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2,500 | Demographics_of_Denmark | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Denmark, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. A majority of Danes today trace their heritage to Germanic tribes who have inhabited Denmark since prehistoric times. Even with increasing immigration in recent years, the Danish population is still more homogenous than is the case of most other western European countries. Large percentages of the population are or are descended from immigrants from Southeast Asia and Turkey. A small German minority live in South Jutland, close to the border with Germany, as there is also a Danish minority on the German side of the border, in Schleswig-Holstein. The region has seen both Danish and German cultural influx and has shifted between the realms. Interestingly, national identity in this border area is based on personal and cultural conviction rather than heritage, language and family descent. Since the 1960s, the main groups of immigrants and refugees have been Turks, Pakistani, Arabs, Kurds, Somalis and people from the former Yugoslavia. Other, less distinguishable groups of immigrants include mainly Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Finns, Germans, Dutch, Poles and Britons. A great number of Faroese and Greenlanders also live in Denmark proper, mostly just for parts of their life, but are rarely taken as separate ethnic groups. Since Danish censuses don't register ethnicity, language and religion (other than membership of the official Evangelical Lutheran church), official numbers don't exist for these issues. There is, however, statistic information based on citizenship and country of birth. Greenland and Faroe Islands A mostly Inuit population inhabits Greenland, but 10-15% of the populace are Danes and another substantial part have both Danish and Inuit ancestry. Some Greenlanders, especially in towns, master the Danish language better than Greenlandic which has led to local political measures for promoting Greenlandic in public life (Greenlandisation). The Faroe Islands have a Nordic population with their own language. Religion The Evangelical Lutheran church (Den danske folkekirke) is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2006, accounts for about 83% of Denmark's religious affiliation. Denmark has had religious freedom guaranteed since 1849 by the Constitution, and numerous other religions are officially recognised, including several Christian denominations, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu and other congregations as well as Asatru, a revival of Scandinavian pagan tradition. The Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs recognizes roughly a hundred religious congregations for tax and legal purposes such as conducting wedding ceremonies. For historical reasons there is a formal distinction between 'approved' (godkendte) and 'recognised' (anerkendte) congregations of faith. The latter include 11 traditional denominations, such as Roman Catholics, the Reformed Church, the Mosaic Congregation, Methodists and Baptists, some of whose privileges in the country date hundreds of years back. These have the additional rights of having priests appointed by royal resolution and to christen/name children with legal effect. Demographic statistics Population Denmark's population from 1769 to 2007. YearPopulation YearPopulation 1769 797,584 1976 5,065,313 1787 841,806 1977 5,079,879 1801 929,001 1978 5,096,959 1834 1,230,964 1979 5,111,537 1840 1,289,075 1980 5,122,065 1845 1,356,877 1981 5,123,989 1850 1,414,648 1982 5,119,155 1855 1,507,222 1983 5,116,464 1860 1,608,362 1984 5,112,130 1870 1,784,741 1985 5,111,108 1880 1,969,039 1986 5,116,273 1890 2,172,380 1987 5,124,794 1901 2,449,540 1988 5,129,254 1906 2,588,919 1989 5,129,778 1911 2,757,076 1990 5,135,409 1916 2,921,362 1991 5,146,469 1921 3,267,831 1992 5,162,126 1925 3,434,555 1993 5,180,614 1930 3,550,656 1994 5,196,642 1935 3,706,349 1995 5,215,718 1940 3,844,312 1996 5,251,027 1945 4,045,232 1997 5,275,121 1950 4,281,275 1998 5,294,860 1955 4,448,401 1999 5,313,577 1960 4,585,256 2000 5,330,020 1965 4,767,597 2001 5,349,212 1970 4,937,579 2002 5,368,354 1971 4,950,598 2003 5,383,507 1972 4,975,653 2004 5,397,640 1973 5,007,538 2005 5,411,405 1974 5,036,184 2006 5,427,459 1975 5,054,410 2007 5,447,084 Source Statistics Denmark, "Folketal efter hovedlandsdele (summariske tal fra folketællinger)" (table FT) CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure 0-14 years: 18.7% (male 523,257; female 496,697) 15-64 years: 66.1% (male 1,815,240; female 1,787,406) 65 years and over: 15.2% (male 355,656; female 472,405) (2006 est.) Median age total: 39.8 years male: 38.9 years female: 40.7 years Population growth rate 0.33% (2006 est.) Birth rate 11.13 births/1000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 10.36 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 2.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 4.51 deaths/1,000 live births male: 4.54 deaths/1,000 live births female: 4.47 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 77.79 years male: 75.49 years female: 80.22 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 1.89 children born/woman (2008) HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate: 0.2% (2003 est.) people living with HIV/AIDS: 5,000 (2003 est.) deaths: fewer than 100 (2003 est.) Nationality noun: Dane(s) adjective: Danish Ethnic groups Minority ethnic groups are: Inuits (Greenlandic) from the territory of Greenland, Turks, Arabs (i.e. Palestinians, followed by Moroccans, Syrians, Lebanese, Yemenis, Egyptians, Iraqis and Jordanians), Vietnamese, Jews, Chinese, Pakistanis, Iranians, Somalis, Ethiopians, Sudanese, Kurds, Indians, Chileans (the most numerous of Latin American nationalities), former Yugoslavians (Bosniaks, Croats, Serbs) and Albanians. Language Danish is the official language of Denmark, Faroese official for the Faeroe Islands, Greenlandic (an Inuit dialect) official in Greenland, German (small minority) is co-official in southern Jutland facing Germany and Low Saxon (small minority, moribund) also in southern Jutland along the border. As a Scandinavian language, Danish is mainly understandable for many Swedish and Norwegian speakers. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% male: 99% female: 99% (2003 est.) References See also Religion in Denmark External links Danish Demes Regional DNA Project National statistics Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs - List of recognised denominations (in Danish) Statistic info on recognised denominations (in Danish; Muslim congregations not listed) | Demographics_of_Denmark |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:16 denmark:9 include:4 density:1 ethnicity:2 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:2 economic:1 status:1 religious:4 affiliation:2 aspect:1 majority:1 dane:3 today:1 trace:1 heritage:2 germanic:1 tribe:1 inhabit:1 since:4 prehistoric:1 time:1 even:1 increase:1 immigration:1 recent:1 year:14 danish:12 still:1 homogenous:1 case:1 western:1 european:1 country:3 large:1 percentage:1 descend:1 immigrant:3 southeast:1 asia:1 turkey:1 small:3 german:5 minority:5 live:6 south:1 jutland:3 close:1 border:4 germany:2 also:4 side:1 schleswig:1 holstein:1 region:1 see:2 cultural:2 influx:1 shift:1 realm:1 interestingly:1 national:2 identity:1 area:1 base:2 personal:1 conviction:1 rather:1 language:7 family:1 descent:1 main:1 group:5 refugee:1 turk:2 pakistani:2 arab:2 kurd:2 somali:2 people:2 former:2 yugoslavia:1 less:1 distinguishable:1 mainly:2 swede:1 norwegian:2 icelander:1 finn:1 dutch:1 pole:1 briton:1 great:1 number:2 faroese:2 greenlanders:2 proper:1 mostly:2 part:2 life:3 rarely:1 take:1 separate:1 ethnic:3 census:1 register:1 religion:4 membership:1 official:6 evangelical:2 lutheran:2 church:3 exist:1 issue:1 however:1 statistic:8 information:1 citizenship:1 birth:8 greenland:4 faroe:2 islands:1 inuit:4 inhabits:1 another:1 substantial:1 ancestry:1 especially:1 town:1 master:1 well:2 greenlandic:4 lead:1 local:1 political:1 measure:1 promote:1 public:1 greenlandisation:1 island:2 nordic:1 den:1 danske:1 folkekirke:1 state:1 support:1 accord:1 january:1 account:1 freedom:1 guarantee:1 constitution:1 numerous:2 officially:1 recognise:2 several:1 christian:1 denomination:4 muslim:2 jewish:1 buddhist:1 hindu:1 congregation:5 asatru:1 revival:1 scandinavian:2 pagan:1 tradition:1 department:1 ecclesiastical:2 affair:2 recognize:1 roughly:1 hundred:2 tax:1 legal:2 purpose:1 conduct:1 wed:1 ceremony:1 historical:1 reason:1 formal:1 distinction:1 approve:1 godkendte:1 anerkendte:1 faith:1 latter:1 traditional:1 roman:1 catholic:1 reform:1 mosaic:1 methodist:1 baptist:1 whose:1 privilege:1 date:1 back:1 additional:1 right:1 priest:1 appoint:1 royal:1 resolution:1 christen:1 name:1 child:2 effect:1 yearpopulation:2 source:1 folketal:1 efter:1 hovedlandsdele:1 summariske:1 tal:1 fra:1 folketællinger:1 table:1 ft:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 age:3 structure:1 male:12 female:12 est:12 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 nationality:2 noun:1 adjective:1 territory:1 e:1 palestinian:1 follow:1 moroccan:1 syrian:1 lebanese:1 yemeni:1 egyptian:1 iraqi:1 jordanian:1 vietnamese:1 jew:1 chinese:1 iranian:1 ethiopian:1 sudanese:1 indian:1 chilean:1 latin:1 american:1 yugoslavian:1 bosniaks:1 croat:1 serb:1 albanian:1 faeroe:1 dialect:1 co:1 southern:2 face:1 low:1 saxon:1 moribund:1 along:1 understandable:1 many:1 swedish:1 speaker:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 demes:1 regional:1 dna:1 project:1 ministry:1 list:2 recognised:2 info:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:2 affiliation_aspect:1 germanic_tribe:1 southeast_asia:1 schleswig_holstein:1 evangelical_lutheran:2 greenland_faroe:1 faroe_islands:1 faroe_island:1 demographic_statistic:3 factbook_demographic:1 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 syrian_lebanese:1 croat_serb:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 |
2,501 | Digamma | Digamma (uppercase , lowercase ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet, used primarily as a Greek numeral. The letter had the phonetic value of a voiced labial-velar approximant . It was originally called wau. Cf. Grammatici Latini (ed. Keil), 7.148. It was later called the "elusive" (digamma — "double gamma") because of its shape. It is attested in archaic and dialectal ancient Greek inscriptions, and is occasionally used as a symbol in later Greek mathematical texts. Digamma, like Upsilon, derives from the Phoenician letter Waw, and in its turn gave rise to the Roman letter F. Numeral It is also used as the Greek numeral 6. In ancient usage, the numeral had the same form as the letter digamma. However, in medieval and modern usage, the numeral has normally been written in the graphic form of a stigma (, ), which historically is completely distinct from digamma; it is a medieval ligature of sigma and tau. To complete the confusion, in modern times, the sequence στ or ΣΤ is sometimes used instead of the stigma symbol. The sound in Greek The letter digamma as it appears in four fonts. Mycenaean Greek The sound existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in Linear B and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma. It is also confirmed by the Hittite name of Troy, Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion. Classical Greek The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period. In Ionic, had probably disappeared before Homer's epics were written down (7th century BC), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the meter defective. For example, the words (king), found in the Iliad, which would originally have been [wanaks], and (wine) are sometimes used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected. Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that was earlier [woinos] (cf.Cretan Doric ibêna, Latin vinum and English "wine"). For some time, word-initial /w-/ remained foreign to Greek phonology, and was dropped in loanwords, compare the name of Italy (Italia from Oscan Viteliu *Ϝιτελιυ) or of the Veneti (Greek Ἐνετοί - Enetoi). By the 2nd century BC, the phoneme was once again registered, compare for example the spelling of for vates. "Pamphylian digamma" In some local (epichoric) alphabets, a variant glyph of the letter digamma existed that resembled modern Cyrillic И. In one local alphabet, that of Pamphylia, this variant form existed side by side with standard digamma as two distinct letters. It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound /w/ may have changed to labiodental in some environments. The F-shaped letter may have stood for the new [v] sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old [w] sound was preserved. Nick Nicolas: Proposal to add Greek epigraphical letters to the UCS. Technical report, Unicode Consortium, 2005. Citing C. Brixhe, Le dialecte grec de Pamphylie. Documents et grammaire. Paris: Maisonneuve, 1976. Modern Greek The digamma survives even today as /v/ in the Modern Greek Tsakonian dialect, the only dialect not descended from ancient Koine Greek, the famous, and only, example being βάννε /'vannε/ "lamb" for standard Greek ) (cf. Cretan ). The city of Oitylo used to be called Vitulo earlier, until the Classical Attic-Ionic form, /'itilo/, was introduced. The diphthong - which is attested in the Iliad already (2.285) - is probably due to an early attempt to render the foreign sound: [oi] = [wi]. Unicode representation In Unicode digamma has code uppercase U+03DC Ϝ, lowercase U+03DD ϝ Unicode Character 'GREEK LETTER DIGAMMA' (U+03DC) . In July 2006, another pair of the uppercase and lowercase digamma with bold typeface, were added to the Unicode standard version 5.0 and have codes U+1D7CA and U+1D7CB. Their intended use is as mathematical symbols, not regular text. The И-shaped "Pamphylian digamma" was additionally encoded as U+0376 (uppercase) and U+0377 (lowercase) in Unicode version 5.1. Notes References Peter T. Daniels - William Bright (edd.), The World's Writing Systems, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN 0195079930 Jean Humbert, Histoire de la langue grecque, Paris, 1972. Michel Lejeune, Phonétique historique du mycénien et du grec ancien, Klincksieck, Paris, 1967. ISBN 2252034963 "In Search of The Trojan War", pp.142-143,187 by Michael Wood, 1985, published by BBC. External links List of words that once started with digamma: perseus.tufts.edu The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek digamma (Ϝ, whose name in Greek was probably Ϝαυ) and upsilon (Υ), Etruscan v ( visually a backwards F ) and Latin F, V, and Y; V later developed into U and W. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:EtruscanF-01.png | Digamma |@lemmatized digamma:17 uppercase:4 lowercase:4 archaic:3 letter:12 greek:21 alphabet:3 use:8 primarily:1 numeral:5 phonetic:1 value:1 voiced:1 labial:1 velar:1 approximant:1 originally:2 call:3 wau:1 cf:3 grammatici:1 latini:1 ed:1 keil:1 later:2 elusive:1 double:1 gamma:1 shape:3 attest:3 dialectal:1 ancient:3 inscription:2 occasionally:1 symbol:3 late:1 mathematical:2 text:2 like:1 upsilon:2 derive:1 phoenician:2 waw:1 turn:1 give:2 rise:2 roman:1 f:4 also:2 usage:2 form:5 however:1 medieval:2 modern:5 normally:1 write:3 graphic:1 stigma:2 historically:1 completely:1 distinct:2 ligature:1 sigma:1 tau:1 complete:1 confusion:1 time:3 sequence:1 στ:2 sometimes:2 instead:1 sound:7 appear:1 four:1 font:1 mycenaean:1 exist:3 mycenean:1 linear:1 b:1 confirm:1 hittite:1 name:4 troy:1 wilusa:1 correspond:1 wilion:1 classical:3 lose:1 various:2 dialect:4 mostly:1 period:1 ionic:2 probably:3 disappear:1 homer:1 epic:1 century:2 bc:2 former:1 presence:1 detect:1 many:1 case:1 omission:1 leave:1 meter:2 defective:1 example:3 word:4 king:1 find:1 iliad:2 would:2 wanaks:1 wine:2 start:2 consonant:1 expect:1 evidence:1 couple:1 cognate:1 analysis:1 show:1 earlier:2 woinos:1 cretan:2 doric:1 ibêna:1 latin:2 vinum:1 english:1 initial:1 w:4 remain:1 foreign:2 phonology:1 drop:1 loanword:1 compare:2 italy:1 italia:1 oscan:1 viteliu:1 ϝιτελιυ:1 veneti:1 ἐνετοί:1 enetoi:1 phoneme:1 registered:1 spelling:1 vates:1 pamphylian:2 local:2 epichoric:1 variant:2 glyph:1 resemble:1 cyrillic:1 и:3 one:1 pamphylia:1 side:2 standard:3 two:1 surmise:1 may:2 change:1 labiodental:1 environment:1 shaped:1 stand:1 new:2 v:5 special:1 signify:1 position:1 old:1 preserve:1 nick:1 nicolas:1 proposal:1 add:2 epigraphical:1 ucs:1 technical:1 report:1 unicode:6 consortium:1 cite:1 c:1 brixhe:1 le:1 dialecte:1 grec:2 de:2 pamphylie:1 document:1 et:2 grammaire:1 paris:3 maisonneuve:1 survive:1 even:1 today:1 tsakonian:1 descend:1 koine:1 famous:1 βάννε:1 vannε:1 lamb:1 city:1 oitylo:1 vitulo:1 attic:1 itilo:1 introduce:1 diphthong:1 already:1 due:1 early:1 attempt:1 render:1 oi:1 wi:1 representation:1 code:2 u:8 ϝ:3 character:1 july:1 another:1 pair:1 bold:1 typeface:1 version:2 intend:1 regular:1 additionally:1 encode:1 note:1 reference:1 peter:1 daniel:1 william:1 bright:1 edd:1 world:1 system:1 york:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:2 jean:1 humbert:1 histoire:1 la:1 langue:1 grecque:1 michel:1 lejeune:1 phonétique:1 historique:1 du:2 mycénien:1 ancien:1 klincksieck:1 search:1 trojan:1 war:1 pp:1 michael:1 wood:1 publish:1 bbc:1 external:1 link:1 list:1 perseus:1 tuft:1 edu:1 whose:1 ϝαυ:1 υ:1 etruscan:1 visually:1 backwards:1 develop:1 http:1 common:1 wikimedia:1 org:1 wiki:1 image:1 etruscanf:1 png:1 |@bigram labial_velar:1 velar_approximant:1 unicode_consortium:1 koine_greek:1 la_langue:1 historique_du:1 external_link:1 tuft_edu:1 org_wiki:1 |
2,502 | Gin | Gin is a spirit flavoured with juniper berries. Distilled gin is made by redistilling white grain spirit which has been flavoured with juniper berries. Compound gin is made by flavouring neutral grain spirit with juniper berries without redistilling and can be considered a flavoured vodka. The most common style of gin, typically used for mixed drinks, is London dry gin. London dry gin is made by taking a neutral grain spirit (usually produced in a column still) and redistilling after the botanicals are added. In addition to juniper, it is usually made with amounts of citrus botanicals like lemon and bitter orange peel. Other botanicals that may be used include anise, angelica root and seed, orris root, licorice root, cinnamon, coriander, and cassia bark. Plymouth Gin has a different recipe, and is made without the bitter botanicals of London dry gin. It has lemon and orange, angelica, anise, cardamom, coriander and Juniper. Bitter lemon and orange are not used. Distilled gin evolved from the Dutch spirits jonge- and oude- Jenever or Genever (young and old Dutch gin), Plymouth gin, and Old Tom gin. Sloe gin is a common ready-sweetened form of gin that is traditionally made by infusing sloes (the fruit of the blackthorn) in gin. Similar infusions are possible with other fruits, such as damsons (See Damson gin). A well-made gin will be relatively dry compared to other spirits. Gin is often mixed in cocktails with sweeter ingredients like tonic water or vermouth to balance this dryness. History It is a common misconception that the word gin derives from the Swiss city, Geneva. In fact, the word gin derives from the French word for juniper— genévrier— which is the fruit that flavours the drink. Its invention is often credited to the physician Franciscus Sylvius. It was sold in pharmacies and used to treat such medical problems as kidney ailments, lumbago, stomach ailments, gallstones, and gout. It spread to England after the Glorious Revolution put William of Orange on the British throne. Dutch gin, also known as jenever or genever, is a distinctly different drink from English-style gin; it is distilled with barley and sometimes aged in wood, giving it a slight resemblance to whisky. Schiedam, in South Holland, is famous for its jenever. Jenever is produced in a pot still and is typically lower in alcohol and more strongly flavoured than London gin. Hogarth's Gin Lane Gin became popular in England after the government allowed unlicensed gin production and at the same time imposed a heavy duty on all imported spirits. This created a market for poor-quality grain that was unfit for brewing beer, and thousands of gin-shops sprang up throughout England. By 1740 the production of gin had increased to six times that of beer, and because of its cheapness it became popular with the poor. Of the 15,000 drinking establishments in London, over half were gin-shops. Beer maintained a healthy reputation as it was often safer to drink the brewed ale than unclean plain water. Gin, though, was blamed for various social and medical problems, and it may have been a factor in the higher death rates which stabilized London's previously growing population. The reputation of the two drinks was illustrated by William Hogarth in his engravings Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751). This negative reputation survives today in the English language, in terms like "gin-mills" to describe disreputable bars or "gin-soaked" to refer to drunks, and in the phrase "Mother's Ruin," a common British name for gin. The Gin Act 1736 imposed high taxes on retailers and led to riots in the streets. The prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in 1742. The Gin Act 1751 was more successful, however. It forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and brought gin-shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates. Gin in the 18th century was produced in pot stills, and was somewhat sweeter than the London gin known today. In London in the early eighteenth century, gin sold on the black market was prepared in illicit stills (of which there were 1500 in 1726) and was often adulterated with turpentine and sulfuric acid. As late as 1913 Webster's Dictionary states without further comment that 'Common gin is usually flavored with turpentine.' The column still was invented in 1832, and the "London dry" style was developed later in the 19th century. In tropical British colonies, gin was used to mask the bitter flavour of quinine, a protection against malaria, which was dissolved in carbonated water to form tonic water. This was the origin of today's popular gin and tonic combination, even though it is not necessary for the majority of today's consumers of the drink. Quinine is still prescribed for malaria in many developing countries where more recent treatments are prohibitively expensive. http://www.drugs.com/mtm/quinine.html Quinine as treatment for malaria http://www.priory.com/malaria.htm The use of quinine and other drugs Gin is a popular base spirit for many mixed drinks, including the martini. Secretly produced "bathtub gin" was commonly available in the speakeasies and "blind pigs" of Prohibition-era America due to the relative simplicity of the production method. Gin remained popular as the basis of many cocktails after the repeal of Prohibition. The National Gin Museum is in Hasselt, Belgium. Cocktails with gin Perhaps the best-known gin cocktail is the Martini, traditionally made with gin and dry vermouth. Other gin-based drinks include: 20th Century Allen - Gin with lemon juice and Maraschino liqueur Gimlet - gin and lime juice Gin and Juice - gin and orange juice Gin and Tonic Gin Fizz Gin Rickey - gin, lime juice and carbonated water Gin bucketThe Last Word London Mule, the gin version of a Moscow Mule Maiden's Prayer http://www.chefs-help.co.uk/drinkrecipe.php?nrecipe=5&item=Gin+Cocktail Maiden's Prayer Negroni Old Etonian Orange Blossom - Plymouth gin and orange juice Orange Blossom Cocktail Recipe from the Free Online Bartending School Pimm's Cup Pink GinRamos gin fizz Salty Dog Satan's Whiskers Singapore Sling Tom Collins White Lady Gin is often combined with a number of other mixers. Brands of gin Notable brands Aviation - full and weighty mouth feel, Pacific Northwest inspired flavors of earth and spice, uniquely cool finish. Beefeater - First produced in 1820 BOLS Damrak Amsterdam - Dutch jenever Bombay Sapphire - distilled with ten botanicals Boodles British Gin Booth's - first produced in 1790 by Sir Felix Booth Bulldog Gin - infused with Poppy and Dragon Eye Citadelle - 19 exotic botanicals, made in Cognac, France Cork Dry Gin - First distilled at the Watercourse Distillery in Cork City in 1793, now Ireland's best selling Gin. Damrak - Sweet candied citrus aromas with a spicy licorice and a juniper edge. Gilbey's Gin Ginebra San Miguel - produced in the PhilippinesGordon's - "by appointment to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain" Greenall's G'vine - based on an Ugni Blanc base spirit and infused with green grape flowers Hendrick's Gin - An unusual gin made in Scotland, infused with cucumber and rose petals. Old Tom gin Plymouth - first distilled in 1793 Seagram's Gin South Gin - from New Zealand using New Zealand-native manuka berries and kawa kawa leaves Steinhäger Tanqueray Uganda Waragi - triple distilled Ugandan Waragi Gin Whitley Neill Gin - Small batch Super-premium gin distilled with Baobab fruit and Cape Gooseberries Historical brands Fleischmann's Gin - Marketed as the original American gin, first distilled in 1870 Fleischmann's Gin See also List of cocktails References External links A thorough article about the history and types of gin Recipes with Gin Gin news page - Alcohol and Drugs History Society Gin in Victorian London | Gin |@lemmatized gin:86 spirit:9 flavour:6 juniper:7 berry:4 distil:7 make:10 redistilling:3 white:2 grain:4 compound:1 neutral:2 without:3 consider:1 flavoured:1 vodka:1 common:5 style:3 typically:2 use:7 mixed:3 drink:8 london:11 dry:7 take:1 usually:3 produce:7 column:2 still:6 botanical:6 add:1 addition:1 amount:1 citrus:2 like:3 lemon:4 bitter:4 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2,503 | Black_Death | The Black Death was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1347 and 1351. It is widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia pestis (Plague). Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411) The nature of the plague Inspired by Black Death, The Dance of Death is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motif in late-medieval periods The Black Death was, according to chronicles, characterized by buboes (swellings in lymph nodes), like the late 18th century Asian bubonic plague. Scientists and historians at the beginning of the 20th century assumed that the Black Death was an outbreak of the same disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and spread by fleas with the help of animals like the black rat (Rattus rattus). However, this view has recently been questioned by some scientists and historians, Kelly, John (2005). The Great Mortality, An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time. HarperCollins Publisher Inc., New York, NY. ISBN 0-06-000692-7. Page 295. and some researchers believe that the illness was, in fact, a viral hemorrhagic fever based on epidemiological interpretation of historical records of the spread of disease. Some historians believe the pandemic began in China or Central Asia (one such location is lake Issyk Kul) The Silk Route, Channel 4 - History in the lungs of the bobac variety of marmot, spreading to fleas, to rats, and eventually to humans. Fry,Stephen. The Book of General Ignorance. 2006. London. In the late 1320s or 1330s, and during the next years merchants and soldiers carried it over the caravan routes until in 1346 it reached the Crimea in South Eastern Europe. Other scholars believe the plague was endemic in that area. In either case, from Crimea the plague spread to Western Europe and North Africa during the 1340s. The total number of deaths worldwide is estimated at 75 million people, approximately 25–50 million of which occurred in Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of Europe's population. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, in L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp.45–46, say "between one-third and two-thirds"; Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 2, pp.257–67, says "between 25 and 45 percent". It may have reduced the world's population from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and 375 million in 1400. The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. On its return in 1603, the plague killed 38,000 Londoners. Other notable 17th century outbreaks were the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, and the Great Plague of Seville (1647–1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), and the Great Plague of Vienna (1679). There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form, after the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722, the Great Plague of 1738 (which hit eastern Europe), and the Russian plague of 1770-1772, it seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 19th century. The 14th century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing the social structure. It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church, and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars, and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of morbidity, influencing people to "live for the moment", as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). Boccaccio: THE DECAMERON , "INTRODUCTION" Terminology Medieval people called the fourteenth century catastrophe either the "Great Pestilence"' or the "Great Plague". Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 327 Writers contemporary to the plague referred to the event as the "Great Mortality". The term "Black Death" was introduced for the first time in 1833. Ibid. It has been popularly thought that the name came from a striking late-stage sign of the disease, in which the sufferer's skin would blacken due to subepidermal haemorrhages (purpura), and the extremities would darken with gangrene (acral necrosis). However, the term is more likely to refer to black in the sense of glum, lugubrious, or dreadful. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.38 (article from pp.38 to 49, the whole issue is dedicated to the Black Plague, pp.38–60) Plague migration The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes. The plague disease, generally thought to be caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of ground rodents (most specifically, the bobac variety of marmot) Fry,Stephen The Book of General Ignorance in Central Asia, but it is not entirely clear where the 14th century pandemic started. The popular theory places the first cases in the steppes of Central Asia, although some speculate that it originated around northern India, and others, such as the historian Michael W. Dols, argue that the historical evidence concerning epidemics in the Mediterranean and specifically the Plague of Justinian point to a probability that the Black Death originated in Africa and spread to Central Asia, where it then became entrenched among the rodent population. Michael W. Dols, "The Second Plague Pandemic and Its Recurrences in the Middle East: 1347–1894" Journal of the Economic Social History of the Orientvol. 22 no. 2 (May 1979), 170–171. Nevertheless, from Central Asia it was carried east and west along the Silk Road, by Mongol armies and traders making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the Pax Mongolica. It was reportedly first introduced to Europe at the trading city of Caffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, bringing the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread. Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several pre-existing conditions such as , famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. In China, the thirteenth century Mongol conquest disrupted farming and trading, and led to widespread famine. The population dropped from approximately 120 to 60 million. Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53. The 14th century plague is estimated to have killed 1/3 of the population of China. In Europe, the Medieval Warm Period ended sometime towards the end of the thirteenth century, bringing harsher winters and reduced harvests. In the years 1315 to 1317 a catastrophic famine, known as the Great Famine, struck much of North-West Europe. The famine came about as the result of a large population growth in the previous centuries, with the result that, in the early fourteenth century the population began to exceed the number that could be sustained by productive capacity of the land and farmers. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 326 In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plough and the three-field system were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like, soil. Ibid. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay, and consequently livestock were all in short supply. Their scarcity resulted in malnutrition, which increases susceptibility to infections due to weakened immunity. The European economy entered a vicious circle in which hunger and chronic, low-level debilitating disease reduced the productivity of labourers, and so the grain output was reduced, causing grain prices to increase. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs such as Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377) and Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350), out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline, raised the fines and rents of their tenants. Ibid., 327. Standards of living then fell drastically, diets grew more limited, and Europeans as a whole experienced more health problems. In the autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall, which led to several years of cold and wet winters. The already weak harvests of the north suffered and the seven-year famine ensued. The Great Famine was the worst in European history, reducing the population by at least ten percent. Records recreated from dendrochronological studies show a hiatus in building construction during the period, as well as a deterioration in climate. This was the economic and social situation in which the predictor of the coming disaster, a typhoid (contaminated water) epidemic, emerged. Many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly Ypres. In 1318 a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe, notably sheep and cattle, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry. Causes of the bubonic infection Yersinia pestis seen at 200x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths. Several possible causes exist that might have led to the Black Death; the most prevalent is the Bubonic plague theory. Plague and the ecology of Yersinia pestis in soil, and in rodent and (possibly and importantly) human ectoparasites are reviewed and summarized by Michel Drancourt in modelling sporadic, limited, and large plague outbreaks. Efficient transmission of Y. pestis is generally thought to occur only through the bites of fleas whose mid guts become obstructed by replicating Y.Pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behavior by fleas that repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site and the host becoming infected. However, modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs, suggests that occasional reservoirs of infection such as an infectious carcass, rather than "blocked fleas" are a better explanation for the observed epizootic behaviour of the disease in nature. One hypothesis about the epidemiology (the appearance, spread, and especially disappearance) of plague from Europe, is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The Black Rat (Rattus rattus) was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different ecological niche. Appleby, Andrew B. "The Disappearance of the Plague: A Continuing Puzzle", Economic History Review 33, 2 (1980) 161–173 Slack, Paul. "The Disappearance of the Plague: An Alternative View." Economic History Review 34, 3 (1981) 469–476. The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity, and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance. Signs and symptoms The main symptoms of pneumonic plague as illustrated The main symptoms of the bubonic plague The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. The septicaemic plague is a form of "blood poisoning," and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck, and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land. The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including fever of 38–41 °C (101–105 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. Rebecca Totaro, Suffering in Paradise: The Bubonic Plague in English Literature from More to Milton, (Pittsburgh: Duquense University Press: 2005), p. 26. Pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included fever, cough, and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague was the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate close to one hundred percent. Symptoms were high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to DIC). David Herlihy Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (1997) Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, p. 29. identifies another potential sign of the plague: freckle-like spots and rashes. Sources from Viterbo, Italy refer to "the signs which are vulgarly called lenticulae", a word which bears resemblance to the Italian word for freckles, lentiggini. These are not the swellings of buboes, but rather "darkish points or pustules which covered large areas of the body". A Malthusian crisis In addition, various historians have adopted yet another theory for the cause of the Black Plague, one that points to social, agricultural, and sometimes economic causes. Often known as the Malthusian limit, scholars use this term to express, and/or explain, certain tragedies throughout history. In his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus asserted that eventually humans would reproduce so greatly that they would go beyond the limits of food supplies; once they reached this point, some sort of "reckoning" was inevitable. While the Black Death may appear to be a "reckoning" of this sort, it was in fact an external, unpredictable factor and does not therefore fit into the Malthusian theory. In his book, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, David Herlihy explores this idea of plague as an inevitable crisis wrought on humanity in order to control the population and human resources. In the book The Black Death; A Turning Point in History? (ed. William M. Bowsky) he writes "implies that the Black Death's pivotal role in late medieval society... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe." Herlihy examines the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating "if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier" due to the population growth of years before the outbreak of the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1314 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels". Herlihy concludes the matter stating, "the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period" and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics. Consequences Monks, disfigured by the plague, being blessed by a priest. England, 1360–75 Figures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source as new research and discoveries come to light. It killed an estimated 75–200 million people in the 14th century. According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007: Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8 The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 80% to 75% of the population. In Germany and England . . . it was probably closer to 20%. Jews are burned alive. The best estimate for Middle East—Iraq, Iran, Syria, etc during the Islamic Middle Ages—is a death rate of a third. Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population. Egypt - Major Cities, U.S. Library of Congress Half of Paris's population of 100,000 people had died. In Italy, Florence's population was reduced from 110,000 or 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of Hamburg and Bremen's population perished. The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as fifty percent of the population to die. Europeans living in isolated areas suffered less, and monasteries and priests were especially hard hit since they cared for the Black Death's victims. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 329 Because fourteenth century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence. No one in the fourteenth century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God's anger could produce such horrific displays. There were many attacks against Jewish communities. BLACK DEATH, JewishEncyclopedia.com In August of 1349, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated. In February of that same year, Christians murdered two thousand Jews in Strasbourg. Ibid., 329–330. By 1351, sixty major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed. "Jewish History 1340 - 1349". Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their treasury and exacerbating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy. The Brotherhood of the Flagellants, a movement said to number up to 800,000, reached its peak of popularity. Recurrence In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of pre-incident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300, The Black Death in Egypt and England: A Comparative Study, Stuart J. Borsch, Austin: University of Texas and a post-incident population figure as low as 2 million. Secondary sources such as the Cambridge History of Medieval England often contain discussions of methodology in reaching these figures that are necessary reading for anyone wishing to understand this controversial episode in more detail. By the end of 1350 the Black Death had subsided, but it never really died out in England over the next few hundred years: there were further outbreaks in 1361–62, 1369, 1379–83, 1389–93, and throughout the first half of the 15th century. The plague often killed 10% of a community in less than a year—in the worst epidemics, such as at Norwich in 1579 and Newcastle in 1636, as many as 30 or 40%. The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England, all coinciding with years of plague in Germany and the Low Countries, seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625, and 1636. The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, and although bubonic plague still occurs in isolated cases today, the Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks. In 1466, 40,000 persons died of plague in Paris. Plague, 1911 Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica In 1570, 200,000 persons died in Moscow and the neighbourhood. History Magazine - The Black Death The plague of 1575–77 claimed some 50,000 victims in Venice. In 1625, 35,417 Londoners had died of the plague. Burial of the plague dead in early modern London, Epidemic Disease in London, ed. J.A.I. Champion (Centre for Metropolitan History Working Papers Series, No. 1, 1993) In 1634, an outbreak of plague killed 15,000 Munich residents. Late outbreaks in central Europe include the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, which is associated with troop movements during the Thirty Years' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. About 200,000 people in Moscow died of the disease from 1654 to 1656. Over 60% of Norway's population died from 1348 to 1350. The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654. In 1656 the plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants. Amsterdam was ravaged in 1663–1664, with a mortality given as 50,000. In the first half of the 17th century a plague claimed some 1,730,000 victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population. Karl Julius Beloch, Bevölkerungsgeschichte Italiens, volume 3, pp. 359–360. More than 1,250,000 deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain. The Seventeenth-Century Decline, Stanley G. Payne, A History of Spain and Portugal In the Thirty Years' War, an estimated 8 million Germans were wiped out by bubonic plague and typhus fever. War and Pestilence, TIME In 1710, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies) wiped out almost 1/3 of the population in the region. The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki, and claimed a third of Stockholm's population. Europe's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseilles. Worldwide distribution of plague infected animals 1998 The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. Islamic Medicine Part III: Diseases of the Middle Ages Plague epidemics kept returning to the Islamic world up to the 19th century. The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Black Death) The Third Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. INFECTIOUS DISEASES: Plague Through History, sciencemag.org The plague bacterium could develop drug-resistance and become a major health threat. The ability to resist many of the antibiotics used against plague has been found so far in only a single case of the disease in Madagascar. Drug-resistant plague a 'major threat', say scientists, SciDev.Net From 1944 through 1993, 362 cases of human plague were reported in the United States; approximately 90% of these occurred in four western states. Human Plague -- United States, 1993-1994, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Plague was confirmed in the United States from nine western states during 1995. An overview of plague in the United States In contemporary culture Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death (c.1562) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed plague, which devastated medieval Europe The Black Death dominated art and literature throughout the generation that experienced it. Much of the most useful manifestations of the Black Death in literature, to historians, comes from the accounts of its chroniclers; contemporary accounts are often the only real way to get a sense of the horror of living through a disaster on such a scale. A few of these chroniclers were famous writers, philosophers and rulers (like Boccaccio and Petrarch). Their writings, however, did not reach the majority of the European population. For example, Petrarch's work was read mainly by wealthy nobles and merchants of Italian city-states. He wrote hundreds of letters and vernacular poetry of great distinction and passed on to later generations a revised interpretation of courtly love. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), page 372 There was, however, one troubadour, writing in the lyric style long out of fashion, who was active in 1348. Peire Lunel de Montech composed the sorrowful sirventes "Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague in Toulouse. See also Black Death in England Plague of Justinian Third Pandemic Globalization and disease Great Famine of 1315–1317 Great Plague of London Plague Riot Abandoned village Depopulation Eyam a village in England known as the "plague village" List of Bubonic plague outbreaks Medieval demography CCR5-Δ32, a human gene sometimes said to be associated with the plague Crisis of the Late Middle Ages Hundred Years' War Popular revolt in late medieval Europe Unit 731 List of epidemics Ring around the rosies (A nursery rhyme believed (probably incorrectly) by many to be connected with Bubonic Plague) Hypothetical future disasters Flagellant Confraternities (Central Italy) Erfurt Treasure References External links Black Death at BBC | Black_Death |@lemmatized black:45 death:46 one:10 deadly:1 pandemic:6 human:13 history:20 peak:2 europe:33 widely:2 think:6 cause:11 bacterium:4 name:2 yersinia:5 pestis:7 plague:97 illustration:1 toggenburg:1 bible:1 nature:2 inspire:1 dance:1 allegory:1 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2,504 | Misogyny | Misogyny (IPA ) is hatred (or contempt) of women or girls. Misogyny comes from Greek misogunia (μισογυνία) from misos (μῖσος, "hatred") and gynē (γυνή, "woman"). It is parallel to misandry—the hatred of men or boys. Misogyny is also comparable with misanthropy which is the hatred of humanity generally. Marcus Tullius Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia, a fear of women. Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, Book 3, Chapter 11. [LSJ typo has Book 4] In the late 20th century, feminist theorists proposed misogyny as both a cause and result of patriarchal social structures. Kate Millet's Sexual Politics, adapted from her doctoral dissertation is normally cited as the originator; though Katharine M Rogers had also published substantially, regarding her reading of misogyny in literature prior to this. Usage Misogyny is sometimes confused with the similar looking word—misogamy (μισογαμία)—which means "hatred of marriage", hence the following error. Listed under both misogyny and misogamy by OED1, but cited in full only in the latter. An example of correct use, from the same period is: A clearer example of the sense, also from the same era but using the related word misogynist, is provided by Thackeray. In the second act of The Importance of Being Earnest, Oscar Wilde humorously has Miss Prism referring to Dr Chasuble as a womanthrope, but intending misogynist or misogamist: Occasionally writers play on the similarity of sound between misogyny and miscegeny (mixed-race marriage). Greek literature Euripides Misogyny comes into English from the ancient Greek word, misogunia (), which survives in two passages. Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (LSJ), revised and augmented by Henry Stuart Jones and Roderick McKenzie, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). ISBN 0198642261 The earlier, longer and more complete passage comes from a stoic philosopher called Antipater of Tarsus in a moral tract known as On Marriage (c. 150 BC). The editio princeps is on page 255 of volume three of Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), see External links. A recent critical text with translation is in Appendix A to Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and Celibacy: The Hellenistic Background of 1 Corinthians 7, pp. 221–226. Misogunia appears in the accusative case on page 224 of Deming, as the fifth word in line 33 of his Greek text. It is split over lines 25–26 in von Arnim. Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine (polytheistic) decree. Antipater uses misogunia to describe Euripides' usual writing—tēn en to graphein misogunian (τὴν μισογυνίαν ἐν τῷ γράφειν "the misogyny in the writing"). However, he mentions this by way of contrast. He goes on to quote Euripides at some length, writing in praise of wives.Antipater doesn't tell us what it is about Euripides' writing that he believes is misogynistic, he simply expresses his belief that even a man thought to hate women (namely Euripides) praises wives, so concluding his argument for the importance of marriage. He says, "This thing is truly heroic." Euripides' reputation as a misogynist is known from another source. Athenaeus, in Deipnosophistae or Banquet of the Learned, has one of the diners quoting Hieronymus of Cardia who confirms the view was widespread, while offering Sophocles' comment on the matter. Despite Euripides' reputation, Antipater is not the only writer to see appreciation of women in his writing. Katherine Henderson and Barbara McManus consider he "showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer", citing "relatively modern critics" to support their claim. "Although Euripides showed more empathy for women than any other ancient writer, many of his lines out of context sound misogynistic; only relatively modern critics have been able to rescue him from his centuries-old reputation as a woman-hater." Katherine Usher Henderson and Barbara F. McManus, Half Humankind: Contexts and Texts of the Controversy about Women in England, 1540-1640, (University of Illinois Press, 1985), p. 6. ISBN 9780252011740 The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections. SVF 3:103. Mysogyny is the first word on the page. Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three "disaffections"—women (misogunian), wine (misoinian, μισοινίαν) and humanity (misanthrōpian, μισανθρωπίαν). Chrysippus' point is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike." Teun L. Tieleman, Chrysippus' on Affections: Reconstruction and Interpretations, (Leiden: Brill, 2003), p. 162. ISBN 9004129987 So, as with his fellow stoic, Antipater, misogyny is viewed negatively, a disease, a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests the general stoic view was that, "A man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other." Ricardo Salles, Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought: Themes from the Work of Richard Sorabji, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 485. Marcus Tullius Cicero Misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs ()—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch's Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was also the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from book seven (concerning Alexandria) of Strabo's 17 volume Geography, Strabo,Geography, Book 7 [Alexandria] Chapter 3. and quotations of Menander by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to marriage. Menander, The Plays and Fragments, translated by Maurice Balme, contributor Peter Brown, Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0192839837 Menander also wrote a play called Misoumenos (Μισούμενος) or The Man (She) Hated. Another Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater, is reported by Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to Atilius. He is supported (or followed) by Theognostus the Grammarian's 9th century Canones, edited by John Antony Cramer, Anecdota Graeca e codd. manuscriptis bibliothecarum Oxoniensium, vol. 2, (Oxford University Press, 1835), p. 88. The context is worth quoting in full, because it deals directly with matters already discussed in this article. The more common form of this general word for woman hating is misogunaios (). There are also some persons easily sated with their connection with the same woman, being at once both mad for women and women haters. — Philo, Of Special Laws, 1st Century. . Editio critica: Philo, De Specialibus Legibus, edited by Leopold Cohn, Johann Theodor Wendland and S. Reiter, Philonis Alexandrini opera quæ supersunt, 6 vols, (Berlin, 1896–1915): (vol. 5) book 3, chapter 14 § 79. [Misprint in LSJ has 2:312]. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge (London, 1854–1855). Allied with Venus in honourable positions Saturn makes his subjects haters of women, lovers of antiquity, solitary, unpleasant to meet, unambitious, hating the beautiful, ... — Ptolomy, 'Of the Quality of the Soul', 2nd century. Ptolomy, 'Of the Quality of the Soul', in Four Books, edited by Joachim Camerarius (Nuremberg, 1535), Latin translation by Philipp Melanchthon, reprinted (Basel, 1553): p. 159. Book 3 § 13. English translation. I will prove to you that this wonderful teacher, this woman-hater, is not satisfied with ordinary enjoyments during the night. — Alciphron, 'Thais to Euthyedmus', 2nd century. Alciphron, 'Thais to Euthyedmus', in Letters, edited by MA Schepers, (Leipzig, 1905): as book 4, letter 7, page 115, line 15. ISBN 3598710232.Translated by the Athenian Society (1896): as book 1, letter 34. The word is also found in Vettius Valens' Anthology and Damascius' Principles. Vettius Valens, Anthology, edited by Wilhelm Kroll (1908): p. 17, line 11. Damascius, Principles, edited by CA Ruelle (Paris, 1889): p. 388. In summary, Greek literature considered misogyny to be a disease, an anti-social condition, in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women as wives, and of the family as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature. Feminist theory Traditional feminist theorists propose many different forms of misogyny. In its most overt expression, a misogynist will openly hate all women simply because they are female. Other forms of misogyny may be less overt. Some misogynists may simply be prejudiced against all women, or may hate women who do not fall into one or more acceptable categories. Entire cultures may be said to be misogynistic if they treat women in ways that can be seen as harmful. Examples include forcing women to tend to all domestic responsibilities, not allowing women to take jobs outside the home, or beating women. Subscribers to one model, the mother/whore dichotomy, hold that women can only be "mothers" or "whores." Another variant is the virgin/whore dichotomy, in which women who do not adhere to a saintly standard of moral purity (Abrahamic) are considered "whores". Frequently, the term misogynist is used in a looser sense as a term of derision to describe anyone who holds an unpopular or distasteful view about women as a group. A man who considers himself "a great lover of women," therefore, might somewhat paradoxically be termed a misogynist by those who consider this treatment of women to be sexist. Archetypes of this type of man might be Giacomo Casanova and Don Juan, who were both reputed for their many libertine affairs with women. Misogyny is a negative attitude towards women as a group, and so need not fully determine a misogynist's attitude towards each individual woman. The fact that someone holds misogynist views may not prevent him or her from having positive relationships with some women. Conversely, simply having negative relationships with some women does not necessarily mean someone holds misogynistic views. The term, like most negative descriptions of attitudes, is used as an epithet and applied to a wide variety of behaviors and attitudes. As with other terms, the more antipathetic one's position is in regards to misogyny, the larger the number of misogynists and the greater variety of attitudes and behaviors who fall into one's perception of "misogynist". This is, of course, the subject of much controversy and debate with opinions ranging widely as to the extent and breadth of misogyny in society. Feminist theorist Marilyn Frye argues that misogyny is phallogocentric and homoerotic at its root. In Politics of Reality, Frye analyzes the alleged misogyny characteristic of the fiction and Christian apologetics of C.S. Lewis. Frye argues that such misogyny privileges the masculine as a subject of erotic attention. She compares the misogyny characteristic of Lewis' ideal of gender relations to underground male prostitution rings, which share the same quality of men seeking to dominate subjects seen as less likely to take on submissive roles by a patriarchal society, but in both cases doing so as a theatrical mockery of women. Frye, Marilyn. The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing, 1983. Mythology Eve the First Pandora (Louvre)Eva Prima Pandora, Jean Cousin Snr J Holland sees evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient world. In Greek mythology, the human race had already existed before the creation of women — a peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods. When Prometheus decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil thing for their delight" — Pandora, the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described — incorrectly — as a box) she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it all evil is unleashed into the world — labour, sickness, old age, and death. Holland, J: "Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice," pp. 12-13. Avalon Publishing Group, 2006. J Holland also sees evidence of misogyny in the Christian view on the Fall of Man based on the Book Genesis, which according to Christian interpretation brought tragedy and death into the world by a woman. (See also Original Sin.) Religion Eve rides astride the Serpent on a capital in Laach Abbey church, 13th century Christianity Katherine M. Rogers in The Troublesome Helpmate argues that the Pauline epistles in the New Testament contain texts that have historically been used by some Christian misogynists. Islam The Quran declares boldly that "Men are the managers of women for that God has preferred in bounty some of them over some, and for that they have expended of their property" (Sura al-Nisa´ 4:34) Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture, and Bangladesh specifically, in Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh. Philosophy Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer has been accused of misogyny for his essay "On Women" (Über die Weiber), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female affairs. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey." The essay does give two compliments however: that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than men are" and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. However, the latter was discounted as weakness rather than humanitarian virtue. Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche is known for arguing that every higher form of civilization implied stricter controls on women (Beyond Good and Evil, 7:238); he frequently insulted women, but is best known for phrases such as "Women are less than shallow," and "Are you going to women? Do not forget the whip!" Nietzsche's reputation as a misogynist is disputed by some, pointing out that he also made unflattering statements about men. Nietzsche can easily be interpreted as anti-feminist, believing that women were primarily mothers and opposing the modern notion of women's liberation on the grounds that he considered it a form of slave morality. Whether or not this amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic statements against women are meant to be taken literally, and the exact nature of his opinions of women, are more controversial. Robert C. Holub, Nietzsche and The Women's Question. Coursework for Berkley University Weininger The philosopher Otto Weininger has been accused of misogyny for his 1903 book Sex and Character, in which he characterizes the "woman" part of each individual as being essentially "nothing," and having no real existence, having no effective consciousness or rationality. Weininger says, "No men who really think deeply about women retain a high opinion of them; men either despise women or they have never thought seriously about them." The author August Strindberg praised Weininger for probably having solved the hardest of all problems, the "woman problem." See also Chauvinism Honor killing Object relations theory Violence against women Notes and references Bibliography Dictionary of sociology articles Marshall, Gordon. 'Misogyny'. In Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press, 1998. Johnson, Allan G. 'Misogyny'. In Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology: A User's Guide to Sociological Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2000. Core references Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975. Dijkstra, Bram. Idols of Perversity: Fantacies of Feminine Evil. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Chodorow, Nancy. The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender. University of California, Berkeley, 1978. Dworkin, Andrea. Woman Hating. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974. Griffin, Susan. . :,. Klein, Melanie. The Collected Writings of Melanie Klein. 4 volumes. London: Hogarth Press, 1975. Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. New York: Doubleday, 1970. Rich, Adrienne. :,. Katharine M Rogers Rogers, Katharine M. The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature. 1966. Other literature Boteach, Shmuley. Hating Women: America's Hostile Campaign Against the Fairer Sex. 2005. Clack, Beverley. Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition. Ellmann, Mary. Thinking About Women. 1968. Ferguson, Frances and R. Howard Bloch. Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN 9780520065444 Forward, Susan, and Joan Torres. Men Who Hate Women and the Women Who Love Them: When Loving Hurts and You Don't Know Why. Bantam Books, 1986. ISBN 0-553-28037-6 Gilmore, David D. Misogyny: the Male Malady. 2001. Haskell, Molly. From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in the Movies. 1974. University of Chicago Press, 1987. Holland, Jack. Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice. 2006. Kipnis, Laura. The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability. 2006. ISBN 0-375-42417-2 Morgan, Fidelis. A Misogynist's Source Book. Patai, Daphne, and Noretta Koertge. Professing Feminism: Cautionary Tales from the Strange World of Women's Studies. 1995. ISBN 0-465-09827-4 Penelope, Julia. Speaking Freely: Unlearning the Lies of our Fathers' Tongues. Toronto: Pergamon Press Canada, 1990. Smith, Joan. Misogynies. 1989. Revised 1993. World Health Organization Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women* 2005. External links Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy German Hans Friedrich August von Arnim. Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), 1903. Greek Volume 3. 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2,505 | Abencerrages | The Abencerrages (from the Arabic for "Saddler's Son") Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 3 , were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada in the 15th century. The name appears to have been derived from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Mohammed VII of Granada, al-Mustain, who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived. Little is known of the family with certainty; the Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Perez de Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian's Gonsalve de Cordoue and Châteaubriand's Le dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's work. The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The king, enraged, shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and ordered the Zergis to kill them all. The apartment where this is to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages. Many poems and plays, and one opera (Les Abencérages, by Luigi Cherubini) Zelmar ou L'asile; ou, Les Abencerages a drame lyriqueby André J. Grétry, composed in 1801, remained unperformed. mention the legend, but the whole story is doubtful, because the best historians do not mention it. Notes External links The Abencerrages–Part 17 of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra | Abencerrages |@lemmatized abencerrages:6 arabic:1 saddler:1 son:1 chamber:2 biographical:2 dictionary:2 isbn:1 page:1 family:5 faction:1 say:1 hold:1 prominent:1 position:1 moorish:1 kingdom:1 granada:3 century:2 name:2 appear:1 derive:1 yussuf:1 ben:1 serragh:1 head:1 tribe:1 time:2 mohammed:1 vii:1 al:1 mustain:1 sovereign:1 good:1 service:1 struggle:1 retain:1 crown:1 three:1 deprive:1 little:1 know:1 certainty:1 record:1 arrive:1 spain:1 familiar:1 romance:1 ginés:1 perez:2 de:6 hita:2 guerras:1 civiles:1 celebrate:1 feud:1 rival:1 zegris:1 cruel:1 treatment:1 former:1 subject:1 j:2 p:1 florian:1 gonsalve:1 cordoue:1 châteaubriand:1 le:1 dernier:1 imitation:1 work:1 story:2 tell:1 one:4 fall:1 love:1 lady:1 royal:1 catch:1 act:1 climb:1 window:1 king:1 enrage:1 shut:1 whole:2 hall:2 alhambra:3 order:1 zergis:1 kill:1 apartment:1 take:1 place:1 beautiful:1 court:1 still:1 call:1 many:1 poem:1 play:1 opera:1 les:2 abencérages:1 luigi:1 cherubini:1 zelmar:1 ou:2 l:1 asile:1 abencerages:1 drame:1 lyriqueby:1 andré:1 grétry:1 compose:1 remain:1 unperformed:1 mention:2 legend:1 doubtful:1 best:1 historian:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 part:1 washington:1 irving:1 tale:1 |@bigram chamber_biographical:2 biographical_dictionary:2 external_link:1 |
2,506 | Kansasâ%80%93Nebraska_Act | This 1856 map shows slave states (gray), free states (pink), and US territories (green) with Kansas in center (white). In United States history, the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opened new lands, repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and allowed settlers in those territories to determine if they would allow slavery within their boundaries. The initial purpose of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was to create opportunities for a Mideastern Transcontinental Railroad. It was not problematic until popular sovereignty was written into the proposal. The act was designed by Democratic Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. The act established that settlers could vote to decide whether to allow slavery, in the name of popular sovereignty or rule of the people. Douglas hoped it would ease relations between the North and the South, because the South could expand slavery to new territories but the North still had the right to abolish slavery in their states. Instead, opponents denounced the law as a concession to the slave power of the South. The new Republican Party, which was created in opposition to the act, aimed to stop the expansion of slavery, and soon emerged as the dominant force throughout the North. Background Since early in the 1840s the topic of a transcontinental railroad had been discussed. While there were debates over the specifics, especially the route to be taken, there was a public consensus that such a railroad should be built by private interests financed by public land grants. In 1845 Stephen Douglas, serving in his first term in the United States House of Representatives, submitted an unsuccessful plan to formally organize the Nebraska Territory as the first step in building a railroad with its eastern terminal in Chicago. Railroad proposals would be submitted and debated in all subsequent sessions of Congress with cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, Quincy, Memphis, and New Orleans competing to be the jumping off point for the construction. Potter p. 146-149 Several proposals in late 1852 and early 1853 had strong support, but in the end they failed because of disputes over whether the railroad would follow a northern or a southern route. In early 1853 the House of Representatives passed a bill by an 107 to 49 vote that organized the Nebraska Territory in land west of Iowa and Missouri. In March the bill moved to the Senate Committee on Territories which was now headed by Senator Douglas. Missouri Senator David Atchison announced that he would support the Nebraska proposal only if slaveholders were not banned from the new territory. While the bill was silent on this issue, slavery would have been prohibited under the terms of the Missouri Compromise. Other southern senators were not as flexible as Atchison. By a vote of 23 to 17 the Senate voted to table the motion with every senator from states south of Missouri voting for the tabling. Potter p. 150-152 During the senate adjournment the issues of the railroad and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise became entangled in Missouri politics as Atchison campaigned for reelection against the forces of Thomas Hart Benton. Atchison was maneuvered into choosing between antagonizing the state railroad interests or the state slaveholders. Finally Atchison took the position that he would rather see Nebraska “sink in hell” before he would allow it to be overrun by free-soilers Potter p. 154-155 . In this era, congressmen generally found lodging in boarding houses when they were in the nation’s capital performing their legislative duties. Atchison shared lodgings on an F Street house shared by the leading southerners in Congress. Atchison himself was the Senate’s president pro tempore, and his housemates included Robert T. Hunter (chairman of the Finance Committee from Virginia), James Mason (chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee from Virginia), and Andrew P. Butler (chairman of the Judiciary Committee from South Carolina). When Congress reconvened on December 5, 1853, this group, termed the “F Street Mess”, along with Virginian William O. Goode, formed the nucleus that would insist on slaveholder equality in Nebraska. Douglas was aware of their opinions and their power and knew that he needed to address their concerns. Freehling pp. 550-551. Johanssen p. 407 Iowa’s Senator Augustus C. Dodge immediately reintroduced the same legislation to organize Nebraska that had stalled in the previous session, and it was referred to Douglas’ committee on December 14. Douglas, hoping to achieve the support of the southerners, publicly announced that the same principle that had been established in the Compromise of 1850 should apply in Nebraska. In the Compromise of 1850, Utah and New Mexico Territory had been organized without any restrictions on slavery, and many supporters of Douglas argued that this compromise had already superseded the Missouri Compromise. Johannsen p. 402-403 These territories, however, unlike Nebraska, had never been part of the Louisiana Purchase and had never been subject to the Missouri Compromise. Congressional action Introduction of the Nebraska bill Stephen A. Douglas -- "The great principle of self government is at stake, and surely the people of this country are never going to decide that the principle upon which our whole republican system rests is vicious and wrong." Holt p. 145 The bill was reported to the main body of the Senate on January 4, 1854. The bill had been significantly modified by Douglas, who had also authored the New Mexico and Utah territorial acts, to mirror the language from the Compromise of 1850. In the new bill the territory of Nebraska was extended north all the way to the forty-ninth parallel, and any decisions on slavery were to be made "when admitted as a state or states, the said territory, or any portion of the same, shall be received into the Union, with or without slavery, as their constitution may prescribe at the time of their admission." Johanssen pp. 405 In a report accompanying the bill, Douglas’s committee wrote that the intent of the Utah and New Mexico acts: The report compared the situation in New Mexico and Utah with the situation in Nebraska. In the first instance, many had argued that slavery had previously been prohibited under Mexican law just as it was prohibited in Nebraska under the Missouri Compromise. Just as the creation of New Mexico and Utah territories had not ruled on the validity of Mexican law on the acquired territory, the Nebraska bill was neither "affirming or repealing ... the Missouri act." In other words, popular sovereignty was being established by ignoring, rather than addressing, the problem presented by the Missouri Compromise. Douglas’ attempt to finesse his way around the Missouri Compromise did not work. Archibald Dixon, a Kentucky Whig, believed that unless the Missouri Compromise was explicitly repealed, slaveholders would be reluctant to move to the new territory until slavery was actually approved by the settlers -- settlers who would most likely hold free-soil views. On January 16 Dixon surprised Douglas by introducing an amendment that would repeal the section of the Missouri Compromise prohibiting slavery above the 36°30' parallel. Douglas met privately with Dixon and in the end, despite his misgivings on northern reaction, agreed to accept Dixon’s arguments. Nevins p. 95-96 From a political standpoint, the Whig Party had been in decline in the South because of the effectiveness with which the Democrats had hammered southern Whigs over slavery issues. The Whigs hoped that by seizing the initiative on this issue that they would be identified as the strongest defender of slavery. Cooper p. 350 Charles Sumner on Douglas -- "Alas! too often those principles which give consistency, individuality, and form to the Northern character, which render it staunch, strong, and seaworthy, which bind it together as with iron, are drawn out, one by one, like the bolts of the ill-fitted vessel, and from the miserable, loosened fragments is formed that human anomaly -- a Northern man with Southern principles. Sir, no such man can speak for the North." Nevins p. 139 A similar amendment was offered in the House by Philip Phillips of Alabama. With the encouragement of the "F Street Mess", Douglas met with them and Phillips to ensure that the momentum for passing the bill remained with the Democratic Party. Towards this end, they arranged to meet with President Franklin Pierce to ensure that the issue would be declared a test of party loyalty within the Democratic Party. Johanssen p. 412-413. Cooper pp. 350-351 Meeting with President Pierce Pierce had barely mentioned Nebraska in his State of the Union message the previous month and was not enthusiastic about the implications of repealing the Missouri Compromise. Close advisors Senator Lewis Cass, a proponent of popular sovereignty as far back as 1848 as an alternative to the Wilmot Proviso, and Secretary of State William L. Marcy both told Pierce that repeal would create serious political problems. On Saturday January 22 the full cabinet met, and only Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and Secretary of Navy James C. Dobbin supported repeal. Instead the president and cabinet submitted to Douglas an alternative plan that would have sought out a judicial ruling on the constitutionality of the Missouri Compromise. Both Pierce and Attorney General Caleb Cushing believed that the Supreme Court would find it unconstitutional. Potter p. 161. Johanssen pp. 413-414 Douglas’ committee met later that night. Douglas was agreeable to the proposal, but the Atchison group was not. Determined to offer the repeal to Congress that Monday but reluctant to act without Pierce’s commitment, Douglas arranged through Secretary Davis to meet with President Pierce on Sunday even though Pierce generally refrained from conducting any business on a Sunday. Douglas was accompanied at the meeting by Atchison, Hunter, Phillips, and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Potter p. 161. Johanssen p. 414 Douglas and Atchison first met alone with Pierce before the whole group convened. Pierce was persuaded to support repeal, and, at Douglas’ insistence, Pierce provided a written draft asserting that the Missouri Compromise had been made inoperative by the principles of the Compromise of 1850. Later, Pierce informed his cabinet which concurred in the change of direction. Johanssen p. 414-415 The Washington Union, the communications organ for the administration, wrote on January 24 that support for the bill would be "a test of Democratic orthodoxy." Foner p. 156 Debate in the Senate On January 23, a revised bill was introduced in the Senate. In addition to the changes regarding repeal of the Missouri Compromise, Nebraska was now divided into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, with the division coming at the thirty-seventh parallel. The division was the result of concerns expressed by settlers already in Nebraska as well as the Senators from Iowa who were concerned with the location of the territory's seat of government if such a large territory was created. Existing language which affirmed the application of all other laws of the United States in the new territory was supplemented by the language agreed on with President Pierce that read, “except the eighth section of the act preparatory to the admission of Missouri into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, which was superseded by the legislation of 1850, commonly called the compromise measures, and is declared inoperative.” Identical legislation was soon introduced in the House. Johanssen pp. 415-417 Forcing Slavery Down the Throat of a FreesoilerAn 1854 cartoon depicts a giant free soiler being held down by James Buchanan and Lewis Cass standing on the Democratic platform marked "Kansas", "Cuba" and "Central America". Franklin Pierce also holds down the giant's beard as Stephen A. Douglas shoves a black man down his throat. Historian Allan Nevins wrote that "two interconnected battles began to rage, one in Congress and one in the country at large: each fought with a pertinacity, bitterness, and rancor unknown even in Wilmot Proviso days." In Congress, the freesoilers were at a distinct disadvantage. The Democrats held large majorities in each house, and Stephen Douglas, "a ferocious fighter, the fiercest, most ruthless, and most unscrupulous that Congress had perhaps ever known" led a tightly disciplined party. It was in the nation at large that the opponents of Nebraska hoped to achieve a moral victory. The New York Times, which had earlier supported President Pierce, predicted that this would be the final straw for northern supporters of the slavery forces and would "create a deep-seated, intense, and ineradicable hatred of the institution which will crush its political power, at all hazards, and at any cost." Nevins p. 111 The day after the bill was reintroduced, two Ohioans, Representative Joshua Giddings and Senator Salmon P. Chase, published a free soil response titled, “Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the People of the United States.” The Appeal stated: Douglas took the Appeal personally and responded in Congress when the debate was opened on January 30 before a full house and packed gallery. Douglas biographer Robert W. Johanssen described part of the speech: The debate would continue for four months. Douglas remained the main advocate for the bill while Chase, William Seward of New York, and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts led the opposition. The New York Tribune wrote on March 2 that, "The unanimous sentiment of the North is indignant resistance. ... The whole population are full of it. The feeling in 1848 was far inferior to this in strength and universality." Nevins p. 121 Sam Houston from Texas was one of the few southern opponents of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. In the debate he urged, “Maintain the Missouri Compromise! Stir not up agitation! Give us peace!” Nevins p. 144 Alexander Stephens from Georgia -- “Nebraska is through the House. I took the reins in my hand, applied the whip and spur, and brought the 'wagon' out at eleven o'clock P.M. Glory enough for one day.” Nevins p. 156 The debate in the Senate concluded on March 4, 1854 when Stephen Douglas, beginning near midnight on March 3, made a five and a half hour speech. The final vote in favor of passage was 37 to 14. Free state senators voted 14 to 12 in favor while slave state senators overwhelmingly supported the bill, 23 to 2. Potter p. 165. The vote occurred at 3:30 a.m. and many senators, including Houston, had retired for the night. Estimates on what the vote might have been with all still in attendance vary from 40-20 to 42-18. Nevins p. 145 Debate in the House of Representatives The bill next moved to the House of Representatives. On March 21, 1854, as a delaying tactic, the legislation was referred by a vote of 110 to 95 to the committee of the whole where it would be the last item on the calendar. Realizing from the vote to stall that the act faced an uphill struggle, the Pierce Administration made it clear to all Democrats that passage of the bill was essential to the party and would dictate how federal patronage would be handled. Jefferson Davis and Attorney General Caleb Cushing from Massachusetts, along with Douglas, spearheaded the partisan efforts. Nevins p. 154 By the end of April Douglas believed that there were enough votes to pass the bill. The House leadership then began a series of roll call votes in which legislation ahead of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was called to the floor and tabled without debate. Potter p. 166 Thomas Hart Benton was among those speaking forcibly against the measure. On April 25, in a House speech that biographer William Nisbet Chambers called “long, passionate, historical, [and] polemical,” Benton attacked the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, which he “had stood upon ... above thirty years, and intended to stand upon it to the end -- solitary and alone, if need be; but preferring company.” The speech was distributed afterwards as a pamphlet when opposition to the act moved outside the walls of Congress. Chalmers p. 401 It was not until May 8 that the debate began in the House. The debate was even more intense than in the Senate. While it seemed to be a forgone conclusion that the bill would pass, the opponents went all out to fight it. Nevins p. 154-155 Historian Michael Morrison wrote: Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri -- "What is the excuse for all this turmoil and mischief? We are told it is to keep the question of slavery out of Congress! Great God! It was out of Congress, completely, entirely, and forever out of Congress, unless Congress dragged it in by breaking down the sacred laws which settled it!" Nevins p. 156 The floor debate was handled by Alexander Stephens of Georgia. Stephens insisted that the Missouri Compromise had never been a true compromise but had been imposed on the South. He argued that the issue was whether republican principles -- "that the citizens of every distinct community or State should have the right to govern themselves in their domestic matters as they please" -- would be honored. Nevins p. 155 The final vote in favor of the bill was 113 to 100. Northern Democrats split in favor of the bill by a narrow 44 to 42 vote while all 45 northern Whigs opposed it. In the South, Democrats voted in favor by 57 to 2 and Whigs by a closer 12 to 7. Nevins p. 156-157 President Pierce signed the measure into law on May 30. Lincoln-Douglas Debates Act orchestrator Senator Stephen A. Douglas and former Illinois congressman Abraham Lincoln aired their disagreement over the Kansas-Nebraska Act in three public speeches during September and October 1854. Lincoln gave his most comprehensive argument against slavery and the provisions of the Act in Peoria, Illinois, on October 16, the Peoria Speech. He and Douglas both spoke to the large audience, Douglas first and Lincoln in response two hours later. Lincoln's three-hour speech, presented thorough moral, legal and economic arguments against slavery, set the stage for Lincoln’s political future. Hostilities Pro-slavery settlers came to Kansas mainly from neighboring Missouri. Their influence in territorial elections was often bolstered by resident Missourians who crossed into Kansas solely for the purpose of voting in such ballots. They formed groups like the Blue Lodges and were dubbed border ruffians a term coined by opponent and abolitionist Horace Greeley. Abolitionist settlers moved from the East with express purpose of making Kansas a free state. A clash between the opposing sides was inevitable. Successive territorial governors, usually sympathetic to slavery, attempted unsuccessfully to maintain the peace. The territorial capital of Lecompton, Kansas, the target of much agitation, became such a hostile environment for Free-Staters that they set up their own unofficial legislature at Topeka. John Brown and his sons gained notoriety in the fight against slavery by brutally murdering five pro-slavery farmers in the Pottawatomie Massacre with a broadsword. Brown also helped defend a few dozen Free-State supporters from several hundred angry pro-slavery supporters at the town of Osawatomie. Hostilities between the factions reached a state of low-intensity civil war, which was damaging to President Pierce. The nascent Republican Party sought to capitalize on the scandal of "Bleeding Kansas". Routine ballot-rigging and intimidation practiced by both pro and anti-slavery settlers failed to deter the immigration of anti-slavery settlers, who won a demographic victory in the race to populate the state. Constitution Amendment rights The pro-slavery territorial legislature ultimately proposed a state constitution for approval by referendum. The constitution was offered in two alternative forms, neither of which made slavery illegal. Free Soil settlers boycotted the legislature's referendum and organized their own, which approved a free-state constitution. The results of the competing referendums were sent to Washington by the territorial governor. President James Buchanan sent the Lecompton Constitution (which allowed slavery, but disallowed import of new slaves) to Congress for approval. The Senate approved the admission of Kansas as a state under the Lecompton Constitution, despite the opposition of Senator Douglas, who believed that the Kansas referendum on the Constitution, by failing to offer the alternative of prohibiting slavery, was unfair. The measure was subsequently blocked in the United States House of Representatives, where northern congressmen refused to admit Kansas as a slave state. Senator James Hammond of South Carolina (famous for his "King Cotton" speech) characterized this resolution as the expulsion of the state, asking, "If Kansas is driven out of the Union for being a slave state, can any Southern state remain within it with honor?" Results The Kansas-Nebraska Act divided the nation and pointed it toward civil war. The act itself virtually nullified the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Compromise of 1850. The turmoil over the act split both the Democratic and Know Nothing parties and gave rise to the Republican Party, which split the United States into two major political parties- North (Republican) and South (Democratic). Eventually a new anti-slavery state constitution was drawn up. On January 29, 1861, Kansas was admitted to the Union as a free state. Nebraska was not admitted to the Union as a state until after the Civil War in 1867. Notes References Chalmer, William Nisbet. Old Bullion Benton: Senator From the New West. (1956) Foner, Eric. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War. (1970) ISBN 0-19-509497-2 Freehling, William W. The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay 1776-1854. (1990) ISBN 0-19-505814-3 Johannsen. Robert W. Stephen A. Douglas (1973) ISBN 0-19-501620-3 Morrison, Michael. Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny and the Coming of the Civil War (1997) online edition Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union: A House Dividing 1852-1857. (1947) SBN 684-10424-5 Nichols, Roy F. “The Kansas-Nebraska Act: A Century of Historiography.” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 43 (September 1956): 187-212. Online at JSTOR at most academic libraries. Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis, 1848-1861 (1976), Pulitzer prize winning scholarly history. SenGupta, Gunja. “Bleeding Kansas: A Review Essay.” Kansas History 24 (Winter 2001/2002): 318-341. Holt, Michael. "The Political Crisis of the 1850s." (1978) External links An annotated bibliography Kansas-Nebraska Act and related resources at the Library of Congress Printer-friendly transcript of the act | Kansasâ%80%93Nebraska_Act |@lemmatized map:1 show:1 slave:6 state:34 gray:1 free:15 pink:1 u:2 territory:19 green:1 kansa:19 center:1 white:1 united:6 history:3 nebraska:29 act:23 create:6 open:2 new:19 land:3 repeal:11 missouri:26 compromise:26 allow:5 settler:10 determine:2 would:26 slavery:32 within:3 boundary:1 initial:1 purpose:3 opportunity:1 mideastern:1 transcontinental:2 railroad:8 problematic:1 popular:4 sovereignty:4 write:7 proposal:5 design:1 democratic:7 senator:16 stephen:11 douglas:37 illinois:3 establish:3 could:2 vote:17 decide:2 whether:3 name:1 rule:2 people:3 hop:4 ease:1 relation:1 north:7 south:10 expand:1 still:2 right:3 abolish:1 instead:2 opponent:5 denounce:1 law:6 concession:1 power:3 republican:7 party:12 opposition:4 aim:1 stop:1 expansion:1 soon:2 emerge:1 dominant:1 force:3 throughout:1 background:1 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2,507 | West_Flemish | West Flemish (West Flemish: Westvlams, Dutch: West-Vlaams, French: flamand occidental) is a group of Dutch dialects spoken in parts of the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. West Flemish is spoken by around 1.05 million people in West Flanders (in Belgium), 90,000 in the neighbouring Dutch coastal district of Zeelandic Flanders, and approximately 20,000 in the northern part of the French département of Nord where it is classified, as a recognized dialect of Dutch, as one of the languages of France. Some of the main cities where West Flemish is widely spoken include Bruges, Kortrijk, Ostend, Roeselare and Ypers. The dialects of the Dutch province of Zeeland, Zeelandic, are sometimes also included in West Flemish although this classification is controversial. The dialects of Zeelandic Flanders however do count as West Flemish variants. In fact, both dialects are linked by a dialect continuum which proceeds further north into Hollandic. Geographical location of West Flemish (colour: sandy) among the other minority and regional languages and dialects of the Benelux countries See also French Flemish Dutch dialects Flemish people - i.e. Flemings Westhoek External links Ethnologue report for Vlaams Euromosaic report on West Flemish (thus Dutch) in France | West_Flemish |@lemmatized west:10 flemish:10 westvlams:1 dutch:7 vlaams:2 french:3 flamand:1 occidental:1 group:1 dialect:7 speak:3 part:2 netherlands:1 belgium:2 france:3 around:1 million:1 people:2 flanders:3 neighbouring:1 coastal:1 district:1 zeelandic:3 approximately:1 northern:1 département:1 nord:1 classify:1 recognize:1 one:1 language:2 main:1 city:1 widely:1 include:2 bruges:1 kortrijk:1 ostend:1 roeselare:1 ypers:1 province:1 zeeland:1 sometimes:1 also:2 although:1 classification:1 controversial:1 however:1 count:1 variant:1 fact:1 link:2 continuum:1 proceed:1 north:1 hollandic:1 geographical:1 location:1 colour:1 sandy:1 among:1 minority:1 regional:1 benelux:1 country:1 see:1 dialects:1 e:1 fleming:1 westhoek:1 external:1 ethnologue:1 report:2 euromosaic:1 thus:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
