse/Proofs Elliptic coordinates, an orthogonal coordinate system based on families of ellipses and hyperbolae References Charles D.Miller, Margaret L.Lial, David I.Schneider: Fundamentals of College Algebra. 3rd Edition Scott Foresman/Little 1990. ISBN 0-673-38638-4. Page 381 Coxeter, H. S. M.: Introduction to Geometry, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, pp. 115-119, 1969. Ellipse at the Encyclopedia of Mathematics (Springer) Ellipse at Planetmath External links Apollonius' Derivation of the Ellipse at Convergence Ellipse & Hyperbola Construction - An interactive sketch showing how to trace the curves of the ellipse and hyperbola. (Requires Java.) Ellipse Construction - Another interactive sketch, this time showing a different method of tracing the ellipse. (Requires Java.) The Shape and History of The Ellipse in Washington, D.C. by Clark Kimberling Collection of animated ellipse demonstrations. Ellipse, axes, semi-axes, area, perimeter, tangent, foci. 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2,176 | Alphabet_song | An alphabet song is any of various songs used to teach children the alphabet, used in kindergartens, pre-schools and homes around the world. Alphabet songs typically follow the alphabetic principle (though the phonics method offers variants), which in languages like English with morphophonemic variation, represents a particular modality of pronunciation (ie. "cake" is /keiːk/, not /kaːkɛ/). The A.B.C. The A.B.C. () or A.B.C's () is one of the best-known English language alphabet songs, and perhaps the one most frequently referred to as "the alphabet song" especially in the United States. Music for the alphabet song including some common variations on the lyrics The song was first copyrighted in 1835 by the Boston-based music publisher Charles Bradlee, and given the title "The A.B.C., a German air with variations for the flute with an easy accompaniment for the piano forte". The musical arrangement was attributed to Louis Le Maire (sometimes Lemaire), an 18th century composer. This was "Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1835, by C. Bradlee, in the clerk's office of the District Court of Massachusetts", according to the Newberry Library Newberry Library catalog , which also says, "The theme is that used by Mozart for his piano variations, Ah, vous dirai-je, maman." The alphabet song is sometimes said to come from another of Bradlee's publications, "The Schoolmaster", but the first line of that song is given as "Come, come my children, I must see", in Yale University's library catalog. It is described as "a favorite glee for three voices, as sung at the Salem glee club." This tune is more commonly recognizable as "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star". Lyrics: (each line represents two measures, or eight beats) a-b-c-d-e-f-g, (, - the comma denotes a short pause) h-i-j-k-lmnop, (, l-m-n-o spoken twice as quickly as rest of rhyme) q-r-s, t-u-v, (, pause between s and t) w--x, y-and-z, (, pause between x and y, w and x last for two beats) Now I know my ABCs; () next time won't you sing with me ? ( Sesame Street has used this alphabet song countless times in teaching the alphabet, probably the most popular example of which was a skit with Kermit the Frog and a little girl who kept interrupting the alphabet song interjecting "Cookie Monster!!" and giggling. Zed for Zee In the United States, Z is pronounced zee; in most other English-speaking countries it is pronounced zed. (This is also the case when it is sung in French, where "y and z" becomes "i-grec, zed".) Generally the absent zee-rhyme is not missed, although some children use a zee pronunciation in the rhyme which they would not use elsewhere. Variants of the song exist to accommodate the zed pronunciation. One variation shortens the second line and lengthens the last, to form a near-rhyme between N and zed: a-b-c-d-e-f-g h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p... q-r-s,t-u-v w-...-x-...-y-and-z Now I know my "ABCs", Next time won't you sing with me? Other variants make significantly more changes in order to rhyme with zed, and even alter the rest of the song to fit a new rhythm. For example: a-b-c-d-e-f-g h-i-j-k-lmnop q-r-s-t u-v-w x-y-z x-y-z Sugar on your bread Eat it all up Before you go to bed. In other languages Another variation of this song is (to the same tune, also used in Germany) a,b,c,d,e,f,gh,i,j,k,lmnop, q,r,s,t,u,v,wq,r,s,t,u,v,w x,x,y, z Oh, Weh!Das ist das ganze ABC! The alphabet song as learned by many children in Japan is sung as: a-b-c-d-e-f-gh-i-j-k-l-m-n o-p-q-r-s-t-uv-w, x-y-zed In Finland: a-b-c-d-e-f-g,h-i-j-k-l-m-n, o-p-q-r-s-t-u,v-x-y-z-å-ä-ö, a-b-c-d-e-f-g,Osaan kaikki aakkoset! A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Phonics This alphabet song, sung to a different melody from that of the previous, is taught by some pre-schools that use the phonics method. What does the A say? Ay Aa Ah (the vowels are sounded completely) What does the B say? B* B* B* (only the leading sound of consonants are sung in the response part) What does the C say? S* and K* What does the D say? D* D* D* What does the E say? Ee and Eh . . . (continue for each letter with several slightly different melodies) . . . What does the X say? Ks Ks Ks What does the Y say? Yuh* Ee* Eye* What does the Z say? Zzz Zzz Zzz What do you call these phones and sounds? English alphabet letters. Yeah! This song teaches children that each letter has a name and sounds. Just like a dog says "woof" and a cat says "meow", the "I" says "eye" and "ee". Acrostic songs There are also songs that go through the alphabet, making each letter stand for something in the process. The following is an example popular at many children's summer camps: A: you're an alphabet B: you're a belly button C: you're a cantaloupe with arms D: you're delirious E: you're an elephant F: you're the fairy of my arms G: you're a goony goon H: you're a hairy loon I: you're an icky dicky doo J: you've got joppy knees K: claustrophobia L: you've got leprosy too! M, N: you're a maniac O: you're an octopus-pus-pus-pus P:, Q: particularly queer R, S, T,: responsible for stupid things U: pick your nose in bed V: you're a vomit head W, X, Y, Z A popular song with a similar structure was recorded in 1948, by Buddy Kaye, Fred Wise, Sidney Lippman, and later Perry Como, called 'A' — You're Adorable: A, you're adorable B, you're so beautiful C, you're a cutie full of charms D, you're a darling And E, you're exciting And F, you're a feather in my arms G, you look good to me H, you're so heavenly I, you're the one I idolize J, we're like Jack and Jill K, you're so kissable L, is the love light in your eyes M, N, O, P I could go on all day Q, R, S, T Alphabetically speaking: "You're OK" U, made my life complete V, means you're very sweet W, X, Y, Z It's fun to wander through the alphabet with you to tell you what you mean to me Backwards song The song starting with Z was first made popular in Wee Sing. It is called ZYXs. It goes as follows: ZYXWV and U T and S and R and Q PONMLKJ, IHGF EDCBA (EDCBA said like LMNOP in alphabet song) Now I know my ZYXs Next time we'll sing down in Texas This song decreased in popularity after its Wee Sing release, and very few people know this to date. Another version of the "Backwards Song" ends with "A little practice, you won't go wrong, and you can sing this backwards song". References See also ABC-DEF-GHI, a song sung by Big Bird of Sesame Street The Elements, a mnemonic song of the periodic table by Tom Lehrer The song "Do-Re-Mi" from The Sound of Music, which is used to learn the order of the notes in the Solfege scale, just like the alphabet song is used to learn the order of the letters in the alphabetical order. Traditional alphabet songs in other languages Iroha, Japanese Shiva Sutra, Sanskrit Thousand Character Classic, Chinese and Korean | Alphabet_song |@lemmatized alphabet:19 song:31 various:1 use:10 teach:4 child:6 kindergarten:1 pre:2 school:2 home:1 around:1 world:1 typically:1 follow:2 alphabetic:1 principle:1 though:1 phonics:3 method:2 offer:1 variant:3 language:4 like:5 english:4 morphophonemic:1 variation:6 represent:2 particular:1 modality:1 pronunciation:3 ie:1 cake:1 keiːk:1 kaːkɛ:1 b:18 c:16 one:4 best:1 know:5 perhaps:1 frequently:1 refer:1 especially:1 united:2 state:2 music:3 include:1 common:1 lyric:2 first:3 copyright:1 boston:1 base:1 publisher:1 charles:1 bradlee:3 give:2 title:1 german:1 air:1 flute:1 easy:1 accompaniment:1 piano:2 forte:1 musical:1 arrangement:1 attribute:1 louis:1 le:1 maire:1 sometimes:2 lemaire:1 century:1 composer:1 enter:1 accord:2 act:1 congress:1 year:1 clerk:1 office:1 district:1 court:1 massachusetts:1 newberry:2 library:3 catalog:2 also:5 say:14 theme:1 mozart:1 ah:2 vous:1 dirai:1 je:1 maman:1 come:3 another:3 publication:1 schoolmaster:1 line:3 must:1 see:2 yale:1 university:1 describe:1 favorite:1 glee:2 three:1 voice:1 sung:3 salem:1 club:1 tune:2 commonly:1 recognizable:1 twinkle:2 little:3 star:1 two:2 measure:1 eight:1 beat:2 e:11 f:10 g:8 comma:1 denote:1 short:1 pause:3 h:7 j:9 k:11 lmnop:4 l:7 n:8 spoken:1 twice:1 quickly:1 rest:2 rhyme:5 q:10 r:11 u:10 v:9 w:9 x:14 z:13 last:2 abc:3 next:3 time:4 win:3 sing:9 sesame:2 street:2 countless:1 probably:1 popular:4 example:3 skit:1 kermit:1 frog:1 girl:1 keep:1 interrupt:1 interject:1 cookie:1 monster:1 giggle:1 zed:7 zee:4 pronounced:2 speaking:1 country:1 case:1 french:1 become:1 grec:1 generally:1 absent:1 miss:1 although:1 would:1 elsewhere:1 exist:1 accommodate:1 shorten:1 second:1 lengthen:1 form:1 near:1 p:6 abcs:1 make:4 significantly:1 change:1 order:4 even:1 alter:1 fit:1 new:1 rhythm:1 sugar:1 bread:1 eat:1 go:5 bed:2 germany:1 gh:2 wq:1 oh:1 weh:1 das:1 ist:1 da:1 ganze:1 learn:3 many:2 japan:1 uv:1 finland:1 å:1 ä:1 ö:1 osaan:1 kaikki:1 aakkoset:1 different:2 melody:2 previous:1 ay:1 aa:1 vowel:1 sound:5 completely:1 lead:1 consonant:1 response:1 part:1 ee:3 eh:1 continue:1 letter:5 several:1 slightly:1 ks:2 yuh:1 eye:3 zzz:3 call:3 phone:1 yeah:1 name:1 dog:1 woof:1 cat:1 meow:1 acrostic:1 stand:1 something:1 process:1 following:1 summer:1 camp:1 belly:1 button:1 cantaloupe:1 arm:3 delirious:1 elephant:1 fairy:1 goony:1 goon:1 hairy:1 loon:1 icky:1 dicky:1 doo:1 get:2 joppy:1 knee:1 claustrophobia:1 leprosy:1 maniac:1 octopus:1 pu:3 particularly:1 queer:1 responsible:1 stupid:1 thing:1 pick:1 nose:1 vomit:1 head:1 similar:1 structure:1 record:1 buddy:1 kaye:1 fred:1 wise:1 sidney:1 lippman:1 later:1 perry:1 como:1 adorable:2 beautiful:1 cutie:1 full:1 charm:1 darling:1 excite:1 feather:1 look:1 good:1 heavenly:1 idolize:1 jack:1 jill:1 kissable:1 love:1 light:1 could:1 day:1 alphabetically:1 speak:1 ok:1 life:1 complete:1 mean:2 sweet:1 fun:1 wander:1 tell:1 backwards:3 start:1 wee:2 zyxs:2 zyxwv:1 ponmlkj:1 ihgf:1 edcba:2 texas:1 decrease:1 popularity:1 release:1 people:1 date:1 version:1 end:1 practice:1 wrong:1 reference:1 def:1 ghi:1 big:1 bird:1 element:1 mnemonic:1 periodic:1 table:1 tom:1 lehrer:1 mi:1 note:1 solfege:1 scale:1 alphabetical:1 traditional:1 iroha:1 japanese:1 shiva:1 sutra:1 sanskrit:1 thousand:1 character:1 classic:1 chinese:1 korean:1 |@bigram newberry_library:2 glee_club:1 sesame_street:2 kermit_frog:1 cookie_monster:1 å_ä:1 ä_ö:1 perry_como:1 jack_jill:1 periodic_table:1 tom_lehrer:1 alphabetical_order:1 |
2,177 | Gin_and_tonic | A gin and tonic is a highball cocktail made with gin and tonic water, usually garnished with a slice of lime or lemon and often served over ice. The ratio of gin to tonic water can vary considerably, from a glass of gin with a splash of tonic to one part gin for every five parts tonic. In some countries, gin and tonic is marketed pre-mixed in single-serving cans. History This cocktail was introduced by the army of the British East India Company in India. Tonic water contains quinine, which was used to prevent malaria. Because the tonic water consumed to prevent malaria in the 18th century was extremely bitter, gin was added to make it more palatable. The bitter flavor of quinine complements the green notes of gin (flavored with juniper) much like dry vermouth complements gin in a classic martini. Although the consumption of tonic water currently has less medical use than it once did, gin and tonic remains a popular drink. Tonic water available today contains less quinine and is consequently less bitter (and is sometimes sweetened). Because of this connection to warmer climates and its refreshing nature, this cocktail is more popular during the warmer months. The History of Gin (and Tonic) See also List of cocktails References | Gin_and_tonic |@lemmatized gin:11 tonic:12 highball:1 cocktail:4 make:2 water:6 usually:1 garnish:1 slice:1 lime:1 lemon:1 often:1 serve:1 ice:1 ratio:1 vary:1 considerably:1 glass:1 splash:1 one:1 part:2 every:1 five:1 country:1 market:1 pre:1 mixed:1 single:1 serving:1 history:2 introduce:1 army:1 british:1 east:1 india:2 company:1 contains:1 quinine:3 use:2 prevent:2 malaria:2 consume:1 century:1 extremely:1 bitter:3 add:1 palatable:1 flavor:2 complement:2 green:1 note:1 juniper:1 much:1 like:1 dry:1 vermouth:1 classic:1 martini:1 although:1 consumption:1 currently:1 less:3 medical:1 remain:1 popular:2 drink:1 available:1 today:1 contain:1 consequently:1 sometimes:1 sweeten:1 connection:1 warmer:1 climate:1 refreshing:1 nature:1 warm:1 month:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram gin_tonic:6 bitter_flavor:1 dry_vermouth:1 warmer_climate:1 |
2,178 | Fourier_analysis | In mathematics, Fourier analysis is a subject area which grew out of the study of Fourier series. The subject began with trying to understand when it was possible to represent general functions by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. The attempt to understand functions (or other objects) by breaking them into basic pieces that are easier to understand is one of the central themes in Fourier analysis. Fourier analysis is named after Joseph Fourier who showed that representing a function by a trigonometric series greatly simplified the study of heat propagation. Today the subject of Fourier analysis encompasses a vast spectrum of mathematics with parts that, at first glance, may appear quite different. In the sciences and engineering the process of decomposing a function into simpler pieces is often called an analysis. The corresponding operation of rebuilding the function from these pieces is known as synthesis. In this context the term Fourier synthesis describes the act of rebuilding and the term Fourier analysis describes the process of breaking the function into a sum of simpler pieces. In mathematics, the term Fourier analysis often refers to the study of both operations. In Fourier analysis, the term Fourier transform often refers to the process that decomposes a given function into the basic pieces. This process results in another function that describes how much of each basic piece are in the original function. However, the transform is often given a more specific name depending upon the domain and other properties of the function being transformed, as elaborated below. Moreover, the original concept of Fourier analysis has been extended over time to apply to more and more abstract and general situations, and the general field is often known as harmonic analysis. Each transform used for analysis (see list of Fourier-related transforms) has a corresponding inverse transform that can be used for synthesis. Applications Fourier analysis has many scientific applications — in physics, partial differential equations, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, imaging, probability theory, statistics, option pricing, cryptography, numerical analysis, acoustics, oceanography, optics, diffraction, geometry, and other areas. This wide applicability stems from many useful properties of the transforms: The transforms are linear operators and, with proper normalization, are unitary as well (a property known as Parseval's theorem or, more generally, as the Plancherel theorem, and most generally via Pontryagin duality). The transforms are usually invertible, and when they are, the inverse transform has a similar form as the forward transform. The exponential functions are eigenfunctions of differentiation, which means that this representation transforms linear differential equations with constant coefficients into ordinary algebraic ones . (For example, in a linear time-invariant physical system, frequency is a conserved quantity, so the behavior at each frequency can be solved independently.) By the convolution theorem, Fourier transforms turn the complicated convolution operation into simple multiplication, which means that they provide an efficient way to compute convolution-based operations such as polynomial multiplication and multiplying large numbers . The discrete version of the Fourier transform (see below) can be evaluated quickly on computers using fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms. Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal. For example, JPEG compression uses a variant of the Fourier transformation (discrete cosine transform) of small square pieces of a digital image. The Fourier components of each square are rounded to lower arithmetic precision, and weak components are eliminated entirely, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly. In image reconstruction, each Fourier-transformed image square is reassembled from the preserved approximate components, and then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image. Applications in signal processing When processing signals, such as audio, radio waves, light waves, seismic waves, and even images, Fourier analysis can isolate individual components of a compound waveform, concentrating them for easier detection and/or removal. A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal, manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation. Some examples include: Telephone dialing; the touch-tone signals for each telephone key, when pressed, are each a sum of two separate tones (frequencies). Fourier analysis can be used to separate (or analyze) the telephone signal, to reveal the two component tones and therefore which button was pressed. Removal of unwanted frequencies from an audio recording (used to eliminate hum from leakage of AC power into the signal, to eliminate the stereo subcarrier from FM radio recordings); Noise gating of audio recordings to remove quiet background noise by eliminating Fourier components that do not exceed a preset amplitude; Equalization of audio recordings with a series of bandpass filters; Digital radio reception with no superheterodyne circuit, as in a modern cell phone or radio scanner; Image processing to remove periodic or anisotropic artifacts such as jaggies from interlaced video, stripe artifacts from strip aerial photography, or wave patterns from radio frequency interference in a digital camera; Cross correlation of similar images for co-alignment; X-ray crystallography to reconstruct a protein's structure from its diffraction pattern; Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry to determine the mass of ions from the frequency of cyclotron motion in a magnetic field. Variants of Fourier analysis Fourier analysis has different forms, some of which have different names. Below are given several of the most common variants. Variations with different names usually reflect different properties of the function or data being analyzed. The resultant transforms can be seen as special cases or generalizations of each other. (Continuous) Fourier transform Most often, the unqualified term Fourier transform refers to the transform of functions of a continuous real argument, such as time (t). In this case the Fourier transform describes a function ƒ(t) in terms of basic complex exponentials of various frequencies. In terms of ordinary frequency ν, the Fourier transform is given by the complex number: Evaluating this quantity for all values of ν produces the frequency-domain function. Also see How it works, below. See Fourier transform for even more information, including: the inverse transform, F(ν) → ƒ(t) conventions for amplitude normalization and frequency scaling/units transform properties tabulated transforms of specific functions an extension/generalization for functions of multiple dimensions, such as images Fourier series Fourier analysis for functions defined on a circle, or equivalently for periodic functions, mainly focuses on the study of Fourier series. Suppose that ƒ(x) is periodic function with period 2π, in this case one can attempt to decompose ƒ(x) as a sum of complex exponentials functions. The coefficients F(n) of the complex exponential in the sum are referred to as the Fourier coefficients for ƒ and are analogous to the "Fourier transform" of a function on the line . The term Fourier series expansion or simply Fourier series refers to the infinite series that appears in the inverse transform. The Fourier coefficients of ƒ(x) are given by: for all integers n. And the Fourier series of ƒ(x) is given by: Equality may not always hold in the equation above and the study of the convergence of Fourier series is a central part of Fourier analysis of the circle. Analysis of periodic functions or functions with limited duration When ƒ(x) has finite duration (or compact support), a discrete subset of the values of its continuous Fourier transform is sufficient to reconstruct/represent the function ƒ(x) on its support. One such discrete set is obtained by treating the duration of the segment as if it is the period of a periodic function and computing the Fourier coefficients. Putting convergence issues aside, the Fourier series expansion will be a periodic function not the finite-duration function ƒ(x); but one period of the expansion will give the values of ƒ(x) on its support. See Fourier series for more information, including: Fourier series expansions for general periods, transform properties, historical development, special cases and generalizations. Discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) For functions of an integer index, the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) provides a useful frequency-domain transform. A useful "discrete-time" function can be obtained by sampling a "continuous-time" function, s(t), which produces a sequence, s(nT), for integer values of n and some time-interval T. If information is lost, then only an approximation to the original transform, S(f), can be obtained by looking at one period of the periodic function: which is the DTFT. The identity above is a result of the Poisson summation formula. The DTFT is also equivalent to the Fourier transform of a "continuous" function that is constructed by using the s[n] sequence to modulate a Dirac comb. Applications of the DTFT are not limited to sampled functions. It can be applied to any discrete sequence. See Discrete-time Fourier transform for more information on this and other topics, including: the inverse transform normalized frequency units windowing (finite-length sequences) transform properties tabulated transforms of specific functions Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) Since the DTFT is also a continuous Fourier transform (of a comb function), the Fourier series also applies to it. Thus, when s[n] is periodic, with period N, ST(ƒ) is another Dirac comb function, modulated by the coefficients of a Fourier series. And the integral formula for the coefficients simplifies to: for all integer values of k. Since the DTFT is periodic, so is S[k]. And it has the same period (N) as the input function. This transform is also called DFT, particularly when only one period of the output sequence is computed from one period of the input sequence. When s[n] is not periodic, but its non-zero portion has finite duration (N), ST(ƒ) is continuous and finite-valued. But a discrete subset of its values is sufficient to reconstruct/represent the (finite) portion of s[n] that was analyzed. The same discrete set is obtained by treating N as if it is the period of a periodic function and computing the Fourier series coefficients / DFT. The inverse transform of S[k] does not produce the finite-length sequence, s[n], when evaluated for all values of n. (It takes the inverse of ST(ƒ) to do that.) The inverse DFT can only reproduce the entire time-domain if the input happens to be periodic (forever). Therefore it is often said that the DFT is a transform for Fourier analysis of finite-domain, discrete-time functions. An alternative viewpoint is that the periodicity is the time-domain consequence of approximating the continuous-domain function, ST(ƒ), with the discrete subset, S[k]. N can be larger than the actual non-zero portion of s[n]. The larger it is, the better the approximation (also known as zero-padding). The DFT can be computed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, which makes it a practical and important transformation on computers. See Discrete Fourier transform for much more information, including: the inverse transform transform properties applications tabulated transforms of specific functions The following table recaps the four basic forms discussed above, highlighting the duality of the properties of discreteness and periodicity. I.e., if the signal representation in one domain has either (or both) of those properties, then its transform representation to the other domain has the other property (or both). Name Time domain Frequency domain Domain property Function property Domain property Function property(Continuous) Fourier transform Continuous Aperiodic Continuous Aperiodic Discrete-time Fourier transform Discrete Aperiodic Continuous Periodic (ƒs) Fourier series Continuous Periodic () Discrete Aperiodic Discrete Fourier transform Discrete Periodic (N) Or N is simply the length of a finite sequence. In either case, the inverse DFT formula produces a periodic function, s[n]. Discrete Periodic (N) Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact abelian topological groups The Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary locally compact abelian topological groups, which are studied in harmonic analysis; there, the Fourier transform takes functions on a group to functions on the dual group. This treatment also allows a general formulation of the convolution theorem, which relates Fourier transforms and convolutions. See also the Pontryagin duality for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform. Time–frequency transforms In signal processing terms, a function (of time) is a representation of a signal with perfect time resolution, but no frequency information, while the Fourier transform has perfect frequency resolution, but no time information. As alternatives to the Fourier transform, in time–frequency analysis, one uses time–frequency transforms to represent signals in a form that has some time information and some frequency information – by the uncertainty principle, there is a trade-off between these. These can be generalizations of the Fourier transform, such as the short-time Fourier transform or fractional Fourier transform, or can use different functions to represent signals, as in wavelet transforms and chirplet transforms, with the wavelet analog of the (continuous) Fourier transform being the continuous wavelet transform. History A primitive form of harmonic series dates back to ancient Babylonian mathematics, where they were used to compute ephemeris (tables of astronomical positions). , p. 62 , p. 11 In modern times, variants of the discrete Fourier transform were used by Alexis Clairaut in 1754 to compute an orbit, , p. 30 which has been described as the first formula for the DFT, , p. 4 and in 1759 by Joseph Louis Lagrange, in computing the coefficients of a trigonometric series for a vibrating string. , p. 2 Technically, Clairaut's work was a cosine-only series (a form of discrete cosine transform), while Lagrange's work was a sine-only series (a form of discrete sine transform); a true cosine+sine DFT was used by Gauss in 1805 for trigonometric interpolation of asteroid orbits. Heideman, M. T., D. H. Johnson, and C. S. Burrus, "Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform," IEEE ASSP Magazine, 1, (4), 14–21 (1984) Euler and Lagrange both discretized the vibrating string problem, using what would today be called samples. An early modern development toward Fourier analysis was the 1770 paper Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations by Lagrange, which in the method of Lagrange resolvents used a complex Fourier decomposition to study the solution of a cubic: , p. 501 Lagrange transformed the roots into the resolvents: where ζ is a cubic root of unity, which is the DFT of order 3. A number of authors, notably Jean le Rond d'Alembert, , and Carl Friedrich Gauss used trigonometric series to study the heat equation, but the breakthrough development was the 1807 paper Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides by Joseph Fourier, whose crucial insight was to model all functions by trigonometric series, introducing the Fourier series. Historians are divided as to how much to credit Lagrange and others for the development of Fourier theory: Daniel Bernoulli and Leonhard Euler had introduced trigonometric representations of functions, and Lagrange had given the Fourier series solution to the wave equation, so Fourier's contribution was mainly the bold claim that an arbitrary function could be represented by a Fourier series. The subsequent development of the field is known as harmonic analysis, and is also an early instance of representation theory. The first fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm for the DFT was discovered around 1805 by Carl Friedrich Gauss when interpolating measurements of the orbit of the asteroids Juno and Pallas, although that particular FFT algorithm is more often attributed to its modern rediscoverers Cooley and Tukey. , p. 31 Interpretation in terms of time and frequency In signal processing, the Fourier transform often takes a time series or a function of continuous time, and maps it into a frequency spectrum. That is, it takes a function from the time domain into the frequency domain; it is a decomposition of a function into sinusoids of different frequencies; in the case of a Fourier series or discrete Fourier transform, the sinusoids are harmonics of the fundamental frequency of the function being analyzed. When the function ƒ is a function of time and represents a physical signal, the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal. The magnitude of the resulting complex-valued function F at frequency ω represents the amplitude of a frequency component whose initial phase is given by the phase of F. However, it is important to realize that Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies. They can equally be applied to analyze spatial frequencies, and indeed for nearly any function domain. How it works (a basic explanation) To measure the amplitude and phase of a particular frequency component, the transform process multiplies the original function (the one being analyzed) by a sinusoid with the same frequency (called a basis function). If the original function contains a component with the same shape (i.e. same frequency), its shape (but not its amplitude) is effectively squared. Squaring implies that at every point on the product waveform, the contribution of the matching component to that product is a positive contribution, even though the component might be negative. Squaring describes the case where the phases happen to match. What happens more generally is that a constant phase difference produces vectors at every point that are all aimed in the same direction, which is determined by the difference between the two phases. To make that happen actually requires two sinusoidal basis functions, cosine and sine, which are combined into a basis function that is complex-valued (see Complex exponential). The vector analogy refers to the polar coordinate representation. The complex numbers produced by the product of the original function and the basis function are subsequently summed into a single result. Note that if the functions are continuous, rather than sets of discrete points, this step requires integral calculus or numerical integration. But the basic concept is just addition. The contributions from the component that matches the basis function all have the same sign (or vector direction). The other components contribute values that alternate in sign (or vectors that rotate in direction) and tend to cancel out of the summation. The final value is therefore dominated by the component that matches the basis function. The stronger it is, the larger is the measurement. Repeating this measurement for all the basis functions produces the frequency-domain representation. See also Bispectrum Characteristic function (probability theory) Fractional Fourier transform Laplace transform Least-squares spectral analysis Mellin transform Number-theoretic transform Orthogonal functions Pontryagin duality Schwartz space Spectral density Spectral density estimation Two-sided Laplace transform Wavelet Notes References Edward W. Kamen, Bonnie S. Heck, "Fundamentals of Signals and Systems Using the Web and Matlab", ISBN 0-13-017293-6 A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, Handbook of Integral Equations, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4 E. M. Stein, G. Weiss, "Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces", Princeton University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-691-08078-X External links Tables of Integral Transforms at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. An Intuitive Explanation of Fourier Theory by Steven Lehar. Lectures on Image Processing: A collection of 18 lectures in pdf format from Vanderbilt University. Lecture 6 is on the 1- and 2-D Fourier Transform. Lectures 7-15 make use of it., by Alan Peters | Fourier_analysis |@lemmatized mathematics:4 fourier:97 analysis:27 subject:3 area:2 grow:1 study:8 series:28 begin:1 try:1 understand:3 possible:1 represent:9 general:5 function:75 sum:6 simpler:3 trigonometric:7 attempt:2 object:1 break:2 basic:7 piece:7 easy:2 one:11 central:2 theme:1 name:5 joseph:3 show:1 greatly:1 simplify:1 heat:2 propagation:2 today:2 encompass:1 vast:1 spectrum:3 part:2 first:3 glance:1 may:2 appear:2 quite:1 different:7 science:1 engineering:1 process:5 decompose:3 often:9 call:4 corresponding:2 operation:4 rebuild:2 know:5 synthesis:3 context:1 term:10 describe:6 act:1 refer:3 transform:74 give:9 result:4 another:2 much:3 original:7 however:2 specific:4 depend:1 upon:1 domain:17 property:15 elaborate:1 moreover:1 concept:2 extend:1 time:29 apply:4 abstract:1 situation:1 field:3 harmonic:5 use:18 see:11 list:1 related:1 transforms:18 inverse:11 application:5 many:2 scientific:1 physic:1 partial:1 differential:2 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2,179 | Cell_cycle | The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication (replication). In cells without a nucleus (prokaryotes), the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission. In cells with a nucleus (eukaryotes), the cell cycle can be divided in two brief periods: interphase—during which the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis and duplicating its DNA—and the mitosis (M) phase, during which the cell splits itself into two distinct cells, often called "daughter cells". The cell-division cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. Phases The cell cycle consists of five distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided between the two daughter cells, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming distinct cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase. Schematic of the cell cycle. outer ring: I=Interphase, M=Mitosis; inner ring: M=Mitosis, G1=Gap 1, G2=Gap 2, S=Synthesis; not in ring: G0=Gap 0/Resting. The duration of mitosis in relation to the other phases has been exaggerated in this diagram. State Phase Abbreviation Description quiescent/senescent Gap 0 G0 A resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. Interphase Gap 1 G1 Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis. Synthesis S DNA replication occurs during this phase. Gap 2 G2 During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide. Cell division Mitosis M Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division. Resting (G0 phase) The term "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Nonproliferative cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence is a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis. Interphase G1 phase The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis is called G1 (G indicating gap). During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which had been considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. This phase is marked by synthesis of various enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those needed for DNA replication. Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. S phase The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase. G2 phase The cell then enters the G2 phase, which lasts until the cell enters mitosis. Again, significant protein synthesis occurs during this phase, mainly involving the production of microtubules, which are required during the process of mitosis. Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase prevents the cell from undergoing mitosis. Mitosis (M Phase) The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). In plants and algae, cytokinesis is accompanied by the formation of a new cell wall. The M phase has been broken down into several distinct phases, sequentially known as prophase, Prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase leading to cytokinesis. Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle Regulation of cell cycle: Schematic Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle. Role of cyclins and CDKs Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g., cdc25. Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals. General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes would also prove deleterious to the daughter cells. Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed. Interphase: Interphase generally lasts at least 12 to 24 hours in mammalian tissue. During this period, the cell is constantly synthesizing RNA, producing protein and growing in size. By studying molecular events in cells, scientists have determined that interphase can be divided into 4 steps: Gap 0 (G0), Gap 1 (G1), S (synthesis) phase, Gap 2 (G2). Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (eg. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G1 to S phase (G1/S transition). Cyclin B along with cdc2 (cdc2 - fission yeasts (CDK1 - mammalia)) forms the cyclin B-cdc2 complex, which initiates the G2/M transition. Cyclin B-cdc2 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis. Inhibitors Two families of genes, the cip/kip family and the INK4a/ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4/Alternative Reading Frame) prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors. The cip/kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G1 phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage eg. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor. The INK4a/ARF family includes p16INK4a, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and p14arf which prevents p53 degradation. And the amount of chromosomes are able to double at the same rate as in phase 2. Checkpoints Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Several checkpoints are designed to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Two main checkpoints exist: the G1/S checkpoint and the G2/M checkpoint. G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint. p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. Role in tumor formation A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc., when they mutate, may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same. The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle. Synchronization of cell cultures Several methods can be used to synchronise cell cultures by halting the cell cycle at a particular phase. For example, Serum starvation and treatment with Thymidine or Aphidicolin halt the cell in the G1 phase, Mitotic shake-off, treatment with colchicine and treatment with Nocodazole halt the cell in M phase and treatment with 5-fluorodeoxyuridine halts the cell in S phase. See also cell cycle mathematical model Mitosis Meiosis Interphase References Further reading External links Transcriptional program of the cell cycle: high-resolution timing Cell cycle and metabolic cycle regulated transcription in yeast Cell Cycle Animation 1Lec.com Cell Cycle and Cytokinesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Cell Cycle Cell Cycle Portal Fucci:Using GFP to visualize the cell-cycle Science Creative Quarterly's overview of the cell cycle Cells alive CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology KEGG - Human Cell Cycle Cell cycle modeling | Cell_cycle |@lemmatized cell:116 cycle:49 division:14 series:1 event:3 take:1 place:1 lead:3 duplication:1 replication:8 without:1 nucleus:2 prokaryotes:1 occur:6 via:1 process:11 term:2 binary:1 fission:2 eukaryotes:1 divide:7 two:10 brief:2 period:3 interphase:12 grow:3 accumulate:1 nutrient:2 need:2 mitosis:18 duplicate:1 dna:17 phase:55 split:1 distinct:5 often:3 call:4 daughter:7 vital:1 single:1 celled:1 fertilized:1 egg:1 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ontology:1 kegg:1 human:1 |@bigram single_celled:1 dna_replication:4 sister_chromatid:1 metaphase_anaphase:1 anaphase_telophase:1 eukaryotic_cell:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 saccharomyces_cerevisiae:1 cyclin_cdk:8 cdk_complex:6 mitotic_spindle:1 dna_polymerase:1 nuclear_envelope:1 tumor_suppressor:1 mitosis_meiosis:1 external_link:1 |