2,508 | Cinco_de_Mayo | Cinco de Mayo (Spanish for "fifth of May") is a regional holiday in Mexico, primarily celebrated in the state of Puebla, with some limited recognition in other parts of Mexico. Retrieved February 6 2009. "The anniversary of the victory is celebrated only sporadically in Mexico" - National Geographic Accessed December 4, 2007 The holiday commemorates the Mexican army's unlikely victory over French forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, under the leadership of Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín. National Geographic: Defeat of French forces by Mexican Army Retrived February 6, 2009. Library of Congress (U.S.A.) Declaration Retrieved February 6, 2009. The outnumbered Mexicans defeated a much better-equipped French army that had not been defeated in almost 50 years. Retrieved February 6, 2009. Cinco de Mayo is not "an obligatory federal holiday" in Mexico, but rather a holiday that can be observed voluntarily. List of Public and Bank Holidays in Mexico April 14, 2008. This list indicates that Cinco de Mayo is not a dia feriado obligatorio ("obligatory holiday"), but is instead a holiday that can be voluntarily observed. Cinco de Mayo is not a federal holiday in México Accessed May 5, 2009 While Cinco de Mayo has limited significance nationwide in Mexico, the date is observed in the United States and other locations around the world as a celebration of Mexican heritage and pride. Statement by Mexican Consular official Accessed May 8, 2007. A common misconception in the United States is that Cinco de Mayo is Mexico's Independence Day, which actually is September 16 (dieciséis de septiembre in Spanish), Retrieved February 6, 2009. the most important national patriotic holiday in Mexico. Retrieved February 6, 2009. History In 1861, Mexico ceased making interest payments to its main creditors. In response, in late 1861, France (and other European countries) attacked Mexico to try to force payment of this debt. France decided that it would try to take over and occupy Mexico. France was successful at first in its invasion; however, on May 5, 1862, at the city of Puebla, Mexican forces were able to defeat an attack by the larger French army. In the Battle of Puebla, the Mexicans were led by General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín. Although the Mexican army was victorious over the French at Puebla, the victory only delayed the French advance on Mexico City; a year later, the French occupied Mexico. The French occupying forces placed Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico on the throne of Mexico in 1864. The French, under U.S. pressure, eventually withdrew in 1866-1867. Maximilian was deposed by President Benito Juarez and executed, five years after the Battle of Puebla. History of observance Cinco de Mayo dancers greeted by President George W. Bush. According to a paper published by the UCLA Center for the Study of Latino Health and Culture about the origin of the observance of Cinco de Mayo in the United States, the modern American focus on the people of the world that day first started in California in the 1860s in response to the resistance to French rule in Mexico. Southern California Quarterly "Cinco de Mayo's First Seventy-Five Years in Alta California: From Spontaneous Behavior to Sedimented Memory, 1862 to 1937" Spring 2007 (see American observation of Cinco de Mayo started in California) accessed October 30, 2007. See also History of observance of Cinco de Mayo in United States accessed May 9, 2009. The 2007 paper notes that "The holiday, which has been celebrated in California continuously since 1863, is virtually ignored in Mexico." Observances Mexico The holiday of Cinco de Mayo is primarily a regional holiday in Mexico. There is some limited recognition of the holiday in other parts of the country. "[Cinco de Mayo] is primarily a regional holiday celebrated in the Mexican state capital city of Puebla and through out the state of Puebla, with some limited recognition in other parts of Mexico." Accessed May 5, 2007 For the most part the celebrations combine food, music, and dancing. In Mexico City, like the rest of the Mexican capitals, all the young men who serve the military services pledge allegiance to the Mexican national flag and the institutions that it represents. United States Cinco de Mayo performers at the White House In the United States, Cinco de Mayo has taken on a significance beyond that in Mexico.<ref name=UCLA></ref name=MexCon>"In historical terms, the battle that communities across America are preparing to celebrate this weekend isn't that significant, says John Renteria, director of Centro Civico Mexicano. The May 5, 1862, Battle of Puebla is barely even noticed in Mexico, Renteria said. But the celebration of the defeat of French invaders by an outnumbered Mexican army, led by a Texas-born general, is becoming distinctly American. "It's become more of a cultural, commercial phenomenon in terms of building awareness and educating the public about the Mexican culture," Renteria said. "It's really a U.S. day, not a Mexico thing, and that's fine with us." Statement by Mexican Consular official Accessed May 8, 2007.</ref> "Cinco de Mayo has become more of [an American] holiday than a Mexican one." accessed May 5, 2007 "Cinco de Mayo has become a day for celebrating Mexican culture in the United States, and celebrations there easily outshine those in Mexico." Accessed May 8, 2007 "Today, the holiday is celebrated more in the United States than in Mexico"Accessed October 30, 2007 The date is perhaps best recognized in the United States as a date to celebrate the culture and experiences of Americans of Mexican ancestry, much as St. Patrick's Day, Oktoberfest, and the Chinese New Year are used to celebrate those of Irish, German, and Chinese ancestry respectively. Similar to those holidays, Cinco de Mayo is observed by many Americans regardless of ethnic origin. Celebrations tend to draw both from traditional Mexican symbols, such as the Virgen de Guadalupe, and from prominent figures of Mexican descent in the United States, including César Chávez. In some locations with significant non-Mexican hispanic communities, such as Florida, the celebration has grown to include non-Mexicans. Ahorre.com Accessed May 8, 2007. To celebrate, many display Cinco de Mayo banners while school districts hold special events to educate pupils about its historical significance. Special events and celebrations highlight Mexican culture, especially in its music and regional dancing. Examples include baile folklórico and mariachi demonstrations held annually at the Plaza del Pueblo de Los Angeles, near Olvera Street. Commercial interests in the United States have capitalized on the celebration, advertising Mexican products and services, with an emphasis on beverages, "[Cinco de Mayo] gives us an opportunity ... to really get a jump-start on the summer beer-selling season" New York Times Business section; May 2, 2003. Accessed October 30, 2007 foods, and music. "From my perspective as a marketing professional, Cinco de Mayo has morphed into a national holiday designed by Fifth Avenue to sell alcohol and excite consumership around a party-type theme." Accessed May 5, 2007. "Cinco de Mayo is not just a fiesta anymore, the gringos have taken it on as a good sales pitch." Smithsonian Institution paper Accessed May 8, 2007. "It's a commercial entry point for people who want to penetrate the Latino market," said Felix Gutierrez, a journalism professor at the University of Southern California's Annenberg School for Communication in Los Angeles." Ahorre.com Accessed May 8, 2007. Elsewhere Cinco de Mayo celebration in St. Paul, Minnesota Events tied to Cinco de Mayo also occur outside Mexico and the United States. For example, a sky-diving club near Vancouver in Canada holds a Cinco de Mayo skydiving event. "Cinco de Mayo Skydiving Boogie" Accessed 2008-05-05. In the Cayman Islands, in the Caribbean, there is an annual Cinco de Mayo air guitar competition. Cayman Cinco de Mayo air guitar Accessed 2008-05-05. As far away as the island of Malta, in the Mediterranean Sea, revelers are encouraged to drink Mexican beer on May 5. Celebration in Malta. Accessed 2008-05-05. Popular culture references Bob Dylan's song "Isis" references the date at the very beginning by narrating the title's character marriage, with the lyrics "on the fifth day of May...". The band War had a minor hit with a track called "Cinco de Mayo", from their 1982 album Outlaw. Ween refers to Cinco de Mayo in the song "Buenas Tardes Amigo". The waltzing song "Mexico" from Cake's Prolonging the Magic album mentions Cinco de Mayo. Fighting game Art of Fighting 3: The Path of the Warrior, set in the fictional Mexican-American city of Glasshill, has one stage called "Cinco de Mayo", which draws clear inspiration from this event (this is the only stage in the game to have no background music; instead, the sound of the parade running at the stage's background serves as the stage's theme). Herb Alpert recorded a song called "Cinco de Mayo", which was the B-side of his hit "Spanish Flea". Liz Phair included a song called "Cinco de Mayo" on her Whip-Smart album in in 1994. American post-hardcore band Senses Fail included a song called "Cinco de Mayo" as a bonus track for its sophomore album Still Searching See also History of Mexico Mexican Independence Day French intervention in Mexico Napoleon III Maximilian I References External links Cinco De Mayo classroom resources External resources about Cinco De Mayo | Cinco_de_Mayo |@lemmatized cinco:37 de:40 mayo:37 spanish:3 fifth:3 may:18 regional:4 holiday:18 mexico:30 primarily:3 celebrate:10 state:15 puebla:9 limited:3 recognition:3 part:4 retrieve:5 february:6 anniversary:1 victory:3 sporadically:1 national:5 geographic:2 access:17 december:1 commemorate:1 mexican:27 army:6 unlikely:1 french:12 force:5 battle:5 leadership:1 general:3 ignacio:2 zaragoza:2 seguín:2 defeat:5 retrived:1 library:1 congress:1 u:5 declaration:1 outnumbered:2 much:2 good:2 equipped:1 almost:1 year:5 obligatory:2 federal:2 rather:1 observe:4 voluntarily:2 list:2 public:2 bank:1 april:1 indicate:1 dia:1 feriado:1 obligatorio:1 instead:2 méxico:1 limit:1 significance:3 nationwide:1 date:4 united:12 location:2 around:2 world:2 celebration:10 heritage:1 pride:1 statement:2 consular:2 official:2 common:1 misconception:1 independence:2 day:7 actually:1 september:1 dieciséis:1 septiembre:1 important:1 patriotic:1 history:4 cease:1 make:1 interest:2 payment:2 main:1 creditor:1 response:2 late:1 france:3 european:1 country:2 attack:2 try:2 debt:1 decide:1 would:1 take:3 occupy:1 successful:1 first:3 invasion:1 however:1 city:5 able:1 large:1 lead:2 although:1 victorious:1 delay:1 advance:1 later:1 occupied:1 occupying:1 place:1 maximilian:3 emperor:1 throne:1 pressure:1 eventually:1 withdraw:1 depose:1 president:2 benito:1 juarez:1 execute:1 five:2 observance:4 dancer:1 greet:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 accord:1 paper:3 publish:1 ucla:2 center:1 study:1 latino:2 health:1 culture:6 origin:2 modern:1 american:8 focus:1 people:2 start:3 california:6 resistance:1 rule:1 southern:2 quarterly:1 seventy:1 alta:1 spontaneous:1 behavior:1 sedimented:1 memory:1 spring:1 see:3 observation:1 october:3 also:3 note:1 continuously:1 since:1 virtually:1 ignore:1 capital:2 combine:1 food:2 music:4 dance:1 like:1 rest:1 young:1 men:1 serve:2 military:1 service:2 pledge:1 allegiance:1 flag:1 institution:2 represent:1 performer:1 white:1 house:1 beyond:1 ref:3 name:2 mexcon:1 historical:2 term:2 communities:1 across:1 america:1 prepare:1 weekend:1 significant:2 say:4 john:1 renteria:3 director:1 centro:1 civico:1 mexicano:1 barely:1 even:1 notice:1 invader:1 texas:1 born:1 become:4 distinctly:1 cultural:1 commercial:3 phenomenon:1 building:1 awareness:1 educate:2 really:2 thing:1 fine:1 one:2 easily:1 outshine:1 today:1 perhaps:1 best:1 recognize:1 experience:1 ancestry:2 st:2 patrick:1 oktoberfest:1 chinese:2 new:2 use:1 irish:1 german:1 respectively:1 similar:1 many:2 regardless:1 ethnic:1 tend:1 draw:2 traditional:1 symbol:1 virgen:1 guadalupe:1 prominent:1 figure:1 descent:1 include:5 césar:1 chávez:1 non:2 hispanic:1 community:1 florida:1 grow:1 ahorre:2 com:2 display:1 banner:1 school:2 district:1 hold:3 special:2 event:5 pupil:1 highlight:1 especially:1 dancing:1 example:2 baile:1 folklórico:1 mariachi:1 demonstration:1 annually:1 plaza:1 del:1 pueblo:1 los:2 angeles:2 near:2 olvera:1 street:1 capitalize:1 advertise:1 product:1 emphasis:1 beverage:1 give:1 opportunity:1 get:1 jump:1 summer:1 beer:2 selling:1 season:1 york:1 time:1 business:1 section:1 perspective:1 marketing:1 professional:1 morph:1 design:1 avenue:1 sell:1 alcohol:1 excite:1 consumership:1 party:1 type:1 theme:2 fiesta:1 anymore:1 gringo:1 sale:1 pitch:1 smithsonian:1 entry:1 point:1 want:1 penetrate:1 market:1 felix:1 gutierrez:1 journalism:1 professor:1 university:1 annenberg:1 communication:1 elsewhere:1 paul:1 minnesota:1 tie:1 occur:1 outside:1 sky:1 dive:1 club:1 vancouver:1 canada:1 skydive:2 boogie:1 cayman:2 islands:1 caribbean:1 annual:1 air:2 guitar:2 competition:1 far:1 away:1 island:1 malta:2 mediterranean:1 sea:1 reveler:1 encourage:1 drink:1 accessed:1 popular:1 reference:3 bob:1 dylan:1 song:6 isi:1 beginning:1 narrate:1 title:1 character:1 marriage:1 lyric:1 band:2 war:1 minor:1 hit:2 track:2 call:5 album:4 outlaw:1 ween:1 refers:1 buenas:1 tardes:1 amigo:1 waltzing:1 cake:1 prolong:1 magic:1 mention:1 fight:2 game:2 art:1 path:1 warrior:1 set:1 fictional:1 glasshill:1 stage:4 clear:1 inspiration:1 background:2 sound:1 parade:1 run:1 herb:1 alpert:1 record:1 b:1 side:1 flea:1 liz:1 phair:1 whip:1 smart:1 post:1 hardcore:1 sense:1 fail:1 bonus:1 sophomore:1 still:1 search:1 intervention:1 napoleon:1 iii:1 external:2 link:1 classroom:1 resource:2 |@bigram cinco_de:37 w_bush:1 alta_california:1 pledge_allegiance:1 césar_chávez:1 los_angeles:2 smithsonian_institution:1 cayman_islands:1 bob_dylan:1 bonus_track:1 sophomore_album:1 external_link:1 |
2,509 | House_of_Habsburg | Coats of arms of a Habsburg Emperor showing the variety of his territories. The House of Habsburg (usually spelled Hapsburg in English) was an important royal house of Europe and is best known as supplying all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1452 and 1740, as well as rulers of Spain and the Austrian Empire. Originally from Switzerland, the dynasty first reigned in Austria, which they ruled for over six centuries, but a series of dynastic marriages brought Burgundy, Spain, Bohemia, Hungary and other territories into the inheritance. In the sixteenth century the senior Spanish and junior Austrian branches of the family separated. As royal houses are by convention determined via the male line, the Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II in 1700 and was replaced by the Anjou branch of the House of Bourbon in the person of his great-nephew Philip V. The Austrian branch technically ended in 1780 with the death of Maria Theresa of Austria and was replaced by the Veaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine in the person of her son Joseph II . However, in practice, the new successor house styled itself as Habsburg-Lorraine (Habsburg-Lothringen in German). Principal roles Their principal roles were as: German Kings (1273-1291, 1298-1308, 1314-1330, 1438-1740, 1745-1806), mostly also as Holy Roman Emperors Rulers of Austria (as Dukes 1282–1453, Archdukes) Kings of Bohemia (1306–1307, 1437–1439, 1453–1457, 1526–1918), Kings of Hungary (1437–1439, 1445–1457, 1526–1918), Kings of Spain (1516–1700), Kings of Portugal (1580–1640), Kings of Galicia and Lodomeria (1772–1918), and Grand Princes of Transylvania (1690–1867). Other crowns held briefly by the House included: King-consort of England (1554–1558) Queens consort of Portugal and the Algarve (1518-1521, 1525-1557, 1708-1750) Emperor of Mexico (1864-1867) Numerous other titles were attached to the crowns listed above. History From Counts of Habsburg to Holy Roman Emperors The Habsburg dominions around AD 1200 are shown as , among the houses of , and The Habsburg dominions within the Holy Roman Empire acquired before AD 1378 are shown as , among the houses of and The dynasty is named after their seat of origin, the Habsburg Castle founded by Radbot, Count of Habsburg in the Swiss Canton of Aargau. The origins of the name of the castle are uncertain. Most people assume the name to be derived from the High German Habichtsburg (Hawk Castle), but some historians and linguists are convinced that the name comes from the Middle High German word 'hab/ hap' meaning fjord, as there is a river with a ford nearby. The first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. "Habsburger-Gedenkjahr im Aargau", Neue Zürcher Zeitung, (page 17) 23 May 2008. The Habsburg Castle was the family seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries in the former duchy of Swabia, which incorporated present-day Aargau, at the time of the Holy Roman Empire. From southwestern Germany (mainly Alsace, Breisgau, Aargau and Thurgau) the family extended its influence and holdings to the southeastern reaches of the Holy Roman Empire, roughly today's Austria (1278–1382). Within only two or three generations, the Habsburgs had managed to secure an initially intermittent grasp on the imperial throne that would last for centuries (1273–1291, 1298–1308, 1438–1740, and 1745–1806). Maximilian I On the evening of August 16, 1477, by marrying Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, Archduke Maximilian I acquired control of the Low Countries, effectively establishing the Habsburg Dynasty by extending their territories outside Austria. Maximilian's son, Philip the Handsome (also known as Phillip the Fair) married Joanna of Castile, also known as Joan the Mad, heiress of Castile, Aragon and most of Spain. Phillip and Joan had six children, the eldest of whom became Charles V and inherited the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, Southern Italy, Austria and the Low Countries. Great Events from History, The Renaissance & Early Modern Era, Vol I, p. 112-114, author-Clare Callaghan, ISBN 1-58765-214-5. Division of the House: Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the Battle of Mühlberg (1547) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green. Not shaded are the lands of the Holy Roman Empire over which the Habsburgs presided, nor are the vast Castilian holdings outside of Europe, and particularly in the New World, shown. After the April 21, 1521 assignment of the Austrian lands to Ferdinand I by his brother Emperor Charles V (also King Charles I of Spain) (1516–1556), the dynasty split into the minor branch of the Austrian Habsburgs and the major branch of the Spanish Habsburgs. The Austrian Habsburgs held the title of Holy Roman Emperor after Charles' death in 1558, as well as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands and the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, while the Spanish major branch ruled over the Spanish kingdoms, the Netherlands, the Habsburgs' Italian possessions, and, for a time, Portugal. Hungary was partly under Habsburg rule from 1526. For 150 years most of the country was occupied by the Ottoman Turks but these territories were re-conquered in 1683–1699. The Spanish Habsburgs died out in 1700 (prompting the War of the Spanish Succession), as did the last male of the Austrian Habsburg line in 1740 (prompting the War of the Austrian Succession), and consequently the entire line itself in 1780. The heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg (Maria Theresa) had married Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine, (both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from Vienna under the dynastic name Habsburg-Lorraine, although technically a new ruling house came into existence in the Austrian territories, the House of Lorraine (see Dukes of Lorraine family tree). It is thought that extensive intra-family marriages within both lines contributed to their extinctions. Extinction of a Royal Dynasty Charles II's family tree showing the large amount of inbreeding The Habsburgs sought to consolidate their power by the frequent use of consanguineous marriages with disastrous results. A study of 3,000 family members over 16 generations by the University of Santiago de Compostela suggests that inbreeding directly led to their extinctions. The gene pool eventually became so small that the last of the Spanish line Charles II, who was severely disabled by genetic disorders, possessed a genome comparable with that of a child born to a brother and sister as did his father, likely due to "Remote Inbreeding". House of Habsburg-Lorraine On August 6, 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved under the French Emperor Napoleon I's reorganization of Germany. However, in anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria (as Francis I) on August 11, 1804, three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of the French on May 18, 1804. Emperor Francis I of Austria used the official full list of titles: "We, Francis the First, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen, and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia, and Gradisca and of the Tirol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and Istria". Under the terms of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 effective autonomy was given to Hungary (see Austria-Hungary). Under this arrangement, the Hungarians referred to their ruler as king and never emperor. This prevailed until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in 1918 following defeat in World War I. On November 11, 1918, with his empire collapsing around him, the last Habsburg ruler, Charles I (who also reigned as Charles IV of Hungary) issued a proclamation recognizing Austria's right to determine the future of the state and renouncing any role in state affairs. Two days later, he issued a separate proclamation for Hungary. Even though he did not officially abdicate, this is considered the end of the Habsburg dynasty. In 1919, the new republican Austrian government subsequently passed a law banishing the Habsburgs from Austrian territory until they renounced all intentions of regaining the throne and accepted the status of private citizens. Charles made several attempts to regain the throne of Hungary, and in 1921 the Hungarian government passed a law which revoked Charles' rights and dethroned the Habsburgs. The Habsburgs did not formally abandon all hope of returning to power until Otto von Habsburg, Emperor Charles' eldest son, renounced all claims to the throne. The dynasty's motto is "Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry", which indicates the talent of the Habsburgs to have their members intermarry into other royal houses, to make alliances and inherit territory. Empress Maria Theresa is recognized quite notably for it and is sometimes referred to as the 'Great-Grandmother of Europe'. Family tree This family tree only includes male scions of the direct House of Habsburg who survived to adulthood. Main line Before Rudolph rose to German king, the Habsburgs were Counts in what is today southwestern Germany and Switzerland. Ancestors Guntram the Rich (ca. 930–985 / 990) Father of: Lanzelin of Altenburg (d. 991). Besides Radbot, he had sons named Rudolph I, Wernher, and Landolf. Counts of Habsburg Radbot of Klettgau, built the Habsburg castle (ca. 985–1035). Besides Werner I, he had two other sons: Otto I, who would become Count of Sundgau in the Alsace, and Albrecht I. Werner I, Count of Habsburg (1025 / 1030–1096). Besides Otto II, there was another son, Albert II, who was reeve of Muri from 1111–1141 after the death of Otto II. Otto II of Habsburg; first to name himself as "of Habsburg" (d. 1111) Father of: Werner II of Habsburg (around 1135; d. 1167) Father of: Albrecht III of Habsburg (the Rich), d. 1199. Under him, the Habsburg territories expanded to cover most of what is today the German-speaking part of Switzerland. Father of: Rudolph II of Habsburg (d. 1232) Father of: Albrecht IV of Habsburg, (d. 1239 / 1240); father of Rudolph IV of Habsburg, who would later become king Rudolph I of Germany. Between Albrecht IV and his brother Rudolph III, the Habsburg properties were split, with Albrecht keeping the Aargau and the western parts, the eastern parts going to Rudolph III. Albrecht IV was also an ancestor of Sophia Chotek wife of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria German kings Rudolph I was elected king of Germany in 1273 and reigned until 1291. Dukes of Austria In the late Middle Ages, when the Habsburgs expanded their territories in the east, they often ruled as dukes of the Duchy of Austria which covered only what is today Lower Austria and the eastern part of Upper Austria. The Habsburg possessions also included Styria, and then expanded west to include Carinthia and Carniola in 1335 and Tirol in 1363. Their original scattered possessions in the southern Alsace, south-western Germany and Vorarlberg were collectively known as Further Austria. The Habsburg dukes gradually lost their homelands south of the Rhine and Lake Constance to the expanding Old Swiss Confederacy. Unless mentioned explicitly, the dukes of Austria also ruled over Further Austria until 1379, after that year, Further Austria was ruled by the Princely Count of Tyrol. Names in italics designate dukes who never actually ruled. Rudolph II, son of Rudolph I, duke of Austria and Styria together with his brother 1282–1283, was dispossessed by his brother, who eventually would be murdered by one of Rudolph's sons. Albert I (Albrecht I), son of Rudolph I and brother of the above, duke from 1282–1308; was Holy Roman Emperor from 1298–1308. See also below. Rudolph III, oldest son of Lenihan I, designated duke of Austria and Styria 1298–1307 Frederick the Handsome (Friedrich der Schöne), brother of Rudolph III. Duke of Austria and Styria (with his brother Leopold I) from 1308–1330; officially co-regent of emperor Louis IV since 1325, but never ruled. Leopold I, brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria from 1308–1326. Albert II (Albrecht II), brother of the above, duke of Vorderösterreich from 1326–1358, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1358, duke of Carinthia after 1335. Otto the Jolly (der Fröhliche), brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1339 (together with his brother), duke of Carinthia after 1335. Rudolph IV the Founder (der Stifter), oldest son of Albert II. Duke of Austria and Styria 1358–1365, Duke of Tirol after 1363. After the death of Rudolph IV, his brothers Albert III and Leopold III ruled the Habsburg possessions together from 1365 until 1379, when they split the territories in the Treaty of Neuberg, Albert keeping the Duchy of Austria and Leopold ruling over Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Windish March, Tirol, and Further Austria. Albertine line: Dukes of Austria Albert III (Albrecht III), duke of Austria until 1395, from 1386 (after the death of Leopold) until 1395 also ruled over the latter's possessions. Albert IV (Albrecht IV), duke of Austria 1395–1404, in conflict with Leopold IV. Albert V (Albrecht V), duke of Austria 1404–1439, Holy Roman Emperor from 1438–1439 as Albert II. See also below. Ladislaus Posthumus, son of the above, duke of Austria 1440–1457. Leopoldine line: Dukes of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol Leopold III, duke of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Further Austria until 1386, when he was killed in the Battle of Sempach. William (Wilhelm), son of the above, 1386–1406 duke in Inner Austria (Carinthia, Styria) Leopold IV, son of Leopold III, 1391 regent of Further Austria, 1395–1402 duke of Tyrol, after 1404 also duke of Austria, 1406–1411 duke of Inner Austria Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg {1629-1629} father of King George I of Great Britain who was the ancestor of the House of Windsor; Ernest Augustus was the ancestor of King Christian VII of Denmark and Norway, and Duke of Schleswig and Holstein ; King George I of Greece and German Emperor Wilhelm II of the House of Hohenzollern. Ernest Augustus sister was the great-grandmother of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp ancestor of the House of Romanov Czar Nicholas II whose wife Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) was a descendant of King George I of Great Britain. Leopoldine-Inner Austrian sub-line Ernest the Iron (der Eiserne), 1406–1424 duke of Inner Austria, until 1411 together and competing with his brother Leopold IV. Frederick V (Friedrich), son of Ernst, became emperor Frederick III in 1440. He was duke of Inner Austria from 1424 on. Guardian of Sigismund 1439–1446 and of Ladislaus Posthumus 1440–1452. See also below. Albert VI (Albrecht VI), brother of the above, 1446–1463 regent of Further Austria, duke of Austria 1458–1463 Ernestine line of Saxon princes, ancestor of George I of Great Britain-descended from sister of Frederick III Leopoldine-Tyrol sub-line Frederick IV (Friedrich), brother of Ernst, 1402–1439 duke of Tyrol and Further Austria Sigismund, also spelled Siegmund or Sigmund, 1439–1446 under the tutelage of the Frederick V above, then duke of Tyrol, and after the death of Albrecht VI in 1463 also duke of Further Austria. Reuniting of Habsburg possessions Sigismund had no children and adopted Maximilian I, son of duke Frederick V (emperor Frederick III). Under Maximilian, the possessions of the Habsburgs would be united again under one ruler, after he had re-conquered the Duchy of Austria after the death of Matthias Corvinus, who resided in Vienna and styled himself duke of Austria from 1485–1490. German Kings and Holy Roman Emperors previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions Rudolph I, emperor 1273–1291 (never crowned) Albert I, emperor 1298–1308 (never crowned) Albert II, emperor 1438–1439 (never crowned)-ancestor of Empress Catherine II of Russia great-great-great-grandmother of Nicholas II of Russia {see above Leopoldine Line} Frederick III, emperor 1440–1493 Kings of Hungary previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions Albert, king of Hungary 1437–1439 Ladislaus V Posthumus, king of Hungary 1444–1457 Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria Maximilian I, emperor 1508–1519 Charles V, emperor 1519–1556 Spanish Habsburgs: Kings of Spain, Kings of Portugal (1580–1640) See also: Portuguese House of Habsburg Philip I of Castile, second son of Maximilian I, founded the Spanish Habsburgs in 1496 by marrying Joanna the Mad, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip died in 1506, leaving the thrones of Castile and Aragon to be inherited and united into the throne of Spain by his son: Charles I 1516–1556, aka Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; divided the House into Austrian and Spanish lines Philip II of Spain 1556–1598, also Philip I of Portugal 1580–1598 and Philip I of England and his wife Mary I of England 1554–1558 Philip III, also Philip II of Portugal 1598–1621 Philip IV 1621–1665, also Philip III of Portugal 1621–1640 Charles II 1665–1700 The War of the Spanish Succession took place after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line, to determine the inheritance of Charles II. Austrian Habsburgs: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria Ferdinand I, emperor 1556–1564 (→Family Tree) Maximilian II, emperor 1564–1576 {ancestor of Don Francisco Vazquez de Molinar great-grandfather of Mexican general Pascual Orozco and related to Ted Williams} Rudolf II, emperor 1576–1612 Matthias, emperor 1612–1619 Ferdinand II, emperor 1619–1637 Ferdinand III, emperor 1637–1657 (→Family Tree) Leopold I, emperor 1658–1705 Josef I, emperor 1705–1711 Charles VI, emperor 1711–1740 Maria Theresa of Austria, Habsburg heiress and wife of emperor Francis I Stephen, reigned as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia 1740–1780. The War of the Austrian Succession took place after the extinction of the male line of the Austrian Habsburg line upon the death of Charles VI. The direct Habsburg line itself became totally extinct with the death of Maria Theresa of Austria, when it was followed by the House of Lorraine, styled of Habsburg-Lorraine. House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria Francis I Stephen, emperor 1745–1765 (→Family Tree) Joseph II, emperor 1765–1790 Leopold II, emperor 1790–1792 (→Family Tree) Francis II, emperor 1792–1806 (→Family Tree) Queen Maria Christina of Austria of Spain, great-granddaughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor above. Wife of Alfonso XII of Spain and mother of Alfonso XIII of the House of Bourbon. Alfonso XIII's wife Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg was descended from King George I of Great Britain from the Habsburg Leopold Line {above}. The House of Habsburg-Lorraine retained Austria and attached possessions after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; see below. A son of Leopold II was Archduke Rainer of Austria whose wife was from the House of Savoy; a daughter Adelaide, Queen of Sardina was the wife of King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia and King of Italy. Their Children married into the Royal Houses of Bonaparte; House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha {Braganza {Portugal}; House of Savoy {Spain}; and the Dukedoms of Montferrat and Chablis. House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Grand dukes of Tuscany Francis Stephen 1737-1765 (later Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor) Francis Stephen assigned the grand duchy of Tuscany to his second son Peter Leopold, who in turn assigned it to his second son upon his accession as Holy Roman Emperor. Tuscany remained the domain of this cadet branch of the family until Italian unification. Peter Leopold 1765-1790 (later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor) Ferdinand III 1790-1800, 1814-1824 (→Family Tree) Leopold II 1824-1849, 1849-1859 Ferdinand IV 1859-1860 House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Tuscany line, post monarchy Ferdinand IV 1860-1908 Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany 1908-1942 Archduke Peter Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany 1942-1948 Archduke Gottfried, Prince of Tuscany 1948-1984 Archduke Leopold Franz, Prince of Tuscany 1948-1993 Archduke Sigismund, Grand Duke of Tuscany 1993-Present see Line of succession to the Tuscan Throne House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Dukes of Modena The duchy of Modena was assigned to a minor branch of the family by the Congress of Vienna. It was lost to Italian unification. Francis IV 1814-1831, 1831-1846 (→Family Tree) Francis V 1846-1848, 1849-1859 House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Modena line, post monarchy Francis V (1859-1875) Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este (1875-1914) Karl, Archduke of Austria-Este (1914-1917) Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este (1917-1996) Lorenz, Archduke of Austria-Este (1996-Present) House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Empress consort of France Marie Louise of Austria 1810-1814 House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Duchess of Parma The duchy of Parma was likewise assigned to a Habsburg, but did not stay in the House long before succumbing to Italian unification. It was granted to the second wife of Napoleon I of France, Maria Luisa Duchess of Parma, a daughter of the Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was the mother of Napoleon II of France. Napoleon had divorced his wife Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie (better known to history as Josephine de Beauharnais) in her favour. Maria Luisa 1814-1847 (→Family Tree) House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Emperor of Mexico Maximilian, an adventurous younger son, was invited as part of Napoleon III's manipulations to take the throne of Mexico, becoming Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. The conservative Mexican nobility, as well as the clergy, supported this Second Mexican Empire. His consort, Charlotte of Belgium, a princess of the House of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, encouraged her husband's acceptance of the Mexican crown and accompanied him as Empress Carlota of Mexico. The adventure did not end well. Maximilian was shot in "Cerro de las Campanas" in 1867 by the republican forces of Benito Juárez. Maximilian I 1864-1867) (→Family Tree) House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Emperors of Austria Francis I, Emperor of Austria 1804–1835: formerly Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (→Family Tree) Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria 1835–1848 Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria 1848–1916. Charles I, Emperor of Austria 1916–1918. He died in exile in 1922. His wife was of the House of Bourbon-Parma. House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Heads of the House of Habsburg (post-monarchy) Charles I was expelled from his domains after World War I and the empire was abolished. Charles I (1918-1922) (→Family Tree) Otto von Habsburg (1912-present) Zita of Bourbon-Parma, guardian, (1922-1930) Karl Habsburg-Lothringen, successor in due course to Otto see Line of succession to the Austro-Hungarian throne Burials See Imperial Crypt in Vienna. Kings of Hungary The kingship of Hungary remained in the Habsburg family for centuries; but as the kingship was not strictly inherited (Hungary was an elective monarchy until 1687) and was sometimes used as a training ground for young Habsburgs, the dates of rule do not always match those of the primary Habsburg possessions. Therefore, the kings of Hungary are listed separately. Albertine line: Kings of Hungary Albert, king of Hungary 1437–1439 Ladislaus V Posthumus, King of Hungary 1444–1457 Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Hungary Ferdinand I, king of Hungary 1526–1564 Maximilian I, king of Hungary 1563–1576 Rudolf I, king of Hungary 1572–1608 Matthias II, king of Hungary 1608–1619 Ferdinand II, king of Hungary 1618–1637 Ferdinand III, king of Hungary 1625–1657 Ferdinand IV, king of Hungary 1647–1654 Leopold I, king of Hungary 1655–1705 Joseph I, king of Hungary 1687–1711 Charles III, king of Hungary 1711–1740 House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Hungary Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary 1741–1780 Joseph II, king of Hungary 1780–1790 Leopold II, king of Hungary 1790–1792 Francis, king of Hungary 1792–1835 Ferdinand V, king of Hungary 1835–1848 Francis Joseph I, king of Hungary 1867–1916 Charles IV, king of Hungary 1916–1918 Kings of Bohemia The kingship of Bohemia was from 1306 a position elected by its nobles. As a result, it was not an automatically inherited position. Until rule of the Ferdinand I Habsburgs didn't gain hereditary accession to the throne and were shifted by other dynasties. Hence, the kings of Bohemia and their ruling dates are listed separately. Main line Rudolph I, king of Bohemia 1306-1307 Albertine line: Kings of Bohemia Albert, king of Bohemia 1437–1439 Ladislaus Posthumus, king of Bohemia 1453–1457 Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Bohemia Ferdinand I, king of Bohemia 1526–1564 Maximilian I, king of Bohemia 1563–1576 Rudolph II, king of Bohemia 1572–1611 Matthias, king of Bohemia 1611–1618 Ferdinand II, king of Bohemia 1621–1637 Ferdinand III, king of Bohemia 1625–1657 Ferdinand IV, king of Bohemia 1647–1654 Leopold I, king of Bohemia 1655–1705 Joseph I, king of Bohemia 1687–1711 Charles II, king of Bohemia 1711–1740 House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Bohemia From the accession of Maria Theresa, the kingship of Bohemia became united with the Austrian possessions. Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia 1743–1780 Joseph II, king of Bohemia 1780–1790 Leopold II, king of Bohemia 1790–1792 Francis, king of Bohemia 1792–1835 Ferdinand V, king of Bohemia 1835–1848 Francis Joseph I, king of Bohemia 1848–1916 Charles III, king of Bohemia 1916–1918 Queens Consort of France From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the greatest non-Habsburg power in Europe was usually France. As a result, in usually futile attempts to either unite Europe under the Habsburg family or to prevent French enmity, Habsburg daughters were wed to successive kings of France. Pre-division Habsburgs Eleanor of Habsburg, Infanta of Spain (1498-1558), wife of King Francis I of France. Austrian Habsburgs Elisabeth of Austria (1554-1592), wife of King Charles IX of France Spanish Habsburgs Anne of Austria, infanta of Spain, (1601–1666), wife of King Louis XIII Maria Theresa of Spain (1638–1683), wife of King Louis XIV Habsburg-Lorraine Marie Antoinette (1755–1793), wife of King Louis XVI Marie Louise (1791 -1847), second wife of Emperor Napoleon I. Queens Consort of Portugal Due to its proximaty (geographic, strategic and religious) the Habsburgs always consolidated their alliances with the Portuguese Royal House of Aviz, which gave them this Kingdom in 1580. When the Braganzas expelled the Spanish Habsburgs (1640), new alliances were set-up, this time with the Austrian Habsburgs. Pre-division Habsburgs Eleanor of Habsburg, Infanta of Spain (1498-1558), third wife of King Manuel I of Portugal. When she became a widow, she remaried, this time with king Francis I of France. Catherine of Habsburg, Infanta of Spain (1507-1578), wife of King John III of Portugal Austrian Habsburgs Marie Anne, Archduchess of Austria (1683–1754), wife of King John V of Portugal Habsburg-Lorraine Marie Leopoldina, Archduchess of Austria (1797-1826), first wife of Peter I, Emperor of Brazil, also known as Peter IV, King of Portugal. Marie Leopoldina was Marie Louise younger sister. Habsburg-Lorraine today (non main line) The House is still very prominent in Europe, with many members living in the Americas and even as far afield as Southern Africa. The Habsburg art of marriage lead to countless morganatic marriages creating many demi lines of the House, such as those of Habsburg-Snyder, Habsburg-Rogers, and Habsburg-Lorena. Little is known of these families today as they have since their morganatic origins lost touch with the main line. The Southern African branch was a child of colonialism, taking full advantage of European Colonial interests in Africa. Tuscan Duchy and Salzburg descendants- The members of this family bear the titles Archduke (Archduchess) of Austria, Prince (Princess) of Hungary, Prince (Princess) of Tuscany (Imperial and Royal Highness). Descendants of morganatic marriages, except those granted specific titles such as the Princes von Altenburg, generally bear the title "Graf (Gräfin) von Habsburg-[Lothringen] or Prinz von Habsburg-[Lothringen] See also Kings of Germany family tree. The Habsburgs were the 8th dynasty to rule Germany and were related by marriage to all the others. List of rulers of Austria List of rulers of Lorraine Line of succession to the Tuscan Throne Grand Duchy of Tuscany Habsburg Monarchy Austrian Empire Austria-Hungary Trieste Habsburg Spain Thirty Years' War Ottoman-Habsburg wars Habsburg Family Tree Dukes of Lorraine family tree The Royal Forums Mandibular prognathism ("Habsburg lip") A.E.I.O.U. Mayerling Incident Alter és Kiss. The leading fashion house in Central Europe who produced tailor-made clothing for the Viennese royal family. Further reading Brewer-Ward, Daniel A. The House of Habsburg: A Genealogy of the Descendants of Empress Maria Theresia. Clearfield, 1996. Evans, Robert J. W. The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550-1700: An Interpretation. Clarendon Press, 1979. McGuigan, Dorothy Gies. The Habsburgs. Doubleday, 1966. Wandruszka, Adam. The House of Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European Dynasty. Doubleday, 1964 (Greenwood Press, 1975). Crankshaw, Edward. The Fall of the House of Habsburg. Sphere Books Limited, London, 1970. (first published by Longmans in 1963) Palmer Alan. "Napoleón and Marie Louise" Ariel Mexico 2003 Notes External links Habsburg Spain (1500-1700) http://groups.to/habsburg group and forum for members of the House of Habsburg "Erzherzog Dr. Otto von Habsburg" (Autorisierte Ehrenseite) in German Habsburg Biographies Habsburg Resource Centre on SurnameWeb http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/hapsburg3.html Genealogical tree of the house of Habsburg (up until Maria Theresia) The Hapsburg Monarchy (Wickham Steed, 1913)) eLibrary Austria Project full text (ebook) Genealogy of the Habsburgs from Genealogy.eu "Inbreeding caused demise of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty, new study reveals" (15 April 2009) |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- Last held by House of Iturbide be-x-old:Габзбургі | House_of_Habsburg |@lemmatized coat:1 arm:1 habsburg:136 emperor:62 show:5 variety:1 territory:10 house:53 usually:3 spell:2 hapsburg:2 english:1 important:1 royal:9 europe:7 best:1 know:7 supply:1 formally:2 elect:3 holy:24 roman:24 well:5 ruler:8 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2,510 | Armenian_language | The Armenian language (, — , conventional short form ) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian people. It is the official language of the Republic of Armenia as well as in the region of Nagorno-Karabakh. The language is also widely spoken by Armenian communities in the Armenian diaspora. It has its own script, the Armenian alphabet. Linguists typically classify Armenian as an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. Armenian language - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Some Indo-Europeanists, notably Clackson (1994), have proposed that Armenian may have been grouped together with the Hellenic branch (Greek). This is called the Graeco-Armenian Hypothesis, in combination with a Graeco-Aryan hypothesis (Renfrew, Clackson and Fortson 1994). History Origins The earliest testimony of the Armenian language dates to the 5th century AD (the Bible translation of Mesrob Mashtots). The earlier history of the language is unclear and the subject of much speculation. Graeco-Armenian hypothesis Armenian is regarded by some linguists as a close relative of Phrygian. Many scholars such as Clackson (1994) hold that Greek is the most closely related surviving language to Armenian. The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared by Armenian, which also shares other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek. The close relatedness of Armenian and Greek sheds light on the paraphyletic nature of the Centum-Satem isogloss. Armenian also shares major isoglosses with Greek; some linguists propose that the linguistic ancestors of the Armenians and Greeks were either identical or in a close contact relation. Other linguists including Fortson (2004) comment "by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century A.D., the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces." Speculations on Anatolian influence W. M. Austin in 1942 concluded that there was an early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine and the absence of inherited long vowels. Evolution Early in the fifth century, classical Armenian, or Krapar, was one of the great languages of the Near East and Asia Minor. Although an autonomous branch within the Indo-European family of languages, it had some affinities to Middle Iranian, Greek and the Balto-Slavic languages, but belonged to none of them. It was characterized by a system of inflection unlike the other languages, as well as a flexible and liberal use of combining root words to create derivative and compound words by the application of certain agglutinative affixes. In the period that followed the invention of the alphabet and up to the threshold of the modern era, Krapar (Classical Armenian) lived on. An effort to modernize the language in Greater Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11-14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet, bringing the total number to 38. The Book of Lamentations by Gregory of Narek (951-1003), that could be considered a masterpiece of world literature, is perhaps a good example of the development of a literature and writing style that came to be known as Middle Armenian or Vernacular. In addition to elevating the literary style of the Armenian language, Gregory of Nareg paved the way for his successors to include secular themes in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. “A Word of Wisdom,” a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the “vulgar population” were also reflected in other literary works. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others even take the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. Not surprisingly, these changes altered the nature of the literary style and syntax but they did not constitute radical changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. The Treaty of Kermanchai of 1828 once again divided the traditional Armenian homeland. This time, two thirds of historical Armenia fell under Ottoman control, while the remaining territories were divided between the Russian and Persian empires. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman Empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived and suffered. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were constituted. Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Constantinople, the capitol of the Ottoman Empire, while Tiflis (Tiblissi), in Georgia, became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life. The introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vulgar language, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Krapar. Numerous dialects developed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major variants emerged: Western Variant: The influx of immigrants from different parts of the traditional Armenian homeland to Constantinople crystallized the common elements of the regional dialects, paving the way to a style of writing that required a shorter and more flexible learning curve than Krapar. Eastern Variant: The dialect of the Ararat plateau provided the primary elements of Eastern Armenian, centered in Tiflis (Tiblissi, Georgia). Similar to the Western Armenian variant, the Modern Eastern was in many ways more practical and accessible to the masses than Krapar. Both centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhapar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language’s existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Krapar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from minor morphological, phonetic and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and identical rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other easily. After the First World War, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920-1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, while the Diaspora created after the Genocide of 1915 carried with it the only thing survivors still possessed: its mother tongue, Western Armenian. Iranian influence The Classical Armenian language (often referred to as Grabar, literally "written (language)") imported numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily Parthian, and contains smaller inventories of borrowings from Greek, Syriac, Latin, and autochthonous languages such as Urartian. Middle Armenian (11th–15th centuries AD) incorporated further loans from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Latin, and the modern dialects took in hundreds of additional words from Modern Turkish and Persian. Therefore, determining the historical evolution of Armenian is particularly difficult because Armenian borrowed many words from Parthian and Persian (both Iranian languages) as well as from Greek. The large percentage of loans from Iranian languages initially led linguists to classify Armenian as an Iranian language. The distinctness of Armenian was only recognized when Hübschmann (1875) used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian loans from the true Armenian vocabulary. Modern changes The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian Genocide. Phonology Vowels Modern Armenian has eight monophthong vowel sounds. Front Central Back Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded Close Mid Open Classical Armenian distinguishes seven vowels: (ա), (ի), (ը), (ե), (է), (ո and օ) and (ու) (transcribed as a, i, ë, e, ē, o/ò, and ou respectively). Consonants The following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have a special aspirated series (transcribed with a Greek spiritus asper after the letter): , , , , . Each phoneme in the table is represented by three symbols. The topmost indicates the phoneme's pronunciation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA); below that appears the corresponding letter of the Armenian alphabet; and the bottom symbol is its Latin-alphabet transliteration (according to ISO 9985). bilabiallabio-dentalalveolarpost-alveolarpalatalvelar /uvularglottal plosive պ բ p b տ դ t d կ գ k g aspirated plosive փ p‘ թ t‘ ք k‘ nasal մ m ն n fricative ֆ վ f v ս զ s z շ ժ š ž խ ղ x ġ հ h affricate ծ ձ ç j ճ ջ č̣ ǰ aspirated affricate ց c‘ չ č approximant ր r -յ- y trill r ռ lateral approximant լ l Morphology Armenian corresponds with other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. Armenian is rich in combinations of consonants. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of declining nouns, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in "he will go") has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English "he goes" and "he does not go"). Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations. With time the Armenian language made a transition from a synthetic language (Old Armenian or Grabar) to a typical analytic language (Modern Armenian) with Middle Armenian as a midpoint in this transition. Lord Byron studied the Armenian language. He helped to compile an Armenian grammar textbook and translated a few Armenian books into English. Noun Classical Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in the pronoun. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. The noun may take seven cases, nominative, accusative, locative, genitive, dative, ablative, instrumental. Verb Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types (three in Western Armenian) changing form based on tense, mood and aspect. Dialects The major division is between the Eastern and Western dialects. The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic and Turkish-speaking communities. For example, Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce () as an aspirated "t" as in "tiger", () like the "d" in "develop", and () as an unaspirated voiceless stop, sounding somewhere between the two as in "stop." Western Armenian has simplified the stop system into a simple division between voiced stops and voiceless aspirate ones; the first series corresponds to the unaspirated voiceless series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated voiceless series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both () and () as an aspirated "t" as in "tiger," and the () letter is pronounced like the letter "d" as in "develop." There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects). The main difference between both blocks are: Western Armenian (Arevm'tahayeren): example Eastern Armenian (Arevelahayeren): example Armenian can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have died due to the effects of the Armenian Genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. While Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, some subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. It is true, however, that a fluent speaker of two greatly varying subdialects who are exposed to the other dialect over even a short period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease. English - Eastern Armenian Yes = Ayo () No = Voč () Excuse me = Neroġout'ioun () Hello = Barev () How are you(formal) = Vonts ek () What's up = Inch ca chca () Please = Xndrem () Thank you = Šnorhakal em () Thank you very much = Šat šnorhakal em () Welcome = Bari galoust () Goodbye = C'tesout'ioun () Good morning = Bari louys () Good afternoon = Bari òr () Good evening = Bari yereko () Good night = Bari gišer () I love you = Yes siroum em k'ez () I am Armenian = Yes hay em () English - Western Armenian Yes = Ayo () No = Voč () Excuse me = Neroġout'ioun () Hello = Parev () Please = Xntrem () Thank you = Šnorhagal em () Thank you very much = Šad šnorhagal em () Welcome = Pari yegar / Pari yegak () Goodbye = C'desout'ioun () Good morning = Pari louys () Good afternoon = Pari òr () Good evening = Parirgoun / Pari irigown () Good night = Kišer pari () I love you = Yes k'ez gë sirem () Other distinct dialects include the Homshetsi language of the Hemshin people and Lomavren language of the Bosha, both of which are categorized as belonging to the Armenian language family. Historical Armenian dialects In 1909, linguist Herachyah Adjarian surveyed many of the Armenian dialects in what is now present day Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Iran, and other surrounding countries settled by Armenians. Unlike the traditional dialect division of Armenian into western and eastern dialects, Adjarian divided Armenian into three main dialects based on which indicative particles are used. He labeled them as the -owm dialects, gë dialects, and -el dialects. These three major dialects were further divided into sub-dialects. -owm Dialects: Yerevan, Doğubeyazit, Tabriz (Kala and Lilava quarters), Gavar, Kamo Tbilisi (Havlabar quarter) Shusha, Ganja, Shaki, Baku, Derbent, Agstafa, Dilijan, Vanadzor, Qazakh, Lori, Karadagh, Mujumbar, Tabriz (Lilava quarter), Burdur, Ödemiş Shamaki, Quba Astrakhan Julfa, Isfahan (New Julfa quarter), Shiraz, Hamadan, Bushehr, Tehran, Qazvin, Rasht, Bandar-e Anzali Aşağı Əylis, Çǝnǝnǝb, Yuxarı Əylis, Yuxarı Əndǝli, Danagyrt, Urmis, Dasta, Kyalaki gë Dialects: Erzerum, Kars, Gyumri, Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe Muş, Sason, Bitlis, Hizan, Ahlat, Erciş, Bulanık, Malazgirt, Hinis, Eleşkirt, Aparan, Eshtia, Ujmana, Toria, Martuni Van, Diadin, Mukus, Buşkale, Çatak, Basargecher Diyarbakır, Lice, Hazro, Kozluk, Hizan, Siverek, Şanlıurfa Elazığ, Erzincan, Palu, Bingöl, Çemişgezek, Akpazar, Kigi, Tunceli, Kemah Şebinkarahisar, Akıncılar Trabzon, Bayburt, Gümüşhane, Giresun Hemşin, Trabzon, Ünye, Fatsa, Terme, Çarşamba, Samsun, Sukhumi, Sochi, Mtsara, Tsebelda, Adler, Shapsugskaya Malatya, Adıyaman Saimbeyli, Süleymanlı, Kahramanmaraş, Kilis, İskenderun, Yakacik, Samandağ Aramo Arapgir, Divriği, Gürün, Darende, Kayseri, Yozgat Kemaliye Sivas Tokat, Amasya, Merzifon, Ordu, Samsun, Sinop İzmir İzmit, Adapazarı, Yalova, Bahçecik, Geyve, İznik, Pazarköy, Karamürsel, Aslanbey, Ortaköy, Sölöz, Benli Istanbul Tekirdağ, Malkara Nor Nakhichevan, Rostov-on-Don, Stavropol, Krasnodar, Dnipropetrovsk, Anapa, Maykop, Taganrog, Prymorsk, Novocherkassk, Dneprovskaya Poland, Bukovina, Transylvania, Hungary Jerusalem (K'aġak'ac'i dialect), not in Adjarian but mentioned by Vaux as likely coming from Cilicia -el Dialects: Maragheh Khoy, Maku, Iğdir, Kori, Alighuli, Mughanjugh, Karashen, Alilu, Angeghakot, Ghushchi, Tazakend, Uz, Mazra, Balak, Shaghat, Ltsen, Sisian, Nerkin Kilisa Artvin, Ardahan, Ardanuç, Oltu Indo-European linguistic comparison Armenian is an Indo-European language, and so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. This table lists only some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English (more specifically, with English words descended from the Old English(Anglo-Saxon) language). (Source: Online Etymology Dictionary. ) Armenian English Latin Classical and Hellenistic Greek Sanskrit PIE mayr "mother" mother (< OE mōdor) māter "mother" mētēr "mother" mātṛ "mother" "mother" hayr "father" father (< OE fæder) pater "father" patēr "father" pitṛ "father" "father" eġbayr "brother" brother (< OE brōþor The letter 'þ' was used in the Old English alphabet, and it was eventually replaced by the letters "th". ) frāter "brother" phrātēr "brother" bhrātṛ "brother" "brother" dowstr "daughter" daughter (< OE dohtor) futrei The word "futrei" (daughter) in the Latin column is actually from an Italic sister language called Oscan. "daughter" thugatēr "daughter" duhitṛ "daughter" "daughter" kin "woman" queen (< OE cƿēn The letter 'ƿ' was used in the Old English alphabet to represent the sound /w/, which was eventually replaced by the letter "w". "queen, woman, wife") gunē "a woman, a wife" gnā/jani "woman" "woman, wife" im "my" my, mine (< OE min) mei "my" emeo "my, of mine" mama "my" "my, mine" anown "name" name (< OE nama) nōmen "name" onoma "name" nāman "name" "name" owt' "8" eight (< OE eahta) octō "eight" oktō "eight" aṣṭa "eight" "eight" inë "9" nine (< OE nigon) novem "nine" ennea "nine" nava "nine" "nine" tas "10" ten (< OE tien) (< P.Gmc. *tekhan) decem "ten" deka "ten" daśa "ten" "ten" ačk' "eye" eye (< OE ēge) oculus "eye" ophthalmos "eye" akṣan "eye" "to see" armownk "elbow" arm (< OE earm "joined body parts below shoulder") armus "shoulder" arthron "a joint" īrma "arm" "fit, join (that which is fitted together)" çownk The letter 'ç' is pronounced like the consonant cluster "ts", and in the Armenian words "çownk", "gorç", "meç", and "ançanot'", it corresponds to the PIE *g. "knee" knee (< OE cnēo) genū, "knee" gonu "knee" jānu "knee" "knee" otk' "foot" foot (< OE fōt) pedis "foot" podi "foot" pāda "foot" "foot" sirt "heart" heart (< OE heorte) cor "heart" kardia "heart" hṛdaya "heart" "heart" kaši "skin" hide (< OE hȳdan "animal skin cover") cutis "skin" keuthō "I cover, I hide" kuṭīra "hut" "to cover, conceal" mowk "mouse" mouse (< OE mūs) mūs "mouse" mus "mouse" mūṣ "mouse" "mouse, small rodent" kov "cow" cow (< OE cū) bum The words "bum" (cow), "pir" (fire) and "utur" (water) in the Latin column are actually from an Italic sister language called Umbrian. "cow" bous "cow" go "cow" "cow" šown "hound" hound (< OE hund "hound, dog") canis "hound, dog" (canine) kuōn "hound, dog" śvan "dog" "hound, dog" tari "year" year (< OE gēar) hōrnus "of this year" hōra "time, year" yare The word "yare" (year) in the Sanskrit column is actually from an Indo-Iranian sister language called Avestan. "year" "year" amis "month" moon, month (< OE mōnaþ) mēnsis "month" mēn "moon, month" māsa "moon, month" "moon, month" amaṙ "summer" summer (< OE sumor) samā "season" "hot season of the year" ǰerm "warm" burn (< OE beornan) formus "warm" thermos "warm" gharma "heat" "warm" lowys "light" light (< OE lēoht "brightness") lucere, lux, lucidus "to shine, light, clear" leukos "bright, shining, white" roca "shining" "light, brightness" howr "flame" fire (< OE fȳr) pir "fire" pur "fire" pu "fire" "fire" heṙow "far" far (< OE feor "to a great distance") per "through" pera "beyond" paras "beyond" "through, across, beyond" helowm "I pour" flow (< OE flōƿan) pluĕre "to rain" plenō "I wash" plu "to swim" "flow, float" owtem "I eat" eat (< OE etan) edulis "edible" edō "I eat" admi "I eat" "to eat" gitem "I know" wit (< OE ƿit, ƿitan "intelligence, to know") vidēre "to see" eidenai "to know" vid "to know" "to know, to see" get "river" water (< OE ƿæter) utur "water" hudōr "water" udan "water" "water" gorç "work " work (< OE ƿeorc) urgēre "push, drive" ergon "work" varcas "activity" "to work" meç "great " much (< OE mycel "great, big, many") magnus "great" megas "great, large" mahant "great" "great" ançanot' "stranger, unfamiliar" unknown (< OE uncnaƿen) ignōtus The prefixes for "not" in Latin are "in-" and "i-", and "an-" and "a-" in Greek and Sanskrit, which correspond to the PIE *n-. , ignōrāntem "unknown, ignorant" agnōstos "unknown" ajñāta "unfamiliar" "not" + "to know" meṙaç "dead" murder (< OE morþor) mortalis "mortal" ambrotos "immortal" mṛta "dead" "to die" mēǰteġ "middle" mid, middle (< OE mid, middel) medius "middle" mesos "middle" madhya "middle" "mid, middle" ayl "other" else (< OE elles "other, otherwise, different") alius, alienus "other, another" allos "other, another" anya "other" "beyond, other" nor "new" new (< OE nīƿe) novus "new" neos "new" nava "new" "new" dowṙ "door" door (< OE dor, duru) fores "door" thura "door" dvār "door" "door, doorway, gate" town "house" timber (< OE timber "trees used for building material, structure") domus "house" domos "house" dama "house" "house" berri, berel "fertile, carry" bear (< OE beran "give birth, carry") ferre, fertilis "to bear, fertile" pherein "to carry" bharati "carry" "to bear, to carry" See also Armenian alphabet Eastern Armenian language Graeco-Armenian Language families and languages List of Indo-European languages Western Armenian language Footnotes References Adjarian, Herchyah H. (1909) Classification des dialectes arméniens, par H. Adjarian. Paris: Honoro Champion. Clackson, James. 1994. The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30. (and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing) Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004) Indo-European Language and Culture. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Hübschmann, Heinrich (1875) "Über die Stellung des armenischen im Kreise der indogermanischen Sprachen," Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung 23.5-42. English translation Mallory, J. P. (1989) In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson. Vaux, Bert. 1998. The Phonology of Armenian. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Vaux, Bert. 2002. "The Armenian dialect of Jeruslame." in Armenians in the Holy Land. "Louvain: Peters. 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2,511 | Neurotransmitter | Chemical structure of D-aspartic acid, a common amino acid neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals which relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles that cluster beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors in the membrane on the postsynaptic side of the synapse. Release of neurotransmitters usually follows arrival of an action potential at the synapse, but may follow graded electrical potentials. Low level "baseline" release also occurs without electrical stimulation. Identifying neurotransmitters Some of the properties that define a chemical as a neurotransmitter are difficult to test experimentally. For example, it is easy using an electron microscope to recognize vesicles on the presynaptic side of a synapse, but it may not be easy to determine directly what chemical is packed into them. The difficulties led to many historical controversies over whether a given chemical was or was not clearly established as a transmitter. In an effort to give some structure to the arguments, neurochemists worked out a set of experimentally tractable rules. According to the prevailing beliefs of the 1960s, a chemical can be classified as a neurotransmitter if it meets the following conditions: There are precursors and/or synthesis enzymes located in the presynaptic side of the synapse. The chemical is present in the presynaptic element. It is available in sufficient quantity in the presynaptic neuron to affect the postsynaptic neuron; There are postsynaptic receptors and the chemical is able to bind to them. A biochemical mechanism for inactivation is present. Modern advances in pharmacology, genetics, and chemical neuroanatomy have greatly reduced the importance of these rules. A series of experiments that may have taken several years in the 1960s can now be done, with much better precision, in a few months. Thus, it is unusual nowadays for the identification of a chemical as a neurotransmitter to remain controversial for very long. Types of neurotransmitters There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. Dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is sufficient for some purposes. Approximately ten "small-molecule neurotransmitters" are known: Acetylcholine (ACh) Monoamines: norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), melatonin, histamine Amino acids: glutamate, gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), aspartate, glycine Purines: Adenosine, ATP, GTP, and their derivatives In addition, over 50 neuroactive peptides have been found, and new ones are discovered on a regular basis. Many of these are "co-released" along with a small-molecule transmitter, but in some cases a peptide is the primary transmitter at a synapse. Single ions, such as synaptically released zinc, are also considered neurotransmitters by some, as are a few gaseous molecules such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO). These are not neurotransmitters by the strict definition, however, because although they have all been shown experimentally to be released by presynaptic terminals in an activity-dependent way, they are not packaged into vesicles. Not all neurotransmitters are equally important. By far the most prevalent transmitter is glutamate, which is used at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain. The next most prevalent is GABA, which is used at more than 90% of the synapses that don't use glutamate. Note, however, that even though other transmitters are used in far fewer synapses, they may be very important functionally: the great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering the actions of some neurotransmitter system, and the great majority of these act through transmitters other than glutamate or GABA. Addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and heroin, for example, exert their effects primarily on the dopamine system. Excitatory and inhibitory Some neurotransmitters are commonly described as "excitatory" or "inhibitory". The only thing that a neurotransmitter does directly is to activate one or more types of receptors. The effect on the postsynaptic cell depends entirely on the properties of the receptors. It so happens that for some neurotransmitters (for example, glutamate), the most important receptors all have excitatory effects: that is, they increase the probability that the target cell will fire an action potential. For other neurotransmitters (such as GABA), the most important receptors all have inhibitory effects. There are, however, other important neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, for which both excitatory and inhibitory receptors exist; and there are some types of receptors that activate complex metabolic pathways in the postsynaptic cell to produce effects that cannot appropriately be called either excitatory or inhibitory. Thus, it is widely understood to be an abuse of language to call a neurotransmitter excitatory or inhibitory—nevertheless it is so convenient to call glutamate excitatory and GABA inhibitory that this usage is seen very frequently. Actions As explained above, the only direct action of a neurotransmitter is to activate a receptor. Therefore, the effects of a neurotransmitter system depend on the connections of the neurons that use the transmitter, and the chemical properties of the receptors that the transmitter binds to. Here are a few examples of important neurotransmitter actions: Glutamate is used at the great majority of fast excitatory synapses in the brain and spinal cord. It is also used at most synapses that are "modifiable", i.e. capable of increasing or decreasing in strength. Modifiable synapses are thought to be the main memory-storage elements in the brain. GABA is used at the great majority of fast inhibitory synapses in virtually every part of the brain. Many sedative/tranquilizing drugs act by enhancing the effects of GABA. Correspondingly glycine is the inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord. Acetylcholine is distinguished as the transmitter at the neuromuscular junction connecting motor nerves to muscles. The paralytic arrow-poison curare acts by blocking transmission at these synapses. Acetylcholine also operates in many regions of the brain, but using different types of receptors. Dopamine has a number of important functions in the brain. It plays a critical role in the reward system, but dysfunction of the dopamine system is also implicated in Parkinson's Disease and schizophrenia. Serotonin has a number of important functions that are difficult to describe in a unified way, including regulation of mood, sleep/wake cycles, and body temperature. It is released during sunny weather, and also when eating chocolate or taking Ecstasy (MDMA). Substance P undecapeptide responsible for transmission of pain from certain sensory neurons to the central nervous system. Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system affects large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission. The major neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system. Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affects the whole system; this fact explains the mode of action of many drugs. Cocaine, for example, blocks the reentering of dopamine back into the presynaptic neuron, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer. Since the dopamine is in the synapse longer, the neurotransmitter rapidly hit the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron cell, and therefore causing happiness. Excess intake of cocaine can lead to physical addiction. The physical addiction of cocaine is when the neurotransmitters stay in the synapse so long , the body removes some receptors from the postsynaptic neuron. After the effects of the drug wear off, the person usually feels unhappy, because now the neurotransmitters are less likely to hit the receptor since the body removed many of them during the drug intake. Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), hence potentiating the effect of naturally released serotonin. AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels. Diseases may affect specific neurotransmitter systems. For example, Parkinson's disease is at least in part related to failure of dopaminergic cells in deep-brain nuclei, for example the substantia nigra. Treatments potentiating the effect of dopamine precursors have been proposed and effected, with moderate success. A brief comparison of the major neurotransmitter systems follows: +Neurotransmitter systems System Origin Effects Noradrenaline system locus coeruleus arousal reward Lateral tegmental field Dopamine system dopamine pathways: mesocortical pathway mesolimbic pathway nigrostriatal pathway tuberoinfundibular pathway motor system, reward, cognition, endocrine, nausea Serotonin system caudal dorsal raphe nucleus Increase (introversion), mood, satiety, body temperature and sleep, while decreasing nociception. rostral dorsal raphe nucleus Cholinergic system pontomesencephalotegmental complex learning short-term memory arousal reward basal optic nucleus of Meynert medial septal nucleus Common neurotransmitters Category Name Abbreviation Metabotropic Ionotropic Small: Amino acids Aspartate - - Neuropeptides N-Acetylaspartylglutamate NAAG Metabotropic glutamate receptors; selective agonist of mGluR3 - Small: Amino acids Glutamate (glutamic acid) Glu Metabotropic glutamate receptor NMDA receptor, Kainate receptor, AMPA receptor Small: Amino acids Gamma-aminobutyric acid GABA GABAB receptor GABAA, GABAA-ρ receptor Small: Amino acids Glycine Gly - Glycine receptor Small: Acetylcholine Acetylcholine Ach Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Dopamine DA Dopamine receptor - Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) NE Adrenergic receptor - Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Epinephrine (adrenaline) Epi Adrenergic receptor - Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Octopamine - - Small: Monoamine (Phe/Tyr) Tyramine - Small: Monoamine (Trp) Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) 5-HT Serotonin receptor, all but 5-HT3 5-HT3 Small: Monoamine (Trp) Melatonin Mel Melatonin receptor - Small: Monoamine (His) Histamine H Histamine receptor - PP: Gastrins Gastrin - - PP: Gastrins Cholecystokinin CCK Cholecystokinin receptor - PP: Neurohypophyseals Vasopressin AVP Vasopressin receptor - PP: Neurohypophyseals Oxytocin Oxytocin receptor - PP: Neurohypophyseals Neurophysin I - - PP: Neurohypophyseals Neurophysin II - - PP: Neuropeptide Y Neuropeptide Y NY Neuropeptide Y receptor - PP: Neuropeptide Y Pancreatic polypeptide PP - - PP: Neuropeptide Y Peptide YY PYY - - PP: Opioids Corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone) ACTH Corticotropin receptor - PP: Opioids Dynorphin - - PP: Opioids Endorphin - - PP: Opioids Enkephaline - - PP: Secretins Secretin Secretin receptor - PP: Secretins Motilin Motilin receptor - PP: Secretins Glucagon Glucagon receptor - PP: Secretins Vasoactive intestinal peptide VIP Vasoactive intestinal peptide receptor - PP: Secretins Growth hormone-releasing factor GRF - - PP: Somtostatins Somatostatin Somatostatin receptor - SS: Tachykinins Neurokinin A - - SS: Tachykinins Neurokinin B - - SS: Tachykinins Substance P - - PP: Other Bombesin - - PP: Other Gastrin releasing peptide GRP - - Gas Nitric oxide NO Soluble guanylyl cyclase - Gas Carbon monoxide CO - Heme bound to potassium channels Other Anandamide AEA Cannabinoid receptor - Other Adenosine triphosphate ATP P2Y12 P2X receptor Degradation and elimination Neurotransmitter must be broken down once it reaches the post-synaptic cell to prevent further excitatory or inhibitory signal transduction. For example, acetylcholine, (ACH) (an excitatory neurotransmitter), is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AchE). Choline is taken up and recycled by the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize more ACH. Other neurotransmitters such as dopamine are able to diffuse away from their targeted synaptic junctions and are eliminated from the body via the kidneys, or destroyed in the liver. Each neurotransmitter has very specific degradation pathways at regulatory points, which may be the target of the body's own regulatory system or recreational drugs. See also Neuropsychopharmacology Neuropeptide Nervous system Gasotransmitters References External links Molecular Expressions Photo Gallery: The Neurotransmitter Collection Brain Neurotransmitters Endogenous Neuroactive Extracellular Signal Transducers neuroscience for kids website brain explorer website wikibooks cellular neurobiology | Neurotransmitter |@lemmatized chemical:11 structure:2 aspartic:1 acid:11 common:2 amino:7 neurotransmitter:41 relay:1 amplify:1 modulate:1 signal:3 neuron:10 another:1 cell:7 package:2 synaptic:6 vesicle:4 cluster:1 beneath:1 membrane:2 presynaptic:7 side:4 synapse:8 release:10 cleft:1 bind:3 receptor:42 postsynaptic:7 usually:2 follow:3 arrival:1 action:7 potential:3 may:6 grade:1 electrical:2 low:1 level:2 baseline:1 also:7 occur:1 without:1 stimulation:1 identify:1 property:3 define:1 difficult:2 test:1 experimentally:3 example:8 easy:2 use:10 electron:1 microscope:1 recognize:1 determine:1 directly:2 pack:1 difficulty:1 lead:2 many:7 historical:1 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2,512 | Fiji | Fiji (; ), officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (; ), is an island nation in the South Pacific Ocean east of Vanuatu, west of Tonga and south of Tuvalu. The country occupies an archipelago of about 322 islands, of which 106 are permanently inhabited, and 522 islets. The two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population. Etymology Fiji's main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name "Fiji" is derived, through the pronunciation of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence was best described as follows: Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific, but not great sailors. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly esteemed and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. PDF article from Fiji Government on Line, section on Europeans in Fiji History The first people of Fiji arrived long before contact with European explorers in the seventeenth century. Pottery excavated from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500-1000 BC, although the question of Pacific migration still lingers.It is believed that the Lapita people or the ancestors of the Polynesians settled the islands first but not much is known of what became of them after the Melanesians arrived but they may have had some influence on the new culture and archaeological evidence shows that they would have then moved on to Tonga, Samoa and Hawai'i. The first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 3500 years ago. Lapita pottery shards have been found at numerous excavations around the country. Fijians have aspects of their culture that is similar to Melanesian culture to the western Pacific but has a stronger connection to the older polynesian cultures such as those of Samoa and Tonga. Trade between these three nations long before European contact is quite obvious with Canoes made from native Fijian trees found in Tonga and Tongan words being part of the language of the Lau group of islands. Pots made in Fiji have been found in Samoa and even the Marquesas Islands. For most of its history, across 1000 kilometres from east to west, Fiji has been a nation of many Languages; often people were unable to understand conversations of others. Nothing was static in Fiji. It was a history of settlement but also of mobility. Over the centuries, a unique Fijian culture developed. Constant warfare and cannibalism between warring tribes was quite rampant and very much part of everyday life. Fijians today regard those times as "na gauna ni tevoro" (time of the devil). The ferocity of the cannibal lifestyle deterred European sailors from going near Fijian waters, giving Fiji the name Cannibal Isles, in turn Fiji was unknown to the rest of the outside world. Pacific Peoples, Melanesia/Micronesia/Polynesia, Central Queensland University The Dutch explorer Abel Tasman visited Fiji in 1643 while looking for the Great Southern Continent. Abel Janszoon Tasman Biography, Answers.com It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that Europeans settled the islands permanently. Oceania - A Short History of Fiji, Jane Resture's Oceania Page The first European settlers to Fiji were Beachcombers, missionaries, whalers and those engaged in the then booming sandalwood and beche-de-mer trade. Ratu Seru Epenisa Cakobau was a Fijian chief and warlord from the island of Bau, off the eastern coast of Viti Levu, who united part of Fiji's warring tribes under his leadership. He then styled himself as King of Fiji or Tui Viti and then to Vunivalu or Protector after the Cession of Fiji to Great Britain. The islands came under British control as a colony in 1874, and the British brought over Indian contract labourers to work on the sugar plantations as the then Governor and also the first governor of Fiji, Arthur Charles Hamilton-Gordon, adopted a policy disallowing the use of native labour and no interference in their culture and way of life. Fiji was granted independence in 1970. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987 because the government was perceived as dominated by the Indo-Fijian (Indian) community. The second 1987 coup saw the British monarchy and the Governor General replaced by a non-executive President, and the country changed the long form of its name from Dominion of Fiji to Republic of Fiji (and to Republic of the Fiji Islands in 1997). The coups and accompanying civil unrest contributed to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic difficulties but ensured that Melanesians became the majority. In 1990, the new Constitution institutionalised the ethnic Fijian domination of the political system. The Group Against Racial Discrimination (GARD) was formed to oppose the unilaterally imposed constitution and restore the 1970 constitution. Sitiveni Rabuka, the Lieutenant Colonel who carried out the 1987 coup became Prime Minister in 1992, following elections held under the new constitution. Three years later, Rabuka established the Constitutional Review Commission, which in 1997 led to a new Constitution, which was supported by most leaders of the indigenous Fijian and Indo-Fijian communities. Fiji is re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations. Levuka, 1842. The new millennium brought along another coup, instigated by George Speight, that effectively toppled the government of Mahendra Chaudhry, who became Prime Minister following the 1997 constitution. Commodore Frank Bainimarama assumed executive power after the resignation, possibly forced, of President Mara. Fiji was rocked by two mutinies at Suva's Queen Elizabeth Barracks, later in 2000 when rebel soldiers went on the rampage. The High Court ordered the reinstatement of the constitution, and in September 2001, a general election was held to restore democracy, which was won by interim Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase's Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua party. In 2005, amid much controversy, the Qarase government proposed a Reconciliation and Unity Commission, with power to recommend compensation for victims of the 2000 coup, and amnesty for its perpetrators. However, the military strongly opposed this bill, especially the army's commander, Frank Bainimarama. He agreed with detractors who said that it was a sham to grant amnesty to supporters of the present government who played roles in the coup. His attack on the legislation, which continued unremittingly throughout May and into June and July, further strained his already tense relationship with the government. In late November 2006 and early December 2006, Bainimarama was instrumental in the 2006 Fijian coup d'état. Bainimarama handed down a list of demands to Qarase after a bill was put forward to parliament, part of which would have offered pardons to participants in the 2000 coup attempt. He gave Qarase an ultimatum date of 4 December to accede to these demands or to resign from his post. Qarase adamantly refused to either concede or resign and on 5 December President, Ratu Josefa Iloilo, was said to have signed a legal order dissolving Parliament after meeting with Bainimarama. In April 2009, the Fiji Court of Appeal ruled that the 2006 coup had been illegal. This began the 2009 Fijian constitutional crisis. President Iloilo abrogated the constitution, removed all office holders under the Constitution including all judges and the Governover of the Central Bank. He then reappointed Bainimarama as Prime Minister under his "New Order" and imposed a "Public Emergency Regulation" limiting internal travel and allowing press censorship. For a country of its size, Fiji has a large armed forces, and has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in various parts of the world. In addition, a significant number of former military personnel have served in the lucrative security sector in Iraq following the 2003 US-led invasion. Politics Politics of Fiji normally take place in the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Fiji is the head of government, the President the head of state, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Since independence there have been four coups in Fiji, two in 1987, one in 2000 and one in late 2006. The military has been either ruling directly, or heavily influencing governments since 1987. 2006 Military takeover Citing corruption in the government, Commodore Josaia Voreqe (Frank) Bainimarama, Commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces, staged a military takeover on December 5, 2006 against the Prime Minister that he himself had installed after the 2000 coup. There had been two military coups in 1987 and one in 2000 when the military had taken over from elected governments led by or dominated by Indo Fijians. On this occasion the military took over from an indigenous Fijian government which it alleged was corrupt and racist. The commodore took over the powers of the presidency and dissolved the parliament, paving the way for the military to continue the take over. The coup was the culmination of weeks of speculation following conflict between the elected Prime Minister, Laisenia Qarase, and Commodore Bainimarama. Bainamarama had repeatedly issued demands and deadlines to the Prime Minister. At particular issue was previously pending legislation to pardon those involved in the 2000 coup. Despite intervention to reconcile the parties by the President, Vice President and Helen Clark, Prime Minister of New Zealand there was no willingness to make concessions on either side. This therefore failed to resolve the crisis. Bainimarama named Jona Senilagakali caretaker Prime Minister. The next week Bainimarama said he would ask the Great Council of Chiefs to restore executive powers to President, Ratu Josefa Iloilo. On December 6, Bainimarama declared a state of emergency, and warned that he would not tolerate any violence or unrest. Following the coup, the Commonwealth of Nations held an emergency meeting in London, where they declared Fiji's membership had been suspended. On December 9, the military rulers advertised for positions in the Government, including cabinet posts, in a national newspaper. They stated people wishing to apply must be "of outstanding character", have no criminal record, and never have been bankrupt. Also on December 9 the IFNA withdrew the right of Fiji to host the 2007 World Netball Championships as a consequence of the Military takeover. The withdrawal is expected to have a significant impact in Fiji due to the popularity of the sport. On January 4, 2007, the military announced that it was restoring executive power to President Iloilo, who made a broadcast endorsing the actions of the military. The next day, Iloilo named Bainimarama as the interim Prime Minister, indicating that the Military was still effectively in control. In the wake of the take over, reports have emerged of intimidation of some of those critical of the interim regime. It is alleged that two individuals have died in military custody since December 2006. These deaths have been investigated and suspects charged but not yet brought to court. Following ongoing criticism from neighbours, specifically Australia and New Zealand, the New Zealand High Commissioner Michael Green was expelled from Fiji in mid June 2007, in the aftermath of restrictive emergency regulations having been lifted (recognised as a generally positive development by outside observers). On 6 September 2007, Commodore Frank Bainimarama said Fiji's military had again declared a state of emergency as he believed ousted Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase was engaged in destabilization efforts when he returned to Suva after 8 months of exile on his home island Vanuabalavu in Lau. Elections were tentatively set for March 2009. The interim Government set-up an anti-corruption Commission which have received numerous complaints and allegations, there have also been a number of high profile dismissals from government and associated industry. The anti-corruption body however, has yet to successfully prosecute anyone for alleged corruption. During November 2007 there were a number of people brought in for questioning in regard to an assassination plot directed at the Interim Prime Minister, senior army officers and members of the Interim Cabinet. On April 9, 2009, the Court of Appeal overturned the High Court decision that Bainimarama's take-over of Qarase's government was legal, and declared the Interim Government illegal. Bainimarama agreed to step down as Interim PM immediately, along with his government, and President Iloilo was to appoint "a distinguished person independent of the parties to this litigation as caretaker Prime Minister, ..... to direct the issuance of writs for an election ..." On April 10, 2009, President Iloilo suspended the Constitution of Fiji, dismissed the Court of Appeal and, in his own words, "appoint[ed] [him]self as the Head of the State of Fiji under a new legal order". "President's Address to the Nation", April 10, 2009 (Fiji government website) As President, Iloilo had been Head of State prior to his abrogation of the Constitution, but that position had been determined by the Constitution itself. The "new legal order" did not depend on the Constitution, thus requiring a "reappointment" of the Head of State. "You will agree with me that this is the best way forward for our beloved Fiji", he said. Bainimarama was re-appointed as Interim Prime Minister; he, in turn, re-instated his previous Cabinet. On May 1, 2009, Fiji became the first nation to ever be suspended from the Pacific Islands Forum for its failure to hold democratic elections by that date. Demographics Ethnic groups Native Fijian women, 1935 The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native Fijians, who are Melanesians (54.3%), although a few also have Polynesian ancestry, and Indo-Fijians (38.1%), descendants of Indian contract labourers brought to the islands by the British in the nineteenth century. Most of these Indo-Fijians are or are descendants of Bhojpuri-speaking Biharis. The percentage of the population of Indian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades due to migration for various reasons. There is also a small but significant group of descendants of indentured labourers from Solomon Islands. About 1.2% are Rotuman — natives of Rotuma Island, whose culture has more in common with countries such as Tonga or Samoa than with the rest of Fiji. There are also small, but economically significant, groups of Europeans, Chinese and other Pacific island minorities. The total membership of other ethnic groups of Pacific Islanders is about 7300. Tongans, who as traders and warriors have lived in Fiji for hundreds of years, form the largest part of this community. In the old days there was active commerce between Tonga and Fiji, and later in the history of this relationship the Fijians in the Lau Islands became vassals to the King of Tonga. One particular reason Tongans and Samoans came to Fiji was to build drua (large double-hulled canoes) which they couldn’t build on their own islands because of the lack of proper timber. Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians at a political level have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation. The level of tension varies between different regions of the country. There are also good indications of racial harmony with the recognition of cultural and religious holidays by all races in Fiji. Demonym Within Fiji, the term "Fijian" refers solely to indigenous Fijians; it denotes an ethnicity, not a nationality. Constitutionally, citizens of Fiji are referred to as "Fiji Islanders" though the term "Fiji Nationals" is used for official purposes. In August 2008, shortly before the proposed People's Charter for Change, Peace and Progress was due to be released to the public, it was announced that it recommended a change in the name of Fiji's citizens. If the proposal were adopted, all citizens of Fiji, whatever their ethnicity, would be called "Fijians". The proposal would change the English name of indigenous Fijians from "Fijians" to itaukei, the Fijian word for indigenous Fijians. "Charter proposes common Fijian name", August 4, 2008 Deposed Prime Minister Laisenia Qarase reacted by stating that the name "Fijian" belonged exclusively to indigenous Fijians, and that he would oppose any change in legislation enabling non-indigenous Fijians to use it. "The Name “Fijian” Belongs to Indigenous - Qarase", FijiVillage, August 8, 2008 The Methodist Church, to which a large majority of indigenous Fijians belong, also reacted strongly to the proposal, stating that allowing any Fiji citizen to call themselves "Fijian" would be "daylight robbery" inflicted on the indigenous population. "Communalism is ‘to love thy neighbour'", Fiji Times, August 29, 2008 In an address to the nation during the constitutional crisis of April 2009, military leader and interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama, who has been at the forefront of the attempt to change the definition of "Fijian", stated: "I know we all have our different ethnicities, our different cultures and we should, we must, celebrate our diversity and richness. However, at the same time we are all Fijians. We are all equal citizens. We must all be loyal to Fiji; we must be patriotic; we must put Fiji first." "PM Bainimarama - Address to the nation following appointment of Cabinet - 11 April 2009", Fiji government website Religion Religion is one of the primary differences between indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, with the former overwhelmingly Christian (97.2% at the 1996 census), and the latter mostly Hindu (70.7%) and Muslim (17.9%). The CIA world factbook states: Christian 64.5% (Methodist 34.6%, Roman Catholic 9.1%, Assembly of God 5.7%, Seventh Day Adventist 3.9%, Anglican 0.8%, other 10.4%), Hindu 27.9%, Muslim 6.3%, Sikh 0.3%, other or unspecified 0.3%, none 0.7% (2007 census). The largest Christian denomination is the Methodist Church of Fiji and Rotuma. With 36.2% of the total population (including almost two-thirds of ethnic Fijians), its share of the population is higher in Fiji than in any other nation. Roman Catholics (8.9%), the Assemblies of God (4%), the Seventh-day Adventists (2.9%) and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) (2.2%), also are significant. The LDS Suva Temple is the 91st temple of the church in operation. Fiji also is the base for the Anglican Diocese of Polynesia (part of the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia). These and other denominations also have small numbers of Indo-Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprise 6.1% of the Indo-Fijian population. Much major Roman Catholic missionary activity was conducted through the Vicariate Apostolic of Fiji, which has since been renamed the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Suva, which spans the whole of Fiji. Hindus belong mostly to the Sanatan sect (74.3% of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22%). The small Arya Samaj sect claims the membership of some 3.7% of all Hindus in Fiji. Muslims are mostly Sunni (59.7%) and Shia (36.7%), with an Ahmadiyya minority (3.6%) regarded as heretical by more orthodox Muslims. The Sikh religion comprises 0.9% of the Indo-Fijian population, or 0.4% of the national population in Fiji. Their ancestors came from the Punjab region of India. The Bahá'í Faith has over 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies throughout Fiji and Baha'is live in more than 80 localities. The first Baha'i in the islands was a New Zealander who arrived in 1924. There is also a small Jewish population. Every year the Israeli Embassy organises a Passover celebration with approximately 100 people attending. Political divisions Map of the divisions of Fiji Fiji is divided into Four Major Divisions: Central Eastern Northern Western These divisions are further divided into 14 provinces. The Fourteen Provinces of Fiji: Ba Bua Cakaudrove Kadavu Lau Lomaiviti Macuata Nadroga-Navosa Namosi Naitasiri Ra Rewa Serua Tailevu Fiji was also divided into 3 Confederacies or Governments during the reign of Cakobau, though these are not considered political divisions, they are still considered important in the social divisions of the indigenous Fijians: The Burebasaga Confederacy The Kubuna Confederacy The Tovata Confederacy Geography Map of Fiji Scenery on Monuriki Fiji covers a total area of some 194 000 square kilometres of which around 10% is land. Fiji is the hub of the South West Pacific, midway between Vanuatu and the Kingdom of Tonga. The archipelego is located between 176° 53′ east and 178° 12′ west. The 180° meridian runs through Taveuni but the International Dateline is bent convieniently to give uniform time to all of the Fiji group. With the exception of Rotuma, the Fiji group lies between 15° 42′ and 20° 02′ south. Rotuma is located 400 kilometres north of the group, 670 km from Suva, 12° 30′ south of the equator. Fiji consists of 322 islands (of which 106 are inhabited) and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islands are Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1,300 metres (4,250 ft), and covered with thick tropical forests. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva, and is home to nearly three quarters of the population. Other important towns include Nadi (the location of the international airport), and the second city -Lautoka (the location of a large sugar mill and a seaport). The main towns on Vanua Levu are Labasa and Savusavu. Other islands and island groups include Taveuni and Kadavu (the third and fourth largest islands respectively), the Mamanuca Group (just outside Nadi) and Yasawa Group, which are popular tourist destinations, the Lomaiviti Group, outside of Suva, and the remote Lau Group. Rotuma, some 500 kilometres (310 mi) north of the archipelago, has a special administrative status in Fiji. Fiji's nearest neighbour is Tonga. The climate in Fiji is tropical and warm most of the year round. Economy Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, is one of the more developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Natural resources include timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil potential, hydropower. Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 1960s and 1970s but stagnated in the 1980s. The coup of 1987 caused further contraction. Economic liberalization in the years following the coup created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainty of land tenure in the sugar industry. The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers (along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite a subsidized price. Subsidies for sugar have been provided by the EU and Fiji has been the second largest beneficiary after Mauritius. Urbanization and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth. Sugar exports and a rapidly growing tourist industry — with 430,800 tourists in 2003 Fiji Economy and Politics,Economy and Politics in Fiji,Economy and Politics at Fiji. Retrieved 10 May 2008. and increasing in the subsequent years — are the major sources of foreign exchange. Fiji is highly dependent on tourism for revenue. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji has had a severe impact on the economy, which shrank by 2.8% in 2000 and grew by only 1% in 2001. The tourism sector recovered quickly, however, with visitor arrivals reaching pre-coup levels again during 2002, which has since resulted in a modest economic recovery. This recovery continued into 2003 and 2004 but grew by 1.7% in 2005 and grew by 2.0% in 2006. Although inflation is low, the policy indicator rate of the Reserve Bank of Fiji was raised by 1% to 3.25% in February 2006 due to fears of excessive consumption financed by debt. Lower interest rates have so far not produced greater investment for exports. However, there has been a housing boom from declining commercial mortgage rates. The tallest building in Fiji is the fourteen-storey Reserve Bank of Fiji Building in Suva, which was inaugurated in 1984. The Suva Central Commercial Centre, which opened in November 2005, was planned to outrank the Reserve Bank building at seventeen stories, but last-minute design changes made sure that the Reserve Bank building remains the tallest. Trade with Fiji has been criticized due to the country's military dictatorship. In 2008, Fiji's interim Prime Minister and coup leader Frank Bainimarama announced election delays and that it would pull out of the Pacific Islands Forum in Niue, where Bainimarama would have met with Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark. Culture Huts in the Nausori Highlands Fiji's culture is a rich mosaic of indigenous, Indian, Chinese and European traditions, comprising social polity, language, food (based mainly from the sea, casava, dalo & other vegetables), costume, belief systems, architecture, arts, craft, music, dance and sports. The indigenous culture is very much active and living, and is a part of everyday life for the majority of the population. However, it has evolved with the introduction of old cultures like the Indian and Chinese ones, as well as a large influence from Europe, and from various Pacific neighbors of Fiji, mainly the Tongan and Rotuman. The culture of Fiji has created a unique communal and national identity. Holidays This is a list of holidays in Fiji: New Year's Day Mawlid Good Friday Easter Saturday Easter Monday National Youth Day Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Day Queen's Birthday Fiji Day Diwali Christmas Day Boxing Day The exact dates of public holidays vary from year to year, but the dates for this year and recent years can be found here: http://www.fiji.gov.fj/publish/public_holidays.shtml Language Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken in Fiji. It has 350,000 first-language speakers, which is less than half the population of Fiji, but another 200,000 speak it as a second language. The 1997 Constitution established Fijian as an official language of Fiji, along with English and Hindustani, and there is discussion about establishing it as the "national language", though English and Hindustani would remain official. Fijian is a VOS language. The Fiji Islands developed many languages, some similar and some very different. Missionaries in the 1840s chose the language of one island off the southeast of the main island of Viti Levu, to be the official language of Fiji. This island, Bau, was home to Cakobau, the chief that eventually became the self forged "King" of Fiji. Missionaries were interested in documenting a language and in standardizing all of Fiji on one official language to make their job of translating and teaching in Fiji a bit easier. Standard Fijian is based on the language of Bau, which is an East Fijian language. There are many other dialects that make up the West Fijian Language including dialects spoken in the Nadroga/Navosa which are unique and those of the western island groups and provinces. Sport The national sport of Fiji is considered to be rugby union (see rugby union in Fiji), however rugby league is also widely played. The national team is very successful given the size of the population of the country, and has competed at four Rugby World Cups, the first being in 1987, where they reached the quarter-finals. The Fiji national side did not match that feat again until the 2007 Rugby World Cup when they upset Wales 38-34 to progress to the quarter-finals. Fiji also competes in the Pacific Tri-Nations and the Pacific Nations Cup. The sport is governed by the Fiji Rugby Union which is a member of the Pacific Islands Rugby Alliance, and contributes to the Pacific Islanders rugby union team. At the club level there are the Colonial Cup and Pacific Rugby Cup. The Fiji sevens team is one of the most successful rugby sevens teams in the world, having won the two world cup titles and the 2006 IRB Series. Fiji's other main sport is soccer and is enjoyed and played by all ethnic groups. It is easily the second most popular sport in Fiji. Fiji participates in the Soccer World Cup in the Oceania Group. They have defeated both Australia and New Zealand in recent years. Fiji's most famous individual sportsmen are probably the golfer Vijay Singh and sailor Tony Philp who have both been ranked number one in the world at one time. In team sports, rugby seven's player Waisale Serevi is widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time. See also Fiji Meteorological Service Foreign relations of Fiji Index of Fiji-related articles List of Fijians Military of Fiji Telecommunications in Fiji Transport in Fiji Footnotes References Traces the colonization of the Fiji Islands, explains how the Fijians have managed to keep their language and culture intact, and describes modern Fiji society. Details on Fiji its history and Geography. Details of Fiji's History, Geography, Economy. Back to the Chessboard: The Coup and the Re-Emergence of Pre-colonial Rivalries in Fiji. In: Travel guide. Bibliography External links Government Official Website of the Government of Fiji Official Website of the Parliament of Fiji Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Fiji at UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Bulafiji.com Official Fiji Visitors Bureau website Fijiguide.com Travel and Culture Guide to Fiji Other The Fiji Times News, Sport and Weather from Fiji's leading newspaper Documents relating to Fiji at the Diplomacy Monitor Fiji Projects at Seacology be-x-old:Фіджы | Fiji |@lemmatized fiji:140 officially:1 republic:5 island:38 nation:12 south:5 pacific:17 ocean:1 east:4 vanuatu:2 west:6 tonga:11 tuvalu:1 country:8 occupy:1 archipelago:2 permanently:2 inhabit:2 islet:2 two:11 major:5 viti:8 levu:9 vanua:3 account:1 population:15 etymology:1 main:4 know:4 name:10 derive:1 pronunciation:2 neighbour:4 emergence:2 best:2 describe:3 follow:9 fijian:54 first:12 impress:1 european:8 consciousness:1 writing:1 member:5 expedition:1 cook:2 meet:3 formidable:1 warrior:2 ferocious:1 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2,513 | Hippocrates | Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) - Greek: ; Hippokrátēs was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession. However, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself are often commingled; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Nevertheless, Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, he is credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath and other works. Biography Asklepieion on Kos Historians accept that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos (Cos), and became a famous physician and teacher of medicine. Other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue (see Legends). Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek gynecologist, was Hippocrates' first biographer and is the source of most information on Hippocrates' person. Information about Hippocrates can also be found in the writings of Aristotle, which date from the 4th century BC, in the Suda of the 10th century AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD. Soranus wrote that Hippocrates' father was Heraclides, a physician; his mother was Praxitela, daughter of Tizane. The two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Galen, a later physician, Polybus was Hippocrates' true successor, while Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates. Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and studied other subjects with Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos, and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. The only contemporaneous mention of Hippocrates is in Plato's dialogue Protagoras, where Plato describes Hippocrates as "Hippocrates of Kos, the Asclepiad". Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. He probably died in Larissa at the age of 83 or 90, though some accounts say he lived to be well over 100; several different accounts of his death exist. Hippocratic theory Hippocrates is credited with being the first physician to reject superstitions, legends and beliefs that credited supernatural or divine forces with causing illness. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of allying philosophy and medicine. He separated the discipline of medicine from religion, believing and arguing that disease was not a punishment inflicted by the gods but rather the product of environmental factors, diet, and living habits. Indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism. Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis. Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms. The Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice. Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine. Now, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. This shift in medical thought since Hippocrates' day has caused serious criticism over the past two millennia, with the passivity of Hippocratic treatment being the subject of particularly strong denunciations; for example, the French doctor M. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death". Humorism and crisis The Hippocratic school held that all illness was the result of an imbalance in the body of the four humours, fluids which in health were naturally equal in proportion (pepsis). When the four humours, blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm, were not in balance (dyscrasia, meaning "bad mixture"), a person would become sick and remain that way until the balance was somehow restored. Hippocratic therapy was directed towards restoring this balance. For instance, using citrus was thought to be beneficial when phlegm was overabundant. Another important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a crisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin to triumph and the patient would succumb to death, or the opposite would occur and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on critical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurred on a day far from a critical day, a relapse might be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him. A drawing of a Hippocratic bench from a Byzantine edition of Galen's work in the 2nd century AD Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. The therapeutic approach was based on "the healing power of nature" ("vis medicatrix naturae" in Latin). According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (physis). Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital importance". In general, the Hippocratic medicine was very kind to the patient; treatment was gentle, and emphasized keeping the patient clean and sterile. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing balms were sometimes employed. Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Potent drugs were, however, used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end. One of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was its emphasis on prognosis. At Hippocrates' time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best thing that physicians could do was to evaluate an illness and induce its likely progression based upon data collected in detailed case histories. Professionalism A number of ancient Greek surgical tools. On the left is a trephine; on the right, a set of scalpels. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools. Hippocratic medicine was notable for its strict professionalism, discipline and rigorous practice. The Hippocratic work On the Physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice: he followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room. He even kept his fingernails to a precise length. The Hippocratic School gave importance to the clinical doctrines of observation and documentation. These doctrines dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians. Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions. He is said to have measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to know if the patient lied. Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment. "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation". For this reason, he may more properly be termed as the "Father of Clinical Medicine". Direct contributions to medicine Clubbing of fingers in a patient with Eisenmenger's syndrome; first described by Hippocrates, clubbing is also known as "Hippocratic fingers" Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V. Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence." Another of Hippocrates' major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings are still valid. The Hippocratic school of medicine described well the ailments of the human rectum and the treatment thereof, despite the school's poor theory of medicine. Hemorrhoids, for instance, though believed to be caused by an excess of bile and phlegm, were treated by Hippocratic physicians in relatively advanced ways. Cautery and excision are described in the Hippocratic Corpus, in addition to the preferred methods: ligating the hemorrhoids and drying them with a hot iron. Other treatments such as applying various salves are suggested as well. Today, "treatment [for hemorrhoids] still includes burning, strangling, and excising". Also, some of the fundamental concepts of proctoscopy outlined in the Corpus are still in use. For example, the uses of the rectal speculum, a common medical device, are discussed in the Hippocratic Corpus. This constitutes the earliest recorded reference to endoscopy. Hippocratic Corpus A twelfth-century Byzantine manuscript of the Oath in the form of a cross The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin: Corpus Hippocraticum) is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece, written in Ionic Greek. The question of whether Hippocrates himself was the author of the corpus has not been conclusively answered, but the volumes were probably produced by his students and followers. Because of the variety of subjects, writing styles and apparent date of construction, scholars believe Hippocratic Corpus could not have been written by one person (Ermerins numbers the authors at nineteen) . The corpus was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity, and its teaching generally followed principles of his; thus it came to be known by his name. It might be the remains of a library of Kos, or a collection compiled in the 3rd century BC in Alexandria. The Hippocratic Corpus contains textbooks, lectures, research, notes and philosophical essays on various subjects in medicine, in no particular order. These works were written for different audiences, both specialists and laymen, and were sometimes written from opposing view points; significant contradictions can be found between works in the Corpus. Notable among the treatises of the Corpus are The Hippocratic Oath; The Book of Prognostics; On Regimen in Acute Diseases; Aphorisms; On Airs, Waters and Places; Instruments of Reduction; On The Sacred Disease; etc. Hippocratic Oath The Hippocratic Oath, a seminal document on the ethics of medical practice, was attributed to Hippocrates in antiquity. This is probably the most famous document of the Hippocratic Corpus. Recently the authenticity of the document has come under scrutiny. While the Oath is rarely used in its original form today, it serves as a foundation for other, similar oaths and laws that define good medical practice and morals. Such derivatives are regularly taken today by medical graduates about to enter medical practice. Legacy Mural painting showing Galen and Hippocrates. 12th century; Anagni, Italy Hippocrates is widely considered to be the "Father of Medicine". His contributions revolutionized the practice of medicine; but after his death the advancement stalled. So revered was Hippocrates that his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon and no significant advancements of his methods were made for a long time. The centuries after Hippocrates' death were marked as much by retrograde movement as by further advancement. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out...", according to Fielding Garrison. After Hippocrates, the next significant physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from 129 to 200 AD. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, moving both forward and backward and side to side. In the Middle Ages, Arabs adopted Hippocratic methods. After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in Europe and even further expanded in the 19th century. Notable among those who employed Hippocrates' rigorous clinical techniques were Sydenham, Heberden, Charcot and Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine". Image A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th century engraving) According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "the Great Hippocrates". Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a "kind, dignified, old country doctor'" and later as "stern and forbidding". He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. Francis Adams describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense". Hippocrates statue, Parnassus Ave. in front of the Robert H. Crede Ambulatory Care Center His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. Many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that we have could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities. Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. Fielding Garrison, an authority on medical history, stated, "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit". "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician”, according to A Short History of Medicine, inspiring the medical profession since his death. Legends Most stories of Hippocrates' life are likely to be untrue because of their inconsistency with historical evidence, and because similar or identical stories are told of other figures such as Avicenna and Socrates, suggesting a legendary origin. Even during his life, Hippocrates' renown was great, and stories of miraculous cures arose. For example, Hippocrates was supposed to have aided in the healing of Athenians during the Plague of Athens by lighting great fires as "disinfectants" and engaging in other treatments. There is a story of Hippocrates curing Perdiccas, a Macedonian king, of "love sickness". Neither of these accounts is corroborated by any historians and they are thus unlikely to have ever occurred. Kos town: The Plane Tree of Hippocrates, under which Hippocrates is said to have worked. Another legend concerns how Hippocrates rejected a formal request to visit the court of Artaxerxes, the King of Persia. The validity of this is accepted by ancient sources but denied by some modern ones, and is thus under contention. Another tale states that Democritus was supposed to be mad because he laughed at everything, and so he was sent to Hippocrates to be cured. Hippocrates diagnosed him as having a merely happy disposition. Democritus has since been called "the laughing philosopher". Not all stories of Hippocrates portrayed him in a positive manner. In one legend, Hippocrates is said to have fled after setting fire to a healing temple in Greece. Soranus of Ephesus, the source of this story, names the temple as the one of Knidos. However centuries later, the Byzantine Greek grammarian John Tzetzes, writes that Hippocrates burned down his own temple, the Temple of Cos, speculating that he did it to maintain a monopoly of medical knowledge. This account is very much in conflict with traditional estimations of Hippocrates' personality. Other legends tell of his resurrection of Augustus's nephew; this feat was supposedly created by the erection of a statue of Hippocrates and the establishment of a professorship in his honor in Rome. Genealogy Hippocrates' legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Heracles. According to Tzetzes's Chiliades, the ahnentafel of Hippocrates II is: An image of Hippocrates on the floor of the Asclepieion of Kos, with Asklepius in the middle 1. Hippocrates II. “The Father of Medicine” 2. Heraclides 4. Hippocrates I. 8. Gnosidicus 16. Nebrus 32. Sostratus III. 64. Theodorus II. 128. Sostratus, II. 256. Thedorus 512. Cleomyttades 1024. Crisamis 2048. Dardanus 4096. Sostatus 8192. Hippolochus 16384. Podalirius 32768. Asklepius Namesakes Some clinical symptoms and signs have been named after Hippocrates as he is believed to be the first person to describe those. Hippocratic face is the change produced in the countenance by death, or long sickness, excessive evacuations, excessive hunger, and the like. Clubbing, a deformity of the fingers and fingernails, is also known as Hippocratic fingers. Hippocratic succussion is the internal splashing noise of hydropneumothorax or pyopneumothorax. Hippocratic bench (a device which uses tension to aid in setting bones) and Hippocratic cap-shaped bandage are two devices named after Hippocrates. Hippocratic Corpus and Hippocratic Oath are also his namesakes. The drink hypocras is also believed to be invented by Hippocrates. Risus sardonicus, a sustained spasming of the face muscles may also be termed the Hippocratic Smile. In the modern age, a lunar crater has been named Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Museum, a museum on the Greek island of Kos is dedicated to him. The Hippocrates Project is a program of the New York University Medical Center to enhance education through use of technology. Project Hippocrates (an acronym of "HIgh PerfOrmance Computing for Robot-AssisTEd Surgery") is an effort of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science and Shadyside Medical Center, "to develop advanced planning, simulation, and execution technologies for the next generation of computer-assisted surgical robots." Both the Canadian Hippocratic Registry and American Hippocratic Registry are organizations of physicians who uphold the principles of the original Hippocratic Oath as inviolable through changing social times. Notes References A woodcut of the reduction of a dislocated shoulder with a Hippocratic device . . . . . . PMID 3959439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading Wesley D. Smith. Hippocrates. Free full-text article from Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Last accessed 19 Sep. 2008. . . . . Pliny the Elder, Natural History: Book XXIX., translated by John Bostock. 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2,514 | Lighthouse_of_Alexandria | Graphic reconstruction of the lighthouse according to a comprehensive study of 2006 The Lighthouse of Alexandria (or The Pharos of Alexandria, Greek: ) was a tower built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt to serve as that port's landmark, and later, its lighthouse. With a height variously estimated at between it was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World by Antipater of Sidon. It may have been the third tallest building after the two Great Pyramids (of Khufu and Khafra) for its entire life. History The Lighthouse of Alexandria Pharos was a small island just off the coast of Alexandria. It was linked to the mainland by a man-made connection named the Heptastadion, which thus formed one side of the city's harbor. As the Egyptian coast is very flat and lacking in the kind of landmark used at the time for navigation, a marker of some sort at the mouth of the harbour was deemed necessary—a function the Pharos was initially designed to serve. Use of the building as a lighthouse, with a fire and reflective mirrors at the top, is thought to date to around the 1st century AD, during the Roman period. Prior to that time the Pharos served solely as a landmark or day beacon. Construction and destruction The lighthouse was completed in the 3rd century B.C., after having been initiated by Satrap (governor) Ptolemy I Soter, Egypt's first Macedonian ruler and a general of Alexander the Great. After Alexander died unexpectedly at age 32, Ptolemy Soter (Saviour, named so by the inhabitants of Rhodes) made himself king in 305 B.C. and ordered the construction of the Pharos shortly thereafter. The building was finished during the reign of his son, Ptolemy Philadelphos. According to legend, Sostratus was forbidden by Ptolemy from putting his name on his work. But the architect left the following inscription on the base's walls nonetheless: "Sostratus, the son of Dexiphanes, the Cnidian, dedicated (or erected) this to the Saviour gods, on behalf of those who sail the seas"; the original Greek inscription "ΣΟΣΤΡΑΤΟΣ ΔΕΞΙΦΑΝΟΥ ΚΝΙΔΙΟΣ ΘΕΟΙΣ ΣΩΤΕΡΣΙΝ ΥΠΕΡ ΤΩΝ ΠΛΩΙΖΟΜΕΝΩΝ" literally means: "Sostratos of Dexiphanes [meaning: son of Dexiphanes] the Cnidian to Saviour Gods for the seafarers (or seafaring [ones])". These words were hidden under a layer of plaster, on top of which was chiseled another inscription honoring Ptolemy the king as builder of the Pharos. After centuries the plaster wore away, revealing the name of Sostratus. The lighthouse was badly damaged in the earthquake of 956, then again in 1303 and 1323. The fullest description of it comes from the Arab traveler Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammed el-Andaloussi, who visited the structure as a tourist in 1166. His description runs: The el-Andaloussi description of the dimensions does not appear to match the Thiersch drawing, the classic painting, or the graphic reconstruction, all of which show buildings with a footprint that would have been at least 80 x 80 feet, based on the scale of surrounding objects. |Fort Qaitbey was built on the site of the Pharos in the 15th century, using some of its fallen masonry. There are ancient claims the light from the lighthouse could be seen from up to away. Unconfirmed legends claim the light from Pharos could burn enemy ships before they reached shore. Constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone, the tower was made up of three stages: a lower square section with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at the top, a circular section. At its apex was positioned a mirror which reflected sunlight during the day; a fire was lit at night. Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint show that a statue of a triton was positioned on each of the building's four corners. A statue of Poseidon stood atop the tower during the Roman period. A fanciful 16th-century interpretation of the Pharos by Martin Heemskerck The Pharos' walls were strengthened in order to withstand the pounding of the waves through the use of molten lead to hold its masonry together, and possibly as a result the building survived the longest of the Seven Wonders—with the sole exception of the Great Pyramid of Giza. It was still standing when the Muslim traveller Ibn Jubayr visited the city in 1183. He said of it that: "Description of it falls short, the eyes fail to comprehend it, and words are inadequate, so vast is the spectacle." It appears that in his time, there was a church located on the top. The two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323 damaged the lighthouse to the extent that the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta reported no longer being able to enter the ruin. Even the stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the former location of the building using some of the fallen stone. The remnants of the Pharos that were incorporated into the walls of Fort Qaitbay are clearly visible due to their excessive size in comparison to surrounding masonry. The fate of the Lighthouse of Alexandria from the Arab conquest until its collapse in the 14th century has been investigated by Doris Behrens-Abouseif in her article "The Islamic History of the Lighthouse of Alexandria" (in: Muqarnas XXIII [2006], pp. 1-14). Recent archaeological research Some remains of the lighthouse were found on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour by divers in fall of 1994. More of the remains have subsequently been revealed by satellite imaging. A Nova program chronicled the underwater discovery of the fabled Pharos lighthouse. NOVA online - Treasures of the Sunken City It is possible to go diving and see the ruins. Significance Pharos became the etymological origin of the word 'lighthouse' in Greek (φάρος), Bulgarian (фар) and many Romance languages, such as French (phare), Italian (faro), Portuguese (farol), Spanish (faro), Romanian, and Catalan (far). The design of minarets in many early Egyptian Islamic mosques followed a similar three-stage design to that of the Pharos, attesting to the building's broader architectural influence. Petersen A.: Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, page 188. Routledge, 1996. Pharos in culture The Pharos of Abuqir, an ancient funerary monument thought to be modeled after the Pharos at Alexandria, with which it is approximately contemporaneous In architecture Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse modelled on the Pharos A well-preserved ancient tomb in the town of Abu Qir, east of Alexandria, is thought to be a scaled-down model of the Alexandria Pharos. Known colloquially under various names—the Pharos of Abuqir, the Abuqir funerary monument and Burg al-Arab (Arab's Tower)—it consists of a 3-story tower, approximately in height, with a square base, a hexagonal midsection and cylindrical upper section, like the building upon which it was apparently modeled. It dates to the reign of Ptolemy II (285-246 BC), and is therefore likely to have been built at about the same time as the Alexandria Pharos. The Tower of Hercules, near A Coruña in Spain, a 2nd century AD Roman lighthouse, is closely modelled on the Alexandrian Pharos. A replica of the Lighthouse of Alexandria was constructed in the Window of the World Cultural Park in Shenzhen, China. The design of the George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia was partially inspired by the Lighthouse of Alexandria. In books Matthew Reilly uses this ancient wonder as the location of a piece of the golden capstone in his novel that states in the cultural section from Book 2 of the Cambridge Latin Course, the Pharos of Alexandria is mentioned, along with the history of Alexandria, as one of the greatest international ports of the ancient world. Also mentioned in Enid Blyton's "Five Go To Demon's Rocks", in a conversation between "Julian" and "Anne" about an earthquake destroying a lighthouse. (Published in 1961.) See also Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Knidos List of buildings and structures List of disasters List of lighthouses and lightvessels References | Lighthouse_of_Alexandria |@lemmatized graphic:2 reconstruction:2 lighthouse:20 accord:2 comprehensive:1 study:1 alexandria:17 pharos:24 greek:3 tower:7 build:4 century:8 bc:3 island:2 egypt:3 serve:3 port:2 landmark:3 later:1 height:2 variously:1 estimate:1 identify:1 one:4 seven:3 wonder:4 ancient:7 world:4 antipater:1 sidon:1 may:1 third:1 tallest:1 building:10 two:2 great:4 pyramid:2 khufu:1 khafra:1 entire:1 life:1 history:3 small:1 coast:2 link:1 mainland:1 man:1 make:3 connection:1 name:5 heptastadion:1 thus:1 form:1 side:1 city:3 harbor:1 egyptian:2 flat:1 lack:1 kind:1 use:6 time:4 navigation:1 marker:1 sort:1 mouth:1 harbour:2 deem:1 necessary:1 function:1 initially:1 design:4 fire:2 reflective:1 mirror:2 top:4 think:3 date:2 around:1 ad:2 roman:5 period:2 prior:1 solely:1 day:2 beacon:1 construction:2 destruction:1 complete:1 b:2 c:2 initiate:1 satrap:1 governor:1 ptolemy:6 soter:2 first:1 macedonian:1 ruler:1 general:1 alexander:2 die:1 unexpectedly:1 age:1 saviour:3 inhabitant:1 rhodes:1 king:2 order:2 shortly:1 thereafter:1 finish:1 reign:2 son:3 philadelphos:1 legend:1 sostratus:3 forbid:1 put:1 work:1 architect:1 leave:1 following:1 inscription:3 base:3 wall:3 nonetheless:1 dexiphanes:3 cnidian:2 dedicate:1 erect:1 god:2 behalf:1 sail:1 sea:1 original:1 σοστρατος:1 δεξιφανου:1 κνιδιος:1 θεοις:1 σωτερσιν:1 υπερ:1 των:1 πλωιζομενων:1 literally:1 mean:1 sostratos:1 meaning:1 seafarer:1 seafaring:1 word:3 hide:1 layer:1 plaster:2 chisel:1 another:1 honor:1 builder:1 wear:1 away:2 reveal:2 badly:1 damage:2 earthquake:3 full:1 description:4 come:1 arab:5 traveler:2 abou:1 haggag:1 youssef:1 ibn:3 mohammed:1 el:2 andaloussi:2 visit:2 structure:2 tourist:1 run:1 dimension:1 appear:2 match:1 thiersch:1 drawing:1 classic:1 painting:1 show:2 footprint:1 would:1 least:1 x:1 foot:1 scale:1 surround:2 object:1 fort:3 qaitbey:1 site:1 fall:4 masonry:3 claim:2 light:4 could:2 see:3 unconfirmed:1 legends:1 burn:1 enemy:1 ship:1 reach:1 shore:1 construct:2 large:1 block:1 colour:1 stone:2 three:2 stage:2 low:1 square:2 section:5 central:1 core:1 middle:1 octagonal:1 circular:1 apex:1 position:2 reflect:1 sunlight:1 night:1 extant:1 coin:1 strike:1 alexandrian:2 mint:1 statue:2 triton:1 four:1 corner:1 poseidon:1 stand:2 atop:1 fanciful:1 interpretation:1 martin:1 heemskerck:1 strengthen:1 withstand:1 pounding:1 wave:1 molten:1 lead:1 hold:1 together:1 possibly:1 result:1 survive:1 long:1 sole:1 exception:1 giza:1 still:1 muslim:1 traveller:1 jubayr:1 say:1 short:1 eye:1 fail:1 comprehend:1 inadequate:1 vast:1 spectacle:1 church:1 locate:1 extent:1 battuta:1 report:1 longer:1 able:1 enter:1 ruin:2 even:1 stubby:1 remnant:2 disappear:1 sultan:1 qaitbay:2 medieval:1 former:1 location:2 incorporate:1 clearly:1 visible:1 due:1 excessive:1 size:1 comparison:1 fate:1 conquest:1 collapse:1 investigate:1 doris:1 behrens:1 abouseif:1 article:1 islamic:3 muqarnas:1 xxiii:1 pp:1 recent:1 archaeological:1 research:1 remains:2 find:1 floor:1 eastern:1 diver:1 subsequently:1 satellite:1 imaging:1 nova:2 program:1 chronicle:1 underwater:1 discovery:1 fabled:1 online:1 treasure:1 sunken:1 possible:1 go:2 diving:1 significance:1 become:1 etymological:1 origin:1 φάρος:1 bulgarian:1 фар:1 many:2 romance:1 language:1 french:1 phare:1 italian:1 faro:2 portuguese:1 farol:1 spanish:1 romanian:1 catalan:1 far:1 minaret:1 early:1 mosque:1 follow:1 similar:1 attest:1 broad:1 architectural:1 influence:1 petersen:1 dictionary:1 architecture:2 page:1 routledge:1 culture:1 abuqir:3 funerary:2 monument:2 model:5 approximately:2 contemporaneous:1 hercules:2 well:1 preserve:1 tomb:1 town:1 abu:1 qir:1 east:1 scaled:1 know:1 colloquially:1 various:1 burg:1 al:1 consist:1 story:1 hexagonal:1 midsection:1 cylindrical:1 upper:1 like:1 upon:1 apparently:1 ii:1 therefore:1 likely:1 near:1 coruña:1 spain:1 closely:1 replica:1 window:1 cultural:2 park:1 shenzhen:1 china:1 george:1 washington:1 masonic:1 national:1 memorial:1 virginia:1 partially:1 inspire:1 book:2 matthew:1 reilly:1 piece:1 golden:1 capstone:1 novel:1 state:1 cambridge:1 latin:1 course:1 mention:2 along:1 international:1 also:2 enid:1 blyton:1 five:1 demon:1 rock:1 conversation:1 julian:1 anne:1 destroy:1 publish:1 knidos:1 list:3 disaster:1 lightvessels:1 reference:1 |@bigram lighthouse_alexandria:6 tallest_building:1 ptolemy_soter:2 shortly_thereafter:1 badly_damage:1 pyramid_giza:1 ibn_battuta:1 funerary_monument:2 enid_blyton:1 |
2,515 | Note | In music, the term note has two primary meanings: 1) a sign used in musical notation to represent the relative duration and pitch of a sound; and 2) a pitched sound itself. Notes are the "atoms" of much Western music: discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance, comprehension, and analysis (Nattiez 1990, p.81n9). The term "note" can be used in both generic and specific senses: one might say either "the piece Happy Birthday to You begins with two notes having the same pitch," or "the piece begins with two repetitions of the same note." In the former case, one uses "note" to refer to a specific musical event; in the latter, one uses the term to refer to a class of events sharing the same pitch. Note name Two notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio of any power of two (e.g. half, twice, or four times) are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the same pitch class. In traditional music theory pitch classes are represented by the first seven letters of the Latin alphabet (A, B, C, D, E, F and G) (some countries use other names as in the table below). The eighth note, or octave is given the same name as the first, but has double its frequency. The name octave is also used to indicate the span of notes having a frequency ratio of two. In order to differentiate two notes that have the same pitch class but fall into different octaves, the system of scientific pitch notation combines a letter name with an Arabic numeral designating a specific octave. For example, the now-standard tuning pitch for most Western music, 440 Hz, is named a′ or A4. There are two formal ways to define each note and octave, the Helmholtz system and the Scientific pitch notation. Accidentals Letter names are modified by the accidentals. A sharp raises a note by a semitone or half-step, and a flat lowers it by the same amount. In modern tuning a half step has a frequency ratio of , approximately 1.059. The accidentals are written after the note name: so, for example, F represents F-sharp, B is B-flat. Additional accidentals are the double-sharp , raising the frequency by two semitones, and double-flat , lowering it by that amount. In musical notation, accidentals are placed before the note symbols. Systematic alterations to the seven lettered pitches in the scale can be indicated by placing the symbols in the key signature, which then apply implicitly to all occurrences of corresponding notes. Explicitly noted accidentals can be used to override this effect for the remainder of a bar. A special accidental, the natural symbol , is used to indicate an unmodified pitch. Effects of key signature and local accidentals do not cumulate. If the key signature indicates G-sharp, a local flat before a G makes if G-flat (not F natural). Assuming enharmonicity, many accidentals will create equivalences between pitches that are written differently. For instance, raising the note B to B is equal to the note C. Assuming all such equivalences, the complete chromatic scale adds five additional pitch classes to the original seven lettered notes for a total of 12, each separated by a half-step. Notes that belong to the diatonic scale relevant in the context are sometimes called diatonic notes; notes that do not meet that criterion are then sometimes called chromatic notes. Another style of notation, rarely used in English, uses the suffix "is" to indicate a sharp and "es" (only "s" after A and E) for a flat, e.g. Fis for F, Ges for G, Es for E. This system first arose in Germany and is used in almost all European countries whose main language is not English or a Romance language. In most countries using this system, the letter H is used to represent what is B natural in English, the letter B represents the B, and Heses represents the B (not Bes, which would also have fit into the system). Belgium and the Netherlands use the same suffixes, but applied throughout to the notes A to G, so that B is Bes. Denmark also uses H, but uses bes instead of heses for B. This is a complete chart of a chromatic scale built on the note C4, or "middle C": StyleType prime second thirdfourth fifth sixth seventhEnglish nameNaturalC D EF G A BSharp C sharp D sharp F sharp G sharp A sharp Flat D flat E flat G flat A flat B flat SymbolSharp C D F G A Flat D E G A B Northern European, and Scandinavian before 1990sNatural C D E F G A HSharp Cis Dis Fis Gis Ais Flat Des Es Ges As B Dutch, Flemish, later ScandinavianNatural C D E F G A BSharp Cis Dis Fis Gis Ais Flat Des Es Ges As Bes ByzantineNatural Ni Pa Vu Ga Di Ke ZoSharp Ni diesi (or diez) Pa diesi Ga diesi Di diesi Ke diesi Flat Pa iphes Vu iphes Di iphes Ke iphes Zo iphes Southern & Eastern European Do Re Mi Fa Sol La SiVariant names Ut - - - So - TiIndian style Sa Re Komal Re Ga Komal Ga Ma Ma Teevra Pa Dha Komal Dha Ni Komal NiKorean style Da La Ma Ba Sa Ga NaApprox. Frequency [Hz] 262 277 294 311 330 349 370 392 415 440 466 494MIDI note number 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Note designation in accordance with octave name The table of each octave and the frequencies for every note of pitch class A is shown below. The traditional (Helmholtz) system centers on the great octave (with capital letters) and small octave (with lower case letters). Lower octaves are named "contra" (with primes before), higher ones "lined" (with primes after). Another system (scientific) suffixes a number (starting with 0, or sometimes -1). In this system A4 is nowadays standardised to 440 Hz, lying in the octave containing notes from C4 (middle C) to B4. The lowest note on most pianos is A0, the highest C8. The MIDI system for electronic musical instruments and computers uses a straight count starting with note 0 for C-1 at 8.1758 Hz up to note 127 for G9 at 12,544 Hz. Octave naming systems frequencyof A (Hz) traditional shorthand numbered MIDI nr subsubcontra C – B C-1 – B-1 0 – 11 13.75 sub-contra C – B C0 – B0 12 – 23 27.5 contra C – B C1 – B1 24 – 35 55 great C – B C2 – B2 36 – 47 110 small c – b C3 – B3 48 – 59 220 one-lined c′ – b′ C4 – B4 60 – 71 440 two-lined c′′ – b′′ C5 – B5 72 – 83 880 three-lined c′′′ – b′′′ C6 – B6 84 – 95 1760 four-lined c′′′′ – b′′′′ C7 – B7 96 – 107 3520 five-lined c′′′′′ – b′′′′′ C8 – B8 108 – 119 7040 six-lined c′′′′′′ – b′′′′′′ C9 – G9 120 – 127 14080 Written notes A written note can also have a note value, a code which determines the note's relative duration. These note values include quarter notes (crotchets), eighth notes (quavers), and so on. When notes are written out in a score, each note is assigned a specific vertical position on a staff position (a line or a space) on the staff, as determined by the clef. Each line or space is assigned a note name. These names are memorized by musicians and allow them to know at a glance the proper pitch to play on their instruments for each note-head marked on the page. The staff above shows the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C and then in reverse order, with no key signature or accidentals. Note frequency (hertz) In all technicality, music can be composed of notes at any arbitrary frequency. Since the physical causes of music are vibrations of mechanical systems, they are often measured in hertz (Hz), with 1 Hz = 1 complete vibration per second. For historical and other reasons, especially in Western music, only twelve notes of fixed frequencies are used. These fixed frequencies are mathematically related to each other, and are defined around the central note, A4. The current "standard pitch" or modern "concert pitch" for this note is 440 Hz, although this varies in actual practice (see History of pitch standards). The note-naming convention specifies a letter, any accidentals (sharps/flats), and an octave number. Any note is an integer of half-steps away from middle A (A4). Let this distance be denoted n. If the note is above A4, then n is positive; if it is below A4, then n is negative. The frequency of the note (f) (assuming equal temperament) is then: f = 2n/12 × 440 Hz For example, one can find the frequency of C5, the first C above A4. There are 3 half-steps between A4 and C5 (A4 → A4 → B4 → C5), and the note is above A4, so n = +3. The note's frequency is: f = 23/12 × 440 Hz ≈ 523.2511 Hz. To find the frequency of a note below A4, the value of n is negative. For example, the F below A4 is F4. There are 4 half-steps (A4 → A4 → G4 → G4 → F4), and the note is below A4, so n = −4. The note's frequency is: f = 2−4/12 × 440 Hz ≈ 349.2290 Hz. Finally, it can be seen from this formula that octaves automatically yield factors of two times the original frequency, since n is therefore a multiple of 12 (12k, where k is the number of octaves up or down), and so the formula reduces to: f = 212k/12 × 440 Hz = 2k × 440 Hz, yielding a factor of 2. In fact, this is the means by which this formula is derived, combined with the notion of equally-spaced intervals. The distance of an equally tempered semitone is divided into 100 cents. So 1200 cents are equal to one octave — a frequency ratio of 2:1. This means that a cent is precisely equal to the 1200th root of 2, which is approximately 1.0005777895 For use with the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) standard, a frequency mapping is defined by: p = 69 + 12 × log2 (f / (440 Hz)) For notes in an A440 equal temperament, this formula delivers the standard MIDI note number. Any other frequencies fill the space between the whole numbers evenly. This allows MIDI instruments to be tuned very accurately in any microtuning scale, including non-western traditional tunings. History of note names Music notation systems have used letters of the alphabet for centuries. The 6th century philosopher Boethius is known to have used the first fifteen letters of the alphabet to signify the notes of the two-octave range that was in use at the time. Though it is not known whether this was his devising or common usage at the time, this is nonetheless called Boethian notation. Following this, the system of repeating letters A-G in each octave was introduced, these being written as minuscules for the second octave and double minuscules for the third. When the compass of used notes was extended down by one note, to a G, it was given the Greek G (Γ), gamma. (It is from this that the French word for scale, gamme is derived, and the English word gamut, from "Gamma-Ut", the lowest note in Medieval music notation.) The remaining five notes of the chromatic scale (the black keys on a piano keyboard) were added gradually; the first being B which was flattened in certain modes to avoid the dissonant tritone interval. This change was not always shown in notation, but when written, B (B-flat) was written as a Latin, round "b", and B (B-natural) a Gothic b. These evolved into the modern flat and natural symbols respectively. The sharp symbol arose from a barred b, called the "cancelled b". In parts of Europe, including Germany, Poland and Russia, the natural symbol transformed into the letter H: in German music notation, H is B (B-natural) and B is B (B-flat). In Italian, Portuguese, Greek, French, Russian, Flemish, Romanian, Spanish, Hebrew and Turkish notation the notes of scales are given in terms of Do - Re - Mi - Fa - Sol - La - Si rather than C - D - E - F - G - A - B. These names follow the original names reputedly given by Guido d'Arezzo, who had taken them from the first syllables of the first six musical phrases of a Gregorian Chant melody Ut queant laxis, which began on the appropriate scale degrees. These became the basis of the solfege system. "Do" later replaced the original "Ut" for ease of singing (most likely from the beginning of Dominus, Lord), though "Ut" is still used in some places. "Si" or "Ti" was added as the seventh degree (from Sancte Johannes, St. John, to which the hymn is dedicated). See also Money note Pensato Solfege Grace note Ghost note Diatonic and chromatic Piano key frequencies Note value « Ut queant laxis Resonare fibris Mira gestorum Famuli tuorum Solve polluti Labii reatum, Sancte Iohannes » References Bibliography Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0-691-02714-5. External links This web service converts frequencies to note name, +/- cents, this table gives note names, keyboard positions, frequencies and MIDI numbers. 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2,516 | Jerry_Lewis | Jerry Lewis (born March 16, 1926) is an American comedian, actor, film producer, writer, director and singer. He is best-known for his slapstick humor on stage, screen and television, his singing ability in a string of music album recordings and his charity fund-raising telethons for the Muscular Dystrophy Association (MDA). Lewis has won several awards for lifetime achievements from The American Comedy Awards, The Golden Camera, Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and The Venice Film Festival, and he has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2005, he received the Governors Award of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Board of Governors, which is the highest Emmy Award presented. On February 22, 2009, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Lewis the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award. As a filmmaking innovator, Lewis is credited with inventing the video assist system in cinematography. Lewis was originally paired up with Dean Martin in 1946, forming the comedy team of Martin and Lewis. In addition to the team's popular nightclub work, they starred in a successful series of comedy films for Paramount Pictures. The act broke up ten years later. Early life Jerry Lewis was born Joseph Levitch in Newark, New Jersey, the son of parents of Russian Jewish ancestry. Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 8 & 28 His parents, married in January 1925, Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 13 were Daniel Levitch, a Master of Ceremonies and vaudeville entertainer Jerry Lewis Biography (1926-) The Official Jerry Lewis Comedy Museum and Store Jerry Lewis on Dean Martin: 'A Love Story' : NPR who used the professional name Danny Lewis, Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 11 and Rachel ("Rae") Levitch (née Brodsky), Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 12 a piano player for the radio station WOR and musical arrangement performer. Lewis started performing at the age of five, and by the age of fifteen had developed his Record Act, in which he mimed lyrics of operatic and popular songs to a phonograph. He attended Frank Morrel High School, Irvington, NJ. At about age sixteen, he began using the professional name Jerry Lewis instead of Joey Lewis to avoid confusion with comedian Joe E. Lewis or heavyweight champion Joe Louis. Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 85 Career Teaming with Dean Martin Lewis gained initial fame with singer Dean Martin, who served as a straight man to Lewis' manic, zany antics as the Martin and Lewis comedy team. They distinguished themselves from the majority of comedy acts of the 1940s by relying on the interaction of the two comics instead of pre-planned skits. In the late 1940s, they quickly rose to national prominence, first with their popular nightclub act, next as stars of their own radio program, then appearances on early live television (most notably in 1950 as the first of a series of hosts of The Colgate Comedy Hour) and finally as film stars in a string of successes for Paramount Pictures. However, as Martin's roles in their films became less important, the partnership became strained. Martin's diminished participation became an embarrassment in 1954, when Look magazine used a publicity photo of the team for the magazine cover, but cropped Martin out of the photo. The partnership finally ended on July 25 1956. Attesting to the team's popularity, DC Comics published the best-selling The Adventures of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis comic books from 1952 to 1957. The series continued a year after the team broke up as DC Comics then featured Lewis solo, until 1971, in The Adventures of Jerry Lewis comic books. In this latter series, Lewis was sometimes featured with Superman, Batman, and various other DC Comics' heroes and villains. Both Martin and Lewis went on to successful solo careers, but for years neither would comment on the split, nor consider a reunion. The next time they were seen together in public was a surprise appearance by Martin on Lewis' Labor Day Muscular Dystrophy Telethon in 1976, arranged by Frank Sinatra. As well, in Lewis's 2005 book Dean and Me (A Love Story), Lewis wrote of his kinship with Martin, who had died in 1995. The pair eventually reconciled in the late 1980s after the death of Martin's son, Dean Paul Martin. The two men were seen together on stage in Las Vegas when Lewis pushed out Dean's birthday cake and sang Happy Birthday to him. Solo achievements After the split from Martin, Lewis remained at Paramount and became a major comedy star with his first film as a solo comic, The Delicate Delinquent (1957). Teaming with director Frank Tashlin, whose background as a Warner Bros. Looney Tunes cartoon director suited Lewis's brand of humor, he starred in five more films, and even appeared uncredited as Itchy McRabbitt in Li'l Abner (1959). Lewis tried his hand at singing in the 1950s, having a chart hit with the song "Rock-a-Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody" (a song largely associated with Al Jolson and later re-popularized by Judy Garland) as well as the song, "It All Depends on You" in 1958. He eventually released his own album titled, Jerry Lewis Just Sings. By the end of his contract with producer Hal B. Wallis, Lewis had several productions of his own under his belt. His first three efforts, The Delicate Delinquent (1957), Rock-A-Bye Baby (1958) and The Geisha Boy (1958), were all efforts to move away from Wallis, who Lewis felt was hindering his comedy. In 1960, Lewis finished his contract with Wallis with Visit to a Small Planet (1960), and wrapped up work on his own production, Cinderfella. Cinderfella was postponed for a Christmas 1960 release, and Paramount needed a quickie feature film for its summer 1960 schedule, and held Lewis to his contract to produce one. Lewis came up with The Bellboy. Using the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami as his setting, on a small budget, a very tight shooting schedule, and no script, Lewis shot the film by day and performed at the hotel in the evenings. Bill Richmond collaborated with him on the many sight gags. During production, Lewis developed the technique of using video cameras and multiple closed circuit monitors, allowing him to view scenes while he was filming them, which allowed him to review his performance instantly. Later, he incorporated videotape, and as more portable and affordable equipment became available, this technique would become an industry standard known as video assist. Lewis followed The Bellboy by directing several more films which he co-wrote with Richmond, including The Ladies Man (1961), The Errand Boy (1961), The Patsy (1964) and the well-known comedy hit, The Nutty Professor (1963), which was later successfully remade as a vehicle for Eddie Murphy in 1996 and followed by a sequel, Nutty Professor II: The Klumps (2000) both executed produced by Lewis for Universal Pictures and Image Entertainment. Lewis occasionally handed directing reins to Frank Tashlin, who directed several of his productions, including It's Only Money (1962) and Who's Minding the Store? (1963). In 1965, Lewis directed and (along with Bill Richmond) wrote the comedy film The Family Jewels about a young heiress who must choose between six uncles, one of which is up to no good and out to harm the girl's beloved bodyguard who practically raised her. Lewis played all six uncles and the bodyguard. By 1966, Lewis, now 40, was no longer an angular juvenile and his routines seemed more labored. His box office appeal waned, to the point where Paramount Pictures' new executives felt no further need for the Lewis comedies. Undaunted, Lewis packed up and went to Columbia Pictures, where he made several more comedies. Lewis taught a film directing class at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles for a number of years, mentoring such students as George Lucas. In 1968, he screened Steven Spielberg's early film, Amblin' and told his students, "That's what filmmaking is all about." Joseph McBride, Steven Spielberg - A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), pg. 168 Lewis starred in and directed the unreleased The Day the Clown Cried in 1972. The film was a drama set in a Nazi concentration camp. Lewis rarely discusses the experience, but did once explain why the film has not been released by suggesting litigation over post-production financial difficulties. However, he recently admitted during his book tour for Dean and Me that a major factor for the film's burial is that he is not proud of the effort. Lewis also appeared in stage musicals. In 1976, he appeared in a revival of Hellzapoppin' with Lynn Redgrave, but it closed on the road before reaching Broadway. Hellzapoppin 1976 revival, closed on the road before reaching Broadway, at BroadwayWorld.com In 1994, he made his Broadway debut, as a replacement cast member playing the Devil in a revival of the baseball musical, Damn Yankees, choreographed by future film director Rob Marshall (Chicago). Damn Yankees 1994 Broadway revival, replacement cast at IBDB Lewis returned to the screen in 1981 with Hardly Working, a film he both directed and starred in. Despite being panned by the critics, the film did eventually earn $50 million. He followed this up with a critically-acclaimed performance in Martin Scorsese's 1983 film, The King of Comedy, in which Lewis plays a late-night TV host plagued by obsessive fans (played by Robert De Niro and Sandra Bernhard). The role had been based on and originally offered to Johnny Carson. Lewis continued doing work in small films in the 1990s, most notably his supporting roles in Arizona Dream (1994) and Funny Bones (1995). He appeared on television on one episode of Mad About You'''s first season in 1992, playing an eccentric billionaire. In 2008, Lewis reprised his role as Prof. Kelp in The Nutty Professor, his first CGI animated film and follow-up to his original 1963 film with Drake Bell as his nephew, Harold Kelp. Lewis and his popular movie characters were animated in the cartoon series, Will the Real Jerry Lewis Please Sit Down. A production of Filmation in association with ABC and Lewis, the show ran from 1970 to 1972 lasting two seasons. The cartoon starred David Lander (later of Laverne & Shirley fame) as the voice of the animated Lewis character. Lewis was portrayed by Sean Hayes (Will & Grace) in the 2002 made-for-TV movie Martin and Lewis opposite Jeremy Northam as Dean Martin. Lewis's motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6801 Hollywood Blvd. Lewis has long remained popular in Europe: he was consistently praised by some French critics in the influential Cahiers du Cinéma for his absurd comedy, in part because he had gained respect as an auteur who had total control over all aspects of his films, comparable to Howard Hawks and Alfred Hitchcock. In March 2006, the French Minister of Culture awarded Lewis the Légion d'honneur, calling him the "French people's favorite clown". Liking Lewis has long been a common stereotype about the French in the minds of many Americans, Australians, Canadians, and Brits, and is often the object of jokes in Anglosphere pop culture. In 1994, the Columbia Pictures film, North featured footage of Lewis's classic movies. In June 2006, Lewis first announced plans to write and direct a stage musical adaptation of his 1963 film, The Nutty Professor. 2006 announcement at BroadwayWorld.com of plans for stage musical version of The Nutty Professor In October 2008, in an interview on Melbourne radio, Lewis said he had signed composers Marvin Hamlisch Variety.com 2007 Army Archerd item, retrieved March 8, 2009 and Rupert Holmes to write the show for a Broadway opening in November 2010. Ernie Sigley interviews Jerry Lewis, radio 3AW Melbourne October 30 2008, interview at http://www.3aw.com.au/blogs/ernie-blog/jerry-lewis-with-ernie-sigley/20081030-5c0c.html In 2009, Lewis traveled to the Cannes Film Festival to announce http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118003719.html?categoryid=1236&cs=1 his return to the screen after a 13 year absence for the film, Max Rose http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1439558/ , his first leading role since Martin Scorsese's The King of Comedy. Controversies Lewis has been criticized by members of the disability rights community. In 1990, he wrote a first-person essay entitled "If I Had Muscular Dystrophy" for Parade magazine, in which he characterized those with muscular dystrophy as "being half a person". The Infamous Parade Magazine Article Many in the disabled community viewed his remarks as prejudicial, contributing to the idea that people with disabilities are "childlike, helpless, hopeless, non functioning and noncontributing members of society". Jerry Lewis, Jerry's Orphans and the Telethon: Disability Rag Classics Members of the disability rights community object to Lewis receiving the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award. The Trouble with Jerry In February 2000, Lewis stunned an audience gathered to honor his work at the U.S. Comedy Arts Festival by saying he doesn't like female comics. Lewis said, "I don't like any female comedians. A woman doing comedy doesn't offend me, but sets me back a bit. I, as a viewer, have trouble with it. I think of her as a producing machine that brings babies in the world." He later defended the remark, saying it was taken wildly out of context, and added that he made 11 movies with comic character actress Kathleen Freeman. During the 2007 Labor Day Telethon, Lewis almost let slip the word, "faggot," while live on air. While talking to a cameraman, he joked: "Oh, your family has come to see you. You remember Bart, your oldest son, Jesse, the illiterate fag--no...", at which point he turned away from the camera. YouTube - Broadcast Yourself He later apologized. On July 25, 2008, Lewis was cited for carrying a concealed weapon without a permit at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas, Nevada. Lewis's manager told the Associated Press that the gun was a hollowed-out prop gun that couldn't fire which the authorities disputed, stating that the gun was a functioning weapon. Lewis later stated that the unloaded handgun was a specially engraved gift from a professional engraver during his 2007 telethon. He also stated that he had packed it in a carrying case after the '07 telethon ended and that he had forgotten about it and had not used that case until it was found by authorities, and the case was dismissed without prejudice (meaning that the court would allow charges to be reinstituted at a later date) on September 19. In October 2008, Lewis again offended some in the gay community with a remark he made on Australian television, calling cricket, a popular sport in Australia, "... a fag game." Personal life Family Lewis has been married twice: First Wife: Patti Palmer (née Esther Calonico), a former singer with the Ted Fio Rito Orchestra; Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 104 married October 3, 1944, divorced September 1980. Second Wife: SanDee Pitnick; married February 13, 1983. They were married in Key Biscayne, FL; at the time she was 32-year old Las Vegas dancer. Jerry Lewis Photos He has a total of six sons and one adopted daughter. Gary Harold Lee Levitch was born on July 31, 1945 Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 128 to Lewis and Patti Palmer. Gary Levitch's name was subsequently legally changed to Gary Lewis. As a 1960s pop musician, Gary Lewis had a string of hits with his group Gary Lewis & the Playboys. Gary Lewis and the Playboys Ronald Lewis; adopted July 1950 with Patti Palmer Scott Lewis; born February 1956 to Patti Palmer Christopher Joseph Lewis; born October 1957 to Patti Palmer Anthony Lewis; born October 1959 to Patti Palmer Joseph Lewis; born January 1964 to Patti Palmer Danielle Sarah Lewis (daughter); adopted March 1992 with SanDee Pitnick. Who is Jerry Lewis Lewis currently resides in Las Vegas, Nevada. Health concerns Lewis has suffered years of back pain after a fall when he flipped off a piano on March 20, 1965 while performing at the Sands Hotel in Las Vegas that almost left him paralyzed. Jerry Lewis tells it like it is — and was from usatoday.com, originally published Aug 29, 2002; data retrieved Mar 6, 2009 SEATTLE POST-INTELLIGENCER STAFF online, originally published Apr 10, 2003; retrieved March 7, 2009 He became addicted to the pain killer Percodan, but says he has been off the drug since 1978 and has not taken one since. In April 2002, Lewis had a "Synergy" neurostimulator, developed by Medtronic, Jerry's Story at medtronic.com implanted in his back, which has helped reduce the discomfort. He is now one of Medtronic's leading spokespeople. Lewis has battled prostate cancer, [http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/health/prostate/prostate.html "Prostate Cancer: New Tests Create Treatment Dilemmas" from December 1994 FDA Consumer, revised July 1997] diabetes I, and pulmonary fibrosis, and has had two heart attacks. Prednisone treatment in the early 2000s for pulmonary fibrosis resulted in weight gain and a noticeable change in his appearance. In September 2001, he was unable to perform at a planned charity event produced by comedian Steven Alan Green at the London Palladium. (Green's take on the event was turned into a one-person show, I Eat People Like You For Breakfast, which Green performed at the 2003 Edinburgh Festival.) Some months thereafter, Lewis began an arduous, months-long rehabilitation which weaned him off the prednisone that had so altered his appearance and enabled him to return to work. Lewis suffered a serious heart attack in December 1982, and second minor heart attack on June 11, 2006 at the end of a cross-country commercial airline flight en route home from New York City. Jerry Lewis suffers Heart Attack - /FILM It was later found that he had pneumonia. Lewis had two stents inserted into an artery in his heart that was 90% blocked, and it restored full blood flow to his heart. This has allowed him to continue his rebound from the lung issues he suffered from 2001 to 2005 and his health has improved. While it meant canceling several major events for Lewis, he recuperated in a matter of weeks. In 1999, his Australian tour was cut short when he had to be hospitalized in Darwin with viral meningitis. He was ill for more than five months. It was reported in the Australian press that he had failed to pay his medical bills; however, Lewis maintained that the payment confusion was the fault of his health insurer. The resulting negative publicity caused him to sue his insurer for US$100 million. Jerry Lewis calls the shots now that he's paid his bill, Jenna Price, Canberra Sunday Times, June 11, 2000 Honors and awards 1950s 1952 - Winner of the special Photoplay Award 1952 - Nominee for Best Comedian or Comedienne 1954 - Winner for the Most Cooperative Actor, Golden Apple Award 1960s 1965 - Winner, Golden Laurel, Special Award - Family Comedy King Jerry Lewis Awards and Nominations at IMDB 1970s 1977 - Nominee, the Nobel Peace Prize, by US Representative Les Aspin. Aspin noted that in 11 years, the MDA Jerry Lewis Labor Day Telethons had raised more than $95 million for the muscular dystrophy associations. Jerry Lewis In Person, p. 307 1980s 1983 - Nominee, Best Actor in a Supporting Role for The King of Comedy, British Academy Film Awards 1990s 1997 - Winner, Lifetime Achievement Award, American Comedy Awards Entertainment Awards Database, accessed March 8, 2009 2000s 2004 - Winner, Career Achievement Award, Los Angeles Film Critics Association 2005 - Winner, Governors Award, Primetime Emmy Awards 2006 - Winner, Satellite Award for Outstanding Guest Star on TV's Law & Order: Special Victims Unit2009 - Induction into the New Jersey Hall of Fame 2009 - Winner, Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award at the 81st Academy Awards Veteran actor Jerry Lewis to receive humanitarian award at Oscars, Xinhua News Agency, February 2, 2009 Bibliography The Total Film-Maker by Jerry Lewis. New York: Random House, 1971, ISBN 0-394-46757-4 Jerry Lewis: In Person by Jerry Lewis with Herb Gluck. New York: Atheneum, 1982, ISBN 0-689-11290-4 Dean & Me (A Love Story) by Jerry Lewis with James Kaplan. New York: Doubleday, 2005, ISBN 0-7679-2086-4 References Further reading The Jerry Lewis Films by James L. Neibaur and Ted Okuda (Lewis is quoted throughout). Jefferson, SC: McFarland, 1994, ISBN 0-8995-0961-4 King of Comedy: The Life and Art of Jerry Lewis'' by Shawn Anthony Levy. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0312132484 See also Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon External links Jerry Lewis interview for the Archive of American Television Official Jerry Lewis Website Jerry Lewis Image Vault Signature of Jerry Lewis - Jerry Lewis in Person Drum Solo Battle (1955) with Buddy Rich at DrummerWorld | Jerry_Lewis |@lemmatized jerry:44 lewis:130 bear:7 march:7 american:5 comedian:5 actor:4 film:35 producer:2 writer:1 director:4 singer:3 best:4 know:3 slapstick:1 humor:2 stage:5 screen:4 television:6 sing:1 ability:1 string:3 music:1 album:2 recording:1 charity:2 fund:1 raise:3 telethons:2 muscular:5 dystrophy:5 association:5 mda:3 win:1 several:6 award:24 lifetime:2 achievement:4 comedy:22 golden:3 camera:3 los:3 angeles:3 critic:4 venice:1 festival:4 two:6 star:11 hollywood:3 walk:2 fame:5 receive:3 governor:3 academy:4 art:4 science:2 board:1 high:2 emmy:2 present:1 february:5 motion:2 picture:8 jean:3 hersholt:3 humanitarian:4 filmmaking:2 innovator:1 credit:1 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2,517 | Nova | Artist's conception of a white dwarf star accreting hydrogen from a larger companion A nova (pl. novae) is a cataclysmic nuclear explosion caused by the accretion of hydrogen onto the surface of a white dwarf star. Novae are not to be confused with Type Ia supernovae, or another form of stellar explosion first announced by Caltech in May 2007, Luminous Red Novae. Occurrence rate, and astrophysical significance Astronomers estimate that the Milky Way experiences roughly 30 to 60 novae per year, with a likely rate of about 40. Prialnik, Dina. "Novae", pp. 1846-56, in Paul Murdin, ed. Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics. London: Institute of Physics Publishing Ltd and Nature Publishing Group, 2001. ISBN 1-56159-268-4 The number of novae discovered in the Milky Way each year is much lower, about 10. http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/nova_list.html Roughly 25 novae brighter than about magnitude 20 are discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy each year and smaller numbers are seen in other nearby galaxies. http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/iau/CBAT_M31.html Spectroscopic observation of nova ejecta nebulae has shown that they are enriched in elements such as helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and magnesium. The contribution of novae to the interstellar medium is not great; novae supply only 1/50th the amount of material to the Galaxy as supernovae, and only 1/200th that of red giant and supergiant stars. Recurrent novae like RS Ophiuchi (those with periods on the order of decades) are rare. Astronomers theorize however that most, if not all, novae are recurrent, albeit on time scales ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 years. Seeds, Michael A. Horizons: Exploring the Universe, 5th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998, ISBN 0-534-52434-6, p.194. The recurrence interval for a nova is less dependent on the white dwarf's accretion rate than on its mass; with their powerful gravity, massive white dwarfs require less accretion to fuel an outburst than lower-mass ones. Consequently, the interval is shorter for high-mass white dwarfs. Historical significance The first record of a nova dates from 1400 BC in China, in an oracle bone inscription, which reads: "On the 7th day of the month, a new star appeared next to 'Heart Constellation II'." From 1400 BC to AD 1600, China recorded 90 novas. Among them the supernova discovered in 1054 was the first to be confirmed by modern radio astronomers. In 1731, a British astronomer discovered an oblong spot of fog over China. After observation, calculation and analysis by several astronomers, it was proved that the crab-shaped nebula found in this position was the ruins of a supernova that had shot out of a dense cluster some 900 years previously, i.e., the year of 1054. This discovery was one of the most significant astronomical findings in the 1960s. The astronomer Tycho Brahe observed the supernova SN 1572 in the constellation Cassiopeia, and described it in his book de stella nova (Latin for "concerning the new star"), giving rise to the name nova. In this work he argued that a nearby object should be seen to move relative to the fixed stars, and that the nova had to be very far away. Though this was a supernova and not a classical nova, the terms were considered interchangeable until the 1930s. Novae as distance indicators Novae have some promise for use as standard candles. For instance, the distribution of their absolute magnitude is bimodal, with a main peak at magnitude -8.8, and a lesser one at -7.5. Novae also have roughly the same absolute magnitude 15 days after their peak (-5.5). Comparisons of nova-based distance estimates to various nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters with those done with Cepheid variable stars have shown them to be of comparable accuracy. Alloin, D., and W. Gieren, eds. Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale. Robert Gilmozzi and Massimo Della Valle, "Novae as Distance Indicators", pp. 229-241. Berlin: Springer, 2003. ISBN 3-540-20128-9. Bright novae since 1890 Year Nova Maximum brightness A higher magnitude means a lower brightness. i.e. T Aurigae (+3.8) was a brighter nova than HR Lyrae (+6.5) 1891T Aurigae +3.81898 V1059 Sagittarii +4.51899 V606 Aquilae +5.51901 GK Persei +0.21903DM Geminorum +4.81905V604 Aquilae +7.31910DI Lacertae +4.61912DN Geminorum +3.51918V603 Aquilae -1.41919HR Lyrae +6.51919V849 Ophiuchi +7.41920V476 Cygni +2.01920T Pyxidis +6.41925RR Pictoris +1.21927EL Aquilae +5.51927XX Tauri +5.91933RS Ophiuchi +4.31934DQ Herculis +1.41936CP Lacertae +2.11936V368 Aquilae +5.01939BT Monocerotis +4.51942V450 Cygni +7.01942CP Puppis +0.31943V500 Aquilae +6.11944T Pyxidis +7.11945V528 Aquilae +7.01946T Coronae Borealis +3.01948CT Serpentis +6.01948V465 Cygni +7.31950DK Lacertae +5.01956RW Ursae Minoris +6.01958RS Ophiuchi +5.01960V446 Herculis +2.81963V533 Herculis +3.01964QZ Aurigae +6.01967T Pyxidis +6.71967HR Delphini +3.71967RS Ophiuchi +5.01968LV Vulpeculae +5.21970FH Serpentis +4.41970V1229 Aquilae +6.71970V1330 Cygni +7.51971IV Cephei +7.01975V1500 Cygni +1.71975V373 Scuti +6.01976NQ Vulpeculae +6.01977HS Sagittae +7.21978V1668 Cygni +6.01982V1370 Aquilae +6.01984PW Vulpeculae +6.41984QU Vulpeculae +5.21985RS Ophiuchi +5.41986V842 Centauri +4.61986OS Andromedae +6.31987V827 Herculis +7.51987QV Vulpeculae +7.01991V838 Herculis +5.01992V1974 Cygni +4.21993V705 Cassiopeiae +5.81999V382 Velorum +2.61999V1494 Aquilae +4.02006RS Ophiuchi +4.52007V1280 Scorpii +3.9 , A more complete list of novae in the Milky Way since 1612 is maintained by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, CBAT Recurrent novae RS Ophiuchi T Coronae Borealis T Pyxidis See also Dwarf nova Supernova Hypernova Luminous Red Nova Nova remnant Cataclysmic variable Crab Nebula Guest star (astronomy) Extragalactic Distance Scale Supernova imposter Notes Under the Morgan-Keenan spectral classification scheme, novae are classified as Type-Q. References External links General Catalog of Variable Stars, Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow | Nova |@lemmatized artist:1 conception:1 white:5 dwarf:6 star:9 accrete:1 hydrogen:2 large:1 companion:1 nova:31 pl:1 cataclysmic:2 nuclear:1 explosion:2 cause:1 accretion:3 onto:1 surface:1 confuse:1 type:2 ia:1 supernova:8 another:1 form:1 stellar:2 first:3 announce:1 caltech:1 may:1 luminous:2 red:3 occurrence:1 rate:3 astrophysical:1 significance:2 astronomer:6 estimate:2 milky:3 way:3 experience:1 roughly:3 per:1 year:7 likely:1 prialnik:1 dina:1 novae:3 pp:2 paul:1 murdin:1 ed:3 encyclopedia:1 astronomy:2 astrophysics:1 london:1 institute:2 physic:1 publish:2 ltd:1 nature:1 publishing:1 group:1 isbn:3 number:2 discover:4 much:1 low:3 http:2 www:2 cfa:2 harvard:2 edu:2 iau:2 html:2 brighter:2 magnitude:5 andromeda:1 galaxy:5 small:1 see:3 nearby:3 spectroscopic:1 observation:2 ejecta:1 nebula:3 show:2 enrich:1 element:1 helium:1 carbon:1 nitrogen:1 oxygen:1 neon:1 magnesium:1 contribution:1 interstellar:1 medium:1 great:1 supply:1 amount:1 material:1 giant:1 supergiant:1 recurrent:3 like:1 r:2 ophiuchi:8 period:1 order:1 decade:1 rare:1 theorize:1 however:1 albeit:1 time:1 scale:3 range:1 seed:1 michael:1 horizon:1 explore:1 universe:1 belmont:1 wadsworth:1 company:1 p:1 recurrence:1 interval:2 less:3 dependent:1 mass:3 powerful:1 gravity:1 massive:1 require:1 fuel:1 outburst:1 one:3 consequently:1 short:1 high:2 historical:1 record:2 date:1 bc:2 china:3 oracle:1 bone:1 inscription:1 read:1 day:2 month:1 new:2 appear:1 next:1 heart:1 constellation:2 ii:1 ad:1 among:1 confirm:1 modern:1 radio:1 british:1 oblong:1 spot:1 fog:1 calculation:1 analysis:1 several:1 prove:1 crab:2 shaped:1 find:1 position:1 ruin:1 shoot:1 dense:1 cluster:2 previously:1 e:2 discovery:1 significant:1 astronomical:3 finding:1 tycho:1 brahe:1 observe:1 sn:1 cassiopeia:1 describe:1 book:1 de:1 stella:1 latin:1 concern:1 give:1 rise:1 name:1 work:1 argue:1 object:1 move:1 relative:1 fixed:1 far:1 away:1 though:1 classical:1 term:1 consider:1 interchangeable:1 distance:5 indicator:2 promise:1 use:1 standard:1 candle:2 instance:1 distribution:1 absolute:2 bimodal:1 main:1 peak:2 also:2 comparison:1 base:1 various:1 cepheid:1 variable:3 comparable:1 accuracy:1 alloin:1 w:1 gieren:1 extragalactic:2 robert:1 gilmozzi:1 massimo:1 della:1 valle:1 berlin:1 springer:1 bright:1 since:2 maximum:1 brightness:2 mean:1 aurigae:3 hr:1 lyrae:2 sagittarii:1 aquilae:10 gk:1 persei:1 geminorum:2 lacertae:3 cygni:7 pyxidis:4 pictoris:1 tauri:1 herculis:5 monocerotis:1 puppis:1 corona:2 borealis:2 serpentis:2 ursae:1 minoris:1 delphini:1 vulpeculae:5 cephei:1 scuti:1 sagittae:1 centauri:1 andromedae:1 cassiopeiae:1 velorum:1 scorpii:1 complete:1 list:1 maintain:1 central:1 bureau:1 telegram:1 cbat:1 hypernova:1 remnant:1 guest:1 imposter:1 note:1 morgan:1 keenan:1 spectral:1 classification:1 scheme:1 classify:1 q:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 general:1 catalog:1 sternberg:1 moscow:1 |@bigram ia_supernova:1 milky_way:3 astronomy_astrophysics:1 http_www:2 andromeda_galaxy:1 tycho_brahe:1 supernova_sn:1 stella_nova:1 absolute_magnitude:2 cepheid_variable:1 della_valle:1 maximum_brightness:1 corona_borealis:2 astronomical_telegram:1 crab_nebula:1 external_link:1 |
2,518 | Dean_Koontz | Dean Ray Koontz (born July 9, 1945) is an American author best known for his novels which could be described broadly as suspense thrillers. He also frequently incorporates elements of horror, science fiction, mystery, and satire. Several of his books have appeared on the New York Times Bestseller List, with ten hardcovers and fourteen paperbacks reaching the number one slot. Early in his career, Koontz wrote under an array of pen names, but since the 1980s has written mostly under his own name. Biography Koontz describes his youth as one of poverty under the abuse of a tyrannical father. He graduated from Shippensburg State College (now called Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania) in 1967, and went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School. In his spare time he wrote his first novel, Star Quest, which was published in 1968. Koontz went on to write over a dozen science fiction novels. In the 1970s, Koontz began to grow a magnum publishing mainstream suspense and horror fiction, under his own name as well as several pseudonyms. Koontz has stated that he began using pen names after several editors convinced him that authors who switched back and forth between different genres invariably fell victim to "negative crossover" (alienating established fans and simultaneously failing to pick up any new ones). Known pseudonyms used by Koontz during his career include Deanna Dwyer, K. R. Dwyer, Aaron Wolfe, David Axton, Brian Coffey, John Hill, Leigh Nichols, Owen West, Richard Paige, Leonard Chris, and Anthony North. Many of Koontz's pseudonymous novels are now available under his real name. Koontz's acknowledged breakthrough novel was Whispers, published in 1980. Since then, ten hardcovers and thirteen paperbacks written by Koontz have reached #1 on the New York Times Bestseller List. In 1997, psychologist Katherine Ramsland published an extensive biography of Koontz based on interviews with him and his family. Titled Dean Koontz: A Writer's Biography, this "psychobiography" (as Ramsland called it) often showed the conception of Koontz's characters and plots from events in his own life. Early author photos on the back of many of his novels show a balding Koontz with a mustache. After Koontz underwent hair transplantation surgery in the late 1990s, his subsequent books have featured a new clean-shaven appearance with a fuller head of hair. Koontz explained the change by claiming that he was tired of looking like G. Gordon Liddy. Since 1988 Koontz has contributed almost $73,000 to conservative Republican candidates and causes, of recent notability to the US Presidential primary campaigns of Fred Thompson and Mitt Romney. NEWSMEAT ▷ Dean Koontz's Federal Campaign Contribution Report As of 2006, Koontz resides in Newport Beach, California, where many of his novels are set. He lives with his wife Gerda. In 2008 he was listed as the sixth highest-paid author, in a tie with John Grisham. Rowling 'makes £5 every second'BBC, October 3, 2008. Accessed October 3, 2008. Inspiration One of Dean Koontz's pen names was inspired by his dog, Trixie Koontz, a golden retriever, shown in many of his book-jacket photos. Originally a service dog with Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a charitable organization that provides service dogs for people with disabilities Trixie was a gift from CCI in gratitude of the Koontz's substantial donations, totalling $2,500,000 between 1991 and 2004. Koontz was taken with the charity while he was researching his novel Midnight, a book which included a CCI-trained dog, a black Labrador retriever named Moose. In 2004 when Koontz wrote and edited Life Is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living in her name and in 2005, Koontz wrote a second book credited to Trixie, Christmas Is Good. Both books are written from a supposed canine perspective on the joys of life. The royalties of the books were donated to Canine Companions for Independence. In 2007, Trixie contracted terminal cancer creating a tumor in her heart. The Koontzes had her put to sleep outside of their family home on June 30. After Trixie's death, Koontz has continued writing on his website under Trixie's names, in "TOTOS", standing for Trixie on the Other Side. It is widely thought that Trixie was his inspiration for his November 2007 book The Darkest Evening of the Year, about a woman who runs a golden retriever rescue home, and who rescues a 'special' dog, named Nickie, who eventually saves her life. In October 2008 Koontz released he had adopted a new dog, Anna. It was eventually learned that Anna was the niece of Trixie. Recurring Themes and Elements Characters Until recently, Koontz had only rarely written more than one novel featuring the same characters, the two exceptions being the Black Bat Mystery series featuring Mike Tucker, art dealer and professional thief (Tucker appeared in the novels Blood Risk, Surrounded, and The Wall of Masks, all written under the pseudonym Brian Coffey); and the (as yet unfinished) Moonlight Bay Trilogy, whose hero, Christopher Snow, appears in the novels Fear Nothing and Seize the Night (a proposed third entry, Ride the Storm, has yet to appear). In recent years, however, Koontz has written four novels featuring the character of Odd Thomas (Odd Thomas, Forever Odd, Brother Odd, and Odd Hours), as well as the ongoing Dean Koontz's Frankenstein series, based on a concept for a failed television series that Koontz was briefly involved with. The show's pilot episode wound up being repackaged as a direct-to-DVD movie. Additionally, the Christopher Snow novels are loosely connected to Watchers, and the Tranquility Motel of Strangers appears in the Odd Passenger web series. The female lead is often intelligent, beautiful, and assertive, and is just as often paired with a more sensitive and easygoing male counterpart (e.g., Bobby and Julie Dakota in The Bad Place, Detectives Michael Madison and Carson O'Conner in Dean Koontz's Frankenstein, Tommy and Del in Ticktock, and Jimmy and Lorrie Tock in Life Expectancy, to name a few). Several of Koontz's female protagonists are single mothers bringing up their children against all the odds. Male protagonists are usually tough and capable, often either police officers (as in Phantoms, Dragon Tears, or The Door to December) or seemingly mild mannered sorts who are revealed to have police or military experience in their background (as in The Good Guy, Dark Rivers of the Heart, The Eyes of Darkness, Shadow Fires, and others). Many of Koontz's heroes come from abusive (or at least dysfunctional) backgrounds, but are nonetheless portrayed as successful, financially independent, strong-willed, and emotionally stable. Conversely, his antagonists are often sociopathic monsters with no redeeming or humanizing qualities whatsoever, who are invariably destroyed by the story's end; many of Koontz's villains are delusional, and consider their extremely warped and elaborate worldviews to be philosophically transcendent (e.g., Edgler Vess from Intensity, Corky Laputa from The Face, Vassago from Hideaway, Bryan Drackman from Dragon Tears, Vince Nasco from Watchers, Preston Maddoc from One Door Away from Heaven, Valis in Velocity, Thomas Shaddack in Midnight, Junior Cain in From the Corner of His Eye, and Krait in The Good Guy). Many of Koontz's novels feature sympathetic portrayals of characters who suffer from some mental or physical abnormality (e.g., Christopher Snow from the Moonlight Bay Trilogy, Regina from Hideaway, the lead character's brother in By the Light of the Moon, and likewise in The Bad Place). Koontz is an only child, and many of the protagonists in his stories are only children (e.g. Christopher Snow, Odd Thomas, Jimmy Tock - although born a twin, he was raised an only child - from Life Expectancy, Laura Shane from Lightning, Fric from The Face). Plot Though Koontz's books often feature fantastical plot elements, he usually offers plausible, logically consistent science-based explanations for these bizarre events. Very few of Koontz's novels involve the overtly supernatural, instead often relying on unique genetic traits and natal conditions. Koontz's protagonists often arm themselves with guns to combat the various monsters and madmen they are forced to do battle with. Often a Chief's Special or Combat Magnum Heckler & Koch P7 appear as handguns (Koontz himself is a lifelong gun owner). An exception to this rule, however, is the recurring character Odd Thomas who is in fact afraid of guns, although not enough so to prevent him from shooting seven people dead with a variety of pistols in Odd Hours. A protagonist having to hide a dead body. A desperate struggle for survival that leads to a final confrontation where good completely vanquishes evil, usually leading to a "happy ending" for the main characters. (An exception would be Dark Rivers of the Heart). A corrupt, often sinister police force. Themes Serious themes about the importance of faith, especially faith in God. Characters who follow an unwavering moral compass, but do not conform to organized religion or depend on the law. The ideal that love and compassion can save one from the apparent absurdities of existence and the cruelties of life. Love for children by their parents Reflection (sometimes at length) on the decline of modern society in the past twenty to thirty years, either in a dialogue between two characters or in the private musings of the protagonist, sometimes centering the blame on liberal-based tolerance of criminal and/or undesirable activity; free love, drug use, and political correctness are frequent targets (the antagonist of Dragon Tears, for instance, evidently owes not only his superhuman abilities but also his pathological personality to his mother's use of illicit drugs while he was in utero). A particular high respect for humanity and repugnance for those who degrade any human. Sometimes (as in One Door Away from Heaven) taking a critical stance against "life" issues like Utilitarian bioethics. A lack of atonement or redemption from the villains and antagonists, coinciding with main characters who are (eventually) clearly depicted as either good or evil with little moral ambiguity. Little sympathy is elicited for the antagonists. Other trademarks Koontz is an avid dog lover, and canines (typically an unusually smart Golden or Labrador Retriever) often feature prominently in his works: Fear Nothing, Seize the Night, The Taking, Watchers, Dark Rivers of the Heart, Dragon Tears, One Door Away from Heaven, Ticktock, Twilight Eyes (Towards the end of the book) and The Darkest Evening of the Year are prime examples. Cats have often fared worse in his books (Koontz is allergic to felines), though he has occasionally included cats as characters, most notably the smart feline Mungojerrie in the Christopher Snow novels, Terrible Chester in the Odd Thomas novels and Aristophanes in The Mask. A setting in southern California. A Smith and Wesson .38 caliber Chiefs Special or Heckler and Koch P7. Use of the word "preternatural and ozone" is prevalent in his books. A motorhome, usually owned by the villain (Such as Edgler Foreman Vess in Intensity), with some exceptions such as the ones at the carnival in Twilight Eyes. An ability to travel by some type of understanding of space/time (such as Deucalion in the Frankenstein novels and Shepherd O'Conner and Jillian Jackson in By the Light of the Moon). Vivid, detailed descriptions of the settings' architectural and interior design elements. Strange weather - A climax that coincides with the development of an unseasonable or unusual storm, with the penultimate moment of conflict often occurring during the height of the storm's violence. (Lightning) Amoral scientists using brutalizing techniques (especially upon children) to further their research (Sole Survivor, Midnight, Frankenstein, The Door to December, The Eyes of Darkness) References to literature and poetry of which Koontz is a fan. The poetry of T. S. Eliot plays a prominent role in The Taking, and many of the same lines by Eliot are seen in Velocity. Fear Nothing includes a character named Tom Eliot, another reference to the famous poet. Plants and flowers are described in great gardener type detail, and bougainvillea flowers often feature in Dean Koontz's books. Small references to Japan are often made. Such as plants and characters with a Japanese name, or people having Japanese gardens, furniture or enjoying Japanese food and drink. Strange, quirky descriptions, eg. The Darkest Evening of the Year "...but a pair of lamps shed light as lusterless as ashes and the colors were muted as though settled smoke from a long-quenched fire had laid a patina on them." Frequently references Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Frequent quotations from The Book of Counted Sorrows. Frequent vivid details from the inside of a Catholic church describing a character, usually escaping from someone, in the "Sacristy", "Narthex", or the "Nave" Film and television adaptations Though several of his novels have been adapted either as motion pictures or television movies, Koontz is generally unhappy with most of these adaptations. According to a 1996 interview, Koontz was so unhappy with the final cut of the film adaptation of his novel Hideaway that he now insists on keeping creative control over all subsequent films based on his books. Film adaptations The Husband (2008) - Focus Features Dean Koontz THE HUSBAND, THE HUSBAND Movie - Dean Koontz - The Official Site Frankenstein (2004) - USA Network - starring Adam Goldberg, Parker Posey, Michael Madsen, Vincent Perez, and Thomas Kretschmann (Koontz pulled out of the project midway through production because he did not like the direction the film was headed. He ended up writing his own books with the storyline he had originally created. The project continued without him.) Dean Koontz Website, Suspense Novel - Dean Koontz - The Official Site Black River (2001) - Fox - starring Jay Mohr, and Stephen Tobolowsky Sole Survivor (2000)–Fox - starring Billy Zane, John C. McGinley, and Gloria Reuben Watchers Reborn (1998) - Concorde Pictures - starring Mark Hamill Phantoms (1998) - Miramax/Dimension Films - starring Peter O'Toole, Ben Affleck, Rose McGowan, and Joanna Going. Mr. Murder (1998)–ABC–starring Stephen Baldwin, Thomas Haden Church, and James Coburn Intensity (1997)–Fox–starring John C. McGinley, Molly Parker, and Piper Laurie Hideaway (1995)–Tristar Pictures–starring Jeff Goldblum, Christine Lahti, Jeremy Sisto, and Alicia Silverstone Watchers 3 (1994) - Concorde Pictures - starring Wings Hauser The Servants of Twilight (1991)–Trimark–starring Bruce Greenwood The Face of Fear (1990)–CBS–starring Pam Dawber and Lee Horsley. Also includes Kevin Conroy. Watchers II (1990) - Concorde Pictures - starring Marc Singer and Tracy Scoggins Whispers (1990) - Cinepix–starring Victoria Tennant, Chris Sarandon, and Jean LeClere Watchers (1988)–Concorde Pictures - starring Corey Haim, Barbara Williams, and Michael Ironside The Intruder (1977) - MGM - starring Jean-Louis Trintignant (French film adaptation of Koontz's novel Shattered) Demon Seed (1977) - MGM - starring Julie Christie, Fritz Weaver, and Robert Vaughn as the voice of Proteus Bibliography References External links Dean Koontz - The Official Website. Stu Weaver's Dean Koontz Site - The most complete online listing of the American first editions and pseudonyms Dean Koontz - Friend of Liberty article by Bill Winter. "Contemplating Evil", interview in Reason by Nick Gillespie and Lisa Snell. Audio interview with National Review Online Dean Koontz eBooks Dean Koontz audiobooks Dean Koontz fan club and forum Dean Koontz at the Internet Book List Dean Koontz information The Dean Koontz Community - Online Koontz fan forum ''''' | Dean_Koontz |@lemmatized dean:20 ray:1 koontz:63 bear:2 july:1 american:2 author:4 best:1 know:2 novel:22 could:1 describe:4 broadly:1 suspense:3 thriller:1 also:3 frequently:2 incorporate:1 element:4 horror:2 science:3 fiction:3 mystery:2 satire:1 several:5 book:17 appear:6 new:5 york:2 time:4 bestseller:2 list:4 ten:2 hardcover:2 fourteen:1 paperback:2 reach:2 number:1 one:10 slot:1 early:2 career:2 write:13 array:1 pen:3 name:13 since:3 mostly:1 biography:3 youth:1 poverty:1 abuse:1 tyrannical:1 father:1 graduate:1 shippensburg:2 state:2 college:1 call:2 university:1 pennsylvania:1 go:3 work:2 english:1 teacher:1 mechanicsburg:1 high:3 school:1 spare:1 first:2 star:16 quest:1 publish:3 dozen:1 begin:2 grow:1 magnum:2 publishing:1 mainstream:1 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2,519 | List_of_islands_of_Michigan | This is a list of islands of Michigan. Island L/R L: Islands in lakes, R: Islands in rivers Name of Lake/River Notes Amygdaloid Island L Lake Superior part of Isle Royale National Park Beaver Island L Lake Michigan inhabited island Beaver Island L Lake Superior small island Belle Isle R Detroit River city park in Detroit Big St. Martin Island L Lake Huron Bois Blanc Island L Lake Huron inhabited island Calf Island R Detroit River part of Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge Case's Island L Lake Fenton inhabited island Charity Island L Lake Huron in Saginaw Bay Cherry Island R St. Marys River Potagannissing Bay at the south end St. Marys River Copper Island L Lake Superior tip of Keweenaw Peninsula Crooked Island L Lake Huron Crow Island R Saginaw River site of Crow Island State Game Area Diamond Island L Diamond Lake Dickinson Island R St. Clair River Draper Island L Lac Vieux Desert Drummond Island L Lake Huron inhabited island Edmond Island R Detroit River inhabited island in Gibraltar, MI Elizabeth Island L Lake Superior small island off Isle Royale, not to be confused with Slocum Island, site of Elizabeth Park Frying Pan Island R St. Marys River had lighthouse Garden Island L Lake Michigan Gard Island L Lake Erie owned by University of Toledo Grand Island L Lake Superior location of Grand Island National Recreation Area Granite Island L Lake Superior site of lighthouse Grassy Island R Detroit River part of Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge Grosse Ile R Detroit River inhabited island Gull Island () (several) any of a dozen small islands Halls Island R Detroit River inhabited island Gibraltar, MI Harbor Island National Wildlife Refuge L Lake Huron north of Drummond Island Harsens Island L Lake St. Clair inhabited island Hat Island L Lake Michigan part of Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge Hickory Island R Detroit River southern end of Grosse Ile Higgins Island High Island L Lake Michigan Hog Island L Lake Michigan Horse Island L Lake Erie inhabited island Gibraltar, MI Huron Islands L Lake Superior has lighthouse Indian Island L Lake Erie Ile Aux Galets L Lake Michigan location of Skillagalee Lighthouse Isle Royale L Lake Superior location of Isle Royale National Park Katechay Island L Lake Huron in Saginaw Bay Les Cheneaux Islands L Lake Huron group of 36 inhabited islands, including Goose, Birch, Little La Salle, La Salle, Government, No. 8, Hill, Boot, Coryell, Strongs, Rover, Albany. Lime Island R St. Marys River Little Charity Island L Lake Huron in Saginaw Bay Little Summer Island L Lake Michigan Long Island Loud Island L Van Etten Lake near Oscoda Mackinac Island L Lake Huron inhabited island Manitou Island L Lake Superior site of lighthouse Manitou Islands L Lake Michigan part of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore Marquette Island L Lake Huron one of the Le Cheneaux group Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge L Lake Huron Lake Michigan Charity, Little Charity, Scarecrow, and Thunder Bay Islands form the Lake Huron division of the Michigan Islands NWR. Gull, Hat, Pismire, and Shoe Islands, which are part of the Beaver Island archipelago, form the Lake Michigan division. Middle Island L Lake Huron Middle Ground Island R Saginaw River Mud Island R Detroit River part of Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge Naubinaway Island L Lake Michigan site of the Naubinway Island Light lighthouse Neebish Island R St. Marys River inhabited island North Island L Lake Huron Saginaw Bay North Cape L Lake Erie North Fox Island L Lake Michigan state-owned island North Manitou Island L Lake Michigan part of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore Ojibway Island R Saginaw River Passage Island L Lake Superior Isle Royale National Park, has lighthouse Peach Isle R Detroit River site of Peach Isle Range Lighthouse Pipe Island R St. Marys River had lighthouse Poverty Island L Lake Michigan Power Island L Lake Michigan also called Ford Island and Marion Island, a Grand Traverse County park Round Island, Chippewa County L Lake Superior has lighthouse Round Island, Chippewa County R St. Marys River has lighthouse Round Island, Alpena County L Lake Huron site of lighthouse Round Island, Delta County L Lake Michigan Green Bay Round Island, Delta County L Lake Michigan Big Bay De Noc Round Island, Keweenaw County L Lake Superior off Isle Royale Round Island, Mackinac County L Lake Huron off Mackinac Island, has lighthouse Round Island, Presque Isle County L Grand Lake Round Island, Wayne County L Lake Erie at southern tip of Grosse Ile Russell Island R St. Clair River St. Helena Island L Lake Michigan site of lighthouse Ryan Island L Siskiwit Lake Largest island in largest lake on largest island in largest freshwater lake (Lake Superior) in North America St. Martin Island, Delta County L Lake Michigan has lighthouse St. Martin Island, Mackinac County L Lake Huron Scarecrow Island L Lake Huron Alpena County Slocum Island R Detroit River Wayne County, entire island is included in Elizabeth Park South Island L Lake Huron Saginaw Bay South Fox Island L Lake Michigan inhabited island South Manitou Island L Lake Michigan part of Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore Stannard Rock L Lake Superior has lighthouse Stoney Point Island L Lake Erie Squaw Island L Lake Michigan Sugar Island R St. Marys River inhabited, includes part of Bay Mills Indian Reservation Summer Island L Lake Michigan Thunder Bay Island L Lake Huron site of lighthouse Trout Island L Lake Michigan Turtle Island L Lake Erie Whiskey Island L Lake Michigan Washington Island L Lake Superior part of Isle Royale National Park Waugoshance Island L Lake Michigan Zug Island R Rouge River See also Islands of Michigan Notes | List_of_islands_of_Michigan |@lemmatized list:1 island:125 michigan:31 l:74 r:25 lake:79 river:29 name:1 note:2 amygdaloid:1 superior:15 part:11 isle:11 royale:7 national:11 park:8 beaver:3 inhabit:11 small:3 belle:1 detroit:14 city:1 big:2 st:15 martin:3 huron:22 bois:1 blanc:1 calf:1 international:3 wildlife:6 refuge:6 case:1 fenton:1 charity:4 saginaw:8 bay:11 cherry:1 marys:7 potagannissing:1 south:4 end:2 copper:1 tip:2 keweenaw:2 peninsula:1 crook:1 crow:2 site:9 state:2 game:1 area:2 diamond:2 dickinson:1 clair:3 draper:1 lac:1 vieux:1 desert:1 drummond:2 edmond:1 inhabited:3 gibraltar:3 mi:3 elizabeth:3 confuse:1 slocum:2 fry:1 pan:1 lighthouse:17 garden:1 gard:1 erie:7 university:1 toledo:1 grand:4 location:3 recreation:1 granite:1 grassy:1 grosse:3 ile:4 gull:2 several:1 dozen:1 hall:1 harbor:1 north:6 harsens:1 hat:2 hickory:1 southern:2 higgins:1 high:1 hog:1 horse:1 indian:2 aux:1 galets:1 skillagalee:1 katechay:1 les:1 cheneaux:2 group:2 include:3 goose:1 birch:1 little:4 la:2 salle:2 government:1 hill:1 boot:1 coryell:1 strongs:1 rover:1 albany:1 lime:1 summer:2 long:1 loud:1 van:1 etten:1 near:1 oscoda:1 mackinac:4 manitou:4 islands:4 sleep:3 bear:3 dune:3 lakeshore:3 marquette:1 one:1 le:1 scarecrow:2 thunder:2 form:2 division:2 nwr:1 pismire:1 shoe:1 archipelago:1 middle:2 ground:1 mud:1 naubinaway:1 naubinway:1 light:1 neebish:1 cape:1 fox:2 ojibway:1 passage:1 peach:2 range:1 pipe:1 poverty:1 power:1 also:2 call:1 ford:1 marion:1 traverse:1 county:14 round:9 chippewa:2 mary:1 alpena:2 delta:3 green:1 de:1 noc:1 presque:1 wayne:2 russell:1 helena:1 ryan:1 siskiwit:1 large:4 freshwater:1 america:1 entire:1 stannard:1 rock:1 stoney:1 point:1 squaw:1 sugar:1 mill:1 reservation:1 trout:1 turtle:1 whiskey:1 washington:1 waugoshance:1 zug:1 rouge:1 see:1 |@bigram isle_royale:7 belle_isle:1 lake_huron:21 wildlife_refuge:6 huron_saginaw:5 saginaw_bay:5 st_marys:7 marys_river:7 st_clair:3 lake_erie:7 grosse_ile:3 la_salle:2 manitou_island:3 thunder_bay:2 presque_isle:1 freshwater_lake:1 |