2,180 | Madeira_River | The river in the outskirts of Porto Velho Map of the Amazon Basin with the Madeira River highlighted The Madeira River is a major waterway in South America, approximately 3,380 km (2,100 miles) long. Madeira is the longest tributary of Amazon. The mean inter-annual precipitations on the great basins vary from 750 to 3000 mm, the entire upper Madeira basin receiving 1705 mm/yr. The greatest extremes of rainfall are between 490 mm and more than 7000 mm. At its head, the Madeira on its own is still one of the largest rivers of the world, with a mean inter-annual discharge of 17,000 m3/s, i.e. 536 km3/yr, approximately half the discharge of the Congo River. The mean inter-annual contribution of the Bolivian Andes is 4170 m3/s, i.e. 132 km3/yr, representing 25% of the discharge of the entire upper Madeira basin. Between Guajará-Mirim and the falls, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north-eastern slopes of the Andes from Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Cuzco, the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Mato Grosso and the northern slope of the Chiquitos sierras. In total, the catchment area is 850,000 km2, Water and Salt Balances of the Bolivian Amazon, UNESCO almost equal in area to France and Spain combined. The waters flow into the Madeira from many large rivers, the principal of which, (from east to west), are the Guaporé or Itenez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonama or San Miguel, the Mamoré, Beni, and Mayutata or Madre de Dios, all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents. All of the upper branches of the river Madeira find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos and Beni plains, 90,000 km2 (35,000 square miles) of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about for a period of from three to four months. From the falls, the Madeira flows northward forming the border between Bolivia and Brazil for approximately 100 km (60 miles). Below the confluence of the Rio Abunã, the Madeira meanders north-eastward through the Rondônia and Amazonas states of north west Brazil to its junction with the Amazon. At its mouth is Ilha Tupinambaranas, an extensive marshy region formed by the Madeira’s distributaries. It rises more than 15 m (50 ft) during the rainy season, and ocean vessels may ascend it to the Falls of San Antonio, near Porto Velho, Brazil, 1070 km (663 miles) above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing about 2 m (from 5 to 6 feet) of water. The Madeira-Mamoré Railroad runs in a 365 km (227 mile) loop around the unnavigable section to Guajará-Mirim on the Mamoré River. A subspecies of Boto (Amazon River Dolphin) is known to inhabit the Madeira river system. In July 2007, plans have been approved by the Brazilian Government to construct two hydroelectric dams on the Madeira River, and is opposed by certain groups such as environmentalists for the environmental impact that the construction could have. BBC News Online. 2007. Brazil gives Amazon dams go-ahead. 10 July. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6286804.stm. Accessed 16 July 2007. 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2,181 | Logical_positivism | Logical positivism (also called logical empiricism and neo-positivism) is a school of philosophy that combines empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is indispensable for knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism incorporating mathematical and logico-linguistic constructs and deductions in epistemology. See, e.g., : "Vienna Circle" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Logical positivism grew from the discussions of a group called the "First Vienna Circle" which gathered at the Café Central before World War I. After the war Hans Hahn, a member of that early group, helped bring Moritz Schlick to Vienna. Schlick's Vienna Circle, along with Hans Reichenbach's Berlin Circle, propagated the new doctrines more widely in the 1920s and early 1930s. It was Otto Neurath's advocacy that made the movement self-conscious and more widely known. A 1929 pamphlet written by Neurath, Hahn, and Rudolf Carnap summarized the doctrines of the Vienna Circle at that time. These included: the opposition to all metaphysics, especially ontology and synthetic a priori propositions; the rejection of metaphysics not as wrong but as having no meaning; a criterion of meaning based on Ludwig Wittgenstein's early work; the idea that all knowledge should be codifiable in a single standard language of science; and above all the project of "rational reconstruction", in which ordinary-language concepts were gradually to be replaced by more precise equivalents in that standard language. In the early 1930s, the Vienna Circle dispersed, mainly because of political upheaval and the untimely deaths of Hahn and Schlick. The most prominent proponents of logical positivism emigrated to United Kingdom and United States, where they considerably influenced American philosophy. Until the 1950s, logical positivism was the leading school in the philosophy of science. During this period of upheaval, Carnap proposed a replacement for the earlier doctrines in his "Logical Syntax of Language". This change of direction and the somewhat differing views of Reichenbach and others led to a consensus that the English name for the shared doctrinal platform, in its American exile from the late 1930s, should be "logical empiricism". Origins The chief influences on the early logical positivists were the positivist Ernst Mach and the young Ludwig Wittgenstein. Mach's influence is most apparent in the logical positivists' persistent concern with metaphysics, the unity of science, and the interpretation of the theoretical terms of science, as well as the doctrines of reductionism and phenomenalism, later abandoned by many positivists. Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was a text of great importance for the positivists. The Tractatus introduced many doctrines which later influenced logical positivism, including the conception of philosophy as a "critique of language," and the possibility of drawing a theoretically principled distinction between intelligible and nonsensical discourse. The Tractatus also adhered to a correspondence theory of truth which the positivists adopted, although some, like Otto Neurath, preferred a form of coherentism. Wittgenstein's influence is further evident in certain formulations of the verification principle. Compare, for example, Proposition 4.024 of the Tractatus, where Wittgenstein asserts that we understand a proposition when we know what happens if it is true, with Schlick's assertion that "To state the circumstances under which a proposition is true is the same as stating its meaning". "Positivismus und Realismus", Erkenntnis 3:1-31, English trans. in Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath. New York: Garland Pub., 1996, p. 38 The tractarian doctrine that the truths of logic are tautologies was widely held among the logical positivists. Wittgenstein also influenced the logical positivists' interpretation of probability. According to Neurath, some logical positivists disliked the Tractatus, since they thought it was full of metaphysics. For a very informative and somewhat cute summary of the effect the Tractatus had on the leading logical positivists, see the Entwicklung der Thesen des "Wiener Kreises" Contemporary developments in logic and the foundations of mathematics, especially Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead's monumental Principia Mathematica, impressed the more mathematically minded logical positivists such as Hans Hahn and Rudolf Carnap. "Language-planning" and syntactical techniques derived from these developments were used to defend logicism in the philosophy of mathematics and various reductionist theses. Russell's theory of types was employed to explosive effect in Carnap's early anti-metaphysical polemics. See Carnap, Rudolf. "The Elimination Of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language". Erkenntnis 2 (1932). Rpt. in Logical Positivism. Ed. Alfred Jules Ayer. New York: Free Press, 1959. 60-81. Immanuel Kant also had an important influence on the positivists, both positive and negative. On the negative side, Kant was often treated by the postivists as something of a punching bag in their early debates, and Kant's doctrine of synthetic a priori truths was the doctrine they most wished to overthrow. On the positive side, Kant's views about the nature of physical objects pervaded the "protocol sentence" debate See the essays by Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath in Ayer's Logical Positivism. , and Kantian views about the relationship between philosophy and science were shared by the positivists to some degree. Friedman, Michael, Reconsidering Logical Positivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Rise of logical positivism in Germany Positivism in Germany is thought to have risen in response to Hegelian and neo-Hegelian metaphysics, which was the dominant philosophical view in Germany. Suppe, Frederick, The Positivist Model of Scientific Theories, in: Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee editor, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 16-24. Hegelian successors such as F.H. Bradley attempted to explain reality by postulating metaphysical entities that did not have any empirical basis. Logical positivists in response wanted to stop such metaphysical entities from being used as an explanation. Another, less well-known factor that triggered logical positivism was the urgency of solving new philosophical issues raised by new scientific developments. The Vienna Circle under the influence of Moritz Schlick and the Berlin Circle under the influence of Reichenbach consisted of scientists, mathematicians, and scientists turned philosophers, who shared a common goal of solving newly raised problems in philosophy of science. Basic tenets Although the logical positivists held a wide range of views on many matters, they were all interested in science and skeptical of theology and metaphysics. Early on, most logical positivists took the view that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. Many logical positivists supported forms of materialism, metaphysical naturalism, and empiricism. Perhaps the view for which the logical positivists are best known is the verifiability criterion of meaning, or verificationism. In one of its earlier and stronger formulations, this is the doctrine that a proposition is "cognitively meaningful" only if there is a finite procedure for conclusively determining whether it is true or false. For a classic survey of other versions of verificationism, see Hempel, Carl. "Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning". Revue Internationale de Philosophie 41 (1950), pp 41-63. An intended consequence of this view, for most logical positivists, is that metaphysical, theological, and ethical statements fall short of this criterion, and so are not cognitively meaningful. For the classic expression of this view, see Carnap, op. cit. Moritz Schlick, a key figure in the logical positivist movement, did not consider ethical (or aesthetic) sentences to be cognitively meaningless. See Schlick, Moritz. "The Future Of Philosophy". The Linguistic Turn. Ed. Richard Rorty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. 43-53. They distinguished cognitive from other varieties of meaningfulness (e.g. emotive, expressive, figurative), and most authors concede that the non-cognitive statements of the history of philosophy possess some other kind of meaningfulness. The positive characterization of cognitive meaningfulness varies from author to author. It has been described as the property of having a truth value, corresponding to a possible state of affairs, naming a proposition, or being intelligible or understandable in the sense in which scientific statements are intelligible or understandable. Examples of these different views can be found in Scheffler's Anatomy of Inquiry, Ayer's Language, Truth, and Logic, Schlick's "Positivism and Realism" (rpt. in Sarkar (1996) and Ayer (1959)), and Carnap's Philosophy and Logical Syntax. Another characteristic feature of logical positivism is the commitment to "Unified Science"; that is, the development of a common language or, in Neurath's phrase, a "universal slang" in which all scientific propositions can be expressed. For a thorough consideration of what the thesis of the unity of science amounts to, see Frost-Arnold, Gregory, "The Large-Scale Structure of Logical Empiricism: Unity of Science and the Rejection of Metaphysics" at The adequacy of proposals or fragments of proposals for such a language was often asserted on the basis of various "reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one special science to the terms of another, putatively more fundamental one. Sometimes these reductions took the form of set-theoretic manipulations of a handful of logically primitive concepts; As in Carnap's (1928) Logical Structure of the World. sometimes these reductions took the form of allegedly analytic or a priori deductive relationships. As in Carnap's Testability and Meaning . A number of publications over a period of thirty years would attempt to elucidate this concept. Criticism and influences Early critics of logical positivism said that its fundamental tenets could not themselves be formulated in a way that was clearly consistent. The verifiability criterion of meaning did not seem verifiable; but neither was it simply a logical tautology, since it had implications for the practice of science and the empirical truth of other statements. This presented severe problems for the logical consistency of the theory. Another problem was that, while positive existential claims ("there is at least one human being") and negative universal claims ("not all ravens are black") allow for clear methods of verification (find a human or a non-black raven), negative existential claims and positive universal claims do not allow for verification. Universal claims could apparently never be verified: How can you tell that all ravens are black, unless you've hunted down every raven ever, including those in the past and future? This led to a great deal of work on induction, probability, and "confirmation", which combined verification and falsification. Logical positivists' response to the first criticism was that logical positivism is a philosophy of science, not an axiomatic system that can prove its own consistency (see Gödel's incompleteness theorem). Secondly, a theory of language and mathematical logic were created to answer what it really means to make statements like "all ravens are black". Many commentators (including the preceding section) on logical positivism have attributed to its proponents a greater unity of purpose and creed than they actually shared, overlooking the complex disagreements among the logical positivists themselves. Karl Popper's objection Karl Popper was a well-known critic of logical positivism, who published the book Logik der Forschung in 1934 (translated by himself as The Logic of Scientific Discovery, published 1959). In it he argued that the positivists' criterion of verifiability was too strong a criterion for science, and should be replaced by a criterion of falsifiability. Popper thought that falsifiability was a better criterion because it did not invite the philosophical problems inherent in verifying an induction, and it allowed statements from the physical sciences which seemed scientific but which did not meet the verification criterion. Popper's concern was not with distinguishing meaningful from meaningless statements, but distinguishing scientific from metaphysical statements. Unlike the positivists, he did not hold that metaphysical statements must be meaningless; neither did he hold that a statement that in one century was "metaphysical" and unfalsifiable (like the ancient Greek philosophy about atoms), could not in another century become falsifiable and thus scientific. He was, in general, more concerned with scientific practice than with the logical issues that troubled the positivists. Popper thought his philosophy of science could itself be deemed as verifiable Popper, K., The Logic of Scientific Discovery, chapter 13 . He denied that science need rely on inductive reasoning, although most philosophers think it obvious that science does rely on it. Okasha, S., the Philosophy of Science -- A Very Short Introduction , Oxford University Press, 2002 p.23, ISBN 978-0-19-280283-5 A.J. Ayer's objection A response to the second criticism was provided by A. J. Ayer in Language, Truth and Logic, in which he sets out the distinction between "strong" and "weak" verification. "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience." (Ayer 1946:50) It is this sense of verifiable that causes the problem of verification with negative existential claims and positive universal claims. However, the weak sense of verification states that a proposition is "verifiable... if it is possible for experience to render it probable" (ibid.). After establishing this distinction, Ayer goes on to claim that "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis" (Ayer 1946:51), and therefore can only be subject to weak verification. This defense was controversial among logical positivists, some of whom stuck to strong verification, and claimed that general propositions were indeed nonsense. Hilary Putnam's objection According to Hilary Putnam, a former student of Hans Reichenbach and Rudolf Carnap, making an observational/theoretical distinction is meaningless. The "received view" operates on the correspondence rule that states "The observational terms are taken as referring to specified phenomena or phenomenal properties, and the only interpretation given to the theoretical terms is their explicit definition provided by the correspondence rules". Putnam argues that introducing this dichotomy of observational terms and theoretical terms is the problem to start from. Putnam, Hilary, Problems with the Observational/Theoretical Distinction, in: Scientific Inquiry, Robert Klee editor, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp.25-29. Putnam demonstrates this with four objections: Something is referred to as "observational" if it is observable directly with our senses. Then an observation term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observation terms. With Carnap's classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observation terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily observation terms. Reports of observation terms frequently contain theoretical terms. A scientific theory may not contain any theoretical terms and an example of this is the original Darwin's theory of evolution. Subsequent objections from Quine and Kuhn Subsequent philosophy of science tends to make use of certain aspects of both of these approaches. W. V. O. Quine criticized the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements and the reduction of meaningful statements to immediate experience. Work by Thomas Kuhn has claimed that it is not possible to provide truth conditions for science independent of its historical paradigm. But even this criticism was not unknown to the logical positivists: Otto Neurath compared science to a boat which we must rebuild on the open sea. Influence of logical positivism Logical positivism spread throughout almost the entire western world. It was disseminated throughout the European continent. It was spread to Britain by the influence of A. J. Ayer. And later, it was brought to American universities by members of the Vienna Circle after they fled Europe and settled in the United States during and after WWII. Logical positivism was essential to the development of early analytic philosophy. The term subsequently came to be almost interchangeable with "analytic philosophy" in the first half of the twentieth century. Logical positivism was immensely influential in the philosophy of language and represented the dominant philosophy of science between World War I and the Cold War. Fading use of "logical positivism" in the English speaking world In the mid-twentieth century, logical positivism (logical empiricism) dominated a great deal of philosophy in America and elsewhere in the English speaking world. The usage of the name in academia declined in the mid-1960s and has been seldom used in new work since the late 1970s. The decline has been attributed to a range of factors, including changes in the school of language philosophy brought about by Ludwig Wittgenstein, stress from W.V. Quine's holism, issues arising from logical positivism's notably positive stance on inductive logic, growing respect for fields such as the history of science that take over much of logical positivism's earlier roles, the rise of instrumentalism, and "eventually there was pressure from scientific realism." Peter Godfrey-Smith, Theory and Reality, 2003, University of Chicago, ISBN 0-226-30062-5, pages19-38 There was also a growing awareness of the difficulty of evading theory-ladenness of observation statements, as implied in Hilary Putnam's objection. Perhaps more important, however, has been the incorporation of its ideas into the mathemetical and logical formalisms developed in many fields without always citing their historical legacy. Footnotes Further reading Achinstein, Peter and Barker, Stephen F. The Legacy of Logical Positivism: Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969. Ayer, Alfred Jules. Logical Positivism. Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1959. Barone, Francesco. Il neopositivismo logico. Roma Bari: Laterza, 1986. Bergmann, Gustav. The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism. New York: Longmans Green, 1954. Cirera, Ramon. Carnap and the Vienna Circle: Empiricism and Logical Syntax. Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1994. Edmonds, David & Eidinow, John; Wittgenstein's Poker, ISBN 0-06-621244-8 Friedman, Michael. Reconsidering Logical Positivism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999 Gadol, Eugene T. Rationality and Science: A Memorial Volume for Moritz Schlick in Celebration of the Centennial of his Birth. Wien: Springer, 1982. Geymonat, Ludovico. La nuova filosofia della natura in Germania. Torino, 1934. Giere, Ronald N. and Richardson, Alan W. Origins of Logical Empiricism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. Hanfling, Oswald. Logical Positivism. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1981. Jangam, R. T. Logical Positivism and Politics. Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1970. Janik, Allan and Toulmin, Stephen. Wittgenstein's Vienna. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973. Kraft, Victor. The Vienna Circle: The Origin of Neo-positivism, a Chapter in the History of Recent Philosophy. New York: Greenwood Press, 1953. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann. Trans. by Joachim Schulte and Brian McGuinness. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1979. Mises von, Richard. Positivism: A Study in Human Understanding. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951. Parrini, Paolo. Empirismo logico e convenzionalismo: saggio di storia della filosofia della scienza. Milano: F. Angeli, 1983. Parrini, Paolo; Salmon, Wesley C.; Salmon, Merrilee H. (ed.) Logical Empiricism - Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003. Reisch, George. How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science : To the Icy Slopes of Logic. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Rescher, Nicholas. The Heritage of Logical Positivism. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1985. Richardson, Alan and Thomas Uebel (eds.) The Cambridge Companion to Logical Positivism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Salmon, Wesley and Wolters, Gereon (ed.) Logic, Language, and the Structure of Scientific Theories: Proceedings of the Carnap-Reichenbach Centennial, University of Konstanz, 21-24 May 1991, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994. Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) The Emergence of Logical Empiricism: From 1900 to the Vienna Circle. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Logical Empiricism at its Peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Logical Empiricism and the Special Sciences: Reichenbach, Feigl, and Nagel. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) Decline and Obsolescence of Logical Empiricism: Carnap vs. Quine and the Critics. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. Sarkar, Sahotra (ed.) The Legacy of the Vienna Circle: Modern Reappraisals. New York: Garland Pub., 1996. Spohn, Wolfgang (ed.) Erkenntnis Orientated: A Centennial Volume for Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. See also People Alfred Jules Ayer Gustav Bergmann Rudolf Carnap Herbert Feigl Philipp Frank Kurt Grelling Hans Hahn Carl Gustav Hempel Ernest Nagel Otto Neurath Hans Reichenbach David Rynin Moritz Schlick Friedrich Waismann R. B. Braithwaite Institutions Berlin Circle Vienna Circle Other philosophical movements Positivism Sociological positivism External links Articles by logical positivists Carnap, Rudolf. 'Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology.' Excerpt from Carnap, Rudolf. Philosophy and Logical Syntax. Feigl, Herbert. 'Positivism in the Twentieth Century (Logical Empiricism)', Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 1974, Gale Group (Electronic Edition) Hempel, Carl. 'Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning.' Articles on logical positivism Kemerling, Garth. 'Logical Positivism', Philosophy Pages Murzi, Mauro. 'Logical Positivism', The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Tom Flynn (ed.). Prometheus Books, 2007 (PDF version) Murzi, Mauro. 'The Philosophy of Logical Positivism.' Passmore, John. 'Logical Positivism', The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Paul Edwards (ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1967, first edition Articles on related philosophical topics Hájek, Alan. 'Interpretations of Probability', The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Rey, Georges. 'The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction', The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Ryckman, Thomas A., 'Early Philosophical Interpretations of General Relativity', The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Woleński, Jan. 'Lvov-Warsaw School', The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Woodward, James. 'Scientific Explanation', The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2003 Edition), Edward N. 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2,182 | Intermediate_value_theorem | In mathematical analysis, the intermediate value theorem states that for each value between the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of the image of a continuous function there is a corresponding value in its domain mapping to the original. Intermediate value theorem Intermediate Value Theorem Version I. The intermediate value theorem states the following: If the function y = f(x) is continuous on the interval [a, b], and u is a number between f(a) and f(b), then there is a c ∈ [a, b] such that f(c) = u. Version II. Suppose that I is an interval [a, b] in the real numbers R and that f : I → R is a continuous function. Then the image set f(I) is also an interval, and either it contains [f(a), f(b)], or it contains [f(b), f(a)]; that is, or It is frequently stated in the following equivalent form: Suppose that is continuous and that u is a real number satisfying or Then for some c ∈ [a, b], f(c) = u. This captures an intuitive property of continuous functions: given f continuous on [1, 2], if f(1) = 3 and f(2) = 5 then f must take the value 4 somewhere between 1 and 2. It represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function on a closed interval can only be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper. The theorem depends on (and is actually equivalent to) the completeness of the real numbers. It is false for the rational numbers Q. For example, the function for x ∈ Q satisfies f(0) = −2 and f(2) = 2. However there is no rational number x such that f(x) = 0, because if so, then √2 would be rational. Proof We shall prove the first case the second is similar. Let S be the set of all x in [a, b] such that f(x) ≤ u. Then S is non-empty since a is an element of S, and S is bounded above by b. Hence, by the completeness property of the real numbers, the supremum c = sup S exists. That is, c is the lowest number that is greater than or equal to every member of S. We claim that f(c) = u. Suppose first that f(c) > u, then f(c) − u > 0. Since f is continuous, there is a δ > 0 such that | f(x) − f(c) | < ε whenever | x − c | < δ. Pick ε = f(c) − u, then | f(x) − f(c) | < f(c) − u. But then f(x) > f(c) − (f(c) − u) = u whenever | x − c | < δ (that is, f(x) > u for x in (c − δ, c + δ)). Thus c − δ is an upper bound for S, a contradiction since we assumed that c was the least upper bound and c − δ < c. Suppose instead that f(c) < u. Again, by continuity, there is a δ > 0 such that | f(x) − f(c) | < u − f(c) whenever | x − c | < δ. Then f(x) < f(c) + (u − f(c)) = u for x in (c − δ, c + δ) and there are numbers x greater than c for which f(x) < u, again a contradiction to the definition of c. We deduce that f(c) = u as stated. An alternative proof may be found at non-standard calculus. History For u = 0 above, the statement is also known as Bolzano's theorem. This theorem was first stated by Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848) in 1817, together with a proof which used techniques which were especially rigorous for their time but which are now regarded as non-rigorous. Generalization The intermediate value theorem can be seen as a consequence of the following two statements from topology: If X and Y are topological spaces, f : X → Y is continuous, and X is connected, then f(X) is connected. A subset of R is connected if and only if it is an interval. The intermediate value theorem generalizes in a natural way: Suppose that X is a connected topological space and (Y, <) is a totally ordered set equipped with the order topology, and let f : X → Y be a continuous map. If a and b are two points in X and u is a point in Y lying between f(a) and f(b) with respect to <, then there exists c in X such that f(c) = u. The original theorem is recovered by noting that R is connected and that its natural topology is the order topology. Example of use in proof The theorem is rarely applied with concrete values (though it can be and is used for showing that functions have inverses); instead, it gives some characterization of continuous functions. For example, let g(x) = f(x) − x for f continuous over the real numbers. Also, let f be bounded (above and below). Then we can say g = 0 at least once. To see this, consider the following: Since f is bounded, we can pick a greater than and b less than Clearly g(a) < 0 and g(b) > 0. f is continuous, then g is also continuous by the continuity of the subtraction operation. Since g is continuous, we can apply the intermediate value theorem and state that g must take on the value of 0 somewhere between a and b. This result proves that any continuous bounded function must cross the identity function id(x) = x and thus has a fixed point. Converse is false Suppose f is a real-valued function defined on some interval I, and for every two elements a and b in I and for all u in the open interval bounded by f(a) and f(b) there is a c in the open interval bounded by a and b so that f(c) = u. Does f have to be continuous? The answer is no; the converse of the intermediate value theorem fails. As an example, take the function f : [0, ∞) → [−1, 1] defined by f(x) = sin(1/x) for x > 0 and f(0) = 0. This function is not continuous at x = 0 because the limit of f(x) as x tends to 0 does not exist; yet the function has the above intermediate value property. Another, more complicated example is given by the Conway base 13 function. Historically, this intermediate value property has been suggested as a definition for continuity of real-valued functions; this definition was not adopted. Darboux's theorem states that all functions that result from the differentiation of some other function on some interval have the intermediate value property (even though they need not be continuous). Implications of theorem in real world The theorem implies that on any great circle around the world, the temperature, pressure, elevation, carbon dioxide concentration, or anything other similar quantity which varies continuously, there will always exist two antipodal points that share the same value for that variable. Proof: Take f to be any continuous function on a circle. Draw a line through the center of the circle, intersecting it at two opposite points A and B. Let d be defined by the difference f(A) − f(B). If the line is rotated 180 degrees, the value −d will be obtained instead. Due to the intermediate value theorem there must be some intermediate rotation angle for which d = 0, and as a consequence f(A) = f(B) at this angle. This is a special case of a more general result called the Borsuk–Ulam theorem. The theorem also underpins the explanation of why rotating a wobbly table will bring it to stability (subject to certain easily-met constraints). Keith Devlin (2007) How to stabilize a wobbly table Intermediate value theorem of integration The intermediate value theorem of integration is derived from the mean value theorem and states: If f is a continuous function on some interval [a, b], then there exists a c with a < c < b such that the signed area under the function on that interval is equal to the length of the interval b − a multiplied by f(c). That is, Intermediate value theorem of derivatives If f is a differentiable real-valued function on R, then the (first order) derivative f′ has the intermediate value property, though f′ might not be continuous. Intermediate value theorem in Game Theory For a restive game R of genus g^gamma, if 0,1<N<gamma,gamma+1, then R + n is tame of genus (g+n)^(gamma+n) Reference: Winning Ways Volume II P426 References External links Intermediate value Theorem - Bolzano Theorem at cut-the-knot Bolzano's Theorem by Julio Cesar de la Yncera, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. | Intermediate_value_theorem |@lemmatized mathematical:1 analysis:1 intermediate:19 value:29 theorem:27 state:8 least:3 upper:3 bound:10 great:5 low:2 image:2 continuous:22 function:22 corresponding:1 domain:1 mapping:1 original:2 version:2 following:4 f:72 x:38 interval:12 b:23 u:24 number:10 c:41 ii:2 suppose:6 real:9 r:7 set:3 also:5 either:1 contain:2 frequently:1 equivalent:2 form:1 satisfying:1 capture:1 intuitive:1 property:6 give:3 must:4 take:4 somewhere:2 represent:1 idea:1 graph:1 closed:1 draw:2 without:1 lift:1 pencil:1 paper:1 depend:1 actually:1 completeness:2 false:2 rational:3 q:2 example:5 satisfies:1 however:1 would:1 proof:5 shall:1 prove:2 first:4 case:2 second:1 similar:2 let:5 non:3 empty:1 since:5 element:2 hence:1 supremum:1 sup:1 exist:5 equal:2 every:2 member:1 claim:1 δ:11 ε:2 whenever:3 pick:2 thus:2 contradiction:2 assume:1 instead:3 continuity:3 definition:3 deduce:1 alternative:1 may:1 find:1 standard:1 calculus:1 history:1 statement:2 know:1 bolzano:4 bernard:1 together:1 use:3 technique:1 especially:1 rigorous:2 time:1 regard:1 generalization:1 see:2 consequence:2 two:5 topology:4 topological:2 space:2 connect:4 subset:1 generalize:1 natural:2 way:2 connected:1 totally:1 ordered:1 equip:1 order:3 map:1 point:5 lie:1 respect:1 recover:1 note:1 rarely:1 apply:2 concrete:1 though:3 show:1 inverse:1 characterization:1 g:9 say:1 consider:1 less:1 clearly:1 subtraction:1 operation:1 result:3 cross:1 identity:1 id:1 fix:1 converse:2 define:3 open:2 answer:1 fail:1 sin:1 limit:1 tend:1 yet:1 another:1 complicated:1 conway:1 base:1 historically:1 suggest:1 adopt:1 darboux:1 differentiation:1 even:1 need:1 implication:1 world:2 imply:1 circle:3 around:1 temperature:1 pressure:1 elevation:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 concentration:1 anything:1 quantity:1 vary:1 continuously:1 always:1 antipodal:1 share:1 variable:1 line:2 center:1 intersect:1 opposite:1 difference:1 rotate:2 degree:1 obtain:1 due:1 rotation:1 angle:2 special:1 general:1 call:1 borsuk:1 ulam:1 underpin:1 explanation:1 wobbly:2 table:2 bring:1 stability:1 subject:1 certain:1 easily:1 meet:1 constraint:1 keith:1 devlin:1 stabilize:1 integration:2 derive:1 mean:1 signed:1 area:1 length:1 multiply:1 derivative:2 differentiable:1 might:1 game:2 theory:1 restive:1 genus:2 gamma:4 n:4 tame:1 reference:2 winning:1 volume:1 external:1 link:1 cut:1 knot:1 julio:1 cesar:1 de:1 la:1 yncera:1 wolfram:1 demonstration:1 project:1 |@bigram closed_interval:1 topological_space:2 totally_ordered:1 carbon_dioxide:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:1 wolfram_demonstration:1 |
2,183 | Aedile | Aedile (, from aedes, aedis "temple," "building") was an office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order. Half of the aediles were from the ranks of plebeians and half were patricians. The latter were called curule aediles (aediles curules) and they were considered curule magistrates. The office was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the aedileship. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity. History of the office They were created in the same year as the Tribunes of the People (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and managed the plebeian and Roman games. Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes would entrust to them, although most matters to which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the senate (senatus consulta). When a senatus consulta was passed, it would be transcribed into a document, and depositied in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the Roman Consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents. Liv. III.55 They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the Roman Censors. Occasionly, if a Censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an Aedile would perform the task instead. According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul. Curule Aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that Plebeian Aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a Curule Chair (sella curialis) and to wear a toga praetexta, the Curule Aediles also held the power to issue edicts (jus edicendi). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call "economic regulation". Cic. Verr. V.14 . Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both Curule as well as Plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct. Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four Aediles (two Plebeian, two Curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over. Tabul. Heracl. ed. Mazoch There was a distinction between the two sets of Aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were Plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of Plebeian Aediles. Liv. XXXI.56 Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the Curule Aediles, Liv. XXXI.50 and it was often with these festivals that the Aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done so as to secure the support of voters in future elections. Because Aediles were not reimbursed for any of their public expenditures, most individuals who sought the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the Aediles under the republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's Aedileship. Plut. Caesar, 5 Election to the office Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council (popular assembly), usually while under the presidency of a Plebeian Tribune. Curule Aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly, usually while under the presidency of a Roman Consul. Since the Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Plebeians (commoners), rather than by all of the People of Rome (Plebeians as well as members of the Patrician aristocracy), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the lex annalis, individuals could run for the Aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-five. Liv. XL.44 By the first century BC, Aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January. Powers of the office Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads: (1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement. Under the empire In 44 BC Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles, called Cereales, whose special duty was the care of the cereal (corn) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juidical functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a praefectus urbi. Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, Augustus effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. Augustus accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office. Dion Cassius LV.24 Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes. Tacit. Annal. II.85 In the 3rd century AD it disappeared altogether. Under the empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually. De Aedil. Col., &c. Otto. Lips. 1732 Today in Portugal the county mayor can still be referred to as 'edil' (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'). Notes See also Adel Aetheling Constitution of the Roman Republic References | Aedile |@lemmatized aedile:2 aedes:1 aedis:1 temple:3 building:3 office:19 roman:8 republic:3 base:1 rome:3 aediles:24 responsible:1 maintenance:1 public:11 regulation:4 festival:6 also:6 power:14 enforce:1 order:1 half:2 rank:2 plebeian:18 patrician:5 latter:1 call:3 curule:11 curules:1 consider:1 magistrate:3 generally:2 hold:11 young:1 men:1 intend:2 follow:1 cursus:2 honorum:1 high:5 political:1 traditionally:1 quaestorship:1 praetorship:2 compulsory:1 part:2 hence:1 former:2 quaestor:2 could:3 elect:5 without:1 aedileship:4 however:2 advantageous:1 position:1 demonstrate:1 aspire:1 politician:1 commitment:1 service:1 well:5 give:4 opportunity:1 game:6 excellent:1 way:1 increase:2 name:1 recognition:1 popularity:1 history:1 create:2 year:1 tribune:6 people:3 bc:6 originally:1 assistant:2 exercise:1 certain:2 police:1 function:5 empower:1 inflict:1 fine:1 manage:1 duty:3 first:4 simply:1 ministerial:1 whatever:1 matter:3 would:6 entrust:2 although:3 minimal:1 importance:2 around:1 authority:1 care:7 decree:1 senate:2 senatus:2 consulta:2 pass:2 transcribe:2 document:3 depositied:1 treasury:1 aerarium:1 consul:3 arbitrarily:1 suppress:1 alter:1 liv:4 iii:2 maintain:1 act:1 council:2 popular:3 assembly:4 plebiscites:1 plebiscite:1 physical:1 storage:1 grow:1 time:2 always:2 easy:1 distinguish:1 difference:1 censor:2 occasionly:1 unable:1 carry:1 one:1 task:2 perform:1 instead:1 accord:1 livy:2 vi:1 passing:1 licinian:1 rogation:1 extra:1 day:3 add:2 refuse:1 bear:1 additional:1 expense:2 whereupon:1 offer:2 undertake:1 condition:1 admit:1 accept:1 accordingly:1 two:5 appoint:1 alone:1 turn:2 lastly:1 either:1 tribal:2 presidency:3 formal:1 honor:1 technically:2 magistrates:1 besides:1 right:1 sit:1 chair:1 sella:1 curialis:1 wear:1 toga:1 praetexta:1 issue:1 edict:2 jus:1 edicendi:1 often:5 pertain:1 market:1 might:1 economic:1 cic:1 verr:1 v:1 suggest:1 perhaps:1 incorrectly:1 sacrosanct:1 gradually:1 approximate:1 become:1 practically:1 identical:1 within:1 five:2 beginning:1 term:1 four:1 require:1 determine:1 lot:1 agreement:1 among:1 city:4 jurisdiction:1 tabul:1 heracl:1 ed:1 mazoch:1 distinction:1 set:2 come:1 nature:1 thus:1 superintendence:3 xxxi:2 supervise:1 exclusively:1 spend:2 lavishly:1 secure:1 support:1 voter:1 future:2 election:3 reimburse:1 expenditure:2 individual:5 seek:1 independently:1 wealthy:2 since:2 step:1 stone:1 help:1 ensure:1 mostly:1 landowner:1 win:2 extravagant:1 begin:1 shortly:1 end:1 second:1 punic:1 war:1 spoil:1 return:1 new:1 eastern:1 conquest:1 even:2 decadence:1 emperor:2 rarely:1 surpass:1 see:2 julius:2 caesar:3 plut:1 usually:3 commoner:1 rather:1 member:1 aristocracy:1 passage:2 lex:1 annalis:1 run:1 twenty:1 seven:1 law:2 age:1 probably:1 thirty:1 xl:1 century:2 july:1 take:3 january:1 cicero:1 legg:1 divide:1 three:1 head:1 repair:1 preservation:1 sewer:1 aqueduct:1 street:1 cleansing:1 paving:1 regard:1 traffic:1 dangerous:1 animal:1 dilapidated:1 precaution:1 fire:1 bath:2 tavern:1 enforcement:1 sumptuary:1 punishment:1 gambler:1 usurer:1 moral:1 include:1 prevention:1 foreign:1 superstition:1 punish:1 large:1 share:1 ager:1 publicus:1 keep:1 many:1 cattle:1 state:1 pasture:1 provision:1 investigation:1 quality:1 article:1 supply:2 correctness:1 weight:1 measure:1 purchase:1 corn:2 disposal:1 low:1 price:1 case:1 necessity:1 organization:1 private:1 e:2 g:2 funeral:1 ambitious:1 person:1 enormous:1 sum:1 manner:1 favor:1 view:1 official:2 advancement:1 empire:2 cereales:1 whose:1 special:1 cereal:1 augustus:5 lose:1 much:1 juidical:1 transfer:2 praetor:1 responsibility:1 limit:1 appointment:1 praefectus:1 urbi:1 various:1 religious:1 strip:1 effectively:1 destroy:1 original:1 point:1 willing:1 powerless:1 know:1 compel:1 accomplish:1 randomly:1 select:1 dion:1 cassius:1 lv:1 continue:1 dilute:1 newly:1 retain:1 licentiousness:1 disorder:1 particular:1 brothel:1 registration:1 prostitute:1 tacit:1 annal:1 ii:1 ad:1 disappear:1 altogether:1 colony:1 similar:1 republican:1 widely:1 vary:1 seem:1 though:1 choose:1 annually:1 de:2 aedil:1 col:1 c:1 otto:1 lip:1 today:1 portugal:1 county:1 mayor:2 still:1 refer:1 edil:2 coimbra:2 mean:1 note:1 adel:1 aetheling:1 constitution:1 reference:1 |@bigram curule_aediles:7 cursus_honorum:1 plebeian_aediles:6 curule_chair:1 wear_toga:1 toga_praetexta:1 julius_caesar:2 sumptuary_law:1 randomly_select:1 |
2,184 | Leonard_Peltier | Leonard Peltier (born September 12, 1944) is an American activist and member of the American Indian Movement who was convicted and sentenced in 1977 to two consecutive terms of life imprisonment for the murder of two FBI Agents who were killed during a 1975 shoot-out on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. There is considerable debate over Peltier’s guilt and the fairness of his trial. Some supporters and organizations consider him to be a political prisoner. Amnesty International has stated that "Although he has not been adopted as a prisoner of conscience, there is concern about the fairness of the proceedings leading to his conviction and it is believed that political factors may have influenced the way the case was prosecuted." Numerous lawsuits have been filed on his behalf but none have succeeded. Peltier is currently incarcerated at the Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary, Leavenworth KS. Rage Against The Machine's song titled "Freedom" has a music video demanding Peltier's release and justice. It also explains the irregularities and unfairness of his trial. Early life Leonard Peltier was born on September 12, 1944 in Grand Forks, North Dakota, the son of Leo Peltier and Alvina Robideau. He spent his early years living with his grandparents on the Turtle Mountain Indian Reservation. Peltier became involved in the American Indian Movement (AIM), and eventually in the conflicts that occurred on the Pine Ridge Reservation in the early 1970s. Shootout at Jumping Bull Ranch On June 26, 1975, Special Agents Jack R. Coler and Ronald A. Williams were searching for a young Pine Ridge man named Jimmy Eagle, wanted for questioning in connection with the recent assault and robbery of two local ranch hands. Eagle had been involved in a physical altercation with a friend, during which he had stolen a pair of cowboy boots. Multiple interviewees, Incident at Oglala (1992). [DVD] Lions Gate Studio. Directed by Michael Apted. Williams and Coler, driving two separate unmarked cars, in piggy-back fashion, observed and followed a red pick-up truck which matched the description of the one belonging to Eagle. At the time, Peltier was a fugitive, with a warrant issued in Milwaukee charging unlawful flight to avoid prosecution for the attempted murder of an off-duty Milwaukee police officer, of which he was later acquitted. Williams radioed that he and Coler had come under high-powered rifle fire from the occupants of the vehicle and were unable to return fire to any effect with their .38 pistols and shotguns. FBI Special Agent Gary Adams was the first to respond to Williams' call for assistance, and he also came under intense gun fire from Jumping Bull Ranch. The FBI, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and the local police spent much of the afternoon pinned down on U.S. Route 18, waiting for other law enforcement officers to launch a flanking attack. At 2:30 p.m., a BIA rifleman shot one of the shooters, Joe Stuntz, and killed him. At 4:30 p.m., authorities recovered the bodies of Williams and Coler at their vehicle, and at 6 p.m. laid down a cloud of tear gas and stormed the Jumping Bull houses, finding Stuntz's corpse clad in Coler's green FBI field jacket. The others, authorities later reported, had slipped away from the compound after Stuntz's death, to cross White Clay Creek and hid in a culvert beneath a dirt road. With police focused on the storming of Jumping Bull, the group made a break for the southern hills. In the following days, they split into smaller groups and scattered across the country, setting off a nationwide manhunt that lasted eight months. The FBI reported Williams had received a defensive wound from a bullet which passed through his right hand into his head, killing him instantly. Coler, incapacitated from earlier bullet wounds, had been shot twice in the head execution style. In total 125 bullet holes were found in the agents' vehicles, many from a .223 (5.56 mm) rifle. The FBI investigation concluded the agents were executed at close range by the same .223 caliber rifle. Aftermath On September 5, 1975, Agent Williams' handgun, and shells from both Agents' handguns, were found in a vehicle near a residence where Dino Butler was arrested. On September 9, 1975, Peltier purchased a Plymouth station wagon in Denver, Colorado. The FBI sent out descriptions of it and a recreational vehicle (RV) in which Peltier and associates were believed to be traveling. An Oregon State Trooper stopped the vehicles based on the descriptions and ordered the driver of the RV to exit, but after a brief exchange of gunfire, Peltier escaped on foot. Authorities later identified the driver as Peltier. Agent Coler's handgun was found in a bag under the front seat of the RV, where authorities reported also finding Peltier's thumb print. On December 22, 1975 he became the 335th person named by the FBI to the Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. On September 10, 1975, a station wagon blew up on the Kansas Turnpike near Wichita, and a burned-up AR-15 was recovered, along with Agent Coler's .38 Special revolver. The car was loaded with weapons and explosives which were apparently accidentally ignited when placed too close to a hole in the exhaust pipe. Present in the car among others were Robert Robideau, Norman Charles, and Michael Anderson, said to be associates of Peltier. Peltier fled to Hinton, Alberta, Canada, where he hid out at a friend's cabin. He was eventually apprehended by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) on February 6, 1976. Peltier was not armed at the time of his arrest. Peltier fought extradition to the United States, a decision that backfired when Bob Robideau and Darelle "Dino" Butler, AIM members also present on the Jumping Bull compound at the time of the shootings, were found not guilty on the grounds of self-defense by a federal jury in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. As Peltier fled to Canada and then fought extradition, he arrived too late to be tried with Robideau and Butler and was tried separately. At his trial in United States District Court for the District of North Dakota in Fargo, North Dakota, a jury convicted Peltier of the murders of Coler and Williams and the judge sentenced him in April 1977 to two consecutive life sentences. After a series of appeals, the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals reaffirmed Peltier's conviction in July 1993. Chronology of the Leonard Peltier case - part 3 Alleged trial irregularities There has been debate over Peltier’s guilt and the fairness of his trial. Several allegations have been made by Peltier’s supporters which they claim point to his innocence, and all of these have been disputed by the FBI: An FBI agent who testified that the agents followed a pickup truck onto the scene (a vehicle that could not be tied to Peltier) is alleged to have later changed his account to describe a red and white van, a vehicle type which Peltier did drive. Further, as the FBI did not record radio communications in 1975, there was an unresolved discrepancy between Agents as to whether Williams said he was pursuing a "red and white van" or "pickup truck." Three witnesses testified they saw Peltier approach the slain officers' vehicle. They later alleged that the FBI had threatened and forced them to testify. The FBI answered that the witnesses' testimony was not necessary for conviction. An FBI ballistics expert testified that a shell casing found near the dead agents' bodies matched the gun tied to Peltier. Critics argued that an FBI teletype stating the firing pin of the recovered weapon did not match the shell casings proved that Peltier’s weapon was not the murder weapon. It was counter-argued in testimony by the FBI that although the marks from the firing pin did not match those on the casing, the firing pin had probably been replaced after the murders, and that the marks made by the rifle’s extractor were an exact match to the recovered weapon. Post-trial debate and developments Peltier's conviction sparked great controversy and has drawn criticism from a number of sources. Numerous appeals have been filed on his behalf; none of the resulting rulings have been made in his favor. Peltier is considered by some to be a political prisoner and has received support from individuals and groups including Nelson Mandela, Rigoberta Menchú, Amnesty International, the U.N. High Commissioner on Human Rights, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, Tenzin Gyatso (the 14th Dalai Lama), the European Parliament , the Belgian Parliament , the Italian Parliament, the Kennedy Memorial Center for Human Rights, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and Rev. Jesse Jackson. Peltier's supporters have given two different rationales for overturning the conviction. One argument asserts that Peltier did not commit the murders, and that he either had no knowledge of the murders (as he told CNN in 1999), or that he has knowledge implicating others which he will never reveal, or (as told in Peter Matthiessen's In the Spirit of Crazy Horse) that he approached and searched the agents but did not execute them. The other rationale holds that the killings (no matter who committed them) occurred during a war-like atmosphere on the reservation in which FBI agents were terrorizing residents in the wake of the Pine Ridge standoff in 1972. Near the end of President Bill Clinton's presidency in 2000, rumors began circulating that he was considering granting Peltier clemency. This led to a campaign against the possibility, culminating in a protest outside the White House by about five hundred FBI agents and their families, and a letter opposing clemency from then FBI director Louis Freeh. Clinton did not grant Peltier clemency. In 2002, Peltier filed a civil rights lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia against the FBI, Louis Freeh, and a long list of FBI agents who had participated in the campaign against his clemency petition, alleging that they "engaged in a systematic and officially sanctioned campaign of misinformation and disinformation." On March 22, 2004, the suit was dismissed. US District Court, Peltier v. Freeh, et al.; March 22, 2004 In 2003 News from Indian Country publisher Paul DeMain wrote that an "unnamed delegation" with knowledge of the incident told him, "Peltier was responsible for the close range execution of the agents..." DeMain described the delegation as "grandfathers and grandmothers, AIM activists, Pipe Carriers and others who have carried a heavy unhealthy burden within them that has taken its toll." News From Indian Country: Leonard Peltier. Now what do we do? In an editorial written in early 2003, DeMain stated that the motive for the execution-style murder of AIM activist Anna Mae Pictou Aquash "allegedly was her knowledge that Leonard Peltier had shot the two agents, as he was convicted." DeMain did not accuse Peltier of participation in the murder. (In 2002 two other AIM members were indicted for the murder.) In response, Peltier launched a libel lawsuit on May 1, 2003, against DeMain. On May 25, 2004, Peltier withdrew the suit after he and DeMain reached a settlement, which involved DeMain issuing a statement where he wrote, “…I do not believe that Leonard Peltier received a fair trial in connection with the murders of which he was convicted. Certainly he is entitled to one. Nor do I believe, according to the evidence and testimony I now have, that Mr. Peltier had any involvement in the death of Anna Mae Aquash.’’ News From Indian County Allows Peltier to Withdraw Lawsuit Peltier accepts settlement over Aquash murder DeMain did not, however, retract his central allegations: That Peltier was in fact guilty of the murders, and that Aquash's murderer or murderers' motive was the fear that she might inform on Peltier. Press Release May 28, 2004 In February 2004, Fritz Arlo Looking Cloud was tried for the murder of Anna Mae Pictou Aquash, and found guilty. On June 26, 2007, the Supreme Court of British Columbia ordered the extradition of John Graham to the United States, to stand trial for his alleged role in the murder of Annie Mae Aquash. News From Indian Country - Former FBI agent says: Anna Mae Awaits Justice In Looking Cloud's trial, the prosecution argued that AIM's suspicion of Aquash stemmed from her having heard Peltier admit to the murders. The prosecution called as a witness Darlene “Kamook” Nichols, former wife of AIM leader Dennis Banks. She testified that in late 1975 Peltier confessed to shooting the FBI agents to a group of AIM activists who were at that time on the run from law enforcement. The fugitives included Nichols, her sister Bernie, her husband Dennis Banks, and Aquash, among several others. Nichols alleged that Peltier said, “The mother fucker was begging for his life, but I shot him anyway.” Bernie Nichols-Lafferty also gave the same account of Peltier’s statement. Other witnesses have testified that once Aquash came under suspicion of being an informant, Peltier interrogated her on the matter while holding a gun to her head. http://www.jfamr.org/doc/troytest.html; http://www.dickshovel.com/annatp4.html; http://www.coloradoaim.org/history/1994RobideauslettertoPaulDemain.htm; http://www.dickshovel.com/21705.html; Steve Hendricks, The Unquiet Grave: The FBI and the Struggle for the Soul of Indian Country, 2006, Thunder's Mouth Press, p. 202; http://www.dickshovel.com/time.html;http://www.jfamr.org/doc/appeal_rspns.pdf Peltier and David Hill later had Aquash participate in bomb-making so that her fingerprints would be on the bombs. The trio then planted these bombs at two power plants on the Pine Ridge reservation. Corel Office Document On February 10, 2004, Peltier issued a statement: “Kamook's testimony was like being stabbed in the heart while simultaneously being told your sister just died.” Peltier denounced Kamook Nichol's courtroom accusations as false, saying “I loved Kamook as my own family. I can't believe the $43,000 the FBI gave her was a determining factor for her to perjure herself on the witness stand. There must have been some extreme threat the FBI or their cronies put upon her.” After the Looking Cloud trial, Darlene Nichols married Robert Ecoffey, Director of the Bureau of Indian Affairs Office of Law Enforcement Services, who was instrumental in the investigation that led to Looking Cloud's conviction. During the trial Nichols acknowledged receiving $42,000 from the FBI in connection with her cooperation on the case, money she explained was compensation for her expenses in traveling to collect evidence by wearing a wire while visiting her ex-husband, Dennis Banks. Some of the money was for moving expenses so that she could move because of her fear of Banks. Bruce Ellison – who has been Leonard Peltier's lawyer since the 1970s Freepeltier -- invoked his fifth amendment rights against self-incrimination and refused to testify at the grand jury hearings leading up to the Looking Cloud trial in 2003, or in the trial itself. During the trial, the federal prosecutor named Ellison as a co-conspirator in the Aquash case. Aquash Murder Case Timeline by Paul DeMain, NFIC, http://jfamr.org/conspire.html Witnesses state that Ellison participated in interrogating Annie Mae Aquash on December 11, 1975, shortly before her murder. Aquash Murder Case Timeline by Paul DeMain, NFIC, http://www.jfamr.org/trialtime.html In a February 27, 2006, decision, U.S. District Judge William Skretny ruled that the FBI did not have to hand over five of 812 documents relating to Peltier and held at their Buffalo field office. He ruled that those particular documents were exempted on the grounds of “national security and FBI agent/informant protection.” In his opinion Judge Skretny wrote, “Plaintiff has not established the existence of bad faith or provided any evidence contradicting (the FBI's) claim that the release of these documents would endanger national security or would impair this country's relationship with a foreign government.” In response, Michael Kuzma, a Buffalo lawyer and a member of Peltier's defense team said, “We're appealing. It's incredible that it took him 254 days to render a decision.” Kuzma further stated, “The pages we were most intrigued about revolved around a teletype from Buffalo ... a three-page document that seems to indicate that a confidential source was being advised by the FBI not to engage in conduct that would compromise attorney-client privilege.” Legal action has been taken by Peltier’s supporters in an attempt to secure more than 100,000 pages of documents from FBI field offices located throughout the U.S. claiming that these files should have been turned over at the time of his trial or following a Freedom of Information Act request filed soon after. LDPC email to www.prisonactivist.org Judge Allows FBI to Withhold Some Peltier Documents by Carolyn Thompson, AP In 2007, Peltier became a figure in a political controversy when billionaire David Geffen, a Peltier supporter, detached his financial support for Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign and funded Barack Obama's campaign instead. This caused an immense furor in the Clinton camp, and Geffen admitted he switched his support because he became disillusioned by Bill Clinton's refusal to pardon Peltier in circumstances where he pardoned Marc Rich, a billionaire felon and criminal. Maureen Dowd Column Incites Hillary-Obama War of Words, Editor & Publisher, February 21, 2007 Whatever the controversy, Peltier's conviction still stands. Upon hearing the case on February 11, 1986, Federal Appeals Judge Gerald W. Heaney, concluded, "When all is said and done...a few simple but very important facts remain. The casing introduced into evidence had in fact been extracted from the Wichita AR-15." The Bureau by Ronald Kessler, St. Martin's Press, 2003, p. 356. Following this, Peltier admitted that he fired at the agents, but now denies that he fired the fatal shots that killed the agents. Peltier, "Prison Writings", New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999, p.125; The Bureau by Ronald Kessler, St. Martin's Press, 2003, p. 356. According to sources, Peltier was assaulted on January 13, 2009 following his transfer from USP Leavenworth, Leavenworth KS to USP Canaan, PA by fellow inmates. The Circle News. Political Matters: Native Issues in the Halls of Government. Workers.org. Leonard Peltier attacked in prison Peltier for President Peltier was the candidate for the Peace and Freedom Party in the 2004 Presidential race. While prison inmates convicted of felonies are frequently prohibited from voting in the United States (Maine and Vermont are exceptions), Maine Today: Inmates in Maine, Vermont are allowed to vote the United States Constitution has no prohibition against felons being elected to Federal offices, including President. (Eugene V. Debs received 913,664 votes (3.4%) in 1920 as the Socialist candidate for President while in prison for sedition.) The Peace and Freedom Party secured ballot status for Peltier only in California, where his presidential candidacy received 27,607 votes, Results, by district, of Presidential vote in California, 2004 approximately 0.2% of the vote in that state and approximately 0.02% of the nationwide vote. Further reading By Leonard Peltier: Prison Writings: My Life is my Sun Dance. New York, 1999. About Leonard Peltier: "Writer Sues Peltier", Kansas City Star, July 3, 1992 Claims Peltier is "a con man and a fraud." Scott Anderson, The Martyrdom of Leonard Peltier, Outside Magazine, July 1995 Matthiessen, Peter (1983). In the Spirit of Crazy Horse. Penguin. ISBN 0140144560. Ward Churchill, Jim Vander Wall: Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement. South End Press, Cambridge, MA 1988, 2002. Legal Opinions on lawful killing of arresting officers: State v. Robinson, 145 ME. 77, 72 ATL. 260 (Adams v. State, 121 Ga. 16, 48 S.E. 910). Plummer v. State, 136 Ind. 306. This premise was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case: John Bad Elk v. U.S., 177 U.S. 529. Film/Video (Documentary) Thunderheart (a fictional 1992 film by Michael Apted, based in part on Peltier's case) References External links Leonard Peltier: "When Truth Doesn't Matter. Thirty Years of FBI Harassment and Misconduct". CounterPunch, January 9, 2007. Crimelibrary.com article on Leonard Peltier Interview with Leonard Peltier from jail in 2000 by Democracy Now! Plazm magazine — Interview with Leonard Peltier from jail in 1995 Documents from Leonard Peltier's FBI File Federal Bureau of Investigation, Minneapolis Division: Leonard Peltier Case Leonard Peltier Memorial Bridge Leonard Peltier on Earth Liberation Prisoners Support Network No Parole Peltier Association Official International Leonard Peltier Defense Committee Website Peltier's 2002 Parole hearing A.I.M (the American Indian Movement) It's Time to Free Leonard Peltier by Bob Fitrakis and Harvey Wasserman, Counterpunch, January 23 2009 | Leonard_Peltier |@lemmatized leonard:21 peltier:90 born:1 september:5 american:5 activist:4 member:4 indian:13 movement:4 convict:5 sentence:3 two:9 consecutive:2 term:1 life:5 imprisonment:1 murder:19 fbi:36 agent:25 kill:4 shoot:5 pine:5 ridge:5 reservation:5 considerable:1 debate:3 guilt:2 fairness:3 trial:15 supporter:5 organization:1 consider:3 political:5 prisoner:4 amnesty:2 international:3 state:16 although:2 adopt:1 conscience:1 concern:1 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2,185 | Nu_metal | Nu metal is a sub-genre of heavy metal that emerged in the early-1990s which combines grunge music, allmusic alternative metal, funk metal, hip hop, and various other heavy metal influences such as industrial, groove and thrash. http://www.fact-index.com/n/nu/nu_metal.html Fact index - Nu metal Origins The term "nu metal" was first used for a review of a mid-October 1995 Coal Chamber concert in Spin magazine in the form "new metal". Like the bands of its antecedent, funk metal, many nu metal bands came from California. Bands such as P.O.D., Deftones and Korn are nu metal bands all from California and started in the early nineties. Nu metal initially began with Korn's demo-tape, Neidermeyer's Mind, released in 1992. Korn's signature sound came from an attempt to emulate chords used by Mr. Bungle's guitar player Trey Spruance, which they referred to as "the moveable Bungle chord". They have also cited Mike Patton's other band Faith No More in Kerrang!'''s The Greatest Videos of All Time in 2006, saying that Korn was influenced by them because they did something unusual with a metal band. Nu metal bands also often state more conventional metal acts as an influence, particularly Black Sabbath. Korn use 7-string guitars over traditional 6-string guitars. Steve Vai had originally introduced them onto the market for technical guitar players. Munky, the guitarist from Korn, wasn't a technical player but instead decided to take the 7-string guitar in a different direction. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oKsGpl6lgbk&feature=PlayList&p=5C01582172FDF350&index=0&playnext=1 Producer Ross Robinson was labelled by some as "The Godfather of nu metal" due to his producing of successful nu metal albums, such as Korn's first album and Limp Bizkit's Three Dollar Bill, Yall. Mainstream popularity Nu metal's mainstream popularity came in 1998 with the success of Korn's third album Follow the Leader, which sold 5 million copies worldwide. The following year many bands began receiving airplay and were in heavy rotation on MTV, mostly on the channel's TRL program. Bands whose albums became hits that year included Kid Rock, Deftones, Coal Chamber, Limp Bizkit and Staind. Many of the bands that formed the first wave of nu metal came out of the Los Angeles scene, many playing the same venues and all knowing of each other. That scene included Incubus, Static-X, Coal Chamber and Spineshank. There were other bands from outside of L.A, such as Des Moines's Slipknot, Atlanta's Sevendust, Jacksonville's Limp Bizkit, Chicago's Disturbed, Phoenix's Soulfly and Lawrence Massachusetts' Godsmack. Another contribution to nu metal's popularity was festival tours such as Family Values Tour, Lollapalooza and Ozzfest. The 30th anniversary of Woodstock also featured nu metal bands. Through the turn of the century, more bands broke out like Papa Roach whose major label debut Infest became a platinum hit. Other bands like P.O.D. and Disturbed also had mainstream success. By 2001, nu metal reached its peak as record labels signed many nu metal bands. Though new bands were breaking out, established bands who started the genre had massive successful hit albums like Staind (Break the Cycle), P.O.D. (Satellite), Slipknot (Iowa) and Linkin Park (Hybrid Theory, which was the year's top selling album). By 2002, signs that nu metal's mainstream popularity was dying down were apparent. Korn's long awaited fifth album Untouchables and Papa Roach's third album Lovehatetragedy'' did not sell as well as their previous albums. Nu metal bands became less played on rock radio stations and MTV began focusing more on pop punk/emo bands. Since then, some bands have changed their sound to hard rock or heavy metal. Musical traits Nu metal bands often feature aggressive vocals that range from melodic singing similar to pop and rock, guttural screaming, death growls and shouting from various forms of metal, hardcore punk, and like funk metal; rapping is often used. Korn's Jonathan Davis, Deftones's Chino Moreno, Linkin Park's Chester Bennington Chevelle's Pete Loeffler, Slipknot's Corey Taylor, Taproot's Stephen Richards, Disturbed's David Draiman, and Limp Bizkit's Fred Durst, have all cited Maynard James Keenan's signature style as their main influence, with Durst also calling the band Tool (in general) both his biggest musical influence and favorite band. Biography on Fred Durst's website Mike Patton of Faith No More is also credited for vocally influencing nu metal. Nu metal bass parts are often reminiscent of hip hop or funk grooves, and in some songs, slap bass technique is used to give the music a funk groove. The bass in nu metal is occasionally the driving force behind the music, such as in certain Korn and Mudvayne songs. Almost all nu metal bassists' use 5-string over a 4-string bass guitar. Many nu metal bands feature a DJ for additional rhythmic instrumentation (such as music sampling, scratching and electronic backgrounds). Examples of nu metal DJs include DJ Lethal of Limp Bizkit, St1tch of Mushroomhead, Sid Wilson of Slipknot and Mr. Hahn of Linkin Park. Nu metal drumming often consists of hip hop, funk, and heavy metal influences. Double bass drumming is not very common in the style, except in certain bands such as Ill Niño, System Of A Down, Disturbed and most prominently, Slipknot. But unlike the long passages of double bass that death metal and black metal drummers utilize, nu metal drummers use double bass in "stop-go" bursts- although Slipknot's Joey Jordison often uses it in long passages, and is famous for having a very fast double bass technique. Soulfly has also integrated certain aspects of middle eastern and tribal music in its style. See also List of nu metal bands Post-grunge Seven-string guitar List of artists who use seven-string guitars References External links MTV.com: Nu metal Meltdown be-x-old:Ню-мэтал | Nu_metal |@lemmatized nu:29 metal:42 sub:1 genre:2 heavy:5 emerge:1 early:2 combine:1 grunge:2 music:5 allmusic:1 alternative:1 funk:6 hip:3 hop:3 various:2 influence:7 industrial:1 groove:3 thrash:1 http:2 www:2 fact:2 index:3 com:3 n:1 html:1 origins:1 term:1 first:3 use:9 review:1 mid:1 october:1 coal:3 chamber:3 concert:1 spin:1 magazine:1 form:3 new:2 like:5 band:26 antecedent:1 many:6 come:4 california:2 p:4 deftones:3 korn:11 start:2 ninety:1 initially:1 begin:3 demo:1 tape:1 neidermeyer:1 mind:1 release:1 signature:2 sound:2 attempt:1 emulate:1 chord:2 mr:2 bungle:2 guitar:8 player:3 trey:1 spruance:1 refer:1 moveable:1 also:8 cite:2 mike:2 patton:2 faith:2 kerrang:1 great:1 video:1 time:1 say:1 something:1 unusual:1 often:6 state:1 conventional:1 act:1 particularly:1 black:2 sabbath:1 string:7 traditional:1 steve:1 vai:1 originally:1 introduce:1 onto:1 market:1 technical:2 munky:1 guitarist:1 instead:1 decide:1 take:1 different:1 direction:1 youtube:1 watch:1 v:1 feature:4 playlist:1 playnext:1 producer:1 ross:1 robinson:1 label:3 godfather:1 due:1 produce:1 successful:2 album:9 limp:5 bizkit:5 three:1 dollar:1 bill:1 yall:1 mainstream:4 popularity:4 success:2 third:2 follow:1 leader:1 sell:2 million:1 copy:1 worldwide:1 following:1 year:3 receive:1 airplay:1 rotation:1 mtv:3 mostly:1 channel:1 trl:1 program:1 whose:2 become:3 hit:3 include:3 kid:1 rock:4 staind:2 wave:1 los:1 angeles:1 scene:2 play:2 venue:1 knowing:1 incubus:1 static:1 x:2 spineshank:1 outside:1 l:1 de:1 moines:1 slipknot:6 atlanta:1 sevendust:1 jacksonville:1 chicago:1 disturb:3 phoenix:1 soulfly:2 lawrence:1 massachusetts:1 godsmack:1 another:1 contribution:1 festival:1 tour:2 family:1 value:1 lollapalooza:1 ozzfest:1 anniversary:1 woodstock:1 turn:1 century:1 break:3 papa:2 roach:2 major:1 debut:1 infest:1 platinum:1 reach:1 peak:1 record:1 sign:2 though:1 establish:1 massive:1 cycle:1 satellite:1 iowa:1 linkin:3 park:3 hybrid:1 theory:1 top:1 selling:1 die:1 apparent:1 long:3 await:1 fifth:1 untouchable:1 lovehatetragedy:1 well:1 previous:1 less:1 radio:1 station:1 focus:1 pop:2 punk:2 emo:1 since:1 change:1 hard:1 musical:2 trait:1 aggressive:1 vocal:1 range:1 melodic:1 sing:1 similar:1 guttural:1 screaming:1 death:2 growl:1 shout:1 hardcore:1 rapping:1 jonathan:1 davis:1 chino:1 moreno:1 chester:1 bennington:1 chevelle:1 pete:1 loeffler:1 corey:1 taylor:1 taproot:1 stephen:1 richards:1 david:1 draiman:1 fred:2 durst:3 maynard:1 jam:1 keenan:1 style:3 main:1 call:1 tool:1 general:1 big:1 favorite:1 biography:1 website:1 credit:1 vocally:1 bass:8 part:1 reminiscent:1 song:2 slap:1 technique:2 give:1 occasionally:1 driving:1 force:1 behind:1 certain:3 mudvayne:1 almost:1 bassist:1 dj:3 additional:1 rhythmic:1 instrumentation:1 sampling:1 scratch:1 electronic:1 background:1 example:1 lethal:1 mushroomhead:1 sid:1 wilson:1 hahn:1 drum:1 consist:1 double:4 drumming:1 common:1 except:1 ill:1 niño:1 system:1 disturbed:1 prominently:1 unlike:1 passage:2 drummer:2 utilize:1 stop:1 go:1 burst:1 although:1 joey:1 jordison:1 famous:1 fast:1 integrate:1 aspect:1 middle:1 eastern:1 tribal:1 see:1 list:2 post:1 seven:2 artist:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 meltdown:1 old:1 ню:1 мэтал:1 |@bigram nu_metal:28 hip_hop:3 http_www:2 demo_tape:1 mr_bungle:1 mike_patton:2 black_sabbath:1 steve_vai:1 limp_bizkit:5 bill_yall:1 los_angeles:1 de_moines:1 papa_roach:2 linkin_park:3 hardcore_punk:1 chester_bennington:1 fred_durst:2 slap_bass:1 bass_guitar:1 dj_lethal:1 double_bass:4 external_link:1 |