2,520 | Botswana | The Republic of Botswana () is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Citizens of Botswana are called "Batswana" (singular: Motswana), regardless of ethnicity. Formerly a British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. It meets Zambia at a single point. The country is home to a relatively stable political system and a rapidly developing economy. Being closely tied with the economy of South Africa, the country's economy is one of the most successful in Africa and is dominated by the fast-growing service sector, world-renowned diamond industry, tourism, and manufacturing. History In the 19th century, hostilities broke out between the Tswana inhabitants of Botswana and Ndebele tribes who were migrating into the territory from the Kalahari Desert. Tensions also escalated with the Boer (European) settlers from the Transvaal. After appeals by the Batswana leaders Khama III, Bathoen and Sebele for assistance, the British Government put "Bechuanaland" under its protection on 31 March 1885. The northern territory remained under direct administration as the Bechuanaland Protectorate and is modern-day Botswana, while the southern territory became part of the Cape Colony and is now part of the northwest province of South Africa. The majority of Setswana-speaking people today live in South Africa. When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 out of the main British colonies in the region, the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Basutoland (now Lesotho) and Swaziland (the "High Commission Territories") were not included, but provision was made for their later incorporation. However, a vague undertaking was given to consult their inhabitants, and although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred, Britain kept delaying; consequently, it never occurred. The election of the National Party government in 1948, which instituted apartheid, and South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, ended any prospect of incorporation of the territories into South Africa. An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of tribal government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans. Proclamations in 1934 regularized tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council. In June of 1964, Britain accepted proposals for a democratic self-government in Botswana. The seat of government was moved in 1965 from Mafikeng in South Africa, to the newly established Gaborone, which sits on its border. The 1965 constitution led to the first general elections and to independence on 30 September 1966. Seretse Khama, a leader in the independence movement and the legitimate claimant to the Ngwato chiefship, was elected as the first president, re-elected twice. The presidency passed to the sitting vice president, Quett Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. The presidency passed to the sitting vice president, Festus Mogae, who was elected in his own right in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. The presidency passed in 2008 to Ian Khama (son of the first president), who resigned his position as leader of the Botswana Defence Force to take up this civilian role. Geography and environment At 231,788 mi² (600,370 km²), Botswana is the world's 45th-largest country (after Ukraine). It is comparable in size to Madagascar, and it is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Texas. It is predominantly flat, tending toward gently rolling tableland. Botswana is dominated by the Kalahari Desert, which covers up to 70% of its land surface. The Okavango Delta, the world's largest inland delta, is in the northwest. The Makgadikgadi Pan, a large salt pan, lies in the north. The Limpopo River Basin, the major landform of all of southern Africa, lies partly in Botswana, in the southeast of the country. Botswana has diverse areas of wildlife habitat. In addition to the delta and desert areas, there are grasslands and savannas, the latter where Blue Wildebeest, many antelopes, and other mammals and birds are found. Northern Botswana has one of the few remaining large populations of the endangered African Wild Dog. Politics and government The politics of Botswana take place in a framework of a representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Botswana is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Botswana. Since independence was declared, the party system has been dominated by the Botswana Democratic Party. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. According to Transparency International, Botswana is the least corrupt country in Africa and ranks similarly close to Portugal and South Korea. 2008 Corruption Perception Index Pina Ya Sechaba (The National Anthem): Verse 1: Fatshe leno la rona Ke mpho ya modimo Ke boswa ja borraetsho A le nne ka kagiso Chorus: Tsogang Tsogang Banna Tsogang Emang Basadi Emang tlhagafalang Re kopanele go direla Lefatshe la rona Verse 2: Ina lentle la tumo La tshaba ya Botswana Ka kutlwano le kagisanyo E bopagantswe mmogo Chorus 2xs http://www.botsblog.org/archives/2005/05/pina-ya-sechaba.html Administrative divisions Districts of Botswana Botswana is divided into 9 districts: Central District Ghanzi District Kgalagadi District Kgatleng District Kweneng District North-East District North-West District South-East District Southern District Defence At the time of independence Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after attacks from the Rhodesian and South African armies that the Botswana Defence Force (BDF) was formed in self-defence in 1977. The president is commander in chief and appoints a defence council. The BDF has approximately 12,000 members. Following political changes in South Africa and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on combatting poaching, preparing for disasters, and foreign peacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, and a large segment of its officer corps has received U.S. training. It is considered an apolitical and professional institution. The BDF is a capable and well-disciplined military force. Economy Since independence, Botswana has had one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income in the world. Botswana (01/08) Botswana has transformed itself from one of the poorest countries in the world to a middle-income country. By one estimate, it has the fourth highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a standard of living around that of Argentina, Mexico and Turkey. GNI PPP table According to the International Monetary Fund, economic growth averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. The government has maintained a sound fiscal policy, despite consecutive budget deficits in 2002 and 2003, and a negligible level of foreign debt. It earned the highest sovereign credit rating in Africa and has stockpiled foreign exchange reserves (over $7 billion in 2005/2006) amounting to almost two and a half years of current imports. Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on the foundation of wisely using revenue generated from diamond mining to stimulate economic development through prudent fiscal policies and a cautious foreign policy. Debswana, the largest diamond mining company operating in Botswana, is 50% owned by the government and generates about half of all government revenues. In 2007, significant quantities of uranium were discovered, and mining is projected to begin by 2010. Several international mining corporations have established regional headquarters in Botswana, and prospected for diamonds, gold, uranium, copper, and even oil, many coming back with positive results. However, economic development spending was cut by 10% in 2002-2003 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditure on healthcare services. Botswana has been hit very hard by the AIDS pandemic; in 2006 it was estimated that life expectancy at birth had dropped from 65 to 35 years. Approximately one in six Batswana has HIV, giving Botswana the second highest infection rate in the world after nearby Swaziland. Avert.org The government recognizes that AIDS will affect the economy and is trying to combat the epidemic, including free anti-retroviral drug treatment and a nation-wide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program. The economic impact of AIDS is considerable. Sports The most popular sport in Botswana is football, and other popular sports include cricket, tennis, rugby union, softball, volleyball and athletics. Botswana is an associate member of International Cricket Council. Another popular game is the mind sport of bridge. Bridge was first played in Botswana thirty years ago, but it was the 1980s when the game really took off, with many British expatriate school teachers teaching bridge in Botswana’s Secondary Schools. They were not qualified “bridge teachers”, simply enthusiasts who wanted to pass on their own passion to another and younger generation. The result was the foundation of the Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) in 1988 and so the official organiser of tournaments for the pupils to play in. Since then bridge has continued to be popular in the country and is a fixture of many people’s lives: the BBF can currently boast over 800 members. At its peak there could be as many as 600 children playing bridge – which is unique in Africa. This interest in bridge has developed even further in 2008 when the BBF invited the English Bridge Union to host a bridge teaching programme over a week in May 2008. Culture Besides referring to the language of the dominant people groups in Botswana, Setswana is the adjective used to describe the rich cultural traditions of the Batswana - whether construed as members of the Tswana ethnic groups or of all citizens of Botswana. Language The official languages of Botswana are English and Setswana. In Setswana prefixes are more important than they are in many other languages. These prefixes include "Bo", which refers to the country, "Ba", which refers to the people, "Mo", which is one person, and "Se" which is the language. For example, the main tribe of Botswana is the Tswana people, hence the name Botswana for its country. The people as a whole are Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language they speak is Setswana. Lesotho, an enclave within South Africa, is considered a sister country. It was inhabited by a cousin tribe called the Sotho, who speak a similar language. That language is called Sesotho and can be understood by speakers of Setswana. Music Tswana music is mostly vocal and performed without drums; it also makes heavy use of string instruments. Tswana folk music has instruments such as Setinkane, Segankure/Segaba and for the last few decades, a guitar has been celebrated as a versatile music instrument for Tswana music. Visual arts In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of Etsha and Gumare are noted for their skill at crafting baskets from Mokola Palm and local dyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage, large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain, and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. The artistry of these baskets is being steadily enhanced through color use and improved designs as they are increasingly produced for commercial use. Other notable artistic communities include Thamaga Pottery and Oodi Weavers, both located in the southeastern part of Botswana. The oldest paintings from both Botswana and South Africa depict hunting, animal and human figures, and were made by the Khoisan (!Kung San/Bushmen) over twenty thousand years ago within the Kalahari desert. In addition to these more traditional arts there are a number of extremely talented artists who use modern means to express themselves. There are a few galleries around Botswana that display paintings and sculptures. Some pieces are inspired by the beautiful Botswana landscapes and others by the people themselves. Holidays DateEnglish nameLocal name 1 JanuaryNew Year's DayNgwaga o mosha 2 JanuaryPublic Holidayvaries Usually in late March or early April. Good FridayLabotlhano yo o molemo Easter Monday varies Usually in May Ascension DayTlhatlogo 1 JulySir Seretse Khama Day 19 JulyPresident's Day 20 JulyPublic Holiday 30 SeptemberIndependence DayBoipuso 25 DecemberChristmasKeresemose 26 December/27 December Boxing Day The first Monday after Christmas is also a Public Holiday. Education Botswana has made great strides in educational development since independence in 1966. At that time there were very few graduates in the country and only a very small percentage of the population attended secondary school. With the discovery of diamonds and the increase in government revenue that this brought, there was a huge increase in educational provision in the country. All students were guaranteed ten years of basic education, leading to a Junior Certificate qualification. Approximately half of the school population attends a further two years of secondary schooling leading to the award of the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE). After leaving school, students can attend one of the six technical colleges in the country, or take vocational training courses in teaching or nursing. The best students enter the University of Botswana, [Botswana College of Agriculture], and The Botswana Accountancy college in Gaborone. Many other students end up in the numerous private tertiary education colleges around the country. A high majority of these students are government sponsored. The quantitative gains have not always been matched by qualitative ones. Primary schools in particular still lack resources, and the teachers are less well paid than their secondary school colleagues. The Government of Botswana hopes that by investing a large part of national income in education, the country will become less dependent on diamonds for its economic survival, and less dependent on expatriates for its skilled workers. In January 2006, Botswana announced the reintroduction of school fees after two decades of free state education , though the government still provides full scholarships with living expenses to any Botswana citizen in university, either at the University of Botswana or if the student wishes to pursue an education in any field not offered locally, such as medicine, they are provided with a full scholarship to study abroad. Demographics Botswana's main ethnic groups are (in order) Tswana, Kalanga, Bushmen or AbaThwa also known as basarwa, Others. Other groups of ethnicities in Botswana include whites and Indians both groups being equally small in number. Botswana's Indian population is made up of many Indian-Africans of several generations, from Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritius, South Africa, etc. as well as first generation Indian immigrants. The white population being native Botswana or from other parts of Africa including Zimbabwe and South Africa. The white population speaks either English or Afrikaans and makes up roughly 3% of the population. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Botswana was 24% for adults in 2006. UNAIDS http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2006/ In 2003, the government began a comprehensive program involving free or cheap generic anti-retroviral drugs as well as an information campaign designed to stop the spread of the virus. Religion An estimated 70 percent of the country's citizens identify themselves as Christians. Anglicans, Methodists, and the United Congregational Church of Southern Africa make up the majority of Christians. There are also congregations of Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Seventh-day Adventists, Baptists, the Dutch Reformed Church, Mennonites, and other Christian denominations. Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses are also present. According to the 2001 census, the country's Muslim community, primarily of South Asian origin, numbers slightly more than 5,000. The 2001 census also lists approximately 3,000 Hindus and 700 Baha'is. Members of each community estimate that these figures significantly understated their respective numbers. Approximately 20 percent of citizens espouse no religion. Religious services are well attended in both rural and urban areas. U.S. Department of State See also List of Botswana-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Africa Outline of Botswana Outline of geography United Nations Notes and references Further reading Denbow, James and Thebe, Phenyo C., Culture and Customs of Botswana See also List of Botswana-related topics Communications in Botswana Transport in Botswana Music of Botswana Postage stamps and postal history of Bechuanaland Protectorate Botswanan cuisine External links The Government of Botswana Chief of State and Cabinet Members Botswana from UCB Libraries GovPubs Botswana History from WWW-VL be-x-old:Бацвана | Botswana |@lemmatized republic:2 botswana:69 landlocked:1 country:19 southern:5 africa:23 citizen:5 call:3 batswana:5 singular:1 motswana:2 regardless:1 ethnicity:2 formerly:1 british:5 protectorate:4 bechuanaland:5 adopt:1 new:1 name:3 become:3 independent:2 within:3 commonwealth:2 september:2 border:2 south:19 southeast:2 namibia:1 west:2 north:4 zimbabwe:2 northeast:1 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2,521 | Military_Forces_of_Colombia | The Military of Colombia, officially the Military Forces of Colombia () is the armed forces of Colombia. Services The Military of Colombia consists of: Colombian National Army Ejército Nacional de Colombia Colombian National Armada Armada Nacional de Colombia (Marines, Navy and Coast Guard attached) Colombian Air Force Fuerza Aérea Colombiana Dependencies Military Medical Corps (Sanidad Militar):Medical and Nurse Corps) Military Industry (Industrias Militares INDUMIL): Military Industry Depot Military Sports Federation (Federación Deportiva Militar FEDECODEMIL) Military Printing (Imprenta Militar) Military Museum (Museo Militar): History of the Armed Forces of Colombia War Superior College (Escuela Superior de Guerra ESDEGUE) they hve no military Funding In 1999, Colombia assigned 3.6% of its GDP to defense, according to the National Planning Department. By 2007 this figure had risen to 6.1% of GDP, one of the highest rates in the world. The armed forces number about 250,000 uniformed personnel: 145,000 military and 105,000 police. These figures do not include assistance personnel such as cooks, medics, mechanics, etc. This makes the Colombian military one of the largest and most well-equipped in Latin America. Many Colombian military personnel have received military training assistance directly in Colombia and also in the United States. The United States has provided equipment and financing to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales, and the international narcotics control program, all currently united under the auspices of Plan Colombia. World factbook statistics ARC Gloria is the Colombian Navy flagship (Buque insignia, or Buque bandera, in Spanish). Military branches: Colombian Army (Ejercito Nacional) Colombian Navy (Armada Nacional, includes Marines and Coast Guard) Colombian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana) Military manpower - military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation - 24 months (2004) Military manpower - availability: males age 18-49: 10,212,456 females age 18-49: 10,561,562 (2005 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 18-49: 6,986,228 females age 18-49: 8,794,465 (2005 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males age 18-49: 389,735 females age 18-49: 383,146 (2005 est.) Expenditures Military expenditures - dollar figure: $11.0229 billion (FY09) Military expenditures - percent of GDP:6.5% (FY08) See also AFEUR Colombia Colombian Army Indumil Joint Task Force OMEGA References and notes External links Ministerio de Defensa de Colombia - Official Ministry of Defense site Comando General de las Fuerzas Militares - Official Armed Forces General Command Ejército Nacional de Colombia - Official Army site Ejército Nacional de Colombia - Official Army site Armada Nacional de Colombia - Official Navy site ( and ) Fuérza Aérea Colombiana - Official Air Force site Policía Nacional de Colombia - Official National Police site UNFFMM - Unofficial site of the Colombian Military Forces Other Links Colombian Military expenditure | Military_Forces_of_Colombia |@lemmatized military:30 colombia:16 officially:1 force:10 armed:3 service:5 consists:1 colombian:13 national:4 army:5 ejército:3 nacional:8 de:10 armada:4 marine:2 navy:4 coast:2 guard:2 attach:1 air:3 fuerza:2 aérea:2 colombiana:3 dependency:1 medical:2 corp:2 sanidad:1 militar:4 nurse:1 industry:2 industrias:1 militares:2 indumil:2 depot:1 sport:1 federation:1 federación:1 deportiva:1 fedecodemil:1 printing:1 imprenta:1 museum:1 museo:1 history:1 war:1 superior:2 college:1 escuela:1 guerra:1 esdegue:1 hve:1 funding:1 assign:1 gdp:3 defense:2 accord:1 planning:1 department:1 figure:3 rise:1 one:2 high:1 rate:1 world:2 number:1 uniformed:1 personnel:3 police:3 include:2 assistance:3 cook:1 medic:1 mechanic:1 etc:1 make:1 large:1 well:1 equip:1 latin:1 america:1 many:1 receive:1 training:1 directly:1 also:2 united:2 state:2 provide:1 equipment:1 financing:1 program:2 foreign:1 sale:1 international:1 narcotic:1 control:1 currently:1 unite:1 auspex:1 plan:1 factbook:1 statistic:1 arc:1 gloria:1 flagship:1 buque:2 insignia:1 bandera:1 spanish:1 branch:1 ejercito:1 aerea:1 manpower:4 age:9 obligation:2 year:1 compulsory:1 voluntary:1 conscript:1 month:1 availability:1 male:3 female:3 est:3 fit:1 reach:1 annually:1 expenditures:2 expenditure:2 dollar:1 billion:1 percent:1 see:1 afeur:1 joint:1 task:1 omega:1 reference:1 note:1 external:1 link:2 ministerio:1 defensa:1 official:7 ministry:1 site:7 comando:1 general:2 la:1 fuerzas:1 arm:1 command:1 fuérza:1 policía:1 unffmm:1 unofficial:1 |@bigram colombia_colombian:2 fuerza_aérea:1 manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 external_link:1 ministerio_de:1 la_fuerzas:1 policía_nacional:1 |
2,522 | Basic_English | Basic English, also known as Simple English, is an English-based controlled language created by Charles Kay Ogden (in essence a simplified subset of English) as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a Second Language. It was presented in Ogden's book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar (1930). Basic English is sometimes referred to as BASIC, an acronym that stands for British American Scientific International Commercial. This is not to be confused with BASIC, a programming language. Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in the Second World War as a tool for world peace. Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses. Ogden's associate I. A. Richards promoted its use in schools in China. More recently, it has influenced the creation of Voice of America's Special English for news broadcasting, and Simplified English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals. What survives today of Ogden's Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner's vocabulary of the English language taught world-wide, especially Asia. Edmond H Weiss The Elements of International English Style, pp. 17-18, M. E. Sharpe, 2005 ISBN 978-0765615725 Design principles Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasis. Most notably, Ogden eliminated verbs, saying in his General Introduction that "There are no 'verbs' in Basic English", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification. A good summary in Bill Templer: Towards a People's English: Back to BASIC in EIL Humanising Language Teaching. Historical references In the future history book The Shape of Things to Come, published in 1933, H.G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite which after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language (for a similar real-world development, see Engrish). From 1942 until 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal language. The language later inspired his use of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four. Noted science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein used a form of Basic English in his story "Gulf" as a language appropriate for a race of genius supermen. Heinlein, Robert A., "Gulf", in Assignment in Eternity, published by Signet Science Fiction (New American Library), 1953. Page 52-53: "It was possible to establish a one-to-one relationship with Basic English so that one phonetic symbol was equivalent to an entire word". Word lists Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). See the list of words which are assumed and not counted for details. The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Appendix:Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150 word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a word list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business, etc.), along with a 50-word list from a more specialized subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000 word vocabulary for everyday work and life. Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student already should be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 350 "international" words. Therefore, a first level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1350 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain 1500 words (the core 850 words, plus 350 international words, and 300 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). A sample 1500 word vocabulary is included in the Simple English Wikipedia. Ogden also provided lists to extend the general 1500 vocabulary with additional word lists to make a 2000 word list, enough for a "standard" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents "what any learner should know". At this level students could start to move on their own. Criticism Like all IALs, Basic may be criticized as unavoidably based on personal preferences, and thus, paradoxically, as inherently divisive. Rick Harrison, Farewell to Auxiliary Languages Moreover, like all natural language based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community. For instance, a sample quotation from the auxlang mailing list archives and another from noted linguist Robert A. Hall, Jr.. As a teaching aid for English as a Second Language, Basic has been criticized for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints. For instance, by proponents of Essential World English. See a summary of EWE for instance and, again, the linguist Robert A. Hall, Jr.. See also E Prime European English Globish International English Plain English A General Service List of English Words Plain language Bible in Basic English Wycliffe Bible Translators#EasyEnglish Number of words in English Simple English Wikipedia Simplified Chinese References External links Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar, London: Paul Treber Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English and Grammatical Reform, Cambridge: The Orthological Institute. (1937). I. A. Richards & Christine Gibson, Learning Basic English: A Practical Handbook for English-Speaking People, New York: W. W. Norton & Co. (1945) ogden.basic-english.org Ogden's books and wordlists online and several discussions. www.basic-english.org Ongoing project to support and update Ogden's Basic (with downloads). THE REFERENCE SHELF Vol. 17. No. 1 A discussion about Basic English, with supporters and critics. Wiktionary:Basic English template (uses Basic English word list as a basis for studying equivalent basic words in other languages) World English Organization VOA News - Voice of America Special English - News Radio for English Learners Online tool which might help you to write Basic English texts - Detect words which are not in some dictionary. Ogden's Basic English dictionary list included. Essential World English - some criticisms of Basic English and suggestions for overcoming its problems ''Basic English: A Protest, Joseph Albert Lauwerys, F. J. Daniels, Robert A. Hall Jr., London: Basic English Foundation, 1966. An answer to Robert A. 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2,523 | Geography_of_Lebanon | Detailed map of Lebanon, 2002 Lebanon stretches along the east side of the Mediterranean Sea, its length almost three times its width. As it stretches from North to South, the width of its terrain becomes narrower. Lebanon's mountainous terrain, proximity to the sea, and strategic location at a crossroads of the world were decisive factors in shaping its history. The political, economic, and religious movements that either originated in the region or crossed through to leave an imprint upon Lebanese society give form to that history. The country's role in the region, as indeed in the world at large, was shaped by trade. The area, formerly part of the region known as Greater Syria, served as a link between the Mediterranean world and India and East Asia. The merchants of the region exported oil, grain, textiles, metal work, and pottery through the port cities to Western markets. The linkage role of Lebanon was further enhanced by the nomads of the Syrian and Arabian deserts who visited the cities of Syria to trade. The caravans developed limited routes that often led to the coastal cities of Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, or Tyre. This created a merchant class and brought wealth to the inhabitants of the region. The trade between East and West led to the development of a cosmopolitan culture in Lebanon's port cities, whose inhabitants became known for their multilingualism, flexibility, moderation, and commercial acumen. Lebanon was also affected by regional political conflicts and social movements. The wealth of the region attracted powerful rulers who coveted its resources. The strategic location was also attractive; it was used either as a defensive position against enemies approaching the Arab hinterland or as a stepping-stone toward Lebanon's neighbors. Over the centuries, members of the nomadic tribes of the Arabian Peninsula sought a more prosperous life in Lebanon. To this day, many Lebanese families take pride in tracing their descent to ancient tribes of Arabia. Moreover, refugees belonging to minority sects have settled in its virtually inaccessible mountain valleys. Hence, the region became a melting pot of cultural and social interaction among diverse groups. In a social culture where blood lineage assumed primacy as a source of identification and affiliation, the contrast between the new Arab immigrant tribes and the settled inhabitants of the land frequently produced conflicts. Land Topography of Lebanon The area of Lebanon is approximately 10,452 square kilometers. The country is roughly rectangular in shape, becoming narrower toward the south and the farthest north. Its widest point is 88 kilometers, and its narrowest is 32 kilometers; the average width is about 56 kilometers. The physical geography of Lebanon is influenced by natural systems that extend outside the country. Thus, the Biqa Valley is part of the Great Rift system, which stretches from southern Turkey to Mozambique in Africa. Like any mountainous country, Lebanon's physical geography is complex. Land forms, climate, soils, and vegetation differ markedly within short distances. There are also sharp changes in other elements of the environment, from good to poor soils, as one moves through the Lebanese mountains. A major feature of Lebanese topography is the alternation of lowland and highland that runs generally parallel with a north-to-south orientation. There are four such longitudinal strips between the Mediterranean Sea and Syria: the coastal strip (or the maritime plain), western Lebanon, the central plateau, and eastern Lebanon (see fig. 3, Physical Features). The extremely narrow coastal strip stretches along the shore of the eastern Mediterranean. Hemmed in between sea and mountain, the sahil, as it is called in Lebanon, is widest in the north near Tripoli, where it is only 6.5 kilometers wide. A few kilometers south at Juniyah the approximately 1.5-kilometer-wide plain is succeeded by foothills that rise steeply to 750 meters within 6.5 kilometers from the sea. For the most part, the coast is abrupt and rocky. The shoreline is regular with no deep estuary, gulf, or natural harbor. The maritime plain is especially productive of fruits and vegetables. The western range, the second major region, is the Lebanon Mountains, sometimes called Mount Lebanon, or Lebanon proper before 1920. Since Roman days the term Mount Lebanon has encompassed this area. Antilibanos (Anti-Lebanon) was used to designate the eastern range. Geologists believe that the twin mountains once formed one range. The Lebanon Mountains are the highest, most rugged, and most imposing of the whole maritime range of mountains and plateaus that start with the Amanus or Nur Mountains in northern Syria and end with the towering massif of Sinai. The mountain structure forms the first barrier to communication between the Mediterranean and Lebanon's eastern hinterland. The mountain range is a clearly defined unit having natural boundaries on all four sides. On the north it is separated from the Nusayriyah Mountains of Syria by An Nahr al Kabir ("the great river"); on the south it is bounded by Al Qasimiyah River, giving it a length of 169 kilometers. Its width varies from about 56.5 kilometers near Tripoli to 9.5 kilometers on the southern end. It rises to alpine heights southeast of Tripoli, where Al Qurnat as Sawda ("the black nook") reaches 3,360 meters. Of the other peaks that rise east of Beirut, Jabal Sannin (2,695 meters) is the highest. Ahl al Jabal ("people of the mountain"), or simply jabaliyyun, has referred traditionally to the inhabitants of western Lebanon. Near its southern end, the Lebanon Mountains branch off to the west to form the Shuf Mountains. The third geographical region is the Biqa Valley. This central highland between the Lebanon Mountains and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains is about 177 kilometers in length and 9.6 to 16 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 762 meters. Its middle section spreads out more than its two extremities. Geologically, the Biqa is the medial part of a depression that extends north to the western bend of the Orontes River in Syria and south to Jordan through Al Arabah to Al Aqabah, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. The Biqa is the country's chief agricultural area and served as a granary of Roman Syria. Biqa is the Arabic plural of buqaah, meaning a place with stagnant water. Emerging from a base south of Homs in Syria, the eastern mountain range, or Anti-Lebanon (Lubnan ash Sharqi), is almost equal in length and height to the Lebanon Mountains. This fourth geographical region falls swiftly from Mount Hermon to the Hawran Plateau, whence it continues through Jordan south to the Dead Sea. The Barada Gorge divides Anti-Lebanon. In the northern section, few villages are on the western slopes, but in the southern section, featuring Mount Hermon (286 meters), the western slopes have many villages. Anti-Lebanon is more arid, especially in its northern parts, than Mount Lebanon and is consequently less productive and more thinly populated. Terrain Bathymetric map of Lebanon Divided into five ribbon-like topographical areas stretching from North to South: The Shoreline. At 210 km long, it is mostly consisted of rocks towards north, and sand south, adding some headlands, bays, and offshore islands The Coastal plain. Surrounded by sea and mountains, it is rather narrow at 2 or 3 km wide Mount Lebanon (the West Mountains). Beqaa valley. Anti-Lebanon (the East Mountains). Climate Lebanon has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a long, hot, and dry summer, and cool, rainy winter. Fall is a transitional season with a gradual lowering of temperature and little rain; spring occurs when the winter rains cause the vegetation to revive. Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern. Along the coast, summers are hot and humid, with little or no rain. Heavy dews form, which are beneficial to agriculture. The daily range of temperature is not wide. A west wind provides relief during the afternoon and evening; at night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea. Winter is the rainy season, with major precipitation falling after December. Rainfall is generous but is concentrated during only a few days of the rainy season, falling in heavy cloudbursts. The amount of rainfall varies greatly from one year to another. Occasionally, there are frosts during the winter, and about once every fifteen years a light powdering of snow falls as far south as Beirut. A hot wind blowing from the Egyptian desert called the khamsin (Arabic for "fifty"), may provide a warming trend during the fall, but more often occurs during the spring. Bitterly cold winds may come from Europe. Along the coast the proximity to the sea provides a moderating influence on the climate, making the range of temperatures narrower than it is inland, but the temperatures are cooler in the northern parts of the coast where there is also more rain. Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges In the Lebanon Mountains the gradual increase in altitude produces colder winters with more precipitation and snow. The summers have a wider daily range of temperatures and less humidity. In the winter, frosts are frequent and snows heavy; in fact, snow covers the highest peaks for much of the year. In the summer, temperatures may rise as high during the daytime as they do along the coast, but they fall far lower at night. Inhabitants of the coastal cities, as well as visitors, seek refuge from the oppressive humidity of the coast by spending much of the summer in the mountains, where numerous summer resorts are located. Both the khamsin and the north winter wind are felt in the Lebanon Mountains. The influence of the Mediterranean Sea is abated by the altitude and, although the precipitation is even higher than it is along the coast, the range of temperatures is wider and the winters are more severe. The Biqa Valley and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are shielded from the influence of the sea by the Lebanon Mountains. The result is considerably less precipitation and humidity and a wider variation in daily and yearly temperatures. The khamsin does not occur in the Biqa Valley, but the north winter wind is so severe that the inhabitants say it can "break nails." Despite the relatively low altitude of the Biqa Valley (the highest point of which, near Baalbek, is only 1,100 meters) more snow falls there than at comparable altitudes west of the Lebanon Mountains. Because of their altitudes, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains receive more precipitation than the Biqa Valley, despite their remoteness from maritime influences. Much of this precipitation appears as snow, and the peaks of the Anti-Lebanon, like those of the Lebanon Mountains, are snow-covered for much of the year. Temperatures are cooler than in the Biqa Valley. Rivers and Lakes Although the country is well watered and there are many rivers and streams, there are no navigable rivers, nor is any one river the sole source of irrigation water. Drainage patterns are determined by geological features and climate. Although rainfall is seasonal, most streams are perennial. Most rivers in Lebanon have their origins in springs, which are often quite large. These springs emerge from the permeable limestone strata cropping out at the 915- to 1,524-meter level in the Lebanon Mountains. In the Anti-Lebanon Mountains few springs emerge in this manner. Other springs emerge from alluvial soil and join to form rivers. Whatever their source, the rivers are fast moving, straight, and generally cascade down narrow mountain canyons to the sea. The Biqa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north (in Arabic it is called Nahr al Asi, "the Rebel River", because this direction is unusual), and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in southern Lebanon and is thereafter called the Al Qasmiyah River. The Orontes continues to flow north into Syria and eventually reaches the Mediterranean in Turkey. Its waters, for much of its course, flow through a channel considerably lower than the surface of the ground. The Nahr Barada, which waters Damascus, has as its source a spring in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Smaller springs and streams serve as tributaries to the principal rivers. Because the rivers and streams have such steep gradients and are so fast moving, they are erosive instead of depository in nature. This process is aided by the soft character of the limestone that composes much of the mountains, the steep slopes of the mountains, and the heavy rainstorms. The only permanent lake is Buhayrat al Qirawn, about ten kilometers east of Jezzine. There is one seasonal lake, fed by springs, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains near Yammunah, about forty kilometers southeast of Tripoli. Area and boundaries Map of Lebanon total: 10,452 km² land: 10,280 km² water: 170 km² Land boundaries: total: 454 km border countries: Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km Coastline: 210 km Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nautical miles Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m (sea level) highest point: Qurnat as Sawda' 3,088 m Resources and land use Limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land arable land: 21% permanent crops: 9% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 8% other: 61% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 860 km² (1993 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards include dust storms. Current environmental degradation concerns include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills. Lebanon is party to several environmental international agreements, including: Convention on Biological Diversity United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Basel Convention United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter Partial Test Ban Treaty Montreal Protocol MARPOL 73/78 Ramsar Convention It has signed, but not ratified the Environmental Modification Convention, Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, and Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. The Litani River is the only major river in Southwest Asia not crossing an international boundary. Lebanon's rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity. 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2,524 | Monoamine_oxidase | Monoamine oxidases (singular abbreviation MAO) () are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines. They are found bound to the outer membrane of mitochondria in most cell types in the body. The enzyme was discovered by Mary Hare in the liver, and received the name of tyramine oxidase. Hare MLC (1928) Tyramine oxidase. I. A new enzyme system in liver. Biochem J 22:968Y979 They belong to protein family of flavin-containing amine oxidoreductases. Locations of MAO-A and MAO-B In humans there are two types of MAO: MAO-A and MAO-B. Both are found in neurons and astroglia. Outside the central nervous system: MAO-A is also found in the liver, gastrointestinal tract, and placenta. MAO-B is mostly found in blood platelets. Function Monoamine oxidases catalyze the oxidative deamination of monoamines. Oxygen is used to remove an amine group from a molecule, resulting in the corresponding aldehyde and ammonia. The general form of the catalyzed reaction (with R denoting an arbitrary group) is: General Form of MAO Oxidations Monoamine oxidases contain the covalently-bound cofactor FAD and are, thus, classified as flavoproteins. Subtype Specificities MAO-A is particularly important in the catabolism of monoamines ingested in food. Both MAOs are also vital to the inactivation of monoaminergic neurotransmitters, for which they display different specificities. Serotonin, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline) are mainly broken down by MAO-A. Phenethylamine is mainly broken down by MAO-B. Both forms break down dopamine equally. Specific reactions catalyzed by MAO include: epinephrine or norepinephrine to 3,4-Dihydroxymandelic acid metanephrine or normetanephrine to vanillylmandelic acid dopamine to dihydroxyphenylacetic acid 3-Methoxytyramine to homovanillic acid Disorders resulting from MAO dysfunction Because of the vital role that MAOs play in the inactivation of neurotransmitters, MAO dysfunction (too much or too little MAO activity) is thought to be responsible for a number of neurological disorders. For example, unusually high or low levels of MAOs in the body have been associated with depression, substance abuse, attention deficit disorder, migraines, and irregular sexual maturation. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are one of the major classes of drug prescribed for the treatment of depression, although they are last-line treatment due to risk of the drug's interaction with diet or other drugs. Excessive levels of catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine) may lead to a hypertensive crisis, and excessive levels of serotonin may lead to serotonin syndrome. PET research has shown that MAO is also heavily depleted by use of tobacco cigarettes. Genetics The genes encoding MAO-A and MAO-B are located side-by-side on the short arm of the X chromosome, and have about 70% sequence similarity. Rare mutations in the gene are associated with Brunner syndrome. A study reported in Science in August 2002 based on the Dunedin cohort concluded that maltreated children with a low-activity polymorphism in the promoter region of the MAO-A gene were more likely to develop antisocial conduct disorders than maltreated children with the high-activity variant. Out of the 442 total males in the study (maltreated or not), 37% had the low activity variant. Of the 13 maltreated males with low MAO-A activity, 11 had been assessed as exhibiting adolescent conduct disorder and 4 were convicted for violent offenses. The suggested mechanism for this effect is the decreased ability of those with low MAO-A activity to quickly degrade norepinephrine, the synaptic neurotransmitter involved in sympathetic arousal and rage. This is alleged to provide direct support for the idea that genetic susceptibility to disease is not determined at birth, but varies with exposure to environmental influences. Note however that most of those with conduct disorder or convictions did not have low activity of MAO-A; maltreatment was found to caused stronger predisposition for antisocial behavior than differences in MAO-A activity. Research also uncovered a possible link between predisposition to novelty seeking and a genotype of the MAO-A gene. The disorder of these times, neophilia, by Heidi Dawley, published June 18, 2006, retrieved on May 22, 2007 In 2006, a New Zealand researcher, Dr Rod Lea said that a particular variant (or genotype) was over-represented in Māori, a Warrior gene. This supported earlier studies finding different proportions of variants in different ethnic groups. This is the case for many genetic variants, with 33% White/Non-Hispanic, 61% Asian/Pacific Islanders having the low-activity MAO-A promoter variant. See also Monoamine oxidase inhibitor Genetics and violence Neophilia Warrior gene Brunner syndrome References External links MAO-B Structure at eurekalert.org Calculated orientations of Monoamine oxidases in membrane Monoamine oxidase (MAO) at bmc.uu.se Slides showing the effects of tobacco smoking on MAO at nida.nih.gov Foods to avoid when taking MAO inhibitors at lycaeum.org Information Hyperlinked Over Proteins -- MAO-A | Monoamine_oxidase |@lemmatized monoamine:10 oxidase:8 singular:1 abbreviation:1 mao:33 enzymes:1 catalyze:4 oxidation:2 find:6 bound:2 outer:1 membrane:2 mitochondrion:1 cell:1 type:2 body:2 enzyme:2 discover:1 mary:1 hare:2 liver:3 receive:1 name:1 tyramine:2 mlc:1 new:2 system:2 biochem:1 j:1 belong:1 protein:2 family:1 flavin:1 contain:2 amine:2 oxidoreductase:1 location:1 b:6 human:1 two:1 neuron:1 astroglia:1 outside:1 central:1 nervous:1 also:5 gastrointestinal:1 tract:1 placenta:1 mostly:1 blood:1 platelet:1 function:1 oxidases:1 oxidative:1 deamination:1 oxygen:1 use:2 remove:1 group:3 molecule:1 result:2 corresponding:1 aldehyde:1 ammonia:1 general:2 form:3 reaction:2 r:1 denote:1 arbitrary:1 covalently:1 cofactor:1 fad:1 thus:1 classify:1 flavoproteins:1 subtype:1 specificity:2 particularly:1 important:1 catabolism:1 ingest:1 food:2 vital:2 inactivation:2 monoaminergic:1 neurotransmitter:3 display:1 different:3 serotonin:3 norepinephrine:4 noradrenaline:1 epinephrine:3 adrenaline:1 mainly:2 break:3 phenethylamine:1 dopamine:3 equally:1 specific:1 include:1 dihydroxymandelic:1 acid:4 metanephrine:1 normetanephrine:1 vanillylmandelic:1 dihydroxyphenylacetic:1 methoxytyramine:1 homovanillic:1 disorder:7 dysfunction:2 role:1 maos:1 play:1 much:1 little:1 activity:9 think:1 responsible:1 number:1 neurological:1 example:1 unusually:1 high:2 low:7 level:3 associate:2 depression:2 substance:1 abuse:1 attention:1 deficit:1 migraine:1 irregular:1 sexual:1 maturation:1 inhibitor:3 one:1 major:1 class:1 drug:3 prescribe:1 treatment:2 although:1 last:1 line:1 due:1 risk:1 interaction:1 diet:1 excessive:2 catecholamine:1 may:3 lead:2 hypertensive:1 crisis:1 syndrome:3 pet:1 research:2 show:2 heavily:1 deplete:1 tobacco:2 cigarette:1 genetics:2 gene:6 encode:1 locate:1 side:2 short:1 arm:1 x:1 chromosome:1 sequence:1 similarity:1 rare:1 mutation:1 brunner:2 study:3 report:1 science:1 august:1 base:1 dunedin:1 cohort:1 conclude:1 maltreat:3 child:2 polymorphism:1 promoter:2 region:1 likely:1 develop:1 antisocial:2 conduct:3 maltreated:1 variant:6 total:1 male:2 assess:1 exhibit:1 adolescent:1 convict:1 violent:1 offense:1 suggested:1 mechanism:1 effect:2 decreased:1 ability:1 quickly:1 degrade:1 synaptic:1 involve:1 sympathetic:1 arousal:1 rage:1 allege:1 provide:1 direct:1 support:2 idea:1 genetic:2 susceptibility:1 disease:1 determine:1 birth:1 varies:1 exposure:1 environmental:1 influence:1 note:1 however:1 conviction:1 maltreatment:1 cause:1 strong:1 predisposition:2 behavior:1 difference:1 uncover:1 possible:1 link:2 novelty:1 seek:1 genotype:2 time:1 neophilia:2 heidi:1 dawley:1 publish:1 june:1 retrieve:1 zealand:1 researcher:1 dr:1 rod:1 lea:1 say:1 particular:1 represent:1 māori:1 warrior:2 early:1 proportion:1 ethnic:1 case:1 many:1 white:1 non:1 hispanic:1 asian:1 pacific:1 islander:1 see:1 violence:1 reference:1 external:1 structure:1 eurekalert:1 org:2 calculate:1 orientation:1 bmc:1 uu:1 se:1 slide:1 smoking:1 nida:1 nih:1 gov:1 avoid:1 take:1 lycaeum:1 information:1 hyperlinked:1 |@bigram monoamine_oxidase:6 outer_membrane:1 gastrointestinal_tract:1 catalyze_reaction:1 serotonin_norepinephrine:1 norepinephrine_noradrenaline:1 epinephrine_adrenaline:1 reaction_catalyze:1 epinephrine_norepinephrine:2 neurological_disorder:1 oxidase_inhibitor:2 norepinephrine_dopamine:1 serotonin_syndrome:1 pacific_islander:1 external_link:1 tobacco_smoking:1 nih_gov:1 mao_inhibitor:1 |
2,525 | Ab_urbe_condita | Ab Urbe condita (related with Anno Urbis Conditae: AUC or a.u.c. or a.u. Dio uses "a.u." in his Roman History ) is Latin for "from the founding of the City (Rome)", Literally translated as "From the city having been founded". traditionally set in 753 BC. It was used to identify the Roman year by a few Roman historians. Modern historians use it much more frequently than the Romans themselves did; the dominant method of identifying Roman years was to name the two consuls who held office that year. Before the advent of the modern critical edition of historical Roman works, AUC was indiscriminately added to them by earlier editors, making it appear more widely used than it actually was. The regnal year of the emperor was also used to identify years, especially in the Byzantine Empire after Justinian required its use in 537. Examples of usage are principally found in German authors, for example Mommsen's History of Rome. Significance This aureus by Hadrian celebrates the games held in honour of the 874th birthday of Rome (121). A coin struck under Philip the Arab to celebrate Saeculum Novum. Also Pacatianus, usurper against Philip, celebrated the Saeculum Novum. This antoninianus bears the legend ROMAE AETER AN MIL ET PRIMO, "To eternal Rome, in its one thousand and first year". From Emperor Claudius onwards, Varro's calculation (see below) superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honour of the city's anniversary, in 47, eight hundred years after the founding of the city. In 121, Hadrian, and in 147/8, Antoninus Pius held similar celebrations. In 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states "Year one thousand and first", which is an indication that the citizens of the Empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Saeculum Novum. When the Roman Empire turned Christian in the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more metaphysical sense. Calculation by Varro The traditional date for the founding of Rome of April 21, 753 BC, was initiated by Varro. Varro may have used the consular list with its mistakes, and called the year of the first consuls "245 ab urbe condita", accepting the 244-year interval from Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of Varro's calculation has not been proved scientifically but is still used worldwide. Relationship with Anno Domini The Anno Domini year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in 525, as an outcome of his work on calculating the date of Easter. In his Easter table the year AD 532 was equated with the regnal year 248 of Emperor Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on (20 November 284), or as stated by Dionysius: "sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare..." Liber de Paschate, Migne Patrologia Latina67 page 481 note f It is assumed Dionysius Exiguus intended either AD 1 or 1 BC to be the year of Christ's birth (a "year zero" does not exist in this calendar). It was later calculated (from the historical record of the succession of Roman consuls) that the year AD 1 corresponds to the Roman year DCCLIV ab urbe condita, based on Varro's epoch. This however resulted in that year not corresponding with the lifetimes of historical figures reputed to be alive, or otherwise mentioned in connection with the Christian incarnation, e.g. Herod the Great or Quirinius Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars: Tiberius, 49 . ...1 ab urbe condita = 753 before Christ 2 ab urbe condita = 752 BC 3 ab urbe condita = 751 BC ... 750 ab urbe condita = 4 BC (Death of Herod the Great) 751 ab urbe condita = 3 BC 752 ab urbe condita = 2 BC 753 ab urbe condita = 1 BC 754 ab urbe condita = 1 Anno Domini 755 ab urbe condita = 2 AD ... 759 ab urbe condita = 6 AD (Quirinius becomes governor of Syria) ... 2762 ab urbe condita = 2009 AD Alternative calculations According to Velleius Paterculus the foundation of Rome took place 437 years after the capture of Troy (1182 BC). It took place shortly before an eclipse of the Sun that was observed at Rome on June 25, 745 BC and had a magnitude of 50.3%. Its beginning occurred at 16:38, its middle at 17:28, and its end at 18:16. However, according to Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum, Romulus and Remus were conceived in the womb on the 23rd day of the Egyptian month Choiac, at the time of a total eclipse of the Sun. (This eclipse occurred on June 15, 763 BC, with a magnitude of 62.5% at Rome. Its beginning took place at 6:49, its middle at 7:47 and its end at 8:51.) He was born on the 21st day of the month Thoth. The first day of Thoth fell on March 2 in that year. (Prof. E.J. Bickerman, 1980: 115) Rome was founded on the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, which was April 21, as universally agreed. The Romans add that about the time Romulus started to build the city, an eclipse of the Sun was observed by Antimachus, the Teian poet, on the 30th day of the lunar month. This eclipse on June 25, 745 BC (see above) had a magnitude of 54.6% at Teos, Asia Minor. It started at 17:49; it was still eclipsed at sunset, at 19:20. Romulus vanished in the 54th year of his life, on the Nones of Quintilis (July), on a day when the Sun was darkened. The day turned into night, which sudden darkness was believed to be an eclipse of the Sun. It occurred on July 17, 709 BC, with a magnitude of 93.7%, beginning at 5:04 and ending at 6:57. (All these eclipse data have been calculated by Prof. Aurél Ponori-Thewrewk, retired director of the Planetarium of Budapest.) Plutarch placed it in the 37th year from the foundation of Rome, on the fifth of our July, then called Quintilis, Quintilis, on "Caprotine Nones," Livy (I, 21) also states that Romulus ruled for 37 years. He was slain by the senate or disappeared in the 38th year of his reign. Most of these have been recorded by Plutarch, (Lives of Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Camillus), Plutarch Florus, (Book I, I), Florus Cicero, (The Republic VI, 22: Scipio's Dream), Cicero Dio (Dion) Cassius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (L. 2). Dio in his Roman History (Book I) confirms this data by telling that Romulus was in his 18th year of age when he had founded Rome. Thus, three eclipse calculations may support the suggestion that Romulus reigned from 746 BC to 709 BC, and Rome was founded in 745 BC. Q. Fabius Pictor (c. 250 BC) tells that Roman consuls started for the first time 239 years after Rome's foundation (Enciclopedia Italiana, XIV, 1951: 173). Livy (I, 60) gives almost the same, 240 years for that interval. Polybius Polybius, The Histories (III, 22. 1-2) tells that 28 years after the expulsion of the last Persian king Xerxes crossed over to Greece, and that event is fixed to 478 BC by two solar eclipses. References: Theodor Mommsen, History of Rome (1854 - 1856) See also List of Latin phrases Notes and references | Ab_urbe_condita |@lemmatized ab:15 urbe:14 condita:14 relate:1 anno:4 urbis:1 conditae:1 auc:2 u:3 c:2 dio:3 use:9 roman:12 history:5 latin:2 founding:3 city:6 rome:18 literally:1 translate:1 found:4 traditionally:1 set:1 bc:19 identify:3 year:29 historian:2 modern:2 much:1 frequently:1 dominant:1 method:1 name:2 two:2 consul:4 hold:4 office:1 advent:1 critical:1 edition:1 historical:3 work:2 indiscriminately:1 add:2 early:1 editor:1 make:1 appear:1 widely:1 actually:1 regnal:2 emperor:4 also:4 especially:1 byzantine:1 empire:3 justinian:1 require:1 example:2 usage:1 principally:1 find:1 german:1 author:1 mommsen:2 significance:1 aureus:1 hadrian:2 celebrates:1 game:1 honour:2 birthday:1 coin:3 struck:1 philip:3 arab:2 celebrate:4 saeculum:4 novum:3 pacatianus:2 usurper:1 antoninianus:1 bear:2 legend:1 romae:1 aeter:1 mil:1 et:1 primo:1 eternal:1 one:2 thousand:2 first:7 claudius:2 onwards:1 varro:6 calculation:6 see:3 supersede:1 contemporary:1 anniversary:2 become:1 part:1 imperial:2 propaganda:1 magnificent:1 celebration:3 eight:1 hundred:1 antoninus:1 pius:1 similar:1 millennium:1 together:1 ludi:1 saeculares:1 allege:1 tenth:1 reign:3 commemorate:1 contender:1 throne:1 explicitly:1 state:3 indication:1 citizen:1 sense:2 beginning:2 new:1 era:1 turn:2 christian:2 following:1 century:1 imagery:1 come:1 metaphysical:1 traditional:1 date:2 april:2 initiate:1 may:2 consular:1 list:2 mistake:1 call:2 accept:1 interval:2 dionysius:5 halicarnassus:2 king:2 foundation:4 correctness:1 prove:1 scientifically:1 still:2 worldwide:1 relationship:1 domini:4 numbering:1 develop:1 monk:1 exiguus:2 outcome:1 calculate:3 easter:2 table:2 ad:6 equate:1 diocletian:2 count:1 start:4 presumed:1 birth:2 christ:3 rather:1 accession:1 november:1 sed:1 magi:1 elegimus:1 incarnatione:1 nostri:1 jesu:1 christi:1 annorum:1 tempora:1 praenotare:1 liber:1 de:1 paschate:1 migne:1 patrologia:1 page:1 note:2 f:1 assume:1 intend:1 either:1 zero:1 exist:1 calendar:1 later:1 record:2 succession:1 corresponds:1 dccliv:1 base:1 epoch:1 however:2 result:1 correspond:1 lifetime:1 figure:1 repute:1 alive:1 otherwise:1 mention:1 connection:1 incarnation:1 e:2 g:1 herod:2 great:2 quirinius:2 suetonius:1 life:3 caesar:1 tiberius:1 death:1 becomes:1 governor:1 syria:1 alternative:1 accord:2 velleius:1 paterculus:1 take:3 place:4 capture:1 troy:1 shortly:1 eclipse:10 sun:5 observe:2 june:3 magnitude:4 occur:3 middle:2 end:3 lucius:1 tarrutius:1 firmum:1 romulus:7 remus:1 conceive:1 womb:1 day:7 egyptian:1 month:4 choiac:1 time:3 total:1 begin:2 thoth:2 fell:1 march:1 prof:2 j:1 bickerman:1 ninth:1 pharmuthi:1 universally:1 agree:1 build:1 antimachus:1 teian:1 poet:1 lunar:1 teos:1 asia:1 minor:1 sunset:1 vanish:1 none:2 quintilis:3 july:3 darken:1 night:1 sudden:1 darkness:1 believe:1 data:2 aurél:1 ponori:1 thewrewk:1 retire:1 director:1 planetarium:1 budapest:1 plutarch:3 fifth:1 caprotine:1 livy:2 rule:1 slay:1 senate:1 disappear:1 numa:1 pompilius:1 camillus:1 florus:2 book:2 cicero:2 republic:1 vi:1 scipio:1 dream:1 dion:1 cassius:1 l:1 confirm:1 tell:3 age:1 thus:1 three:1 support:1 suggestion:1 q:1 fabius:1 pictor:1 enciclopedia:1 italiana:1 xiv:1 give:1 almost:1 polybius:2 iii:1 expulsion:1 last:1 persian:1 xerxes:1 cross:1 greece:1 event:1 fix:1 solar:1 reference:2 theodor:1 phrase:1 |@bigram ab_urbe:14 urbe_condita:14 celebrate_anniversary:1 hadrian_antoninus:1 antoninus_pius:1 dionysius_halicarnassus:2 anno_domini:3 dionysius_exiguus:2 jesu_christi:1 migne_patrologia:1 condita_bc:6 velleius_paterculus:1 romulus_remus:1 numa_pompilius:1 solar_eclipse:1 theodor_mommsen:1 |
2,526 | Ken_MacLeod | Ken MacLeod (born 2 August 1954), an award-winning Scottish science fiction writer, lives in South Queensferry near Edinburgh. He graduated from Glasgow University with a degree in zoology and has worked as a computer programmer and written a masters thesis on biomechanics. Ken MacLeod's official page at Orbit Books His novels often explore socialist, communist and anarchist political ideas, most particularly the variants of Trotskyism and anarcho-capitalism or extreme economic libertarianism. Technical themes encompass singularities, divergent human cultural evolution and post-human cyborg-resurrection. MacLeod's general outlook can be best described as techno-utopian socialist, SF Zone interview with MacLeod though unlike a majority of techno-utopians, he has expressed great scepticism over the possibility and especially over the desirability of Strong AI. He is known for his constant in-joking and punning on the intersection between socialist ideologies and computer programming, as well as other fields. For example, his chapter titles such as "Trusted Third Parties" or "Revolutionary Platform" usually have double (or multiple) meanings. A future programmers union is called "International Workers of the World Wide Web", or the Webblies, a reference to the Industrial Workers of the World, who are nicknamed the Wobblies. There are also many references to, or puns on, zoology and palaeontology. For example in The Stone Canal the title of the book, and many places described in it, are named after anatomical features of marine invertebrates such as starfish. He is part of a new generation of British science fiction writers, who specialise in hard science fiction and space opera. His contemporaries include Stephen Baxter, Iain M. Banks, Alastair Reynolds, Adam Roberts, Charles Stross, Richard Morgan and Liz Williams. Bibliography Fall Revolution series The Star Fraction (1995; US paperback ISBN 0-7653-0156-3) -- Prometheus Award winner, 1996; Clarke Award nominee, 1996 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996 The Stone Canal (1996; US paperback ISBN 0-8125-6864-8) -- Prometheus Award winner, 1998; BSFA nominee, 1996 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1996 The Cassini Division (1998; US paperback ISBN 0-312-87044-2) -- BSFA nominee, 1998 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1998 ; Clarke, and Nebula Awards nominee, 1999 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1999 The Sky Road (1999; US paperback ISBN 0-8125-7759-0) BSFA Award winner, 1999 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=1999 ; Hugo Award nominee, 2001 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2001 – represents an 'alternate future' to the second two books, as its events diverge sharply due to a choice made differently by one of the protagonists in the middle of The Stone Canal<ref>"The Falling Rate of Profit, Red Hordes and Green Slime: What the Fall Revolution Books Are About" – Nova Express, Volume 6, Spring/Summer 2001, pp 19-21</ref> Engines of Light Trilogy A series which begins with a first contact story in a speculative mid-21st century where a resurgently socialist USSR (incorporating the European Union) is once again in opposition with the capitalist United States, then diverges into a story told on the other side of the galaxy of Earth-descended colonists trying to establish trade and relations within an interstellar empire of several species who travel from world to world at the speed of light. Cosmonaut Keep (2000; US paperback ISBN 0-7653-4073-9) -- Clarke Award nominee, 2001 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2001 ; Hugo Award nominee, 2002 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2002 Dark Light (2001; US paperback ISBN 0-7653-4496-3) -- Campbell Award nominee, 2002 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2002 Engine City (2002; US paperback ISBN 0-7653-4421-1) Other work Newton's Wake: A Space Opera (2004; US paperback edition ISBN 0-7653-4422-X) -- BSFA nominee, 2004 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2004 ; Campbell Award nominee, 2005 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2005 Learning the World: A Novel of First Contact (2005; UK hardback edition ISBN 1-84149-343-0) Prometheus Award winner 2006; Hugo, Locus SF, Campbell and Clarke Awards nominee, 2006 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2006 ; BSFA nominee, 2005 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2005 The Highway Men (2006; UK edition ISBN 1-905207-06-9) The Execution Channel (2007; UK hardback edition ISBN 1841493481 ISBN 978-1841493480) -- BSFA Award nominee, 2007 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2007 ; Campbell, and Clarke Awards nominee, 2008 http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2008 The Night Sessions (2008; UK hardback edition ISBN 1841496510 ISBN 978-1841496511) -- Winner Best Novel 2008 BSFA http://www.worldswithoutend.com/books_year_index.asp?year=2008 The Restoration Game (2009) Short fiction (incomplete selection) The Web Cydonia (1998; UK paperback edition ISBN 1-85881-640-8) collected in Giant Lizards from Another Star The Human Front (2002) (Winner of Short-form Sidewise Award for Alternate History 2002) collected in Giant Lizards from Another Star Who's Afraid of Wolf 359? (The New Space Opera, 2007) – nominated for Hugo Award for Best Short Story Collections Poems & Polemics (2001; Rune Press: Minneapolis, MN) Chapbook of non-fiction and poetry. Giant Lizards From Another Star (2006; US trade hardcover ISBN 1-886778-62-0) Collected fiction and nonfiction. Analysis The Science Fiction Foundation have published an analysis of MacLeod's work The True Knowledge Of Ken MacLeod (2003; ISBN 0-903007-02-9) edited by Andrew M. Butler and Farah Mendlesohn. As well as critical essays it contains material by MacLeod himself, including his introduction to the German edition of Banks' Consider Phlebas. Quotes (On technological singularity): "...the rapture for nerds..." – The Cassini Division "The uploads replicate and develop relationships. Most of them go very bad. You sometimes get an entire virtual planet of four billion people devoted to building prayer wheels in an attempt at a denial of service attack on God." – Newton's Wake (On Strong AI): "...he (Kevin Warwick) writes cheerful little books about how the machines are going to take over.... Well, it's possible, but I still tend to think of that as the lights going out. I don't like Hans Moravec's vision of the future at all. I don't see why we should stand for it actually... I greatly admired Greg Egan's book Diaspora but I hated that world. It's not a world I want to see, or to live in for that matter.... The thing is, I remain to be convinced that it's even possible." – Sci-Fi Zone interview "... a faded black T-shirt with a soaring penguin and the slogan 'Where do you want to come from today?'" – Newton's Wake "What if capitalism is unsustainable, and socialism is impossible? We're fucked, that's what." – "The Falling Rate of Profit, Red Hordes and Green Slime: What the Fall Revolution Books Are About" – Nova Express, Volume 6, Spring/Summer 2001, pp 19-21 (8 hours after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster:) "Husband, McCool, Anderson, Brown, Chawla, Clark, Ramon. Komarov, Grissom, White, Chaffee, Dobrovolsky, Volkov, Patsayev, Resnick, Scobee, Smith, McNair, McAuliffe, Jarvis, Onizuka. These names will be written under other skies." Usenet posting to rec.arts.sf.fandom, 1 February 2003 "Hey, this is Europe. We took it from nobody; we won it from the bare soil that the ice left. The bones of our ancestors, and the stones of their works, are everywhere. Our liberties were won in wars and revolutions so terrible that we do not fear our governors: they fear us. Our children giggle and eat ice-cream in the palaces of past rulers. We snap our fingers at kings. We laugh at popes. When we have built up tyrants, we have brought them down. And we have nuclear *fucking* weapons." – USENET posting to rec.sf.arts.fandom 28 September 2000, in the discussion of Robert A. Heinlein's quote "The cowards never started and the weaklings died on the way." (Expanded Universe, How to be a Survivor in the Atomic Age) (on The Hamburg Cell''): "It shows them as weak, alienated individuals being recruited by the classic methods of any campus cult. Young men without a strong sense of self are a Microsoft for mind viruses, and these were no exception." weblog post, 3 September 2004 References External links Ken MacLeod's page at Macmillan.com Interview with Ken Macleod at SFFWorld.com SF Zone interview with MacLeod Ken MacLeod's Weblog Interview on the SciFiDimensions Podcast | Ken_MacLeod |@lemmatized ken:6 macleod:11 born:1 august:1 award:17 win:3 scottish:1 science:4 fiction:7 writer:2 live:2 south:1 queensferry:1 near:1 edinburgh:1 graduate:1 glasgow:1 university:1 degree:1 zoology:2 work:4 computer:2 programmer:2 write:3 master:1 thesis:1 biomechanics:1 official:1 page:2 orbit:1 book:7 novel:3 often:1 explore:1 socialist:4 communist:1 anarchist:1 political:1 idea:1 particularly:1 variant:1 trotskyism:1 anarcho:1 capitalism:2 extreme:1 economic:1 libertarianism:1 technical:1 theme:1 encompass:1 singularity:2 divergent:1 human:3 cultural:1 evolution:1 post:2 cyborg:1 resurrection:1 general:1 outlook:1 best:3 describe:2 techno:2 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2,527 | Machine_translation | Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. At its basic level, MT performs simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another. Using corpus techniques, more complex translations may be attempted, allowing for better handling of differences in linguistic typology, phrase recognition, and translation of idioms, as well as the isolation of anomalies. Current machine translation software often allows for customisation by domain or profession (such as weather reports) — improving output by limiting the scope of allowable substitutions. This technique is particularly effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used. It follows then that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text. Improved output quality can also be achieved by human intervention: for example, some systems are able to translate more accurately if the user has unambiguously identified which words in the text are names. With the assistance of these techniques, MT has proven useful as a tool to assist human translators and, in a very limited number of cases, can even produce output that can be used as is (e.g., weather reports). History The idea of machine translation may be traced back to the 17th century. In 1629, René Descartes proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different tongues sharing one symbol. In the 1950s, The Georgetown experiment (1954) involved fully-automatic translation of over sixty Russian sentences into English. The experiment was a great success and ushered in an era of substantial funding for machine-translation research. The authors claimed that within three to five years, machine translation would be a solved problem. Real progress was much slower, however, and after the ALPAC report (1966), which found that the ten-year-long research had failed to fulfill expectations, funding was greatly reduced. Beginning in the late 1980s, as computational power increased and became less expensive, more interest was shown in statistical models for machine translation. The idea of using digital computers for translation of natural languages was proposed as early as 1946 by A. D. Booth and possibly others. The Georgetown experiment was by no means the first such application, and a demonstration was made in 1954 on the APEXC machine at Birkbeck College (University of London) of a rudimentary translation of English into French. Several papers on the topic were published at the time, and even articles in popular journals (see for example Wireless World, Sept. 1955, Cleave and Zacharov). A similar application, also pioneered at Birkbeck College at the time, was reading and composing Braille texts by computer. Translation process The translation process may be stated as: Decoding the meaning of the source text; and Re-encoding this meaning in the target language. Behind this ostensibly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the meaning of the source text in its entirety, the translator must interpret and analyse all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms, etc., of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers. The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language. Therein lies the challenge in machine translation: how to program a computer that will "understand" a text as a person does, and that will "create" a new text in the target language that "sounds" as if it has been written by a person. This problem may be approached in a number of ways. Approaches Pyramid showing comparative depths of intermediary representation, interlingual machine translation at the peak, followed by transfer-based, then direct translation. Machine translation can use a method based on linguistic rules, which means that words will be translated in a linguistic way — the most suitable (orally speaking) words of the target language will replace the ones in the source language. It is often argued that the success of machine translation requires the problem of natural language understanding to be solved first. Generally, rule-based methods parse a text, usually creating an intermediary, symbolic representation, from which the text in the target language is generated. According to the nature of the intermediary representation, an approach is described as interlingual machine translation or transfer-based machine translation. These methods require extensive lexicons with morphological, syntactic, and semantic information, and large sets of rules. Given enough data, machine translation programs often work well enough for a native speaker of one language to get the approximate meaning of what is written by the other native speaker. The difficulty is getting enough data of the right kind to support the particular method. For example, the large multilingual corpus of data needed for statistical methods to work is not necessary for the grammar-based methods. But then, the grammar methods need a skilled linguist to carefully design the grammar that they use. To translate between closely related languages, a technique referred to as shallow-transfer machine translation may be used. Rule-based The rule-based machine translation paradigm includes transfer-based machine translation, interlingual machine translation and dictionary-based machine translation paradigms. Transfer-based machine translation Interlingual Interlingual machine translation is one instance of rule-based machine-translation approaches. In this approach, the source language, i.e. the text to be translated, is transformed into an interlingual, i.e. source-/target-language-independent representation. The target language is then generated out of the interlingua. Dictionary-based Machine translation can use a method based on dictionary entries, which means that the words will be translated as they are by a dictionary. Statistical Statistical machine translation tries to generate translations using statistical methods based on bilingual text corpora, such as the Canadian Hansard corpus, the English-French record of the Canadian parliament and EUROPARL, the record of the European Parliament. Where such corpora are available, impressive results can be achieved translating texts of a similar kind, but such corpora are still very rare. The first statistical machine translation software was CANDIDE from IBM. Google used SYSTRAN for several years, but has switched to a statistical translation method in October 2007. Recently, they improved their translation capabilities by inputting approximately 200 billion words from United Nations materials to train their system. Accuracy of the translation has improved. Google Translator: The Universal Language Example-based Example-based machine translation (EBMT) approach is often characterised by its use of a bilingual corpus as its main knowledge base, at run-time. It is essentially a translation by analogy and can be viewed as an implementation of case-based reasoning approach of machine learning. Major issues Disambiguation Word-sense disambiguation concerns finding a suitable translation when a word can have more than one meaning. The problem was first raised in the 1950s by Yehoshua Bar-Hillel. Milestones in machine translation - No.6: Bar-Hillel and the nonfeasibility of FAHQT by John Hutchins He pointed out that without a "universal encyclopedia", a machine would never be able to distinguish between the two meanings of a word. Bar-Hillel (1960), "Automatic Translation of Languages". Available online at http://www.mt-archive.info/Bar-Hillel-1960.pdf Today there are numerous approaches designed to overcome this problem. They can be approximately divided into "shallow" approaches and "deep" approaches. Shallow approaches assume no knowledge of the text. They simply apply statistical methods to the words surrounding the ambiguous word. Deep approaches presume a comprehensive knowledge of the word. So far, shallow approaches have been more successful. The late Claude Piron, a long-time translator for the United Nations and the World Health Organization, wrote that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve ambiguities in the source text, which the grammatical and lexical exigencies of the target language require to be resolved: Why does a translator need a whole workday to translate five pages, and not an hour or two? ..... About 90% of an average text corresponds to these simple conditions. But unfortunately, there's the other 10%. It's that part that requires six [more] hours of work. There are the ambiguities one has to resolve. For instance, the author of the source text, an Australian physician, cited the example of an epidemic which was declared during World War II in a "Japanese prisoner of war camp". Was he talking about an American camp with Japanese prisoners or a Japanese camp with American prisoners? The English has two senses. It's necessary therefore to do research, maybe to the extent of a phone call to Australia. Claude Piron, Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. The ideal deep approach would require the translation software to do all the research necessary for this kind of disambiguation on its own; but this would require a higher degree of AI than has yet been attained. A shallow approach which simply guessed at the sense of the ambiguous English phrase that Piron mentions (based, perhaps, on which kind of prisoner-of-war camp is more often mentioned in a given corpus) would have a reasonable chance of guessing wrong fairly often. A shallow approach that involves "ask the user about each ambiguity" would, by Piron's estimate, only automate about 25% of a professional translator's job, leaving the harder 75% still to be done by a human. Named entities Related to named entity recognition in information extraction. Applications There are now many software programs for translating natural language, several of them online, such as: SYSTRAN, which powers Yahoo's Babel Fish Promt, which powers online translation services at Voila.fr and Orange.fr Although no system provides the holy grail of fully automatic high-quality machine translation of unrestricted text (FAHQUT), many fully automated systems produce reasonable output. Melby, Alan. The Possibility of Language (Amsterdam:Benjamins, 1995, 27-41) Wooten, Adam. "A Simple Model Outlining Translation Technology" T&I Business (February 14, 2006) Appendix III of 'The present status of automatic translation of languages', Advances in Computers, vol.1 (1960), p.158-163. Reprinted in Y.Bar-Hillel: Language and information (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1964), p.174-179. Despite their inherent limitations, MT programs are used around the world. Probably the largest institutional user is the European Commission. Toggletext uses a transfer-based system (known as Kataku) to translate between English and Indonesian. Google has claimed that promising results were obtained using a proprietary statistical machine translation engine. Google Blog: The machines do the translating (by Franz Och) The statistical translation engine used in the Google language tools for Arabic <-> English and Chinese <-> English has an overall score of 0.4281 over the runner-up IBM's BLEU-4 score of 0.3954 (Summer 2006) in tests conducted by the National Institute for Standards and Technology. Geer, David, "Statistical Translation Gains Respect", pp. 18 - 21, IEEE Computer, October 2005 Ratcliff, Evan "Me Translate Pretty One Day", Wired December 2006 "NIST 2006 Machine Translation Evaluation Official Results", November 1, 2006 With the recent focus on terrorism, the military sources in the United States have been investing significant amounts of money in natural language engineering. In-Q-Tel In-Q-Tel (a venture capital fund, largely funded by the US Intelligence Community, to stimulate new technologies through private sector entrepreneurs) brought up companies like Language Weaver. Currently the military community is interested in translation and processing of languages like Arabic, Pashto, and Dari. Information Processing Technology Office in DARPA hosts programs like TIDES and Babylon Translator. US Air Force has awarded a $1 million contract to develop a language translation technology. GCN — Air force wants to build a universal translator The notable rise of social networking on the web in recent years has created yet another niche for the application of machine translation software – in utilities such as Facebook, or instant messaging clients such as Skype, GoogleTalk, MSN Messenger etc – allowing users speaking different languages to communicate with each other. Machine translation applications have also been released for most mobile devices, including mobile telephones, pocket PCs, PDAs etc. Due to their portability, such instruments have come to be designated as mobile translation tools enabling mobile business networking between partners speaking different languages, or facilitating both foreign language learning and unaccompanied traveling to foreign countries without the need of the intermediation of a human translator. Evaluation There are various means for evaluating the performance of machine-translation systems. The oldest is the use of human judges Comparison of MT systems by human evaluation, May 2008 to assess a translation's quality. Even though human evaluation is time-consuming, it is still the most reliable way to compare different systems such as rule-based and statistical systems. Automated means of evaluation include BLEU, NIST and METEOR. Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded, and that it takes a human to adequately comprehend the context of the original text. Even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be of publishable quality and useful to a human, it must be reviewed and edited by a human. It has, however, been asserted that in certain applications, e.g. product descriptions written in a controlled language, a dictionary-based machine-translation system has produced satisfactory translations that require no human intervention. Muegge (2006), "Fully Automatic High Quality Machine Translation of Restricted Text: A Case Study," in Translating and the computer 28. Proceedings of the twenty-eighth international conference on translating and the computer, 16-17 November 2006, London, London: Aslib. ISBN 978-0-85142-483-5. See also Comparison of Machine translation applications Artificial Intelligence Computational linguistics Universal Networking Language Computer-assisted translation and Translation memory Controlled natural language History of machine translation Human Language Technology List of emerging technologies List of research laboratories for machine translation Pseudo-translation Translation Universal translator Wiktionary:Translations Phraselator Mobile translation Notes References Claude Piron, Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. External links International Association for Machine Translation (IAMT) Machine Translation, an introductory guide to MT by D.J.Arnold et al. (1994) Machine Translation Archive by John Hutchins. An electronic repository (and bibliography) of articles, books and papers in the field of machine translation and computer-based translation technology Machine translation (computer-based translation) — Publications by John Hutchins (includes PDFs of several books on machine translation) Machine Translation and Minority Languages John Hutchins 1999 Software [http://xixona.dlsi.ua.es/apertium-www/ Apertium - an open-source shallow-transfer machine translation engine and toolbox Moses - an open source toolkit for phrase-based statistical machine translation be-x-old:Машынны пераклад | Machine_translation |@lemmatized machine:54 translation:85 sometimes:1 refer:2 abbreviation:1 mt:7 sub:1 field:2 computational:3 linguistics:2 investigate:1 use:17 computer:11 software:7 translate:12 text:20 speech:1 one:9 natural:7 language:41 another:3 basic:1 level:1 performs:1 simple:4 substitution:2 word:13 corpus:8 technique:4 complex:2 may:6 attempt:1 allow:3 good:1 handling:1 difference:1 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2,528 | Magic:_The_Gathering | {{Infobox Game | image_link= Magic: The Gathering card back | image_caption = Magic: The Gatherings card back design | designer= Richard Garfield | publisher= Wizards of the Coast | players= 2 or more | ages= 13+ | setup_time= < 2 minutes Excluding deck construction | playing_time= ~ 25 minutes Games may take much longer or shorter depending on a deck's play style and the number of players | complexity= High | strategy= High | random_chance= Some | skills= Card playingArithmeticReadingLogicStrategy | bggid=463 }}Magic: The Gathering (colloquially "Magic", "MTG", or "Magic Cards") is a collectible card game created by mathematics professor Richard Garfield and introduced in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast. Magic is the first example of the modern collectible card game genre and still thrives today, with an estimated six million players in over seventy countries. Note that the "six million" figure is the one used by Wizards of the Coast; while they would be in the best position to know through tournament registrations and card sales, they also have an interest in presenting an optimistic estimate to the public. Magic can be played by two or more players each using a deck of printed cards or a deck of virtual cards through the Internet-based Magic: The Gathering Online or third-party programs. Each game represents a battle between powerful wizards, known as "planeswalkers", who use the magical spells, items, and fantastic creatures depicted on individual Magic cards to defeat their opponents. Although the original concept of the game drew heavily from the motifs of traditional fantasy role-playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons, the gameplay of Magic bears little resemblance to pencil-and-paper adventure games, while having substantially more cards and more complex rules than many other card games. An organized tournament system and a community of professional Magic players has developed, as has a secondary market for Magic cards. Magic cards can be valuable due to not only their scarcity, but also their utility in game play and the aesthetic qualities of their artwork. History Peter Adkison (then CEO of Wizards of the Coast games company) first met with Richard Garfield to discuss Garfield's new game RoboRally. Adkison was not enthusiastic about the game, as board games are expensive to produce and difficult to market. He did enjoy Garfield's ideas and mentioned that he was looking for a portable game that could be played in the downtime that frequently occurs at gaming conventions. Garfield returned later with a prototype he had been working with on and off over the last few years under the development name of Mana Clash. Adkison immediately saw the potential of the game and agreed to produce it. The game was renamed Magic: The Gathering and underwent a general release on 5 August 1993. Role-players were enthusiastic early fans of Magic, but the game achieved much wider popularity among strategy gamers. The commercial success of the game prompted a wave of other collectible card games to flood the market in the mid-1990s. After the success of the initial edition, which underwent a second issuing still in 1993, Wizards of the Coast began producing expansions to the game. Arabian Nights was released as the first expansion in December 1993. New expansions and revisions of the base game ("Core Sets") have since been released on a regular basis, amounting to four releases a year. Until the release of Mirage in 1996 expansions were released on an irregular basis. Beginning in 2009 one revision of the core set and three expansions will be released every year. With the release of the Eighth Edition in 2003 Magic received a major visual redesign. In 1996, Wizards of the Coast established the "Pro Tour", a circuit of tournaments where players can compete for sizable cash prizes over the course of a single weekend-long tournament. In 2009 the top prize is US$40,000. Sanctioned through The DCI, the tournaments added an element of prestige to the game by virtue of the cash payouts and media coverage from within the community. As of 2009 Wizards of the Coast has given out more than $30,000,000 in prizes at various professional tournaments, including Pro Tours, Grand Prixs, and Nationals. While unofficial methods of online play existed previously, Notably, the Apprentice program. See Magic: The Gathering video games. Magic Online (MTGO), an official online version of the game, was released in 2002. A new, updated version of Magic Online was released in early 2008. Awards 1994: Mensa Select Award winner 1994: Origins Awards for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board game of 1993 and Best Graphic Presentation of a Board game of 1993 1999: Inducted alongside Richard Garfield into the Origins Hall of Fame 2003: Games Magazine selected Magic for its Games Hall of Fame Gameplay Magic: The Gathering cards of various types and colors. In a game of Magic, two or more players are engaged in a battle as powerful wizards called "planeswalkers". A player starts the game with twenty "life points" and—with a few exceptions—loses when he or she is reduced to zero or less. The most common method of reducing an opponent's life is to attack with summoned creatures. Although reducing an opponent to zero life is the most common way of winning (or losing) the game, drawing from an empty deck (called the "library" during the game) will also cause a player to lose. In addition, some cards specify other ways to win or lose the game. Players begin the game with seven cards in hand. The two basic card types in Magic are "spells" and "lands". Lands provide "mana", or magical energy, which is used as magical fuel when the player attempts to cast spells. More powerful spells cost more mana, and are usually more difficult to play. Some spells also require the payment of additional resources, such as cards in play or life points. Spells come in several varieties: "sorceries" and "instants" have a single, one-time effect before they go to the "graveyard" (discard pile); "enchantments" and "artifacts" provide a lasting magical effect; creature spells summon monsters that can attack and damage an opponent. The Future Sight set introduced "tribal" cards, which are noncreature permanents which can have some of the defining attributes of creatures. As of the Lorwyn expansion, a new card type, "planeswalker", has been introduced to the game. These cards represent planeswalkers — similar to the player — with their own magic abilities, one of which can be used each turn. Spells can be of more than one type. Some spells have effects that override normal game rules. The "Golden Rules of Magic" state that "Whenever a card's text directly contradicts the rules, the card takes precedence. This allows Wizards of the Coast great flexibility in creating cards, but can cause problems when attempting to reconcile a card with the rules (or, even worse, two cards with each other). The Comprehensive Rules, a detailed rulebook, This website contains a link to the most up-to-date version of the Comprehensive Rules. exists to clarify these conflicts. Deck construction Each player needs a deck to play a game of Magic. Beginners often start with an initial "Intro Pack", which can then be modified using cards from "booster packs". In most tournament formats, decks are required to be a minimum of sixty cards. Players may use no more than four copies of any named card, with the exception of "basic lands", which act as a standard resource in Magic. Both these rules are loosened in "limited" tournament formats, where a small number of cards are opened for play from booster packs or tournament packs, with a minimum deck size of 40 cards and no "four of" rule. Depending on the type of play, some cards have been "restricted" (the card is limited to a single copy per deck) or "banned" (the card is no longer legal for tournament play). These limitations are usually for power reasons, but have been occasionally made because of gameplay mechanics. Deck building requires just as much strategy as playing the game. Players must balance the synergy and utility of their cards. Synergy means how well a card works with other cards in a deck and utility means how well a card functions by itself. As mentioned in this article, MtG has a balance of skill and luck. Building a deck accounts for this as well, since one must picture their finished deck in its worst case scenario and find a way to avoid such a problem. A proper balance of lands and utility-rounded cards is vital, and works better when the majority of the cards have decent synergy. Knowing what cards can help in any given situation helps players learn how to best use their deck, and help them determine what the deck lacks. Because every deck (in theory) has a weakness, some of the best decks do not just simply plan for the win, but plan for the loss. A deck that has no response to its ultimate weakness is likely to have its weakness discovered and planned against. The best decks can identify its own weakness and find ways to account for it. The decision on what colors of mana to use is a key part of creating a deck. In general, reducing the number of colors used increases the statistical likelihood of drawing the lands needed to cast one's most-important spells. One- and two-color decks are the most common, though zero-, three-, four- and even five-color decks can be successful if well-designed. Colors of Magic Most spells come in one of five colors. An article on the consideration of "purple" for the set Planar Chaos is at The Color Purple. The colors can be seen on the back of the cards, in a pentagonal design, called the "Color Wheel". Clockwise from the top, they are: white, blue, black, red, and green (respectively abbreviated W, U, B, R, and G "U" stands for "blue" because "B" denotes Black and "L" land; see Anatomy of a Magic Card ). To play a spell of a given color, at least one mana of that color is required. This mana is normally generated by a basic land: plains for white, island for blue, swamp for black, mountain for red, and forest for green. The balances and distinctions between the five colors form one of the defining aspects of the game. Each color has strengths and weaknesses based on the "style" of magic it represents. A series of articles written by Mark Rosewater describing each color in depth (as well as multicolor cards, artifact or colorless cards, and color-hybrid cards) can be found at the game's official site at MagicTheGathering.com: The Great White Way, True Blue, In the Black, Seeing Red, It's Not Easy Being Green, Just the Artifacts, Ma'am, and Midas Touch. White is the color of order, equality, righteousness, healing, law, community, peace, absolutism/totalitarianism, and light, although not necessarily "good". White's strengths are a roster of small creatures that are strong if used together in groups; protecting those creatures with enchantments; gaining life; preventing damage to creatures or players; imposing restrictions on players; destroying artifacts and enchantments; and the ability to "equalize" the playing field. White creatures are known for their "Protection" from various other colors or even types of card, rendering them nearly impervious to harm from those colors or cards. Numerous white creatures also have "First Strike" and "Vigilance". White's weaknesses include its difficulty in directly destroying opposing creatures, a focus on smaller creatures, and the fact that many of its most powerful spells affect all players equally. Blue is the color of intellect, reason, illusion, logic, knowledge, manipulation, and trickery, as well as the classical elements of air and water. Blue's cards are best at letting a player draw additional cards; permanently taking control of an opponent's cards; returning cards to their owner's hands; putting cards from an opponent's library into their graveyard (known unofficially as "milling", after the first card that did this, Millstone); and countering spells. Blue's creatures tend to be weaker than creatures of other colors, but commonly have abilities and traits which make them difficult to damage or block, particularly "Flying" and to a lesser extent "Shroud". Blue's weaknesses include having trouble permanently dealing with spells that have already been played, the reactive nature of most of its spells, and the fact that its creatures tend to be comparatively inefficient. Black is the color of power, ambition, greed, death, corruption, and amorality, although not necessarily "evil". Black cards are best at destroying creatures, forcing players to discard cards from their hand, and returning creatures from the dead. Furthermore, because Black seeks to win at all costs, it has limited access to many abilities or effects that are normally available only to one of the other colors; but these abilities are disproportionately expensive, often requiring the sacrifice of life, creatures, or other resources. Black is known for having creatures with the ability "Fear", making them difficult to block. Black's main weaknesses are an almost complete inability to deal with enchantments and artifacts, its tendency to hurt itself almost as badly as it hurts the opponent, and difficulties in removing other Black creatures. Red is the color of freedom, chaos, passion, creativity, impulse, fury, warfare, lightning, the classical element of fire, and the non-living geological aspects of the classical element earth. Red's strengths include destroying opposing lands and artifacts, sacrificing permanent resources for temporary but great power, and playing spells that deal damage to creatures or players. Red has a wide array of creatures, but with the exception of the extremely powerful dragons, most of them are fast and weak, or unbalanced with strong power and weak toughness, rendering them more easily destroyed. Some of Red's cards can turn against or hurt their owner in return for being more powerful for their cost. Red also shares the trickery theme with Blue and can temporarily steal opponents' creatures or divert spells, although generally not permanently. Many of Red's most famous creatures have the "Haste" trait, which lets them attack and use many abilities earlier. Red's weaknesses include its inability to destroy enchantments, the self-destructive nature of many of its spells, and the way in which it trades early-game speed at the cost of late-game staying power. Red also has the vast majority of cards that involve random chance. Green is the color of life, instinct, nature, reality, evolution, ecology and interdependence. Green has a large number of creatures, which tend to be the largest in the game for their cost. Many of its spells make them stronger temporarily. It can also destroy artifacts and enchantments, increase a player's life total, get extra mana sources into play, and produce the other four colors of mana. Green creatures often have "Trample," an ability which lets them deal attack damage to an opponent if blocked by a weaker creature. Green's weaknesses include its difficulty destroying creatures directly; a distinct shortage of flying creatures (though some of its creatures have "Reach", making them able to block as though they had flying), and having few gameplay options besides large creatures. The colors adjacent to each other on the pentagon are "allied" and often have similar, complementary abilities. For example, Blue has a relatively large number of flying creatures, which it shares with White and Black, which are next to it. The two non-adjacent colors to a particular color are "enemy" colors, and are thematically opposed. For instance, Red tends to be very aggressive, while White and Blue are often more defensive in nature. The Research and Development (R&D) team at Wizards of the Coast seeks to balance power and abilities among the five colors by using the "Color Pie" to define the colors' differences. This guideline lays out the capabilities, themes, and mechanics of each color and allows for every color to have its own distinct attributes and gameplay. The Color Pie is used to ensure new cards are thematically in the correct color and do not impede on the territory of other colors. Multi-color cards were introduced in the Legends set and use a gold frame to distinguish them from mono-color cards. These cards require mana from two or more different colors to be played and count as each of the colors used to play them. Multi-color cards tend to combine the philosophy and mechanics of all the colors used in the spell's cost. More recently, two-color "hybrid" cards that can be paid with either of the card's colors (as opposed to both) were introduced in the Ravnica set, and appeared extensively throughout the Shadowmoor and Eventide sets. Hybrid cards are distinguished by a gradient frame with those two colors. Multi-color cards tend to be proportionally more powerful compared to single-color or hybrid cards, as requiring multiple colors of mana to cast a spell is a handicap. The abilities granted by multi-color cards are usually only avalable to the combination of colors, as opposed to hybrid, where the abilities are available to either of the colors. Cards which are not one of the five colors are considered colorless''', and most often appear in the form of Lands and Artifacts. Unlike the five colors, Colorless cards do not have a specific personality or style of play. Sometimes, colorless cards will imitate the mechanics of a particular color, though in a less-efficient manner than a similar colored card. Often colorless cards are linked to one or more colors via their abilities, through story references, or through flavor text on the cards themselves. Variant rules While the primary method of Magic play is one-on-one using standard deck construction rules, casual play groups as well as Wizards of the Coast have developed many alternative formats for playing the game. The most popular alternatives describe ways of playing with more than two players (with teams or free-for-all) or change the rules about how decks can be built. Organized play Officially sanctioned Magic tournaments attract participants of all ages and are held around the world. These players in Rostock, Germany competed for an invitation to a professional tournament in Nagoya, Japan.Magic tournaments are arranged almost every weekend in gaming stores, schools, universities, and (in Europe) pubs and bars. Larger tournaments with hundreds of competitors from around the globe sponsored by Wizards of the Coast are arranged many times every year. Large sums of money are paid out to those players who place the best in the tournament. A number of websites report on tournament news, give complete lists for the most currently popular decks, and feature articles on current issues of debate about the game. The DCI (formerly known as the "Duelists' Convocation International") is the organizing body for sanctioned Magic events. The DCI is owned and operated by Wizards of the Coast. There are two types of organized play, Constructed and Limited. Constructed In Constructed tournaments, each player arrives with a pre-built deck, which must have a minimum of 60 cards and follow the "four of" rule. The deck may also have a fifteen card sideboard, which allows players to modify their deck: following the first game of each match, each player is permitted to replace any number of cards in his or her deck with an equal number of cards from his or her sideboard, allowing each player to alter his or her deck to better combat the opponent's strategy. The original deck configuration is restored before the start of the next match. Normally the first player to win two games is the winner of the match. There are various formats in which Constructed tournaments can be held. They include Vintage, Legacy, Extended, Standard, and Block Constructed. The DCI maintains a Banned and Restricted List for each format, which defines certain cards which are not allowed or restricted to only one copy in a deck. Banning has generally been rare in the more modern formats, but is considered necessary for some of the older formats to control their power level. Restricting was more common in Magic's past; currently the only format in which there is a Restricted List is Vintage, as the DCI now prefers to ban cards outright rather than restrict them. Block formats are defined by the cycle of three sets of cards in a given block. For example, the Ravnica block format consists of Ravnica: City of Guilds, Guildpact, and Dissension. Only cards that were printed in one of the sets in the appropriate block can be used in these formats. Standard is the format defined by the current block, the last completed block, and the most recent core set. The current Standard card pool consists of the Shards of Alara block, the Tenth Edition core set, and Lorwyn and Shadowmoor mini-blocks (which count as a single block). Extended is the format where all Magic blocks and core sets issued during the last seven years are legal. Prior to March 1, 2008, Extended format rotation system was different and more complicated: three Magic blocks rotated out every three years. The current extended format consists of the Onslaught, Mirrodin, Kamigawa, Ravnica, Time Spiral and Shards of Alara blocks; the Lorwyn and Shadowmoor mini-blocks; the Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth edition core sets; and Coldsnap. Coldsnap is a special exception to the usual rule. Vintage and Legacy are considered "eternal" formats because the card pool never rotates. This means that all the sets that are currently legal will continue to be legal and any new sets will automatically be included in the legal card pool. The only banned cards in Vintage are cards using the "ante" mechanic and very few cards, which are considered not to be compliant with the nature of the game. Because of the expense in acquiring the old cards to play competitive Vintage, most Vintage tournaments permit players to proxy a certain number of cards. As this is not compliant with the tournament rules of the DCI those tournaments are unsanctioned. Proxies are permitted in sanctioned tournaments if a card is damaged or worn in the course of competition, however. They are also permitted in Limited if the opened cards are already damaged; see the Magic: The Gathering Floor Rules for details on proxy use. Legacy differs from Vintage in that is has a longer list of banned cards, but no list of cards restricted to one exemplar. The result is that Legacy has a lower power level than Vintage and is considerably more affordable because the most expensive Magic cards (Power Nine) are banned from the format. The DCI has attempted to promote the format with the addition of occasional Legacy Grand Prix events. Limited Limited tournaments are based on a pool of cards which the player receives at the time of the event. The decks in limited tournaments need only be a minimum of 40 cards, and all the unused cards function as the sideboard. In contrast to Constructed tournaments the player is not restricted to exchange cards on a one-for-one basis when sideboarding. The rule that a player may use only four copies of any given card does not apply either. Also a player generally may add any number of basic lands to his deck. In sealed deck tournaments, each player receives six booster packs (each with 14 cards and 1 basic land) from which to build their deck. In a booster draft, several players (usually eight) are seated around a table and each player is given three booster packs. Each player opens a pack, selects a card from it, and passes the remaining cards to the next player. Each player then selects one of the remaining cards from the pack he or she just received, and passes the remaining cards again. This continues until all of the cards are depleted. The directions of passing is left for the first and third packs, and right for the second. Players then build decks out of any of the cards that they selected during the drafting. Talking, signaling, and showing cards is forbidden during the drafting process. By winning a yearly Invitational tournament, Jon Finkel won the right for this card to feature his design and likeness. Tournament structure The DCI maintains a set of rules for being able to sanction tournaments, as well as runs its own circuit. Many hobby shops offer "Gateway" tournaments as an entrance to casual competitive play usually organized by a local game store. The same shops often offer "Friday Night Magic" tournaments as a stepstone to more competitive play. A special tournament set called the "Junior Super Series" (now known in the US as the "Magic Scholarship Series") was run for underage competitors. This allows for a very broad base of gameplay. The DCI runs the "Pro Tour" as a series of major tournaments to attract interest. The right to compete in a Pro Tour has to be earned by either winning a Pro Tour Qualifier Tournament or being successful in a previous tournament on a similar level. A Pro Tour is usually structured into two days of individual competition played in the Swiss format (players play rounds against opponents with similar success in previous rounds). On the final day, the top eight players compete with each other in an elimination format to select the winner. At the end of the competition in a Pro Tour, a player is awarded "Pro Points" depending on his finishing place. If the player finishes high enough, he will also be awarded prize money. Frequent winners of these events have made names for themselves in the Magic community, such as Kai Budde and Jon Finkel. As a promotional tool, the DCI launched the Hall of Fame in 2005 to honor selected players. At the end of the year the "Magic World Championships" are held. The World Championship functions like a Pro Tour but competitors have to present their skill in three different formats (usually Standard, booster draft and a second constructed format) rather than one. Another difference is that invitation to the World Championship can be gained not through Pro Tour Qualifiers, but via the national championship of a country. Most countries sends the top four players of the tournament as representatives, though nations with minor Magic playing communities may send just one player. There are also other means to be invited to the tournament. As such, the World Championship also has a team competition which is comprised of the results the members of the national teams put up during the individual competition and the team based competition on the second to last day of the event. During the final day, the top two teams play each other to determine the winner. At the beginning of the World Championship, new members are inducted into the Hall of Fame. The tournament also concludes the current season of tournament play and at the end of the event, the player who earned the most Pro Points during the year is awarded the title "Player of the Year". Also the player who earned the most Pro Points and did not compete in any previous season is awarded the title "Rookie of the Year". Invitation to a Pro Tour, Pro Points and prize money can also be earned in lesser tournaments called "Grand Prix" that are open to the general public and are held more frequently throughout the year. Grand Prixs are usually the biggest Magic tournaments, frequently drawing more than 1,000 players to the event. The biggest Magic tournament ever held also was a Grand Prix, at Paris in 2008. Product and marketingMagic: The Gathering cards are produced in much the same way as normal playing cards. Each Magic card, approximately 63 x 88 mm in size (2 by 3 inches), has a face which displays the card's name and rules text as well as an illustration appropriate to the card's concept. Over 10,000 unique cards have been produced for the game, , the official Magic card database. many of them with variant editions, artwork, or layouts, and 600–1000 new ones are added each year. The first Magic cards were printed exclusively in English, but current sets are also printed in Simplified Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. shows those 9 languages as of the summer of 2006. Magic was previously printed in Traditional Chinese (used in Taiwan) and Korean, but this stopped after Urza's Saga, when Simplified Chinese was added, the official language of the People's Republic of China. See www.magiclibrary.net for a language history, albeit one that is not updated any more. Magic cards are normally divided into four rarities, which can be differentiated by the color of the expansion symbol (in sets released after the Stronghold expansion; for cards released prior to Exodus, rarities must be checked against any number of databases, as all expansion symbols were black). These rarities are Common (Black), Uncommon (Silver), Rare (Gold), and Mythic Rare (Copper-Red) (Mythic Rares were introduced in Shards of Alara). Basic lands are their own rarity and are colored black as Commons. Most new cards are purchased in the form of "Booster Packs" or "Tournament Packs". A fifteen-card Booster Pack will typically contain one Rare, three Uncommons, ten Commons, and one Basic Land (this is a change starting with Shards of Alara; in previous sets there were typically eleven Commons and no Basic Land). A Tournament Pack typically contains three Rares, ten Uncommons, thirty-two Commons, and thirty Basic Lands. "Typically" is used due to a change in card distribution in Time Spiral which allows premium cards of any rarity to replace Common cards instead of cards of their own rarity. See Purple Reign for more information. This means that three Booster Packs are roughly equivalent to one Tournament Pack. Tournament Packs contain one more Uncommon and one less Common than would be acquired from three Booster Packs, so they are not exactly equal. Tournament Packs will be discontinued as of the beginning of the next block in Autumn 2009. For Sealed Deck Limited Tournaments, these will be replaced with three Booster Packs of product. Generally a Mythic Rare replaces about every eighth Rare card. There are also premium versions of every card, randomly inserted into some booster. These are called "foil" cards and replace about every seventieth card. The vast majority of Magic cards are marketed to the public in the form of sets. The biennially-released Core Set currently consists of 383, with a mixture of old and new artwork. Tenth Edition is the most recent Core Set and was released on Saturday, 14 July 2007. Newly-designed cards are first sold in expansion sets with a "block" consisting of up to three theme-related expansion sets released over a period of a year. The first and largest part of a block is the set released in or around October and typically consists of 249 cards with 15 Mythic Rares, 53 Rares, 60 Uncommons, 101 Commons and 20 Basic Lands. At subsequent four-month intervals, the second and third expansion sets of the block are issued. These two smaller sets each typically consist of 145 cards divided into 10 Mythic Rares, 35 Rares, 40 Uncommons, 60 Commons, and no Basic Lands. The number of cards per set and the rarity distribution has varied over time. In 2003, starting with the Eighth Edition Core Set, the game went through its biggest visual change since its creation—a new card frame layout was developed to allow more rules text and larger art on the cards, while reducing the thick, colored border to a minimum. The new frame design aimed to improve contrast and readability using black type instead of the previous white, a new font, and partitioned areas for the name, card type, and power and toughness. Secondary market There is an active secondary market in individual cards among players and game shops. For example, there are around 20,000 Magic: The Gathering card auctions running on eBay at any one time. Many other physical and online stores also sell single cards or "playsets" of four of a card. Common cards rarely sell for more than a few cents and are usually sold in bulk. Uncommon cards and weak rares typically cost around US$1. The most expensive cards in Standard tournament play usually cost approximately $20-30. On rare occasions, some have sold for $40-50. The Beta version of the Black Lotus card is usually considered to be the most valuable non-promotional Magic card ever printed. Compare US$3,000 price here for Beta version to prices for other cards here. (Unlimited version shown.) The most expensive card which was in regular print (as opposed to being a promotional or special printing) is Black Lotus, with average prices as of 2009 above $700 and high-quality "graded" copies rising above $3,000 — in 2005, a "Pristine 10 grade" Beckett Grading Services graded Beta Black Lotus was bought by Darren Adams, owner of West Coast Sports Cards & Gaming Distributors in Federal Way, Washington, for a record $20,000. Beckett Magic The Gathering Magazine, Issue 3, December 2005/January 2006, pg. 10, "Sold! $20,000!" A small number of cards of similar age, rarity, and playability —chiefly among them the other cards in the so-called "Power Nine"— routinely reach high prices as well. As new sets come out, older cards are occasionally reprinted. If a card has high play value, reprinting will often increase the original version's price because of renewed demand among players. However, if the card is primarily attractive to collectors, reprinting will often decrease the original version's value. Wizards of the Coast formulated an official "Reprint Policy" Note, however, that important individuals such as Mark Rosewater have indicated that the policy was a mistake; nevertheless, they have also said that they will maintain the policy to insure Wizards' promises are taken seriously. in 1995 in an attempt to guarantee to collectors the value of many old cards. The Policy details certain cards that are unavailable to be printed again. Wholesale distributors are not allowed to ship product to foreign nationalities. Additionally, several countries still have import restrictions that could be construed to bar the import of Magic: The Gathering or other collectible card games (Italy, for example, places restrictions on the importation of "playing cards"). Shipping restrictions have been relaxed recently and it is now possible to ship sealed product to Europe. Non-English cards often have different prices on the secondary market than their English equivalents, depending on the desirability of the language. Certain languages, such as Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Italian, are less valuable than English cards, while Asian languages, along with Russian and German, are often worth more to the American or English-speaking collector. Some people are willing to pay higher prices for foreign cards, while others prefer to only collect cards in their native language. Artwork Each card has an illustration to represent the flavor of the card, often reflecting the setting of the expansion for which it was designed. Much of Magic's early artwork was commissioned with little specific direction or concern for visual cohesion. One infamous example was the printing of a creature without the "flying" ability, whose art showed a bird in flight. The art direction team later decided to impose a few constraints so that the artistic vision more closely aligned with the design and development of the cards. Each block of cards now has its own style guide with sketches and descriptions of the various races and places featured in the setting. A few early sets experimented with alternate art for cards. However, Wizards came to believe that this impeded easy recognition of a card and that having multiple versions caused confusion when identifying a card at a glance. Consequently, alternate art is now only used sparingly and mostly for promotional cards. A notable exception are Basic Land cards, but those are easily identifiable due to the oversized mana symbol in their text boxes. That said, when older cards are reprinted in new (non-Core Edition, and not "timeshifted" reprints in the Time Spiral set) sets, Wizards of the Coast has guaranteed that they will be printed with new art to make them more collectible. Ever since 1995, the copyright on all artwork commissioned is transferred to Wizards of the Coast once a contract is signed. However, the artist is allowed to sell the original piece and printed reproductions of it, and for established and prolific Magic artists, this can be a lucrative source of revenue. As Magic has expanded across the globe, its artwork has had to change for its international audience. Artwork has been edited or given alternate art to comply with the governmental standards. For example, the portrayal of skeletons and most undead in artwork is prohibited by the Chinese government. Storyline An intricate storyline underlies the cards released in each expansion and is shown in the art and flavor text of the cards, as well as in novels and anthologies published by Wizards of the Coast (and formerly by HarperPrism). It takes place in Dominia, a multiverse consisting of an infinite number of planes, but was changed to simply "the Multiverse" to avoid confusion with Dominaria, which is but one of them . Important storyline characters or objects often appear as cards in Magic sets as "Legendary" creatures, unique cards of which there can only be one in play at a time. The expansion sets from Antiquities through Scourge (with the exception of Homelands) revolve around the plane of Dominaria and are a roughly chronological timeline of that plane's history (with the exception of the Urza's Saga Block). Major recurring characters include Urza and his brother Mishra. The sets from Weatherlight through Apocalypse follow in particular the story of the crew of the Weatherlight, allies of Urza against Yawgmoth. After Scourge, Magic ventured out of Dominaria into the new planes of Mirrodin, Kamigawa, and Ravnica. It then returned to Dominaria for the block Time Spiral but left it again upon the block's conclusion. The focus of the following block lay on the Lorwyn plane, once depicted as a utopic heaven for all creatures and once as a dystopic place. The most recent expansion features the plane of Alara. Controversial aspects Luck vs. skillMagic, like many other games, combines chance and skill. One complaint about the game involves the notion that there is too much luck involved, especially concerning too much land (mana flood) or too little (mana screw). Especially early in the game, too much or too little land can ruin a player's chance at victory without the player having made a mistake. This in-game statistical variance can be minimized by proper deck construction, as an appropriate land count can reduce mana problems. The standard land count in most 60-card decks ranges from 18 to 26, although the use of special spells or lands and the relative costs of the main spells within the deck can substantially increase or decrease the number of lands required. Other cards can minimize the player's dependence on mana. A "mulligan" rule was later introduced into the game, first informally in casual play and then in the official game rules. The modern "Paris mulligan" allows players to shuffle an unsatisfactory opening hand back into the deck at the start of the game, draw a new hand with one less card, and repeat until satisfied. The original mulligan allowed a player a single redraw of seven new cards if that player's initial hand contained seven or zero lands. A variation of this rule is still used in some casual play circles and in multiplayer formats on Magic Online, and allows a single "free" redraw of seven new cards if a player's initial hand contains seven, six, one or zero lands. This article explains this mulligan rule in the Prismatic format, where it is called a "big deck" mulligan. The rule was added to all multiplayer Magic Online later, as explained in this official announcement. Demonic themes Demonic imagery in card art. For the first few years of its production, Magic: The Gathering featured a small number of cards with names or artwork with demonic or occultist themes. Their presence led to some criticism from religious groups, and in 1995 the company elected to remove such references from the game. This was done by means of selectively choosing not to reprint cards containing the words "demon" or "devil", as well as printing cards with new artwork to avoid the appearance of occultism ("Unholy Strength"). In 2002, believing that the depiction of demons was becoming less controversial and that the game had established itself sufficiently, Wizards of the Coast reversed this policy and began to reprint cards with "demon" in their names. Gambling The original set of rules prescribed that all games were to be played for ante. Each player would remove a card at random from the deck they wished to play with and the two cards would be set aside. At the end of the match, the winner would take and keep both cards. Early sets included a few cards with rules designed to interact with this gambling aspect, allowing replacements of cards up for ante, adding more cards to the ante, or even permanently trading cards in play. The cards came with the instruction that they should be removed from the deck in a game that was not being played for ante. The ante concept became controversial because many regions had restrictions on games of chance. The rule was later made optional because of these restrictions and because of players' reluctance to possibly lose a card that they owned. The gambling rule is forbidden at sanctioned events and is now mostly a relic of the past, though it still sees occasional usage in friendly games as well as the "five color" format. The last card to mention ante was printed in the 1995 expansion set Homelands. Patent A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for "a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards" that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of Magic's elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the Magic and Vampire: The Eternal Struggle rules as "tapping") and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool. The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid. In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo's Pokémon Trading Card Game. The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed. See also Magic: The Gathering rules List of Magic: The Gathering keywords Magic: The Gathering sets, also called "expansions" Magic: The Gathering preconstructed theme decks Magic: The Gathering storylines List of characters in Magic: The Gathering List of Magic: The Gathering novels List of species in Magic: The Gathering Magic: The Gathering video games The DCI, the official Magic tournament sanctioning body Pro Tour (Magic: The Gathering) Magic: The Gathering World Championship Magic: The Gathering deck types The Duelist, at one time a monthly magazine that was produced by Wizards The Sideboard, a now defunct magazine dedicated to tournament play Duel Masters, a spin-off game by Wizards of the Coast based on MagicNotes and references Further reading External links Official sites MagicTheGathering.com Official site for Magic: The GatheringMagic Academy, a strategy archive for beginners and intermediate players Gatherer Official Magic: The Gathering'' card database The DCI.com 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2,529 | Alkaloid | Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms. The name derives from the word alkaline and was used to describe any nitrogen-containing base. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of the group of natural products (also called secondary metabolites). Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-base extraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. They often have pharmacological effects and are used as medications and recreational drugs. Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine, the stimulant caffeine, nicotine, the analgesic morphine, or the antimalarial drug quinine. Some alkaloids have a bitter taste. Caffeine Alkaloid classifications Generally speaking, alkaloids are categorized under three main categories,depending on their biogenic origin. For those containing at least a nitrogen atom in a ring system derived from amino acids (i.e. alkaloids derived from phenylalanine are not grouped in this category), they are true alkaloids. The alkaloids derived from phenylalanine are categorized as protoalkaloids. While the remaining ones, such as steroidal alkaloids and purine alkaloids, are classified as pseudoalkaloids. Alkaloids are usually classified by their common molecular precursors, based on the metabolic pathway used to construct the molecule. When not much was known about the biosynthesis of alkaloids, they were grouped under the names of known compounds, even some non-nitrogenous ones (since those molecules' structures appear in the finished product; the opium alkaloids are sometimes called "phenanthrenes", for example), or by the plants or animals they were isolated from. When more is learned about a certain alkaloid, the grouping is changed to reflect the new knowledge, usually taking the name of a biologically-important amine that stands out in the synthesis process. Pyridine group: piperine, coniine, trigonelline, arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine, cytisine, lobeline, nicotine, anabasine, sparteine, pelletierine. Pyrrolidine group: hygrine, cuscohygrine, nicotine Tropane group: atropine, cocaine, ecgonine, scopolamine, catuabine Indolizidine group: senecionine, swainsonine Quinoline group: quinine, quinidine, dihydroquinine, dihydroquinidine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine, cevadine Isoquinoline group: opium alkaloids (papaverine, narcotine, narceine, morphine, codeine, heroine), sanguinarine, hydrastine, berberine, emetine, berbamine, oxyacanthine Phenanthrene alkaloids: opium alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine) Phenethylamine group: mescaline, ephedrine, dopamine Indole group: Tryptamines: serotonin, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine, psilocybin Ergolines (the ergot alkaloids): ergine, ergotamine, lysergic acid Beta-carbolines: harmine, harmaline, tetrahydroharmine Yohimbans: reserpine, yohimbine Vinca alkaloids: vinblastine, vincristine Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) alkaloids: mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine Tabernanthe iboga alkaloids: ibogaine, voacangine, coronaridine Strychnos nux-vomica alkaloids: strychnine, brucine Purine group: Xanthines: caffeine, theobromine, theophylline Terpenoid group: Aconitum alkaloids: aconitine Steroid alkaloids (containing a steroid skeleton in a nitrogen containing structure): Solanum (e.g. potato and tomato) alkaloids (solanidine, solanine, chaconine) Veratrum alkaloids (veratramine, cyclopamine, cycloposine, jervine, muldamine) http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/toxicagents/steroid.html, Fire Salamander alkaloids (samandarin) Others: conessine Quaternary ammonium compounds: muscarine, choline, neurine Miscellaneous: capsaicin, cynarin, phytolaccine, phytolaccotoxin Physicochemical properties Low-molecular weight alkaloids without hydrogen bond donors such as hydroxy groups are often liquid at room temperature, examples are nicotine, sparteine, coniine, and phenethylamine. The basicity of alkaloids depends on the lone pairs of electrons on their nitrogen atoms. As organic bases, alkaloids form salts with mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid and organic acids such as tartaric acid or maleic acid. These salts are usually more water-soluble than their free base form. See also Amine Base (chemistry) Natural products Secondary metabolite References External links | Alkaloid |@lemmatized chemical:2 structure:3 ephedrine:2 phenethylamine:3 alkaloid:33 naturally:1 occur:1 compound:3 contain:4 basic:1 nitrogen:5 atom:3 name:3 derive:4 word:1 alkaline:1 use:3 describe:1 base:6 produce:1 large:1 variety:1 organism:2 include:1 bacteria:1 fungi:1 plant:3 animal:2 part:1 group:14 natural:2 product:3 also:2 call:2 secondary:2 metabolite:2 many:2 purify:1 crude:1 extract:1 acid:9 extraction:1 toxic:1 often:2 pharmacological:1 effect:1 medication:1 recreational:1 drug:2 example:3 local:1 anesthetic:1 stimulant:2 cocaine:2 caffeine:3 nicotine:4 analgesic:1 morphine:3 antimalarial:1 quinine:2 bitter:1 taste:1 classification:1 generally:1 speak:1 categorize:2 three:1 main:1 category:2 depend:1 biogenic:1 origin:1 least:1 ring:1 system:1 amino:1 e:2 phenylalanine:2 true:1 protoalkaloids:1 remain:1 one:2 steroidal:1 purine:2 classify:2 pseudoalkaloids:1 usually:3 common:1 molecular:2 precursor:1 metabolic:1 pathway:1 construct:1 molecule:2 much:1 know:1 biosynthesis:1 known:1 even:1 non:1 nitrogenous:1 since:1 appear:1 finished:1 opium:3 sometimes:1 phenanthrenes:1 isolate:1 learn:1 certain:1 grouping:1 change:1 reflect:1 new:1 knowledge:1 take:1 biologically:1 important:1 amine:2 stand:1 synthesis:1 process:1 pyridine:1 piperine:1 coniine:2 trigonelline:1 arecoline:1 arecaidine:1 guvacine:1 cytisine:1 lobeline:1 anabasine:1 sparteine:2 pelletierine:1 pyrrolidine:1 hygrine:1 cuscohygrine:1 tropane:1 atropine:1 ecgonine:1 scopolamine:1 catuabine:1 indolizidine:1 senecionine:1 swainsonine:1 quinoline:1 quinidine:1 dihydroquinine:1 dihydroquinidine:1 strychnine:2 brucine:2 veratrine:1 cevadine:1 isoquinoline:1 papaverine:1 narcotine:1 narceine:1 codeine:2 heroine:1 sanguinarine:1 hydrastine:1 berberine:1 emetine:1 berbamine:1 oxyacanthine:1 phenanthrene:1 thebaine:1 mescaline:1 dopamine:1 indole:1 tryptamines:1 serotonin:1 dmt:2 meo:1 bufotenine:1 psilocybin:1 ergolines:1 ergot:1 ergine:1 ergotamine:1 lysergic:1 beta:1 carbolines:1 harmine:1 harmaline:1 tetrahydroharmine:1 yohimbans:1 reserpine:1 yohimbine:1 vinca:1 vinblastine:1 vincristine:1 kratom:1 mitragyna:1 speciosa:1 mitragynine:1 hydroxymitragynine:1 tabernanthe:1 iboga:1 ibogaine:1 voacangine:1 coronaridine:1 strychnos:1 nux:1 vomica:1 xanthine:1 theobromine:1 theophylline:1 terpenoid:1 aconitum:1 aconitine:1 steroid:3 skeleton:1 containing:1 solanum:1 g:1 potato:1 tomato:1 solanidine:1 solanine:1 chaconine:1 veratrum:1 veratramine:1 cyclopamine:1 cycloposine:1 jervine:1 muldamine:1 http:1 www:1 ansci:1 cornell:1 edu:1 toxicagents:1 html:1 fire:1 salamander:1 samandarin:1 others:1 conessine:1 quaternary:1 ammonium:1 muscarine:1 choline:1 neurine:1 miscellaneous:1 capsaicin:1 cynarin:1 phytolaccine:1 phytolaccotoxin:1 physicochemical:1 property:1 low:1 weight:1 without:1 hydrogen:1 bond:1 donor:1 hydroxy:1 liquid:1 room:1 temperature:1 basicity:1 depends:1 lone:1 pair:1 electron:1 organic:2 form:2 salt:2 mineral:1 hydrochloric:1 sulfuric:1 tartaric:1 maleic:1 water:1 soluble:1 free:1 see:1 chemistry:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram bacteria_fungi:1 secondary_metabolite:2 recreational_drug:1 antimalarial_drug:1 bitter_taste:1 amino_acid:1 metabolic_pathway:1 opium_alkaloid:3 morphine_codeine:2 meo_dmt:1 lysergic_acid:1 vinca_alkaloid:1 potato_tomato:1 http_www:1 cornell_edu:1 quaternary_ammonium:1 hydrogen_bond:1 lone_pair:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 sulfuric_acid:1 acid_tartaric:1 tartaric_acid:1 external_link:1 |
2,530 | Central_Pacific_Railroad | The Gov. Stanford locomotive Trestle, Central Pacific Railroad, c.1869. Photo: Carleton Watkins The Central Pacific Railroad was the California-to-Utah portion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in North America. Many proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of the disputes over slavery in Washington; with the secession of the South, the modernizers in the Republican party took over Congress and passed the necessary legislation and financing (often mistakenly thought to include government subsidies, forgetting that the government railroad bonds had to be and were repaid with interest, Daggett, Stuart (1908). "Railroad Reorganization: Union Pacific," Harvard Economic Studies, p. 256. the government and the railroads shared equally in the increased value of the land grants, LEO SHEEP CO. V. UNITED STATES, 440 U.S. 668 (1979) and that the government got a billion dollar discount on mail and other transportation costs). It was planned by Theodore Judah, authorized by Congress in 1862 and financed and built through "The Big Four" (who also called themselves "The Associates"), who were Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction; much of the labor were Chinese workers. The first rails were laid in 1863 and the golden spike, connecting it to the Union Pacific Railroad to Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast-to-coast travel in 8 days now replaced wagon trains or months-long sea voyages. The road was built with loans from major financial centers, backed by land grants and subsidies. The federal government gave away land-grants in a checkerboard pattern. The railroad sold every-other square. The government also loaned money--later repaid--at $16,000 per mile on level stretches, and $32,000 to $48,000 in mountainous terrain. Local and state governments also aided the financing. In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company, though it technically remained a corporate entity until 1959 when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. The original right of way is now part of the Union Pacific which purchased Southern Pacific in 1996. The second "transcontinental", the Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline made up the historic "Overland Route" from Omaha to San Francisco Bay. Museums and archives CPRR Original Chief Assistant Engineer L.M. Clement (l) & Chief Engineer T.D. Judah (r)A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park. Two of the company's first locomotives, the Gov. Stanford (No. 1), and C. P. Huntington (No. 3), are also both housed at the same museum. Nearly all of the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University as part of the Huntington papers collection, released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have this microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariner's Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction. Timeline June 21, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer. July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. January 8, 1863: Ground breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River. October 26, 1863: First rail laid, at Sacramento. April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, , where it makes a junction with the California Central Rail Road, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln. June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California," a new corporation. May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Auburn, California. September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown.") December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened to Cisco, California. December 1, 1868: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, . April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date. May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah. May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento. November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland. June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co. to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June, 1870). August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation. April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below). July 16, 1877: Start of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike. November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time. April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific. June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific. July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway". June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific. References General David Haward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (2000) Cooper, Bruce C., "Riding the Transcontinental Rails: Overland Travel on the Pacific Railroad 1865-1881" (2005), Polyglot Press, Philadelphia ISBN 1-4115-9993-4 Cerinda W. Evans; Collis Potter Huntington Vol. 1 Mariners Museum, 1954 Fleisig, Heywood. "The Central Pacific Railroad and the Railroad Land Grant Controversy" Journal of Economic History 1975 35(3): 552-566. ISSN 0022-0507 Fulltext in JSTOR. Questions whether promoters of the Central Pacific Railroad were oversubsidized. Confirms the traditional view that subsidies were not an economic necessity because they "influenced neither the decision to invest in the railroad nor the speed of its construction." Notes that estimates of rate of return for the railroad developers using government funds range from 71% to 200%, while estimates of private rates of return range from 15% to 25%. John Debo Galloway; The First Transcontinental Railroad: Central Pacific, Union Pacific (1950) Kraus, George. "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific." Utah Historical Quarterly 1969 37(1): 41-57. ISSN 0042-143X. Shows how Chinese railroad workers lived and worked, how they managed the finances associated with their employment, and concludes that Central Pacific officials responsible for employing the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the policy, came to appreciate the cleanliness and reliability of this group of laborers. There are many quotations from accounts by contemporary observers. Lake, Holly. "Construction of the CPRR: Chinese Immigrant Contribution" Northeastern Nevada Historical Society Quarterly 1994 94(4): 188-199. ISSN 0160-9602 Mercer, Lloyd J. "Rates of Return for Land-grant Railroads: the Central Pacific System" Journal of Economic History 1970 30(3): 602-626. ISSN 0022-0507 Fulltext in JSTOR. Analyzes the impact of land grants, during 1864-90, on rates of return from investment in the Central Pacific Railroad. Results suggest that even without land grants, rates of return were high enough to induce investment. Also, land grants did not pay for the construction of the railroad. Land grants, however, did produce large social returns in western states by accelerating construction of the system. Mercer, Lloyd J. "Land Grants to American Railroads: Social Cost or Social Benefit?" Business History Review 1969 43(2): 134-151. ISSN 0007-6805 Fulltext in Jstor. Attempts by the use of econometrics to determine the values of railroad land grants of the 19th century to the railroads and to society as a whole. The author summarizes and criticizes previous treatments of this subject and then discusses his own findings. Using only the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific systems as the basis for his investigation, the author concludes that the railroad owners received unaided rates of return which substantially exceeded the private rate of return on the average alternative project in the economy during the same period. Thus the projects turned out to be profitable although it was generally expected by contemporary observers that the roads would be privately unprofitable without the land grant aid. The land grants did not have a major effect, increasing the private rate of return only slightly. Nevertheless, it is contended that the policy of subsidizing those railroad systems was beneficial for society since the social rate of return from the project was substantial and exceeded the private rate by a significant margin. Ong, Paul M. "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1985 13(2): 119-124. ISSN 0091-3219. Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the Central Pacific Railroad, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Monopsonists are buyers whose share of the market is large enough to affect prices, or whose supply curves are not completely elastic. By setting different wages for whites and Chinese - each having different elasticities of supply - and using Chinese in the menial and dangerous jobs, with whites in the better positions, the two groups were complementary rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus prove higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than in previous studies. Saxton, Alexander. "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra" Pacific Historical Review 1966 35(2): 141-151. ISSN 0030-8684 on Chinese workers. Tutorow, Norman E. "Stanford's Responses to Competition: Rhetoric Versus Reality." Southern California Quarterly 1970 52(3): 231-247. ISSN 0038-3929 Leland Stanford and the men who ran the Central Pacific Railroad system paid lip-service to the idea of free competition but in practice sought to destroy or weaken competing railroad and shipping lines. Focusing on the years between the completion of the first transcontinental railroad line (1869) and Stanford's death (1893), the author shows how Stanford and the Central Pacific associates repeatedly entered into pooling arrangements to prevent competition, brought out competitors, or forced rivals to agree not to compete with them. He concludes that Stanford and his partners viewed laissez-faire as applicable only to government controls and not to destruction of competition within the system by those involved White, Richard, "Information, Markets, and Corruption: Transcontinental Railroads in the Gilded Age". The Journal of American History 90.1 (2003) Williams, John Hoyt. A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (1988) Goodwin, Neil, prod. The Iron Road. Video. Color. 58min. (American Experience series.) Publication: Peace River Films, 1990. Distrib. by PBS Video Specific See also Rail transport in California Donner Pass (Sierra Nevada) External links Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum Railroads in California, handwritten report by L. M. Clement. 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2,531 | Acadia_University | Acadia University is a non-denominational, predominantly undergraduate university located in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada with some graduate programs at the master's level Acadia University and one at the doctoral level http://adc.acadiau.ca/prospective_students/programs_of_study/doctor_of_ministry.html . The University Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia. Acadia University is located in the town of Wolfville, Nova Scotia, approximately 100 kilometres northwest of Halifax, Nova Scotia the provincial capital. Founded in 1838 by the Baptist Community, Acadia's beginning was the result of the commitment and enthusiasm of a community determined to build a university. The University has been shaped by their spirit of hard work and dedication to the principles that everyone should have access to university regardless of gender, race or religious affiliations - a spirit which continues to guide the university today. In 2007, Acadia was ranked first in Maclean's Magazine (tied with Mount Allison University) for Best Overall in the Primarily Undergraduate University category Rankings : Macleans OnCampus . The university has emphasized a personalized education. Acadia's average class has 26 students, which helps to maintain an intimate learning environment for students. History University Hall at Acadia University University Hall at Acadia University In 1831 the Baptists founded Acadia in Horton, Nova Scotia. http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/tlctd10.txt The Project Gutenberg EBook #6466 of 'The Intellectual Development of the Canadian People, A historical review' by John George Bourinot, House of Commons, Ottawa, February 17th, 1881 Acadia University, established at Wolfville, Nova Scotia in 1838 has a strong Baptist religious affiliation. It was designed to prepare men for the ministry and to supply education for lay members. http://*www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm? PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008242 Acadia began as Horton Academy (1828), which was founded by Baptists from Nova Scotia and Queen's College (1838). Longley, R. S. Acadia University, 1838-1938. Wolfville, N.S.: Acadia University, 1939. The two major Universities of the day in Nova Scotia were heavily controlled by Denominational structures. King's College (University of King's College) was an Anglican School and Dalhousie University, which was originally non-denominational, had placed itself under the control and direction of the Church of Scotland. It was the failure of Dalhousie to appoint a prominent Baptist pastor and scholar, Edmund Crawley, to the Chair of Classics, as had been expected, that really thrust into the forefront of Baptist thinking the need for a College established and run by the Baptists. In 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen's College (named for Queen Victoria). The College began with 21 students in January 1839. The name "Queen's College" was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed "Acadia College" in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an Acadian settlement. Acadia College awarded its first degrees in 1843 and became Acadia University in 1891 Longley, R. S. Acadia University, 1838-1938. Wolfville, N.S.: Acadia University, 1939. , established by the Acadia University Act. www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/58th_1st/1st_read/b044.htm Acadia University Act The Granville Street Baptist Church (now First Baptist Church Halifax) was an instrumental and determining factor in the founding of the University. It has played a supporting role throughout its history, and shares much of the credit for its survival and development. Many individuals who have made significant contributions to Acadia University, including the first president John Pryor, were members of the First Baptist Church Halifax congregation. Similarly, the adjacent Wolfville United Baptist Church plays a significant role in the life of the university. The original charter of the college stated: This was unique at the time, and a direct result of Baptists being denied entry into other schools that required religious tests of their students and staff. Clara Belle Marshall, from Mount Hanley, Nova Scotia, became the first woman to graduate from Acadia University in 1879. Nova Scotia Historic Places Initiative Database In 1966, the Baptist denomination relinquished direct control over the University. The denomination maintains nine seats on the University's Board of Governors. Acadia University - Board of Governors On January 4th, 2008, Dr. Gail Dinter-Gottlieb decided to step down as President and Vice Chancellor of the University before her term expired. Her resignation was effective February 29, 2008 Acadia University :: News Release :: . Dr. Tom Herman is currently acting President and Vice-Chancellor, with [Ray Ivany] slated to assume the role on 1 April 2009. Academics Profile As a primarily undergraduate institution, the university places significant importance on teaching and instruction. University Mission Statement Faculties Acadia is organized into four faculties: Arts, Pure & Applied Science, Professional Studies and Theology. Each faculty is further divided into departments and schools specialized in areas of teaching and research. The Division of Research & Graduate Studies is separate from the faculties and oversees graduate students as well as Acadia's research programs. The Acadia Advantage In 1996, Acadia University pioneered the use of mobile computing technology in a post-secondary educational environment. This academic initiative integrated the use of notebook computers into the undergraduate curriculum and featured innovations in teaching. By 2000, all full-time, undergraduate Acadia students were taking part in the Acadia Advantage. The initiative went beyond leasing notebook computers to students during the academic year, and included training, user support and the use of course-specific applications at Acadia that revolutionized learning at the Wolfville, N.S. campus and beyond. Because of its pioneering efforts, Acadia is a laureate of Washington’s Smithsonian Institution and a part of the permanent research collection of the National Museum of American History. It is the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award. In addition, Acadia University received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing. In 2001, it achieved high rankings in the annual Maclean's University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as it was praised as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum. Canadian opinion leaders consistently place Acadia ahead of all other primarily undergraduate universities in the annual Maclean’s Magazine survey of post-secondary education. In fact, Acadia is the only university to have placed first in all four reputational categories: best overall, highest quality, most innovative, and leaders of tomorrow. In October 2006, Dr. Dinter-Gottlieb established a commission to review the Acadia Advantage learning environment 10 years after inception. The mandate of the commission was to determine how well the current Advantage program meets the needs of students, faculty, and staff and to examine how the role of technology in the postsecondary environment has changed at Acadia, and elsewhere. The commission was asked to recommend changes and enhancements to the Acadia Advantage that would benefit the entire university community and ensure its sustainability. Some of the recommendations coming from the Acadia Advantage Renewal Report included developing a choice of model specifications and moving from Acadia-issued, student-leased notebook computers to a student-owned computer model. The compelling rationale for this was the integral role technology now plays in our lives, which was not present in 1996. The University was also advised to unbundle its tuition structure so that the cost of an Acadia education is more detailed and students can understand how their investment in the future is allotted. Acadia acted on this recommendation in 2007. In September 2008, Acadia moved to a student-owned notebook computer version of the Acadia Advantage, now named Acadia Advantage 2.0. Acadia Advantage Athletics Acadia's sports teams are called the Axemen and Axewomen. They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of Canadian Interuniversity Sport. School spirit abounds with men’s and women’s varsity teams that have delivered more conference and national championships than any other institution in Atlantic University Sport. Routinely, more than one-third of Acadia’s varsity athletes also achieve Academic All-Canadian designation through Canadian Interuniversity Sport by maintaining a minimum average of 80 per cent. Expansion and modernization of Raymond Field was completed in the fall of 2007 and features the installation of an eight-lane all-weather running track and a move to the same premium artificial turf used by the New England Patriots of the National Football League for its main playing field. The Raymond Field modernization was a gift to the university by friends, alumni, and the province. War Memorial Gymnasium also saw the installation of a new playing floor to benefit its basketball and volleyball teams. In September 2006, Acadia University announced its partnership with the Wolfville Tritons Swim Club and the Acadia Masters Swim Club to form the Acadia Swim Club and return competitive swimming to the university after a 14 year hiatus. On September 26 2008, the university announced its intention to return swimming to a varsity status in September 2009. Fight Song Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: Stand Up and Cheer, the Acadia University fight song. According to 'Songs of Acadia College' (Wolfville, NS 1902-3, 1907), the songs include: 'Acadia Centennial Song' (1938); 'The Acadia Clan Song'; 'Alma Mater - Acadia;' 'Alma Mater Acadia' (1938) and 'Alma Mater Song.' http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0000759SUBReadings Symbols In 1974, Acadia was granted a coat of arms designed by the College of Arms in London, England. The coat of arms is two-tone, with the school's official colours, garnet and blue, on the shield. The axes represent the school's origins in a rural setting, and the determination of its founders who cleared the land and built the school on donated items and labour. The open books represent the intellectual pursuits of a university, and the wolves heads are a whimsical representation of the University's location in Wolfville. "In pulvere vinces" (In dust you conquer) is the motto. Acadia University's Coat of Arms The University seal depicts the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena in front of the first college hall. Description of stained glass windows in Manning Memorial Chapel. The seal is described in the third lancet, fourth panel. The University also uses a stylized "A" as a logo for its sports teams. Notable among a number of fight songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: the Acadia University alma mater set to the tune of "Annie Lisle". The lyrics are: Far above the dykes of Fundy And its basin blue Stands our noble alma mater Glorious to view Lift the chorus Speed it onward Sing it loud and free Hail to thee our alma mater Acadia, hail to thee Far above the busy highway And the sleepy town Raised against the arch of heaven Looks she proudly down http://library.acadiau.ca/archives/sporthistory/sound/Alma_Mater_Exerp.mp3 </blockquote> Buildings Carnegie Hall, built in 1909, is a large, two-storey, Neo-classical brick building on the Registry of Historic Places of Canada http://www.historicplaces.ca/visit-visite/affichage-display.aspx?id=4512 Acadia Seminary Registry of Historic Places of Canada Acadia Seminary, built in 1879, is on the Registry of Historic Places of Canada. http://www.historicplaces.ca/visit-visite/affichage-display.aspx?id=4575 Acadia Seminary Registry of Historic Places of Canada Student life At Acadia University, students have access to the Student Union Building which serves as a hub for students and houses many Student Union organizations. The building also houses The Axe Lounge, a convenience store, an information desk and two food outlets. The university press, The Athenaeum, is a member of CUP. Student Government All students are represented by the Acadia Students' Union and the Union President for the 2008-2009 academic year is Kyle Steele who will be serving his second term after being re-elected. The student newspaper is The Athenaeum Residences Approximately 1100 students live on-campus in 12 residences: Chase Court Cutten House (Currently closed for renovations) Roy Jodrey Hall Eaton House Christofor Hall Chipman House Dennis House - First floor houses student health services Whitman Hall (Tully) - All female residence Seminary House - Houses the School of Education War Memorial (Barrax) House Raymond House (French House) Crowell Tower (13 story high-rise) Residence Life Newsletter: September 2007 People List of Presidents and Vice Chancellors John Pryor, 1846–1850 John Cramp, 1851–1853 (and 1856–1869) Edmund Crawley, 1853–1856 John Cramp, 1856–1869 Artemas Wyman Sawyer, 1869–1896 Thomas Trotter, 1897–1906 W.B. Hutchinson, 1907–1909 George Barton Cutten, 1910–1922 Frederic Patterson, 1923–1948 Watson Kirkconnell, 1948–1964 James Beveridge, 1964–1978 Allan Sinclair, 1978–1981t James Perkin, 1981–1993 Kelvin Ogilvie, 1993–2004 Gail Dinter-Gottlieb, 2004-2008 Tom Herman (Acting President), 2008-2009 Raymond Ivany, 2009-Present List of Chancellors Alex Colville, 1981–1991 William Feindel, 1991–1996 Arthur Irving, 1996-Present Notable alumni Brendan Croskerry, musician Edgar Archibald, scientist and politician Norman Atkins, Canadian senator Gordon Lockhart Bennett, Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island Arthur Bourns, President of McMaster University Bob Cameron, football player Dalton Camp, journalist, politician and political strategist John Wallace de Beque Farris, Canadian senator Mark Day, actor Charles Aubrey Eaton (1868-1953), clergyman and politician who served in the United States House of Representatives, representing the from 1925-1933, and the from 1933-1953. Charles Aubrey Eaton, Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed September 9, 2007. William Feindel, neurosurgeon Dale Frail, astronomer Milton Fowler Gregg, VC laureate, politician Charles B. Huggins, Nobel Laureate Kenneth Colin Irving, industrialist Robert Irving, industrialist Lorie Kane, LPGA golfer Gerald Keddy, Member of Parliament David H. Levy, astronomer Peter MacKay, lawyer, Canadian Minister of National Defence Henry Poole MacKeen, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia Paul Masotti, football player Harrison McCain, industrialist Donald Oliver, Canadian senator Henry Nicholas Paint (1830-1921), member of Parliament, merchant, landowner Freeman Patterson, photographer and writer Keith R. Porter, Cell Biologist Ron James (comedian), Canadian Comedian Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University Rev. William A. White, noted black minister and missionary Lance Woolaver, playwright Alexandra Fuller, writer Heather Rankin, member of The Rankin Family Honorary graduates William Twaits, businessman Rev. William A. White, noted black minister and missionary See also Higher education in Nova Scotia List of universities in Nova Scotia Canadian Interuniversity Sport Canadian government scientific research organizations Canadian university scientific research organizations Canadian industrial research and development organizations Further Reading Longley, R. S. Acadia University, 1838-1938. Wolfville, N.S.: Acadia University, 1939. 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2,532 | Groucho_Marx | Julius Henry "Groucho" Marx (October 2, 1890 WWI draft registration as Julius Henry Marx, Chicago, Illinois Roll #1452474 - is noted that the 1900 census has him born in Oct 1890 – August 19, 1977), was a Jewish American comedian and film star famed as a master of wit. He made 13 feature films with his siblings the Marx Brothers, of which he was the third-born. He also had a successful solo career, most notably as the host of the radio and television game shows You Bet Your Life and Tell it to Groucho. His distinctive appearance, carried over from his days in vaudeville, included quirks such as glasses, cigars, and a thick greasepaint mustache and eyebrows. Biography Childhood and pre-Hollywood career The Marx family grew up in a neighborhood now known as Carnegie Hill on the Upper East Side (E 93rd Street off Lexington Avenue) of Manhattan. The turn-of-the-century building that Harpo called "the first real home they ever knew" (in his memoir Harpo Speaks) was populated with European immigrants, mostly artisans - which even included a glass blower. Just across the street were the oldest brownstones in the area, owned by people such as the well-connected Loew Brothers and William Orth. Groucho's parents were Minnie Schoenberg Marx and Sam Marx (called "Frenchie" throughout his life). Minnie's brother was Al Schoenberg, who shortened his name to Al Shean when he went into show business. He was half of Gallagher and Shean, a noted vaudeville act of the early 20th century. According to Groucho, when Shean visited he would throw the local waifs a few coins so that when he knocked at the door he would be surrounded by child-like adoring fans. Marx and his brothers respected his opinions and asked him on several occasions to write some material for them. Minnie Marx did not have an entertainment industry career, but she had intense ambition for her sons to go on the stage like their uncle. While pushing her eldest son Leonard (Chico Marx) in piano lessons, she found that Julius had a pleasant soprano voice and the ability to remain on key. Even though Julius's early career goal was to become a doctor, the family's need for income forced Julius out of school at the age of twelve. By that time, Julius had become a voracious reader, particularly fond of Horatio Alger. Throughout the rest of his life, Marx would overcome his lack of formal education by becoming very well-read. After a few comically unsuccessful stabs at entry-level office work and other jobs suitable for adolescents, Julius took to the stage as a boy singer in 1905. Though he reputedly claimed that as a vaudevillian he was "hopelessly average," it was merely a wisecrack. By 1909, Minnie Marx successfully managed to assemble her sons into a low-quality vaudeville singing group. They were billing themselves as 'The Four Nightingales', Julius, Milton (Gummo Marx), Adolph (Harpo Marx) (later changed to Arthur), and another boy singer, Lou Levy, and traveling the U.S. vaudeville circuits to little fanfare. After exhausting their prospects in the East, the family moved to La Grange, Illinois to play the Midwest. After a particularly dispiriting performance in Nacogdoches, Texas, Julius, Milton, and Arthur began cracking jokes onstage for their own amusement. Much to their surprise, the audience liked them better as comedians than singers. They modified the then-popular Gus Edwards comedy skit "School Days" and renamed it "Fun In Hi Skule". The Marx Brothers would perform variations on this routine for the next seven years. An early photo of the brothers with their parents. Groucho is the first on the left. For a time in vaudeville all the brothers performed using ethnic accents. Leonard Marx, the oldest Marx brother, developed the Italian accent he used as Chico to convince some roving bullies that he was Italian, not Jewish. Julius Marx's character from Fun In Hi Skule was an ethnic German, so Julius played him with a German accent. However, after the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, public anti-German sentiment was widespread, and Marx's German character was booed, so he quickly dropped the accent and developed the fast-talking wise-guy character he would be remembered for. The Marx Brothers became the biggest comedic stars of the Palace Theatre, which billed itself as the "Valhalla of Vaudeville". Brother Chico's deal-making skills resulted in three hit plays on Broadway. No comedy routine had ever infected the hallowed Broadway circuit, but reports are unanimous that the Broadway audiences were just as convulsed with laughter as the vaudeville ones had been. The Marx Brothers were now more than a vaudeville sensation; they were a Broadway sensation. All of this predated their Hollywood career. By the time the Marxes made their first movie, they were major stars with sharply honed skills, and when Groucho was relaunched to stardom on You Bet Your Life, he had already been performing successfully for half a century. Hollywood Groucho Marx made 26 movies, thirteen of them with his brothers Chico and Harpo. Marx developed a routine as a wise-cracking hustler with a distinctive chicken-walking lope, an exaggerated greasepaint moustache and eyebrows, and an ever-present cigar, improvising insults to stuffy dowagers (often played by Margaret Dumont) and anyone else who stood in his way. As the Marx Brothers, he and his brothers starred in a series of popular stage shows and movies. Their first movie was a silent film made in 1919 that was never released, and believed to have been destroyed at the time. A decade later, the team made some of their Broadway hits into movies, including The Cocoanuts and Animal Crackers . Other successful films were Monkey Business, Horse Feathers, Duck Soup and A Night at the Opera. One quip from Marx concerned his response to Sam Wood, the director of the classic film A Night at the Opera. Furious with the Marx Brothers' ad-libs and antics on the set, Wood yelled in disgust: "I cannot make actors out of clay." Without missing a beat, Groucho responded, "Nor can you make a director out of Wood." Marx worked as a radio comedian and show host. One of his earliest stints was in a short-lived series in 1932 Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel, co-starring Chico, who was the only one of his brothers also willing to appear on the show. Most of the scripts and discs were thought to have been destroyed, but all but one of the scripts were found in 1988 in the Library of Congress. In 1947, Marx was chosen to host a radio quiz program You Bet Your Life broadcast by ABC and then CBS, before moving over to NBC television in 1950. Filmed before a live audience, the television show consisted of Marx interviewing the contestants and ad libbing jokes, before playing a brief quiz. The show was responsible for the phrases "Say the secret woid [word] and divide $100" (that is, each contestant would get $50); and "Who's buried in Grant's Tomb?" or "What color is the White House?" (asked when Marx felt sorry for a contestant who had not won anything). It ran for eleven years on television. Groucho was the subject of urban legend, pertaining to a supposed response to a contestant who had over a dozen children which supposedly brought down the house. In response to Marx asking in disbelief why she had so many children, the contestant replied "I love my husband," to which Marx responded, "I love my cigar, but I take it out once in a while." Groucho often asserted in interviews that this exchange in fact never took place, but it remains one of the most oft quoted "Groucho-isms" nonetheless. Throughout his career he introduced a number of memorable songs in films, including "Hooray for Captain Spaulding" and "Hello, I Must Be Going", in Animal Crackers, "Whatever It Is, I'm Against It", "Everyone Says I Love You" and "Lydia the Tattooed Lady". Frank Sinatra, who once quipped that the only thing he could do better than Marx was sing, made a film with Marx and Jane Russell in 1951 entitled Double Dynamite. Moustache, eyebrows and walk As much as Harpo and Chico were difficult to recognize without their wigs and costumes, it was almost impossible to recognize Groucho without his trademark glasses, or fake eyebrows and moustache. The greasepaint moustache and eyebrows originated spontaneously prior to a vaudeville performance when he did not have time to apply the pasted-on moustache he had been using (or, according to his autobiography, simply did not enjoy the removal of the moustache every night because of the effects of tearing an adhesive bandage off the same patch of skin every night). After applying the greasepaint moustache, a quick glance in the mirror revealed his natural hair eyebrows were too undertoned and did not match the rest of his face, so Marx added the greasepaint to his eyebrows and headed for the stage. The absurdity of the greasepaint was never discussed on-screen, but in a famous scene in Duck Soup, where both Chicolini (Chico) and "Pinky" (Harpo) are disguising themselves as Groucho, they are briefly seen applying the greasepaint, implicitly answering any question a viewer might have had about where he got his moustache and eyebrows. Marx was asked to do the greasepaint moustache once more for You Bet Your Life, but refused, opting instead to grow a real one, which he wore for the rest of his life. The exaggerated walk, with one hand on the small of his back and his torso bent almost 90 degrees at the waist was a parody of a fad from the 1880s and 1890s. Then, fashionable young men of the upper classes would affect a walk with their right hand held fast to the base of their spines, and with a slight lean forward at the waist and a very slight twist toward the right with the left shoulder, allowing the left hand to swing free with the gait. Edmund Morris, in his biography of President Roosevelt The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt describes a young TR, newly elected to the State Assembly, walking into the House Chamber for the first time in this trendy, affected gait, somewhat to the amusement of the older and more rural Members who were present. Groucho exaggerated this fad to a marked degree, and the comedy effect was enhanced by how out of date the fashion was by the 1920s and 30s. He did paint the old character moustache over his real one on a few rare performing occasions, including a TV sketch with Jackie Gleason on the latter's variety show in the 1960s (in which they performed a variation on the song "Positively Mr. Gallagher, Absolutely Mr. Shean," written by Marx's uncle Al Shean) and the 1968 Otto Preminger film Skidoo. In his 70s at the time, Marx remarked on his appearance: "I looked like I was embalmed." He played a mob boss called "God" and, according to Marx, "both my performance and the film were God-awful!". Personal life Marx's three marriages all ended in divorce. His first wife was chorus girl Ruth Johnson (married February 4, 1920, divorced July 15, 1942). He was 29 and she 19 at the time of their wedding. The couple had two children, Arthur and Miriam. His second wife was Kay Marvis (married February 24, 1945, divorced May 12, 1951), former wife of Leo Gorcey. Groucho was 54 and Kay 24 at the time of their marriage. They had a daughter, Melinda. His third wife was actress Eden Hartford (married July 17, 1954, divorced December 4, 1969) Groucho Marx Biography, imdb.com . She was 20 when she married the 63 year old Groucho. Often when the Marxes arrived at restaurants, there would be a long wait for a table. "Just tell the maître d' who we are," his wife would nag. (In his pre-moustache days, he was rarely recognized in public.) Groucho would say, "OK, OK. Good evening, sir. My name is Jones. This is Mrs. Jones, and here are all the little Joneses." Now his wife would be furious and insist that he tell the maître d' the truth. "Oh, all right," said Groucho. "My name is Smith. This is Mrs. Smith, and here are all the little Smiths." Similar anecdotes are corroborated by Groucho's friends, not one of whom went without being publicly embarrassed by Groucho on at least one occasion. Once, at a restaurant (the most common location of Groucho's antics), a fan came up to him and said, "Excuse me, but aren't you Groucho Marx?" "Yes," Groucho answered annoyedly. "Oh, I'm your biggest fan! Could I ask you a favor?" the man asked. "Sure, what is it?" asked the even-more annoyed Groucho. "See my wife sitting over there? She's an even bigger fan of yours than I am! Would you be willing to insult her?" Groucho replied, "Sir, if my wife looked like that, I wouldn't need any help thinking of insults." Also, Groucho's son, Arthur, published a brief account of an incident that occurred when Arthur was a child. The family was going through airport customs and, while filling out a form, Groucho listed his name as "Julius Henry Marx" and his occupation as "smuggler". Thereafter, chaos ensued. Later in life, Groucho would sometimes note to talk-show hosts, not entirely jokingly, that he was unable to actually insult anyone, because the target of his comment assumed it was a Groucho-esque joke and would laugh. Off-stage, Groucho was a voracious reader. He often pointed out that he had only a grammar school education, and he compensated for this by reading everything he got his hands on. His knowledge of literature from all eras was extraordinary. Typical of his achievements, this one was discussed only demurely by Groucho himself: "I think TV is very educational," he once said. "Every time someone turns on a TV, I go in the other room and read." His friend Dick Cavett, speaking of Groucho and referencing a certain philosopher's writing, said "I, with my college education, had merely heard of the book, but Groucho had actually read it." Cavett also remarked that Groucho could never end a letter; there was always at least one postscript. In one letter he recalls, Groucho wrote "P.S. Did you ever notice that Peter O'Toole has a double-phallic name?" Despite this lack of formal education, he wrote many books, including his autobiography, Groucho and Me (1959) (Da Capo Press, 1995, ISBN 0-306-80666-5), and Memoirs of a Mangy Lover (1963) (Da Capo Press, 2002, ISBN 0-306-81104-9). He was personal friends with such literary figures as T. S. Eliot and Carl Sandburg. Much of his personal correspondence with those and other figures is featured in the book The Groucho Letters (1967) with an introduction and commentary on the letters written by Groucho, who donated his letters to the Library of Congress. Although Irving Berlin quipped "If Marx had been Groucho instead of Karl, the world would be in less of a snarl", Groucho's political views were liberal, and in old age he joined the Socialist Workers Party. Marx & Lennon: The Parallel Sayings was published in 2005; the book records similar sayings between Groucho Marx and John Lennon. You Bet Your Life Groucho's radio life hadn't been as successful as his life on stage and in film, though historians such as Gerald Nachman and Michael Barson suggest that, in the case of the single-season Flywheel, Shyster, and Flywheel (1932), the failure may have been a combination of a poor time slot and the Marx Brothers' returning to Hollywood to make another film. In the mid-1940s, during a depressing lull in his career (his radio show Blue Ribbon Town had failed to hold on, and the Marx Brothers looked finished as film performers), Groucho was scheduled to appear on a radio show with Bob Hope. Annoyed that he was made to wait in the waiting room for 40 minutes, Groucho went on the air in a foul mood. Hope started by saying, "Why, it's Groucho Marx, ladies and gentlemen. (applause) Groucho, what brings you here from the hot desert?" Groucho retorted, "Hot desert my foot, I've been standing in the cold waiting room for 40 minutes." Groucho continued to ignore the script, and although Hope was a formidable ad-libber in his own right, he couldn't begin to keep up with Groucho, who lengthened the scene well beyond its allotted time slot with a veritable onslaught of improvised wisecracks. Listening in on the show was producer John Guedel, who got a brainstorm. He approached Groucho about doing a quiz show. "A quiz show? Only actors who are completely washed up resort to a quiz show." Undeterred, Guedel explained that the quiz would be only a backdrop for Groucho's interviews of people, and the storm of ad-libbing that they would elicit. Groucho said, "Well, I've had no success in radio, and I can't hold on to a sponsor. At this point I'll try anything." You Bet Your Life premiered in October 1947 on radio on ABC and then on CBS and finally NBC and ran until May 1961 -- on radio only 1947-1950, on both radio and television 1950-1956, and on television only 1956-1961. The show was an utter sensation, one of the most popular in the history of radio and television. With one of the best announcers and, as it turns out, straight men in the business, George Fenneman, as his faithful foil, Groucho slayed his audiences with extraordinary improvised conversation, usually with the most ordinary of guests. The program's theme music was an instrumental version of "Hooray for Captain Spaulding", which became increasingly identified as Groucho's personal theme song. Groucho released a record of the song with the Ken Ham singers and orchestra in 1952. Another interesting recording made by Groucho during this period was "The Funniest Song in the World," released on the Young Peoples' Records label in 1949. It was a series of five original children's songs with a connecting narrative about a monkey and his fellow zoo creatures. Later years By the time You Bet Your Life debuted on TV on October 5, 1950, Groucho had grown a real mustache (which he had already sported earlier, in the 1950 film Love Happy), the lack of which had earlier been an effective means of hiding himself from fans. During a tour of Germany in 1958, Marx, accompanied by his then wife, Eden, his daughter, Judith and Robert Dwan, climbed a pile of rubble that marked the site of Adolf Hitler's bunker, the site of Hitler's death, and performed a two minute charleston. He later remarked to Richard J. Anobile in The Marx Brothers Scrapbook, "Not much satisfaction after he killed six million Jews!" In 1960, Groucho, a lifelong devotee of the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, achieved an ambition by appearing as Koko the Lord High Executioner in a televised production of The Mikado on NBC's Bell Telephone Hour.. Another TV show hosted by Groucho, Tell It To Groucho, premiered January 11, 1962 on CBS, but only lasted five months. On October 1, 1962, Groucho, after acting as occasional guest host of The Tonight Show during the six-month interval between Jack Paar and Johnny Carson, introduced Carson as the new host. In 1965, Groucho did a weekly show for British TV titled Groucho which was poorly received and only lasted 11 weeks. He appeared as a gangster named God in the movie Skidoo (1968), co-starring Jackie Gleason and Carol Channing, directed by Otto Preminger, and released by the studio where he got his Hollywood start, Paramount Pictures. The film, which was his last speaking appearance in theaters, got almost universally negative reviews. As a side note, writer Paul Krassner published a story in the February 1981 issue of High Times, relating how Groucho Marx prepared for his role in the LSD-related movie by taking a dose of the drug in Krassner's company, and had a moving, largely pleasant experience. Four years later came Groucho's last theatrical film appearance; a brief, uncredited cameo in Michael Ritchie's The Candidate (1972). In the early 1970s, largely at the behest of his companion Erin Fleming, Groucho made a comeback of sorts doing a live one-man show, including one recorded at Carnegie Hall in 1972 and released as a double album, An Evening with Groucho, on A&M Records. He also made an appearance on a short-lived variety show hosted by Bill Cosby, who idolized Groucho, in 1973. He also developed friendships with rock star Alice Cooper (the two were photographed together for Rolling Stone Magazine), and television host Dick Cavett, becoming a frequent guest on Cavett's late-night talk show. He met and befriended Elton John when the British singer was staying in California in 1972, insisting on calling him "John Elton" because he thought "Elton John" was the wrong way around. According to writer Philip Norman, Groucho jokingly pointed his index fingers at Elton John as if holding a pair of six-shooters. Elton John put up his hands and said, "Don't shoot me, I'm only the piano player," so naming the album he had just completed. Elton John accompanied Groucho and the family hosting him in California to a performance of Jesus Christ Superstar, where Groucho offered two witticisms. As the lights went down in the theater, Groucho called out, "Does it have a happy ending?" During the Crucifixion scene, he declared, "This is sure to offend the Jews." Groucho's previous works once again became popular and were accompanied by new books of interviews and other transcribed conversations by Richard J. Anobile and Charlotte Chandler. In a BBC interview in 1975, Groucho explained that for him, his greatest achievement was having a book selected for cultural preservation in the American Library of Congress. As a man who never had formal schooling, and whose literacy was self-taught, to have his writings declared to be culturally important was a point of great emotional satisfaction. He had become quite frail by this period and his last few years were accompanied by descent into senility Point of View, Mark Evanier, 1999-06-04, retrieved, 2007-08-09 Point of View, Mark Evanier, 1999-06-11, retrieved, 2007-08-09 and a controversy over a companionship he had developed with Erin Fleming, which consequently raised disputes over his estate. He also accepted an honorary Academy Award in 1974, his final major public appearance, at which he took a bow for all the Marx Brothers and Margaret Dumont. While lucid, his frailty was evident. Death Marx's children, particularly his son Arthur, felt strongly that Fleming was pushing his weak father beyond his physical and mental limits. Writer Mark Evanier concurs with this. Marx was hospitalized for pneumonia on June 22, 1977 and died on August 19, 1977 at Cedar Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. He was cremated, and the ashes were interred in the Eden Memorial Park Cemetery in Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California. Aged 86 at death, Groucho had the longest lifespan of all the Marx Brothers and was survived only by younger brother Zeppo, who outlived him by two years, dying in 1979 at age 78. Groucho's death only received passing attention, due to the fact that it occurred three days after that of Elvis Presley. In an interview, he jokingly suggested his epitaph read "Excuse me, I can't stand up", but his mausoleum marker bears only his stage name, a Star of David, and the years of his birth and death. Legacy Many Groucho-like characters and Groucho references have appeared in popular culture, some long after his death and even aimed at audiences who would never have seen a Marx Brothers movie, providing a testament to the character's lasting appeal. Groucho's glasses, nose, moustache, and cigar have become icons of comedy—to this day, glasses with fake noses and moustaches (referred to as "Groucho glasses," "nose-glasses," and other names) resembling Groucho are still sold by novelty and costume shops. Actor Frank Ferrante has performed as Groucho Marx for several years under rights granted by the Marx family in a one-man show entitled An Evening With Groucho done in live theater throughout the United States. With piano accompaniment, Ferrante takes the audience from Marx' early years in vaudeville to his final days, incorporating songs from several Marx Brothers movies. Gabe Kaplan has appeared in a filmed version. Internet Movie Database. Groucho (1982) Alan Alda often vamped as Groucho on M*A*S*H Twenga.co.uk M.A.S.H. - Series 1 (1972); description of DVD. and a minor semi-recurring character in the series (played by Loudon Wainwright III) was named Captain Calvin Spalding in a nod towards Groucho's character in Animal Crackers, Captain Geoffrey T. Spaulding. Two of Queen's albums, A Night at the Opera (1975) and A Day at the Races (1976), are named after two of the Marx Brothers' films. A long-running ad campaign for Vlasic Pickles features an animated stork that imitates Groucho's mannerisms and voice. "Stuart Elliott, Pink or Blue? These Bundles of Joy Are Always Green, New York Times, 2007-05-30. On the famous Hollywood Sign in California, one of the "O"s is dedicated to Groucho Marx. Alice Cooper contributed over $27,000 to remodel the sign, in memory of his friend Groucho Marx. In a tribute to Groucho, the BBC remade the radio sitcom Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel, with contemporary actors playing the parts of the original cast. The series was repeated on digital radio station BBC7. Scottish playwright Louise Oliver wrote a play named "Waiting For Groucho" about Chico and Harpo Marx waiting for Groucho to turn up to the filming of their last project together. This was performed by Glasgow theatre company Rhymes with Purple Productions at the Edinburgh Fringe and in Glasgow and Hamilton in 2007/8. The role of Groucho was played by Scottish actor, Frodo McDaniel. Rhymes with Purple Productions - Theatre, Cabaret, Burlesque In the Italian comic Dylan Dog, the main character's assistant Groucho is a Groucho Marx impersonator whose character became his permanent personality. Now he lives and works with Dylan Dog as his professional sidekick. Quotations about Groucho Marx "Groucho Marx was the best comedian this country ever produced. [...] He is simply unique in the same way that Picasso or Stravinsky are." —Woody Allen A famous French witticism (often attributed to Jean-Luc Godard) was, Je suis Marxiste, tendance Groucho, that is, "I'm a Marxist of the Groucho tendency". This line was notably heard in the 1972 comedy by Claude Lelouch "L'aventure c'est l'aventure" (starring Lino Ventura, Aldo Maccione, Jacques Brel, Johnny Hallyday and Charles Denner), where the would-be heroes get involved with a Central American guerilla; it spread to other nations as well in the 1960s and 1970s. In the United States, the Youth International Party, a 1960s-1970s ad-hoc political group of Anarcho-Marxists known for street theatre and pranks, were denounced in a Communist newspaper editorial as "Groucho Marxists". Solo filmography Features Yours for the Asking (as sunbather, uncredited) (1936), released by Paramount Pictures Instatanes (1943) Copacabana (1947), released by United Artists Mr. Music (as himself) (1950), released by Paramount Pictures Double Dynamite (as Emile J. Keck) (1951), released by RKO A Girl in Every Port (as Benjamin Linn) (1952), released by RKO Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1957) (as George Schmidlap, uncredited), released by 20th Century Fox The Story of Mankind, (1957) (Harpo and Chico also appeared, but in individual scenes) The Mikado (as Koko) (1960), made for television Skidoo (as God) (1968), released by Paramount Short subjects Hollywood on Parade No. 11 (1933) Screen Snapshots Series 16, No. 3 (1936) Sunday Night at the Trocadero (1937) Screen Snapshots: The Great Al Jolson (1955) Showdown at Ulcer Gulch (1956) (voice) Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood (1956) References Further reading Miriam Marx Allen, Love, Groucho: Letters From Groucho Marx to His Daughter Miriam (1992) Charlotte Chandler, Hello, I Must Be Going (1979) Stefan Kanfer, Groucho: The Life and Times of Julius Henry Marx (2000) Simon Louvish, Monkey Business: The Lives and Legends of the Marx Brothers (2001) Arthur Marx, Life With Groucho (1954, revised as My Life With Groucho, 1992) Arthur Marx, Son of Groucho (1972) Groucho Marx, Groucho and Me (1959) Groucho Marx, Memoirs of a Mangy Lover (1963) Groucho Marx, The Groucho Letters: Letters From and To Groucho Marx (1967) Harpo Marx, Harpo Speaks (1961) Glenn Mitchell, The Marx Brothers Encyclopedia (2003) Steve Stoliar, Raised Eyebrows: My Years Inside Groucho's House (1996) Julius H. (Groucho) Marx v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 29 T.C. 88 (1957). External links Alistair Cooke's reflections on his friendship with Groucho Lydia's Marx Brothers Tribute Website Groucho Marx Old Time Radio Mp3s from Archive.org Groucho's letter to Warner Brothers when they threatened to sue him Urban Legends Reference Page: Groucho Marx: "I Love My Cigar" Esquire magazine profile of Groucho Marx in 1972, by Roger Ebert | Groucho_Marx |@lemmatized julius:14 henry:4 groucho:120 marx:86 october:4 wwi:1 draft:1 registration:1 chicago:1 illinois:2 roll:2 note:3 census:1 bear:2 oct:1 august:2 jewish:2 american:3 comedian:4 film:17 star:9 famed:1 master:1 wit:1 make:15 feature:4 sibling:1 brother:29 third:2 born:1 also:8 successful:3 solo:2 career:7 notably:2 host:10 radio:14 television:9 game:1 show:23 bet:7 life:18 tell:4 distinctive:2 appearance:6 carry:1 day:7 vaudeville:10 include:7 quirk:1 glass:7 cigar:5 thick:1 greasepaint:8 mustache:2 eyebrow:9 biography:3 childhood:1 pre:2 hollywood:8 family:6 grow:3 neighborhood:1 know:3 carnegie:2 hill:2 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2,533 | Airline | An airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight, generally with a recognized operating certificate or license. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit. Airlines vary from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating hundreds of airplanes. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intra continental, domestic, or international and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. History The first airlines Failed attempt at an airline before DELAG DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. (Note: Americans, such as Rufus Porter and Frederick Marriott, attempted to start airlines in the mid-19th century, focusing on the New York-California route. Those attempts foundered due to such mishaps as the aircraft catching fire and the aircraft being ripped apart by spectators.) The five oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Australia's Qantas, Netherlands' KLM, Colombia's Avianca, Czech Republic's Czech Airlines and Mexico's Mexicana. KLM first flew in May 1920 while Qantas (for the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited) was founded in Queensland, Australia in late 1920. U.S. airline industry Early development Tony Jannus conducted the United States' scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the Saint Petersburg-routes, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines, to name a few. Passenger service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network. At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s. With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II. Development since 1945 As governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, it was no surprise that the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom. After all, U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for "open skies" operating regimes continues, within limitations, to this day. World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload. In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Soviet Union bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport. The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training. 1978's U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered barriers for new airlines. In this period, new start-ups entered during downturns in the normal 8-10 year business cycle. At that time, they find aircraft and funding, contract hangar and maintenance services, train new employees, and recruit laid off staff from other airlines. As the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new startups. Only America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away. By the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide. Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called "legacy airlines", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations. Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, American Airlines is the only U.S. legacy carrier to survive bankruptcy-free. European airline industry The Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, London. Trains ran from here to flying boats in Southampton, and to Croydon Airport. The first countries in Europe to embrace air transport were Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. KLM, the oldest carrier still operating under its original name, was founded in 1919. The first flight (operated on behalf of KLM by Aircraft Transport and Travel) transported two English passengers to Schiphol, Amsterdam from London in 1920. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (Dutch Indies). It is only after the loss of the Dutch Empire that KLM found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections. France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became Air France. In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair, one of the oldest still-operating airlines in the world) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F 13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later. Germany's Lufthansa began in 1926. Lufthansa, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-1930s, when Nazi propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial zeppelin service: the big airships were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the Hindenburg disaster of 1937. The reason they used hydrogen instead of the not-flammable helium gas was because the United States was (and still is) the only source of helium and at the time the Americans refused to delivery helium to Germany. The British company Aircraft Transport and Travel commenced a London to Paris service on August 25, 1919, this was the world's first regular international flight. The United Kingdom's flag carrier during this period was Imperial Airways, which became BOAC (British Overseas Airways Co.) in 1939. Imperial Airways used huge Handley-Page biplanes for routes between London, the Middle East, and India: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the Rub'al Khali, being maintained by Bedouins, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the British Empire. Deregulation Deregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines. There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatised such as has occurred for Aer Lingus (Ireland) and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008. Asian airline industry India was one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. [http://books.google.com/books?id=AcGn-Fmc43sC&pg=PA111&dq=tata+airlines+first+airline&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a AN INTORDUCTION TO TRAVEL AND TOURISM By PRAN NATH SETH, SUSHMA SETH BHAT] One of the first Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vincent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. [http://books.google.com/books?id=s0g7tCYYu-gC&pg=PA175&dq=tata+airlines+first+airline&as_brr=3&client=firefox-a#PPA176,M1 International Environmental Law By Bhatt] Philippine Airlines was founded on February 26, 1941, making it one of Asia's oldest carriers and also the oldest operating under its current name. The airline was started by a group of businessmen led by Andres Soriano, hailed as one of the Philippines' leading industrialists at the time. The airline’s first flight was made on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines. During the era of decolonization, newly-born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Malayan Airlines (later Singapore and Malaysian Airlines; founded in 1947), Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951, and Korean Air in 1962. Latin American airline industry Along the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Colombia with Avianca, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Brazil with Varig, and TACA as a brand of several airlines of Central American countries (Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations before World War II. The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimations over 2000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region. These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, Africa and Asia. Just one airline, LAN (Latin American Networks) has international subsidiaries: Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The main hubs in Latin America are Sao Paulo in Brazil, Bogota in Colombia, Caracas in Venezuela, Guayaquil in Ecuador, Lima in Peru, Mexico City in Mexico, Buenos Aires in Argentina, and Santiago in Chile. Regulatory considerations National Pakistan International Airlines Boeing 747-300. The Government of Pakistan is the majority stake-holder in the country's flag carrier. Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, the government often intervenes to halt airline labor actions in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the United Kingdom and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants. International Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air," a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas. In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. Economic considerations Historically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 120-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. Wings of Desire, Guardian, Thursday February 23, 2006 Airlines and the canine features of unprofitable industries Financial Times, September 27, 2005 One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Profitability is likely to improve in the future as privatization continues and more competitive low-cost carriers proliferate. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles in order to maximize shareholder profit. Ticket revenue Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems. Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments. Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for AU$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay AU$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily. Lufthansa Boeing 747-400. In 2004, the European Commission forced various European airlines to end price discrimination. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/airlines-told-to-end-price-discrimination-731439.html The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world. The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in "legacy" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer preannounced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately. Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for "no-shows," but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats. Since an average of ⅓ of all seats are flown empty, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices in order to retain demand. http://news.cheapflights.co.uk/flights/2009/05/recession-prompts-surge-in-cheap-flights.html Operating costs An Airbus A340-600 of Virgin Atlantic Airways. In October 2008, Virgin Atlantic offered to combine its operations with BMI in an effort to reduce operating costs. http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article5037731.ece Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country. Analysis of the 1992-1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002) In contrast, Southwest Airlines has been the most profitable of airline companies since 1973. The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of "undead" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups. Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or "hub") for its scheduled flights. Assets and financing Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs. A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period. In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. Airline partnerships Code sharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' code sharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on flights from Tokyo to Moscow: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian- Sabena partnership on the Vienna-Brussels-New York JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian colors. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales. A more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Groups of airlines such as the Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations-- sometimes including cross-equity arrangements-- in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004. Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. Environmental impacts Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global warming and global dimming. even though it is one of the least-polluting forms of travel in the world. Modern turbofan and turboprop engines are considerably more fuel-efficient and less polluting than earlier models. However, despite this, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation, offsetting some of the reductions achieved by automobiles. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. CO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 kilometers (1992 miles) airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 kilometers (1992 miles) airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU allowance prices ICF Consulting for DEFRA February 2006 The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: A Promising Oil Alternative: Algae Energy - washingtonpost.com Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuels maker Tecbio and Aquaflow Bionomic of New Zealand and other jet biofuel developers around the world. Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuels initiative. Boeing/aerospace | To go green in jet fuel, Boeing looks at algae | Seattle Times Newspaper Call signs Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while America West used Cactus reflecting that company's home in the state of Arizona and to differentiate itself from numerous other airlines using America and West in their call signs. Airline personnel The various types of airline personnel include: Flight operations personnel including flight safety personnel. Flight crews, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include: Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and or a Navigator) Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft) in-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al) Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include: Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance Airframe and powerplant technicians Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems Avionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics Flight dispatchers Baggage handlers Ramp Agents Gate agents Ticket agents Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees) Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport. Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks. Industry trends Air India Building (leftmost) in Mumbai, India The pattern of ownership has gone from government owned or supported to independent, for-profit public companies. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. The overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, Mexico,India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency. See also Air ferry Air safety Airline timetable Airliners.net Airport security Beyond rights Cargo airline Charter airline Federal Aviation Administration Flight planning FlightAware Government contract flight IATA – industry standards organization Low-cost carrier Red-eye flight Regional airline Transportation Security Administration Airline related lists Airline codes Airline liveries and logos List of airlines List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners List of airline mergers and acquisitions List of defunct airlines List of hub airports List of largest airlines List of low-cost airlines List of national airlines Timeline of airline bankruptcies Special Service Request (SSR) Codes External links Chasing the Sun - History of commercial aviation, from PBS Global Aviation Markets Whitepaper on global markets for airlines Notes References "A history of the world's airlines", R.E.G. Davies, Oxford U.P, 1964 "The airline encyclopedia, 1909-2000.” Myron J. Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002 "Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines," 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002. "The Airline Business in the 21st Century." 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2,534 | Politics_of_Croatia | The politics of Croatia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament (Sabor). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. It adopted its current constitution on December 22, 1990, and declared independence from Yugoslavia on June 25, 1991. Amendments to the Constitution have happened four times: December 15, 1997 -- additional minority rights and verbiage changes September 11, 2000 -- changed from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary system; the parliament was renamed its historic name of Hrvatski sabor March 28, 2001 -- Chamber of Counties abolished, the Parliament becomes unicameral June 15 2001 -- administrivia Executive branch |President |Stjepan Mesić |HNS |18 February 2000 |- |Prime Minister |Ivo Sanader |HDZ |23 December 2003 |- |Other government parties | |HSS, HSLS, SDSS |} The main executive power of Croatian state is the government (in Croatian: "vlada"), presided by the Prime Minister. The government ministers (the cabinet) are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Parliament. The prime minister is the head of government, appointed by the President with the consent of the Parliament who takes his duty when Parliament gives its consent by absolute majority of all representatives. See also: Current government Prime Minister: Ivo Sanader (since December 23 2003); Deputy Prime Ministers: Jadranka Kosor (since December 23 2003), Damir Polančec (since February 2005), Đurđa Adlešić (since 2008) and Slobodan Uzelac (since 2008). Government ministers are from Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and Croatian Peasant Party (HSS). The President of the Republic of Croatia is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. A president may not serve more than two terms. The president has limited executive powers, he/she is still commander-of-chief of the armed forces, he/she cooperates in formulation and execution of the foreign policy and the national security policy, represents Croatia home and abroad, convenes Parliament and can bring issues at Government. The main duty of the President is that he/she is granted power to issue decrees with the force of law during war time.See also: Legislative branch The Croatian legislature is the Hrvatski Sabor. The Assembly is unicameral, between 100 and 160 members, exact number was decided by the legislature - elected for a four year term, 140 members in multi-seat constituencies, up to 6 members chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians residing abroad and 5 members of ethnic and national communities or minorities. The Chamber of Counties or Županijski Dom used to be composed of three deputies from each of the 21 counties (županije). However, as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives, in 2001 it was abolished and its powers transferred directly to the county governments. The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods: January 15 to June 30, and September 15 to December 15. Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the President of the Parliament or by Government. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution; passage of laws; adoption of the state budget; declarations of war and peace; alteration of the boundaries of the Republic; calling referendums; carrying out elections, appointments, and relief of office; supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor; and granting amnesty. Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of national rights and constitutional issues.See also: The last parliamentary elections were held November 23 2003. Political parties and elections '''Summary of the 25 November 2007 Croatian Parliament (Hrvatski Sabor) election results |- !colspan=2 style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left|Parties and coalitions !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|% !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|% !style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|+/– |- |align=left colspan=2|Croatian Democratic Union (Hrvatska demokratska zajednica) |align="right" |907,743 |align="right" |36.6 |align="right" |66 |align="right" |43.1 |align="right" |±0 |- |align=left colspan=2|Social Democratic Party of Croatia (Socijaldemokratska partija Hrvatske) |align="right" |775,690 |align="right" |31.2 |align="right" |56 |align="right" |36.6 |align="right" |+22 |- |align=left rowspan=5|"Green-Yellow Coalition" (Zeleno-žuta koalicija) |align=left|Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljačka stranka) |align="right" rowspan=5 valign=top|161,814 |align="right" rowspan=5 valign=top|6.5 |align="right" |6 |align="right" |3.9 |align="right" |–4 |- |align="left" |Croatian Social Liberal Party (Hrvatska socijalno liberalna stranka) |align="right" |2 |align="right" |1.3 |align="right" |±0 |- |align="left" |Alliance of Primorje-Gorski Kotar (Primorsko-goranski savez) |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |–1 |- |align="left" |Democratic Party of Zagorje (Zagorska demokratska stranka) |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |— |- |align="left" |Zagorje Party (Zagorska stranka) |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |— |- |align=left colspan=2|Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats (Hrvatska narodna stranka - Liberalni demokrati) |align="right" |168,440 |align="right" |6.8 |align="right" |7 |align="right" |4.6 |align="right" |–4 |- |align=left colspan=2|Istrian Democratic Assembly (Istarski demokratski sabor/Dieta democratica Istriana) |align="right" |38,267 |align="right" |1.5 |align="right" |3 |align="right" |2.0 |align="right" |–1 |- |align=left colspan=2|Croatian Democratic Assembly of Slavonija and Baranja (Hrvatski demokratski sabor Slavonije i Baranje) |align="right" |44,552 |align="right" |1.8 |align="right" |3 |align="right" |2.0 |align="right" |+3 |- |align=left rowspan=2| Coalition |align=left| Croatian Party of Pensioners (Hrvatska stranka umirovljenika) |align="right" rowspan=2 valign=top|101,091 |align="right" rowspan=2 valign=top|4.1 |align="right" |1 |align="right" |0.7 |align="right" |–2 |- |align=left| Democratic Party of Pensioners (Demokratska stranka umirovljenika) |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |— |- |align=left colspan=2|Croatian Party of Rights (Hrvatska stranka prava) |align="right" |86,865 |align="right" |3.5 |align="right" |1 |align="right" |0.7 |align="right" |–7 |- |align=left rowspan=2| Coalition |align=left| Democratic Centre (Demokratski centar) |align="right" rowspan=3 valign=center|184,477 |align="right" rowspan=3 valign=center|7.4 |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |–1 |- |align=left| Green Party – Green Alternative (Zelena stranka – Zelena Alternativa) |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |— |- |align=left colspan=2| Others |align="right" |0 |align="right" |0.0 |align="right" |–6 |- |align=left colspan=2|Independent Democratic Serbian Party (Samostalna demokratska srpska stranka) (national minority list) |rowspan=3 colspan=2|Enrolments and vote totals do not include voters for ethnic minority representatives. |align="right" |3 |align="right" |2.0 |align="right" |±0 |- |align=left colspan=2|Party of Democratic Action of Croatia (Stranka Demokratske Akcije Hrvatske) (national minority list) |align="right" |1 |align="right" |0.7 |align="right" |±0 |- |align=left colspan=2|Other national minority representatives |align="right" |4 |align="right" |2.6 |align="right" |±0 |- |align=left colspan=2 style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|Total |width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|2,483,452 |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|100.0 |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|153 |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|100 |width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|— |- |align=left colspan=7|Source: Adam Carr's Election Archive |} Judiciary branch The Supreme Court (Vrhovni sud) of the Republic of Croatia is the highest court. Court hearings are open, and judgments are made publicly, except in issues of privacy of the accused. Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent (until seventy years of age). The President of the Supreme Court is elected for a four-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic.See also: The Constitutional Court (Ustavni sud) of the Republic of Croatia decides on the constitutionality of laws and has the right to repeal a law it finds unconstitutional. It also can impeach the president. The body is made up of thirteen judges for an eight-year term. The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court for a four-year term.See also: The National Judicial Council (Državno Sudbeno Vijeće) of the Republic appoints all judges. It is a body consisting of a president and fourteen members proposed and elected by the Parliament for four-year terms, maximum two terms. Regional government The country is composed of 20 counties (županijas) and one city (grad, Zagreb). The counties and county centres are: Zagrebačka, Zagreb Krapinsko-zagorska, Krapina Sisačko-moslavačka, Sisak Karlovačka, Karlovac Varaždinska, Varaždin Koprivničko-križevačka, Koprivnica Bjelovarsko-bilogorska, Bjelovar Primorsko-goranska, Rijeka Ličko-senjska, Gospić Virovitičko-podravska, Virovitica Požeško-slavonska, Požega Brodsko-posavska, Slavonski Brod Zadarska, Zadar Osječko-baranjska, Osijek Šibensko-kninska, Šibenik Vukovarsko-srijemska, Vukovar Splitsko-dalmatinska, Split Istarska, Pazin Dubrovačko-neretvanska, Dubrovnik Međimurska, Čakovec Grad Zagreb Counties are regional self-government units that carry out the affairs of regional significance, and in particular the affairs related to education, health service, area and urban planning, economic development, traffic and traffic infrastructure and the development of network of educational, health, social and cultural institutions. In practice, this autonomy is very limited since counties must obey national laws and executive orders from the national level. Municipalities and towns are local self-government units that carry out the affairs of local jurisdiction by which the needs of citizens are directly fulfilled, and in particular the affairs related to the organisation of localities and housing, area and urban planning, public utilities, child care, social welfare, primary health services, education and elementary schools, culture, physical education and sports, customer protection, protection and improvement of the environment, fire protection and civil defence. Political history Stjepan Radić was a Croatian politician and the founder of the Croatian Peasant Party (CPP, Hrvatska Seljačka Stranka) in 1905. Radić is credited with galvanizing the Croatian peasantry into a viable political force for the first time. Under the pressure from the Great powers (British Empire, France, United States), as well as honouring the secret deals that were struck between the Antanta and the Kingdom of Serbia the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established and two representatives of Radić's party (by then named the Croatian Common-people Peasant Party) were appointed to the Provisional Representation which served as a parliament until elections for the Constituent could be held. Death threats and threats of violent beatings were made against Stjepan Radić in parliament, without any intervention by the president of the Assembly (Parliamentary speaker). In the Assembly, Puniša Račić, a member of Serbian People's Radical Party from Montenegro, got up and made a provocative speech which produced a stormy reaction from the opposition but Radić himself stayed completely silent. Finally Ivan Pernar shouted, "thou plundered beys". At this Puniša Račić drew out a revolver, shot Pernar and went on to shoot Radić and several other CPP delegates. (source: Zvonimir Kulundžić Atentat na Stjepana Radića/The assassination of Stjepan Radić) Radić was left for dead and indeed had such a serious stomach wound that he died several months later at the age of 57. Following the ethnic tensions triggered by the shooting, in January 1929 King Aleksandar Karađorđević abolished the constitution, dissolved parliament, and declared a royal dictatorship.Radić's violent death turned him into a martyr and he was turned into an icon of political struggle for the peasantry and the working class, as well as an icon of Croatian patriots. The iconography of Stjepan Radić was later used not only by his successor Vladko Maček, but also by other political options in Croatia: right wing or left wing. The Ustaše used the death of Stjepan Radić as proof of Serbian hegemony, and as an excuse for their treatment of Serbs, however many leading CPP figures were imprisoned or killed by the Ustashe. The Partisans on the other hand used this as a recruiting point with CPP members who were disillusioned with the NDH, a latter had one brigade named after Antun and Stjepan Radić in 1943. The Croatian Communist Party was the only party during socialist Yugoslavia, 1945-1990. The change of the name to League of Communists of Croatia (Savez Komunista Hrvatske'', SKH) in the fifties was intended to emphasize the advisory role of the party, while actual power was supposed to be in hands of the working class. There were very few controversies and factional clashes in the SKH. Among the most important was the so called "Croatian Spring" in 1971 when some leaders of the SKH, most notably Savka Dabčević-Kučar and Miko Tripalo attempted to increase the political and economical independence of Croatia from other Yugoslav republics. Although "Croatian Spring" was broken, the leaders lost their political position and were forced into isolation, and less important leaders were persecuted, practically all the intentions of the mentioned national leaders were accepted and introduced in Yugoslavian constitution from 1974. That constitution was relatively unfortunate in a sense that it did not delimit the responsibilities of the republics and federation in Yugoslavia clearly. As a result, when League of Communists lost its unity and authority, and republics started to make opposite, even aggressive political movements, the central government of Yugoslavia was unable to act. As a result, neither a peaceful break up, nor a military putsch was possible in the time of crisis, and country ended in bloody, tragic war. In the situation where Serb leaders, especially members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and Serbian president Slobodan Milošević started to threaten Croatia and prepare for a war, the first multi-party elections took place in 1990. The League of Communists changed its policy and name to the "Party of Democratic Changes" (SDP), however, the impression of the people was that this party could not respond to Milošević's threats adequately. The right-wing was represented by the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), led by the communist general, later Croatian nationalist and dissident Franjo Tuđman. Third bloc at the elections was Coalition of People's Accord, alliance of mostly moderate nationalist parties that included Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), Social Democrats of Croatia (SDSH), Croatian Democratic Party (HDS), as well as many prominent veterans of Croatian Spring. Due to voting system that favoured two strong parties, coalition got surprisingly few seats during that election, and HDZ won easily. However, increased crime in all parts of the society and a growing personal cult of Franjo Tuđman caused revival of the popularity of the at one moment almost dead ex-communist party. Vujić's SDSH united with SDP. HSLS split into two parties, led by their charismatic leaders: Vlado Gotovac's Liberal Party, and the more nationalist Dražen Budiša won administrative control over HSLS. In following years, these two leaders, especially Budisa led inconsistent policy which resulted in a significant drop in support for the once third most important party in Croatia. D. Budisa even left the party at one point, but he was persuaded to return. For the 2000 elections, the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP) and the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS) agreed on a join electoral list as did the Croatian Peasants Party (HSS), Croatian People's Party (HNS), Liberal Party of Croatia (LS), and Istrian Democratic Assembly (IDS). Although these six parties went into the election under two separate lists they had negotiated an outline agreement for a coalition before the election and were known as the "šestorica" or "the six". The six-party centre-left coalition was in power until June 2001 when IDS left the governing coalition over its inability to win greater autonomy for Istria. HSLS split (again; the initial splitoff formed LS) in 2002; the main faction left the government while a dissenting faction formed LIBRA and stayed in power. The SDP-led coalition remained in power until the legislative elections of 2003, when they narrowly lost the majority to HDZ and other center-right parties. HDZ formed a government in December 2003, even though they haven't formed a major coalition with parties like HSS and Croatian Party of Rights (HSP). It appears, however, that the new HDZ, under the leadership of I. Sanader, is positioned significantly more on the center than early HDZ was. Accession to membership of the European Union is presently a stated national goal for most mainstream parties, although they vary in the amount of cooperation with the EU rules. The main issues remain in the areas of post-war recovery: both political (refugee return, war crime trials) and economic (agricultural import/export policy). One of the more recent trends in Croatian politics is deep alienation of Croatian public from Croatian political establishment. It manifested itself on the latest presidential and local elections through record low turnouts and support for candidates and options that represented alternative to Croatian political mainstream. One of the stated reasons for such alienation is in mainstream political parties being oriented towards centre and having almost identical platforms. Another is parties being heavily centralised and perceived more as representatives of their leaders' personal interests than any palpable political platform. Proportional representation voting system which leads to coalition governments that often don't make any political sense - a phenomenon which gained a lot of notoriety after 2005 local elections - also contributed to those trends. Croatian public appears to prefer strong personalities with populist tendencies - like Boris Mikšić, Milan Bandić and Branimir Glavaš - to well-established parties or any particular ideology. The alienation from Croatian political mainstream has also manifested itself in the dramatic rise of Euroscepticism among general public. See also List of political parties in Croatia Foreign relations of Croatia Military of Croatia References | Politics_of_Croatia |@lemmatized politics:2 croatia:20 take:3 place:2 framework:1 parliamentary:4 representative:7 democratic:16 republic:11 whereby:1 prime:7 minister:9 head:3 government:19 multi:3 party:51 system:4 executive:6 power:14 exercise:1 legislative:3 vest:1 croatian:39 parliament:14 sabor:8 judiciary:2 independent:2 legislature:4 adopt:1 current:2 constitution:6 december:7 declare:2 independence:2 yugoslavia:4 june:4 amendment:2 happen:1 four:5 time:4 additional:1 minority:6 right:93 verbiage:1 change:5 september:2 semi:1 presidential:2 rename:1 historic:1 name:5 hrvatski:4 march:1 chamber:4 county:9 abolish:3 become:1 unicameral:2 administrivia:1 branch:3 president:15 stjepan:7 mesić:1 hn:1 february:2 ivo:2 sanader:3 hdz:8 hs:2 hsls:6 sd:1 main:4 state:4 vlada:1 preside:1 cabinet:1 appoint:4 consent:3 duty:2 give:1 absolute:1 majority:3 see:6 also:10 since:6 deputy:2 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2,535 | History_of_the_Pacific_Islands | noframe| History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. Histories Australia The written history of Australia began when Dutch explorers first sighted the country in the 17th century. The interpretation of the history of Australia is currently a matter of some contention, particularly regarding the British settlement and early treatment of Indigenous Australians. Hawaii Hawaiian history is inextricably tied into a larger Polynesian phenomenon. Hawaii is the apex of the Polynesian Triangle, a region of the Pacific Ocean anchored by three island groups: Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and Aotearoa (New Zealand). The many island cultures within the Polynesian Triangle share similar languages derived from a proto-Malayo-Polynesian language used in Southeast Asia 5,000 years ago. Polynesians also share cultural traditions, such as religion, social organization, myths, and material culture. Anthropologists believe that all Polynesians have descended from a South Pacific proto-culture created by an Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) people that had migrated from Southeast Asia. The seven main Polynesian cultures are Aotearoa, Hawaii, Rapa Nui, Marquesas, Sāmoa, Tahiti, and Tonga The early settlement history of Hawaii is still not completely resolved. Some believe that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaii in the 3rd century from the Marquesas and were followed by Tahitian settlers in 1300 CE who conquered the original inhabitants. Others believe that there was only a single, extended period of settlement. Indonesia In the history of Indonesia, Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Taylor (2003), pages 5-7 Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet-field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and ikat weaving methods. Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Japan The written history of Japan begins with brief references in the 1st century CE Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of Chinese historical texts. However, archaeological evidence indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. Global archaeological evidence for proboscidean overkill, Todd Surovell et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2005 Following the last ice-age, around 12,000 BCE, the rich ecosystem of the Japanese Archipelago fostered human development. The earliest-known pottery belongs to the Jōmon period. bc Malaysia History of Malaysia is the written past of a country in South East Asia whose strategic sea-lane position brought trade and foreign influences that fundamentally influenced its history. Hindu India, the Islamic Middle East and Christian Europe to its west, and China and Japan to the north-east were major influences brought by shipping routes passing through the region. Malaysian history is also intertwined with that of neighbouring Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Brunei and Thailand. This trade and foreign cultures brought the area great wealth and diversity, but has also domination and colonialism. The history of Malaysia is one of successive phases of outside influence, followed by the mid-twentieth century establishment of independence from foreign colonial powers. New Zealand The History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer came to New Zealand in 1642. From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Māori equal rights with British citizens. There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Māori to European ownership, and most Māori subsequently became impoverished. From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late twentieth century. In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place. Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following Britain or the United States, became more independent. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat. Philippines In the beginning of the history of the Philippines, the arrival of the first humans via land bridges at least 30,000 years ago. The first recorded visit from the West is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan on Homonhon Island, southeast of Samar on March 16, 1521. Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi's expedition and permanent settlement in the island of Cebu, and more settlements continued northward with the colonizers reaching the bay of Manila on the island of Luzon. In Manila, they established a new town and thus began an era of Spanish colonization that lasted for more than three centuries. Tahiti In the history of Tahiti, Tahiti is estimated to have been settled by Polynesians between CE 300 and 800 coming from Tonga and Samoa, although some estimates place the date earlier. The fertile island soil combined with fishing provided ample food for the population. Although the first European sighting of the islands was by a Spanish ship in 1606, Spain made no effort to trade with or colonize the island. Samuel Wallis, an English sea captain, sighted Tahiti on June 18, 1767, and is considered the first European visitor to the island. The perceived relaxation and contented nature of the local people and the characterization of the island as a paradise much impressed early European visitors, planting the seed for a romanticization by the West that endures to this day. Taiwan In the history of Taiwan, Aboriginal peoples ancestors are believed to have been living on the islands for approximately 8,000 years before major Han Chinese immigration began in the 1600s. Blust, Robert. "Subgrouping, circularity and extinction: some issues in Austronesian comparative linguistics," (1999) The Taiwanese Aborigines are Austronesian peoples, with linguistic and genetic ties to other Austronesian ethnic groups, such as peoples of the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and Oceania. Hill et al., "A Mitochondrial Stratigraphy for Island Southeast Asia," (2007); Bird et al., "Populating PEP II: the dispersal of humans and agriculture through Austral-Asia and Oceania," (2004) Taiwan's Austronesian speakers were traditionally distributed over much of the island's rugged central mountain range and concentrated in villages along the alluvial plains. Today, the bulk of the contemporary Taiwanese Aborigine population reside in the mountains and the cities. The issue of an ethnic identity unconnected to the Asian mainland has become one thread in the discourse regarding the political identity of Taiwan. The total population of Aborigines on Taiwan is around 458,000 as of January 2006, CIP, "Statistics of Indigenous Population in Taiwan and Fukien Areas," (2006) which is approximately 2% of Taiwan's population. Other islands History of American Samoa begins with inhabitation as early as 1000 BCE, Samoa was not reached by European explorers until the 18th century. The history of Baker Island began when the United States of America took possession of the island in 1857, and its guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island - as well as on nearby Howland Island - but was disrupted by World War II and thereafter abandoned. Presently the island is a National Wildlife Refuge run by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon is situated near the middle of the west coast. In the history of Brunei, the Sultanate of Brunei was very powerful from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century CE. Its realm covered the northern part of Borneo and the southwestern Philippines. European influence gradually brought an end to this regional power. Later, there was a brief war with Spain, in which Brunei was victorious. The decline of the Bruneian Empire culminated in the nineteenth century when Brunei lost much of its territory to the White Rajahs of Sarawak, resulting in its current small landmass and separation into two parts. Brunei was a British protectorate from 1888 to 1984. The history of the Caroline Islands begins with the discovery by the occidentals in 1526, by the Spanish Toribio Alonso de Salazar, he called them "Carolinas" after the emperor Carlos I of Spain, and Charles V of Holy Roman Empire. The Portuguese Diego da Rocha, explorer of the Carolines, also named them the Sequeira Islands in 1527. Though early Spanish navigators in the area (from 1543) called them the Nuevas Filipinas ("New Philippines"), Admiral Francisco Lazeano named them the Carolinas after the Spanish King Charles II in 1686. Easter Island is one of the youngest inhabited territories on Earth, and for most of the History of Easter Island it was the most isolated inhabited territory on Earth. Its inhabitants the Rapanui have endured famines, epidemics, civil war, slave raids and colonialism; have seen their population crash on more than one occasion, and created a cultural legacy that has brought them fame out of all proportion to their numbers. In history of Fiji, Fijian history dates back to ancient time. By 1500 BCE, Fiji settled by Polynesian seafarers. By 900-600 BCE, Moturiki Island settled. By 500 BCE, Melanesian seafarers reach Fiji and intermarry with the Polynesian inhabitants, giving rise to the modern Fijian people. By1643 CE, Abel Tasman sights Vanua Levu Island and northern Taveuni. In the history of French Polynesia, the French Polynesian island groups do not share a common history before the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first French Polynesian islands to be settled by Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in CE 800. The Polynesians were organized in petty chieftainships. European discovery in the History of the Galapagos Islands occurred when Dominican Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the fourth Bishop of Panama, sailed to Peru to settle a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and his lieutenants. De Berlanga's vessel drifted off course when the winds diminished, and his party reached the islands on March 10, 1535. According to a 1956 study by Thor Heyerdahl and Arne Skjølsvold, remains of potsherds and other artifacts from several sites on the islands suggest visitation by South American peoples prior to the arrival of the Spanish. The History of Guam involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient Chamorros, the development of "pre-contact" society, Spanish colonization, and the present American rule of the island. Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands. Historical evidence suggests that Howland Island was the site of prehistoric settlement, which may have extended down to Rawaki, Kanton, Manra and Orona of the Phoenix Islands 500 to 700 km southeast. This settlement might have taken the form of a single community utilising several adjacent islands, but the hard life on these isolated islands, together with the uncertainty of fresh water supplies, led to an extinction of or dereliction by the settled peoples, in such a way that other islands in the area (such as Kiritimati and Pitcairn) were abandoned. Irwin, pp. 176–179. Such settlements probably began around 1000 BCE, when eastern Melanesians travelled north. Suárez 2004, p. 17. The history of Jarvis Island begins with the island's first known sighting by Europeans was on 21 August 1821 by the British ship Eliza Francis (or Eliza Frances) owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown. In March 1857 the uninhabited island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on 27 February 1858. In the history of Kiribati, the islands which now form the Republic of Kiribati have been inhabited for at least seven hundred years, and possibly much longer. The initial Micronesian population, which remains the overwhelming majority today, was visited by Polynesian and Melanesian invaders before the first European sailors "discovered" the islands in the 16th century. For much of the subsequent period, the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands, was ruled as part of the British Empire. The country gained its independence in 1979 and has since been known as Kiribati. In the history of Marquesas Islands, the first recorded settlers of the Marquesas were Polynesians, who, from archеological evidence, are believed to have arrived before 100 AD. Ethnological and linguistic evidence suggests that they likely arrived from the region of Tonga and Samoa. The islands were given their name by the Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira who reached them on 21 July 1595. He named them after his patron, García Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Cañete, who was Viceroy of Peru at the time. Mendaña visited first Fatu Hiva and then Tahuata before continuing on to the Solomon Islands. In the history of Melanesia, the original inhabitants of the islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present day Papuan-speaking people. These people are thought to have occupied New Guinea tens of millennia ago and reached the islands 35,000 years ago (according to radiocarbon dating). They appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the Solomon Islands (i.e., including San Cristobal) and perhaps even to the smaller islands farther to the east. The ancestors of the Micronesians in the history of Micronesia settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on Yap. European explorers - first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. Researchers of the History of the Marshall Islands agree on little more than that successive waves of migratory peoples from Southeast Asia spread across the Western Pacific about 3,000 years ago, and that some of them landed on and remained on these islands. The Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar landed there in 1529. They were named for English explorer John Marshall, who visited them in 1799. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Following papal mediation and German compensation of $4.5 million, Spain recognized Germany's claim in 1885, which established a protectorate and set up trading stations on the islands of Jaluit and Ebon to carry out the flourishing copra (dried coconut meat) trade. Marshallese Iroij (high chiefs) continued to rule under indirect colonial German administration. In the history of New Caledonia, the diverse group of people that settled over the Melanesian archipelagos are known as the Lapita. They arrived in the archipelago now commonly known as New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands around 1500 BCE. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific. From about the 11th century Polynesians also arrived and mixed with the populations of the archipelago. Europeans first sighted New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands in the late 18th century. The British explorer James Cook sighted Grande Terre in 1774 and named it New Caledonia, Caledonia being the Latin name for Scotland. During the same voyage he also named the islands to the north of New Caledonia the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), after the islands north of Scotland. The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the Australian continent. The written history began when European navigators first sighted New Guinea in the early part of the 16th century. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see Australia-New Guinea. Although the first arrivals were hunters and gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost. There are indications that gardening was being practiced at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt. In the History of Samoa, contact with Europeans began in the early 1700s but did not intensify until the arrival of the English. In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to sight the islands. Missionaries and traders arrived in the 1830s. Halfway through the 19th century, the United Kingdom, Germany and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trade posts. King Malietoa Leaupepe died in 1898 and was succeeded by Malietoa Tooa Mataafa. The US and British consuls supported Malietoa Tanu, Leaupepe's son. US and British warships, including the USS Philadelphia shelled Apia on March 15, 1899. In the History of the Society Islands, the archipelago is generally believed to have been named by Captain James Cook in honor of the Royal Society, sponsor of the first British scientific survey of the islands; however, Cook states in his journal that he called the islands Society "as they lay contiguous to one another" Horwitz, Tony. Oct. 2003, Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-6455-8 . The human history of the Solomon Islands begins with the first settlement at least 30,000 years ago from New Guinea. They represented the furthest expansion of humans into the Pacific until the expansion of Austronesian-language speakers through the area around 4000 BCE, bringing new agricultural and maritime technology. Most of the languages spoken today in the Solomon Islands derive from this era, but some thirty languages of the pre-Austronesian settlers survive (see East Papuan languages). Ships of the Spanish explorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira first sighted Santa Isabel island on 7 February 1568. Finding signs of alluvial gold on Guadalcanal, Mendaña believed he had found the source of King Solomon's wealth, and consequently named the islands "The Islands of Solomon". In 1595 and 1605 Spain again sent several expeditions to find the islands and establish a colony, however these were unsuccessful. In 1767 Captain Philip Carteret rediscovered Santa Cruz and Malaita. Later, Dutch, French and British navigators visited the islands; their reception was often hostile. Archaeological evidence indicates that history of Tokelau's atol — Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo — were settled about 1000 years ago, probably by voyages from Samoa, the Cook Islands and Tuvalu. Oral history traces local traditions and genealogies back several hundred years. Inhabitants followed Polynesian mythology with the local god Tui Tokelau; and developed forms of music (see Music of Tokelau) and art. The three atolls functioned largely independently while maintaining social and linguistic cohesion. Tokelauan society was governed by chiefly clans, and there were occasional inter-atoll skirmishes and s as well as inter-marriage. Fakaofo, the "chiefly island," held some dominance over Atafu and Nukunonu. Life on the atolls was subsistence-based, with reliance on fish and coconut. Commodore John Byron discovered Atafu on 24 June 1765 and named it "Duke of York's Island." Parties onshore reported that there were no signs of current or previous inhabitants. MacGregor, 30 The History of Tonga stretches back to around roughly 4000 BCE. when the Polynesians arrived. Tonga became known as the Tongan Empire through extensive trading. The Europeans arrived in the 17th century which was followed after a couple hundred years by a single unified Tongan kingdom. Archaeological evidence shows that the first settlers in Tonga sailed from the Santa Cruz Islands, as part of the original Austronesian-speakers' (Lapita) migration which originated out of S.E. Asia some 6000 years before present. Archaeological dating places Tonga as the oldest known site in Polynesia for the distinctive Lapita ceramic ware, at 2800—2750 years before present. In the history of Tuamotu, the Tuamotus were first discovered by Ferdinand Magellan, during his circumglobal voyage in 1521. From the Inca Empire, Tupac Inca Yupanqui is also credited with leading a circa 10 month-long voyage of exploration into the Pacific around 1480. None of these visits were of political consequence, the islands being in the sphere of influence of the Pomare dynasty of Tahiti. At the beginning 18th century the first Christian missionaries arrived. The islands' pearls penetrated the European market in the late 1800s, making them a coveted possession. Following the forced abdication of King Pomare V of Tahiti, the islands were annexed as an overseas territory of France In the history of Vanuatu, the commonly held theory of Vanuatu's prehistory from archaeological evidence supports that peoples speaking Austronesian languages first came to the islands some 4,000 to 6,000 years ago. "A Pacific engaged: Australias (sic) relations with Papua New Guinea and the island states of the southwest Pacific", Australian Senate, August 12, 2003, p.288 Pottery fragments have been found dating back to 1300 B.C. Ron Adams, "History (from Vanuatu)", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006 What little is known of the pre-European contact history of Vanuatu has been gleaned from oral histories and legends. One important early king was Roy Mata, who united several tribes, and was buried in a large mound with several retainers. The first island in the Vanuatu group discovered by Spaniards was Espiritu Santo when, in 1606, the Portuguese explorer, Pedro Fernández de Quirós, spied what he thought was a southern continent. Europeans did not return until 1768, when Louis Antoine de Bougainville rediscovered the islands. 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2,536 | Malcolm_I_of_Scotland | Máel Coluim mac Domnaill (Modern Gaelic: Maol Chaluim mac Dhòmhnaill), Máel Coluim mac Domnaill is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. anglicised as Malcolm I, and nicknamed An Bodhbhdercc, "the Dangerous Red" Skene, Chronicles, p. 93. (before 900 – 954) was king of Scots, becoming king when his cousin Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda) abdicated to become a monk. He was the son of Donald II (Domnall mac Causantín). In 945 Edmund the Elder, King of England, having expelled Olaf Sihtricsson (Amlaíb Cuaran) from Northumbria, devastated Cumbria and blinded two sons of Domnall III (Domnall mac Eógain), king of Strathclyde. It is said that he then "let" or "commended" Strathclyde to Malcolm in return for an alliance. Early Sources, pp. 449–450. What is to be understood by "let" or "commended" is unclear, but it may well mean that Malcolm had been the overlord of Strathclyde and that Edmund recognised this while taking lands in southern Cumbria for himself. ASC Ms. A, s.a. 946; Duncan, pp. 23–24; but see also Smyth, pp. 222–223 for an alternative reading. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says that Malcolm took an army into Moray "and slew Cellach". Cellach is not named in the surviving genealogies of the rulers of Moray, and his identity is unknown. It may be that Cellach was related to Cuncar, Mormaer of Angus, and that this event is connected with the apparent feud that led to the death of Malcolm's son Kenneth II (Cináed) in 977. Malcolm appears to have kept his agreement with the late English king, which may have been renewed with the new king, Edmund having been murdered in 946 and succeeded by his brother Edred. Eric Bloodaxe took York in 948, before being driven out by Edred, and when Olaf Sihtricsson again took York in 949–950, Malcolm raided Northumbria as far south as the Tees taking "a multitude of people and many herds of cattle" according to the Chronicle. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ms. D, s.a. 948, Ms. B, s.a. 946; Duncan, p. 24. The Annals of Ulster for 952 report a battle between "the men of Alba and the Britons [of Strathclyde] and the English" against the foreigners, i.e. the Northmen or the Norse-Gaels. This battle is not reported by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and it is unclear whether it should be related to the expulsion of Olaf Sihtricsson from York or the return of Eric Bloodaxe. Early Sources, p. 451. The corresponding entry in the Annals of the Four Masters, s.a. 950, states that the Northmen were the victors, which would suggest that it should be associated with Eric. The Annals of Ulster report that Malcolm was killed in 954. Other sources place this most probably in the Mearns, either at Fetteresso following the Chronicle, or at Dunnottar following the Prophecy of Berchán. He was buried on Iona. Early Sources, pp. 452–454. Some versions of the Chronicle, and the Chronicle of Melrose, are read as placing Malcolm's death at Blervie, near Forres. Malcolm's sons Dub and Kenneth were later kings. Notes References For primary sources see also External links below. Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286, volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990. ISBN 1-871615-03-8 Duncan, A. A. M., The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Smyth, Alfred P. Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80-1000. Reprinted, Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1998. ISBN 0-7486-0100-7 External links CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork includes the Annals of Ulster, Tigernach, the Four Masters and Innisfallen, the Chronicon Scotorum, the Lebor Bretnach (which includes the Duan Albanach), Genealogies, and various Saints' Lives. Most are translated into English, or translations are in progress. (CKA) The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle XML Edition by Tony Jebson and translated at the OMACL | Malcolm_I_of_Scotland |@lemmatized máel:2 coluim:2 mac:6 domnaill:2 modern:1 gaelic:2 maol:1 chaluim:1 dhòmhnaill:1 mediaeval:1 form:1 anglicise:1 malcolm:10 nickname:1 bodhbhdercc:1 dangerous:1 red:1 skene:1 chronicle:10 p:4 king:9 scot:2 become:2 cousin:1 constantine:1 ii:3 causantín:2 áeda:1 abdicate:1 monk:1 son:4 donald:1 domnall:3 edmund:3 elder:1 england:1 expel:1 olaf:3 sihtricsson:3 amlaíb:1 cuaran:1 northumbria:2 devastate:1 cumbria:2 blind:1 two:1 iii:1 eógain:1 strathclyde:4 say:2 let:2 commend:2 return:2 alliance:1 early:4 source:6 pp:4 understand:1 unclear:2 may:3 well:1 mean:1 overlord:1 recognise:1 take:5 land:1 southern:1 asc:1 duncan:3 see:2 also:2 smyth:2 alternative:1 reading:1 alba:3 army:1 moray:2 slew:1 cellach:3 name:1 survive:1 genealogy:2 ruler:1 identity:1 unknown:1 relate:2 cuncar:1 mormaer:1 angus:1 event:1 connect:1 apparent:1 feud:1 lead:1 death:2 kenneth:2 cináed:1 appear:1 keep:1 agreement:1 late:2 english:3 renew:1 new:1 murder:1 succeed:1 brother:1 edred:2 eric:3 bloodaxe:2 york:3 drive:1 raid:1 far:1 south:1 tee:1 multitude:1 people:1 many:1 herd:1 cattle:1 accord:1 anglo:3 saxon:3 b:1 annals:4 ulster:3 report:3 battle:2 men:2 briton:1 foreigner:1 e:1 northman:2 norse:1 gael:1 whether:1 expulsion:1 corresponding:1 entry:1 four:2 master:2 state:1 victor:1 would:1 suggest:1 associate:1 kill:1 place:2 probably:1 mearns:1 either:1 fetteresso:1 follow:2 dunnottar:1 prophecy:1 berchán:1 bury:1 iona:1 version:1 melrose:1 read:1 blervie:1 near:1 forres:1 dub:1 note:1 reference:1 primary:1 external:2 link:2 anderson:1 alan:1 orr:1 scottish:1 history:1 volume:1 reprint:2 correction:1 paul:1 watkins:1 stamford:1 isbn:3 kingship:1 succession:1 independence:1 edinburgh:4 university:2 press:1 alfred:1 warlord:1 holy:1 scotland:1 ad:1 celt:1 corpus:1 electronic:1 text:1 college:1 cork:1 include:2 tigernach:1 innisfallen:1 chronicon:1 scotorum:1 lebor:1 bretnach:1 duan:1 albanach:1 various:1 saint:1 life:1 translate:2 translation:1 progress:1 cka:1 xml:1 edition:1 tony:1 jebson:1 omacl:1 |@bigram máel_coluim:2 coluim_mac:2 mac_domnaill:2 mediaeval_gaelic:1 skene_chronicle:1 domnall_mac:2 herd_cattle:1 anglo_saxon:3 saxon_chronicle:3 annals_ulster:3 norse_gael:1 unclear_whether:1 prophecy_berchán:1 external_link:2 alan_orr:1 duncan_kingship:1 kingship_scot:1 warlord_holy:1 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 |
2,537 | Conservative_Judaism | Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out of intellectual currents in Germany in the mid-19th century and took institutional form in the United States in the early 1900s. The principles of Conservative Judaism include: Emet Ve-Emunah, Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism, 2nd Printing, 1990 A deliberately non-fundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith; A positive attitude toward modern culture; and An acceptance of both traditional rabbinic modes of study and modern scholarship and critical text study when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism, developed in 1850s Germany as a reaction to the more liberal religious positions taken by Reform Judaism. The term conservative was meant to signify that Jews should attempt to conserve Jewish tradition, rather than reform or abandon it, and does not imply the movement's adherents are politically conservative. Because of this potential for confusion, a number of Conservative Rabbis have proposed renaming the movement "In what Direction is the Conservative Movement Headed", Jewish News Weekly of Northern California, January 20, 2006 , and outside of the United States and Canada, in many countries including Israel Masorti Movement in Israel and the UK Assembly of Masorti Synagogues , it is today known as Masorti Judaism (Hebrew for "Traditional"). Conservative movement is a sub-set of Conservative Judaism The term Conservative Judaism doesn't refer to a narrowly defined movement or school of thought. Rather, it refers to a broad religious movement with an overlapping range of beliefs and practices that are more liberal than what is affirmed in Orthodoxy, and more traditional than what is affirmed in Reform. This definition covers a wide range of groups and individual prayer communities outside of the formal Conservative movement. The Conservative movement, more narrowly defined, refers to a specific religious group with a well-defined organizational structure, specifically the LCCJ, Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism, and any people affiliated with any of these organizations. Conservative Jewish groups in the broader sense include Traditional-Egalitarian synagogues, and many non-movement affiliated synagogues, kehillot and chavurot, and any people affiliated with any of these organizations. The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities, Daniel J. Elazar, Rela Mintz Geffen, SUNY Press, 2000 , Beyond Dogma, Jerusalem Post Magazine, Feb 11, 2005 , Conservative Judaism at a Crossroads: Pulse of the People, Wed. Aug 29, 2007, The Forward History Like Reform Judaism, the Conservative movement developed in Europe and the United States in the 1800s, as Jews reacted to the changes brought about by the Enlightenment and Jewish emancipation. In Europe the movement was known as Positive-Historical Judaism, and it is still known as "the historical school." Positive-Historical Judaism, the intellectual forerunner to Conservative Judaism, was developed as a school of thought in the 1840s and 1850s in Germany. Its principal founder was Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, who had broken with the German Reform Judaism in 1845 over its rejection of the primacy of the Hebrew language in Jewish prayer and the rejection of the laws of kashrut. In 1854, Frankel became the head of the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau, Germany. At the seminary, Frankel taught that Jewish law was not static, but rather has always developed in response to changing conditions. He called his approach towards Judaism "Positive-Historical," which meant that one should have a positive attitude towards accepting Jewish law and tradition as normative, yet one should be open to developing the law in the same fashion that it has always historically developed. Frankel rejected the innovations of Reform Judaism as insufficiently based in Jewish history and communal practice. However, Frankel's use of modern methods of historical scholarship in analyzing Jewish texts and developing Jewish law set him apart from neo-Orthodox Judaism, which was concurrently developing under the leadership of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch. The Conservative coalition splintered in 1963, when advocates of the Reconstructionist philosophy of Mordecai Kaplan seceded from the movement to form a distinct Reconstructionist Judaism. Kaplan had been a leading figure at JTS for 54 years, and had pressed for liturgical reform and innovations in ritual practice from inside of the framework of Conservative Judaism. Frustrated by the perceived dominance of the more traditionalist voices at JTS, Kaplan's followers decided that the ideas of Reconstructionism would be better served through the creation of separate denomination. In 1968, the split became formalized with the establishment of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College. Conservative Judaism in America In the latter half of the 19th century, the debates occurring in German Judaism were replicated in America. Conservative Judaism in America similarly began as a reaction to Reform Judaism's rejection of traditional Jewish law and practice. The differences between the more modern and traditional branches of American Judaism came to a head in 1883, at the "Trefa Banquet" at the Highland House entertainment pavilion, which was at the top of the Mount Adams Incline 2005AjajFinal.indb Cablecars/Inclines - where shellfish and other non-kosher dishes were served at the celebration of the first graduating class of Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati. The adoption of the radical Pittsburgh Platform in 1885, which dismissed observance of the ritual commandments and Jewish peoplehood as "anachronistic", created a permanent wedge between the Reform movement and more traditional American Jews. Conservative Judaism has had a large impact on education in America. Many Conservative schools dot the United States. The Solomon Schechter day schools, including The Epstein School in Atlanta, Georgia, are an example. Jewish Theological Seminary In 1886, prominent Sephardi Rabbis Sabato Morais and H. Pereira Mendes founded the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) in New York City as a more traditional alternative to HUC. The Seminary's brief affiliation with the traditional congregations that established the Union of Orthodox Congregations in 1898 was severed due to the Orthodox rejection of the Seminary's academic approach to Jewish learning. At the turn of the century, the Seminary lacked a source of permanent funding and was ordaining on average no more than one rabbi per year. The fortunes of Conservative Judaism underwent a dramatic turnaround when in 1902, the famed scholar Solomon Schechter accepted the invitation to become president of JTS. Under Schechter's leadership, JTS attracted a distinguished faculty and became a highly regarded center of Jewish learning. In 1913, the Conservative Movement founded its congregational arm, the United Synagogue of America. Conservative Judaism enjoyed rapid growth in the first half of the 20th century, becoming the largest American Jewish denomination. Its combination of modern innovation (such as mixed gender seating) and traditional practice particularly appealed to first and second-generation Eastern European Jewish immigrants, who found Orthodoxy too restrictive, but Reform Judaism foreign. After World War II, Conservative Judaism continued to thrive. The 1950s and early 1960s featured a boom in synagogue construction as upwardly-mobile American Jews moved to the suburbs. Conservative Judaism occupied an enviable middle position during a period where American society prized consensus. In the 1990s, the American Jewish University (formerly the University of Judaism) in Los Angeles established the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies as an independent rabbinical school. Gender equality In the 1970s and early 1980s, Conservative Judaism was divided over issues of gender equality. In 1973, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards voted, without adopting an explanatory responsum, to permit synagogues to count women toward a minyan, but left the choice to individual congregations. After a further decade of debate, in 1983, JTS voted to admit women for ordination as Conservative rabbis, also without adopting an explanatory responsum. Some opponents of these decisions left the Conservative movement to form the Union for Traditional Judaism. In 2002, the Committee adopted a responsum that provides an official religious-law foundation for its past actions and articulates the current Conservative approach to the role of women in Judaism. Rabbi David J. Fine, Women and the Minyan, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, June 12, 2002. In December 2006, a responsum was adopted by the Committee that approved the ordination of gay and lesbian rabbis and permitted commitment ceremonies for lesbian and gay Jews (but not same-sex marriage), while maintaining the traditional prohibition against anal sex between men. Rabbis Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner, Homosexuality, Human Dignity, & Halakhah, Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Rabbinical Assembly, December 6, 2006. An opposing responsum, that maintained the traditional prohibitions against ordinations and commitment ceremonies, was also approved. Both responsa were enacted as majority opinions, with some members of the Committee voting for both. This result gives individual synagogues, rabbis, and rabbinical schools discretion to adopt either approach. "Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions", The New York Times, December 7, 2006 Conservative Judaism in Israel Conservative congregations in Israel are increasing in popularity. Attendance has grown by as much as 40 percent over the last decade. In 2008, there are 52 congregations. Despite investing much time and effort the Conservative movement remains tiny, failing to draw Israelis. The members are overwhelmingly American immigrants. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1037251.html, Like in America Trends in the 21st century At the time of the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, Conservative Judaism remained the largest denomination in America, with 43 percent of Jewish households affiliated with a synagogue belonging to Conservative synagogues (compared to 35 percent for Reform and 16 percent for Orthodox). In 2000, the NJPS showed that only 33 percent of synagogue-affiliated American Jews belonged to a Conservative synagogue. For the first time in nearly a century, Conservative Judaism is no longer the largest denomination in America. At the same time, however, certain Conservative institutions, particular day schools, have shown significant growth. Conservative leaders agree that these contrasting trends indicate that the movement has reached a crossroads as it heads into the 21st century. The Jews leaving the Conservative movement move in three distinct directions. Some are joining Reform Judaism; a smaller but still significant fraction are joining Modern Orthodox congregations. Many people, however, are staying theologically and halakhically within Conservative Judaism, but have moved outside of the Conservative movement, creating their own traditional-egalitarian synagogues, and non-movement affiliated kehillot and chavurot. It is precisely this last phenomenon which has led to the development of groups designed to address this issue: http://www.forward.com/articles/103796/ Coalition Seeks Overhaul of Conservative Movement, Anthony Weiss, March 10, 2009, Jewish Daily Forward , http://jta.org/news/article/2009/03/10/1003593/conservative-group-calls-for-greater-role-in-movements-future Conservative group calls for greater role in movement's future Ben Harris, March 10, 2009, JTA news , http://www.forward.com/articles/104010/ Conservative Shuls Hint They’ll Leave United Synagogue Absent Big Reforms, Anthony Weiss, March 16, 2009, Jewish Daily Forward , http://www.shefanetwork.org/shefajournal5769a.pdf "USCJ & the Future of Conservative Judaism" Shefa Journal 5769:1, Shevat 5769 / February 2009, The ShefaNetwork, Shefanetwork.org HaYom: The Coalition for the Transformation of Conservative Judaism HaYom The Shefa Network The Shefa Network Beliefs In 1988, the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism issued an official statement of belief, Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism. Emet Ve-Emunah affirms belief in God and in the divine inspiration of the Torah; however, it also affirms the legitimacy of multiple interpretations of these issues. Atheism, Trinitarian views of God, and polytheism are ruled out. Conservative Judaism rejects both relativism and fundamentalism. God Conservative Judaism affirms monotheism. Its members have varied beliefs about the nature of God, and no one understanding of God is mandated. Among the beliefs affirmed are: Maimonidean rationalism; Kabbalistic mysticism; Hasidic panentheism (neo-Hasidism, Jewish Renewal); limited theism (as in Harold Kushner's When Bad Things Happen to Good People); and organic thinking in the fashion of Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne, also known as process theology (such as Rabbis Max Kaddushin and William E. Kaufman). Mordecai Kaplan's religious naturalism (Reconstructionist Judaism) used to have an influential place in the movement, but since Reconstructionism developed as an independent movement, this influence has waned. Papers from a recent Rabbinical Assembly conference on theology were printed in a special issue of the journal Conservative Judaism (Winter 1999); the editors note that Kaplan's naturalism seems to have dropped from the movement's radar screen. Revelation Conservative Judaism allows its adherents to hold to a wide array of views on the subject of revelation. Many Conservative Jews reject the traditional Jewish idea that God literally dictated the words of the Torah to Moses at Mount Sinai in a verbal revelation, but they hold the traditional Jewish belief that God inspired the later prophets to write the rest of the Tanakh. Many Conservative Jews believe that Moses was inspired by God in the same manner as the later prophets. Conservative Jews who reject the concept of verbal revelation believe that God revealed his will to Moses and other prophets in a non-verbal form — that is, God's revelation did not include the particular words of the divine texts. http://masortiworld.org/faq/theology-%20beliefs/torah-misinai.html http://www.jewlicious.com/2005/06/conservative-judaism/ Conservative Judaism http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/conservatives.html Conservative Judaism is comfortable with the higher criticism, including the documentary hypothesis, the theory that the Torah was redacted from several earlier sources. The movement's rabbinic authorities and its official Torah commentary (Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary) affirm that Jews should make use of modern critical literary and historical analysis to understand how the Bible developed. Concerning the degree of revelation of Torah, Conservative Judaism rejects the Orthodox position of a direct verbal revelation of the Torah. However, Conservative Judaism also rejects the Reform view, that the Torah was not revealed but divinely inspired. In contrast to both, most Conservative positions affirm the divine but nonverbal revelation of written Torah as the authentic, historically correct Jewish view. In this view, Oral Torah is considered inspired by Torah, but not necessarily of a straightforward divine origin. Jewish law Conservative Judaism views halakha (Jewish religious law) as normative and binding. Examining Jewish history and rabbinic literature through the lens of academic criticism, Conservative Judaism believes that halakha has always evolved to meet the changing realities of Jewish life, and that it must continue to do so in the modern age. This view, together with Conservative Judaism's diversity of opinion concerning divine revelation, accounts for some of the diversity and disagreement in the Conservative movement's halakha. When considering changes to halakha, Conservative Judaism's rabbinical authorities may rely on historical analysis as well as religious considerations. As Solomon Schechter noted, "however great the literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with infallibility, nor does it exempt it from the student or the Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition". Solomon Schechter, Studies in Judaism, First Series, 1896, Jewish Publication Society of America. Concerning interpretation of Halakha (or Jewish law): because of Judaism's legal tradition, the fundamental differences between modern Jewish denominations also involve the relevance, interpretation, and application of Jewish law and tradition. Conservative Judaism believes that its approach is the most authentic expression of Judaism as it was traditionally practiced. Conservative Jews believe that movements to its left, such as Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, have erred by rejecting the traditional authority of Jewish law and tradition. They believe that the Orthodox Jewish movements, on the theological right, have erred by slowing down, or stopping, the historical development of Jewish law: "Conservative Judaism believes that scholarly study of Jewish texts indicates that Judaism has constantly been evolving to meet the needs of the Jewish people in varying circumstances, and that a central halakhic authority can continue the halakhic evolution today." (Soc. Culture. Jewish Usenet Newsgroup FAQ) The Conservative movement makes a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes to Jewish tradition have occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context. With this information they believe that can better understand the proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today. See also under Modern Orthodox Judaism. Mordecai Waxman, a leading figure in the Rabbinical Assembly, writes that "Reform has asserted the right of interpretation but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority, but has in our own and recent generations rejected the right to any but minor interpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to interpret and to apply Jewish law." (Mordecai Waxman Tradition and Change: The Development of Conservative Judaism) Conservative Judaism views the process by which Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism make changes to Jewish tradition as potentially invalid . Thus, Conservative Judaism rejects patrilineal descent and would hold that a child of a non-Jewish mother who was raised as a Reform or Reconstructionist Jew is not legally Jewish and would have to undergo conversion to become a Jew. The Conservative movement is committed to Jewish pluralism and respects the religious practices of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. For example, the Conservative movement recognizes their clergy as rabbis, even if it does not necessarily accept their specific decisions. Conservative Judaism accepts that the Orthodox approach to halakhah is generally valid. Accordingly, a Conservative Jew could usually satisfy their halakhic obligations by participation in Orthodox rituals. Occasionally, however, they may come into conflict. For instance, if two men and a woman were to eat a meal together, a Conservative Jew would believe that the presence of three adult Jews would obligate the group to say a communal form of the Grace After Meals, while an Orthodox Jew would believe that, lacking three adult Jewish males, the group would be forbidden to do such. Thus, though often de facto the case, Conservative Judaism's halakhic system does not inherently see Orthodox halakhic practice as acceptable and legitimate halakhic practice for a Conservative Jew. Jewish identity Conservative Judaism maintains the Rabbinic understanding of Jewish identity: A Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition. Conservatism thus rejects patrilineal descent, which is accepted by the Reform movement. Conservative Rabbis are not allowed to perform intermarriages (marriages between Jews and non-Jews). However, the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism has a different sociological approach to this issue than does Orthodoxy, although agreeing religiously. In a press release it has stated: "In the past, intermarriage...was viewed as an act of rebellion, a rejection of Judaism. Jews who intermarried were essentially excommunicated. But now, intermarriage is often the result of living in an open society....If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and by that retain a measure of influence in their lives, Jewishly and otherwise. Life consists of constant growth and our adult children may yet reach a stage when Judaism has new meaning for them. However, the marriage between a Jew and non-Jew is not a celebration for the Jewish community. We therefore reach out to the couple with the hope that the non-Jewish partner will move closer to Judaism and ultimately choose to convert. Since we know that over 70 percent of children of intermarried couples are not being raised as Jews...we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews." Organizations In the more limited sense of the term, Conservative Judaism is a unified movement; the international body of Conservative rabbis is the Rabbinical Assembly (RA), the organization of synagogues is the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism (USCJ), and the primary seminaries are the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS) in New York City and the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the American Jewish University (formerly the University of Judaism) in Los Angeles. Conservative Judaism outside the USA is often called Masorti Judaism; Masorti rabbis belong to the Rabbinical Assembly. Masorti - About the Movement Affiliated seminaries outside the USA include the Marshall Meyer Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano in Argentina, and Machon Schechter (in Jerusalem.) Many Jews both inside and outside of this formal Conservative movement identify Conservative Judaism as a worldview which is significantly larger than the USCJ and RA. Sociologically and religiously, there is social and religious overlap between the USCJ, the Union for Traditional Judaism, and much of the Chavurah movement. A growing number of congregations which are not affiliated, but which identify themselves as "post-denominational," practice traditional Judaism while emphasizing equal roles for women, for example as prayer leaders. Rabbis trained at JTS and the Ziegler School often serve these synagogues and chavurot, and members of these synagogues and chavurot often pray at, or are members of, USCJ synagogues . Notable figures Jacob B. Agus - leading Rabbi and theologian of liberal Conservative Judaism Bradley Shavit Artson - Dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the American Jewish University(formerly the University of Judaism), author, theologian, and public speaker Ben Zion Bokser - Rabbi, halakhic expert, scholar, and community leader. Elliot N. Dorff - Professor of philosophy at the American Jewish University(formerly the University of Judaism) professor, theologian, member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Arnold Eisen - Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary Louis Finkelstein - Talmud scholar Zecharias Frankel - founder of positive-historical Judaism. Neil Gillman - Theologian, Philosophy Professor at Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS) Louis Ginzberg - Talmud scholar and halakhic expert, early member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Robert Gordis - Rabbi, Theologian, Educator Simon Greenberg Rabbi and Institution Builder Jules Harlow - Primary liturgist of the Conservative movement Judith Hauptman - JTS Talmud scholar Abraham Joshua Heschel - Theologian and social activist Louis Jacobs - Rabbi, founder of Masorti Judaism in the United Kingdom Isaac Klein - Rabbi, expert in Jewish law, early member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Sheldon Levin - Former President of the CA, also former member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards David Lieber- President Emeritus of the American Jewish University(formerly the University of Judaism), past President of the Rabbinical Assembly, Editor of the Etz Hayim Humash Saul Lieberman - Talmud scholar at JTS Aaron L. Mackler - Rabbi, Bioethicist, Theologian,Professor of Theology (Duquesne Univ.), member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Chair, Bioethics Subcommittee, former faculty, JTS Philosophy Department Marshall Meyer - Rabbi and human rights activist. Daniel S. Nevins - Dean of the JTS Rabbinical School, Halakhic Scholar. Mayer E. Rabinowitz - JTS Talmud scholar, former member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Joel Roth - JTS Talmud scholar, former member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Samuel Schafler - Rabbi, historian, President of Hebrew College, Boston; Superintendent of the Board of Jewish Education, Chicago; Camp Ramah educational director Mathilde Roth Schechter - Founder of the Women's League of Conservative Judaism and of Hadassah Solomon Schechter - Researcher, early leader of JTS, creator of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Ismar Schorsch - Former chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America Harold Schulweis - Rabbi in Los Angeles, theologian, founder of the Havurah movement and the Jewish World Watch Gordon Tucker - Former Dean of Jewish Theological Seminary rabbinical school, part-time faculty member at JTS and member of Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, Senior Rabbi of Temple Israel Center in White Plains, New York Mordecai Waxman, Rabbi of Temple Israel of Great Neck on Long Island. Responsible for opening dialogue between American Jews and The Vatican under Pope John Paul II in 1987 as chairman of the International Jewish Committee on Interreligious Consultations. David Wolpe - Rabbi, author, public speaker in Los Angeles, California. Criticism Conservative Judaism has come under criticism from a variety of sources such as: Orthodox Jews who question the movement's commitment to Halakha. Conservative Traditionalists who criticize the Halakhic process when dealing with issues such as women in Judaism as well as homosexuality. Orthodox Jewish leaders vary considerably in their dealings with the Conservative movement and with individual Conservative Jews. Some Modern Orthodox leaders cooperate and work with the Conservative movement, while haredi ("ultra-Orthodox") Jews often eschew formal contact with Conservative Judaism, or at least its rabbinate. Cf. Responsa of Rabbi Moshe Feinstein From the Orthodox perspective, Conservative Jews are considered just as Jewish as Orthodox Jews, but they are viewed as misguided, consistent violators of halakha. Avi Shafran, "The Conservative Lie", Moment, February 2001. Over the years, Conservative Judaism has experienced internal criticism. Due to halakhic disputes, such as the controversies over the role of women and homosexuality, some Conservative Talmudic scholars and experts in halakha have left the Jewish Theological Seminary and the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards. Avraham Weiss, , Judaism, Fall 1997. Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions - New York Times and the seminary's former Chancellor, Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, complained of the movement's "erosion of [its] fidelity to Halacha ... [which] brings [it] close to Reform Judaism." Jennifer Siegel, "Conservative Rabbi, in Swan Song, Warns Against Liberal Shift", The Jewish Daily Forward, March 24, 2006. In matters of marriage and divorce, the State of Israel relies on its Chief Rabbinate to determine who is Jewish; the Chief Rabbinate, following Orthodox practice, does not recognize the validity of conversions performed by Conservative rabbis and will require a Jew who was converted by a Conservative rabbi to undergo a second, Orthodox conversion to be regarded as a Jew for marriage and other purposes. See also Committee on Jewish Law and Standards Keshet Rabbis Rabbinical Assembly Role of women in Judaism Reform Judaism Orthodox Judaism Liberal Judaism External links American Jewish University Additional reading An intro to Conservative Judaism The Rabbinical Assembly The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism The Jewish Theological Seminary of America The Masorti Movement Standards for Congregational Practice Principles of Masorti Judaism The Core Principles of Conservative Judaism What is Masorti Judaism? Formulating Jewish Law For Our Time A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice - Official work on Jewish law The role of women in Conservative Judaism United Synagogue Youth Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies References Bibliography Conservative Judaism: An American Religious Movement. Marshall Sklare. University Press of America (Reprint edition), 1985. Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants (Revised Edition), Elliot N. Dorff, United Synagogue New York, 1996 The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities, Daniel J. Elazar, Rela Mintz Geffen, SUNY Press, 2000 Conservative Judaism: The New Century, Neil Gillman, Behrman House 1993 Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law, David Golinkin, United Synagogue, 1991 A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, Isaac Klein, JTS Press, New York, 1992 Conservative Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook, Pamela S. Nadell, Greenwood Press, NY 1988 Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism, Ed. Robert Gordis, JTS, New York, 1988 Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary, Ed. David Lieber, Chaim Potok and Harold Kushner, The Jewish Publication Society, NY, 2001 Jews in the Center: Conservative Synagogues and Their Members. Jack Wertheimer (Editor). Rutgers University Press, 2000. Traditional-Egalitarian Judaism Beyond Dogma, Jerusalem Post Magazine Can anyone save Conservative Judaism from itself? The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles Observance of Conservative Jews Conservative Leader Takes Heat for Standards Stance, Forward, March 2002 Eight Up: The College Years, Survey of Conservative Jewish youth from middle school to college. 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2,538 | Ahmad_Shah_Durrani | Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c.1723-1773) (احمد شاه دراني), also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī (احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, was the founder of the Durrani Empire and is regarded by many to be the founder of modern Afghanistan. Library of Congress Country Studies, Afghanistan - Ahmad Shah and the Durrani Empire Singh, Ganda (1959) Ahmad Shah Durrani: Father of Modern Afghanistan Asia Publishing House, London, OCLC 4341271 After the assassination of Nader Shah Afshar, he became the Amir of Khorasan al munshi, P: "Tarikh Ahmad Shahi", page 30. Kaweh, 2000 Dr Kamal Kabuli on historian Faryaar Kohzaad's writings and later became the founder and ruler of his own Empire. The Pashtuns of Afghanistan often call him Bābā ("father"). Early years Ahmad Khan (later Ahmad Shah) was born in Multan, http://www.fasicp.org/index.php/FASIC/DemoGraphy.html http://www.mcci.org.pk/multan_city.asp Punjab, in what is now Pakistan. He was from the Sadozai section of the Popalzai clan of the Abdali Pashtuns, and he was the second son of Mohammed Zaman Khan, chief of the Abdalis. In his youth, Ahmad Shah and his elder brother, Zulfikar Khan, were imprisoned inside a fortress by Hussein Khan, the Ghilzai governor of Kandahar. Hussein Khan commanded a powerful tribe of Pashtuns, having conquered the eastern part of Persia a few years previously and trodden the throne of the Safavids. In around 1731, Nader Shah Afshar, the new ruler of Persia, began enlisting the Abdalis in his army. After conquering Kandahar in 1737, Ahmad Khan and his brother were freed by the new Persian ruler. The Ghilzai were expelled from Kandahar and the Abdalis were allowed to settle there instead. C. Collin-Davies (1999). "Ahmad Shah Durrani". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0). Serving Nader Shah Nader Shah favored Abdali due to his young and handsome features. Abdali was then given the title of “Dur-i-Durran” (Pear of Pearls) by Nader Shah and thus Ahmad Khan changed the Abdali tribe's name to the Durrani tribe. Ahmad Khan proved himself in Nader Shah's service and was promoted from a personal attendant (yasāwal) to command a cavalry of Abdali tribesmen. Ahmad quickly rose to command a cavalry contingent estimated at four thousand strong Griffiths, John. C (2001) Afghanistan: A History of Conflict p12 , composed chiefly of Abdalis, in the service of the Shah on his invasion of India. Popular history has it that the brilliant but megalomaniac Nader Shah could see the talent in his young commander. Later on according to Pashtun legend, it is said that in Delhi Nader Shah summoned Ahmad Khan Abdali and said, "Come forward Ahmad Abdali. Remember Ahmad Khan Abdali, that after me the Kingship will pass on to you. But you should treat the descendants of Nader Shah with kindness." The young Ahmad Shah's response was, "May I be sacrficed to you. Should your majesty wish to slay me I am at your disposal. There is no cause or reason for saying such words!". Singer, Andre (1983) Lords of the Khyber. The story of the North West Frontier Nader Shah's assassination Nader Shah's rule abruptly ended in June 1747, when he was assassinated. The Turkoman guards involved in the assassination did so secretly so as to prevent the Abdalis from coming to their King's rescue. However, Ahmad Khan was told that Nader Shah had been killed by one of his wives. Despite the danger of being attacked, the Abdali contingent led by Ahmad Khan rushed either to save Nader Shah or to confirm what happened. Upon reaching the King's tent, they were only to see Nader Shah's body and severed head. Having served him so loyally, the Abdalis wept at having failed their leader, Olaf Caroe, The Pathans (1981 reprint) and headed back to Kandahar. On their way back to Kandahar, the Abdalis had decided that Ahmad Khan would be their new leader, and already began calling him as Ahmad Shah. Rise to power Later the same year (1747), the chiefs of the Durrani (Abdali) tribes met near Kandahar for a Loya Jirga to choose their new leader. For nine days serious discussions were held among the candidates in the Argah. Ahmad Shah kept silent by not campaigning for himself. At last Sabir Shah, a religious chief, came out of his sanctuary and stood before those in the Jirga and said, "He found no one worthy for leadership except Ahmah Shah. He is the most trustworthy and talented for the job. He had Sabir's blessing for the nomination because only his shoulders could carry this responsibility". The leaders agreed unanimously. Ahmad Shah was chosen to lead the tribes. Coins where struck as his coronation as King occurred in October, 1747, near the tomb of Shaikh Surkh, adjacent to Nadir Abad Fort. Despite being younger than other claimants, Ahmad had several overriding factors in his favour: He was a direct descendant of Sado, patriarch of the Sadozai clan, the most prominent tribe amongst the Pashtuns at the time; He was unquestionably a charismatic leader and seasoned warrior who had at his disposal a trained, mobile force of several thousand cavalrymen; He was the undisputed heir of Nadir Shah's Kingdom. Haji Ajmal Khan, the chief of the Mohammedzais (also known as Barakzais) which were rivals of the Sadodzais, already withdrew out of the election One of Ahmad Shah's first acts as chief was to adopt the title "Durr-i-Durrani" ("pearl of pearls" or "pearl of the age") because Nader Afshar always used this title for him. Military campaigns Following his predecessor, Ahmad Shah set up a special force closest to him consisting mostly of his fellow Durranis, Tājiks, Kizilbāshes, and Yūzufzais. Ahmad Shah began his military conquest by capturing Ghazni from the Ghilzai Pashtuns and then wresting Kabul from the local ruler, and thus strengthened his hold over eastern Khorasan which is most of present-day Afghanistan. Leadership of the various Afghan tribes rested mainly on the ability to provide booty for the clan, and Ahmad Shah proved remarkably successful in providing both booty and occupation for his followers. Apart from invading the Punjab three times between the years 1747-1753, he captured Herāt in 1750 and both Nishapur (Neyshābūr) and Mashhad in 1751. Ahmad Shah first crossed the Indus river in 1748, the year after his ascension - his forces sacked and absorbed Lahore during that expedition. The following year (1749), the Mughal ruler was induced to cede Sindh and all of the Punjab including the vital trans Indus River to him, in order to save his capital from being attacked by Ahmad Shah. Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Ahmad Shah turned westward to take possession of Herat, which was ruled by Nadir Shah's grandson, Shah Rukh of Persia. The city fell to Ahmad Shah in 1750, after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict; Ahmad Shah then pushed on into present-day Iran, capturing Nishapur and Mashhad in 1751. Meanwhile, in the preceding three years, the Sikhs had occupied the city of Lahore, and Ahmad Shah had to return in 1751 to oust them. In 1752, he invaded and reduced Kashmir. He next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the Turkmen, Uzbek, Tajik and Hazara peoples of northern, central, and western Afghanistan. Then in 1756/57, in what was his fourth invasion of India, Ahmad Shah sacked Delhi and plundered Agra, Mathura, and Vrndavana. However, he did not displace the Mughal dynasty, which remained in nominal control as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad's suzerainty over the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. He installed a puppet Emperor, Alamgir II, on the Mughal throne, and arranged marriages for himself and his son Timur into the Imperial family that same year. He married the daughter of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Leaving his second son Timur Shah (who was wed to the daughter of (Alamgir II) to safeguard his interests, Ahmad finally left India to return to Afghanistan. On his way back he couldn't resist attacking the Golden Temple in Amristar and filled its sarovar (sacred pool) with the blood of slaughtered cows and people. Golden Temple is to the Sikhs what Mecca is to the Muslims hence his transgressions were of great proportion. Ahmad Shah captured Amritsar (1757), and sacked the Harmandir Sahib popularly known as the Golden Temple. This final act was to be the start of long lasting bitterness between Sikhs and Afghans. A Punjabi saying of those times was "khada peeta laahey daa, te rehnda Ahmad Shahey daa" which translates to, "what we eat and drink is our property; the rest belongs to Ahmad Shah." Third battle of Panipat The Mughal power in northern India had been declining since the reign of Aurangzeb, who died in 1707; the Marathas, who already controlled much of western and central India from their capital at Pune, were straining to expand their area of control. After Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted, the Marathas filled the power void; in 1758, within a year of Ahmad Shah's return to Kandahar, the Marathas secured possession of the Punjab, and succeeded in ousting his son Timur Shah and his court from India. Amidst appeals from Muslim leaders like Shah Waliullah Shah Wali Ullah 1703-1762 , Ahmad Shah chose to return to India and face the formidable challenge posed by the Maratha Confederacy . He declared a jihad (Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Pashtun tribes, as well as other tribes such as the Baloch, Tajiks, and Muslims in India, answered his call. Early skirmishes ended in victory for the Afghans. By 1759, Ahmad Shah and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a great army that probably outnumbered Ahmad Shah's forces. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third battle of Panipat (January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies who numbered as many as 100,000 troops each, was waged along a twelve-kilometre front, and resulted in a decisive victory for Ahmad Shah. for a detailed account of the battle fought see Chapter VI of The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan by H.G. Keene. Available online at East Turkistan and the Uyghurs Plagued by the plight of the Uyghurs whose lands were conquered by the warring Qing dynasty, Ahmad Shah laboriously attempted to rally Muslim nations to check Qing expansion. Holy War in China, By Ho-dong Kim, pg. 20 Ahmad Shah halted trade with Qing China and dispatched troops to Kokand. The Empire and the Khanate, By L. J. Newby, pg. 34 However, with his campaigns in India exhausting the state treasury, and with his troops stretched thin throughout Central Asia, Ahmad Shah did not have enough resources to check Qing forces. In an effort to alleviate the situation in East Turkistan, Ahmad Shah sent envoys to Beijing, but the talks did not yield favorable prospects for the Uyghurs. Administration & government He used to hold, at stated periods, what is termed a Majlis-e-Ulema, or Assembly of the Learned, the early part of which was generally devoted to divinity and civil law-for Ahmad Shah himself was a Molawi and concluded with conversations on science and poetry. He as a rule did not interfere with the tribes or their customs as long as they did not interfere with his ambitions. Decline The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's and Afghan power. His empire was among the largest Islamic empires in the world at that time. However, this situation was not to last long; the empire soon began to unravel. As early as by the end of 1761, the Sikhs had begun to rebel in much of the Punjab. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to crush the Sikhs. He assaulted Lahore and Amritsar. Within two years, the Sikhs rebelled again, and he launched another campaign against them in 1764, resulting in a severe Sikh defeat. During his 8th Invasion of India, the Sikhs vacated Lahore, but faced Abdali's army and general, Jahan Khan. The fear of his Indian empire falling to the Sikhs continued to obsess the Ahmad Shah Abdali's mind and he let out another campaign against Sikhs towards the close of 1766. This was his eighth invasion into India. The Sikhs had recourse to their old game of hide and seek. They vacated Lahore, but faced squarely the Afghan general, Jahan Khan at Amritsar, forcing him to retreat, with six thousand Abdali's soldiers killed. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia with an army of about twenty thousand Sikhs roamed in the neighbourhood of the Afghan camp plundering it to his heart's content. Never before Ahmad Shah Abdali had felt so helpless, his dream of capturing the whole of India was dying before his own eyes. The Sikhs thereafter ruled the region till Peshawar until 1849 losing to the British in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. In the spring of 1761, Ahmad Shah, returned to Kabul; and from that period, up to the spring of 1773, was actively employed against foreign and domestic foes; but at that time his health, which had been long declining, continued to get worse, and pre-vented his engaging in any foreign expeditions. His complaint was a cancer in the face, which had afflicted him first in 1764, and at last occasioned his death. He died at Murghah, in Afghanistan, in the beginning of June 1773, in the fiftieth year of his age. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani. Legacy Ahmad Shah's successors, beginning with his son Timur and ending with Shuja Shah Durrani, proved largely incapable of governing the Durrani empire and faced with advancing enemies on all sides it was at an end within 50 years of Ahmad Shah's death. Much of the territory conquered by Ahmad Shah fell to others in this half century. By 1818, Ahmad Shah heirs controlled little more than Kabul and the surrounding territory. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated other Pashtun tribes and those of other Durrani lineages. Until Dost Mohammad Khan's ascendancy in 1826, chaos reigned in Afghanistan, which effectively ceased to exist as a single entity, disintegrating into a fragmented collection of small units. At the same this policy ensured he did not continue on the path of other conquerors like Babur or Mohammad Ghori and make India the base for his empire. What he did accomplish was create the basis for Afghanistan as a modern-day nation. Indeed, the name "Afghanistan" finds official mention for the first time ever in history, in the Anglo-Persian peace treaty of 1801. Ahmed Shah has therefore earned recognition as "Ahmad Shah Baba", the "Father" of Afghanistan. His victory over the Marathas also influenced the history of the subcontinent and in particular British policy in the region. His refusal to continue his campaigns deeper into India prevented a clash with the East India Company and allowed them to continue to acquire power and influence after their acquisition of Bengal in 1757. However, fear of another Afghan invasion was to haunt British policy for almost half a century after the battle of Panipat. The acknowledgment of Abdali's military accomplishments are reflected by British intelligence reports on Panipat, which referred to Ahmad Shah as the 'King of Kings'. Sources for the study of Afghanistan, 1747-1809 Fear of an alliance between the French and Afghans led in 1798 to a British envoy, to the Persian court, being instructed to stir up the Persians against the Afghan Empire. Summary: the emergence of the Afghan Kingdom and the Mission of Mountstuart Elphistone, 1747-1809 The most important historical monument in Kandahar is the mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani, in his tomb his epitaph is written: "Under the shimmering turquoise dome that dominates the sand-blown city [of Kandahar] lies the body of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the young Kandahari warrior who in 1747 became Afghanistan's first king. The mausoleum is covered in deep blue and white tiles behind a small grove of trees, one of which is said to cure toothache, and is a place of pilgrimage. In front of it is a small mosque with a marble vault containing one of the holiest relics in the Islamic World, a kherqa, the Sacred Cloak of Prophet Mohammed that was given to Ahmad Shah by Mured Beg, the Emir of Bokhara. The Sacred Cloak is kept locked away, taken out only at times of great crisis but the mausoleum is open and there is a constant line of men leaving their sandals at the door and shuffling through to marvel at the surprisingly long marble tomb and touch the glass case containing Ahmad Shah's brass helmet. Before leaving they bend to kiss a length of pink velvet said to be from his robe. It bears the unmistakable scent of jasmine." Lamb, Christina (2002). The Sewing Circles of Herat. HarperCollins. First Perennial edition (2004), p. 38. ISBN 0-06-050527-3. Wrote Mountstuart Elphinstone of Ahmad Shah: Ahmad Shah's poetry Ahmad Shah wrote a collection of odes in his native Pashto language. He was also the author of several poems in Persian. See also Zamzama History of Afghanistan Sadozai (Pashtun tribe) Notes References Ahmad Shah Durrani, 1722-1772: Founder and first king of modern Afghanistan : revolutionary reformer, poet or feudal lord by Nabi Misdaq Diwan-i Ahmad Shah Abdali by Ahmad Shah Durrani Panipat ki Akhiri Jang (Unknown Binding)Sang-i Mil (1974)by Kashi Raj Marathas : Rise and Fall (ISBN 81-7169-886-7) B R Verma and S R Bakshi Ahmad Shah Durrani. Father of Modern Afghanistan. by Singh, Ganda. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1959. Shahnamah-i Ahmad Shah Abdali (Da Pashto Akedemi da matbu°ato silsilah) (Unknown Binding) by Hafiz (Author) Waquiyat-i-Durrani by Munshi Abdul Karim : translated by Mir Waris Ali; Punjabi Adabi Akadami, Lahore (Pakistan) 1963 External links An Historical Guide To Afghanistan - Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772) Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali Detailed genealogy of the Durrani dynasty Famous Diamonds: The Koh-I-Noor Abdali Tribe History Chronology: from the emergence of the Afghan Kingdom to the Mission of Mountstuart Elphistone, 1747-1809 Afghan Invaders and Waris Shah The story of the Koh-i Noor | Ahmad_Shah_Durrani |@lemmatized ahmad:77 shāh:2 durrānī:1 c:3 احمد:2 شاه:2 دراني:1 also:6 know:3 abdālī:2 ابدالي:1 bear:3 khān:1 founder:4 durrani:18 empire:12 regard:1 many:2 modern:5 afghanistan:20 library:1 congress:1 country:1 study:2 shah:87 singh:3 ganda:2 father:4 asia:3 publishing:2 house:2 london:1 oclc:1 assassination:3 nader:15 afshar:3 become:3 amir:1 khorasan:2 al:1 munshi:2 p:2 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2,539 | Nuclear_physics | Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power and nuclear weapons, but the research field is also the basis for a far wider range of applications, including in the medical sector (nuclear medicine, magnetic resonance imaging), in materials engineering (ion implantation) and in archaeology (radiocarbon dating). The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and, for this reason, has been included under the same term in earlier times. History The discovery of the electron by J. J. Thomson was the first indication that the atom had internal structure. At the turn of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model in which the atom was a large positively charged ball with small negatively charged electrons embedded inside of it. By the turn of the century physicists had also discovered three types of radiation coming from atoms, which they named alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Experiments in 1911 by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn, and by James Chadwick in 1914 discovered that the beta decay spectrum was continuous rather than discrete. That is, electrons were ejected from the atom with a range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energies that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it indicated that energy was not conserved in these decays. In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated the idea of mass–energy equivalence. While the work on radioactivity by Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the nucleons. Rutherford's team discovers the nucleus In 1907 Ernest Rutherford published "Radiation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through Matter" Philosophical Magazine (12, p 134-46) . Geiger expanded on this work in a communication to the Royal Society Proc. Roy. Soc. July 17, 1908 with experiments he and Rutherford had done passing α particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and Marsden Proc. Roy. Soc. A82 p 495-500 and further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger, Proc. Roy. Soc. Feb. 1, 1910 In 1911-2 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. The key experiment behind this announcement happened in 1909 as Ernest Rutherford's team performed a remarkable experiment in which Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden under his supervision fired alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a thin film of gold foil. The plum pudding model predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. Rutherford had the idea to instruct his team to look for something that shocked him to actually observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards, in some cases. The discovery, beginning with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, eventually led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom has a very small, very dense nucleus containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles), and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons. The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of nuclear spin were carried out by Franco Rasetti at the California Institute of Technology in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons had a spin of 1/2, and in the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of 1/2. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 has a spin of 1. James Chadwick discovers the neutron In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by Walther Bothe, Herbert L. Becker, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the neutron (following a suggestion about the need for such a particle, by Rutherford). In the same year Dmitri Ivanenko suggested that neutrons were in fact spin 1/2 particles and that the nucleus contained neutrons to explain the mass not due to protons, and that there were no electrons in the nucleus-- only protons and neutrons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model, each contribute a spin of 1/2 in the same direction, for a final total spin of 1. With the discovery of the neutron, scientists at last could calculate what fraction of binding energy each nucleus had, from comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses calculated in this way, and when nuclear reactions were measured, were found to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to high accuracy (within 1% as of in 1934). Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei In 1935 Hideki Yukawa proposed the first significant theory of the strong force to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the Yukawa interaction a virtual particle, later called a meson, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive strong force had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the pi meson showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle. With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay). The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by Enrico Fermi via Fermi's interaction in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of particle physics, the crown jewel of which is the standard model of particle physics which unifies the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces. Modern nuclear physics A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of nucleons which means that with some approximation it can be treated as a classical system, rather than a quantum-mechanical one. In the resulting liquid-drop model, the nucleus has an energy which arises partly from surface tension and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of binding energy with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of nuclear fission. Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the nuclear shell model, developed in large part by Maria Goeppert-Mayer. Nuclei with certain numbers of neutrons and protons (the magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126, ...) are particularly stable, because their shells are filled. Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the interacting boson model, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as bosons, analogously to Cooper pairs of electrons. Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high spin and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of Rugby balls) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an accelerator. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a phase transition from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the quark-gluon plasma, in which the quarks mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons. Modern topics in nuclear physics Spontaneous changes from one nuclide to another: nuclear decay There are 80 elements which have at least one stable isotope (defined as isotopes never observed to decay), and in total there are about 256 such stable isotopes. However, there are thousands more well-characterized isotopes which are unstable. These radioisotopes may be unstable and decay in all timescales ranging from fractions of a second to weeks, years, or many billions of years. For example, if a nucleus has too few or too many neutrons it may be unstable, and will decay after some period of time. For example, in a process called beta decay a nitrogen-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an oxygen-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons) within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is turned into a proton and an electron and antineutrino, by the weak nuclear force. The element is transmuted to another element in the process, because while it previously had seven protons (which makes it nitrogen) it now has eight (which makes it oxygen). In alpha decay the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus helium-4. In many cases this process continues through several steps of this kind, including other types of decays, until a stable element is formed. In gamma decay, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower state by emitting a gamma ray. The element is not changed in the process. Other more exotic decays are possible (see the main article). For example, in internal conversion decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may be used to eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons, but is not beta decay, and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another. Nuclear fusion When two light nuclei come into very close contact with each other it is possible for the strong force to fuse the two together. It takes a great deal of energy to push the nuclei close enough together for the strong or nuclear forces to have an effect, so the process of nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high densities. Once the nuclei are close enough together the strong force overcomes their electromagnetic repulsion and squishes them into a new nucleus. A very large amount of energy is released when light nuclei fuse together because the binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like our sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. Research to find an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction is currently being undertaken by various research establishments (see JET and ITER). Nuclear fission For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. This splitting of atoms is known as nuclear fission. The process of alpha decay may be thought of as a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely. For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. (Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions.) The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs such as the two that the United States used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay. For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions (these conditions slow and conserve neutrons for the reactions). There is one known example of a natural nuclear fission reactor, which was active in two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions. Production of heavy elements As the Universe cooled after the big bang it eventually became possible for particles as we know them to exist. The most common particles created in the big bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons (hydrogen) and electrons (in equal numbers). Some heavier elements were created as the protons collided with each other, but most of the heavy elements we see today were created inside of stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle and the triple-alpha process. Progressively heavier elements are created during the evolution of a star. Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron, energy is only released in fusion processes occurring below this point. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion costs energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or by the rapid, or r process. The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions because the conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter are present. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers). The r process duration is typically in the range of a few seconds. See also Nuclear model Nuclear reactor physics Isomeric shift Nuclear matter QCD matter Neutron-degenerate matter References Nuclear Physics by Irving Kaplan 2Nd edition, 1962 Addison-Wesley General Chemistry by Linus Pauling 1970 Dover Pub. ISBN 0-486-65622-5 Introductory Nuclear Physics by Kenneth S. Krane Pub. Wiley Models of the Atomic Nucleus by N. Cook, Springer Verlag (2006), ISBN 3540285695 External links American Nuclear Society Boiling Water Reactor Plant, BWR Simulator Program Annotated bibliography on nuclear physics from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Nucleonica ..web driven nuclear science Nuclear science wiki | Nuclear_physics |@lemmatized nuclear:42 physic:16 field:3 study:4 building:1 block:1 interaction:3 atomic:3 nucleus:44 commonly:1 know:7 application:2 power:3 weapon:1 research:5 also:7 basis:1 far:2 wide:1 range:5 include:5 medical:1 sector:1 medicine:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 image:1 material:1 engineering:1 ion:2 implantation:1 archaeology:1 radiocarbon:1 date:1 particle:21 evolve:1 reason:1 term:1 early:1 time:3 history:1 discovery:5 electron:15 j:4 thomson:2 first:2 indication:1 atom:13 internal:2 structure:1 turn:3 century:2 accepted:1 model:17 plum:2 pudding:2 large:5 positively:2 charge:5 ball:3 small:3 negatively:1 embed:1 inside:2 physicist:2 discover:4 three:1 type:5 radiation:4 come:3 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2,540 | Baptists | A Baptist is a Christian who subscribes to a theology and may belong to a church that that, among other things, is committed to believer's baptism (as opposed to infant baptism) and, with respect Church polity, favors the congregational model. "Baptist" can also describe a church, denomination, or other group of individuals made up of individual Baptists. Baptists are historically characterized by individual and local church autonomy and a disavowal of creeds, leading to wide diversity in beliefs and practices among individuals and groups who would call themselves Baptist. While the term Baptist has its origins with the Anabaptists, and was sometimes viewed as pejorative, the denomination itself is historically linked to the English Dissenter or Separatist or Nonconformism movements of the 16th century. Most Baptist churches choose to associate with denominational groups that provide support without control. The largest Baptist association, apart from the Baptist World Alliance, is the Southern Baptist Convention (which left the World Alliance in 2004) but there are many other Baptist associations. There are also those that choose to keep their autonomy by remaining independent from any organization or association. Both Roger Williams and his compatriot in working for religious freedom, Dr. John Clarke, are variously credited as founding the earliest Baptist church in America. Newport Notables In 1639, Williams established a Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island, and Clarke began a Baptist church in Newport, Rhode Island. According to a Baptist historian who has researched the matter extensively, "There is much debate over the centuries as to whether the Providence or Newport church deserved the place of 'first' Baptist congregation in America. Exact records for both congregations are lacking." Brackney, William H. (Baylor University, Texas). Baptists in North America: an historical perspective. Blackwell Publishing, 2006, p. 23. ISBN 1405118652 Membership Statistics Baptists number over 110 million worldwide in more than 220,000 congregations, and are considered the largest world communion of evangelical Protestants, with an estimated 38 million members in North America. Baptist World Alliance Official Statistics Large populations of Baptists also exist in Asia, Africa and Latin America, notably in India (2.4 million), Nigeria (2.5 million), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) (1.9 million), and Brazil (1.7 million). Baptist World Alliance statistics According to a poll in the 1990s, about one in five Christians in the United States claims to be a Baptist. U.S. Baptists are represented in more than fifty separate groups. Ninety-two percent of Baptists are found in five of those bodies — the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC); National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. (NBC); National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.; (NBCA); American Baptist Churches in the USA (ABC); and Baptist Bible Fellowship International (BBFI). Albert W. Wardin, Baptists Around the World (Nashville: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1995) p. 367 Qualifications Only those people who are baptized can be members of a local Baptist church Words about Baptist church,Southern Baptist church and are included in the total number of Baptists. Some Baptist churches do not have an age restriction on membership, but will not accept as a member a child who is considered too young to fully understand and make a profession of faith of their own volition and comprehension. In such cases, the pastor and parents usually meet together with the child to verify the child's comprehension of the decision to follow Jesus. There are instances where persons make a profession of faith but fail to follow through with believers' baptism. In such cases they are considered saved but not church members until baptized. Most churches require you to be baptized to become a member of the church or, alternatively, to transfer membership from a church of like faith. Baptists believe that being baptized alone will not save you; it is only the outward showing of the washing away of the consequences of the sin nature through the acceptance of the sacrificial death and shedding of the blood of Jesus Christ. Baptists believe that the act of baptism is an outward display of the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. When a person who has already been saved and confessed Christ submits to scriptural baptism, they are publicly identifying with Him in His death to old self, burial of past sinful thought and action, and resurrection in newness of life, to walk with Christ the remainder of their days. "Arise and walk, my brother, in newness of life." Some churches, especially in the UK, do not require members to have been baptized as a believer, so long as they have made an adult declaration of faith -- for example, been confirmed in the Anglican church, or become communicant members as Presbyterians. In these cases, believers would usually transfer their memberships from their previous churches. This allows people who have grown up in one tradition, but now feel settled in their local Baptist church, to fully take part in the day to day life of the church, voting at meetings, etc. It is also possible, but unusual, to be baptized without becoming a church member immediately. Baptist beliefs and principles Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority (See Autonomy in BAPTIST Acrostic Below). Therefore, beliefs are not totally consistent from one Baptist church to another, especially beliefs that may be considered minor. However, on major theological issues, Baptist distinctive beliefs are held in common among almost all Baptist churches. Baptists share orthodox Christian beliefs with most other moderate or conservative Christian denominations. These would include beliefs about one God; the virgin birth; miracles; atonement through the death, burial, and bodily resurrection of Jesus; the Trinity (the divinity of Jesus and the Holy Spirit, together with God the Father); the need for salvation (through belief in Jesus Christ as the son of God, his death and resurrection, and confession of Christ as Lord); grace; the Kingdom of God; last things (Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth, the dead will be raised, and Christ will judge everyone in righteousness); and evangelism and missions. Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, 1742 Philadelphia Baptist Confession, the 1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, the Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message, and written church "covenants" which some individual Baptist churches adopt as a statement of their faith and beliefs. Baptists generally believe in the literal Second Coming of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment ) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ ), rewarding them for things done while alive, knowing that works will not get someone to Heaven. Beliefs among Baptists regarding the "end times" include amillennialism, dispensationalism, and historic premillennialism, with views such as postmillennialism and preterism receiving some support. See also: List of Baptist Confessions or Doctrinal Statements The following acrostic backronym, spelling BAPTIST, represents a useful summary of Baptists' distinguishing beliefs: Articles on Baptists beliefs, polity, ministries, practices, organizations, and heritage. The information is intended to be useful for Baptists and non-Baptists alike. Biblical authority (; ; ) Autonomy of the local church (; ) Priesthood of all believers (; ) Two ordinances (believer's baptism and the Lord's Supper) (; ) Individual soul liberty () Separation of Church and State () Two offices of the church (pastor-elder and deacon) (; ) Most Baptist traditions believe in the "Four Freedoms" articulated by Baptist historian Walter B. Shurden: Shurden, Walter B. The Baptist Identity: Four Fragile Freedoms. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 1993. Soul freedom: the soul is competent before God, and capable of making decisions in matters of faith without coercion or compulsion by any larger religious or civil body Church freedom: freedom of the local church from outside interference, whether government or civilian (subject only to the law where it does not interfere with the religious teachings and practices of the church) Bible freedom: the individual is free to interpret the Bible for himself or herself, using the best tools of scholarship and biblical study available to the individual Religious freedom: the individual is free to choose whether to practice their religion, another religion, or no religion; Separation of church and state is often called the "civil corollary" of religious freedom The polity of autonomy is closely related to the polity of congregational governance. Just as each Baptist priest with soul competency is equal to all other Baptists in a church, so each church is equal to every other church. No church or ecclesiastical organization has authority over a Baptist church. Churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation, never by any sort of coercion. Furthermore, this Baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control. Pinson, William M., Jr. "Trends in Baptist Polity." Baptist History and Heritage Society. Available online: http://www.baptisthistory.org/contissues/pinson.htm Exceptions to this local form of local governance include a few churches that submit to the leadership of a body of elders, as well as the Episcopal Baptists that have an Episcopal system. Beliefs that vary among Baptists Because of the importance of the priesthood of every believer, the centrality of the freedom of conscience and thought in Baptist theology, and due to the congregational style of church governance, doctrine varies greatly between one Baptist church and another (and among individual Baptists) especially on the following issues: Calvinism/Arminianism Doctrine of separation Biblical Eschatology Hermeneutical method The translation of Scripture (See King-James-Only Movement) The extent to which missionary boards should be used to support missionaries The extent to which non-members may participate in communion services The nature of Gospel The Sabbath Debate A majority of Baptists worship on Sunday, in contrast with the Old Testament tradition of a Saturday Sabbath, and instead following the New Testament tradition that the disciples met on the first day of the week. As would be expected amongst any people who hold to freedom of conscience, there have historically been a small number of Baptists who have held to some form of Sabbatarian doctrine. There is a small group known as the Seventh Day Baptists. Some trace their origins to earlier Anabaptist or pre-Reformation sects however most acknowledge that the denomination was established in the mid-seventeenth century in England. Seventh Day Baptists may be either General or Particular Baptists but they are united in their observance of their day of worship on Saturday, the seventh day of the week. Although the degree to which they observe the Sabbath varies from person to person, from congregation to congregation, there is a consensus within their circles that none should judge the spirituality of another's personal practices. In the mid-nineteenth century a Seventh Day Baptist tract eventually led to a large portion of the Adventist movement to adopt Sabbatarian teachings, eventually forming the Seventh Day Adventist Church Theological, cultural and political controversies As with all major denominational groups, Baptists have not escaped theological, cultural and political controversy. Baptists have historically been sensitive to the introduction of theological error (from their perspective) into their groups. The older Baptist associations of Europe, Canada, Australia and the northern United States have assimilated influences of different schools of thought, but not without major debate and schisms. Leading up to the American Civil War Baptists became embroiled in the controversy of slavery in the United States. North and South grew further apart in 1845 when the Baptist Church split into Northern and Southern organizations. The Southern Baptist Convention formed on the premise that the Bible sanctions slavery and that it was acceptable for Christians to own slaves. In the 20th century, the Southern Baptist Convention renounced this interpretation. Northern Baptists opposed slavery. In 1844, the Home Mission Society declared that a person could not be a missionary and still keep slaves as property. Currently American Baptist numerical strength is greatest in the former slave-holding states. Department of Geography and Meteorology, "Baptists as a Percentage of all Residents, 2000" Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana. In England, Charles Haddon Spurgeon fought against what he saw as challenges to his strongly conservative point of view in the Downgrade Controversy. As part of the continuing fundamentalist/liberal controversy within the Northern Baptist Convention, two new associations of conservative Baptists were formed—the General Association of Regular Baptist Churches in 1932 and the Conservative Baptist Association of America in 1947. Landmarkism, with its emphasis on ecclesiastical separation and doctrinal rigidity and its cultural foundation in the South, deterred Southern Baptists from being influenced as strongly by aberrant points of view as were the Baptists in the northern United States and other countries. Old Landmarkism held to the traditional Baptist historical consciousness that traced Baptists through dissenters—Donatists, Cathari—back to Jesus, Jordan(although it is not believed that ALL Donatists, Cathari, etc.were Baptist theologically) and the "First Baptist Church" of Jerusalem. Popular Landmarkism contributed to a historical consciousness implicit in the idea that Baptists were an extension of the New Testament community, perpetuating the true church in every age. Leonard, Bill J. "Historical Consciousness and Baptists in the South: Owning and Disowning a Tradition." Proceedings of American Academy of Religion 2002 Annual Meeting. Beginning in the 1980s, there was a concerted effort among a determined group of theologically orthodox Southern Baptists to purge modernist theological influence from its seminaries. This highly publicized SBC Conservative Resurgence/Fundamentalist Takeover occasioned two schisms of theologically modernist Baptist churches: the Cooperative Baptist Fellowship and the Alliance of Baptists. Origins There are two main views about the origins of the Baptists: Baptist origins in the 16th and 17th centuries and Baptist perpetuity. Baptist origins in the 16th and 17th centuries Scholars see the Baptists as the descendants of the 16th century Anabaptists, which are viewed as a product of the Protestant Reformation. Johannes Warns states that the first independent Baptist Church was that at Augsburg, Germany, in about 1524. Warns, Johannes. "Baptism", tr. by G. H. Lang, The Paternoster Press, London, 1957 Others see the Baptists as a separation from the Church of England in the early 1600s. McBeth, Leon. “Baptist Beginnings.” Baptist History and Heritage Society. Available online: http://www.baptisthistory.org/baptistbeginnings.htm (Accessed 10/19/2007) Puritan separatists John Smyth and Thomas Helwys are acknowledged by numerous historians as key founders of the modern Baptist denomination. The early Baptists were divided into General Baptists who were Arminian in theology, and Particular Baptists who were Calvinistic in theology. According to Baptist historian H. Leon McBeth, Baptists, as a distinct denomination, originated in England in a time of intense religious reform. McBeth writes, “Our best historical evidence says that Baptists came into existence in England in the early seventeenth century. They apparently emerged out of the Puritan-Separatist movement in the Church of England.” However there is also documentation saying that Baptists could have been in the England in the 1500's. Joan Boucher (or Joan of Kent) who was martyred for her beliefs in 1550, is reported to have mentioned that she met with Baptists as a young girl in Eythorne, Kent (more information is found at Eythorne Baptist Church). Baptist belief in perpetuity The Baptist perpetuity view (also known as Baptist succession) holds that the Church founded by Christ in Jerusalem was Baptist in character and that separate, yet similar, churches have had perpetual existence from the days of Christ to the present. This view is theologically based on , where Jesus is speaking to Peter, "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it," as well as Jesus' commission and promise to be with His followers as they carried on his ministry, "even unto the end of the world." The Baptist perpetuity view sees Baptists as separate from the Catholic Church, and the Protestant religious denominations and considers that the Baptist movement predates the Catholic Church and is therefore not part of the Protestant Reformation. . J. M. Carroll's The Trail of Blood booklet, published in 1931, has been a popular writing presenting the successionist view, pointing to groups such as the Montanists, Novatianists, Donatists, Paulicians, Albigensians, Catharists, Waldenses, and Anabaptists, as predecessors to contemporary Baptists. . Baptist historian John T. Christian writes in the introduction to his History of the Baptists: "I have throughout pursued the scientific method of investigation, and I have let the facts speak for themselves. I have no question in my own mind that there has been a historical succession of Baptists from the days of Christ to the present time." Other Baptist historians holding the perpetuity view are Thomas Armitage, G.H. Orchard, and David Benedict. Those holding the perpetuity view of Baptist history can be basically divided into two categories: those who hold that there is a direct succession from one church to the next (most commonly identified with Landmarkism), and those who hold that while the Baptist practices and churches continued, they may have originated independently of any previously existing church. Etymology of "Baptist" Baptist comes from the Greek word (baptistés, "baptist," also used to describe John the Baptist), which is related to the verb (baptízo, "to baptize, wash, dip, immerse"), and the Latin baptista, and is in direct connection to "the baptizer," John the Baptist. As a first name it has been used in Europe from the twelfth century also as Baptiste, Jan-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, John-Baptist; and in the Netherlands at least since the seventeenth century, often in combinations like Jan Baptist or Johannes Baptist. As a last name it has been used since the thirteenth century. Other variations also commonly used are Baptiste, Baptista, Battiste, Battista. The Anabaptists in England were called Baptists as early as 1569. See volume one, chapter 15, pages 205-206 of John T. Christian's "History of the Baptists" published by Broadman Press. Available online: http://www.reformedreader.org/history/christian/ahob1/ahobp.htm Questions of labeling Some Baptists object to the application of the labels Protestant, denomination, Evangelical and even Baptist to themselves or their churches, while others accept those labels. Some who reject the label Baptist prefer to be labeled as Christians who attend Baptist churches. Also, a recent trend (most common among megachurches and those embracing the "seeker movement") is to eliminate "Baptist" from the church name, as it is perceived to be a "barrier" to reaching persons who have negative views of Baptists, whether they be of a different church background or none. These churches typically include the word "Community" or other non-religious or denominational terms in their church name. Conversely, others accept the label Baptist because they identify with the distinctives they consider to be uniquely Baptist. They believe those who are removing the name "Baptist" from their churches are "compromising with the world" to attract more members. However, there are other church groups that hold to the beliefs listed above, that have never been known by the label Baptist, and also believe that these beliefs are not exclusive to the Baptist denomination. The label Protestant is rejected by some Baptists (primarily those in the Landmark movement) because in their view Baptists have existed separately since the early days of the Catholic Church. Those holding this view maintain that Baptists have never been a part of the Catholic Church, and as such, Baptists are not "protesting" against Catholicism. Further, they claim that Baptists have no direct connection to any of the Reformationists like Luther, Calvin, or Zwingli. Other Baptists accept the Protestant label as a demographic concept that describes churches who share similar theologies of sola scriptura, sola fide, the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther, Calvin and other traditional reformers held in contrast to the Catholic Church in the 1500s. The label denomination is rejected by some because of the local autonomous governance system used by Baptist churches. Being a denomination is viewed by them as having a hierarchy that substitutes for the Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the label is the influence of the Restoration period on Baptist churches, which emphasized a tearing down of denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the label, feeling that it does not carry a negative connotation but rather is merely a synonym for a Christian or religious group with common beliefs, organized in a cooperative manner to spread its beliefs worldwide. The label Evangelical is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that in their view is not fundamentalist enough, and conversely is also rejected by some liberal Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that in their view is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists who identify with the revival in the United States in the 1700s known as the First Great Awakening. Conversely, some Evangelicals reject the label fundamentalist, believing it to describe a theological position that they consider too extreme and legalistic. However some Baptists, such as the Independent Fundamental Baptists, embrace it. Notes References Gavins; Raymond. The Perils and Prospects of Southern Black Leadership: Gordon Blaine Hancock, 1884–1970 Duke University Press, 1977. Harrison, Paul M. Authority and Power in the Free Church Tradition: A Social Case Study of the American Baptist Convention Princeton University Press, 1959. Harvey, Paul. Redeeming the South: Religious Cultures and Racial Identities among Southern Baptists, 1865–1925 University of North Carolina Press, 1997. Heyrman, Christine Leigh. Southern Cross: The Beginnings of the Bible Belt (1997). Isaac, Rhy. "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 to 1775," William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., XXXI (July 1974), 345–68. Leonard, Bill J. Baptist Ways: A History (2003), comprehensive international history McBeth, H. Leon, (ed.) A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage (1990), primary sources for Baptist history. McGlothlin, W. J. (ed.) Baptist Confessions of Faith. Philadelphia: The American Baptist Publication Society, 1911. Pitts, Walter F. Old Ship of Zion: The Afro-Baptist Ritual in the African Diaspora Oxford University Press, 1996. Rawlyk, George. Champions of the Truth: Fundamentalism, Modernism, and the Maritime Baptists (1990), Canada. Spangler, Jewel L. "Becoming Baptists: Conversion in Colonial and Early National Virginia" Journal of Southern History. Volume: 67. Issue: 2. 2001. pp 243+ Stringer, Phil. The Faithful Baptist Witness, Landmark Baptist Press, 1998. Torbet, Robert G. A History of the Baptists, Judson Press, 1950. Underhill, Edward B. (ed.). Confessions of Faith and Other Documents of the Baptist Churches of England in the 17th century. London: The Hanserd Knollys Society, 1854. Underwood, A. C. A History of the English Baptists. London: Kingsgate Press, 1947. Wills, Gregory A. Democratic Religion: Freedom, Authority, and Church Discipline in the Baptist South, 1785–1900, Oxford. Life & Practice in the Early Church: A Documentary Reader, New York University press. 2001. pp.5–7. ISBN 9780814756485. See also List of Baptist Associations, Conventions and sub-groupings Bapticostal movement Baptist beliefs Baptists and bootleggers counterproductive regulation Bible Belt Christian Right List of famous Baptists Baptist World Alliance Independent Fundamental Baptist Church covenant External links Associated Baptist Press Baptist History and Heritage Society Baptist Messenger Baptist Press Center for Baptist Studies Doctrinal and Historical Information on Baptists Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county Seventh Day Baptist Churches - United States and Canada Various resources and services, including The Journal of Baptist Studies, a peer-reviewed, electronic journal Information about the Enterprise Association of Regular Baptist Churches of Jesus Christ | Baptists |@lemmatized baptist:205 christian:11 subscribe:1 theology:5 may:5 belong:1 church:85 among:9 thing:3 commit:1 believer:9 baptism:7 oppose:2 infant:1 respect:1 polity:7 favor:1 congregational:3 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2,541 | Negligence_per_se | Negligence per se is the legal doctrine whereby an act is considered negligent because it violates a statute (or regulation). In order to prove negligence per se, the plaintiff must show that (1) the defendant violated the statute, (2) the statute is a safety statute, (3) the act caused the kind of harm the statute was designed to prevent, and (4) the plaintiff was within the zone of risk. In some jurisdictions, negligence per se creates merely a presumption of negligence. As a typical example, suppose a contractor violated a building code when constructing a house. The house then collapses and somebody is injured. The violation of the building code establishes negligence per se and the contractor will be found negligent, so long as the contractor's breach of the code was the cause (proximate cause and actual cause) of the injury. The Restatement (Third) of Torts § 14 (Tentative Draft No. 1, March 28, 2001) addresses negligence per se. Also see Grable & Sons Metal Prods. v. Darue Eng'g & Mfg., 125 S. Ct. 2363, 2370 (2005). See also Illegal per se Tedla v. Ellman | Negligence_per_se |@lemmatized negligence:6 per:6 se:6 legal:1 doctrine:1 whereby:1 act:2 consider:1 negligent:2 violate:3 statute:5 regulation:1 order:1 prove:1 plaintiff:2 must:1 show:1 defendant:1 safety:1 cause:4 kind:1 harm:1 design:1 prevent:1 within:1 zone:1 risk:1 jurisdiction:1 create:1 merely:1 presumption:1 typical:1 example:1 suppose:1 contractor:3 building:2 code:3 construct:1 house:2 collapse:1 somebody:1 injure:1 violation:1 establishes:1 find:1 long:1 breach:1 proximate:1 actual:1 injury:1 restatement:1 third:1 tort:1 tentative:1 draft:1 march:1 address:1 also:2 see:2 grable:1 son:1 metal:1 prod:1 v:2 darue:1 eng:1 g:1 mfg:1 ct:1 illegal:1 tedla:1 ellman:1 |@bigram per_se:6 proximate_cause:1 |
2,542 | Accusative_case | The accusative case (abbreviated ACC) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions. It is a noun that is having something done to it, usually joined (such as in Latin) with the nominative case. The accusative case exists (or existed once) in all the Indo-European languages (including Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, German, Polish, Russian), in the Finno-Ugric languages, and in Semitic languages (such as Arabic). Balto-Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, have two cases to mark objects, the accusative and the partitive case. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both perform the accusative function, but the accusative object is telic, while the partitive is not. Modern English, which almost entirely lacks declension in its nouns, still has an explicitly marked accusative case in a few pronouns as a remnant of Old English, an earlier declined form of the language. "Whom" is the accusative case of "who"; "him" is the accusative case of "he"; and "her" is the accusative case of "she". These words also serve as the dative case pronouns in English and could arguably be classified in the oblique case instead. Most modern English grammarians feel that due to the lack of declension except in a few pronouns, where accusative and dative have been merged, that making case distinctions in English is no longer relevant, and frequently employ the term "objective case" instead (see Declension in English). Example In the sentence I see the car, the noun phrase the car is the direct object of the verb "see". In English, which has mostly lost the case system, the definite article and noun "the car" remain in the same form regardless of the grammatical role played by the words. One can correctly use "the car" as the subject of a sentence also: "The car is parked here." In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes in some way according to the grammatical role played by the noun in a given sentence. For example, in German, one possible translation of "the car" is der Wagen. This is the form in nominative case, used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German Ich sehe den Wagen. In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from der to den in the accusative case. The accusative case in Latin Nouns in the accusative case (Accusativus) can be used as a direct object. to indicate duration of time. E.g. multos annos, "for many years"; ducentos annos, "for 200 years." This is known as the accusative of duration of time. to indicate direction towards which. E.g. domum, "homewards"; Romam, "to Rome" with no preposition needed. This is known as the accusative of place to which, and is equivalent to the lative case found in some other languages. in indirect statements. with case-specific prepositions such as "per" (through), "ad" (to/toward), and "trans" (across). it can also be used in exclamations, such as 'me miseram'-wretched me, spoken by Circe to Ulysses in Ovid's Remedium Amoris. For the accusative endings, see Latin declensions. The accusative case in German The accusative case is used for the direct object in a sentence. The masculine forms for German articles, e.g. 'the', 'a/an', 'my', etc. change in the accusative case: they always end in -en. The feminine, neuter and plural forms do not change. Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Definite article (the) den die das die Indefinite article (a/an) einen eine ein einige For example, "Hund" (dog) is a masculine (der) word, so the article changes when used in the accusative case: Ich habe einen Hund. (lit.: I have a dog.) In the sentence "a dog" is in the accusative case as it is the second idea (the object) of the sentence. Some German pronouns also change in the accusative case. The accusative case is also used after particular German prepositions. These include bis, durch, für, gegen, entlang, ohne, um, after which the accusative case is always used, and an, auf, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen which can govern either the accusative or the dative. The latter prepositions take the accusative when motion or action is specified (being done into/onto the space), but take the dative when location is specified (being done in/on that space). These prepositions are also used in conjunction with certain verbs, in which case it is the verb in question which governs whether the accusative or dative should be used. Adjective endings also change in the accusative case. There is also another factor that determines the endings of adjectives and that is whether the adjective is being used after a definite article (the), after an indefinite article (a/an) or without any article before the adjective (many green apples). Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Definite article -en -e -e -en Indefinite Article -en -e -es -en No article -en -e -es -e In German, the accusative case is also used for some adverbial expressions, mostly temporal ones, as in "Diesen Abend bleibe ich daheim" (This evening I'm staying at home), where "diesen Abend" is marked as accusative, while not being a direct object. The accusative case in Russian In Russian, accusative is used not only to display the direct object of an action, but also to indicate the destination or goal of motion. It is also used with some prepositions. The prepositions в and на can both take accusative in situations where they are indicating the goal of a motion. In the masculine, Russian also distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns with regard to the accusative: only the animates carry a marker in this case. The accusative case in Esperanto Esperanto grammar involves only two cases, a nominative, and an accusative. The accusative is formed with the addition of -n to the nominative form, and is the case used for direct objects. Other objective functions, including dative functions are achieved with prepositions, all of which normally take the nominative case. Direction of motion can be expressed either by the accusative case, or by the preposition al (to) with the nominative. The accusative case in Ido In Ido the -n suffix is optional, as subject-verb-object order is assumed when it is not present. Note that this is sometimes done in Esperanto, specially by beginners, but it is considered incorrect while in Ido it is the norm. The accusative in Finnish According to traditional Finnish grammars, in Finnish the accusative is the case of a total object, while the case of a partial object is the partitive. The accusative is identical either to the nominative or the genitive, except for personal pronouns and the personal interrogative pronoun kuka/ken, which have a special accusative form ending in -t The major new Finnish grammar, Iso suomen kielioppi, breaks with the traditional classification to limit the accusative case to the special case of the personal pronouns and kuka/ken. The new grammar considers other total objects as being in the nominative or genitive. The accusative in Semitic languages Accusative case marking existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. It is preserved today only in literary Arabic. Accusative in Akkadian Nominative: awīlum (a/the man) Accusative: apaqqid awīlam (I trust a/the man) Accusative in Arabic Nominative: rajulun (a man) Accusative: as'alu rajulan (I ask a man) as'alu ar-rajula (I ask the man) The accusative case is called in Arabic النصب an-naṣb, and it has many other uses in addition to marking the object of a verb. The accusative in Armenian While the Armenian dialects both have a de facto accusative case, there are no special suffixes denoting the direct object of an action in Armenian. See also Nota accusativi External links Accusative Case In Russian Resources to learn Accusative Case in Russian Arabic case endings | Accusative_case |@lemmatized accusative:56 case:52 abbreviate:1 acc:1 noun:11 grammatical:3 use:18 mark:6 direct:8 object:18 transitive:1 verb:7 many:4 language:9 preposition:10 something:1 usually:2 join:1 latin:4 nominative:10 exist:3 indo:1 european:1 include:3 sanskrit:1 greek:1 german:9 polish:1 russian:6 finno:1 ugric:1 semitic:3 arabic:5 balto:1 finnic:1 finnish:5 estonian:1 two:2 partitive:3 morphosyntactic:1 alignment:1 term:2 perform:1 function:3 telic:1 modern:2 english:7 almost:1 entirely:1 lacks:1 declension:4 still:1 explicitly:1 pronoun:6 remnant:1 old:1 early:1 decline:1 form:8 word:3 also:13 serve:1 dative:6 pronouns:1 could:1 arguably:1 classify:1 oblique:1 instead:2 grammarian:1 feel:1 due:1 lack:1 except:2 merge:1 make:1 distinction:1 longer:1 relevant:1 frequently:1 employ:1 objective:2 see:5 example:3 sentence:7 car:6 phrase:1 mostly:2 lose:1 system:1 definite:5 article:15 remain:1 regardless:1 role:2 play:2 one:3 correctly:1 subject:3 park:1 declined:1 morphology:1 change:8 way:1 accord:2 give:1 possible:1 translation:1 wagen:2 pair:1 entail:1 shift:1 ich:3 sehe:1 den:3 masculine:6 der:2 accusativus:1 indicate:4 duration:2 time:2 e:10 g:3 multos:1 annos:2 year:2 ducentos:1 know:2 direction:2 towards:1 domum:1 homewards:1 romam:1 rome:1 need:1 place:1 equivalent:1 lative:1 find:1 indirect:1 statement:1 specific:1 per:1 ad:1 toward:1 trans:1 across:1 exclamation:1 miseram:1 wretched:1 speak:1 circe:1 ulysses:1 ovid:1 remedium:1 amoris:1 ending:4 etc:1 always:2 end:2 en:6 feminine:3 neuter:3 plural:3 die:2 da:1 indefinite:3 einen:2 eine:1 ein:1 einige:1 hund:2 dog:3 habe:1 lit:1 second:1 idea:1 particular:1 bi:1 durch:1 für:1 gegen:1 entlang:1 ohne:1 um:1 auf:1 hinter:1 neben:1 über:1 unter:1 vor:1 zwischen:1 govern:2 either:3 latter:1 take:4 motion:4 action:3 specify:2 onto:1 space:2 location:1 conjunction:1 certain:1 question:1 whether:2 adjective:4 another:1 factor:1 determine:1 without:1 green:1 apple:1 adverbial:1 expression:1 temporal:1 diesen:2 abend:2 bleibe:1 daheim:1 evening:1 stay:1 home:1 display:1 destination:1 goal:2 в:1 на:1 situation:1 distinguish:1 animate:1 inanimate:1 regard:1 animates:1 carry:1 marker:1 esperanto:3 grammar:4 involve:1 addition:2 n:2 achieve:1 normally:1 express:1 al:1 ido:3 suffix:2 optional:1 order:1 assume:1 present:1 note:1 sometimes:1 specially:1 beginner:1 consider:2 incorrect:1 norm:1 traditional:2 total:2 partial:1 identical:1 genitive:2 personal:3 interrogative:1 kuka:2 ken:2 special:3 major:1 new:2 iso:1 suomen:1 kielioppi:1 break:1 classification:1 limit:1 proto:1 akkadian:2 ugaritic:1 preserve:1 today:1 literary:1 awīlum:1 man:5 apaqqid:1 awīlam:1 trust:1 rajulun:1 alu:2 rajulan:1 ask:2 ar:1 rajula:1 call:1 النصب:1 naṣb:1 us:1 armenian:3 dialect:1 de:1 facto:1 denote:1 nota:1 accusativi:1 external:1 link:1 resource:1 learn:1 |@bigram transitive_verb:1 indo_european:1 finno_ugric:1 finnish_estonian:1 declension_noun:1 accusative_dative:3 feminine_neuter:3 neuter_plural:3 masculine_feminine:2 animate_inanimate:1 inanimate_noun:1 nominative_accusative:2 nominative_genitive:2 interrogative_pronoun:1 proto_semitic:1 de_facto:1 external_link:1 |
2,543 | Diatessaron | |Arabic Diatessaron, Translated by Abul Faraj Al Tayyeb from Syrian to Arabic, 11th Century The Diatessaron (c 150 - 160) is the most prominent Gospel harmony created by Tatian, an early Christian apologist and ascetic. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Tatian Tatian combined Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John into a single narrative. Tatian's harmony follows the gospels closely in terms of text but puts the text in a new, different sequence. The four gospels are different from each other, and combining them into one story is tantamount to creating a new story different from each original. Ehrman, Bart D.. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 Like other harmonies, the Diatessaron resolves conflicting statements. For example, it omits the conflicting genealogies in Matthew and Luke. In order to fit all the canonical material in, Tatian created his own narrative sequence, which is different from both the synoptic sequence and John's sequence. Tatian omitted duplicated text, especially among the synoptics. The harmony does not include Jesus' encounter with the adulteress (John 7:53 - 8:11), a passage that some consider not to be original to John. "certainly not part of the original text," according to Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Pericope adulterae. No significant text was added. Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, mostly the genealogies and the pericope adulterae. The final work is about 72% the length of the four gospels put together (McFall, 1994). In the early church, the gospels at first circulated independently, with Matthew the most popular. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. The Diatessaron is notable evidence for the authority already enjoyed by the four gospels by the mid-second century. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Diatessaron Twenty years after Tatian's harmony, Irenaeus expressly proclaimed the authoritative character of the four gospels. The Diatessaron became the standard text of the gospels in the Syriac-speaking churches down to the fifth century, when it gave way to the four separate Gospels, in the Peshitta version. Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Peshitta Tatian's harmony Tatian was an Assyrian who was a pupil of Justin Martyr in Rome. When Justin quotes the Gospels, he tends to do so in a harmonised form, and it is generally concluded that he must have possessed a Greek harmony text; but it is unclear how much Tatian may have borrowed from this previous author in determining his own narrative sequence of Gospel elements. It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel texts composited into his Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own. Where the Diatessaron records Gospel quotations from the Jewish Scriptures, the text appears to agree with that found in the Syriac Peshitta Old Testament rather than that found in the Greek Septuagint - as used by the original Gospel authors. The majority consensus is that the Peshitta Old Testament preceded the Diatessaron, and represents an independent translation from the Hebrew Bible. Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that had survived - in Arabic and Latin - both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonic versions of the separate Gospel texts. There has even been disagreement about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether Syriac or Greek. Modern scholarship tends to favour a Syriac origin; but even so, the exercise must have been repeated in Greek very shortly afterwards—probably by Tatian himself. Diatessaron in Syriac Christianity The Diatessaron was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of the Syrian Church for two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers. Ephrem the Syrian wrote a commentary on it, the Syriac original of which was rediscovered only in 1957, when a manuscript acquired by Sir Chester Beatty from the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in Wadi Natrun, Egypt (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary. The incomplete manuscript has been supplemented by stray folios that have appeared on the European market, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac original is available (McCarthy 1994); for those phrases that Ephrem quotes (which is not the entire text), it provides for the first time, a dependable witness to Tatian's original; and also confirms their content and sequence. . How the Gospel text that was the standard in Syriac Christianity for two centuries should have utterly disappeared requires explaining. Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the Diatessaron, which he "collected and put away, and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists". Thus the harmonisation was replaced in the 5th century by the canonical four gospels individually, in the Peshitta version, whose Syriac text nevertheless contains many Diatessaronic readings. Gradually, without extant copies to which to refer, the Diatessaron developed a reputation for having been heretical. Vernacular harmonies derived from the Diatessaron No Christian tradition, other than the Syriac, has ever adopted a harmonized Gospel text for use in its liturgy. However, in many traditions (given the inherent tendency of Christian liturgical texts to ossification), it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the vernacular of their own day. Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking the Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently. Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th Century Arabic harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th Century Persian harmony. The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but uses a source text corrected in most places to that of the standard Syriac Peshitta Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary. The Diatessaron is thought to have been available to Muhammad, and may have led to the assumption in the Koran that the Christian Gospel is one text. On pre-Islamic Christian strophic poetical tests in the Koran, Ibn Rawandi, ISBN 1-57392-945-X An Old Latin version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from the late second century; with a sequence adjusted to conform more closely to that of the canonical Gospel of Luke, and also including additional material (such as the pericope of the adulteress), possibly from the Gospel of the Hebrews. With the gradual adoption of the Vulgate as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conform to Vulgate readings. In 546 Victor of Capua discovered such a mixed manuscript; and, further corrected by Victor so as to provide a very pure Vulgate text within a modified Diatessaron sequence, this harmony, the Codex Fuldensis, survives in the monastic library at Fulda, where it served as the source text for vernacular harmonies in Old High German, Eastern Frankish and Old Saxon (the alliterative poem 'Heliand'). The older mixed Vulgate/Diatessaron text type also appears to have continued as a distinct tradition, as such texts appear to underly surviving 13th-14th century Gospel harmonies in Middle Dutch, Middle High German, Middle French, Middle English, Tuscan and Venetian; although no example of this hypothetical Latin sub-text has ever been identified. This Latin Diatessaron textual tradition has also been suggested as underlying the enigmatic 16th century pro-Muslim Gospel of Barnabas (Joosten, 2002). Tradition of Gospel harmonies The name 'Diatessaron' is Greek for 'through four'; the Syriac name for this gospel harmony is 'ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ ܕܡܚܠܛܐ' (Ewangeliyôn Damhalltê) meaning 'Gospel of the Mixed' while in the other hand we have 'ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ ܕܡܦܪܫܐ' (Evangelion de Mepharreshe) meaing 'Gospel of the separated'. Indeed, the Syrian Church also rejected John's Book of Revelation and the Pastoral Epistles. They were included again only in the middle of the sixth century. In the tradition of Gospel harmonies, there is another Diatessaron, reportedly written by one Ammonius the Alexandrian, to correct perceived deficiencies in Tatian's. (Note that this Ammonius may or may not be the Ammonius Saccas who taught Origen and Plotinus). None of this revised Diatessaron survives, except as it may have influenced the medieval Arabic and Latin texts that were formerly the only existing reflections of Tatian's work. Gospel harmonies are valuable in studies of biblical texts, since they frequently offer glimpses of earlier versions of texts. In particular, due to their not having been copied as frequently as biblical texts, more of the earlier versions survive (as newer copies did not exist to replace them). As such, the extant texts contain within them portions of earlier versions of the gospels than the earliest separate gospels known. In addition, because the Old Testament quotations in the Diatessaron are separately translated from the Hebrew - and hence independent of the Septuagint - these quotations form an important early witness to the vocalisation of the Hebrew Bible. See also Gospel harmony Papyrus 25 Uncial 0212 Footnotes References Carmel McCarthy, 1994. Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes (Oxford University Press) ISBN 13: 9780199221639 The first English translation. William L. Petersen, "Textual evidence of Tatian's dependence upon Justin's Apomnemonegmata, New Testament Studies 36 (1990) 512-534. Jeffrey Tigay, editor. Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986 Leslie McFall, 1994. "Tatian's Diatessaron: Mischievous or Misleading?" Westminster Theological Journal 56 (1994): 87-114. Jan Joosten, 2002. "The Gospel of Barnabas and the Dietessaron" Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): pp 73-96. Jan Joosten, 2001. "Tatian's Diatessaron and the Old Testament Peshitta" Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 120, No. 3 (Autumn, 2001), pp. 501-523 External links Early Christian Writings: Diatessaron e-text and commentaries. Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. IX: an English translation of an Arabic text, published at Rome in 1888. Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (1) Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The Latin harmony of the Gospels (2) The Dura fragment of the Diatessaron (from the Internet Archive) Text of Arabic and Latin Translations of Diatessaron | Diatessaron |@lemmatized arabic:8 diatessaron:34 translate:3 abul:1 faraj:1 al:1 tayyeb:1 syrian:5 century:12 c:1 prominent:1 gospel:42 harmony:22 create:3 tatian:24 early:8 christian:11 apologist:1 ascetic:1 cross:4 f:4 l:6 ed:4 oxford:9 dictionary:4 church:9 new:8 york:4 university:6 press:6 article:4 combine:2 matthew:3 mark:1 luke:3 john:5 single:1 narrative:3 follow:1 closely:2 term:1 text:37 put:3 different:4 sequence:10 four:8 one:3 story:3 tantamount:1 original:8 ehrman:1 bart:1 misquote:1 jesus:2 behind:1 change:1 bible:4 harpercollins:1 isbn:3 like:1 resolve:1 conflict:2 statement:1 example:2 omit:2 genealogy:2 order:1 fit:1 canonical:4 material:2 synoptic:1 duplicated:1 especially:1 among:1 synoptics:1 include:3 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2,544 | George_Pólya | George Pólya, circa 1973 George Pólya (December 13, 1887 – September 7, 1985, in Hungarian Pólya György) was a Hungarian mathematician. Life and works He was born as Pólya György in Budapest, Hungary, and died in Palo Alto, California, USA. He was a professor of mathematics from 1914 to 1940 at ETH Zürich in Switzerland and from 1940 to 1953 at Stanford University carrying on as Stanford Professor Emeritus the rest of his life and career. He worked on a great variety of mathematical topics, including series, number theory, mathematical analysis, geometry, algebra, combinatorics, and probability.<ref>{{cite book|last = Roberts|first= A. Wayne|year= 1995| title = Faces of Mathematics, Third Edition|publisher = HaperCollins College Publishers| location='New York, NY USA|isbn = 0-06-501069-8|pages=479}}</ref> In his later days, he spent considerable effort on trying to characterize the methods that people use to solve problems, and to describe how problem-solving should be taught and learned. He wrote four books on the subject: How to Solve It, Mathematical Discovery: On Understanding, Learning, and Teaching Problem Solving; Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics, and Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning''. In How to Solve It, Pólya provides general heuristics for solving problems of all kinds, not only mathematical ones. The book includes advice for teaching students of mathematics and a mini-encyclopedia of heuristic terms. It was translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies. Russian physicist Zhores I. Alfyorov, (Nobel laureate in 2000) praised it, saying he was very pleased with Pólya's famous book. The book is still referred to in mathematical education. Douglas Lenat's Automated Mathematician and Eurisko artificial intelligence programs were inspired by Pólya's work. In 1976 The Mathematical Association of America established the George Pólya award "for articles of expository excellence published in the College Mathematics Journal." Quotes To be a good mathematician, or a good gambler, or good at anything, you must be a good guesser. Observe also (what modern writers almost forgot, but some older writers, such as Euler and Laplace, clearly perceived) that the role of inductive evidence in mathematical investigation is similar to its role in physical research. How I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters involving quantum mechanics (This is a mnemonic for the first fifteen digits of ; the lengths of the words are the digits.) If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it. Wishful thinking is imagining good things you don't have...[It] may be bad as too much salt is bad in the soup and even a little garlic is bad in the chocolate pudding. I mean, wishful thinking may be bad if there is too much of it or in the wrong place, but it is good in itself and may be a great help in life and in problem solving. He was the only student that ever scared me (in reference to John von Neumann) Mathematics is the cheapest science. Unlike physics or chemistry, it does not require any expensive equipment. A Great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery (from "Faces of Mathematics", page 3, Robert, A. W., Macalester College). To conjecture and not to test is the mark of a savage. A drunk man will eventually return home but a drunk bird will lose its way in space. (In reference to random walks in dimension 2 and 3). Pólya's four principles First principle: Understand the problem This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve problems simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. Pólya taught teachers to ask students questions such as: Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem? What are you asked to find or show? Can you restate the problem in your own words? Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the problem? Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution? Do you need to ask a question to get the answer? Second principle: Devise a plan Pólya mentions (1957) that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included: Guess and check Make an orderly list Eliminate possibilities Use symmetry Consider special cases Use direct reasoning Solve an equation Also suggested: Look for a pattern Draw a picture Solve a simpler problem Use a model Work backward Use a formula Be creative Use your head/noggen Third principle: Carry out the plan This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general (1957), all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don't be misled, this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals. Fourth principle: Review/extend Pólya mentions (1957) that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked and what didn't. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original problem. See also Multivariate Polya distribution Pólya conjecture Pólya enumeration theorem Pólya Prize Landau-Kolmogorov inequality "Problems and theorems in analysis" References External links The George Pólya Award PolyaPower -- an introduction to Polya's Heuristics George Pólya on UIUC's WikEd Memorial Resolution | George_Pólya |@lemmatized george:5 pólya:17 circa:1 december:1 september:1 hungarian:2 györgy:2 mathematician:3 life:3 work:6 bear:1 budapest:1 hungary:1 die:1 palo:1 alto:1 california:1 usa:2 professor:2 mathematics:10 eth:1 zürich:1 switzerland:1 stanford:2 university:1 carry:2 emeritus:1 rest:1 career:1 great:4 variety:1 mathematical:7 topic:1 include:3 series:1 number:1 theory:1 analysis:2 geometry:1 algebra:1 combinatorics:1 probability:1 ref:2 cite:1 book:5 last:1 robert:2 first:3 wayne:1 year:1 title:1 face:2 third:2 edition:1 publisher:2 hapercollins:1 college:3 location:1 new:1 york:1 ny:1 isbn:1 page:2 late:1 day:1 spend:1 considerable:1 effort:2 try:1 characterize:1 method:1 people:1 use:8 solve:14 problem:21 describe:1 solving:3 teach:4 learn:2 write:1 four:2 subject:1 discovery:4 understanding:1 learning:1 plausible:3 reasoning:3 volume:2 induction:1 analogy:1 ii:1 pattern:2 reason:1 provide:1 general:2 heuristic:3 kind:1 one:1 advice:1 student:4 mini:1 encyclopedia:1 term:1 translate:1 several:1 language:1 sell:1 million:1 copy:1 russian:1 physicist:1 zhores:1 alfyorov:1 nobel:1 laureate:1 praise:1 say:1 pleased:1 famous:1 still:1 refer:1 education:1 douglas:1 lenat:1 automate:1 eurisko:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 program:1 inspire:1 association:1 america:1 establish:1 award:2 article:1 expository:1 excellence:1 publish:1 journal:1 quote:1 good:6 gambler:1 anything:1 must:1 guesser:1 observe:1 also:3 modern:1 writer:2 almost:1 forget:1 old:1 euler:1 laplace:1 clearly:1 perceive:1 role:2 inductive:1 evidence:1 investigation:1 similar:1 physical:1 research:1 need:3 drink:1 alcoholic:1 course:1 heavy:1 chapter:1 involve:1 quantum:1 mechanic:1 mnemonic:1 fifteen:1 digit:2 length:1 word:3 easy:3 find:4 wishful:2 thinking:2 imagine:1 thing:1 may:5 bad:4 much:3 salt:1 soup:1 even:4 little:1 garlic:1 chocolate:1 pudding:1 mean:2 wrong:1 place:1 help:2 ever:1 scar:1 reference:3 john:1 von:1 neumann:1 cheap:1 science:1 unlike:1 physic:1 chemistry:1 require:1 expensive:1 equipment:1 grain:1 solution:2 modest:1 bring:1 play:1 inventive:1 faculty:1 experience:1 tension:1 enjoy:1 triumph:1 w:1 macalester:1 conjecture:2 test:1 mark:1 savage:1 drunk:2 man:1 eventually:1 return:1 home:1 bird:1 lose:1 way:2 space:1 random:1 walk:1 dimension:1 principle:5 understand:4 seem:1 obvious:1 often:2 mention:3 yet:1 stymie:1 simply:1 fully:1 part:1 teacher:1 ask:3 question:2 state:1 show:1 restate:1 think:1 picture:2 diagram:1 might:1 enough:1 information:1 enable:2 get:1 answer:1 second:1 devise:2 plan:4 many:2 reasonable:1 skill:2 choose:4 appropriate:1 strategy:4 best:1 increasingly:1 partial:1 list:2 guess:1 check:1 make:1 orderly:1 eliminate:1 possibility:1 symmetry:1 consider:1 special:1 case:1 direct:1 equation:1 suggest:1 look:2 draw:1 simpler:1 model:1 backward:1 formula:1 creative:1 head:1 noggen:1 step:1 usually:1 care:1 patience:1 give:1 necessary:1 persist:1 continue:1 discard:1 another:1 mislead:1 professional:1 fourth:1 review:1 extend:1 gain:1 take:1 time:1 reflect:1 back:1 predict:1 future:1 relate:1 original:1 see:1 multivariate:1 polya:2 distribution:1 enumeration:1 theorem:2 prize:1 landau:1 kolmogorov:1 inequality:1 external:1 link:1 polyapower:1 introduction:1 uiuc:1 wiked:1 memorial:1 resolution:1 |@bigram george_pólya:5 budapest_hungary:1 palo_alto:1 eth_zürich:1 zürich_switzerland:1 professor_emeritus:1 problem_solving:3 nobel_laureate:1 artificial_intelligence:1 quantum_mechanic:1 wishful_thinking:2 von_neumann:1 external_link:1 |
2,545 | Ambroise | Ambroise (flourished c. 1190) was a Norman poet and chronicler of the Third Crusade, author of a work called L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, which describes in rhyming French verse the adventures of Richard Coeur de Lion as a crusader. The poem is known to us only through one Vatican manuscript, and long escaped the notice of historians. The credit for detecting its value belongs to Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores (1885). Ambroise followed Richard I as a noncombatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city. Ambroise is surprisingly accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is by no means an impartial source: he is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or enemies of his master, including the Polein party which supported Conrad of Montferrat against Guy of Lusignan. He is rather to be treated as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. Nonetheless he is an interesting primary source for the events of the years 1190–1192 in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Itinerarium Regis Ricardi, a Latin prose narrative of the same events apparently compiled by Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London, is closely related to Ambroise's poem. It was formerly sometimes regarded as the first-hand narrative on which Ambroise based his work, but that can no longer be maintained. Published edition See also Anglo-Norman literature Norman language References | Ambroise |@lemmatized ambroise:5 flourish:1 c:1 norman:3 poet:1 chronicler:1 third:1 crusade:2 author:1 work:3 call:1 l:1 estoire:1 de:2 la:1 guerre:1 sainte:1 describe:1 rhyme:1 french:2 verse:1 adventure:1 richard:3 coeur:1 lion:1 crusader:1 poem:2 know:1 u:1 one:1 vatican:1 manuscript:1 long:1 escape:1 notice:1 historian:2 credit:1 detect:1 value:1 belong:1 gaston:1 paris:1 although:1 edition:2 partially:1 anticipate:1 editor:1 monumenta:1 germaniae:1 historica:1 publish:2 selection:1 twenty:1 seventh:1 volume:1 scriptores:1 follow:2 noncombatant:1 improbably:1 court:1 minstrel:1 speak:1 eye:1 witness:1 king:1 doings:1 messina:1 cyprus:1 siege:1 acre:1 abortive:1 campaign:1 capture:1 city:1 surprisingly:1 accurate:1 chronology:1 though:1 complete:1 evidently:1 found:1 upon:1 note:1 take:1 course:1 pilgrimage:1 show:1 great:1 political:1 insight:1 expect:1 position:1 relate:2 see:2 hear:1 naïve:1 vivacity:1 compel:1 attention:1 mean:1 impartial:1 source:2 prejudice:1 saracen:1 rival:1 enemy:1 master:1 include:1 polein:1 party:1 support:1 conrad:1 montferrat:1 guy:1 lusignan:1 rather:1 treat:1 biographer:1 broader:1 aspect:1 nonetheless:1 interesting:1 primary:1 event:2 year:1 kingdom:1 jerusalem:1 itinerarium:1 regis:1 ricardi:1 latin:1 prose:1 narrative:2 apparently:1 compile:1 canon:1 holy:1 trinity:1 london:1 closely:1 formerly:1 sometimes:1 regard:1 first:1 hand:1 base:1 longer:1 maintain:1 also:1 anglo:1 literature:1 language:1 reference:1 |@bigram la_guerre:1 monumenta_germaniae:1 germaniae_historica:1 guy_lusignan:1 closely_relate:1 |
2,546 | Mobile_Suit_Gundam | is a televised anime series, created by Sunrise. Written and directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino, it premiered in Japan on Nagoya Broadcasting Network between April 7, 1979 and January 26, 1980, spanning 43 episodes. It was the very first Gundam series, which has subsequently been adapted into numerous sequels and spin-offs. The series was later re-edited for theatrical release and split into three movies in 1981. Yoshikazu Yasuhiko did the character designs and Kunio Okawara was responsible for the mechanical designs, including the titular giant robot, the RX-78-2 Gundam. When the first movie was released on 22 February 1981, it was regarded as the new age of Anime and an event called Declaration of new age of Anime (アニメ新世紀宣言) in Shinjuku and director Tomino made a speech questioning the then social concept in which stereotypial Anime was portrayed as being bad and poorly made to the gathered 15,000 youngsters. The series won the Animage Anime Grand Prix prize in 1979 and the first half of 1980. By the end of 2007, each episode of the original TV series averaged a sales figure of 80,928 copies, including all the different formats it was published in (VHS, LD, DVD, etc.). TVアニメ歷代売上累計平均ランキング最新版TOP25 The first DVD box set sold over 100,000 copies in the first month of release, from 21 December, 2007 to 21 January, 2008. Otona no Gundam Perfect, Nikkei Business Publications, Inc. 21 January, 2008 As part of the 30th Anniversary of the Gundam series, the company officially announced a project on 11th March, 2009 called Real-G planning to build a 1/1 real size scale Gundam in Japan. Synopsis Set in a fictional universe in the Universal Century 0079, The Principality of Zeon has declared independence from the Earth Federation, and subsequently launched a war of independence. The conflict has directly affected every continent on earth and nearly every space colony and lunar settlement. Zeon has the upper hand through their use of a new type of weapon, called humanoid mobile suits. A Zeon recon team disobeys mission orders and attacks an unfinished base called Side 7. Its citizens accidentally find the Federation's new weapon called the Gundam. The newly formed crew of refugees, with support from Earth Federation soldiers stationed aboard the MS carrier White Base set out to change the course of the One Year War. Reception The series was not popular when it first aired, and was in fact cancelled before the series was intended to end. The series was originally set to run for 52 episodes and was cut down to 39 by the show's sponsors, which included the original toymakers for the series. However, the staff was able to negotiate a one month extension to end the series with 43 episodes. When Bandai received the licensing to the show's mecha, however, things changed completely. With the introduction of their line of Gundam models, the popularity of the show began to soar. The models sold very well, and the show began to do very well in reruns and even better in its theatrical compilation. Audiences were expecting another giant robot show, and instead found MS Gundam, the first work of anime in an entirely new genre, the mecha drama or the 'real robot' genre as opposed to the 'super robot' genre. Mobile Suit Gundam was also later aired by the anime satellite television network, Animax, across Japan, with the series continuing to be aired on the network currently, and later its respective networks worldwide, including Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and other regions. Hoping to capitalize on the success of airing Gundam Wing the previous year, Bandai Entertainment released a heavily edited and English-dubbed version of the series premiering on Cartoon Network's Toonami across the United States on Monday, July 23, 2001. However, the series did not do as well as Gundam Wing and Cartoon Network would pull the show after it had finished airing. Following the pattern of its initial airing in Japan, it was later cancelled before the entire series was shown. When the September 11, 2001 attacks occurred, the series was almost over (there were only six episodes left). Immediately following the attacks, Cartoon Network and many other stations, began pulling war-themed content and violent programming as well. Although Cowboy Bebop came back before too long, Mobile Suit Gundam did not. However, the series finale were shown as part of Toonami's "New Year's Eve-il" special on December 31, 2001. It is sometimes stated that MSG was cancelled "because" of the September 11, 2001 attacks. This was verified by a Toonami producer in a March 4, 2002 with Anime News Network. interview On Saturday, June 8, 2002, the series was given another chance by Cartoon Network in their late-night Adult Swim block, but it was again pulled before completing its run because of low ratings. On May 30, 2006, Bandai Entertainment re-released the English dub of the TV series in a 10 volume DVD set. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/mobile_suit_gundam_vol_1_the_battle_begins/ Rotten Tomatoes page of the first volume. There was no Japanese audio track included, apparently because Yoshiyuki Tomino felt that the original mono mix was in too poor of a condition to use http://www.animejump.com/modules.php?op=modload&name=Sections&file=index&req=viewarticle&artid=40&page=1 ("The sound quality of the recordings that remain from First Gundam is quite poor at this time. Because of this, there was no other way but to re-record the First Gundam movies, including the addition of new music. So there would be no possibility of having the original soundtrack released in the United States.") However, in 2007 the original series was released on DVD in Japan, which sold over 100 thousand copies within a month's time from 21 December, 2007 to 21 January, 2008. Otona no Gundam, Adult's Gundam, Nikki Entertainment In both American TV showings and on the American DVD release, episode 15 (Kukurus Doan's Island) was cut out. Tomino remained silent as to why the episode was cut and it remains a mystery, the episode becoming a "lost episode" of sorts, never being dubbed. http://www.animeondvd.com/conitem.php?item=180 ("I asked that it would be skipped. There is a reason, but since the staff is still alive I can't answer it. It’s a long story.") The episode remained on the Japanese DVD release. This episode also has an error in continuity at minute 19 when the Gundam's weapon is suddenly changed. Novel In 1979, before the end of the anime, Yoshiyuki Tomino himself created the first novelizations of the original Gundam anime series. The novels, issued as a series of three books, allowed him to depict his story in a more sophisticated, adult, and detailed fashion. Along with this adaptation came several major changes to the story. For example, Amuro is already a member of the Federation military at the time of the initial Zeon attack on Side 7, and the main characters in the Federation serve on the White Base-class ships Pegasus and Pegasus II rather than the Pegasus-class White Base. Additionally, the war continues well into the year UC 0080 in the novels, whereas it concludes at the beginning of that year in the anime series. Perhaps the most controversial difference between the anime series and the novels is that in the latter, Amuro Ray is killed in the final attack against the Zeonic stronghold of A Baoa Qu when his RX-78-3 is pierced through the torso by a Rick Dom's beam bazooka. This occurs as Char's unit attempts to warn him about Gihren's intention to destroy the fortress and take the Federation's offensive fleet along with it. Char Aznable and the crew of Pegasus II (White Base), along with handpicked men under Kycilia Zabi's command, make a deep penetrating attack against the Side 3 and together kill Gihren Zabi, after which Kycilia is killed by Char. Tomino later lamented that had he known that anime ending would be different and that another series would be made, he would not have killed off Amuro in the novels. Because of such significant deviations from the animated series, movies, and subsequent sequels the novels themselves are not considered canonical; however, the detailed account of past events leading up to the introduction of the mobile suit and early skirmishes of the OYW are more or less accepted in the continuity. Nonetheless, they are often enjoyed by fans because they provide a great deal of detail and help explain the philosophical underpinnings of the Gundam series. The three novels were translated into English by Frederik Schodt and published by Del Rey Books in September, 1990. At the time, there were no officially recognized romanizations of character and mecha names, and a variety of different spellings were being used in the English-language fan community. In the original three novels, therefore, Mr. Schodt wrote the name "Char" as "Sha." "Sha" is a transliteration of the Japanese pronunciation, although Mr. Tomino later publicly confirmed at Anime Expo New York 2002 that the name was originally based on the French name Charles Aznavour, a popular French-language singer. (Interestingly, the 2004 edition of the English translation revealed that Schodt felt that the "Char" rendering "seemed too close" to Aznavour's name.) He also rendered "Zaku" as "Zak," and (after consulting with Mr. Tomino) "Jion" as "Zeon," instead of "Zion," which was in use in some circles. Some North American fans, already attached to particular spellings, took great umbrage at Schodt's renditions, forgetting that in the original Japanese most character and mecha names are written in katakana, and that there were, therefore, no "official spellings." Many years later, when the Gundam series was finally licensed in North America, the rights holders did come up with a unified list of "official spellings" for English-language material, and some of these spellings include Schodt's renditions, as well as the renditions to which certain North American fans were attached. In 2004, Frederik Schodt revised his original translation of the books, which had been out of print for nearly a decade. What had been a three volume set in the 1990 Del Rey edition was re-released by Stone Bridge Press as one single volume of 476 pages (with a vastly improved cover design), titled Mobile Suit Gundam: Awakening, Escalation, Confrontation. Since the rights holders in Japan by this time had created a unified (although still evolving) list of romanized character and mecha names, Schodt was able to use it, and Amuro's rival in the novel thus became "Char" and not "Sha"; the popular Zeon Mobile Suit, similarly, became "Zaku," and not "Zak". Compilation movies Following the success of the Mobile Suit Gundam TV series, Yoshiyuki Tomino returned in 1981 and reworked the footage into three separate compilation movies. The first two movies, Mobile Suit Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam: Soldiers of Sorrow, were released in 1981. The third movie, Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space, was released in 1982. Each of the three movies is largely composed of old footage from the TV series, however Tomino felt that some things could be changed for the better. Tomino removed several aspects of the show which he felt were still too super robot-esque for the real robot series he intended Gundam to be, such as the Gundam Hammer weapon. The G-Armor upgrade parts were also completely removed and replaced in the narrative by the more realistic Core Booster support fighters, and Hayato receives a RX-77 Guncannon at Jaburo to replace the disadvantaged RX-75 Guntank. The third movie also includes a substantial amount of new footage expanding on the battles of Solomon and A Baoa Qu. In the late 1990s, the three compilation movies were first released for directly to VHS dubbed in English with a different vocal cast from the later English dub of the TV show, which makes them among the first Gundam works released in English. The movies were released again in North America on May 7, 2002 in DVD format, available separately or in a boxed set. But these are available only with Japanese audio with English subtitles. This DVD boxset is identical to the 20th anniversary release of the movie compilation DVDs. The original voice cast members rerecorded their lines with the exception of those who were deceased. The 20th anniversary release is digitally remastered but many of the sound effects are replaced, most notably the futuristic gun sounds being replaced by louder machine gun sound effects. Also, the music soundtrack, while not remixed is rearranged and in some cases removed from some scenes. The vocal songs are rearranged also, especially in the closing credits of the second and third movies. Bandai Visual has announced the re-release of the Mobile Suit Gundam movies on DVD from new HD masters and with the original, theatrical, mono audio mix. This box set is scheduled for release in Japan on December 21, 2007. [ 商品詳細 ] バンダイビジュアル株式会社 Gunota Headlines Manga Mobile Suit Gundam manga, namely Mobile Suit Gundam 0079 and Gundam:The Origin are published in English by Viz Communications. Characters From left to right, top: Kai Shiden, Ryu Jose, Amuro Ray, Fraw Bow, Sayla Mass, Mirai Yashima and Bright Noa; bottom: Hayato Kobayashi, Katz Hawin, Letz Cofan and Kikka Kitamoto. Earth Federation Amuro Ray Bright Noa Fraw Bow General Revil Haro Hayato Kobayashi Kai Shiden Matilda Ajan Mirai Yashima Ryu Jose Sayla Mass Slegger Law Tem Ray Principality of Zeon, from left to right: Giren Zabi, Dozle Zabi, Degwin Sodo Zabi, Kishiria Zabi, Garma Zabi and Char Aznable. Principality of Zeon Char Aznable Crowley Hamon Degwin Sodo Zabi Dozle Zabi Garma Zabi Gihren Zabi Kycilia Zabi Lalah Sune M'Quve Ramba Ral Black Tri-Stars Weapons and support units Opening and ending songs Opening: Lyrics: Yoshiyuki Tomino (as the pseudonym "Rin Iogi") Composition: Takeo Watanabe Arrangement: Yuji Matsuyama Artist: Koh Ikeda Ending: Eien Ni Amuro (Forever Amuro) by Koh Ikeda (TV series) Suna no Juujika (Cross of Sand) by Takajin Yashiki (Movie I) Ai Senshi (Soldiers of Sorrow) by Daisuke Inoue (Movie II) Meguriai (Encounters) by Daisuke Inoue (Movie III) Note: On Cartoon Network's Toonami and Adult Swim airings, much shorter opening and ending sequences, 45 seconds long, were used in place of the Japanese TV openings and endings. These opening and ending sequences are also used in the Bandai releases from Volume 4-10. Cast Character Japanese Actor English Actor (Series) English Actor (Movies) Amuro Ray Toru Furuya Brad Swaile Michael Lindsay Char Aznable Shuichi Ikeda Michael Kopsa Steven Blum Bright Noah Hirotaka Suzuoki Chris Kalhoon Wheat St. James Mirai Yashima Fuyumi Shiraishi Cathy Weseluck Leslie Buhr Sayla Mass Yō Inoue Alaina Burnett Olivia Bardeau Fraw Bow Rumiko Ukai Kristie Marsden Melissa Fahn Kai Shiden Toshio Furukawa Richard Ian Cox Eddie Frierson Hayato Kobayashi Kiyonobu Suzuki Matt Smith Richard Cansino Ryu Jose Shōzō Iizuka Ward Perry Ward Perry Lalah Sune Keiko Han Willow Johnson Lia Sargent Gihren Zabi Banjo Ginga Hiro Kanagawa Doug Stone Garma Zabi Katsuji Mori Brian Dobson Unknown Kishiria Zabi Mami Koyama Michelle Porter Bambi Darro Dozle Zabi Daisuke Gouri French Tickner Peter Spellos Degwin Zabi Hidekatsu Shibata Chris Schneider Elliot Reynolds Ramba Ral Masashi Hirose John Payne Michael McConnohie Crowley Hamon Yumi Nakatani Lenore Zann Dian Andrews Gundam the Ride: A Baoa Qu Gundam the Ride: A Baoa Qu was an amusement park attraction at the Fuji-Q Highland Amusement Park located in Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan. Gundam the Ride, which opened to the public on July 20, 2000, was based on Mobile Suit Gundam. Set during the final chaotic Battle of A Baoa Qu on December 31, Universal Century 0079, Gundam the Ride places its riders in the place of civilian passengers onboard an Escape Launch Shuttle about to leave the battleship Suruga en route to Side 6. Of course once the Escape Launch leaves the Suruga it is immediately caught up in the tumult of war and must be escorted to safety by two GM pilots, Earth Federation Forces aces and members of the notorious "Jack the Halloween" Team, Jack Bayard and Adam Stingray. The animation of Gundam the Ride used mostly computer graphics to create the large and engrossing space battles and mobile suits. However, all instances where a human character appears on screen while talking to the riders were created by hand-drawn cel animation, similar to the style current Gundam video games are done in. All of the character designs for Gundam the Ride were done by Mikimoto Haruhiko. Like most themed rides Gundam the Ride had its own themed gift shop, called Gundam Mania, which was staffed by people dressed as Gundam characters. At the time of its opening Gundam Mania was the largest Gundam shop ever built, although it no longer holds that position. This gift shop sells vast amounts of Gundam-related merchandise, including t-shirts, model kits, videos and DVDs, various toys, and Gundam-themed snacks, as well as some unique merchandise which is produced exclusively for Gundam the Ride. The Halloween team, as well as the Escape Launch, make a cameo appearance in the video game "Encounters in Space" while the player (playing as Amuro Ray in his Gundam) is making his way through the Dolos. The ride closed on January 8, 2007, replaced by a new attraction named "Gundam Crisis" which features a full size 1:1 Gundam after July, 2007. Gundam Crisis Attraction at Fuji-Q Highland Theme Park Set to replace the original "Gundam the Ride" starting July 2007, the main feature of this attraction is a full size 1:1 Gundam model, lying flat inside the venue. Instead of siting in a movable corkpit and watch a CG movie, this attraction requires participants to carry out a mission with a handheld device. First, each participants are to receive a handheld digital device, while a staff (dressed in Earth Federation uniform) provides a briefing about the situation. The mission is to use the digital device to collect various downloads from information points in the first stage, then upload them to the Gundam within 8 minutes. The downloads are described as information related to the Magnetic Coating of Gundam which allows Gundam to move. On the digital device, a gundam shape is shown with various part of the body tag shown, such as "head", "arm", "leg", etc. Each successful download would enable one of these body part of Gundam. At the bottom of the screen there is a countdown timer set to 8 minutes. As the game begins, the countdown begins, and participants are to enter an area with chambers and rooms in low light. There are numerous lightened rectangular information points found on various places on the walls. The information points are scattered around the chambers in various heights, or behind objects which requires players to run around and search for it. Once found, players are to put their digital device in front of the information point, then the screen would take 2-3 seconds to show you either an "error", or "download successful" message. If it is successful, the screen would show the corresponding part of the gundam body is collected. However, an information point that works for one player might not work for another player, so players needs to keep trying until all the parts of the body are collected. When the countdown timer reach 4 minutes or so, staffs would urge players to enter the second deck, which stores the full size Gundam lying flat on the floor. There are the same information points found on various places around the full size Gundam model, and players are to put the device near the information points and install the information downloaded accordingly. Players are to do this until all the downloads are installed, or until the rest of the 8 minutes is up. If a player downloaded all the portion of the body in the first part, and successfully install them to the correct places within 8 minutes, he/she is to be allowed to enter the corkpit of Gundam. Otherwise, players are to enter a "Emergency deck" and return the digital device. When the door of the emergency deck is closed, the Gundam is supposingly started up and battle against the on coming Zeon Mobile Suit. Players could then watch the battle (created in CG) shown on the flat planel screen inside the Emergency deck, which lasts around 1 minute. Upon finish, players leaves the venus through the exit, which leads to the merchandise area. This attraction cost 800 yen (adults). Official web site: http://www.fujiq.jp/gundam/ Video games (For the list below, only video games featuring mobile suits appeared in One Year War, or related variations) There have been many video games based on or with mobile suits from the original Gundam series. Of these, the following have crossed the border into North America: Gundam Battle Assault, Gundam Battle Assault 2 (PlayStation [PS1]) Gundam Side Story 0079: Rise From the Ashes (Dreamcast) Mobile Suit Gundam: Journey to Jaburo (PlayStation 2 [PS2]) Mobile Suit Gundam: Zeonic Front (PS2) Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space (PS2) Mobile Suit Gundam VS Series(Arcade, PS2, DC, GameCube) Mobile Suit Gundam: Crossfire (Mobile Suit Gundam: Target in Sight in Japan) (PlayStation 3 [PS3]) MS Saga: A New Dawn (Mobile Suit Gundam: True Odyssey in Japan) (PS2) Dynasty Warriors Gundam (Gundam Mosou in Japan) (Xbox 360, PS3) Dynasty Warriors: Gundam 2 (Gundam Mosou 2 in Japan) (Xbox 360, PS3) Current generation games that have been unreleased in countries outside Japan include: Mobile Suit Gundam (1993 arcade game) (Arcade) Mobile Suit Gundam: Bonds of the Battlefield (Arcade) Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirits of Zeon ~Dual Stars of Carnage~ (Arcade) Mobile Suit Gundam: Spirit of Zeon ~Memory of Soldier~ (Arcade) Quiz Mobile Suit Gundam: Monsenshi (Arcade, with its DX version on PSP) Mobile Suit Gundam Giren's Greed: Blood of Zeon (SS, PS2, PSP) Mobile Suit Gundam: Lost War Chronicles (PS2) Mobile Suit Gundam: Climax UC (PS2) Mobile Suit Gundam: The One Year War (also referred to as Project Pegasus) (PS2) Mobile Suit Gundam: Path of the Soldiers (also referred to as Ace Pilot) (GameCube) Gundam Battle (series), Tactics, Royale, Chronicles, Universe (PSP) SD Gundam G-Generation series, Zero, F, F-If (PS1), Neo, G-Spirits, SEED (PS2), Advanced (Game Boy Advance [GBA]), DS, Cross Drive (Nintendo DS) SD Gundam SCAD Hammers (Wii) Mobile Suit Gundam: Operation: Troy (XBox 360) Note: The various Mobile Suit Gundam series are always featured in the "Real Robot" side of the Super Robot Taisen/Wars series of games, except in original-exclusive series like Original Generation Series or Cybuster. In addition, Universal Century's Gundam always take part in all SRW series, except the most recent-two, SRWJ and SRWW, which Gundam SEED, G Gundam, and Endless Waltz take over the role of Gundam side. Legacy Despite being released in 1979, the original Gundam series is still remembered and recognized within the anime fan community. The series revolutionized mecha anime, introducing the new Real Robot genre, and over the years became synonymous with the entire genre for many. As a result, for example, parodies of mecha genre commonly feature homages to Mobile Suit Gundam, thanks to its immediate recognizability. Furthermore, John Oppliger observes that the characters of Amuro Ray, to whom the young Japanese of that time could easily relate, and Char Aznable, who was "simply [...] fascinating", made a major contribution to the series' popularity. He also concludes that "in many respects First Gundam stands for the nostalgic identifying values of everything that anime itself represents". See also Variation models: Mobile Suit Variations Mobile Suit X Trivia Tomino's original concept for the series was considerably much more grim, with Amuro dying halfway through the series, and the crew of the White Base having to ally with Char (who is given a red Gundam), but finally having to battle him after he takes control of the Principality of Zeon. The original concept found expression in a series of novels written by Tomino soon after the show's conclusion, and elements of the storyline weaved themselves into Zeta Gundam and Char's Counterattack. The reason that the episode "Kukurus Doan's Island" was removed from the English-Language version of the series was that it was cut at the request of Yoshiyuki Tomino himself. He felt that the episode's story was substandard. On the other hand, Doan appears (possibly also the plot episode) in the game SD Gundam G Generation Advance. You can also fight Doan in his Zaku II, in the video game Mobile Suit Gundam: Federation Vs. Zeon. Also, this episode was not withheld from the Japanese box set that was released in December of 2006. 