2,186 | Ada_Lovelace | Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (10 December 1815, London – 27 November 1852, Marylebone, London), born Augusta Ada Byron, was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron. She is widely known in modern times simply as Ada Lovelace. She is mainly known for having written a description of Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine. She is today appreciated as the "first programmer" since she was writing programs—that is, manipulating symbols according to rules—for a machine that Babbage had not yet built. She also foresaw the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching while others, including Babbage himself, focused only on these capabilities. Fuegi and Francis 2003 pp. 19, 25. Biography Early years Ada Lovelace, born 10 December 1815, was the only child of the poet Lord Byron and his wife, Anne Isabella "Annabella" Milbanke. Stein, Ada, pp. 14 Byron, and many of those who knew Byron, expected that the baby would be "the glorious boy", and there was some disappointment at the contrary news. Turney 1972 p. 35 She was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called "Ada" by Byron himself. Stein, Ada pp. 17 Ada Lovelace On 16 January 1816, Annabella, at Byron's behest, left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory taking one-month-old Ada with her. Although English law gave fathers full custody of their children in cases of separation, Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights. Stein, Ada, pp. 16 On 21 April, Byron signed the Deed of Separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Turney 1972 p. 36-38 Byron did not have a relationship with his daughter and he died in 1824 when she was nine; her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Turney 1972 p. 138 Ada was often ill, dating from her early childhood. At eight she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. Stein, Ada p. 17 In June 1829, she was paralyzed after a bout of the measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831 she was able to walk with crutches. Throughout her illnesses, Ada continued her education. Stein, Ada, pp. 28-30 Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Lord Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. Ada was privately home-schooled in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King and Mary Somerville . One of her later tutors was Augustus De Morgan. From 1832, when she was seventeen, her remarkable mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated her life even after her marriage. Ada never met her younger half-sister, Allegra Byron, daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont, who died at the age of five in 1822. Ada did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh. Augusta Leigh purposely avoided Ada as much as possible when she was introduced at Court. Turney 1972 p. 155 Adult years Ada knew Mary Somerville, noted researcher and scientific author of the 19th century, who introduced her to Charles Babbage on 5 June 1833. Other acquaintances were Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Charles Dickens and Michael Faraday. By 1834, Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people and was described by most people as being dainty. However, John Hobhouse, Lord Byron's friend, was the exception and he described her as "a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth". Turney 1972 pp. 138-139 This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably due to the influence of her mother that taught her to dislike all of her father's friends. This impression of each other was not to last and they later became friends. Turney 1972 p. 139 On 8 July 1835 she married William King, 8th Baron King, later 1st Earl of Lovelace in 1838. Her full title for most of her married life was "The Right Honourable the Countess of Lovelace". Their residence was a large estate at Ockham Park, in Ockham, Surrey, along with another estate and a home in London. They had three children; Byron born 12 May 1836, Anne Isabella (called Annabella, later Lady Anne Blunt) born 22 September 1837 and Ralph Gordon born 2 July 1839. Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Ada experienced "a tedious and suffering illness which took months to cure". In 1841, Ada and Medora (daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that Byron was Medora's father. Turney 1972 p. 159 On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: "I am not in the least astonished. In fact you merely confirm what I have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected". Turney 1972 p. 160 Ada did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead on Augusta Leigh: "I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was". Moore 1961 p. 431 This did not stop Ada's mother from attempting to destroy her daughter's image of her father, but instead drove her to attacking Byron's image with greater intensity. Turney 1972 p. 161 Charles Babbage Ada Lovelace met and corresponded with Charles Babbage on many occasions, including socially and in relation to Babbage's Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and writing skills. He called her "The Enchantress of Numbers". In 1843 he wrote of her: Toole 1998 Acknowledgments During a nine-month period in 1842-43, Lovelace translated Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's memoir on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes. Menabrea 1843 The notes are longer than the memoir itself and include (Section G), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers with the Engine, which would have run correctly had the Analytical Engine ever been built. Based on this work, Lovelace is now widely credited with being the first computer programmer J. Fuegi and J. Francis, "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'." Annals of the History of Computing 25 #4 (October-December 2003): 16-26. Digital Object Identifier and her method is recognised as the world's first computer program. However, biographers debate the extent of her original contributions, with some holding that the programs were written by Babbage himself. Babbage wrote the following on the subject, in his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1846): (from an excerpt found in Perspectives on the Computer Revolution (1970), edited by Zenon Pylyshyn) The level of impact of Lovelace on Babbage's engines is difficult to resolve due to Babbage's tendency not to acknowledge (either orally or in writing) the influence of other people in his work. However Lovelace was certainly one of the few people who fully understood Babbage's ideas and created a program for the Analytical Engine. Her prose also acknowledged some possibilities of the machine which Babbage never published, such as speculation that "the engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent". Death Lovelace died at the age of thirty-six, on 27 November 1852, GRO Register of Deaths: December 1852 1a * MARYLEBONE - Augusta Ada Lovelace from uterine cancer and bloodletting by her physicians. Baum 1986 pp. 99-100 She was survived by her three children. She was buried next to the father she never knew at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottingham. Influence In 1953, over one hundred years after her death, Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished. The engine has now been recognized as an early model for a computer and Lovelace's notes as a description of a computer and software. Fuegi and Francis 2003 pp. 16-26 The computer language Ada, created by the U.S. Defense Department, was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980, and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, "MIL-STD-1815", was given the number of the year of her birth. In addition Lovelace's image can be seen on the Microsoft product authenticity hologram stickers. Since 1998, the British Computer Society has awarded a medal in her name Lovelace Lecture & Medal : BCS Accessed 2 March 2008 and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students of computer science. Undergraduate Lovelace Colloquium, BCSWomen Accessed 6 March 2008 In popular media, Lovelace has been portrayed in the movie Conceiving Ada and the novel The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling. Titles and styles 10 December 1815 - 8 July 1835: The Honourable Ada Augusta Byron 8 July 1835 - 1838: The Right Honourable the Lady King 1838 - 27 November 1852: The Right Honourable the Countess of Lovelace See also Women in computing Notes References Baum, Joan. The Calculating Passion of Ada Byron. Archon Books, 1986. ISBN 0208021191 Fuegi, J. and Francis, J. "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'." Annals of the History of Computing 25 #4 (October-December 2003): Digital Object Identifier Kim, Eugene and Toole, Betty Alexandra T, Ada and the First Computer, Scientific American, May, 1999 With notes upon the Memoir by the Translator Toole, Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D, Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers, A Selection from the Letters of Ada Lovelace, and her Description of the First Computer (1992) Toole, Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D., Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers, Prophet of the Computer Age, 1998 External links Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing (SDSC Women in Science) "Ada Byron, Lady Lovelace", Biographies of Women Mathematicians, Agnes Scott College Ada Lovelace & The Analytical Engine Ada & the Analytical Engine Ada Lovelace, Countess of Controversy (g4tv.com) Repurposing Ada - Examining the "Ada myth" at Salon.com BBC Radio 4 - In Our Time - Ada Lovelace - streaming audio Women in Science | Ada_Lovelace |@lemmatized augusta:9 ada:46 king:5 countess:4 lovelace:30 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2,187 | Floor_leader | Floor Leaders are leaders of their political parties in each of the houses of the legislature. United States Congress Senate In the United States Senate, they are elected by their respective party conferences to serve as the chief Senate spokesmen for their parties and to manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate. By custom, the Presiding Officer gives the floor leaders priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate. In the Senate's two-party system, the floor leaders are the spokesmen from both major parties, elected by their parties. They also serve essentially as executives of their parties within the Senate. The Floor Leaders are referred to as the Senate Majority Leader, who belongs to the party with the most Senators, and the Senate Minority Leader, who belongs to the other major party. House of Representatives Similar positions exist in the United States House of Representatives, except that the majority leader title normally goes to the second leader of the majority party, because it traditionally elects its floor leader to the position of Speaker. | Floor_leader |@lemmatized floor:6 leader:10 political:1 party:10 house:3 legislature:1 united:3 state:3 congress:1 senate:9 elect:3 respective:1 conference:1 serve:2 chief:1 spokesman:2 manage:1 schedule:1 legislative:1 executive:2 business:1 custom:1 preside:1 officer:1 give:1 priority:1 obtain:1 recognition:1 speak:1 two:1 system:1 major:2 also:1 essentially:1 within:1 refer:1 majority:3 belong:2 senator:1 minority:1 representative:2 similar:1 position:2 exist:1 except:1 title:1 normally:1 go:1 second:1 traditionally:1 speaker:1 |@bigram |
2,188 | Kingston_upon_Thames | Kingston upon Thames is the principal settlement of the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames in south-west London. It was the ancient market town where Saxon kings were crowned and is now a suburb situated south west of Charing Cross. It is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. History Kingston in 1846 Kingston was built at the first crossing point of the Thames upstream from London Bridge and a bridge still exists at the same site. Kingston was occupied by the Romans, and later it was either a royal residence or a royal demesne. There is a record of a council held there in 838, at which Egbert of Wessex, King of Wessex, and his son Ethelwulf of Wessex were present; and in this record it is styled Kyningestun famosa illa locus. In Old English, tun, ton or don meant farmstead - so the name Kingston may have been thought to mean farmstead of the kings. Seven Saxon kings are traditionally said to have been crowned at Kingston, while seated on a large stone - The Coronation Stone - that stands outside the Guildhall. There is a local rumour that these Saxon coronations gave Kingston its name, but the records of the 838 council disprove this.Dickens 1887, op. cit. Kingston upon Thames appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Chingestone and Chingetun(e). It was held by William the Conqueror. Its domesday assets were: a church, five mills, three fisheries worth 10s, 27 ploughs, of meadow, woodland worth six hogs. It rendered £30. Surrey Domesday Book The first of the charters given to the town of Kingston was granted by King John in 1200 but the oldest one to survive is from 1208 and this document is housed in the town's archives. Other charters were issued by later kings, including Edward IV's charter that gave the town the status of a borough in 1481. Some interesting relics have been discovered to support this history, and statues of some of the Saxon kings and of King John were preserved in a chapel. In 1730 the chapel containing the royal effigies collapsed, burying the sexton, who was digging a grave, the sexton's daughter and another person. The daughter survived this accident and was her father's successor as sexton. Another chapel, The Lovekyn Chapel, still exists. It was founded in 1309 by a former mayor of London, Edward Lovekyn. It is the only private chantry chapel to survive the Reformation. Kingston sent members to early Parliaments, until a petition by the inhabitants prayed to be relieved from the burden. Information board about the parish of Kingston upon Thames. Kingston was one of the Boroughs to be reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, becoming a municipal borough. It retained this status until the London Government Act 1963 came into force in 1965, merging Kingston upon Thames with Surbiton and Malden & Coombe Councils to form part of the London Borough of Kingston upon Thames. At the request of the Council, Queen Elizabeth II granted Kingston another Royal Charter in 1965 entitling it to continue using the title "Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames" for the enlarged Borough. Before becoming part of Greater London in 1965, Kingston was in the county of Surrey, and some confusion continues because the county hall and offices of Surrey County Council are still in Kingston. For river users, Kingston is still on the "Surrey" bank. For much of the 20th century, Kingston was a major military aircraft manufacturing centre - first with Sopwith, then Hawker Aviation and eventually British Aerospace. The growth and development of Kingston Polytechnic and its transformation into Kingston University has made Kingston a university town. Kingston today Central Kingston is a busy predominantly retail centre, with a small number of commercial offices and civic buildings. It has a great many car parks, connected by a notoriously difficult one-way system. It is one of the main centres of the south west London bus network, and it is connected to Twickenham, Richmond, Wimbledon, and London Waterloo by overground train. Kingston Bridge with John Lewis in the background. Shopping is well catered for and is generally towards the upper end of expectations, with a good mixture of familiar High Street chains and more select boutiques. The shopping centre includes a shopping mall, "The Bentall Centre", containing the Bentalls department store and large branches of chain stores found in many British high streets. There is a large branch of the John Lewis department store group, with a Waitrose supermarket, located in the basement. The Rotunda, located in the former Bentalls furniture depository building (a local landmark), includes a bowling alley, fitness centre, a 14-screen Odeon multiplex cinema and some restaurants. Recent developments along the riverside south of Kingston Bridge have added bars, restaurants and a theatre, the Rose Theatre which opened in 2008 with Sir Peter Hall as the director. The ancient market is still held daily in the Market Place. Kingston's civic buildings include the Guildhall which houses Kingston Council and the magistrates' court, There is also the county court, a local museum and public library. A short distance away is the new crown court building, adjacent to the County Hall Building which houses the main offices of Surrey County Council. Until local government re-organisation in 1965 when Kingston became one of the 33 boroughs of Greater London, it was the County Town of Surrey. Guildford now has this title as Kingston is no longer administered by Surrey. Plans to move these offices to Woking have been scrapped. Kingston's main open space is the River Thames, with its lively frontage of bars and restaurants. Downstream there is a walk through Canbury Gardens towards Teddington Lock. Upstream there is a promenade crossing the Hogsmill river and reaching almost to Surbiton. Across Kingston Bridge is a tree lined river bank fronting the expanse of Hampton Court Park. One of the more unusual sights in Kingston is several disused red telephone boxes that have been tipped up to lean against one another in an arrangement resembling dominoes. This sculpture by David Mach was commissioned in 1988 as part of the landscaping for the new Relief Road, and is called Out of Order. The sculpture "Out of Order" Sport Kingston is the home of two non-league Association football clubs, Kingstonian F.C. and AFC Wimbledon, both of which play at the Kingsmeadow Stadium. Kingston Rugby Club is based on the outskirts of the town and Kingston Rowing Club is based on the River Thames. Kingston Regatta takes place on the river at the town in July. Eating and drinking Kingston has many pubs and restaurants, though several public houses in centre have closed in recent years to become restaurants or bars. The more traditional pubs tend to be in the northern part of the town (Canbury) and include the Park Tavern, Wych Elm and Willoughby Arms. Further south are found the Druid's Head, the Spring Grove, and several small local pubs around Fairfield. The Druid's Head is notable as one of the first taverns to make the famous dessert syllabub in the 18th century. There are several Chinese, Indian, Thai and Italian restaurants. Politics and religion Kingston straddles two Parliamentary constituencies: the area north of the railway line is part of Richmond Park represented by Susan Kramer; the area south of the railway line (which includes the ancient town centre) is part of Kingston and Surbiton represented by Edward Davey. Both Members of Parliament are members of the Liberal Democrat party. Ecclesiastically, Kingston lies in the Church of England Diocese of Southwark and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark. The suffragan or Area Bishop of Kingston is the Rt Rev. Dr Richard Ian Cheetham. Kingston is also the home of the Kingston Synagogue. Kingston Green Fair Kingston University main building, Penrhyn Road campus Kingston Green Fair has been held annually since 1987 in Canbury Gardens, next to the river, on the Spring Bank Holiday. The word "Green" in the title refers to the ethos of the fair as promoting sustainable development. For instance no meat or other products derived from dead animals are allowed to be sold, and no electricity is permitted on the site unless generated by wind, sun, or bicycle power.Kingston Green Fair.org.uk Education For education in Kingston upon Thames see the main Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames article. There are several schools in Kingston including, Kingston Grammar School, Canbury School, Marymount International School (MMI), Tiffin School (boys), Tiffin Girls' School and Educare Small School. Kingston is also home to Kingston University and Kingston College. Transport Kingston railway station The town is served by two railway stations on a line into Waterloo Station via New Malden and Wimbledon or via Richmond upon Thames (the long way round). The local stations are: Kingston and Norbiton. An additional railway station is located on the main line in nearby Surbiton, and has a more frequent service. The A3 road runs from central London towards Kingston before by-passing the town to the east. The "Kingston bypass road" was one of the first arterial roads to be built in Britain. It was originally proposed in 1912 to relieve the pressure of traffic in the town centre, but World War I delayed the start of work until 1924. It was opened by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin on 28 October 1927. Kingston is also served by the A240, the A307 (Portsmouth Road), A308 and A310. Riverboats run regularly between Kingston and Hampton Court as well as Richmond all during the summer season. There are also direct services to Putney and Westminster from Hampton Court. Arts The most notable dramatic arts venue is the Rose Theatre. All Saints Church is host to classical choral and music concerts mostly on Saturdays and houses a Frobenius organ. There are a number of choral societies including the Kingston Orpheus Choir and the Kingston Choral Society. A number annual of festivals are organised by the Council and Kingston Arts Council including Kingston Readers' Festival, Think-in-Kingston and the Festival of the Voice. Kingston University runs the Stanley Picker Gallery and Kingston Museum has a changing gallery on the first floor. Media Kingston has been covered in literature, film and television. It is where the comic Victorian novel Three Men in a Boat by Jerome K. Jerome begins; cannons aimed against the Martians in H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds are positioned on Kingston Hill; in The Rainbow by D. H. Lawrence the youngest Brangwen dreams of a job in Kingston upon Thames in a long, lyrical passage; Mr. Knightly in Emma by Jane Austen regularly visits Kingston, although the narrative never follows him there. Kingston is referenced (and used as a filming location) in episodes of Monty Python. More recently, a scene from Mujhse Dosti Karoge, a Bollywood film, was filmed by the toppled telephone boxes. This had Hrithik Roshan as the leading actor. A scene in the television programme The Good Life sees Richard Briers get on a 71 bus in 'The Avenue' towards Kingston town centre, albeit this route never served that east side of Surbiton. Nipper, the famous "His Master's Voice" dog, is buried (1895) in the town under Lloyds Bank. His owners lived nearby in Fife Road. Also, the 2008 series of 'Primeval', shown on ITV1 in January, featured almost an entire episode filmed inside the Bentall Centre and John Lewis department stores. Kingston featured in Primeval again in May 2009 with several scenes shot in and around the Market Square. Notable people Eadweard Muybridge (photographer) was born in the town in 1830 See also alumini of local schools, colleges and the university Notable people born in the town include James Squire, transported convict and brewer in Australia (1754), John Cleland (1709) and John Galsworthy (1867), both authors, Eadweard Muybridge, photographer (1830), Donald Campbell, car and motorboat racer (1921), John Cooper, auto engineer (1923), Derek Bourgeois, composer (1941), Dave Swarbrick, folk fiddle player (1941), Nigel Barley, anthropologist (1947), Steven Wilson, musician (1967), Tom Rowlands of the Chemical Brothers (1971), Jonny Lee Miller (1972), and Kelly Reilly (1977), both actors, Steven Reid, footballer (1981),Rat Scabies (Christopher Millar) (1957), of The Damned. International links Although not officially 'twinned' The Royal Borough of Kingston has a partner city of Oldenburg in Germany and road signs announce that Kingston is linked with Delft in the Netherlands. References Sources consulted – A guide to the Thames written by the novelist's son. Endnotes External links Kingston Council official website "A Brief History of Kingston upon Thames" by Tim Lambert Kingston Museum official website | Kingston_upon_Thames |@lemmatized kingston:82 upon:12 thames:16 principal:1 settlement:1 royal:8 borough:10 south:6 west:3 london:11 ancient:3 market:4 town:17 saxon:4 king:8 crown:3 suburb:1 situate:1 char:1 cross:3 one:10 major:2 metropolitan:1 centre:12 identify:1 plan:2 history:3 build:2 first:6 point:1 upstream:2 bridge:5 still:5 exist:2 site:2 occupy:1 roman:2 later:1 either:1 residence:1 demesne:1 record:3 council:10 hold:4 egbert:1 wessex:3 son:2 ethelwulf:1 present:1 style:1 kyningestun:1 famosa:1 illa:1 locus:1 old:2 english:1 tun:1 ton:1 meant:1 farmstead:2 name:2 may:2 think:2 mean:1 seven:1 traditionally:1 say:1 seat:1 large:3 stone:2 coronation:2 stand:1 outside:1 guildhall:2 local:7 rumour:1 give:3 disprove:1 dickens:1 op:1 cit:1 appear:1 domesday:3 book:2 chingestone:1 chingetun:1 e:1 william:1 conqueror:1 asset:1 church:3 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2,189 | Pacific_Ocean | The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. Its name is derived from the Latin name Mare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. It extends from the Arctic in the north to Antarctica in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east. At 169.2 million square kilometres (65.3 million square miles) in area, this largest division of the World Ocean – and, in turn, the hydrosphere – covers about 46% of the Earth's water surface and about 32% of its total surface area, making it larger than all of the Earth's land area combined. "Pacific Ocean". Britannica Concise. 2006. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The equator subdivides it into the North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean. The Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the Pacific and in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres (35,798 ft). The Pacific Ocean, not including Arctic and Antarctic regions. Overview Sunset over the Pacific Ocean as seen from the International Space Station. Anvil tops of thunderclouds are also visible. The ocean encompasses almost a third of the Earth's surface, having an area of 179.7 million square kilometres (69.4 million sq mi and 161 million cubic mi) —significantly larger than Earth's entire landmass, with room for another Africa to spare. Extending approximately 15,500 kilometres (9,600 mi) from the Bering Sea in the Arctic to the icy margins of Antarctica's Ross Sea in the south (although the Antarctic regions of the Pacific are sometimes described as part of the circumpolar Southern Ocean), the Pacific reaches its greatest east-west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately 19,800 kilometres (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia and Peru - halfway across the world, and more than five times the diameter of the Moon. The western limit of the ocean is often placed at the Strait of Malacca. The lowest point on earth—the Mariana Trench—lies 10,911 metres (35,797 ft) below sea level. Its average depth is 4,280 metres (14,000 ft). The Pacific contains about 25,000 islands (more than the total number in the rest of the world's oceans combined), the majority of which are found south of the equator. Including partially submerged islands, the figure is substantially higher. The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking from plate tectonics, while the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size, by roughly 2-3 cm/yr on 3 sides, roughly averaging 0.5 sq km a year. Storm in Pacifica, California Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea, Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea. The Strait of Malacca joins the Pacific and the Indian Oceans on the west, and Drake Passage and the Straits of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north, the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean. As the Pacific straddles the ± 180° meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near Asia) is in the Eastern Hemisphere, while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the Americas) is in the Western Hemisphere. For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the explorer indeed found the ocean peaceful. However, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many tropical cyclones (typhoons, the equivalent of Atlantic hurricanes), batter the islands of the Pacific. The lands around the Pacific rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by earthquakes. Tsunamis, caused by underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and destroyed entire towns. Water characteristics Sunset in Monterey County, California, U.S.. Water temperatures in the Pacific vary from freezing in the poleward areas to about near the equator. Salinity also varies latitudinally. The water near the equator is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes because of abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year. Poleward of the temperate latitudes salinity is also low, because little evaporation of seawater takes place in these frigid areas. The motion of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific gyre) and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude 15°N by the trade winds, turns north near the Philippines to become the warm Japan or Kuroshio Current. Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some waters move northward as the Aleutian Current, while the rest turn southward to rejoin the North Equatorial Current. The Aleutian Current branches as it approaches North America and forms the base of a counter-clockwise circulation in the Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the chilled slow, south-flowing California Current. The South Equatorial Current, flowing west along the equator, swings southward east of New Guinea, turns east at about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the Southern Pacific, which includes the Earth-circling Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the South Equatorial Current divides; one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current. Geology The Pacific is ringed by many volcanoes and oceanic trenches The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. It separates the deeper, mafic igneous rock of the Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins. The andesite line follows the western edge of the islands off California and passes south of the Aleutian arc, along the eastern edge of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands, Japan, the Mariana Islands, the Solomon Islands, and New Zealand's North Island. The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge of the Andes Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning then to the islands off California. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand—all eastward extensions of the continental blocks of Asia, Australia and Zealandia—lie outside the Andesite Line. Within the closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic islands that characterize the Pacific basin. Here basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters. Outside the Andesite Line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism. The Ring of Fire is named after the several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the various subduction zones. The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is almost totally bounded by subduction zones. Only the Antarctic and Australian coasts have no nearby subduction zones. Seamount chains The Pacific Ocean contains several long seamount chains, formed by hotspot volcanism. These include the Emperor Seamounts chain and the Louisville seamount chain. Landmasses Pacific Ocean viewed from Southern California coast. Right|The shore of the Pacific Ocean in San Francisco, California. The largest landmass entirely within the Pacific Ocean is the island of New Guinea— the second largest island in the world. Almost all of the smaller islands of the Pacific lie between 30°N and 30°S, extending from Southeast Asia to Easter Island; the rest of the Pacific Basin is almost entirely submerged. During the Last glacial period, New Guinea was part of Australia so the largest landmass would have been Borneo-Palawan. San Francisco, California The shoreline at Palm Beach, New South Wales The great triangle of Polynesia, connecting Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand, encompasses the island arcs and clusters of the Cook Islands, Marquesas Islands, Samoa, Society, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuamotu, Tuvalu and the Wallis and Futuna islands. North of the equator and west of the International Date Line are the numerous small islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Mariana Islands. In the southwestern corner of the Pacific lie the islands of Melanesia, dominated by New Guinea. Other important island groups of Melanesia include the Bismarck Archipelago, Fiji, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs, and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the Andesite line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. These islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands. The third and fourth types of islands are both the result of coralline island building. Coral reefs are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia. History and economy Maris Pacifici by Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean; see also Waldseemüller map (1507) http://www.loc.gov/today/pr/2001/01-093.html Important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times, most notably those of the Polynesians from the Asian edge of the ocean to Tahiti and then to Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island. The ocean was first sighted by Europeans early in the 16th century, first by the Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513, and then by Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed the Pacific during his circumnavigation from 1519 to 1522. In 1564, conquistadors crossed the ocean from Mexico Bathyscaphe Trieste, before her record dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, 23 January 1960.led by Miguel López de Legazpi who sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. For the remainder of the 16th century, Spanish influence was paramount, with ships sailing from Spain to the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. During the 17th century, the Dutch, sailing around southern Africa, dominated discovery and trade; Abel Janszoon Tasman discovered Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642. The 18th century marked a burst of exploration by the Russians in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the French in Polynesia, and the British in the three voyages of James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by European powers, and later, the United States and Japan. Significant contributions to oceanographic knowledge were made by the voyages of HMS Beagle in the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard; HMS Challenger during the 1870s; the USS Tuscarora (1873-76); and the German Gazelle (1874-76). Although the United States gained control of the Philippines from Spain in 1898, Japan controlled most of the western Pacific by 1914 and occupied many other islands during World War II. However, by the end of that war, Japan was defeated and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of the ocean. Since the end of World War II, many former colonies in the Pacific have become independent states. The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great depths. In shallow waters of the continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, petroleum and natural gas are extracted, and pearls are harvested along the coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Philippines, although in sharply declining volume in some cases. The Pacific's greatest asset is its fish. The shoreline waters of the continents and the more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish. Environmental issues Marine debris on a Hawaiian coast Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the Ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. The excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Gerlach: Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin (1975) Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is a term used to describe human-created waste that has found itself floating in a lake, sea, ocean or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. Bordering countries and territories Major ports and harbours Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico Anchorage, Alaska, United States Antofagasta, Chile Arica, Chile Auckland, New Zealand Bacolod City, Philippines Bangkok, Thailand Batangas, Philippines Bluff, New Zealand Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Buenaventura, Colombia Busan, South Korea Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur, Mexico Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines Callao, Peru Cebu City, Philippines Chongjin, North Korea Dalian, People's Republic of China Danang, Vietnam Davao City, Philippines Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico Esmeraldas, Ecuador Guayaquil, Ecuador Haiphong, Vietnam Hong Kong, People's Republic of China Honolulu, Hawaii, United States Incheon, South Korea Iloilo, Philippines Iquique, Chile Jayapura, Indonesia Kaohsiung, Republic of China (Taiwan) Kitimat, British Columbia, Canada Keelung, Republic of China (Taiwan) Kobe, Japan Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia Laem Chabang, Thailand Lyttelton, New Zealand Long Beach, California, United States Los Angeles, California, United States Manta, Ecuador Manzanillo, Colima, Mexico Mazatlán, Sinaloa, Mexico Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Manila, Philippines Nampho, North Korea Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia Oakland, California, United States Panama City, Panama Portland, Oregon, United States Portoviejo, Ecuador Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada Puerto Chacabuco, Chile Puerto Montt, Chile Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico Qingdao, People's Republic of China Saigon, Vietnam San Antonio, Chile San Diego, California, United States San Francisco, California, United States Seattle, Washington, United States Shanghai, People's Republic of China Shenzhen, People's Republic of China Singapore Songkhla, Thailand Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Tacoma, Washington, United States Taichung, Republic of China (Taiwan) Talcahuano, Chile Tauranga, New Zealand Tianjin, People's Republic of China Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico Tokyo, Japan Valparaíso, Chile Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Vladivostok, Russia Xiamen, People's Republic of China Yantai, People's Republic of China Yokohama, Japan Zamboanga, Philippines See also Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Pacific-Antarctic Ridge Pacific coast Pacific hurricane Pacific Islands Pacific Rim Pacific Time Zone Pacific War Seven seas War of the Pacific References Further reading Based on public domain text from US Naval Oceanographer External links LA Times special Altered Oceans EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable on-line collection of observational data NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses - Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data NOAA TAO El Niño data Realtime Pacific Ocean El Niño buoy data be-x-old:Ціхі акіян | Pacific_Ocean |@lemmatized pacific:65 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2,190 | Acorn_Electron | An Acorn Electron with Plus 1 expansion unit attached An original press advertisement for the Acorn Electron The Acorn Electron is a budget version of the BBC Micro educational/home computer made by Acorn Computers Ltd. It has 32 kilobytes of RAM, and its ROM includes BBC BASIC along with its operating system. The Electron was able to save and load programs onto audio cassette via a supplied converter cable that connected it to any standard tape recorder that had the correct sockets. It was capable of basic graphics, and could display onto either a television set, a colour (RGB) monitor or a "green screen" monitor. At its peak, the Electron was the third best selling micro in the United Kingdom, and total lifetime game sales for the Electron exceeded those of the BBC Micro. There are at least 500 known games for the Electron and the true total is probably in the thousands. The hardware of the BBC Micro was emulated by a single customized ULA chip designed by Acorn. It had feature limitations such as being unable to output more than one channel of sound where the BBC was capable of three-way polyphony (plus one noise channel) and the inability to provide teletext mode. The machine architecture also imposed a substantial speed decrease on applications running from RAM, although ROM applications ran at the same speed The ULA controlled memory access and was able to provide 32K × 8 bits of addressable RAM using 4 × 64K × 1-bit RAM chips (4164). History The Electron was developed during 1983 as a cheap sibling for the BBC Micro with the intention of capturing the low cost Christmas sales market for that year. Although Acorn were able to shrink substantially the same functionality as the BBC into just one chip, manufacturing problems meant that very few machines were available for the Christmas period - to the extent that some shops reported eight presales for every delivered machine. This was a blow from which the machine never fully recovered, although games sales for it would ultimately outstrip those of the BBC Micro. Following Olivetti's 1985 cash injection into Acorn the machine was effectively sidelined. With hindsight, the machine was too lacking in RAM (a typical program would need to fit in only around 20 kB once display memory is subtracted) and processing power to take on the prevailing Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64. Despite this, several features that would later be associated with BBC Master and Archimedes were first features of Electron expansion units, including ROM cartridge slots and the Advanced Disc Filing System — a hierarchical improvement to the BBC's original Disc Filing System. The Electron is commonly thought of by many retro computer enthusiasts as a failure. However, whilst it may not have been as popular as the Spectrum, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC or even its own BBC sibling it did sell in sufficient numbers to ensure that new software was being produced right up until the early 1990s. This meant the Electron had a lifespan not much shorter than those more popular micros and much longer than competitors such as the Oric-1 and Dragon 32. Popular upgrades Acorn Plus 1 The Acorn Plus 1 added two ROM slots, an analogue interface and a parallel port. The analogue interface was normally used for joysticks, the parallel for a printer. Access to ROM memory occurred at 2 MHz regardless of graphics mode so theoretically programs released on ROM could run at least twice as fast as those released on tape or disc. Despite this all of the games released on ROM were packaged as 'serial ROMS', from which the micro would load programs into main memory in exactly the same way as if it were loading from tape. This meant that programs did not need to be modified for their new memory location but gave no execution speed benefits whatsoever. Acorn Plus 3 The Acorn Plus 3 was a hardware module that connected independently of the Plus 1 and provided a double-density 3½” disc drive connected through a WD1770 drive controller and an ADFS ROM. Because the WD1770 is capable of single density mode and uses the same IBM360 derived floppy disc format as the Intel 8271 found in the BBC Micro, it was also possible to run a DFS filing system with an alternate ROM. P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3 The P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3 with a 3½” drive The Advanced Plus 3 was very similar to the Acorn Plus 3 but packaged as a ROM cartridge for the Plus 1 with a disc drive connector at the head. This made it possible to connect a 5¼” floppy disc drive as used by BBC Micro owners or a more common 3½” drive. Slogger/Elektuur Turbo Board The Slogger and Elektuur Turbo Boards were born out of a hack initially devised at Acorn. By moving the lowest 8 KB of RAM outside of reach of the ULA, the CPU could always access it at 2 MHz. The tradeoff was that the screen could not be located in that 8 KB. In practice the operating system ROMs always put the screen into the top 24 KB and as a result this probably only broke compatibility with around 2% of software. The Slogger Turbo Board was a professionally fitted upgrade whereas the Elektuur modification was described in an article in Dutch Electronics magazine Elektuur and intended for users to perform at home. Speeding up the low portion of memory is particularly useful on 6502 derived machines because that processor has a faster addressing mode for the first 256 bytes and so it is common for software to put any variables involved in time critical sections of program into that region. If Acorn had thought to include this small modification in the original Electron design it is likely the machine would have had a much greater impact as it would have nearly doubled the amount of motion possible in games and saved modes 0–3 (including the only 16 colour mode) from being nearly useless due to contended memory timings. Slogger Master RAM Board A development of the Turbo Board, the Master RAM Board duplicated the Turbo Board functionality and added a further option of running the micro with 32 kB of shadow RAM in addition to the ordinary 32 kB — giving 64 kB total. Some clever program counter catches meant that the ordinary system ROMs and any software using the OS calls could function without significant modification, making substantially more memory available for BASIC, View, Viewsheet and almost every other business application. By providing extra storage this modification also allowed some games and applications intended for the BBC Micro to function on the Electron despite the lack of a native Mode 7. Applications could not directly address video memory in this mode without modification, so it was incompatible with most games, although there is no inherent reason why a game could not be written to function in shadow mode. During its decline, Master RAM Boards were added to every Electron in an attempt to increase sales. Jafa Systems Mode 7 Display Unit Of the capabilities present in the BBC Micro but absent from the Electron, the teletext style mode 7 was particularly conspicuous because of the very low memory usage in that mode (just less than 1 kB) and the high number of BBC programs that used it. Jafa Systems provided a number of solutions to redress this deficiency. The most basic solution was a pure software system supplied on a ROM cartridge that drew a low resolution approximation of the mode 7 display in a graphics mode. Although cheap and effective in enabling use of some software that only used official ROM entry points for text output, this solution proved very slow because the Electron had to be placed into an 80 byte pitch display to be able to get anywhere near to reproducing mode 7 and the CPU spent a lot of time drawing approximations of mode 7 characters and graphics that in a hardware solution would be achieved without any CPU processing. It also used up 20 kB of RAM for the graphics display rather than the 1 kB of a hardware mode 7. Two solutions with additional hardware were provided. The first used the same graphics processor as the BBC Micro in mode 7 — the SAA5050 — but used software to ensure that it was fed with the correct graphics data. A software ROM would put the machine into an ordinary 40 byte pitch display. While the ULA would read the display from memory in the usual fashion, the SAA5050 would listen to the data it was reading and produce a mode 7 interpretation of the same information. When necessary the hardware would switch between the graphics output being produced by the micro and that being produced by the add-on. The disadvantage to this system is that while the SAA5050 would expect to be repeatedly fed the same 40 bytes of data for every display scanline of every character row, the ULA would read a different set of 40 bytes for every display scanline in order to produce a full graphics display. A software ROM worked around this by duplicating the data intended for a mode 7 display in memory. Although this produced a mode 7 that barely impacted upon CPU performance and gave the same visual quality as the BBC Micro, it remained compatible only with software that used the ROM routines for outputting text and graphics and still used 10 kB of memory for the display. A second version of the hardware add-on corrected these problems. By adding a CRTC6845 to the package, a full hardware solution was created that did not reduce CPU performance and only used 1 kB of memory for the display. A software ROM was still supplied, but this did no more than expand the hardware ROM so that it knew mode 7 now existed and was able to switch into it. Merlin M2105 An unusual variant of the Electron was sold by British Telecom Business Systems as the BT Merlin M2105 Communications Terminal. This consisted of a de-badged Electron plus a large expansion unit containing 32 KB of RAM, 48 KB of ROM, a Centronics printer port and a modem. The ROM firmware provided dial-up communications facilities. These were used by the Interflora florists network in the UK for over a decade. Technical information Hardware CPU: MOS Technology 6502A Clock rate: variable. CPU runs at 2 MHz when accessing ROM and 1 MHz or 0.5897 MHz (depending on graphics mode) when accessing RAM due to sharing memory access with the video display circuits. The Electron is widely misquoted as operating at 1.79 MHz after measurements derived from speed testing against the thoroughly 2 MHz BBC Micro for various pieces of 'common software' Coprocessor: Ferranti Semiconductor Custom ULA RAM: 32 kB ROM: 32 kB Text modes: 20×32, 40×25, 40×32, 80×25, 80×32 (all text output produced by software in graphics modes) Graphics modes: 160×256 (4 or 16 colours), 320×256 (2 or 4 colours), 640×256 (2 colours), 320×200 (2 colours — spaced display with two blank horizontal lines following every 8 pixel lines), 640×200 (2 colours — spaced display) Colours: 8 colours (TTL combinations of RGB primaries) + 8 flashing versions of the same colours Sound: 1 channel of sound, 7 octaves; built-in speaker. Software emulation of noise channel supported Dimensions: 16×34×6.5 cm I/O ports: Expansion port, tape recorder connector (1200 baud variation on the Kansas City standard for data encoding), aerial TV connector (RF modulator), composite video and RGB monitor output Power supply: External PSU, 18V AC Quirks Exile is an example of a game where the developers left non-graphical data visible in the display buffer to gain additional memory space. Like the BBC Micro, the Electron was constrained by limited memory resources. Of the 32 KB RAM, 3½ KB was allocated to the OS at startup and at least 10 KB was taken up by the display buffer in contiguous display modes. Due to the timing of interrupts it was possible to disable either the top 100 or bottom 156 lines of the display with palette changes. Many games took advantage of this, gaining storage by leaving non-graphical data in the disabled area. Other games would load non-graphical data into the display, leaving it visible as regions of apparently randomly coloured pixels. Although page flipping was a hardware possibility, the limited memory forced most applications to do all their drawing directly to the visible screen, often resulting in graphical flicker or visible redraw. A notable exception is Players' Joe Blade series. Tricks FireTrack: smooth vertical scrolling Although programs can alter the position of the screen in memory, the non-linear format of the display means that vertical scrolling can only be done in blocks of 8 pixels without further work. FireTrack exploits a division in the way the Electron handles its display — of the seven available graphics modes, two are configured so that the final two of every ten scanlines are blank and are not based on the contents of RAM. If 16 scanlines of continuous graphical data are written to a character-block-aligned portion of the screen then they will appear as a continuous block in most modes but in the two non-continuous modes they will be displayed as two blocks of 8 scanlines, separated in the middle by two blank scanlines. In order to keep track of its position within the display, the Electron maintains an internal display address counter. The same counter is used in both the continuous and non-continuous graphics modes and switching modes mid-frame does not cause any adjustment to the counter. FireTrack switches from a non-continuous to a continuous graphics mode part way down the display. By using the palette to mask the top area of the display and taking care about when it changes mode it can shift the continuous graphics at the bottom of the display down in two pixel increments because the internal display counter is not incremented on blank scanlines during non-continuous graphics modes. Exile: sampled speech Exile turns the Electron's one channel output into a digital speaker for PCM output. The speaker can be programmatically switched on or off at any time but is permanently attached to a hardware counter so is normally only able to output a square wave. But if set to a frequency outside the human audible range then the ear can't perceive the square wave, only the difference between the speaker being switched on and off. This gives the effect of a simple toggle speaker similar to that seen in the 48 kB Sinclair ZX Spectrum. Exile uses this to output 1-bit audio samples. Popular games Although not as well supported by the biggest software publishers as rivals like the Commodore 64 and Sinclair ZX Spectrum, a good range of games were available for the Electron. The traditional BBC Micro publishers such as Acornsoft, Superior Software and Micro Power offered the widest support. Notable popular games particularly associated with the Electron include: Starship Command (Acornsoft, 1983) Chuckie Egg (A'n'F, 1984) Elite (Acornsoft, 1984) the Repton series (Superior Software, 1985-1989) Thrust (Superior Software, 1986) Exile (Superior Software, 1988) There were also many popular games officially converted to the Electron from arcade machines (including Crystal Castles, Tempest, Commando, Paperboy and Yie Ar Kung-Fu) or other home computer systems (including Impossible Mission, Jet Set Willy, The Way of the Exploding Fist, Tetris, The Last Ninja, Barbarian and SimCity). There were also many original titles on the Electron that received little mention at the time (e.g. Bun Fun and Spy Snatcher). Despite Acorn themselves effectively shelving the Electron in 1985, games continued to be developed and released by professional software houses until 1991. In addition to the 1,400 games released for the Acorn Electron (99% of these on cassette), several thousand extra public domain titles were released on disc through Public Domain libraries. Notable enterprises which produced discs of such software are BBC PD, Electron User Group and HeadFirst PD. See also the list of Acorn Electron games for a fairly comprehensive list of games published for the machine and :Category:BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games for a list of games with information on Wikipedia. Emulation Three emulators of the machine exist, ElectrEm () for Windows/Linux/Mac OS X, Elkulator () for Windows/DOS and the Multi-system emulator MESS. Electron software is predominantly archived in the UEF file format. See also Electron User, the most popular Acorn Electron focussed magazine References External links Stairway To Hell The Acorn Preservation Project Acorn Electron World | Acorn_Electron |@lemmatized acorn:21 electron:36 plus:13 expansion:4 unit:4 attach:2 original:4 press:1 advertisement:1 budget:1 version:3 bbc:23 micro:20 educational:1 home:3 computer:4 make:3 ltd:1 kilobyte:1 ram:16 rom:23 include:7 basic:4 along:1 operating:3 system:13 able:6 save:2 load:4 program:9 onto:2 audio:2 cassette:2 via:1 supplied:1 converter:1 cable:1 connect:4 standard:2 tape:4 recorder:2 correct:3 socket:1 capable:3 graphic:18 could:7 display:31 either:2 television:1 set:4 colour:11 rgb:3 monitor:3 green:1 screen:6 peak:1 third:1 best:1 sell:3 united:1 kingdom:1 total:3 lifetime:1 game:21 sale:4 exceed:1 least:3 know:2 true:1 probably:2 thousand:2 hardware:12 emulate:1 single:2 customized:1 ula:6 chip:3 design:2 feature:3 limitation:1 unable:1 output:10 one:4 channel:5 sound:3 three:2 way:5 polyphony:1 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2,191 | List_of_Latin_phrases | __NOTOC__ This page lists direct English translations of common Latin phrases, such as veni vidi vici and et cetera. Some of the phrases are themselves translations of Greek phrases, as Greek rhetoric and literature were highly regarded in ancient Rome when Latin rhetoric and literature were still maturing. Be aware that the Latin letter i can be used as either a vowel or a consonant. When used as a consonant, it is often replaced by the letter j, which was originally simply an orthographic "long i" that was used in initial positions and when it occurred between two other vowels. This medieval convention is most commonly preserved in Latin legal terminology—hence phrases like de iure are often spelled de jure. On this list, the more common form will be the one a phrase is listed under: thus, de jure is used instead of de iure, and alea iacta est instead of alea jacta est. To view all six pages of phrases on a single, lengthy document, see: List of Latin phrases (full) The list is also divided alphabetically into twenty pages: List of Latin phrases: A List of Latin phrases: B List of Latin phrases: C List of Latin phrases: D List of Latin phrases: E List of Latin phrases: F List of Latin phrases: G List of Latin phrases: H List of Latin phrases: I List of Latin phrases: L List of Latin phrases: M List of Latin phrases: N List of Latin phrases: O List of Latin phrases: P List of Latin phrases: Q List of Latin phrases: R List of Latin phrases: S List of Latin phrases: T List of Latin phrases: U List of Latin phrases: V See also Lists List of Latin abbreviations List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Latin words with English derivatives List of legal Latin terms List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English List of Greek phrases List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes List of Latin phrases in A Canticle for Leibowitz List of university mottos List of U.S. state mottos Categories Latin biological phrases Latin legal phrases Latin literary phrases Latin logical phrases Latin medical phrases Latin mottos Latin philosophical phrases Latin political phrases Latin religious phrases Ancient Roman names Dog Latin words and phrases External links InterTran, Latin → English translator Latin abbreviations Latin Dictionary, quick access to thousands of Latin terms, phrases, expressions and words Latin motto generator Latin quote ideas Latin sayings & Latin phrases, organized by topic Latin via Proverbs: 4000 Proverbs, Mottoes and Sayings for Students of Latin, search engine, along with Latin audio, games and other learning materials Law Dictionary by John Bouvier (1856) 'Quote Latin', random Latin quotes, proverbs, sayings and words | List_of_Latin_phrases |@lemmatized page:3 list:37 direct:1 english:4 translation:2 common:2 latin:53 phrase:40 veni:1 vidi:1 vici:1 et:1 cetera:1 greek:4 rhetoric:2 literature:2 highly:1 regard:1 ancient:2 rome:1 still:1 mature:1 aware:1 letter:2 use:6 either:1 vowel:2 consonant:2 often:2 replace:1 j:1 originally:1 simply:1 orthographic:1 long:1 initial:1 position:1 occur:1 two:1 medieval:1 convention:1 commonly:2 preserve:1 legal:3 terminology:1 hence:1 like:1 de:4 iure:2 spell:1 jure:2 form:1 one:1 thus:1 instead:2 alea:2 iacta:1 est:2 jacta:1 view:1 six:1 single:1 lengthy:1 document:1 see:2 full:1 also:2 divide:1 alphabetically:1 twenty:1 b:1 c:1 e:1 f:1 g:1 h:1 l:1 n:1 p:1 q:1 r:1 u:2 v:1 abbreviation:3 word:5 systematic:1 name:2 derivative:1 term:2 germanic:1 latinate:1 equivalent:1 medical:3 prescription:1 root:1 suffix:1 prefix:1 canticle:1 leibowitz:1 university:1 motto:4 state:1 category:1 biological:1 literary:1 logical:1 mottos:1 philosophical:1 political:1 religious:1 roman:1 dog:1 external:1 link:1 intertran:1 translator:1 dictionary:2 quick:1 access:1 thousand:1 expression:1 generator:1 quote:3 idea:1 saying:3 organize:1 topic:1 via:1 proverb:3 student:1 search:1 engine:1 along:1 audio:1 game:1 learn:1 material:1 law:1 john:1 bouvier:1 random:1 |@bigram et_cetera:1 de_iure:2 de_jure:2 external_link:1 |
2,192 | Kelsey_Grammer | Allen Kelsey Grammer (born February 21, 1955), best known as Kelsey Grammer, is an American actor best known for his two-decade portrayal of psychiatrist Dr. Frasier Crane in the NBC sitcoms Cheers (nine years) and Frasier (eleven years), and providing the voice of Sideshow Bob on the FOX animated series The Simpsons. He was nominated for Emmys for playing his character on three different sitcoms (the third being a guest appearance on Wings). He has also worked as a television producer, director, writer, and a voice artist. Background Grammer was born in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, the son of Sally (née Cranmer), a singer, and Frank Allen Grammer, Jr., a musician and owner of a coffee shop and a bar & grill. "Grammer's Lesson" from Smoke magazine "A suitable case for treatment" from Ginny Dougary's blog Kelsey Grammer Biography (1955-) He is descended from Massachusetts Governor Thomas Dudley. His parents' marriage ended when he was young; his mother took him to live with her, and he was reared partly in New Jersey by his maternal grandparents, Evangeline Dimmock and Gordon Cranmer. Family tragedies His family life has been plagued by tragedies. In 1968, when Grammer was thirteen, his father, whom he had seen only twice since his parents' divorce, was murdered on the front lawn of his home in the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 1975, his sister, Karen, was murdered after being abducted outside a Red Lobster restaurant in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where her boyfriend worked. Murder of Kelsey Grammer's sister Grammer has sworn to prevent his sister's murderer from being paroled. "Kelsey Grammer Vows to Speak for Sister if Killer Pursues Parole" from FOXNews In 1980, his twin younger half-brothers by his mother's second marriage, Billy and Stephen Grammer, were killed by a shark in a scuba diving accident. — Kelsey Grammer Showbiz - News - Ten Things You Never Knew About Kelsey Grammer - Digital Spy Career Stage After leaving Juilliard, he had a three-year internship with the Old Globe Theatre, in San Diego, in the late 1970s, before a stint in 1980 at the Guthrie Theater, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He made his Broadway debut in 1981, as "Lennox," in Macbeth, taking the lead role when Philip Anglim withdrew after receiving negative reviews. In 1983, he performed on the demo of the Stephen Sondheim–James Lapine production Sunday in the Park with George, starring Mandy Patinkin. Also featured on the demo was Christine Baranski, who later starred as "Mrs. Lovett," to Grammer's "Sweeney," in the 1999 LA Reprise! production of Stephen Sondheim's Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street. Grammer then played the featured role of "Cassio" in a Broadway revival of Othello, with James Earl Jones and Christopher Plummer. Television His television career began in the early 1980s when he portrayed Stephen Smith in the NBC miniseries Kennedy. Grammer came to broader public attention as Dr. Frasier Crane in the NBC sitcom Cheers. Grammer's former Juilliard classmate and Broadway co-star Patinkin suggested Grammer to the New York Casting Director, and he got what was supposed to be a six-episode job but ended up as a regular cast member. Yahoo Movies: Kelsey Grammer The character became the center of the successful spin-off Frasier. Grammer recently reprised his role of Dr. Frasier Crane in a commercial for Dr Pepper. In 2001, he negotiated a US$700,000-per-episode salary for Frasier, and his 20-year run playing Dr. Frasier Crane ties a length set by James Arness in playing Marshall Matt Dillon on Gunsmoke from 1955 to 1975. TV Guide: Kelsey Grammer In 2005 on Fox, he attempted to create an American adaptation of The Sketch Show, a British sketch show. The main cast consisted of Malcolm Barrett, Kaitlin Olson, Mary Lynn Rajskub, and Paul F. Tompkins, as well as Lee Mack from the British version of the show. Grammer appeared in only short opening and closing segments in each episode. Many of the sketches from the British version were recreated, such as the "California Dreamin'," "English Course," and "Sign Language" sketches. Only six episodes of the show were made, and it was canceled after only four of them had aired. In addition to being producer, he also starred as the Angel of Death on Medium. In 2007, Grammer returned to the sitcom format as the central character in the American sitcom Back to You, co-starring with Patricia Heaton. It was canceled by Fox after its first season. CBS, which has been wanting to have an extension night of comedies beyond its Monday Night line-up, has wanted to air You for another season. However, with Grammer working on a new comedy to air in late 2009 on ABC, the future of Back to You looks bleak. Voice work Grammer's smooth, deep voice and Mid-Atlantic accent make him popular for voiceover work. He has provided the voice of Sideshow Bob on The Simpsons, winning an Emmy for his work in the episode "The Italian Bob." Grammer wins Emmy for Simpsons a July 2006 Reuters article via CNN He has appeared in eleven episodes since the show's inception in 1989, the most recent being "Wedding for Disaster" that aired in early 2009. Also, Grammer supplied the voices for "Stinky Pete the Prospector" in Toy Story 2, Vladimir in the Fox animated movie Anastasia, Zozi the Bear in the subsequently produced prequel Bartok the Magnificent, and the title character in the short-lived animated series Gary the Rat. Also, he provided the opening speech and piano in The Vandals' song "Phone Machine" from the album Fear of a Punk Planet, and sang a rewritten version of the "grinch" on an episode of Just Shoot Me!. He was also the voice of the mad scientist, Dr. Frankenollie, in the Mickey Mouse short Runaway Brain. Production work His production company, Grammnet Productions, produces the CW sitcoms Girlfriends and The Game and is involved in many other projects. Other work He returned to series television on Fox's The Sketch Show. Prior to that, he guest-starred as The Angel of Death on Medium, which he also produces. In film, his recent work includes the role of Dr. Hank McCoy (also known as Beast) in X-Men: The Last Stand and the voice of Snowball in the live-action film adaptation of the George Orwell classic book Animal Farm. Kelsey also stars in the movie Swing Vote, a film whose plot is based in part on the recent tight races for President of the United States, in which the vote is so tight that it comes down to one man's vote to determine the winner. Kelsey plays the Republican incumbent, a role that aligns with his own views. He played another role as General George S. Patton in An American Carol. As part of his voice-over work, Grammer's voice has also been featured in commercials. He was the voice of the original GEICO gecko, a talking reptile created by The Martin Agency in 1999. In the commercial, the gecko pleads for people to stop calling him in error, mistaking gecko for GEICO. Since 2006, Grammer has provided the voice for television commercials advertising the Hyundai Sonata, Hyundai Santa Fe, Hyundai Veracruz, and Hyundai Azera. He was chosen because his "refined and luxurious voice" would help build the up-and-coming car maker's new image as an affordable luxury automobile. Awards He won a number of Emmys, Screen Actors Guild Award, and Golden Globes for his work on Frasier. He was the first American actor ever to be nominated for multiple Emmy awards for portraying the same character on three different television shows (Cheers, Frasier, and Wings). Grammer has received at least 45 nominations for major awards and has won on 18 occasions. He has received 14 individual Emmy Award nominations for 4 different television shows (plus an additional 2 as part of the Frasier ensemble) and has won on 5 occasions. At the Golden Globes, he has received eight nominations and twice been victorious. He has received two People's Choice Awards, and in 1999 his directorial skills were recognised with a nomination for a Directors Guild of America award for directing an episode of Frasier. He received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role in X-Men: The Last Stand. On May 22, 2001, he was presented with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The following table gives a selection of the awards he has won. Year Award Category1994EmmyOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Frasier)1995EmmyOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Frasier)1995American Comedy AwardFunniest Male Performer in a TV Series (Frasier)1996Golden GlobeBest Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series Comedy/Musical (Frasier)1996American Comedy AwardFunniest Male Performer in a TV Series (Frasier)1998EmmyOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Frasier)2001Golden GlobeBest Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series Comedy/Musical (Frasier)2004EmmyOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Frasier)2006EmmyOutstanding Voice-Over Performance (The Simpsons) Personal life Family Grammer has been married three times. His first marriage, to dance instructor Doreen Alderman, lasted from 1982 to 1990. They had one daughter, Spencer Grammer (born October 9, 1983), an actress on the CBS Daytime soap opera As the World Turns and the ABC Family show Greek. His second marriage, to stripper Leigh-Anne Csuhany in 1992, lasted one year. Grammer says that she was abusive and that, after talk of divorce, she attempted suicide, which resulted in the miscarriage of their child. "A suitable case for treatment" from Ginny Dougary's blog During this marriage, Grammer had a daughter out of wedlock, Greer Kandace (born February 15, 1992), with hair and makeup stylist Barrie Buckner. Grammer has been married since August 1997 to Camille Donatacci, a former Playboy model. They have a daughter, Mason Olivia (born October 24, 2001), and a son, Jude Gordon (born August 28, 2004), both born via surrogate mother. Grammer and Donatacci have homes in Malibu, California; Colorado; and New York. Also, they have a holiday home on Maui. Defamation lawsuit In 1995, Grammer was sued by ex-girlfriend Cerlette Lamme for defamation of character and invasion of privacy over content he included in his autobiography So Far. http://www.cosmicbaseball.com/grammer9.html Sex tape lawsuit In 1998, Grammer filed a lawsuit against Internet Entertainment Group, which Grammer claimed had stolen from his home a videotape of him having sex with a woman. IEG countersued Grammer, denying they were in possession of such a tape, and Grammer's suit was eventually dropped. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,614966,00.html IEG President Seth Warshavsky told the New York Post, "We have been presented with another Kelsey Grammer tape. But we have no plans to air it. We are still evaluating it at this time." http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/archive.jsp?uuid=15968df5-5d41-4628-aa94-00a0d3da3a60 Grammer later told Maxim, "Whether or not you’re a celebrity—even if you’re just an old slob with a video camera—you don’t realize you shouldn’t do it. So you throw the tape in the back of a dark closet until your old girlfriend remembers it’s there because you’re famous now and she’s not. But if you’re not prepared to do the time, don’t do the crime." http://www.maximonline.com/articles/index.aspx?a_id=7159 Copyright lawsuit In August 2008, Bradley Blakeman, a former aide to George W. Bush, filed a copyright lawsuit in federal court on Long Island over Grammer's movie Swing Vote, claiming that parts of its plot and marketing had been stolen from him. The lawsuit claimed that Blakeman gave a copyrighted screenplay called Go November to Grammer in 2006, and that Grammer agreed to develop the project and star as a Republican president but instead ended up playing a similar role in Swing Vote, which was released on August 1, 2008. Grammer's spokesman dismissed the claims as "frivolous" and a "waste of time." The lawsuit claims that Blakeman's copyrighted screenplay had the same basic plot as Swing Vote. http://www.usatoday.com/life/movies/news/2008-08-07-swing-vote-lawsuit_N.htm Substance abuse Grammer began drinking at age 9 Cheers and Tears and became a frequent abuser of alcohol. In 1988, he was sentenced to 30 days in jail for drunk driving and cocaine possession. He was again arrested for cocaine possession in August 1990 and was sentenced to three years' probation, fined $500, and given 300 hours' community service. In January 1991, he was given an additional two years' probation for violating his original probation through additional cocaine use. In September 1996, he flipped his Dodge Viper while intoxicated and subsequently checked in to the Betty Ford Center for 30 days. http://www.tribute.ca/people/Kelsey+Grammer/3430/17850 Health problems Grammer suffered a heart attack on May 31, 2008. He told Jay Leno on the July 24, 2008, airing of The Tonight Show that he had to wait one and a half hours for paramedics to arrive. He was hospitalized in Hawaii after he had symptoms while paddle-boating with his wife, Camille. He was released on June 4, 2008, and was listed as "resting comfortably" at his Hawaiian residence. Kelsey Grammer Out of the Hospital from E! Online Seven weeks after his attack, Grammer told Entertainment Tonight that, although at the time his spokesman described the attack as mild, it was in fact more severe, almost leading to his death, as his heart had stopped. Kelsey Grammer Nearly Died After Heart Attack from The New York Times Grammer blamed Fox's decision to cancel his TV sitcom Back to You for his health problems, stating that "It was a very stressful time for me, and a surprise that it was cancelled. But you know, everything that doesn't kill us—which it almost did—makes us stronger!" http://www.exposay.com/kelsey-grammar-says-failed-sitcom-caused-his-heart-attack/v/21803/ On July 28, 2008, Grammer checked into an undisclosed New York hospital after complaints of feeling faint. His publicist said that it may have been due to a reaction to medication. Politics Grammer is a member of the Republican Party and has expressed an interest in someday running for United States Congress. Transcript: Twenty Years of 'Frasier' from Fox News Grammer was a celebrity guest at President George W. Bush's first inauguration, along with Drew Carey, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, and Fred Thompson. Grammer endorsed Rudy Giuliani in the 2008 presidential primary and later campaigned for John McCain in the general election. Newsmeat When asked by Maxim magazine about his political ambitions, Grammer replied, "It's a notion I have about the future, to run for office, to do the world some good. Maybe in 15 years or so, there may be a run for office. But I don’t know what I’d run for." http://www.maximonline.com/articles/index.aspx?a_id=7159 Filmography Films Year Film Role Notes 1992 Galaxies Are Colliding Peter 1995 Runaway Brain Dr. Frankenollie Short film 1996 Down Periscope Lieutenant Commander Thomas Dodge 1997 Anastasia Vladimir 1998 The Real Howard Spitz Howard Spitz1999 New Jersey Turnpikes Unknown Standing on Fishes Verk Toy Story 2 "Stinky Pete" the Prospector Bartok the Magnificent Zozi Direct-to-video release Mickey's Once upon a Christmas Narrator Direct-to-video release2001 15 Minutes Robert Hawkins Just Visiting Narrator Uncredited2003 The Big Empty Agent Banks Barbie of Swan Lake Rothbart Direct-to-video release 2004 Teacher's Pet Dr. Ivan Krank 2005 The Good Humor Man Mr. Skibness Also executive producer 2006 X-Men: The Last Stand Dr. Henry 'Hank' McCoy/Beast 2007 Even Money Detective Brunner2008 Swing Vote President Andrew Boone An American Carol General George S. Patton2009 Middle Men Frank Griffin Post-production Crazy on the Outside TBA Post-production Bunyan and Babe Norm Blandsford Post-production Fame Joel Cranston Filming TBA Alligator Point "Shepherd, Grammer get Lifetime's Point" from Reuters TBA Television Year Series Role Notes 1982 Macbeth Ross TV film 1983 Kennedy Stephen Smith TV miniseries1984 Kate & Allie David Hamill Episode 1.1: "Allie's First Date" George Washington Lt. Stewart TV miniseries 1984-1985 Another World Dr. Canard Recurring role 1984-1993 Cheers Dr. Frasier Crane Appeared in 201 episodes 1986 Crossings Craig Lawson TV miniseries1987 Biography George Washington Episode: "Benedict Arnold" J.J. Starbuck Pierce Morgan Episode 1.3: "Murder in E Minor" 1988 Dance 'til Dawn Ed Strull TV film1989 Top of the Hill Unknown TV film 227 Mr. Anderson Episode 4.24: "For Sale" 1990 The Tracey Ullman Show Mr. Brenna Episode 4.12: "Maria and the Mister" 1990- The Simpsons Sideshow Bob Has appeared in eleven episodes 1991 Baby Talk Russell Episode 1.7: "One Night with Elliot"1992 Wings Dr. Frasier Crane Episode 3.16: "Planes, Trains and Visiting Cranes" Star Trek: The Next Generation Captain Bateson Episode 5.18: "Cause and Effect"1993 Roc Detective Rush Episode 2.25: "To Love and Die on Emerson Street: Part 2" Beyond Suspicion Ron McNally TV film 1993-2004 Frasier Dr. Frasier Crane Appeared in all 264 episodes; also executive producer and director of 37 episodes 1994 The Innocent Det. Frank Barlow TV film 1995 The John Larroquette Show Dr. Frasier Crane Episode 3.1: "More Changes" 1996 London Suite Sydney Nichols TV film 1997 Fired Up Tom Whitman Episodes 1.3: "Who's the Boss" and 2.3: "You Don't Know Jack"; also executive producer 1998 The Pentagon Wars Major General Partridge TV film Just Shoot Me! Narrator Episode 3.10: "How the Finch Stole Christmas" 1999 Animal Farm Snowball TV film 2000 Stark Raving Mad Professor Tuttle 1.17: "The Grade" 2001 Neurotic Tendencies N/A TV film; executive producer, director and writer 2000-2008 Girlfriends N/A Executive producer 2001 The Sports Pages Howard Greene TV film 2002 Mr. St. Nick Nick St. Nicholas/Santa Claus the 21st TV film 2002-2003 In-Laws N/A Executive producer2003 Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor George Washington TV film Becker Rick Cooper Episode 5.13: "But I've Got Friends I Haven't Used Yet" Gary the Rat Gary "The Rat" Andrews Appeared in all 13 episodes;also executive producer2004 A Christmas Carol Ebenezer Scrooge TV film The Soluna Project N/A TV film; executive producer2005 Kelsey Grammer Presents: The Sketch Show Various characters Appeared in all four aired episodes; also executive producer Out of Practice N/A Directed episodes 1.1 and 1.182006 Medium Angel of Death Episode 2.21: "Death Takes a Policy"Also executive producer My Ex Life N/A Director 2006-present The Game N/A Executive producer2007 Dash 4 Cash N/A TV film; executive producer Everybody Hates Chris N/A Directed episode 2.22: "Everybody Hates the Last Day" 2007-2008 Back to You Chuck Darling Appeared in all 17 episodesAlso executive producer TBA Awesome Hank Lead role Also executive producer Video games The Simpsons Game (2007) - Sideshow Bob References External links Grammer's official site NNDB | Kelsey_Grammer |@lemmatized allen:2 kelsey:17 grammer:62 born:5 february:2 best:3 know:7 american:6 actor:10 two:3 decade:1 portrayal:1 psychiatrist:1 dr:15 frasier:25 crane:9 nbc:3 sitcoms:1 cheer:5 nine:1 year:12 eleven:3 provide:4 voice:14 sideshow:4 bob:5 fox:7 animate:2 series:12 simpson:6 nominate:2 emmy:6 play:7 character:7 three:5 different:3 sitcom:7 third:1 guest:3 appearance:1 wing:3 also:18 work:11 television:8 producer:12 director:6 writer:2 artist:1 background:1 bear:3 saint:1 thomas:3 u:5 virgin:2 island:3 son:2 sally:1 née:1 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2,193 | Latency_(engineering) | Latency is a time delay between the moment something is initiated, and the moment one of its effects begins or becomes detectable. The word derives from the fact that during the period of latency the effects of an action are latent, meaning "potential" or "not yet observed". Even within an engineering context, latency has several meanings depending on the engineering area concerned (i.e. communication, operational, simulation, mechanical, or biomedical fiber stimulation latencies). Communication latency Packet-switched networks Latency in a packet-switched network is measured either one-way (the time from the source sending a packet to the destination receiving it), or round-trip (the one-way latency from source to destination plus the one-way latency from the destination back to the source). Round-trip latency is more often quoted, because it can be measured from a single point. Note that round trip latency excludes the amount of time that a destination system spends processing the packet. Many software platforms provide a service called ping that can be used to measure round-trip latency. Ping performs no packet processing; it merely sends a response back when it receives a packet (i.e. performs a no-op), thus it is a relatively accurate way of measuring latency. Where precision is important, one-way latency for a link can be more strictly defined as the time from the start of packet transmission to the start of packet reception. The time from the start of packet reception to the end of packet reception is measured separately and called "Serialization Delay". This definition of latency is independent of the link's throughput and the size of the packet, and is the absolute minimum delay possible with that link. However, in a non-trivial network, a typical packet will be forwarded over many links via many gateways, each of which will not begin to forward the packet until it has been completely received. In such a network, the minimal latency is the sum of the minimum latency of each link, plus the transmission delay of each link except the final one, plus the forwarding latency of each gateway. In practice, this minimal latency is further augmented by queuing and processing delays. Queuing delay occurs when a gateway receives multiple packets from different sources heading towards the same destination. Since typically only one packet can be transmitted at a time, some of the packets must queue for transmission, incurring additional delay. Processing delays are incurred while a gateway determines what to do with a newly received packet. The combination of propagation, serialization, queuing, and processing delays often produces a complex and variable network latency profile. Satellite transmission Although intercontinental television signals travel at the speed of light, they nevertheless develop a noticeable latency over long distances. This is best illustrated when a newsreader in a studio talks to a reporter half way around the world. The signal travels from the newsreader via communication satellite situated in geosynchronous orbit to the reporter and then goes all the way back to geosynchronous orbit and then to the studio, resulting in a journey of over one hundred thousand kilometers . This time lag is easily noticeable. Even though the signal travels at the speed of light, it still requires about half a second to travel that distance (not including the much smaller latencies inside the communications equipment). Low-Earth orbit is sometimes used to ameliorate this delay, but at the expense of more complicated satellite tracking on the ground, and the expense of requiring more satellites in the satellite constellation to ensure continuous coverage. Operational latency Any individual workflow within a system of workflows can be subject to some type of operational latency. It may even be the case that an individual system may have more than one type of latency, depending on the type of participant or goal-seeking behavior. This is best illustrated by the following two examples involving air travel. Consumer view From the point of view of a passenger, latency can be described as follows. Suppose John Doe flies from London to New York. The latency of his trip is the time it takes him to go from his house in England to the hotel he is staying at in New York. This is independent of the throughput of the London-New York air link – whether there were 100 passengers a day making the trip or 10000, the latency of the trip would remain the same. Producer view From the point of view of flight operations personnel, latency can be entirely different. Consider the staff at the London and New York airports. There are only a limited number of planes able to make the transatlantic journey, so when one lands they must prepare it for the return trip as quickly as possible. It might take, for example: 30 minutes to clean a plane 15 minutes to refuel a plane 10 minutes to load the passengers 40 minutes to load the cargo Assuming the above are done one after another, minimum plane turnaround time is: 30+15+10+40 = 95 However, cleaning, refueling, and loading the cargo can be done at the same time, reducing the latency to: 40+10=50 30 15 Minimum latency = 50 And if loading the passengers must happen after cleaning, but can happen during cargo loading: 30+10 = 40 40 15 Minimum latency = 40 All of the people involved in the turnaround are only interested in the time it takes for their respective task, not the whole. However when different tasks are done at the same time it might be possible, as in this case, to reduce the latency to the longest task. However, the more prerequisites every step has, the harder it is to perform the steps in parallel. In the above example, if cleaning a plane took 35 minutes, then the minimum latency would be 35 (cleaning) + 10 (passenger loading) = 45, which is longer than the time of any single task. Mechanical latency Any mechanical process encounters limitations modeled by Newtonian physics. The behaviour of disk drives provides an example of mechanical latency. Here, it is the time needed for the data encoded on a platter to rotate from its current position to a position adjacent to the read-write head. This is also known as rotational delay since the term latency is also applied to the time required by a computer's electronics and software to perform polling, interrupts, and direct memory access. Computer hardware and operating system latency Computers run on a set of instructions called an executable. On operating systems, the execution of the executable can be postponed if other executables (a.k.a. processes) are also executing. In addition, the operating system can schedule when to perform the action that the executable is commanding. For example, suppose a process commands that a computer card's voltage output be set high-low-high-low..etc at a rate of 1000 Hz. The operating system may choose to adjust the scheduling of each transition (high-low or low-high) based on an internal clock. The latency is the delay between the executable instruction commanding the transition and the hardware actual transitioning the voltage from high to low or low to high. On Microsoft Windows, it appears that the timing of commands to hardware is not exact. Empirical data suggest that Windows (using the Windows sleep timer which accepts millisecond sleep times) will schedule on a 1024 Hz clock and will delay 24 of 1024 transitions per second to make an average of 1000 Hz for the update rate. This can have serious ramifications for discrete-time algorithms that rely on fairly consistent timing between updates such as those found in control theory. It should be noted that the sleep function or similar windows API were at no point designed for accurate timing purposes. Certain multimedia-oriented API routines like timeGetTime() and its siblings provide better timing consistency. However, consumer and server grade Windows (currently those based on NT kernel) were not to be real-time operating systems. Drastically more accurate timings could be achieved by using dedicated hardware extensions and control-loop cards. Linux may have the same problems with scheduling of hardware I/O. The problem in Linux is mitigated by the fact that the operating system kernel's process scheduler can be replaced by a real-time scheduler. On embedded systems, the real-time execution of instructions is expected from the low-level embedded operating system. Latency in simulators and simulation In simulation applications, 'latency' refers to the time delay, normally measured in milliseconds (1/1,000 sec), between initial input and an output clearly discernible to the simulator trainee or simulator subject. Latency is sometimes also called transport delay. Some authorities distinguish between latency and transport delay by using the term 'latency' in the sense of the extra time delay of a system over and above the reaction time of the vehicle being simulated, but this requires a detailed knowledge of the vehicle dynamics and can be controversial. Importance of Motion and Visual Latencies. In simulators with both visual and motion systems, it is particularly important that the latency of the motion system not be greater than of the visual system, or symptoms of simulator sickness may result. This is because in the real world, motion cues are those of acceleration and are quickly transmitted to the brain, typically in less than 50 milliseconds; this is followed some milliseconds later by a perception of change in the visual scene. The visual scene change is essentially one of change of perspective and/or displacement of objects such as the horizon, which takes some time to build up to discernible amounts after the initial acceleration which caused the displacement. A simulator should therefore reflect the real-world situation by ensuring that the motion latency is equal to or less than that of the visual system and not the other way round References M. Brian Blake, "Coordinating Multiple Agents for Workflow-Oriented Process Orchestration", Information Systems and e-Business Management Journal, Springer-Verlag, December 2003. See also Memory latency Throughput Comparison of latency and bandwidth Lead time | Latency_(engineering) |@lemmatized latency:48 time:25 delay:17 moment:2 something:1 initiate:1 one:12 effect:2 begin:2 become:1 detectable:1 word:1 derive:1 fact:2 period:1 action:2 latent:1 mean:1 potential:1 yet:1 observe:1 even:3 within:2 engineering:2 context:1 several:1 meaning:1 depend:2 area:1 concern:1 e:3 communication:4 operational:3 simulation:3 mechanical:4 biomedical:1 fiber:1 stimulation:1 packet:17 switch:1 network:5 switched:1 measure:6 either:1 way:8 source:4 send:2 destination:5 receive:5 round:5 trip:8 plus:3 back:3 often:2 quote:1 single:2 point:4 note:2 exclude:1 amount:2 system:17 spend:1 process:6 many:3 software:2 platform:1 provide:3 service:1 call:4 ping:2 use:5 perform:5 processing:4 merely:1 response:1 op:1 thus:1 relatively:1 accurate:3 precision:1 important:2 link:7 strictly:1 define:1 start:3 transmission:4 reception:3 end:1 separately:1 serialization:2 definition:1 independent:2 throughput:3 size:1 absolute:1 minimum:6 possible:3 however:5 non:1 trivial:1 typical:1 forward:2 via:2 gateway:4 completely:1 minimal:2 sum:1 except:1 final:1 forwarding:1 practice:1 far:1 augment:1 queue:4 occur:1 multiple:2 different:3 head:2 towards:1 since:2 typically:2 transmit:2 must:3 incur:2 additional:1 determine:1 newly:1 combination:1 propagation:1 produce:1 complex:1 variable:1 profile:1 satellite:5 although:1 intercontinental:1 television:1 signal:3 travel:5 speed:2 light:2 nevertheless:1 develop:1 noticeable:2 long:3 distance:2 best:2 illustrate:2 newsreader:2 studio:2 talk:1 reporter:2 half:2 around:1 world:3 situate:1 geosynchronous:2 orbit:3 go:2 result:2 journey:2 hundred:1 thousand:1 kilometer:1 lag:1 easily:1 though:1 still:1 require:4 second:2 include:1 much:1 small:1 inside:1 equipment:1 low:8 earth:1 sometimes:2 ameliorate:1 expense:2 complicated:1 track:1 ground:1 constellation:1 ensure:2 continuous:1 coverage:1 individual:2 workflow:3 subject:2 type:3 may:5 case:2 participant:1 goal:1 seek:1 behavior:1 following:1 two:1 example:5 involve:2 air:2 consumer:2 view:4 passenger:5 describe:1 follow:2 suppose:2 john:1 doe:1 fly:1 london:3 new:4 york:4 take:5 house:1 england:1 hotel:1 stay:1 whether:1 day:1 make:3 would:2 remain:1 producer:1 flight:1 operation:1 personnel:1 entirely:1 consider:1 staff:1 airport:1 limited:1 number:1 plane:5 able:1 transatlantic:1 land:1 prepare:1 return:1 quickly:2 might:2 minute:5 clean:4 refuel:2 load:5 cargo:3 assume:1 another:1 turnaround:2 reduce:2 happen:2 cleaning:1 loading:1 people:1 interested:1 respective:1 task:4 whole:1 prerequisite:1 every:1 step:2 harder:1 parallel:1 encounter:1 limitation:1 model:1 newtonian:1 physic:1 behaviour:1 disk:1 drive:1 need:1 data:2 encode:1 platter:1 rotate:1 current:1 position:2 adjacent:1 read:1 write:1 also:5 know:1 rotational:1 term:2 apply:1 computer:4 electronics:1 polling:1 interrupt:1 direct:1 memory:2 access:1 hardware:5 operating:5 run:1 set:2 instruction:3 executable:4 operate:2 execution:2 postpone:1 executables:1 k:1 execute:1 addition:1 schedule:2 command:4 card:2 voltage:2 output:2 high:6 etc:1 rate:2 hz:3 choose:1 adjust:1 scheduling:2 transition:4 base:2 internal:1 clock:2 actual:1 microsoft:1 window:4 appear:1 timing:5 exact:1 empirical:1 suggest:1 windows:1 sleep:3 timer:1 accept:1 millisecond:4 per:1 average:1 update:2 serious:1 ramification:1 discrete:1 algorithms:1 rely:1 fairly:1 consistent:1 find:1 control:2 theory:1 function:1 similar:1 api:2 design:1 purpose:1 certain:1 multimedia:1 orient:1 routine:1 like:1 timegettime:1 sibling:1 good:1 consistency:1 server:1 grade:1 currently:1 nt:1 kernel:2 real:5 drastically:1 could:1 achieve:1 dedicate:1 extension:1 loop:1 linux:2 problem:2 mitigate:1 scheduler:2 replace:1 embedded:1 expect:1 level:1 embed:1 simulator:6 application:1 refers:1 normally:1 sec:1 initial:2 input:1 clearly:1 discernible:2 trainee:1 transport:2 authority:1 distinguish:1 sense:1 extra:1 reaction:1 vehicle:2 simulate:1 detailed:1 knowledge:1 dynamic:1 controversial:1 importance:1 motion:5 visual:6 particularly:1 great:1 symptom:1 sickness:1 cue:1 acceleration:2 brain:1 less:2 later:1 perception:1 change:3 scene:2 essentially:1 perspective:1 displacement:2 object:1 horizon:1 build:1 cause:1 therefore:1 reflect:1 situation:1 equal:1 reference:1 brian:1 blake:1 coordinate:1 agent:1 oriented:1 orchestration:1 information:1 business:1 management:1 journal:1 springer:1 verlag:1 december:1 see:1 comparison:1 bandwidth:1 lead:1 |@bigram packet_switch:1 hundred_thousand:1 microsoft_window:1 nt_kernel:1 input_output:1 springer_verlag:1 |
2,194 | John_Masefield | John Edward Masefield, OM, (1 June 1878 – 12 May 1967) was an English poet and writer, and Poet Laureate from 1930 until his death in 1967. He is remembered as the author of the classic children's novels The Midnight Folk and The Box of Delights, 19 other novels (including Captain Margaret, Multitude and Solitude and Sard Harker), and many memorable poems, including "The Everlasting Mercy" and "Sea-Fever", from his anthology Saltwater Ballads. Life Early life Masefield was born in Ledbury, in Herefordshire, to George Masefield, a solicitor and Caroline. His mother died giving birth to his sister when Masefield was only 6 and he went to live with his aunt. His father died soon after. After an unhappy education at the King's School in Warwick (now known as Warwick School), where he was a boarder between 1888 and 1891, he left to board the HMS Conway, both to train for a life at sea, and to break his addiction to reading, of which his Aunt thought little. He spent several years aboard this ship and found that he could spend much of his time reading and writing. It was aboard the Conway that Masefield’s love for story-telling grew. While on the ship, he listened to the stories told about sea lore. He continued to read, and felt that he was to become a writer and story teller himself. In 1894, Masefield boarded the Gilcruix, destined for Chile, this first voyage bringing him the experience of sea sickness and a taste of fierce weather. He recorded his experiences while sailing through the extreme weather: it was obvious from his journal entries that he delighted in viewing flying fish, porpoises, and birds, and was awed by the beauty of nature, including a rare sighting of a nocturnal rainbow on his voyage. Upon reaching Chile, Masefield suffered from sunstroke and was hospitalized. He eventually returned home to England as a passenger aboard a steam ship. In 1895, Masefield returned to sea on a windjammer destined for New York City. However, the urge to become a writer and the hopelessness of life as a sailor overtook him, and in New York, he deserted ship. He lived as a vagrant for several months, before returning to New York City,he did many odd jobs where he was able to find work as an assistant to a bar keeper. For the next two years, Masefield was employed in a carpet factory, where long hours were expected and conditions were far from ideal. He purchased up to 20 books a week, and devoured both modern and classical literature. His interests at this time were diverse and his reading included works by Trilby, Dumas, Thomas Browne, Hazlitt, Dickens, Kipling, and R. L. Stevenson. Chaucer also became very important to him during this time, as well as poetry by Keats and Shelley. When Masefield was 23, he met his future wife, Constance Crommelin, who was 35. Educated in classics and English Literature, and a mathematics teacher, Constance was a perfect match for Masefield despite the difference in age. The couple had two children (Judith, born in 1904, and Lewis, in 1910). John Masefield: A Biographical Sketch By 24, Masefield’s poems were being published in periodicals and his first collected works, "Salt-Water Ballads" was published. "Sea Fever" appeared in this book. Masefield then wrote two novels, "Captain Margaret" (1908) and "Multitude and Solitude" (1909). In 1911, after a long drought of poem writing, he composed "The Everlasting Mercy". "The Everlasting Mercy" was the first of his narrative poems, and within the next year, Masefield produced two more narrative poems, "The Widow in the Bye Street" and "Dauber". As a result of the writing of these three poems, Masefield became widely known to the public and was praised by critics, and in 1912, the annual Edmund de Polignac prize was bestowed upon Masefield. Early Life World War I to appointment as Poet Laureate When World War I began, though old enough to be exempted from military service, Masefield went to the Western Front as a medical orderly, later publishing his own account of his experiences. After returning home, Masefield was invited to the United States on a three month lecture tour. Although Masefield's primary purpose was to lecture on English Literature, a secondary purpose was to collect information on the mood and views of Americans regarding the war in Europe. When he returned to England, he submitted a report to the British Foreign Office, and suggested that he be allowed to write a book about the failure of the allied efforts in the Dardanelles, which possibly could be used in the US in order to counter what he thought was German propaganda there. As a result, Masefield wrote Gallipoli. This work was a success, encouraging the British people, and lifting them somewhat from the disappointment they had felt as a result of the Allied losses in the Dardanelles. Due to the success of his wartime writings, Masefield met with the head of British Military Intelligence in France and was asked to write an account of the Battle of the Somme. Although Masefield had grand ideas for his book, he was denied access to the official records, and therefore, what was to be his preface to the book was published as "The Old Front Line", a description of the geography of the Somme area. In 1918, Masefield returned to America on his second lecture tour. Masefield spent much of his time speaking and lecturing to American soldiers waiting to be sent to Europe. These speaking engagements were very successful, and on one occasion, a battalion of all Black soldiers danced and sang for him after his talk. During this tour, he matured as a public speaker and realized his ability to touch the emotions of his audience with his style of speaking, learning to speak publicly with his own heart, rather than from dry scripted speeches. Towards the end of his trip, both Yale and Harvard Universities conferred honorary Doctorates of Letters on him. Masefield entered the 1920s as an accomplished and respected writer. His family was able to settle in a somewhat rural setting, not far from Oxford, and Masefield took up beekeeping, goat-herding and poultry-keeping. Masefield continued to meet with success, the 1923 edition of "Collected Poems" selling approximately 80,000 copies, quite a lot for a book of poetry. Another threesome of narrative poems was produced by Masefield early in this decade. The first was "Reynard The Fox", a poem that has been critically compared with works of Chaucer. This was followed by "Right Royal" and "King Cole", poems of beauty and movement, with the relationship of humanity and nature emphasized. While Reynard is the best known of these, all met with acclaim. In 1921, Masefield received an Honorary Doctorate of Literature from Oxford University, and in 1923, organized the Oxford Recitations, an annual contest whose purpose was "to discover good speakers of verse and to encourage ‘the beautiful speaking of poetry.’" The Recitations were seen as a success given the impressive numbers of contest applicants, the promotion of natural speech in poetical recitations, and the number of people learning how to listen to poetry. Masefield began to question however, whether the Recitations should continue as a contest, believing that the event should become more of a festival. In 1929, Masefield broke with the contest concept, and the Recitations came to an end. Masefield also wrote a very large number of dramatic pieces during this time. Most of his dramas were based on themes of Christianity, and in 1928, his "The Coming of Christ" was the first play to be performed in an English Cathedral since the Middle Ages. Middle Life Later years In 1930, due to the death of Robert Bridges, a new Poet Laureate was needed. Many felt that Rudyard Kipling was a likely choice. However, upon the recommendation of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, King George V appointed Masefield, who remained in office until his death in 1967. The only person to remain in the office for a longer period was Tennyson. In 1932, Masefield was commissioned to write a poem to be set to music by the Master of the King's Musick, Sir Edward Elgar and performed by choir and orchestra at the unveiling of the Queen Alexandra Memorial by the King on 8 June 1932: this was the ode "So many true Princesses who have gone". Although the requirements of Poet Laureate had changed, and those in the office were rarely required to write verse for special occasions, Masefield took his appointment seriously and produced a large quantity of verse. Poems composed in his official capacity were sent to The Times. Masefield’s humility was shown by his inclusion of a stamped envelope with each submission so that his composition could be returned if it were found unacceptable for publication. After his appointment, Masefield received many honours, including the Order of Merit by King George V. He was the recipient of many more honorary degrees from Universities throughout the United Kingdom, and in 1937 he was elected President of the Society of Authors. Masefield encouraged the continued development of English literature and poetry, and began the annual awarding of the Royal Medals for Poetry for a first or second published edition of poetry by a poet under the age of 35. Additionally, his speaking engagements were calling him further away, often on much longer tours, yet he still produced a veritable amount of work. It was not until about the age of 70, that Masefield slowed his pace due to illness. But even then, he continued to learn new things, and took a greater interest in classical music. In 1960, Constance died at 93, after a long illness. Masefield was constantly at Constance’s side, and although her death was heartrending to him, he had spent a very tiring year watching the woman he adored die. He continued his duties faithfully as Poet Laureate, and even his other literary works continued. His last published book, "In Glad Thanksgiving", was published when he was 88 years old. On 12 May 1967, John Masefield died, after having suffered through a spread of gangrene up his leg. According to his wishes, he was cremated and his ashes placed in Poets’ Corner in Westminster Abbey. Later, the following verse was discovered, written by Masefield, addressed to his ‘Heirs, Administrators, and Assigns’: Let no religious rite be done or read In any place for me when I am dead, But burn my body into ash, and scatter The ash in secret into running water, Or on the windy down, and let none see; And then thank God that there’s an end of me. Later Life In 1977, Folkways Records released an album of his poetry, including The Western Hudson Shore, and read by Masefield himself. John Masefield Reads His Poetry . In 2007 the pub chain J.D. Wetherspoon opened a pub in New Ferry, Wirral, with the name John Masefield. It caused a certain amount of uproar when opened due to the rather unfortunate similarity of the likeness of Masefield used on the sign to that of Adolf Hitler. Works This is not an exhaustive list. For a full (and recent) bibliography refer to Errington, Philip W., John Masefield - The 'Great Auk' of English Literature - A Bibliography, The British Library / Oak Knoll Press, 2004 Plays The Tragedy of Pompey the Great (1910) Good Friday: A Play in Verse The Tragedy Of Nan (Originally known as 'Nan') "The Coming of Christ" Novels Captain Margaret (1908) Multitude and Solitude (1909) Martin Hyde: The Duke’s Messenger (1910) Lost Endeavour (Nelson, 1910). The Street of Today (1911) Jim Davis (Wells Gardner, 1911). The Dream (MacMillan, 1922) Illustrated by Judith Masefield. Sard Harker (Heinemann, 1924) ODTAA (1926) The Midnight Folk (1927) The Hawbucks (1929) The Bird of Dawning (Heinemann, 1933). The Taking of the Gry (1934) The Box of Delights: or When the Wolves Were Running (1935) Victorious Troy: or The Harrying Angel (1935) Eggs and Baker (1936) The Square Pegg: or The Gun Fella (1937) Dead Ned (1938) Live and Kicking Ned (1939) Basilissa: A Tale of the Empress Theodora (1940) Conquer: A Tale of the Nika Rebellion in Byzantium (1941) Badon Parchments (1947) Non-fiction and autobiographical Sea Life in Nelson's Time (1905) "Gallipoli" "The Old Front Line" Grace Before Ploughing (Heinemann, 1966) Popular culture Perhaps the most famous Masefield quotation is from "Sea-Fever": "All I ask is a tall ship, and a star to steer her by." Besides being used in many other written works, this quotation was also referenced in the film Star Trek V: The Final Frontier. Though not directly stated to be so, it hearkens back to a conversation between Kirk and Dr. McCoy in the original Star Trek series episode "The Ultimate Computer". The scene in Star Trek V opens with Kirk quoting Masefield, and McCoy incorrectly stating that it was a quote by Melville. This precipitates a rather amusing argument between "Bones" and Spock, who correctly identifies the author. Lines from "Sea-Fever" are also referenced in Aaron Sorkin's Sports Night. In Episode 3 ("The Hungry And The Hunted"), Dan Rydell misquotes the first and eighth lines of the poem. The characters then argue about whether the poem was written by Thoreau, Wordsworth, Whitman, Byron, Dylan Thomas, or "Slim" Whitman (the last being Casey McCall's idea of a joke). Neither the poem's title nor the correct poet is ever identified. The quotation was used in the movie Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory. The line was spoken by Gene Wilder (Willy Wonka) before the psychedelic boat trip down the chocolate river. Legacy In November 2007, a Wirral pub named in Masefield's honour had complaints because some locals claim its sign looks like Adolf Hitler. Locals have nicknamed the John Masefield in New Ferry "The Adolf" because of the sign's resemblance to the Nazi leader. Seanie Walsh, who manages the pub, said he would not be dictated to and refused to change the picture: "That is what he looked like so the sign is to stay." A high school in Ledbury, Herefordshire is named after him. The library/IT building at the school which Masefield attended, Warwick School, is named after him, being called the 'Masefield Centre'. Notes External links Internet Archive Saltwater Ballads Poets' Corner | John_Masefield |@lemmatized john:7 edward:2 masefield:55 om:1 june:2 may:2 english:6 poet:10 writer:4 laureate:5 death:4 remember:1 author:3 classic:2 child:2 novel:4 midnight:2 folk:2 box:2 delight:3 include:6 captain:3 margaret:3 multitude:3 solitude:3 sard:2 harker:2 many:7 memorable:1 poem:15 everlasting:3 mercy:3 sea:9 fever:4 anthology:1 saltwater:2 ballad:3 life:8 early:3 bear:2 ledbury:2 herefordshire:2 george:3 solicitor:1 caroline:1 mother:1 die:5 give:2 birth:1 sister:1 go:3 live:3 aunt:2 father:1 soon:1 unhappy:1 education:1 king:6 school:5 warwick:3 know:3 boarder:1 leave:1 board:2 hm:1 conway:2 train:1 break:1 addiction:1 reading:3 think:2 little:1 spend:3 several:2 year:6 aboard:3 ship:5 find:3 could:3 much:3 time:7 writing:4 love:1 story:3 telling:1 grow:1 listen:2 tell:1 lore:1 continue:6 read:4 felt:3 become:5 teller:1 gilcruix:1 destine:2 chile:2 first:7 voyage:2 bring:1 experience:3 sickness:1 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2,195 | Dualism | Dualism denotes a state of two parts. The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two" . The term 'dualism' was originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general usage. Moral dualism Moral dualism is the belief of the great conflict (in eastern and naturalistic religions) or conflict (in western religions) between the "benevolent" and the "malignant". Most religious systems have some form of moral dualism - in western religions, for instance, a conflict between good and evil. Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of monist or monotheistic principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and - unlike ditheism/bitheism - independent of how these may be represented. For example, Mazdaism (Mazdaen Zoroastrianism) is both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist) since in that philosophy God—the Creator—is purely good, and the antithesis—which is also uncreated—is an absolute one. Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Manichaeism and Mandaeism, are representative of dualistic and monist philosophies since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian gnostic religions, such as Bogomils, Catharism, etc. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in Hermeticism, where Nous "thought" - that is described to have created man - brings forth both good and evil, depending on whether it receives prompting from God or from the demons. Ditheism/Bitheism In theology, 'dualism' may also refer to 'bitheism', 'duotheism' or 'ditheism'. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not imply any -theism (theos = god) whatsoever. Both 'bitheism' and 'ditheism' imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary or antonymous properties. However, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between Good and Evil. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf. theodicy). In a bitheistic system, one god could be male and the other female (cf. duotheism). However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology of Persephone). Marcionism, an early Christian sect, held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of different religions. In Eastern mysticism The yin and yang symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in the Taoist religion. Alternatively, dualism can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching categories. However that definition is considered a tad controversial. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it, or when one perceives a "self" that is distinct from the rest of the world. In mystic traditions such as Zen or Islamic Sufism, a key to enlightenment is "transcending" this sort of dualistic thinking, without merely substituting dualism with monism or pluralism. The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of yin and yang is a large part of Taoist religion. Some of the common associations with yang and yin, respectively, are: male and female, light and dark, active and passive, motion and stillness. The Tai-Chi in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism; instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. The Taoist religion with its dualistic concept of yin and yang is related to the religions that are both dualistic and monotheistic such as Mazdaism in the sense that the underlying force of nature, the Way, or Tao, is the First Principle which manifests itself through the dual properties of the yin and yang. In the yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. This symbolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as different aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the independent principles of yin and yang are actually dependent on one another for each other's distinguishable existence. The complementary dualistic concept in Taoism represents the reciprocal interaction throughout nature, related to a feedback loop, where opposing forces do not exchange in opposition but instead exchange reciprocally to promote stabilization similar to homeostasis. An underlying principle in Taoism states that within every independent entity lies a part of its opposite. Within sickness lies health and vice versa. This is because all opposites are manifestations of the single Tao, and are therefore not independent from one another, but rather a variation of the same unifying force throughout all of nature. The complementary aspects of masculinity and femininity are revered by certain Neo-pagan religions as well. Mind/Matter and Mind/Body dualism In philosophy of mind In philosophy of mind, dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to materialism in general, and reductive materialism in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as substance dualism which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as property dualism which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as "mind and body" and stands in contrast to philosophical monism, which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing. See also Cartesian dualism, substance dualism, epiphenomenalism. In Buddhist philosophy During the classical era of Buddhist philosophy in India, philosophers such as Dharmakirti argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and Buddhist atoms (the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to "the standard interpretation" of Dharmakirti's Buddhist metaphysics. Georges B.J. Dreyfus, Recognizing Reality, SUNY Press 1996 (ISBN 978-0791430989) Typically in Western philosophy, dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with the physical brain, and therefore also interacting with the micro-particles (basic building blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is not a dualism between the mind and brain, but rather between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like so many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved mereological nihilism, meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of quantum physics (quarks, electrons, etc.). Soul dualism In some cultures, people (or also other beings) are believed to have two (or more) kinds of soul. In several cases, one of these souls is associated with body functions (and is sometimes thought to disappear after death), and the other one is able to leave the body (e.g. a shaman's free-soul may be held to be able to undertake a spirit journey). The plethora of soul types may be even more complex. Consciousness/Matter dualism In Samkhya philosophy Correctly distinguishing between Self (Spirit/Consciousness Purusha) and Matter/Nature (Prakrti) is of central importance to Samkhya Philosophy. Samkhya Philosophy elaborates that although Prakriti originates from Purusha, there is a fundamental dualism between spirit and phenomena that is presented to such Selves by Matter/Nature. Such phenomena of Matter/Nature includes reflections of the intellect, the faculty that makes things personal (the I-Maker/Ahamkara), the instinctual mind (manas), the capacities to perceive sense data, the capacities to act, the principles of the elements of sense perception, and the gross elements. These arise when Prakriti is in the presence of a Purusha, and they become enmeshed and entangled when there is mis-identification between Prakriti and Purusha. False confusion between the Self and what is not the Self is considered the fundamental ignorance that perpetuates bondage in this world. Liberation is sought by becoming aware of such distinctions on a very deep level of personal knowledge, so that one may eventually use the great faculty of the mind—intellectual reflection (Buddhi/Mahat) -- without mistakenly identifying it with the Purusha, and then the effects of such entanglement will unravel and one will no longer be bound by incarnations or confused by Prakriti. In Vedanta philosophy The Vedanta philosophy is divided into Dvaita (dualistic) and Advaita (non-dualistic) monism. Neither propose dualism in consciousness and matter. While Dvaita philosophy recognizes the differences between Jiva and Ishvara, Advaita philosophy looks at everything as Brahman which has three fundamental attributes sat-cit-ānanda (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Advaita vedanta insists that the experiential personal realization of unity of everything must be achieved. Until a person achieves such realization, Advaita Vedanta uses the Samkhya dualism of consciousness and matter for describing the world. Dvaita, on the other hand, rejects the notion of equating Atman with Paramatman as they are different entities. Dvaita holds that upon Mukti, one enjoys the same quantity of bliss as sat-cit-ānanda but one can never be equal to Brahman. In philosophy of science In philosophy of science, dualism often refers to the dichotomy between the "subject" (the observer) and the "object" (the observed). Criticism of Western science may label this kind of dualism as a flaw in the nature of science itself. In part, this has something to do with potentially complicated interactions between the subject and the object, of the sort discussed in the social construction literature. In physics In physics, dualism refers to mediums with properties that can be associated with the mechanics of two different phenomena. Because these two phenomena's mechanics are mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to describe the possible behaviors. In contemporary feminist theory A theory relating to dualism and a contemporary feminist world view is presented by Susan Bordo. Bordo contends that dualism has shaped Western culture since the time of Plato, through Augustine and René Descartes, up to the present day. All three of these philosophers provide instructions, rules or models as to how to gain control over the body, with the ultimate aim of learning to live without it. The mind is superior to the body, and strength comes from disregarding the body's existence to reach an elevated spiritual level. Bordo believes that the influx of various patterns of disordered eating, particularly the overwhelming rise in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, is the most telling and compelling argument that dualism is central to modern thinking. Furthermore, Western dualism is an adulterated form of historical philosophical dualism, an artificial mode of hegmonic power regulations. To cognitively and practically adopt the mode of Western dualisms is often a dangerous and oppressive way of looking at the world. For example, those who are anorexic seek to gain ultimate control, and depriving oneself of food makes one a master of one's own body, which creates a sense of purity and perfection. Again, Bordo contends that this stems from dualism, the mythological separation of the mind and body. Ecofeminist philosopher Val Plumwood argues in Feminism and the Mastery of Nature that a logical thought process inherent in the dualistic relationship is necessary to justify exploitation and oppression of the other. The formation process of these ideologies is apparent within the five characteristics of dualisms. They are::) (1) Backgrounding—The master denies the essentialness of and dependency on the other. (2) Radical Exclusion/ Hyperseparation—All differences between the groups are made to have positive and negative connotations. Continuities between the master and the other are denied. (3) Incorporation—The master creates the norm, and the other is seen as substandard. The other cannot be independently identified, but is dependent on the master for its specification. (4) Instrumentalism—The other is objectified and made an instrument or resource to the master. The other must set aside its own welfare to serve the master. (5) Homogenization/Stereotyping—This is necessary within each of the two groups to reinforce and naturalize the differences between the groups. Dualism in recent religious movements In recent years, but far after European Imperialism, the distinction between "eastern" and "western" philosophy has been less significant than in previous times. In the wake of these changes new religious and philosophical movements have drawn freely upon many of the world's religions to attract new initiates. Dualism is often cited within these groups, along with ideas of oneness, wholeness and theories of multiple intelligences. In the Emin Society (printed in their archives) Dualism is presented as the Law of Two, which is said to have seven levels: First level: Apparent Opposites Second level: The apparent opposites are actually two ends of the same bar (or the North-South vector is split by the East-West vector) (or the law of things adjacent) Third level: Pitching and Yawing, (or Basque bargaining) Fourth level: Balance and Movement Fifth level: Solve and Coagulate Sixth level: Over and Under Compensation Seventh level: Apparent movement between two poles (or hot and cold) The Discordian religion has two competing forces that rely on each other: Order and Chaos. These two are further separated, falling into either constructive or destructive versions of Order and Chaos. This is illustrated by the Discordian Hodge Podge (also Sacred Chao), a symbol that is similar in design to the Taoist yin yang. Dualism in modern and contemporary philosophy The American philosopher Arthur Oncken Lovejoy in his *The Revolt Against Dualism (1960) develops a critique of the modern new realism, reproposing a form of dualism based on a "fork of human experience". Political dualism In politics, dualism refers to the separation between the legislature and executive power, which keeps a balance between the two, ensuring government doesn't go against the will of the people's representatives. See also Dualism (philosophy of mind) Advaita Vedanta Dialectic Duality (song) Didache – The Two Ways False dilemma Manichaeism (moral dualism) Theism Polytheism Monotheism Atheism Pantheism Monism Nondualism Pluralism (philosophy) Reductionism Rhizome (philosophy) Dualistic cosmology Religion Theology The Bible God The Abrahamic Religions Criticism of Religion Notes External links Dictionary of the History of ideas: Dualism in Philosophy and Religion Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning Discusses the biblical and historical belief of the nature of God A very good gallery of images about Dualiti and twins symbols from the book Twins and doubles | Dualism |@lemmatized dualism:55 denote:2 state:5 two:23 part:4 word:1 origin:1 latin:1 duo:1 term:1 originally:1 coin:1 co:2 eternal:1 binary:1 opposition:4 meaning:2 preserve:1 metaphysical:1 philosophical:4 duality:3 discourse:1 dilute:1 general:2 usage:1 moral:10 belief:3 great:2 conflict:3 eastern:3 naturalistic:1 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2,196 | Malawi | {{Infobox Country |native_name = {{lang|ny|Dziko la Malaŵi}} |conventional_long_name = Republic of Malaŵi |common_name = Malawi |image_flag = Flag of Malawi.svg |image_coat = Coats of arms of None.svg |national_motto = Unity and Freedom |image_map = LocationMalawi.svg |national_anthem = (Chichewa)"Oh God Bless Our Land of Malawi" |official_languages = English |demonym = Malawian |regional_languages = Chichewa |capital = Lilongwe |latd=13|latm=57|latNS=S|longd=33|longm=42|longEW=E |government_type = Multi-party democracy |leader_title1 = President |leader_name1 = Bingu wa Mutharika |leader_title2 =Vice President |leader_name2 =Joyce Banda |largest_city = Blantyre |area_km2 = 118,484 |area_sq_mi = 45,747 |area_rank = 99th |area_magnitude = 1 E11 |percent_water = 20.6% |population_estimate = 13,931,831 |population_estimate_year = 2008 |population_estimate_rank = |population_census = 9,933,868 |population_census_year = 1998 |population_density_km2 = 118 |population_density_sq_mi = 305 |population_density_rank = 94th |GDP_PPP_year = 2008 |GDP_PPP = $11.394 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $834 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = |GDP_nominal = $4.268 billion |GDP_nominal_year = 2008 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $312 |HDI_year = 2008 |HDI = 0.457 |HDI_rank = 162nd |HDI_category = low |Gini = 38 |Gini_year = 2008 |Gini_category = low |FSI = 92.2 2.4 |FSI_year = 2007 |FSI_rank = 29th |FSI_category = Alert |sovereignty_type = Independence |sovereignty_note = from the UK |established_event1 = Independence declared |established_event2 = |established_date1 = July 6, 1964 |established_date2 = |currency = Kwacha (D) |currency_code = MWK |time_zone = CAT |utc_offset = +2 |time_zone_DST = not observed|utc_offset_DST = +2 |drives_on = left |cctld = .mw |calling_code = +265 |footnotes = 1 Population estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.2Information is drawn from the CIA Factbook unless otherwise noted.}} The Republic of Malawi (; Chichewa ) is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast and Mozambique, which surrounds it on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. The name Malawi comes from the Maravi, one of the original Bantu tribes to inhabit the area. Malawi was first settled during the 10th century and remained under native rule until 1891 when it was colonized by the British, who ruled the country until 1964. Upon gaining independence it became a single-party state under the presidency of Hastings Banda, who remained president until 1994, when he was ousted from power. Bingu Mutharika, elected in 2004, is the current president. Malawi has a democratic, multi-party government. Malawi has a small military force that includes an army, a navy and an air wing. Malawi's foreign policy is pro-Western and includes positive diplomatic relations with most countries and participation in several international organizations. Malawi is among the world's least developed and most densely populated countries. The economy is heavily based in agriculture, with a largely rural population. The Malawian government depends heavily on outside aid to meet development needs, although this need (and the aid offered) has decreased since 2000. The Malawian government faces challenges in growing the economy, improving education, health care and the environmental protection and becoming financially independent. Malawi has several programs developed since 2005 that focus on these issues, and the country's outlook appears to be improving, with improvements in economic growth, education and healthcare seen in 2007 and 2008. Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. There is a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, which is a drain on the labor force and government expenditures, and is expected to have a significant impact on gross domestic product (GDP) by 2010. There is a diverse population of native peoples, Asians and Europeans, with several languages spoken and an array of religious beliefs. Although there was tribal conflict in the past, by 2008 it had diminished considerably and the concept of a Malawian nationality had begun to form. Malawi has a culture combining native and colonial aspects, including sports, art, dance and music. History The area of Africa now known as Malawi had a very small population of hunter gatherers before waves of Bantus began emigrating from the north around the 10th century. Although most of the Bantus continued south, some remained permanently and founded tribes based on common ancestry. Cutter, Africa 2006, p. 142 By 1500 AD, the tribes had established a kingdom that reached from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia. Soon after 1600, with the area mostly united under one native ruler, native tribesmen began encountering, trading with and making alliances with Portuguese traders and members of the military. By 1700, however, the empire had broken up into areas controlled by many individual tribes, which was noted by the Portuguese in their information gathering. Davidson, Africa in History, pp. 164–165 David Livingstone reached Lake Malawi (then Lake Nyasa) in 1859, Turner, The Statesman's Yearbook, p.821 and Malawi was originally known as Nyasaland under the rule of the British. Murphy, Central Africa, p. xxvii In a prime example of what is sometimes called the "Thin White Line" of colonial authority in Africa, the colonial government of Nyasaland was formed in 1891. The administrators were given a budget of £10,000 per year, which was enough to employ ten European civilians, two military officers, seventy Punjab Sikhs, and eighty-five Zanzibar porters. These few employees were then expected to administer and police a territory of around 94,000 square kilometers with between one and two million people. Reader, Africa, p. 579 In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was formed by the Africans of Nyasaland to promote local interests to the British government. Murphy, Central Africa, p. 28 In 1953, Britain linked Nyasaland with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in what was known as the Central African Federation (CAF), for mainly political reasons. Murphy, Central Africa, p. li The linking provoked opposition from African nationalists, and the NAC gained popular support. An influential opponent of the CAF was Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda, a European-trained doctor working in Ghana who was persuaded to return to Nyasaland in 1958 to assist the nationalist cause. Banda was elected president of the NAC and worked to mobilize nationalist sentiment before being jailed by colonial authorities in 1959. He was released in 1960 and asked to help draft a new constitution for Nyasaland, with a clause granting Africans the majority in the colony's Legislative Counsel. In 1961, Banda's Malawi Congress Party (MCP) gained the majority in the Legislative Counsel and Banda was elected prime minister in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in 1963, and on July 6, 1964, Nyasaland became independent from British rule and renamed itself Malawi. Under a new constitution, Malawi became a single-party state under MCP rule and Banda declared himself president-for-life in 1970. For almost 30 years, Banda ruled firmly, suppressing opposition to his party and ensuring that he had no personal opposition. Cutter, Africa 2006, p. 143 Despite his political severity, however, Malawi's economy while Banda was president was often cited as an example of how a poor, landlocked, heavily populated, mineral-poor country could achieve progress in both agriculture and industrial development. Meredith, The Fate of Africa, p. 285 While in office, and using his control of the country, Banda constructed a business empire that eventually produced one-third of the country's GDP and employed 10% of the wage-earning workforce. Meredith, The Fate of Africa, p. 380 Under pressure for increased political freedom, Banda agreed to a referendum in 1993, where the populace voted for a multiparty democracy. Following the elections, in late 1993, a presidential council was formed, the life presidency was abolished and a new constitution was put into place, effectively ending the MCP's rule. In 1994 the first multi-party elections were held in Malawi, and Bakili Muluzi became president. Muluzi remained president until 2004, when Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika was elected. Although the political environment is described as "challenging", as of 2008, the multi-party system still exists in Malawi. Multiparty parliamentary and presidential elections will be held for the fourth time in Malawi on May 19, 2009. Politics The districts of Malawi, with Lilongwe (the capital) marked in red Malawi is a democratic, multi-party government, currently under the leadership of President Bingu wa Mutharika. The current constitution was put into place on May 18, 1995. The branches of the government consist of executive, legislative and judicial. The executive includes a president who is both chief of state and head of government, first and second vice presidents and a cabinet. The president is elected every five years, and the vice president is elected with the president. A second vice president may be appointed by the president if he so chooses, although he must be from a different party. The members of the cabinet are appointed by the president and can be from either inside or outside of the legislature. The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly of 193 members who are elected every five years, and although the Malawian constitution provides for a Senate of 80 seats, one does not exist in practice. If created, the Senate would provide representation for traditional leaders and a variety of geographic districts, as well as special interest groups including the disabled, youth and women. The independent judicial branch is based upon the English model and consists of a constitutional court, a High Court, a Supreme Court of Appeal and subordinate Magistrate Courts. There are currently nine political parties, with the Democratic Progressive Party acting as the ruling party and the Malawi Congress Party and the United Democratic Front acting as the main opposition parties in the National Assembly. Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age, and the central government budget for 2007/2008 is $1.24 billion dollars. Malawi is composed of three regions (the Northern, Central and Southern regions), which are divided into 28 districts, and further into approximately 250 traditional authorities and 110 administrative wards. Local government is administered by central government-appointed regional administrators and district commissioners. For the first time in the multi-party era, local elections took place on November 21, 2000, with the UDF party winning 70% of the available seats. There was scheduled to be a second round of constitutionally-mandated local elections in May 2005, but these were canceled by the government. In February 2005, President Mutharika split with the United Democratic Front and began his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party, which has attracted reform-minded officials from other parties and is winning elections across the country as of 2006. As of 2008, President Mutharika has implemented reforms to address the country's major corruption problem, with at least five senior UDF party members facing criminal charges. Dickovick, Africa 2008, p. 278 The military of Malawi consists of an army, a navy and an air wing, all considered to form different sections of the Malawian Army. Between the three forces there are approximately 5,500 military personnel, 1,500 paramilitary police and 80 aircraft, none of which are combat aircraft. The navy division is based out of Monkey Bay on Lake Malawi. Turner, The Statesman's Yearbook, p. 822 Foreign relations Former President Banda established a pro-Western foreign policy that is continued into 2008 and includes good diplomatic relationships with many Western countries. The transition from a one-party state to a multi-party democracy strengthened Malawian ties with the United States. Significant numbers of students from Malawi travel to the US for schooling, and the US has active branches of the Peace Corps, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of Health and Human Services and the Agency for International Development in Malawi. Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa throughout the apartheid era, which strained Malawi's relationships with other African countries, but following the collapse of apartheid in 1994, strong diplomatic relationships were made and maintained into 2008 between Malawi and all other African countries. President Bingu wa Mutharika. Malawi has been seen as a haven for refugees from other African countries, including Mozambique and Rwanda, since 1985. These influxes of refugees have placed a strain on the Malawian economy but have also drawn significant inflows of aid from other countries. Donors to Malawi include the United States, Canada, Germany, Iceland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Ireland and the UK, as well as international institutions such as the World Bank, the IMF, the European Union, the African Development Bank and UN organizations. Malawi is a member of several international organizations including the UN and some of its child agencies, the IMF, the World Bank, the African Union and the World Health Organization. Malawi tends to view economic and political stability in southern Africa as a necessity, and advocates peaceful solutions through negotiation. The country was the first in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Force Initiative. Geography The Golomoti escarpment Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast and Mozambique to the south, southwest and southeast. The Great Rift Valley runs through the country from north to south, and to the east of the valley lies Lake Malawi (also called Lake Nyasa), making up over three-quarters of Malawi's eastern boundary. Lake Malawi is sometimes called the Calendar Lake as it is about long and wide. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River farther south in Mozambique. The surface of Lake Malawi is located at above sea level, with a maximum depth of , which means the lake floor is over below sea level at some points. In the mountainous sections of Malawi surrounding the Rift Valley, plateaus rise generally above sea level, although some rise as high as in the north. To the south of Lake Malawi lie the Shire Highlands, gently rolling land at approximately above sea level. In this area, the Zomba and Mlanje mountain peaks rise to respective heights of and . Malawi's climate is hot in the low-lying areas in the south of the country and temperate in the northern highlands. The altitude moderates what would be an otherwise equatorial climate. Between November and April the temperature is warm with equatorial rains and thunderstorms, with the storms reaching their peak severity in late March. After March, the rainfall rapidly diminishes and from May to September wet mists float from the highlands into the plateaus, with almost no rainfall during these months. Malawi's capital is Lilongwe, and its commercial center and largest city is Blantyre with a population of over 500,000 people. Malawi has two sites listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Lake Malawi National Park was first listed in 1984 and the Chongoni Rock Art Area was listed in 2006. Turner, The Statesman's Yearbook, p. 824 Economy Crafts market in Lilongwe Malawi is among the world's least developed and most densely populated countries. The economy is heavily agriculture-based, with around 85% of the population living in rural areas. More than one-third of GDP and 90% of export revenues come from agriculture. The economy of Malawi has in the past been dependent on substantial economic aid from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and individual nations. In December 2000, the IMF stopped aid disbursements due to corruption concerns, and many individual donors followed suit, resulting in an almost 80% drop in Malawi's development budget. However, in 2005, Malawi was the recipient of over US$575 million in aid. The Malawian government faces challenges in developing a market economy, improving environmental protection, dealing with the rapidly growing HIV/AIDS problem, improving the education system and satisfying its foreign donors that it is working to become financially independent. Improved financial discipline has been seen since 2005 under the leadership of President Mutharika and Financial Minister Gondwe. As of 2008, it was estimated that Malawi had a GDP of $4.082 billion, with a per capita GDP of $299 and inflation estimated at around 7.9%. Agriculture accounts for 35% of GDP, industry for 19% and services for the remaining 46%. Malawi has one of the lowest per capita incomes in the world, although economic growth was estimated at 9.7% in 2008 and strong growth is predicted by the International Monetary Fund for 2009. The poverty rate in Malawi is decreasing through the work of the government and supporting organizations, with people living under the poverty line decreasing from 54% in 1990 to 40% in 2006, and the percentage of "ultra-poor" decreasing from 24% in 1990 to 15% in 2007. A typical road in Malawi The main agricultural products of Malawi include tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, corn, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and goats. The main industries are tobacco, tea and sugar processing, sawmill products, cement and consumer goods. The industrial production growth rate is estimated at 4.4% (2007). The electricity of the country is 96.7% hydroelectric and 3.3% fossil fuels (2001). The country makes no significant use of natural gas. As of 2005, Malawi does not import or export any electricity, but does import all its petroleum, with no production in country. Beginning in 2006, the country began mixing unleaded petrol with 10% ethanol, produced in-country at two plants, to reduce dependence on imported fuel. In 2008, Malawi began testing cars that ran solely on ethanol, and initial results are promising, and the country is continuing to increase its use of ethanol. As of 2007, Malawi exports an estimated US$604 million in goods per year. The country's heavy reliance on tobacco (it accounts for about 70% of export revenues) places a heavy burden on the economy as world prices decline and the international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production. The country also relies heavily on tea, sugar and coffee, with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90% of Malawi's export revenue. Malawi's dependence on tobacco is growing, with the product jumping from 53% to 70% of export revenues between 2007 and 2008. Other exported goods are cotton, peanuts, wood products and apparel. The main destination locations for the country's exports are South Africa, Germany, Egypt, Zimbabwe, the United States, Russia and the Netherlands. Malawi currently imports an estimated US$866 million in goods per year, with the main commodities being food, petroleum products, consumer goods and transportation equipment. The main countries that Malawi imports from are South Africa, India, Zambia, Tanzania, the US and China. In 2006, in response to disastrously low agricultural harvests, Malawi began a program of fertilizer subsidies that were designed to re-energize the land and boost crop production. It has been reported that this program, championed by the country's president, is radically improving Malawi's agriculture, and causing Malawi to become a net exporter of food to nearby countries. Also in 2006, international superstar Madonna started a foundation, known as Raising Malawi, that focuses on raising money and building infrastructure to help AIDS orphans in Malawi. The organization built an orphan-care center, and Madonna financed a documentary about the hardships experienced by Malawian orphans. Raising Malawi also works with the Millennium Villages Project to improve education, health care, infrastructure and agriculture in Malawi. Infrastructure Malawi has 39 airports, 6 with paved runways and 33 with unpaved runways. The country has of railways, all narrow-gauge, and of roadways, paved and unpaved. Malawi also has of waterways on Lake Malawi and along the Shire River. As of 2007, there were 175,200 land line telephones in Malawi, and 1.051 million cell phones, which is approximately 8 cell phones per 100 people. The telephone system overall is described as rudimentary. There were 139,500 Internet users as of 2007, and 3 Internet service providers as of 2002. As of 2001 there were 14 radio stations and 1 TV station. In the past, Malawi's telecommunications system has been named as some of the poorest in Africa, but conditions are improving, with 130,000 land line telephones being connected between 2000 and 2007. Telephones are much more accessible in urban areas, with less than a quarter of land lines being in rural areas. Demographics Population of Malawi from 1961 to 2003 (in thousands) Malawi has a population of almost 14 million, with a growth rate of 2.39%, according to 2008 estimates. Infant mortality rates are high, and life expectancy at birth is 43.45 years. There is a high adult prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS, with an estimated 900,000 adults (or 14.2% of the population) living with the disease in 2003. There are approximately 84,000 deaths a year from HIV/AIDS (2003). Approximately 250 new victims are infected each day, and at least 70% of Malawi's hospital beds are occupied by HIV/AIDS patients. The high rate of infection has resulted in an estimated 5.8% of the farm labor force dying of the disease, and HIV/AIDS is expected to lower the country's GDP by at least 10% by the year 2010. The government spends over $120,000 each year on funerals for civil servants who die of the disease. There is a very high degree of risk for major infectious diseases, including bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria, plague and schistosomiasis. Malawi has been making progress on decreasing child mortality and reducing the incidences of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; however, the country has been "[performing] dismally" on reducing maternal mortality and promoting gender equality. Malawi's population is made up of the Chewa, Nyanja, Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni and Ngonde native ethnic groups, as well as populations of Asians and Europeans. Major languages include Chichewa, an official language spoken by over 57% of the population, Chinyanja (12.8%), Chiyao (10.1%) and Chitumbuka (9.5%). Other native languages are Malawian Lomwe, spoken by around 250,000 in the southeast of the country; Kokola, spoken by around 200,000 people also in the southeast; Lambya, spoken by around 45,000 in the northwestern tip; Ndali, spoken by around 70,000; Nyakyusa-Ngonde, spoken by around 300,000 in northern Malawi; Malawian Sena, spoken by around 270,000 in southern Malawi; and Tonga, spoken by around 170,000 in the north. According to 2007 estimates, approximately 80% of the population is Christian, with the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian making up the largest Christian groups. There are also smaller numbers of Anglicans, Baptists, evangelicals and Seventh Day Adventists. Around 13% of the population is Muslim, with most of the Muslim population being Sunni, of either the Qadriya or Sukkutu groups. Other religious groups within the country include Jews, Rastafarians, Hindus and Baha'is. Atheists make up around 4% of the population, although this number includes people who practice traditional African religions. Education In Malawi, primary education is not compulsory, but the Constitution requires that all people are entitled to at least five years of primary education. In 1994, free primary education for all children was established by the government, which increased attendance rates. Dropout rates are higher for girls than boys, attributed to security problems during the long travel to school, as girls face a higher prevalence of gender-based violence. However, attendance rates for all children are improving, with enrollment rates for primary schools increased from 58% in 1992 to 75% in 2007, while the number of students who begin in grade one and complete grade five has increased from 64% in 1992 to 86% in 2006. Youth literacy has also increased, moving from 68% in 2000 to 82% in 2007. This increase is primarily attributed to improved learning materials in schools, better infrastructure and feeding programs that have been implemented throughout the school system. Culture A man in Malawi playing a traditional musical instrument. The name "Malawi" comes from the Maravi, a Bantu people who immigrated from the southern Congo around 1400 AD. Upon reaching northern Lake Malawi, the group divided, with one group moving south down the west bank of the lake to become the tribe known as the Chewa, while the other group, the ancestors of today's Nyanja tribe, moved along the east side of the lake to the southern section of Malawi. Tribal conflict and continuing migration prevented the formation of a society that was uniquely and cohesively Malawian until the dawn of the 20th century. Over the past century, tribal and ethnic distinctions have diminished to the point where there is no significant tribal friction, although regional divisions still occur. The concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to form around a predominantly rural people who are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent. The Malawian flag is made up of three equal horizontal stripes of black, red and green with a red rising sun superimposed in the center of the black stripe. The black stripe represents the African people, the red represents the blood of martyrs for African freedom, green represents Malawi's ever-green nature and the rising sun represents the dawn of freedom and hope for Africa. A strong part of Malawi's culture is its dances, and the National Dance Troupe (formerly the Kwacha Cultural Troupe) was formed in November 1987 by the government. Traditional music and dances can be seen at initiation rites, rituals, marriage ceremonies and celebrations. Soccer is the most common sport in Malawi, introduced there during British colonial rule. Basketball is also growing in popularity. The native tribes of Malawi have a rich tradition of basketry and mask carving, and some of these goods are used in traditional ceremonies still performed by native peoples. Wood carving and oil painting are also popular in more urban centers, with many of the items produced being sold to tourists. There are several internationally recognized literary figures from Malawi, including poet Jack Mapanje, history and fiction writer Paul Zeleza and authors Legson Kayira, Felix Mnthali, Frank Chipasula and David Rubadiri. Gall, Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, pp. 101–102 See also List of Malawi-related articles Outline of Malawi Notes References External links Government Government of the Republic of Malawi Official website Chief of State and Cabinet Members General Malawi from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Media Nation Malawi daily Blantyre-based newspaper Nyasa Times The Daily Times daily Blantyre-based newspaper Tourism Other Human Development Report 2007/2008 be-x-old:Малаві | Malawi |@lemmatized infobox:1 country:40 lang:1 ny:1 dziko:1 la:1 malaŵi:2 republic:3 malawi:101 flag:2 svg:3 coat:1 arm:1 none:2 unity:1 freedom:4 locationmalawi:1 chichewa:4 oh:1 god:1 bless:1 land:6 english:2 demonym:1 malawian:15 capital:3 lilongwe:4 latd:1 latm:1 latns:1 longd:1 longm:1 longew:1 e:1 multi:7 party:23 democracy:3 president:24 bingu:5 wa:4 mutharika:8 vice:4 joyce:1 banda:12 blantyre:4 billion:4 hdi:1 low:8 gini:1 fsi:1 alert:1 independence:3 uk:2 declare:2 july:2 currency:1 kwacha:2 mwk:1 cat:1 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2,197 | ELIZA | Example of ELIZA in Emacs. ELIZA was a computer program and an early example (by modern standards) of primitive natural language processing. ELIZA operated by processing users' responses to scripts, the most famous of which was DOCTOR, a simulation of a Rogerian psychotherapist. In this mode, ELIZA mostly rephrased the user's statements as questions and posed those to the 'patient.' ELIZA was written by Joseph Weizenbaum between 1964 to 1966. In DOCTOR mode, ELIZA might respond to "My head hurts" with "Why do you say your head hurts?" The response to "My mother hates me" would be "Who else in your family hates you?" ELIZA was implemented using simple pattern matching techniques, but was taken seriously by several of its users, even after Weizenbaum explained to them how it worked. It was one of the first chatterbots in existence. Overview Weizenbaum said that ELIZA, running the DOCTOR script, provided a "parody" of "the responses of a non-directional psychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview." He chose the context of psychotherapy to "sidestep the problem of giving the program a data base of real-world knowledge", the therapeutic situation being one of the few real human situations in which a human being can reply to a statement with a question that indicates very little specific knowledge of the topic under discussion. For example, it is a context in which the question "Who is your favorite composer?" can be answered acceptably with responses such as "What about your own favorite composer?" or "Does that question interest you?" ELIZA was named after Eliza Doolittle, a working-class character in George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion, who is taught to speak with an upper-class accent. First implemented in Weizenbaum's own SLIP list-processing language, ELIZA worked by simple parsing and substitution of key words into canned phrases. Depending upon the initial entries by the user the illusion of a human writer could be instantly dispelled, or could continue through several interchanges. It was sometimes so convincing that there are many anecdotes about people becoming very emotionally caught up in dealing with DOCTOR for several minutes until the machine's true lack of understanding became apparent. In 1966, interactive computing (via a teletype) was new. It was 15 years before the personal computer became familiar to the general public, and three decades before most people encountered attempts at natural language processing in Internet services like Ask.com or PC help systems such as Microsoft Office Clippy. Although those programs included years of research and work, ELIZA remains a milestone simply because it was the first time a programmer had attempted such a human-machine interaction with the goal of creating the illusion (however brief) of human-human interaction. In the article "theNewMediaReader" an excerpt from "From Computer Power and Human Reason" by Joseph Weizenbaum in 1976, edited by Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort he references how quickly and deeply people became emotionally involved with the computer program, taking offence when he asked to view the transcripts, saying it was an invasion of their privacy, even asking him to leave the room while they were working with the DOCTOR script. Influence on games ELIZA impacted a number of early computer games by demonstrating additional kinds of interface designs. Don Daglow wrote an enhanced version of the program called Ecala on a PDP-10 mainframe computer at Pomona College in 1973 before writing what was possibly the second or third computer role-playing game, Dungeon (1975) (The first was probably "dnd", written on and for the PLATO system in 1974, and the second may have been Moria, written in 1975). It is likely that ELIZA was also on the system where Will Crowther created Colossal Cave (Adventure), the 1975 game that spawned the interactive fiction genre. Both these games appeared some nine years after the original ELIZA. Response and legacy Lay responses to ELIZA were disturbing to Weizenbaum and motivated him to write his book Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation, in which he explains the limits of computers, as he wants to make clear in people's minds his opinion that the anthropomorphic views of computers are just a reduction of the human being and any life form for that matter. There are many programs based on ELIZA in different languages. For example, in 1980, a company called "Don't Ask Software", founded by Randy Simon, created a version called "Abuse" for the Apple II, Atari, and Commodore PCs, which verbally abused the user based on the user's input. In Spain, Jordi Perez developed the famous ZEBAL in 1993, written in Clipper for MS-DOS. Other versions adapted ELIZA around a religious theme, such as ones featuring Jesus (both serious and comedic) and another Apple II variant called I Am Buddha. The 1980 game The Prisoner incorporated ELIZA-style interaction within its gameplay. It was also Arthur C. Clarke's inspiration for the Computer HAL In 2001: A Space Odyssey, and 2010: The Year We Make Contact. Implementations A complete and faithful online implementation by Charles Hayden of the program described by Weizenbaum in Java, including source code http://www.chayden.net/eliza/Eliza.html Using JavaScript: http://www.manifestation.com/neurotoys/eliza.php3 Another Java-implementation of ELIZA: http://www.wedesoft.demon.co.uk/eliza/ Using C on the TI-89: http://kaikostack.com/ti89_en.htm#eliza Using z80 Assembly on the TI-83 Plus: http://www.ticalc.org/archives/files/fileinfo/354/35463.html A perl module Chatbot::Eliza Trans-Tex Software has released shareware versions for Classic Mac OS and Mac OS X: http://www.tex-edit.com/index.html#Eliza doctor.el (circa 1985) in Emacs. Source code in Tcl: http://wiki.tcl.tk/9235 The Indy Delphi oriented TCP/IP components suite has an Eliza implementation as demo. Pop-11 Eliza in the poplog system. Goes back to about 1976, when it was used for teaching AI at Sussex University. Now part of the free open source Poplog system. Source code in BASIC: http://www.atariarchives.org/bigcomputergames/showpage.php?page=22 ECC-Eliza for Windows (actual program is for DOS, but unpacker is for Windows) (rename .txt to .exe before running): http://www5.domaindlx.com/ecceliza1/ecceliza.txt. More recent version at http://web.archive.org/web/20041117123025/http://www5.domaindlx.com/ecceliza1/ecceliza.txt. See also 20Q A.L.I.C.E. and AIML Artificial intelligence Chatterbot Dr. Sbaitso ELIZA effect Jabberwacky List of Chatterbots Loebner prize PARRY Racter Simulated consciousness Turing test Virtual Woman Notes References External links dialogues with colorful personalities of early AI, a collection of dialogues between ELIZA and various conversants, such as a company vice president and PARRY (a simulation of a paranoid schizophrenic) WEIZENBAUM. REBEL AT WORK - Peter Haas, Silvia Holzinger, Documentary film with Joseph Weizenbaum and ELIZA. 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2,198 | Excalibur | How Sir Bedivere Cast the Sword Excalibur into the Water, by Aubrey Beardsley (1894) Excalibur is the legendary sword of King Arthur, sometimes attributed with magical powers or associated with the rightful sovereignty of Great Britain. Sometimes Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone (the proof of Arthur's lineage) are said to be the same weapon, but in most versions they are considered separate. The sword was associated with the Arthurian legend very early. In Welsh, the sword is called Caledfwlch. Forms and etymologies The name Excalibur apparently derives ultimately from the Welsh Caledfwlch which combines the elements ("battle, hard"), and ("breach, gap, notch"). R. Bromwich and D. Simon Evans, Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), pp.64-5 Geoffrey of Monmouth Latinized this to Caliburnus, the name of Arthur's sword in his 12th-century work Historia Regum Britanniae. Caliburnus or Caliburn became Excalibur, Escalibor, and other variations when the Arthurian legend entered into French literature. Caledfwlch appears in several early Welsh works, including the poem Preiddeu Annwfn and the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, a work associated with the Mabinogion and written perhaps around 1100. The name was later used in Welsh adaptations of foreign material such as the Bruts, which were based on Geoffrey. It is often considered to be related to the phonetically similar Caladbolg, a sword borne by several figures from Irish mythology, although a borrowing of Caledfwlch from Irish Caladbolg has been considered unlikely by Rachel Bromwich and D. Simon Evans. They suggest instead that both names "may have similarly arisen at a very early date as generic names for a sword"; this sword then became exclusively the property of Arthur in the British tradition. R. Bromwich and D. Simon Evans, Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), p.65; see further T. Green, Concepts of Arthur (Stroud: Tempus, 2007), p.156 Most Celticists consider Geoffrey's Caliburnus to be derivative of a lost Old Welsh text in which bwlch had not yet been lenited to fwlch. P. K. Ford, "On the Significance of some Arthurian Names in Welsh" in Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 30 (1983), pp.268-73 at p.271; R. Bromwich and D. Simon Evans, Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), p.64; James MacKillop, Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp.64-65, 174. In Old French sources this then became Escalibor, Excalibor and finally the familiar Excalibur. Another theory states that Caliburnus is ultimately derived from Latin chalybs, a loanword from the Greek word for steel: χάλυψ, which is in turn derived from Chalybes, the name of an Anatolian, Kartvelian ironworking tribe (in Kartvelian languages Khalyburi means Chalybian). Lacy, New Arthurian Encyclopedia, pp. 15, 147 Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone Excalibur the Sword, by Howard Pyle (1902) In Arthurian romance a number of explanations are given for Arthur's possession of Excalibur. In Robert de Boron's Merlin, Arthur obtained the throne by pulling a sword from a stone. In this account, the act could not be performed except by "the true king," meaning the divinely appointed king or true heir of Uther Pendragon. This sword is thought by many to be the famous Excalibur and the identity is made explicit in the later so-called Vulgate Merlin Continuation, part of the Lancelot-Grail cycle. Merlin: roman du XIIIe siècle ed. M. Alexandre (Geneva: Droz, 1979) However, in what is sometimes called the Post-Vulgate Merlin, Excalibur was given to Arthur by the Lady of the Lake sometime after he began to reign. She calls the sword "Excalibur, that is as to say as Cut-steel." In the Vulgate Mort Artu, Arthur orders Girflet to throw the sword into the enchanted lake. After two failed attempts he finally complies with the wounded king's request and a hand emerges from the lake to catch it, a tale which becomes attached to Bedivere instead in Malory and the English tradition. Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation trans. N. J. Lacy (New York: Garland, 1992-6), 5 vols Malory records both versions of the legend in his Le Morte d'Arthur, and confusingly calls both swords Excalibur. The film Excalibur attempts to rectify this by having only one sword, which Arthur draws from the stone and later breaks; the Lady of the Lake then repairs it. History A statue of Excalibur at Kingston Maurward Caledfwlch In Welsh legend, Arthur's sword is known as Caledfwlch. In Culhwch and Olwen, it is one of Arthur's most valuable possessions and is used by Arthur's warrior Llenlleawg the Irishman to kill the Irish king Diwrnach while stealing his magical cauldron. Caledfwlch is thought to derive from the legendary Irish weapon Caladbolg, the lightning sword of Fergus mac Roich. Caladbolg was also known for its incredible power and was carried by some of Ireland's greatest heroes. Though not named as Caledfwlch, Arthur's sword is described vividly in The Dream of Rhonabwy one of the tales associated with the Mabinogion: Caliburn to Excalibur Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain is the first non-Welsh source to speak of the sword. Geoffrey says the sword was forged in Avalon and Latinizes the name "Caledfwlch" to Caliburn or Caliburnus. When his influential pseudo-history made it to Continental Europe, writers altered the name further until it became Excalibur. The legend was expanded upon in the Vulgate Cycle, also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, and in the Post-Vulgate Cycle which emerged in its wake. Both included the work known as the Prose Merlin, but the Post-Vulgate authors left out the Merlin Continuation from the earlier cycle, choosing to add an original account of Arthur's early days including a new origin for Excalibur. Other information The story of the Sword in the Stone has an analogue in some versions of the story of Sigurd (the Norse proto-Siegfried), whose father, Sigmund, draws the sword Gram out of the tree Barnstokkr where it is embedded by the Norse god Odin. In several early French works such as Chrétien de Troyes' Perceval, the Story of the Grail and the Vulgate Lancelot Proper section, Excalibur is used by Gawain, Arthur's nephew and one of his best knights. This is in contrast to later versions, where Excalibur belongs solely to the king. Attributes The Lady of the Lake offering Arthur Excalibur, by Alfred Kappes (1880) In many versions, Excalibur's blade was engraved with words on opposite sides. On one side were the words "take me up", and on the other side "cast me away" (or similar words), alluding to Jonah 1:12. This prefigures its return into the water. In addition, when Excalibur was first drawn, Arthur's enemies were blinded by its blade, which was as bright as thirty torches. Excalibur's scabbard was said to have powers of its own. Injuries from losses of blood, for example, would not kill the bearer. In some tellings, wounds received by one wearing the scabbard did not bleed at all. The scabbard is stolen by Morgan le Fay and thrown into a lake, never to be found again. Nineteenth century poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson, described the sword in full Romantic detail in his poem "Morte d'Arthur", later rewritten as "The Passing of Arthur", one of the Idylls of the King: Arthur's other weapons Excalibur is by no means the only weapon associated with Arthur, nor the only sword. Welsh tradition also knew of a dagger named Carnwennan and a spear named Rhongomyniad that belonged to him. Carnwennan ("Little White-Hilt") first appears in Culhwch and Olwen, where it was used by Arthur to slice the Very Black Witch in half. T. Jones and G. Jones, The Mabinogion (London: Dent, 1949), p.136; R. Bromwich and D. Simon Evans, Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), pp.64, 66 Rhongomyniad ("spear" + "striker, slayer") is also first mentioned in Culhwch, although only in passing; it appears as simply Ron ("spear") in Geoffrey's Historia. P. K. Ford, "On the Significance of some Arthurian Names in Welsh" in Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 30 (1983), pp.268-73 at p.71; R. Bromwich and D. Simon Evans, Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992), pp.64 In the Alliterative Morte Arthure, a Middle English poem, there is mention of Clarent, a sword of peace meant for knighting and ceremonies as opposed to battle, which is stolen and then used to kill Arthur by Mordred. Alliterative Morte Arthure, TEAMS, retrieved 26-02-2007 See also Singing Sword Kusanagi, a Japanese sword of similar importance. Heaven's Will, a legendary Vietnamese sword of similar importance. Notes References Alexandre, M. Merlin: roman du XIIIe siècle (Geneva: Droz, 1979) Bromwich, R. and Simon Evans, D. Culhwch and Olwen. An Edition and Study of the Oldest Arthurian Tale (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1992) Ford, P.K. "On the Significance of some Arthurian Names in Welsh" in Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 30 (1983), pp.268–73 Gantz, Jeffrey (translator) (1987). The Mabinogion. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044322-3. Green, T. Concepts of Arthur (Stroud: Tempus, 2007) ISBN 978-0-7524-4461-1 Jones, T. and Jones, G. The Mabinogion (London: Dent, 1949) Lacy, N. J. Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation (New York: Garland, 1992-6), 5 vols Lacy, N. J (ed). The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. (London: Garland. 1996). ISBN 0815323034. MacKillop, J. Dictionary of Celtic Mythology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) External links The Camelot Project at the University of Rochester: Excalibur and The Sword In The Stone | Excalibur |@lemmatized sir:1 bedivere:2 cast:2 sword:31 excalibur:26 water:2 aubrey:1 beardsley:1 legendary:3 king:8 arthur:26 sometimes:3 attribute:2 magical:2 power:3 associate:5 rightful:1 sovereignty:1 great:2 britain:2 stone:6 proof:1 lineage:1 say:4 weapon:4 version:5 consider:4 separate:1 arthurian:16 legend:5 early:6 welsh:11 call:5 caledfwlch:9 form:1 etymologies:1 name:14 apparently:1 derive:4 ultimately:2 combine:1 element:1 battle:2 hard:1 breach:1 gap:1 notch:1 r:6 bromwich:7 simon:7 evans:7 culhwch:10 olwen:9 edition:6 study:9 old:10 tale:9 cardiff:6 university:9 wale:6 press:8 pp:8 geoffrey:6 monmouth:2 latinize:2 caliburnus:5 century:2 work:5 historia:2 regum:1 britanniae:1 caliburn:3 become:5 escalibor:2 variation:1 enter:1 french:5 literature:1 appear:3 several:3 include:3 poem:3 preiddeu:1 annwfn:1 prose:2 mabinogion:5 write:1 perhaps:1 around:1 later:5 use:5 adaptation:1 foreign:1 material:1 bruts:1 base:1 often:1 relate:1 phonetically:1 similar:4 caladbolg:4 borne:1 figure:1 irish:4 mythology:3 although:2 borrowing:1 unlikely:1 rachel:1 suggest:1 instead:2 may:1 similarly:1 arise:1 date:1 generic:1 exclusively:1 property:1 british:1 tradition:3 p:9 see:2 green:2 concept:2 stroud:2 tempus:2 celticists:1 derivative:1 lost:1 text:1 bwlch:1 yet:1 lenited:1 fwlch:1 k:3 ford:3 significance:3 bulletin:3 board:3 celtic:5 james:1 mackillop:2 dictionary:2 oxford:4 source:2 excalibor:1 finally:2 familiar:1 another:1 theory:1 state:1 latin:1 chalybs:1 loanword:1 greek:1 word:4 steel:2 χάλυψ:1 turn:1 chalybes:1 anatolian:1 kartvelian:2 ironworking:1 tribe:1 language:1 khalyburi:1 mean:3 chalybian:1 lacy:4 new:6 encyclopedia:2 howard:1 pyle:1 romance:1 number:1 explanation:1 give:2 possession:2 robert:1 de:2 boron:1 merlin:7 obtain:1 throne:1 pull:1 account:2 act:1 could:1 perform:1 except:1 true:2 divinely:1 appoint:1 heir:1 uther:1 pendragon:1 think:2 many:2 famous:1 identity:1 make:2 explicit:1 vulgate:11 continuation:2 part:1 lancelot:5 grail:5 cycle:5 roman:2 du:2 xiiie:2 siècle:2 ed:2 alexandre:2 geneva:2 droz:2 however:1 post:5 lady:3 lake:6 sometime:1 begin:1 reign:1 cut:1 mort:1 artu:1 order:1 girflet:1 throw:2 enchanted:1 two:1 fail:1 attempt:2 comply:1 wounded:1 request:1 hand:1 emerge:2 catch:1 attach:1 malory:2 english:2 translation:2 trans:1 n:3 j:4 york:3 garland:3 vols:2 record:1 le:2 morte:4 confusingly:1 film:1 rectify:1 one:7 draw:2 break:1 repair:1 history:3 statue:1 kingston:1 maurward:1 know:5 valuable:1 warrior:1 llenlleawg:1 irishman:1 kill:3 diwrnach:1 steal:3 cauldron:1 lightning:1 fergus:1 mac:1 roich:1 also:5 incredible:1 carry:1 ireland:1 hero:1 though:1 describe:2 vividly:1 dream:1 rhonabwy:1 first:4 non:1 speak:1 forge:1 avalon:1 influential:1 pseudo:1 continental:1 europe:1 writer:1 alter:1 far:1 expand:1 upon:1 wake:1 author:1 leave:1 choose:1 add:1 original:1 day:1 origin:1 information:1 story:3 analogue:1 sigurd:1 norse:2 proto:1 siegfried:1 whose:1 father:1 sigmund:1 gram:1 tree:1 barnstokkr:1 embed:1 god:1 odin:1 chrétien:1 troyes:1 perceval:1 proper:1 section:1 gawain:1 nephew:1 best:1 knight:2 contrast:1 belongs:1 solely:1 offering:1 alfred:2 kappes:1 blade:2 engrave:1 opposite:1 side:3 take:1 away:1 allude:1 jonah:1 prefigure:1 return:1 addition:1 drawn:1 enemy:1 blind:1 bright:1 thirty:1 torch:1 scabbard:3 injury:1 loss:1 blood:1 example:1 would:1 bearer:1 telling:1 wound:1 receive:1 wear:1 bleed:1 morgan:1 fay:1 never:1 find:1 nineteenth:1 poet:1 lord:1 tennyson:1 full:1 romantic:1 detail:1 rewrite:1 passing:1 idyll:1 dagger:1 carnwennan:2 spear:3 rhongomyniad:2 belong:1 little:1 white:1 hilt:1 slice:1 black:1 witch:1 half:1 jones:4 g:2 london:3 dent:2 striker:1 slayer:1 mention:2 pass:1 simply:1 ron:1 alliterative:2 arthure:2 middle:1 clarent:1 peace:1 meant:1 ceremony:1 oppose:1 mordred:1 team:1 retrieve:1 sing:1 kusanagi:1 japanese:1 importance:2 heaven:1 vietnamese:1 note:1 reference:1 gantz:1 jeffrey:1 translator:1 penguin:1 isbn:3 external:1 link:1 camelot:1 project:1 rochester:1 |@bigram sword_excalibur:3 arthurian_legend:2 bromwich_simon:6 evans_culhwch:6 culhwch_olwen:9 olwen_edition:6 arthurian_tale:6 geoffrey_monmouth:2 historia_regum:1 regum_britanniae:1 tale_culhwch:1 stroud_tempus:2 bulletin_board:3 arthurian_romance:1 uther_pendragon:1 lancelot_grail:4 le_morte:1 morte_arthur:2 nineteenth_century:1 lord_tennyson:1 geoffrey_historia:1 external_link:1 |
2,199 | Diprotodon | __FORCETOC__ Diprotodon was the largest known marsupial that ever lived. It, along with many other members of a group of unusual species collectively called the Australian megafauna, existed from 1.6 million years ago until about 40,000 years ago (through most of the Pleistocene epoch). Diprotodon spp. fossils have been found in many places across Australia, including complete skulls and skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions. More than one female skeleton has been found with a baby lying in her pouch. It inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs and some grasses. The largest specimens were hippopotamus-sized: about three meters (10 feet long) from nose to tail, standing two meters (6 ft) tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 2,786kg (6,142 pounds). Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say, 2003-09-17. Retrieved 2003-09-17. 2786 kg is the estimation for the specimen displayed in the Australian Museum which is considered to be of average size. According to latest research the average male weight is estimated to lie between 2272 kg and 3417 kg. The closest surviving relatives are the wombats and the koala. It is suggested that diprotodonts may have been an inspiration for the legends of the bunyip: apparently, some Australian Aborigine tribes identify Diprotodon bones as those of "bunyips". Discovery Cast of a Diprotodon skeleton. The first Diprotodon remains were discovered in a cave near Wellington in New South Wales in the early 1830s by Major Thomas Mitchell who sent them to England for study by Sir Richard Owen. In the 1840s Ludwig Leichhardt discovered many Diprotodon bones eroding from the banks of creeks in the Darling Downs of Queensland and when reporting the find to Owens commented that the remains were so well preserved he expected to find living examples in the then unexplored central regions of Australia. The majority of fossil finds are of demographic groups indicative of diprotodonts dying in drought conditions. For example, hundreds of individuals were found in Lake Callabonna with well preserved lower bodies but crushed and distorted heads. It is theorised several family groups sank in mud while crossing the drying lakebed. Other finds consist of age groupings of young or old animals which are first to die during a drought. Morphology Diprotodon compared to a human Diprotodon superficially resembled a rhinoceros without a horn. Its feet turned inwards like a wombat’s, giving it a pigeon-toed appearance. It had strong claws on the front feet and its pouch opening faced backwards. Footprints of its feet have been found showing a covering of hair which indicates it had a coat similar to a modern wombat. Until recently it was unknown how many species of Diprotodon had existed. Eight species are described although many researchers believed these actually represented only three at most while some estimated there could be around 20 in total. Recent research compared the variation between all of the described Diprotodon species with the variation in Australia’s largest living marsupial the Eastern Grey Kangaroo and found the range was comparable leaving only two possible Diprotodon species differing only in size with the smaller being around half the size of the larger. According to Gause’s “competitive exclusion principle” no two species with identical ecological requirements can co-exist in a stable environment. However, both the small and large diprotodonts co-existed throughout the Pleistocene and the size difference is similar to other sexually dimorphic living marsupials. Further evidence is the battle damage common in competing males found on the larger specimens but absent from the smaller. The taxonomic implication is that Owen’s original Diprotodon optatum is the only valid species. A single sexually dimorphic species allows behavioural interpretations. All sexually dimorphic species of over 5 kg in weight exhibit a polygynous breeding strategy. A modern example of this is the gender segregation of elephants where females and the young form family groups while lone males fight for the right to mate with all the females of the group. This behaviour is consistent with fossil finds where adult/juvenile fossil assemblages usually contain only female adult remains. Sex secrets of a prehistoric marsupial Cosmos Magazine June 11, 2008 Australian Science Magazine June 2008 Pleistocene Goliath; Gilbert Price Theories on extinction Diprotodonts, along with a wide range of other Australian megafauna, became extinct shortly after humans arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago. Three theories have been advanced to explain the mass extinction. Climate change Animatronic Diprotodon at the Wonambi Fossil Centre, South Australia. Australia has undergone a very long process of gradual aridification since it split off from Gondwanaland about 40 million years ago. From time to time the process reverses for a period, but overall the trend has been strongly toward lower rainfall. The recent ice ages produced no significant glaciation in mainland Australia but long periods of cold and very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age may have killed off all the large diprotodonts. Critics point out a number or problems with this theory. First, large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, and there does not seem to be any particular reason why the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do. Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes, some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt: for example, the tropical north stays fairly warm and wet in all climatic circumstances; alpine valleys are less affected by drought, and so on. Human hunting Cast of a Diprotodon skeleton at Queensland Museum. The 'blitzkrieg' theory is that human hunters killed and ate the diprotodonts, making them extinct. The extinctions appear to have coincided with the arrival of humans on the continent, and in broad terms, Diprotodon was the largest and least well-defended species that died out. Also, similar hunting-out happened with the megafauna of New Zealand, Madagascar and many smaller islands around the world (such as New Caledonia, Cyprus, Crete and Wrangel Island), and at least in part, in the Americas—probably within a thousand years or so. Recent finds of Diprotodon bones which appear to display butchering marks lend support to this theory. But critics of this theory regard it as simplistic, arguing that (unlike New Zealand and America) there is little direct evidence of hunting, and that the dates on which the theory rests are too uncertain to be relied on. Human land management The third theory says that humans indirectly caused the extinction of diprotodonts, by destroying the ecosystem on which they depended. In particular, early Aborigines are thought to have caused fire regularly and persistently to drive game, open up dense thickets of vegetation, and create fresh green regrowth for both humans and game animals to eat. Evidence for the fire hypothesis is the sudden increase in ash deposits at the time that people arrived in Australia, as well as land-management and hunting practices of modern Aboriginal people as recorded by the earliest European settlers before Aboriginal society was devastated by European contact and disease. Multiple causes Cast of a Diprotodon australis skeleton The above hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. Although they are hotly and sometimes acrimoniously debated by specialists, few would argue that it is necessary to choose one explanation for the extinction of many animals in a wide range of environments, from tropical to temperate, from desert to rainforest. Also, each of proposed mechanism broadly supports of the other two, and often it makes little difference which one is regarded as the 'primary' cause. For example, if burning an area of fairly thick forest and thus turning it into a more open, grassy environment is considered likely to impact on the viability of a large browser (an animal that eats leaves and shoots rather than grasses), the reverse is equally true: removing the browsing animals (by eating them, or by any other means) within a few years produces a very thick undergrowth which, when a fire eventually starts through natural causes (as fires tend to do every few hundred years), burns with greater than usual ferocity. The burnt-out area is then repopulated with a greater proportion of fire-loving plant species (notably eucalypts, some acacias, and most of the native grasses) which are unsuitable habitat for most browsing animals. Either way, the trend is toward the modern Australian environment of highly flammable open sclerophyllous forests, woodlands and grasslands, none of which are suitable for large, slow-moving browsing animals—and either way, the changed microclimate produces substantially less rainfall. Popular culture The Diprotodon is featured in Zoo Tycoon 2: Extinct Animals, where it is one of more than 30 extinct creatures to keep. References Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster. Jayne Parsons.(2001): Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley. David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. Welcome Books. External links Australias lost kingdom on Diprotodon optatum BBC science and nature on Diprotodon optatum Regional Council of Goyder page on the genera Museum Victoria on the Diprotodontids Museum Victoria view of a Diplotodon skull. South Australian Museum information. | Diprotodon |@lemmatized diprotodon:20 large:11 know:1 marsupial:5 ever:1 live:2 along:2 many:7 member:1 group:5 unusual:1 specie:11 collectively:1 call:1 australian:7 megafauna:3 exist:4 million:2 year:8 ago:4 pleistocene:3 epoch:1 spp:1 fossil:5 find:11 place:1 across:1 australia:8 include:1 complete:1 skull:2 skeleton:5 well:5 hair:2 foot:5 impression:1 one:5 female:4 baby:1 lie:2 pouch:2 inhabit:1 open:4 forest:3 woodland:2 grassland:2 possibly:1 stay:2 close:2 water:1 eat:5 leaf:2 shrub:1 grass:3 specimen:3 hippopotamus:1 size:5 three:4 meter:2 long:4 nose:1 tail:1 stand:1 two:4 ft:1 tall:1 shoulder:1 weigh:1 pound:1 ice:5 age:6 top:1 ton:1 scientist:1 say:2 retrieve:1 kg:4 estimation:1 display:2 museum:5 consider:2 average:2 accord:2 late:1 research:2 male:3 weight:2 estimate:2 surviving:1 relative:1 wombat:3 koala:1 suggest:1 diprotodonts:8 may:2 inspiration:1 legend:1 bunyip:1 apparently:2 aborigine:2 tribe:1 identify:1 bone:3 bunyips:1 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