機動戦士ガンダム公式Web | STORY Originally, the design for the Gundam by Tomino and Kunio Okawara had the Gundam colored a uniform low-visibility gray. The show's sponsors, looking for a marketable toy line, prevailed upon the two to give the Gundam its arresting white, red, blue and gold scheme. A later retcon explained the colors by making them a demonstration/test scheme that was never repainted. In the novels, Amuro's first Gundam was completely white with some red, supposedly reminiscent of an X-Wing color scheme, and instead of the Gundam being upgraded with magnetic coated joints, Amuro was simply given a new one - the G3, which was colored a uniform low-visibility gray. The final episodes (encompassing the battles of Solomon and A Baoa Q) were originally planned to be more elaborate, with exotic Zeon mecha defending the fortresses. Budget cuts scrapped the episodes (and the designs) although at least two (the Dom-like Dowdage and Gelgoog-Like Galbaldy) do become resurrected for Zeta Gundam and Gundam ZZ. The positions in which the colonies (sides) are located in orbit are lagrange points are based on real scientific theory, while the colonies (sides) are based on the O'Neill Cylinder theory. In Another Century's Episode 3, the Gundam is present, having some of the best armor and attack in the game. References External links Official site of the upcoming Japanese DVD release | Mobile_Suit_Gundam |@lemmatized televised:1 anime:17 series:49 create:6 sunrise:1 write:4 direct:1 yoshiyuki:6 tomino:16 premier:2 japan:13 nagoya:1 broadcast:1 network:10 april:1 january:5 span:1 episode:18 first:19 gundam:114 subsequently:2 adapt:1 numerous:2 sequel:2 spin:1 offs:1 later:7 edit:2 theatrical:3 release:23 split:1 three:8 movie:20 yoshikazu:1 yasuhiko:1 character:11 design:6 kunio:2 okawara:2 responsible:1 mechanical:1 include:10 titular:1 giant:2 robot:9 rx:4 february:1 regard:1 new:14 age:2 event:2 call:6 declaration:1 アニメ新世紀宣言:1 shinjuku:1 director:1 make:9 speech:1 question:1 social:1 concept:3 stereotypial:1 portray:1 bad:1 poorly:1 gathered:1 youngster:1 win:1 animage:1 grand:1 prix:1 prize:1 half:1 end:9 original:18 tv:8 average:1 sale:1 figure:1 copy:3 different:4 format:2 publish:3 vhs:2 ld:1 dvd:12 etc:2 box:3 set:12 sell:4 month:3 december:6 otona:2 perfect:1 nikkei:1 business:1 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2,547 | Book | An open book in German with black and white drawings. A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of paper, parchment, or other material, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf, and each side of a leaf is called a page. A book produced in electronic format is known as an e-book. Books may also refer to a literature work, or a main division of such a work. In library and information science, a book is called a monograph, to distinguish it from serial periodicals such as magazines, journals or newspapers. The body of all written works including books is literature. In novels, a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, etc). A lover of books is usually referred to as a bibliophile, a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a bookworm. A store where books are bought and sold is a bookstore or bookshop. Books can also be borrowed from libraries. Etymology The word book comes from Old English "bōc" which comes from Germanic root "*bōk-", cognate to beech. book - Definitions from Dictionary.com Similarly, in Slavic languages (e.g. Russian and Bulgarian "буква" (bukva)—"letter") is cognate to "beech". It is thus conjectured that the earliest Indo-European writings may have been carved on beech wood. Northvegr - Holy Language Lexicon Similarly, the Latin word codex, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood." Blook, a recent neologism, is either an object manufactured to imitate a bound book, such as an on-line book published via a blog, or a printed book that contains or is based on content from a blog. Basic Object-Oriented Knowledge Systems is a backronym for books. http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/25.45.html#subj15.2 Book structure [[Image:Bookinfo.svg|right|400px|thumb|Scheme of common book design 1 Belly band 2 Flap 3 Endpaper 4 Book cover 5 Top edge 6 Fore edge 7 Tail edge 8 Right page, recto 9 Left page, verso 10 Gutter]] The common structural parts of a book include: Front cover: hardbound or softcover (paperback); the spine is the binding that joins the front and rear covers where the pages hinge. Front endpaper Flyleaf: The blank leaf or leaves following the front free endpaper. Front matter Frontispiece Title page Copyright page: typically verso of title page: shows copyright owner/date, credits, edition/printing, cataloguing details Table of contents List of figures List of tables Dedication Acknowledgments Foreword Preface Introduction Body: the text or contents, the pages often collected or folded into signatures; the pages are usually numbered sequentially, and often divided into chapters. Back matter Appendix Glossary Index Notes Bibliography Colophon Flyleaf: The blank leaf or leaves (if any) preceding the back free endpaper. Rear endpaper Rear cover A thin marker, commonly made of paper or card, used to keep one's place in a book is a bookmark. Bookmarks were used throughout the medieval period, For a 9th century Carolingian bookmark see: For a 15th century bookmark see Medeltidshandskrift 34, Lund University Library. consisting usually of a small parchment strip attached to the edge of folio (or a piece of cord attached to headband). Bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book and become widespread in the 1850s. They were usually made from silk, embroidered fabrics or leather. Not until the 1880s, did paper and other materials become more common. Sizes Real-size facsimile of Codex Gigas The world's largest book The size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame, so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed. The most common book sizes are: Quarto (4to): the sheet of paper is folded twice, forming four leaves (eight pages) approximately 11-13 inches (ca 30 cm) tall Octavo (8vo): the most common size for current hardcover books. The sheet is folded three times into eight leaves (16 pages) up to 9 ¾" (ca 23 cm) tall. DuoDecimo (12mo): a size between 8vo and 16mo, up to 7 ¾" (ca 18 cm) tall Sextodecimo (16mo): the sheet is folded four times, forming sixteen leaves (32 pages) up to 6 ¾" (ca 15 cm) tall Sizes smaller than 16mo are: 24mo: up to 5 ¾" (ca 13 cm) tall. 32mo: up to 5" (ca 12 cm) tall. 48mo: up to 4" (ca 10 cm) tall. 64mo: up to 3" (ca 8 cm) tall. Small books can be called booklets. Sizes larger than quarto are: Folio: up to 15" (ca 38 cm) tall. Elephant Folio: up to 23" (ca 58 cm) tall. Atlas Folio: up to 25" (ca 63 cm) tall. Double Elephant Folio: up to 50" (ca 127 cm) tall. The largest extant medieval manuscript in the world is Codex Gigas 92 × 50 × 22 cm. The world's largest book made of stone is in Kuthodaw Pagoda (Myanmar). Types of books Types of books according to their contents Novels in a Polish bookstore A common separation by content are fiction and non-fictional books. By no means are books limited to this classification, but it is a separation that can be found in most collections, libraries, and bookstores. Fiction Many of the books published today are fictitious stories. They are in-part or completely untrue or fantasy. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for entertainment. An increase in global literacy and print technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical social commentary. Most fiction is additionally categorized by genre. The novel is the most common form of fictional book. Novels are stories that typically feature a plot, setting, themes and characters. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or controversial. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and publishing markets. Comic books or graphic novels are books in which the story is told, but not illustrated, with pictures. A page from a dictionary Non-fiction An encyclopedia In a library, a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view, is often referred to as a reference book. A very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics is called an almanac. An encyclopedia is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing words, their etymology, meanings, etc. is called a dictionary. A book which is a collection of maps is an atlas. A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a handbook. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an index, such as Engineering Index, or abstracts such as Chemical Abstracts, Biological Abstracts, etc. An atlas Books with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called instruction manuals. Other popular how-to books include cookbooks and home improvement books. Students typically store and carry textbooks and schoolbooks for study purposes. Elementary school pupils often use workbooks which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or homework. In higher education, is it common for a student to take an exam requiring a bluebook. A Telephone Directory, with business and residence listings. A page from a notebook used as hand written diary There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These type of books are rarely published and typically are destroyed or remain private. Notebooks are blank books to be written in by the user. Students and writers commonly use them for taking notes. Scientists and other researchers use lab notebooks to record their work. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out. Address books, phone books, and calendar/appointment books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal contact information. Books for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called logbooks or simply logs. A similar book for writing daily the owner's private personal events, information, and ideas is called a diary or personal journal. Businesses use accounting books such as journals and ledgers to record financial data in a practice called bookkeeping. Other types There are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. Albums are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of photographs, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example are stamp albums, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of Postage stamps. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar folder. Hymnals are books with collections of musical hymns that can typically be found in churches. Prayerbooks or missals are books that contain written prayers and are commonly carried by monks, nuns, and other devoted followers or clergy. Hardcover books Types of books according to their binding or cover Paperback books Hardcover books have a stiff binding. Paperback books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral bound books are bound by spirals often made of metal. Examples of spiral bound books include: teachers manuals, and puzzle books (crosswords, sudoku). Publishing is a process for producing books, magazines, newspapers, etc. pre-printed for the reader/user to buy, usually in large numbers by a publishing company. Such books can be categorized as fiction (made-up stories) or non-fiction (information written as fact). A book-length fiction story is called a novel. Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as galleys or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale. Bookbinding Binding of a book from separate papers An uncut book after bookbinding from folded papers. The pages must be separated before reading. The process of physically assembling a book from a number of folded or unfolded sheets of paper is bookbinding. Sumerian language cuneiform script clay tablet, 2400–2200 BC History of books Antiquity When writing systems were invented in ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon—stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets—was used for writing. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt around 1800 BC. At first the words were not separated from each other (scriptura continua) and there was no punctuation. Texts were written from right to left, left to right, and even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for this type of writing is 'boustrophedon,' which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields. Scroll Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the heart. Papyrus, a thick paper-like material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool, was used for writing in Ancient Egypt, perhaps as early as the First Dynasty, although the first evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a scroll. Tree bark such as lime (Latin liber, from there also library) and other materials were also used. Dard Hunter. Papermaking: History and Technique of an Ancient Craft New ed. Dover Publications 1978, p. 12. According to Herodotus (History 5:58), the Phoenicians brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the tenth or ninth century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (biblion) and book (biblos) come from the Phoenician port town Byblos, through which papyrus was exported to Greece. Leila Avrin. Scribes, Script and Books, pp. 144–145. From Greeks we have also the word tome () which originally meant a slice or piece and from there it became to denote "a roll of papyrus". Tomus was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as volumen (see also below the explanation by Isidore of Seville). Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper in East Asia, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese and Hebrew cultures. The more modern codex book format form took over the Roman world by late antiquity, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia. Woman holding a book (or wax tablets) in the form of the codex. Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79 AD. Codex Papyrus scrolls were still dominant in the first century AD, as witnessed by the findings in Pompeii. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from Martial, in his Apophoreta CLXXXIV at the end of the century, where he praises its compactness. However the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use. The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Edd. Frances Young, Lewis Ayres, Andrew Louth, Ron White. Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 8–9. This change happened gradually during the third and fourth centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable, searchable, and easy to conceal. The Christian authors may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan texts written on scrolls. A Chinese bamboo book Wax tablets were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting, and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman pugillares) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex). Leila Avrin. Scribes, Script and Books, p. 173. The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets. In the 5th century, Isidore of Seville explained the relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (codex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches." Middle Ages Manuscripts Folio 14 recto of the 5th century Vergilius Romanus contains an author portrait of Virgil. Note the bookcase (capsa), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in rustic capitals. The fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century A.D. saw the decline of the culture of ancient Rome. Papyrus became difficult to obtain, due to lack of contact with Egypt, and parchment, which had been used for centuries, began to be the main writing material. Monasteries carried on the Latin writing tradition in the Western Roman Empire. Cassiodorus, in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts. Leila Avrin. Scribes, Script and Books, pp. 207–208. St. Benedict of Nursia, in his Regula Monachorum (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading. Theodore Maynard. Saint Benedict and His Monks. Staples Press Ltd 1956, pp. 70–71. The Rule of St. Benedict (Ch. XLVIII), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the Middle Ages, and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged. Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand, making books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only some dozen books, medium sized perhaps a couple hundred. By the ninth century, larger collections held around 500 volumes; and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in Avignon and Paris library of Sorbonne held only around 2,000 volumes. Martin D. Joachim. Historical Aspects of Cataloguing and Classification. Haworth Press 2003, p. 452. Burgundian author and scribe Jean Miélot, from his Miracles de Notre Dame), 15th century. The scriptorium of the monastery was usually located over the chapter house. Artificial light was forbidden, for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes: Calligraphers, who dealt in fine book production Copyists, who dealt with basic production and correspondence Correctors, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced Illuminators, who painted illustrations Rubricators, who painted in the red letters The bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by the scribe, who usually left blank areas for illustration and rubrication. Finally the book was bound by the bookbinder. Edith Diehl. Bookbinding: Its Background and Technique. Dover Publications 1980, pp. 14–16. Desk with chained books in the Library of Cesena, Italy. Different types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from gall nuts and iron vitriol. This gave writing the typical brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and different colors were used for illumination. Sometimes the whole parchment was colored purple, and the text was written on it with gold or silver (eg Codex Argenteus). Bernhard Bischoff. Latin Palaeography, pp. 16–17. Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the seventh century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued, Paul Saenger. Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. Stanford University Press 1997. that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading. The first books used parchment or vellum (calf skin) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. As dried parchment tends to assume the form before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later Middle Ages, when public libraries appeared, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a desk to prevent theft. The so called libri catenati were used up to 18th century. At first books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the Manuscript culture of the time lead to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (pecia), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by stationers guilds, which were secular, and produced both religious and non-religious material. Bernhard Bischoff. Latin Palaeography, pp. 42–43. Judaism has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present. According to Jewish tradition, the Torah scroll placed in a synagogue must be written by hand on parchment, and a printed book would not do (though the congregation may use printed prayer books, and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the synagogue). A sofer (scribe) is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community. Wood block printing The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China, 868 AD (British Museum) In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the Han dynasty (before 220AD), as a method of printing on textiles and later paper, and was widely used throughout East Asia. The oldest dated book printed by this method is The Diamond Sutra (868 AD). The method (called Woodcut when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as block-books), as well as playing-cards and religious pictures, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. Movable type and incunabula "Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque nationale de France. The Chinese inventor Pi Sheng made movable type of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Metal movable type was invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty (around 1230), but was not widely used: one reason being the enormous Chinese character set. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available. A 15th century incunabulum. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps. Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before the year 1501 in Europe are known as incunabula. A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330. Clapham, Michael, "Printing" in A History of Technology, Vol 2. From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution, edd. Charles Singer et al. (Oxford 1957), p. 377. Cited from Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change (Cambridge University, 1980). Modern world Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 1800s. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour. Monotype and linotype presses were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also intellectual property, public domain, copyright. In mid-20th century, Europe book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year. Book manufacturing in the modern world The spine of the book is an important aspect in book design, especially in the cover design. When the books are stacked up or stored in a shelf, the details on the spine is the only visible surface that contains the information about the book. In a store it is the details on the spine that attract the attention first. The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early years of the 20th century. While there was of course more mechanization, Gutenberg would have had no difficulty in understanding what was going on if he had visited a book printer in 1900. Gutenberg’s “invention” was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by letterpress. In letterpress printing ink is spread onto the tops of raised metal type, and is transferred onto a sheet of paper which is pressed against the type. Sheet-fed letterpress printing is still available but tends to be used for collector’s books and is now more of an art form than a commercial technique (see Letterpress). Today most books are printed by offset lithography in which an image of the material to be printed is photographically or digitally transferred to a flexible metal plate where it is developed to exploit the antipathy between grease (the ink) and water. When the plate is mounted on the press, water is spread over it. The developed areas of the plate repel water thus allowing the ink to adhere to only those parts of the plate which are to print. The ink is then offset onto a rubbery blanket (to avoid all that water soaking the paper) and then finally to the paper (see Lithography). When a book is printed the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages will be in the correct sequence. [see Imposition] Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The sizes of books are usually specified as “trim size”: the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and trimmed. Trimming involves cutting approximately 1/8” off top, bottom and fore-edge (the edge opposite to the spine) as part of the binding process in order to remove the folds so that the pages can be opened. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and have come to dominate the industry. The basic standard commercial book sizes in America, always expressed as width x height in USA; some examples are: 4-1/4” x 7” (rack size paperback) 5-1/8” x 7-5/8” (digest size paperback) 5-1/2” x 8-1/4” 5-1/2” x 8-1/2” 6-1/8” x 9-1/4” 7” x 10” 8-1/2” x 11”. These “standard” trim sizes will often vary slightly depending on the particular printing presses used, and on the imprecision of the trimming operation. Of course other trim sizes are available, and some publishers favor sizes not listed here which they might nominate as “standard” as well, such as 6” x 9”, 8” x 10”. In Britain the equivalent standard sizes differ slightly, as well as now being expressed in millimeters, and with height preceding width. Thus the UK equivalent of 6-1/8” x 9-1/4” is 234 x 156 mm. British conventions in this regard prevail throughout the English speaking world, except for USA. The European book manufacturing industry works to a completely different set of standards. Some books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. of which fewer copies are to be made) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print more copies in a shorter time. On a sheet-fed press a stack of sheets of paper stands at one end of the press, and each sheet passes through the press individually. The paper will be printed on both sides and delivered, flat, as a stack of paper at the other end of the press. These sheets then have to be folded on another machine which uses bars, rollers and cutters to fold the sheet up into one or more signatures. A signature is a section of a book, usually of 32 pages, but sometimes 16, 48 or even 64 pages. After the signatures are all folded they are gathered: placed in sequence in bins over a circulating belt onto which one signature from each bin is dropped. Thus as the line circulates a complete “book” is collected together in one stack, next to another, and another. A web press carries out the folding itself, delivering bundles of signatures ready to go into the gathering line. Notice that when the book is being printed it is being printed one (or two) signatures at a time, not one complete book at a time. Thus if there are to be 10,000 copies printed, the press will run 10,000 of the first form (the pages imaged onto the first plate and its back-up plate, representing one or two signatures), then 10,000 of the next form, and so on till all the signatures have been printed. Actually, because there is a known average spoilage rate in each of the steps in the book’s progress through the manufacturing system, if 10,000 books are to be made, the printer will print between 10,500 and 11,000 copies so that subsequent spoilage will still allow the delivery of the ordered quantity of books. Sources of spoilage tend to be mainly make-readies. A make-ready is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of impression. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. The main part of making-ready is however getting the ink/water balance right, and ensuring that the inking is even across the whole width of the paper. This is done by running paper through the press and printing waste pages while adjusting the press to improve quality. Desitometers are used to ensure even inking and consistency from one form to another. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper. After the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the bindery. In the middle of the last century there were still many trade binders – stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in binding alone. At that time, largely because of the dominance of letterpress printing, the pattern of the industry was for typesetting and printing to take place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book’s worth of type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so it was almost invariable that printing would be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be moved. Now, because of the increasing computerization of the process of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa). If the book is a hardback its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a paperback. A paperback binding line (a number of pieces of machinery linked by conveyor belts) involves few steps. The gathered signatures, book blocks, will be fed into the line where they will one by one be gripped by plates converging from each side of the book, turned spine up and advanced towards a gluing station. En route the spine of the book block will be ground off leaving a roughened edge to the tightly gripped collection of pages. The grinding leaves fibers which will grip onto the glue which is then spread onto the spine of the book. Covers then meet up with the book blocks, and one cover is dropped onto the glued spine of each book block, and is pressed against the spine by rollers. The book is then carried forward to the trimming station, where a three-knife trimmer will simultaneously cut the top and bottom and the fore-edge of the paperback to leave clear square edges. The books are then packed into cartons, or packed on skids, and shipped. Binding a hardback is more complicated. Look at a hardback book and you will see the cover overlaps the pages by about 1/8” all round. These overlaps are called squares. The blank piece of paper inside the cover is called the endpaper, or endsheet: it is of somewhat stronger paper than the rest of the book as it is the endpapers that hold the book into the case. The endpapers will be tipped to the first and last signatures before the separate signatures are placed into the bins on the gathering line. Tipping involves spreading some glue along the spine edge of the folded endpaper and pressing the endpaper against the signature. The gathered signatures are then glued along the spine, and the book block is trimmed, like the paperback, but will continue after this to the rounder and backer. The book block together with its endpapers will be gripped from the sides and passed under a roller with presses it from side to side, smashing the spine down and out around the sides so that the entire book takes on a rounded cross section: convex on the spine, concave at the fore-edge, with “ears” projecting on either side of the spine. Then the spine is glued again, a paper liner is stuck to it and headbands and footbands are applied. Next a crash lining (an open weave cloth somewhat like a stronger cheesecloth) is usually applied, overlapping the sides of the spine by an inch or more. Finally the inside of the case, which has been constructed and foil-stamped off-line on a separate machine, is glued on either side (but not on the spine area) and placed over the book block. This entire sandwich is now gripped from the outside and pressed together to form a solid bond between the endpapers and the inside of the case. The crash lining, which is glued to the spine of the pages, but not the spine of the case, is held between the endpapers and the case sides, and in fact provides most of the strength holding the book block into the case. The book will then be jacketed (most often by hand, allowing this stage to be an inspection stage also) before being packed ready for shipment. The sequence of events can vary slightly, and usually the entire sequence does not occur in one continuous pass through a binding line. What has been described above is unsewn binding, now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held together by Smyth sewing. Needles pass through the spine fold of each signature in succession, from the outside to the center of the fold, sewing the pages of the signature together and each signature to its neighbors. McCain sewing, often used in schoolbook binding, involves drilling holes through the entire book and sewing through all the pages from front to back near the spine edge. Both of these methods mean that the folds in the spine of the book will not be ground off in the binding line. This is true of another technique, notch binding, where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the spine of each signature, parallel to the spine direction. In the binding line glue is forced into these “notches” right to the center of the signature, so that every pair of pages in the signature is bonded to every other one, just as in the Smyth sewn book. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks. Making cases happens off-line and prior to the book’s arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth (about 5/8” all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case making the stack of cases will go to the foil stamping area. Metal dies, photoengraved elsewhere, are mounted in the stamping machine and rolls of foil are positioned to pass between the dies and the case to be stamped. Heat and pressure cause the foil to detach from its backing and adhere to the case. Foils come in various shades of gold and silver and in a variety pigment colors, and by careful setup quite elaborate effects can be achieved by using different rolls of foil on the one book. Cases can also be made from paper which has been printed separately and then protected with clear film lamination. A three-piece case is made similarly but has a different material on the spine and overlapping onto the sides: so it starts out as three pieces of material, one each of a cheaper material for the sides and the different, stronger material for the spine. Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using toner rather than ink. Each book is printed in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. One might think of a web press as printing quantities over 2000, quantities from 250 to 2000 being printed on sheet-fed presses, and digital presses doing quantities below 250. These numbers are of course only approximate and will vary from supplier to supplier, and from book to book depending on its characteristics. Digital printing has opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received from a customer. Transition to digital format The term e-book is a contraction of "electronic book"; it refers to a digital version of a conventional print book. An e-book is usually made available through the internet, but also on CD-ROM and other forms. E-Books are read by means of a physical book display device known as an e-book reader, such as the Sony Reader or the Amazon Kindle. These devices attempt to mimic the experience of reading a print book. Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an information explosion. The advent of electronic publishing and the Internet means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a digital library, on CD-ROM, or in the form of e-books. An on-line book is an e-book that is available online through the internet. Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing . There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the public domain into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. This effort is spearheaded by Project Gutenberg combined with Distributed Proofreaders. There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as print on demand, which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print. Collections of books The Librarian, by Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1566), oil on canvas, at Skokloster Castle, Sweden. Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) first appeared in classical Greece. In ancient world the maintaining of a library was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for individuals that were interested in using them. The difference from a modern public library lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the third century there were around 30 public libraries, public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient Mediterranean region (e.g. Library of Alexandria). Miriam A. Drake, Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science (Marcel Dekker, 2003), "Public Libraries, History". Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft. Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000 scrolls. The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns. Miriam A. Drake, Encyclopedia of Library, "Public Libraries, History". The growth of a public library system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from Andrew Carnegie. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a private library built in their homes. The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in pulp magazines. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich. In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the paper size from which the book is made. When rows of books are lined on a bookshelf, bookends are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting. Identification and classification ISBN number with barcode. During the 20th century, librarians were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy. Through a global society called the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or ISBN, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the publisher code, and the third the title code. The last part is a check digit, and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The EAN Barcodes numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland, and calculating a new check digit. Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs. Books on library shelves with bookends, and call numbers visible on the spines A large or public collection requires a catalogue. Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a Library classification system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside. Institutional or national standards, such as ANSI/NISO Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the title, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for DVDs, video tapes and software. One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the Dewey Decimal System. This system has fallen out of use in some places, mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. The Library of Congress Classification system is more popular in university libraries. Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like online general-interest book databases. Classification systems Bliss bibliographic classification (BC) Chinese Library Classification (CLC) Colon Classification Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Harvard-Yenching Classification Library of Congress Classification (LCC) Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) Metadata Metadata about a book may include its ISBN or other classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author, editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, and the language of the text. Paper and conservation issues Halfbound book with leather and marbled paper. Though papermaking in Europe had begun around the 11th century, up until the beginning of 16th century vellum and paper were produced congruent to one another, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market. Paper was first made in China, as early as 200 B.C., and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp. Paper made from wood pulp was introduced in the early-19th century, because it was cheaper than linen or abaca cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations, and enabled the spread of information during the Second Industrial Revolution. However pulp paper contained acid, that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or alkaline paper. Libraries today have to consider mass deacidification of their older collections. Stability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material. Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The HVAC system should be up to date and functioning efficiently. Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore, care should be given to the collections by implementing light control. General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including pest control. In addition to these helpful solutions, a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through “acts of god” therefore a emergency management plan should be in place. The proper care of books takes into account the possibility of physical and chemical damage to the cover and text. Books are best stored out of direct sunlight, in reduced lighting, at cool temperatures, and at moderate humidity. They need the support of surrounding volumes to maintain their shape, so it is desirable to shelve them by size. Uses for books Aside from the primary purpose of reading them, books are also used for other ends: A book can be an artistic artifact; this is sometimes known as an artists' book. A book may be evaluated by a reader or professional writer to create a book review. A book may be read by a group of people to use as a spark for social or academic discussion, as in a book club. A book may be studied by students as the subject of a writing and analysis exercise in the form of a book report. Books are sometimes used for their exterior appearance to decorate a room, such as a study. See also Artist's Book Audiobook Authors Book burning Book Industry Study Group, Inc. Lists of books Notes and references External links Centre for the History of the Book Manuscripts, Books, and Maps: The Printing Press and a Changing World Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing Old Books, How to find information on publication history and value (1998) Smithsonian Institution Libraries be-x-old:Кніга | Book |@lemmatized open:4 book:260 german:1 black:3 white:2 drawing:1 set:10 collection:14 write:27 print:46 illustrate:2 blank:8 sheet:27 make:43 paper:43 parchment:9 material:16 usually:19 fasten:1 together:8 hinge:2 one:31 side:16 single:2 within:3 call:25 leaf:11 page:40 produce:11 electronic:3 format:5 know:10 e:12 may:15 also:23 refer:4 literature:3 work:9 main:3 division:1 library:43 information:17 science:2 monograph:1 distinguish:2 serial:1 periodical:1 magazine:4 journal:3 newspaper:2 body:2 include:11 novel:8 divide:3 several:4 large:9 section:3 etc:4 lover:1 bibliophile:1 bibliophilist:1 philobiblist:1 informally:1 bookworm:1 store:7 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2,548 | Bestiary | "The Leopard" from the 13th-century bestiary entitled "Rochester Bestiary." Detail from the 12th century Aberdeen Bestiary A bestiary, or Bestiarum vocabulum is a compendium of beasts. Bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals, birds and even rocks. The natural history and illustration of each beast was usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This reflected the belief that the world itself was the Word of God, and that every living thing had its own special meaning. For example, the pelican, which was believed to tear open its breast to bring its young to life with its own blood, was a living representation of Jesus. The bestiary, then, is also a reference to the symbolic language of animals in Western Christian art and literature. Bestiaries were particularly popular in England and France around the 12th century and were mainly compilations of earlier texts. The earliest bestiary in the form in which it was later popularized was an anonymous 2nd century Greek volume called the Physiologus, which itself summarized ancient knowledge and wisdom about animals in the writings of classical authors such as Aristotle's Historia Animalium and various works by Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Solinus, Aelian and other naturalists. Following the Physiologus, Saint Isidore of Seville (Book XII of the Etymologiae) and Saint Ambrose expanded the religious message with reference to passages from the Bible and the Septuagint. They and other authors freely expanded or modified pre-existing models, constantly refining the moral content without interest or access to much more detail regarding the factual content. Nevertheless, the often fanciful accounts of these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true. A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the migration of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era. Two illuminated Psalters, the Queen Mary Psalter (British Library Ms. Royal 2B, vii) and the Isabelle Psalter (State Library, Munich), contain full Bestiary cycles. That in the Queen Mary Psalter is in the "marginal" decorations that occupy about the bottom quarter of the page, and are unusually extensive and coherent in this work. In fact the bestiary has been expanded beyond the source in the Norman bestiary of Guillaume le Clerc to ninety animals. Some are placed in the text to make correspondences with the psalm they are illustrating. The Queen Mary psalter: a study of affect and audience By Anne Rudloff Stanton, p44ff, Diane Publishing The Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci also made his own bestiary. The Aberdeen Bestiary is one of the best known of over 50 manuscript bestiaries surviving today. Mediaeval bestiaries are remarkably similar in sequence of the animals of which they treat. In modern times, artists such as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Saul Steinberg have produced their own bestiaries. Jorge Luis Borges wrote a contemporary bestiary of sorts, the Book of Imaginary Beings, which collects imaginary beasts from bestiaries and fiction. Nicholas Christopher wrote a literary novel called "The Bestiary" (Dial, 2007) that describes a lonely young man's efforts to track down the world's most complete bestiary. Writers of Fantasy fiction draw heavily from the fanciful beasts described in mythology, fairy tales, and bestiaries. The "worlds" created in Fantasy fiction can be said to have their own bestiaries. Similarly, authors of fantasy role-playing games sometimes compile bestiaries as references, such as the Monster Manual for Dungeons & Dragons. It is not uncommon for video games with a large variety of enemies (especially RPGs) to include a bestiary of sorts. This usually takes the form of a list of enemies and a short description (e.g. the Metroid Prime and Castlevania games, as well as Dark Cloud and Final Fantasy). Beasts Monoceros and Bear. Bodleian Library, MS. Ashmole 1511, The Ashmole Bestiary, Folio 21r, England (Peterborough?), Early 13th century. The Perindens Tree. Beasts Lion Lioness Tiger Pard Panther Antelope Unicorn Lynx Gryphon Elephant Beaver Ibex Hyena Bonnacon Ape Satyr Deer Tragelaphus Goat Wild goat Monoceros Bear Leucrota Crocodile Manticore Parandrus Fox Hare Chameleon Yale Wolf Dog Domestic beasts Sheep Wether Lamb Kid He-goat Sow Boar Bullock Ox Buffalo Cow Calf Camel Dromedary Ass Onager Horse Mule Small creatures Badger Cat Mouse Weasel Mole Dormouse Hedgehog Ant Frog Birds Alerion Eagle Barnacle Osprey Water-ouzel Coot Vulture Crane Parrot Charadrius Stork Heron Swan Ibis Ostrich Coot Jackdaw Halcyon Phoenix Cinnomolgus Harz bird Hoopoe Pelican Night-owl Screech-owl Sirens Partridge Magpie Sparrowhawk Hawk Bat Nightingale Raven Crow Dove Turtle-dove Swallow Quail Goose Peacock Screech-owl Cock Hen Duck Sparrow Kite Bee Serpent Perindens Snakes and Reptiles Serpent Dragon Basilisk Viper Asp Scitalis Amphisbaena Hydrus Boas Jaculus Siren Seps Dipsa Lizard Salamander Saura Newt Snake Scorpion Horned Serpent Worm Fish Fish Aspidochelone Whale Serra Dolphin See also Allegory in the Middle Ages Marine counterparts of land creatures List of mediæval bestiaries References "The Medieval Bestiary", by James Grout, part of the Encyclopædia Romana. Payne, Ann. (1990) "Mediaeval Beasts. Hassig, Debra (1995) Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology. Hassig, Debra, ed. (1999) The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature. Benton, Janetta Rebold. (1992) The Medieval Menagerie: Animals in the Art of the Middle Ages. George, Wilma and Brunsdon Yapp. (1991) The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary. Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn. (1989) The Bestiary and its Legacy.Notes External links The Bestiary: The Book of Beasts, T.H. White's translation of a medieval bestiary in the Cambridge University library; digitized by the University of Wisconsin-Madison libraries. The Medieval Bestiary online, edited by David Badke. The Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaon at the National Library of Denmark. The Bestiary of Anne Walshe at the National Library of Denmark. The Aberdeen Bestiary'' at the University of Aberdeen. Exhibition (in English, but French version is fuller) at the Bibliothèque nationale de France Christian Symbolology Animals and their meanings in Christian texts. BESTIARY - Monsters & Fabulous Creatures of Greek Myth & Legend with pictures | Bestiary |@lemmatized leopard:1 century:6 bestiary:38 entitle:1 rochester:1 detail:2 aberdeen:4 bestiarum:1 vocabulum:1 compendium:1 beast:12 make:3 popular:2 middle:3 age:3 illustrated:1 volume:2 describe:3 various:2 animal:7 bird:4 even:1 rock:1 natural:3 history:2 illustration:1 usually:2 accompany:1 moral:2 lesson:1 reflect:1 belief:1 world:3 word:1 god:1 every:1 living:2 thing:1 special:1 meaning:2 example:1 pelican:2 believe:2 tear:1 open:1 breast:1 bring:1 young:2 life:2 blood:1 representation:1 jesus:1 also:3 reference:4 symbolic:1 language:1 western:1 christian:3 art:3 literature:2 particularly:1 england:2 france:2 around:1 mainly:1 compilation:1 early:3 text:4 form:2 later:1 popularize:1 anonymous:1 greek:2 call:2 physiologus:2 summarize:1 ancient:1 knowledge:1 wisdom:1 writing:1 classical:1 author:3 aristotle:1 historia:1 animalium:1 work:2 herodotus:1 pliny:1 elder:1 solinus:1 aelian:1 naturalist:1 follow:1 saint:2 isidore:1 seville:1 book:3 xii:1 etymologiae:1 ambrose:1 expand:3 religious:1 message:1 passage:1 bible:1 septuagint:1 freely:1 modify:1 pre:1 exist:1 model:1 constantly:1 refine:1 content:2 without:1 interest:1 access:1 much:1 regard:1 factual:1 nevertheless:1 often:1 fanciful:2 account:1 widely:1 read:1 generally:1 true:1 observation:1 find:1 migration:1 discount:1 philosopher:1 late:1 rediscover:1 modern:2 scientific:1 era:1 two:1 illuminated:1 psalter:5 queen:3 mary:3 british:1 library:7 royal:1 vii:1 isabelle:1 state:1 munich:1 contain:1 full:1 cycle:1 marginal:1 decoration:1 occupy:1 bottom:1 quarter:1 page:1 unusually:1 extensive:1 coherent:1 fact:1 beyond:1 source:1 norman:1 guillaume:1 le:1 clerc:1 ninety:1 place:1 correspondence:1 psalm:1 illustrate:1 study:1 affect:1 audience:1 anne:2 rudloff:1 stanton:1 diane:1 publish:1 italian:1 artist:2 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 one:1 best:1 known:1 manuscript:1 survive:1 today:1 mediaeval:2 remarkably:1 similar:1 sequence:1 treat:1 time:1 henri:1 de:3 toulouse:1 lautrec:1 saul:1 steinberg:1 produce:1 jorge:1 luis:1 borges:1 write:2 contemporary:1 sort:2 imaginary:2 collect:1 fiction:3 nicholas:1 christopher:1 literary:1 novel:1 dial:1 lonely:1 man:1 effort:1 track:1 complete:1 writer:1 fantasy:4 draw:1 heavily:1 mythology:1 fairy:1 tale:1 create:1 say:1 similarly:1 role:1 play:1 game:3 sometimes:1 compile:1 monster:2 manual:1 dungeon:1 dragon:2 uncommon:1 video:1 large:1 variety:1 enemy:2 especially:1 rpgs:1 include:1 take:1 list:2 short:1 description:1 e:1 g:1 metroid:1 prime:1 castlevania:1 well:1 dark:1 cloud:1 final:1 monoceros:2 bear:2 bodleian:1 ashmole:2 folio:1 peterborough:1 perindens:2 tree:1 lion:1 lioness:1 tiger:1 pard:1 panther:1 antelope:1 unicorn:1 lynx:1 gryphon:1 elephant:1 beaver:1 ibex:1 hyena:1 bonnacon:1 ape:1 satyr:1 deer:1 tragelaphus:1 goat:3 wild:1 leucrota:1 crocodile:1 manticore:1 parandrus:1 fox:1 hare:1 chameleon:1 yale:1 wolf:1 dog:1 domestic:1 sheep:1 wether:1 lamb:1 kid:1 sow:1 boar:1 bullock:1 ox:1 buffalo:1 cow:1 calf:1 camel:1 dromedary:1 onager:1 horse:1 mule:1 small:1 creature:3 badger:1 cat:1 mouse:1 weasel:1 mole:1 dormouse:1 hedgehog:1 ant:1 frog:1 alerion:1 eagle:1 barnacle:1 osprey:1 water:1 ouzel:1 coot:2 vulture:1 crane:1 parrot:1 charadrius:1 stork:1 heron:1 swan:1 ibis:1 ostrich:1 jackdaw:1 halcyon:1 phoenix:1 cinnomolgus:1 harz:1 hoopoe:1 night:1 owl:3 screech:2 siren:2 partridge:1 magpie:1 sparrowhawk:1 hawk:1 bat:1 nightingale:1 raven:1 crow:1 dive:1 turtle:1 dove:1 swallow:1 quail:1 goose:1 peacock:1 cock:1 hen:1 duck:1 sparrow:1 kite:1 bee:1 serpent:3 snake:2 reptile:1 basilisk:1 viper:1 asp:1 scitalis:1 amphisbaena:1 hydrus:1 boa:1 jaculus:1 sep:1 dipsa:1 lizard:1 salamander:1 saura:1 newt:1 scorpion:1 horn:1 worm:1 fish:2 aspidochelone:1 whale:1 serra:1 dolphin:1 see:1 allegory:1 marine:1 counterpart:1 land:1 mediæval:1 medieval:7 james:1 grout:1 part:1 encyclopædia:1 romana:1 payne:1 ann:1 hassig:2 debra:2 image:1 ideology:1 ed:1 mark:1 benton:1 janetta:1 rebold:1 menagerie:1 george:1 wilma:1 brunsdon:1 yapp:1 naming:1 clark:1 willene:1 b:1 meradith:1 mcmunn:1 legacy:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 h:1 white:1 translation:1 cambridge:1 university:3 digitize:1 wisconsin:1 madison:1 online:1 edit:1 david:1 badke:1 bestiaire:1 philippe:1 thaon:1 national:2 denmark:2 walshe:1 exhibition:1 english:1 french:1 version:1 fuller:1 bibliothèque:1 nationale:1 symbolology:1 fabulous:1 myth:1 legend:1 picture:1 |@bigram pliny_elder:1 isidore_seville:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 toulouse_lautrec:1 jorge_luis:1 luis_borges:1 fairy_tale:1 dungeon_dragon:1 metroid_prime:1 bodleian_library:1 cow_calf:1 camel_dromedary:1 horse_mule:1 screech_owl:2 medieval_bestiary:6 external_link:1 wisconsin_madison:1 bibliothèque_nationale:1 |
2,549 | ClearType | ClearType is a Microsoft trademark for their implementation of subpixel rendering technology. ClearType attempts to improve the appearance of text on certain types of computer display screens, by sacrificing color fidelity for additional intensity variation. This trade off is asserted to work most on LCD flat panel monitors. ClearType was first announced at the November 1998 COMDEX exhibition. The technology was first introduced in software in January 2000 as an always-on feature of Microsoft Reader, which was released to the public in August 2000. ClearType was later introduced as an operating system feature in Windows XP, where it was kept turned off by default. In Windows Vista, ClearType is turned on by default. In Microsoft Office 2007 and Internet Explorer 7, ClearType is turned on by default, even if it is not enabled throughout the operating system. ClearType is also an integrated component of the Windows Presentation Foundation text-rendering engine. Background Computer displays in which the positions of individual pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the hardware—such as most modern flat panel displays—can show saw-tooth edges when displaying small, high-contrast graphic elements such as text. ClearType uses anti-aliasing at the subpixel level to allegedly reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear “smoother” and less jagged. ClearType also uses very heavy font hinting to force the font to fit into the pixel grid. This increases edge contrast and readability of small fonts at the expense of font rendering fidelity and has been criticised by graphic designers for making different fonts look similar. Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType actually involves a compromise, sacrificing one aspect of image quality (color or chrominance detail) for another (light and dark or luminance detail). The compromise can improve text appearance when luminance detail is more important than chrominance. ClearType is applied only to text that is rendered as such by user and system applications. Other graphic display elements (including text that has already been converted to bitmaps) are not altered by ClearType. For example, text in Microsoft Word will be rendered on the screen with ClearType enhancement, but text placed in a bitmapped image in a program such as Adobe Photoshop will not be modified. In theory, the method (called "RGB Decimation" internally) can be applied to enhance the antialiasing of any digital image. Betrisey et al., "Displaced Filtering for Patterned Displays", Proc. Society for Information Display Symposium, 2000 ClearType is not used when printing text. Most printers already use such small pixels that aliasing is rarely a problem and, in any case, they don't have the addressable fixed subpixels ClearType requires. Nor does ClearType affect text stored in files. ClearType only applies any processing to the text while it is being rendered onto the screen. ClearType was invented in the Microsoft e-Books team by Bert Keely and Greg Hitchcock. It was then analyzed by researchers in the company, and signal processing expert John Platt designed an improved version of the algorithm. Platt, J.C., "Optimal Filtering for Patterned Displays", IEEE Signal Processing Letters, 7(7) 2000 How ClearType works Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer’s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible pixels, each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent subpixels, each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows: Subpixels In the illustration above, there are nine pixels, but there are 27 subpixels. If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution of the images on the screen in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, green, and blue, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the horizontal resolution of the image at normal viewing distances; but the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue). 1) A diagonal line on a 1-bit display. 2) Grayscale anti-aliasing. 3) Identical to 1, but on a color monitor. 4) Rendered with direct control of each color pixel. 5) Smaller version of 1-4. 6) 1 pixel lines without and with anti-aliasing. ClearType uses this method to improve the smoothness of text. When the elements of a type character are smaller than a full pixel, ClearType lights only the appropriate subpixels of each full pixel in order to more closely follow the outlines of the character. Text rendered with ClearType looks “smoother” than text rendered without it, provided that the pixel layout of the display screen exactly matches what ClearType expects. The following picture shows a 4× enlargement of the word Wikipedia rendered using ClearType. The word was originally rendered using a Times New Roman 12 pt font. The word "Wikipedia" rendered using ClearType In this magnified view, it becomes clear that, while the overall smoothness of the text seems to improve, there is also color fringing of the text. (a) text rendered without ClearType and (b) text rendered with ClearType An extreme close-up of a color display shows (a) text rendered without ClearType and (b) text rendered with ClearType. Note the changes in subpixel intensity that are used to increase effective resolution when ClearType is enabled—without ClearType, all pixels are completely on or completely off. (a) text rendered without ClearType and (b) text rendered with ClearType The above shows an animation with some lines of text. In the frame with the orange circle present, the text is rendered using Cleartype (RGB subpixel rendering), and in the one without it, the text is rendered using normal (full pixel greyscale) antialiasing. ClearType and human vision ClearType and similar technologies work on the theory that variations in intensity are more noticeable than variations in color. Thus, when ClearType sacrifices color accuracy in order to increase luminance detail, the overall effect—as seen by human eyes—should be an improvement for most people. According to MSDN website, Windows Presentation Foundation ClearType Registry Settings Microsoft acknowledges that This opinion is shared http://www.typophile.com/node/33005#comment-197028 by the font designer Thomas Phinney, program manager for fonts and core technologies at Adobe Systems: http://www.myfonts.com/person/phinney/thomas/ The hinting expert Beat Stamm, who works on ClearType at Microsoft, http://www.myfonts.com/person/stamm/beat/ agrees that ClearType may look blurry at 96 dpi, which was a typical http://dictionary.zdnet.com/definition/Dpi.html resolution for LCD displays in 2008, but adds that higher resolution displays improve on this aspect: http://www.typophile.com/node/33005#comment-197660 Display requirements ClearType and allied technologies require display hardware with fixed pixels and subpixels. More precisely, the positions of the pixels and subpixels on the screen must be exactly known to the computer to which it is connected. This is the case for flat-panel displays, on which the positions of the pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the screen itself. Almost all flat panels have a perfectly rectangular array of square pixels, each of which contains three rectangular subpixels in the three primary colors, with the normal ordering being red, green, and blue, arranged in vertical bands. ClearType assumes this arrangement of pixels when rendering text. ClearType does not work properly with flat-panel displays that are operated at resolutions other than their “native” resolutions, since only the native resolution corresponds exactly to the actual positions of pixels on the screen of the display. If a display does not have the type of fixed pixels that ClearType expects, text rendered with ClearType enabled may actually look worse than type rendered without it. Some flat panels have unusual pixel arrangements, with the colors in a different order, or with the subpixels positioned differently (in three horizontal bands, or in other ways). ClearType needs to be manually tuned for use with such displays (see below). Similarly, displays that have no fixed pixel positions, such as CRT displays, may be harder to read if ClearType is enabled. Additionally, when images are prepared to be display-independent (that is, when they are prepared for distribution, and not just for display on the computer with which they were prepared), ClearType should be turned off if rendered text is part of the image. For example, screenshots should always be prepared with ClearType turned off. Image-editing programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Corel Paint Shop Pro bypass ClearType when rendering text directly, for precisely this reason. Sensitivity to display orientation Because ClearType utilizes the physical layout of the red, green and blue pigments of the LCD screen, it is sensitive to the orientation of the display. ClearType in Windows XP currently supports the RGB and BGR sub pixel structures. Rotated displays, in which the subpixels are arranged vertically rather than horizontally, are not currently supported. brandon.furtwangler blog » Blog Archive » Tablets and cleartype, and a requested feature of Avalon Using ClearType on these display configurations will actually reduce the display quality. The best option for users of Windows XP having rotated LCD displays (Tablet PCs or swivel-stand LCD displays) is using regular anti-aliasing, or switching off font-smoothing altogether. The software developer documentation for Windows CE states that ClearType for rotated screens is supported on that platform. Working with ClearType Fonts Vertical sub pixel structures are not supported in Windows XP. Tablets and cleartype, and a requested feature of Avalon at Brandon Furtwangler blog ClearType in GDI ClearType can be globally enabled or disabled for GDI applications. A control panel applet is available to let the users tune the GDI ClearType settings. The GDI implementation of ClearType does not Windows Presentation Foundation ClearType Overview support sub-pixel positioning. ClearType tuning Windows, out of the box, only allows ClearType to be turned on or off. However, there are other parameters that can be set via a ClearType tuner utility that Microsoft makes available as a free download from its site. The tool can also be used for tuning Windows Vista ClearType settings. Switching off ClearType disables ClearType completely, as expected, unless the application uses its own ClearType controls, separate from the OS level ones. The tuner has wizard and advanced modes that adjust the same parameters visually or by direct selection: Cleartype on/off RGB or BGR sub pixel structure, though BGR is quite rare, so the default works for most monitors Contrast Microsoft Reader has a similar ClearType tuner that only affects that program. ClearType in WPF All text in Windows Presentation Foundation is anti-aliased and rendered using ClearType. There are separate ClearType registry settings for GDI and WPF applications, but by default the WPF entries are absent, and the GDI values are used in their absence. WPF registry entries can be tuned using the instructions Tips for improving your WPF text rendering experience from the MSDN WPF Text Blog. ClearType in WPF supports sub-pixel positioning, natural advance widths, Y-direction anti-aliasing and hardware acceleration. However, due to the resolution-independent architecture of WPF, ClearType cannot be optionally turned off in WPF applications. WPF ClearType anti-aliasing cannot be turned off WPF supports aggressive caching of pre-rendered ClearType text in video memory. MSDN Library : .NET Development : WPF : ClearType Overview The extent to which this is supported is dependent on the video card. DirectX 10 cards will be able to cache the font glyphs in video memory, then perform the composition (assembling of character glyphs in the correct order, with the correct spacing), alpha blending (application of anti-aliasing), and RGB blending (ClearType's sub-pixel color calculations), entirely in hardware. This means that only the original glyphs need to be stored in video memory once per font (Microsoft estimates that this would require 2 MB of video memory per font), and other operations such as the display of anti-aliased text on top of other graphics — including video — can also be done with no computation effort on the part of the CPU. DirectX 9 cards will only be able to cache the alpha-blended glyphs in memory, thus requiring the CPU to handle glyph composition and alpha-blending before passing this to the video card. Caching these partially-rendered glyphs requires significantly more memory (Microsoft estimates 5 MB per process). Cards that don't support DirectX 9 have no hardware-accelerated text rendering capabilities. ClearType in DirectWrite The font rendering engine in DirectWrite supports rendering to sub-pixel positions, as demonstrated at PDC 2008. Patents ClearType is a registered trademark and is protected by the following U.S. patents: Subpixel rendering: – Method and apparatus for displaying images such as text – Mapping image data samples to pixel sub-components on a striped display device – Weighted mapping of image data samples to pixel sub-components on a display device – Methods and apparatus for performing image rendering and rasterization operations Complex color filtering: – Mapping samples of foreground/background color image data to pixel sub-components – Method and apparatus for detecting and reducing color artifacts in images – Methods apparatus and data structures for enhancing the resolution of images to be rendered on patterned display devices Subpixel font hinting and layout: – Methods and apparatus for performing grid fitting and hinting operations – Maintaining advance widths of existing characters that have been resolution enhanced ClearType tuning: – Method and apparatus for improving the quality of displayed images through the use of user reference information As of late 2008, another patent is still pending. See also Font rasterization FreeType OpenType Apple Advanced Typography Subpixel rendering Adobe CoolType, a similar technology References External links ClearType Tuner PowerToy Download link for Windows XP, from Microsoft's site ClearType Tuner webpage for accessing ClearType without downloading the PowerToy Explanation of ClearType at Microsoft Typography Technical Overview of ClearType Filtering from Microsoft Research Sub-Pixel Font Rendering Technology: History and Technique Explanation by Steve Gibson, includes free downloadable Windows demo. sample implementation in the C language by Damian Yerrick of Everything2 "Displaced Filtering for Patterned Displays" by Platt et al.: a research paper detailing ClearType's techniques. A video about the ClearType team and the typography in Windows Vista at Channel 9 ClearType and landscape mode - why it CANNOT work: A look at why ClearType can't work in landscape mode on a PocketPC Microsoft ClearType Font Collection at Microsoft Typography Download Microsoft ClearType Font Collection Download Microsoft PowerPoint Viewer 2007 which includes the ClearType Collection | ClearType |@lemmatized cleartype:95 microsoft:18 trademark:2 implementation:3 subpixel:10 render:38 technology:7 attempt:1 improve:8 appearance:2 text:38 certain:2 type:5 computer:8 display:45 screen:13 sacrifice:3 color:19 fidelity:2 additional:1 intensity:4 variation:3 trade:1 assert:1 work:9 lcd:5 flat:7 panel:8 monitor:3 first:2 announce:1 november:1 comdex:1 exhibition:1 introduce:2 software:3 january:1 always:2 feature:4 reader:2 release:1 public:1 august:1 later:1 operating:2 system:4 window:13 xp:5 keep:1 turn:8 default:5 vista:3 office:1 internet:1 explorer:1 even:1 enable:5 throughout:1 also:6 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2,550 | Epitaph | An epitaph (from Greek: epi-taphios "at,over-tomb" — literally: "on the gravestone" http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=epitaph ) is a short text honoring a deceased person, strictly speaking that inscribed on their tombstone or plaque, but also used figuratively. Some are specified by the dead person beforehand, others chosen by those responsible for the burial. An epitaph may be in verse; poets have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death, as W.B. Yeats did. Most epitaphs are brief records of the family, and perhaps the career, of the deceased, often with an expression of love or respect - "beloved father of ..." - but others are more ambitious. From the Renaissance to the 19th century in Western culture, epitaphs for notable people became increasingly lengthy and pompous descriptions of their family origins, career, virtues and immediate family, often in Latin. However, the Laudatio Turiae, the longest known Ancient Roman epitaph exceeds almost all of these at 180 lines; it celebrates the virtues of a wife, probably of a consul. Some are quotes from holy texts, or aphorisms. An approach of many successful epitaphs is to 'speak' to the reader and warn them about their own mortality. A wry trick of others is to request the reader to get off their resting place, as often it would require the reader to stand on the ground above the coffin to read the inscription. Some record achievements, (e.g. past politicians note the years of their terms of office) but nearly all (excepting those including the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, where this is impossible) note name, year or date of birth and date of death. Many list family and their relation to them; such as Father / Mother / Son / Daughter etc of. Notable epitaphs Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by that here, obedient to their law, we lie. — Simonides's epigram at Thermopylae I am ready to meet my Maker. Whether my Maker is prepared for the great ordeal of meeting me is another matter. — Winston Churchill http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/epitaphs/35.htm To save your world you asked this man to die: Would this man, could he see you now, ask why? — Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier, written by W. H. Auden http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/epitaphs/34.htm AGAINST YOU I WILL FLING MYSELF, UNVANQUISHED AND UNYIELDING, O DEATH! — Virginia Woolf http://www.famousquotes.me.uk/epitaphs/21.htm "Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare, To dig the dust enclosed here. Blessed be the man that spares these stones, And cursed be he that moves my bones." - William Shakespeare See also Funeral oration (ancient Greece) ("epitaphios logos") Chronogram Epigraph Hero stone References External links What is the Kohima Epitaph? Kohima Epitaph | Epitaph |@lemmatized epitaph:13 greek:1 epi:1 taphios:1 tomb:2 literally:1 gravestone:1 http:4 www:4 etymonline:1 com:1 index:1 php:1 term:2 short:1 text:2 honor:1 deceased:2 person:2 strictly:1 speak:2 inscribe:1 tombstone:1 plaque:1 also:2 use:1 figuratively:1 specify:1 dead:1 beforehand:1 others:3 choose:1 responsible:1 burial:1 may:1 verse:1 poet:1 know:1 compose:1 prior:1 death:3 w:2 b:1 yeats:1 epitaphs:2 brief:1 record:2 family:4 perhaps:1 career:2 often:3 expression:1 love:1 respect:1 beloved:1 father:2 ambitious:1 renaissance:1 century:1 western:1 culture:1 notable:2 people:1 become:1 increasingly:1 lengthy:1 pompous:1 description:1 origin:1 virtue:2 immediate:1 latin:1 however:1 laudatio:1 turiae:1 long:1 known:1 ancient:2 roman:1 exceed:1 almost:1 line:1 celebrate:1 wife:1 probably:1 consul:1 quote:1 holy:1 aphorisms:1 approach:1 many:2 successful:1 reader:3 warn:1 mortality:1 wry:1 trick:1 request:1 get:1 resting:1 place:1 would:2 require:1 stand:1 ground:1 coffin:1 read:1 inscription:1 achievement:1 e:1 g:1 past:1 politician:1 note:2 year:2 office:1 nearly:1 except:1 include:1 unknown:2 soldier:2 impossible:1 name:1 date:2 birth:1 list:1 relation:1 mother:1 son:1 daughter:1 etc:1 go:1 tell:1 spartan:1 stranger:1 passing:1 obedient:1 law:1 lie:1 simonides:1 epigram:1 thermopylae:1 ready:1 meet:2 maker:2 whether:1 prepare:1 great:1 ordeal:1 another:1 matter:1 winston:1 churchill:1 famousquotes:3 uk:3 htm:3 save:1 world:1 ask:2 man:3 die:1 could:1 see:2 write:1 h:1 auden:1 fling:1 unvanquished:1 unyielding:1 virginia:1 woolf:1 good:1 friend:1 jesus:1 sake:1 forbeare:1 dig:1 dust:1 enclose:1 bless:1 spar:1 stone:2 curse:1 move:1 bone:1 william:1 shakespeare:1 funeral:1 oration:1 greece:1 epitaphios:1 logo:1 chronogram:1 epigraph:1 hero:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 kohima:2 |@bigram http_www:4 www_etymonline:1 etymonline_com:1 index_php:1 resting_place:1 winston_churchill:1 h_auden:1 virginia_woolf:1 funeral_oration:1 external_link:1 |
2,551 | Wikipedia:Editing_policy | Wikipedia is the product of thousands of editors' contributions. Each has brought something different to the table: researching skills, technical expertise, writing prowess, tidbits of information, or, most importantly, a willingness to help. Even the best article should not be considered complete; each new editor offers new insights about how to further enhance our content. Dealing with problems Wikipedia is a work in progress: perfection is not required Perfection is not required: Wikipedia is a work in progress. It is wonderful when someone adds a comprehensive, well-researched, and well-written article to Wikipedia. However, one of the great advantages of wikis is that incomplete or poorly written first drafts of articles can, over time, evolve into masterpieces through collaborative editing. Wikipedia is a reference work, but it is also perpetually a work in progress. Even poor articles, if they can be improved, are welcomed. For instance, one person may start an article with an overview of a subject or a few random facts. Another may help standardize the article's formatting, or have additional facts and figures or a graphic to add. Yet another may bring better balance to the views represented in the article, and perform fact-checking and sourcing to existing content. At any point during this process, the article may become disorganized or contain substandard writing. Try to fix problems: preserve information Preserve information: fix problems if you can, flag them if you can't. Try to preserve information. As long as any of the facts or ideas added to the article would belong in a "finished" article, they should be retained and the writing tagged if necessary, or cleaned up on the spot. If you think a page needs to be rewritten or changed substantially, go ahead and do it, but preserve content you think might have some discussion value on the talk page, along with a comment about why you made the change. Do not remove information just because it is poorly presented. The editing process tends to guide articles through ever-higher levels of quality over time. Great Wikipedia articles can come from a succession of editors building upon each others' efforts, much as Newton "stood on the shoulders of giants." Instead of removing text, consider: rephrasing correcting the inaccuracy while keeping the content moving text within an article or to another article (existing or new) adding more of what you think is important to make an article more balanced requesting a citation by adding the tag adding appropriate cleanup tags to problematic sections Handling problematic material Though many problems can be fixed without removal, in certain cases you may remove problematic material, at least temporarily. For example, material that contradicts our content policies of verifiability, no original research, and neutral point of view may be removed. Questionable material about living people in any article should be removed immediately, pending subsequent discussion. At times material that has some potential value is so poorly written that it is unlikely to be improved any time soon; in such cases, you can transfer the material to the article's talk page, where it can be improved at leisure. Note, however, that editors may object if you remove material without giving them a chance to fix the problem first. If there is a dispute, do not repeatedly revert each other (that is, do not edit war), but discuss the problem on the article talk page and try to reach consensus. Examples include: original research Duplicated, irrelevant, or redundant content patent nonsense or vandalism copyright violations prohibited or inappropriate external links factual claims that cannot be verified, particularly unsourced or poorly-sourced contentious material about living persons Talking and editing Be bold: edit Be bold in updating articles, especially for minor changes and fixing problems. Previous authors do not need to be consulted before making changes - nobody owns articles. In fact, some Wikipedians think you should not wait at all—simply change an article immediately if you see a problem, rather than waiting to discuss changes that you believe need to be made. Discussion is only needed if someone voices disagreement. A different viewpoint is that dialogue should be respected, but at the same time, minor tweaks should be accepted. In this view, whether to edit radically or not will depend on the context. For example, some editors suggest a BOLD, revert, discuss cycle can sometimes help move forward an unproductive discussion; but such boldness should be aimed at improving discussion, not at imposing edits against existing consensus. Remember that being bold doesn't mean ignoring the core Wikipedia content policies. Wikipedia must have a neutral point of view, which means that we strive for articles that advocate no single point of view. And it means whenever possible citing sources which are verifiable and reliable. Be helpful: explain Be helpful: explain your changes. When you edit an article, the more radical or controversial the change, the greater the need to explain it. For smaller changes, use an appropriate edit summary. For larger or more significant changes, the edit summary may not give you enough space to explain the edit - in this case leave a note on the article's talk page. Remember too that notes on the talk page are more visible, make misunderstandings less likely and encourage discussion rather than edit warring. If you think a page simply needs to be rewritten or changed substantially, you can just go ahead and do that. Preserve any old contents you think might have some discussion value on the talk page, along with a comment about why you made the change. (For larger changes, it may be more convenient to use the page history to find the URL of the old version before your changes, and provide a link to this on the article talk page.) Even if you delete something that's just plain false, odds are that it got there because someone believed it was true, so noting that you removed this and saying why will make it less likely that the mistake will be made again in the future. Be cautious with major changes: discuss Be cautious with major changes: consider discussing them first. With large proposed deletions or replacements, it may be best to suggest changes in a discussion, to prevent edit warring and disillusioning either other editors or yourself (if your hard work is rejected by others). One person's improvement is another's desecration, and nobody likes to see their work "destroyed" without prior notice. If you choose to be very bold, take extra care to justify your changes in detail on the article talk page. This will make it less likely that editors will end up reverting the article back and forth between their preferred versions. To facilitate discussion of a substantial change without filling up the talk page, you can create the new draft in your own userspace (eg User:Example/Lipsum) and link to it on the article discussion page. But: Wikipedia is not a discussion forum Whether you decide to edit very boldly or discuss carefully on the talk page first, please bear in mind that Wikipedia is not a discussion forum. Wikipedia can be a very energetic place, and it is best for the project as a whole if we concentrate our energies on improving articles rather than defending our pet theories, ideologies, religions, etc. This is discussed further at Wikipedia:Etiquette. Editing and refactoring talk pages For guidance on how to edit talk pages see: Wikipedia:Talk page Wikipedia:Archiving talk pages Wikipedia:Refactoring talk pages Editing policies and guidelines Policies and guidelines are supposed to state what most Wikipedians agree upon, and should be phrased to reflect the present consensus on a subject. In general, more caution should be exercised in editing policies and guidelines than in editing articles. Minor edits to existing pages, such as formatting changes, grammatical improvement and uncontentious clarification, may be made by any editor at any time. However, changes that would alter the substance of policy or guidelines should normally be announced on the appropriate talk page first. The change may be implemented if no objection is made to it or if discussion shows that there is consensus for the change. Major changes should also be publicized to the community in general, as should proposals for new policy pages (Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines#Proposing guidelines and policies). See also Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not Wikipedia:Wikipedia is a work in progress — some historical background and perspective Wikipedia:There is no deadline | Wikipedia:Editing_policy |@lemmatized wikipedia:21 product:1 thousand:1 editor:8 contribution:1 bring:2 something:2 different:2 table:1 researching:1 skill:1 technical:1 expertise:1 write:4 prowess:1 tidbit:1 information:5 importantly:1 willingness:1 help:3 even:3 best:3 article:30 consider:3 complete:1 new:5 offer:1 insight:1 enhance:1 content:8 deal:1 problem:8 work:7 progress:4 perfection:2 required:1 require:1 wonderful:1 someone:3 add:6 comprehensive:1 well:2 research:3 however:3 one:3 great:3 advantage:1 wikis:1 incomplete:1 poorly:4 first:5 draft:2 time:6 evolve:1 masterpiece:1 collaborative:1 editing:2 reference:1 also:3 perpetually:1 poor:1 improve:5 welcome:1 instance:1 person:3 may:12 start:1 overview:1 subject:2 random:1 fact:5 another:4 standardize:1 formatting:2 additional:1 figure:1 graphic:1 yet:1 good:1 balance:1 view:5 represent:1 perform:1 checking:1 source:3 exist:4 point:4 process:2 become:1 disorganized:1 contain:1 substandard:1 writing:2 try:3 fix:5 preserve:5 flag:1 long:1 idea:1 would:2 belong:1 finish:1 retain:1 tag:3 necessary:1 clean:1 spot:1 think:6 page:22 need:6 rewrite:2 change:24 substantially:2 go:2 ahead:2 might:2 discussion:13 value:3 talk:17 along:2 comment:2 make:11 remove:7 present:2 edit:16 tends:1 guide:1 ever:1 high:1 level:1 quality:1 come:1 succession:1 build:1 upon:2 others:2 effort:1 much:1 newton:1 stand:1 shoulder:1 giant:1 instead:1 text:2 rephrasing:1 correct:1 inaccuracy:1 keep:1 move:2 within:1 important:1 balanced:1 request:1 citation:1 appropriate:3 cleanup:1 problematic:3 section:1 handle:1 material:8 though:1 many:1 without:4 removal:1 certain:1 case:3 least:1 temporarily:1 example:4 contradict:1 policy:9 verifiability:1 original:2 neutral:2 questionable:1 living:2 people:1 immediately:2 pending:1 subsequent:1 potential:1 unlikely:1 soon:1 transfer:1 leisure:1 note:4 object:1 give:2 chance:1 dispute:1 repeatedly:1 revert:3 war:2 discuss:6 reach:1 consensus:4 include:1 duplicate:1 irrelevant:1 redundant:1 patent:1 nonsense:1 vandalism:1 copyright:1 violation:1 prohibit:1 inappropriate:1 external:1 link:3 factual:1 claim:1 cannot:1 verify:1 particularly:1 unsourced:1 contentious:1 bold:5 update:1 especially:1 minor:3 previous:1 author:1 consult:1 nobody:2 wikipedians:2 wait:2 simply:2 see:4 rather:3 believe:2 voice:1 disagreement:1 viewpoint:1 dialogue:1 respect:1 tweak:1 accept:1 whether:2 radically:1 depend:1 context:1 suggest:2 cycle:1 sometimes:1 forward:1 unproductive:1 boldness:1 aim:1 impose:1 edits:2 remember:2 mean:3 ignore:1 core:1 must:1 strive:1 advocate:1 single:1 whenever:1 possible:1 cite:1 verifiable:1 reliable:1 helpful:2 explain:4 radical:1 controversial:1 small:1 use:2 summary:2 large:3 significant:1 enough:1 space:1 leave:1 visible:1 misunderstanding:1 less:3 likely:3 encourage:1 old:2 convenient:1 history:1 find:1 url:1 version:2 provide:1 delete:1 plain:1 false:1 odds:1 get:1 true:1 say:1 mistake:1 future:1 cautious:2 major:3 discus:1 propose:2 deletion:1 replacement:1 prevent:1 warring:1 disillusion:1 either:1 hard:1 reject:1 improvement:2 desecration:1 like:1 destroy:1 prior:1 notice:1 choose:1 take:1 extra:1 care:1 justify:1 detail:1 end:1 back:1 forth:1 preferred:1 facilitate:1 substantial:1 fill:1 create:1 userspace:1 eg:1 user:1 lipsum:1 forum:2 decide:1 boldly:1 carefully:1 please:1 bear:1 mind:1 energetic:1 place:1 project:1 whole:1 concentrate:1 energy:1 defend:1 pet:1 theory:1 ideology:1 religion:1 etc:1 far:1 etiquette:1 refactoring:2 guidance:1 archiving:1 guideline:6 suppose:1 state:1 agree:1 phrase:1 reflect:1 general:2 caution:1 exercise:1 grammatical:1 uncontentious:1 clarification:1 alter:1 substance:1 normally:1 announce:1 implement:1 objection:1 show:1 publicize:1 community:1 proposal:1 historical:1 background:1 perspective:1 deadline:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
2,552 | Transport_in_Cuba | Transportation in Cuba is composed of a system of railways, roads, buses, airports, waterways, ports and harbours: Railways Railway network in Cuba total: 11,968 km (4,226 km + 7,742 km) standard gauge: 4,226 km gauge (140 km electrified) note: an additional 7,742 km of track is used by sugar plantations; about 65% of this track is standard gauge; the rest is narrow gauge (2003) Cuba built the first railway system in the Spanish empire, before the 1848 start in the Iberian peninsula. While the rail infrastructure dates from colonial and early republican times, passenger service along the principal Havana to Santiago corridor is increasingly reliable and popular with tourists who can purchase tickets in Cuban convertible pesos. As with most public transport in Cuba, the vehicles used are second hand, and the flagship Tren Francés ("French train") between Havana and Santiago de Cuba is operated by coaches originally used in Europe between Paris and Amsterdam on the ex-TEE express. The train is formed by 12 coaches and a Chinese-built locomotive. With the order of 12 new Chinese locomotives, built specially for Cuban Railways at China Northern Locomotives and Rolling Stock Works, services have been improving in reliability. Those benefiting the most are long distance freight services with the French train Havana-Santiago being the only passenger train using one of the new Chinese locomotives regularly. Various orders are in place for 100 locomotives from China and various freight wagons and passenger coaches. Cuba - Railpage Australia Forums (Central and South America) Roads Via Blanca highway near Matanzas The total length of Cuba's highways is 60,858 km, including paved: 29,820 km (including 638 km of expressway) unpaved: 31,038 km (1999 est.) Expressways (autopistas) include the Autopista Nacional (A1) from Havana to Santa Clara and Sancti Spiritus, with additional short sections near Santiago and Guantanamo the Autopista Este-Oeste (A4) from Havana to Pinar del Rio the Autopista del Mediodia from Havana to San Antonio de los Baños an autopista from Havana to Melena del Sur an autopista from Havana to Mariel the Havana ring road (), which starts at a tunnel under the entrance to Havana Harbor the section of the Via Blanca from Matanzas to Varadero (toll road) Older roads include the Carretera Central, and the Via Blanca from Havana to Matanzas. Long-distance and inter-municipality buses in Cuba There are two national bus companies in Cuba. Viazul operate a fleet of modern and comfortable coaches on longer distance routes designed principally for tourists. Slower and less reliable services are provided by Astro Bus, generally with much older vehicles, many imported from the Soviet Union. These services are significantly cheaper than Viazul, and are therefore increasingly popular with budget conscious tourists and visitors to Cuba. However, ASTRO (Asociacion de Transporte por Omnibus) has recently purchased from the Chinese manufacturer Yutong Bus a fleet of nearly 1000 air-conditioned units. They are being used on most of the long distance routes nationwide and some services have been increased. However, the ticket price was also raised recently, making it less affordable for the regular Cuban that chooses ASTRO to travel. Routes that have benefited most so far are those from Havana to each of the 13 provincial capitals of the country. On 27 June 2007 it was reported that Cuba will start assembling the 200 first Yutong buses for inter-municipal transportation starting the second half of 2007. Cuba to assemble chinese buses | Cuba News Headlines. Cuban Daily News Urban buses Camel bus in Havana Ferro Bus in Levisa near Mayarí in Holguín Province A decommissioned bus from Seville, now operating in Havana In Havana urban transportation is provided by a colourful selection of buses imported from the Soviet Union or Canada. Many of these vehicles are second hand (such as the 1500 decommissioned Dutch buses, which the Netherlands donated to Cuba in the mid 1990s) and despite the United States trade embargo, American-style yellow school buses (imported second-hand from Canada) are increasingly common sights. On seven key lines in and out of the city, service is provided by camellos ("camels" or "dromedaries", after their "humps"), trailer buses that haul as many as two hundred passengers in a passenger carrying trailer. The camellos will be phased out in April 2008 with Chinese Zhengzhou Yutong Buses. After the upgrading of Seville's public bus fleet to CNG-powered and new vehicles, many of the decommissioned ones were donated to the city of Havana. These bright orange buses still display the name of Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla, S.A.M., their former owner, and Seville's coat of arms as a sign of gratitude. The last lot was delivered in 2006: "Entrega de 16 autobuses de TUSSAM a la Habana como gesto solidario", nota de prensa del Ayuntamiento de Sevilla On 18 July 2007 it was reported that Cuba will receive 100 urban buses from Belarus before years end, destined for use in Havana. Belarus to ship 100 urban buses to Cuba by late 2007 | Cuba News Headlines. Cuban Daily News Cuban State Council Vice President Carlos Lage declared in 2007 that Cuba would receive 1,142 more Chinese buses for urban transport before years end Cuba praises high quality of Chinese-made buses Waterways 240 km Ports and harbors Cienfuegos Havana Manzanillo Mariel Matanzas Nuevitas Santiago de Cuba Merchant marine total: 13 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 54,818 GRT/ ships by type: bulk carriers 3 cargo ships 4 gas carrying tankers 1 petroleum tanker 3 refrigerated cargo ships 2 registered in other countries: 35 (2003 est.) Airlines Besides the state owned airline Cubana (Cubana de Aviación), the two other major Cuban airlines are Aero Caribbean and Aerogaviota, both of whom operate modern European and Russian aircraft. Other airline Aerotaxi Airports 170 (2003 est.) Airports with paved runways total: 70 over 3,047 m: 7 2,438 to 3,047 m: 9 1,524 to 2,437 m: 20 914 to 1,523 m: 6 under 914 m: 37 (2003 est.) Airports with unpaved runways total: 95 914 to 1,523 m: 29 under 914 m: 62 (2003 est.) See also Infrastructure of Cuba References External links Cubana Airlines Aero-Caribbean Aero-Gaviota Viazul long distance coaches Information on train travel in Cuba Photos of antique Cuban cars | Transport_in_Cuba |@lemmatized transportation:3 cuba:22 compose:1 system:2 railway:5 road:4 bus:22 airport:3 waterway:1 port:2 harbour:1 network:1 total:6 km:11 standard:2 gauge:4 electrify:1 note:1 additional:2 track:2 use:6 sugar:1 plantation:1 rest:1 narrow:1 build:3 first:2 spanish:1 empire:1 start:4 iberian:1 peninsula:1 rail:1 infrastructure:2 date:1 colonial:1 early:1 republican:1 time:1 passenger:5 service:7 along:1 principal:1 havana:18 santiago:5 corridor:1 increasingly:3 reliable:2 popular:2 tourist:3 purchase:2 ticket:2 cuban:8 convertible:1 peso:1 public:2 transport:2 vehicle:4 second:4 hand:3 flagship:1 tren:1 francés:1 french:2 train:5 de:10 operate:4 coach:5 originally:1 europe:1 paris:1 amsterdam:1 ex:1 tee:1 express:1 form:1 chinese:8 locomotive:5 order:2 new:3 specially:1 china:2 northern:1 roll:1 stock:1 work:1 improve:1 reliability:1 benefit:2 long:5 distance:5 freight:2 one:2 regularly:1 various:2 place:1 wagon:1 railpage:1 australia:1 forum:1 central:2 south:1 america:1 roads:1 via:3 blanca:3 highway:2 near:3 matanzas:4 length:1 include:4 pave:1 expressway:2 unpaved:2 est:5 autopistas:1 autopista:5 nacional:1 santa:1 clara:1 sancti:1 spiritus:1 short:1 section:2 guantanamo:1 este:1 oeste:1 pinar:1 del:4 rio:1 mediodia:1 san:1 antonio:1 los:1 baños:1 melena:1 sur:1 mariel:2 ring:1 tunnel:1 entrance:1 harbor:2 varadero:1 toll:1 old:2 carretera:1 inter:2 municipality:1 two:3 national:1 company:1 viazul:3 fleet:3 modern:2 comfortable:1 route:3 design:1 principally:1 slow:1 less:2 provide:3 astro:3 generally:1 much:1 many:4 import:3 soviet:2 union:2 significantly:1 cheap:1 therefore:1 budget:1 conscious:1 visitor:1 however:2 asociacion:1 transporte:1 por:1 omnibus:1 recently:2 manufacturer:1 yutong:3 nearly:1 air:1 condition:1 unit:1 nationwide:1 increase:1 price:1 also:2 raise:1 make:2 affordable:1 regular:1 choose:1 travel:2 far:1 provincial:1 capital:1 country:2 june:1 report:2 assemble:2 municipal:1 half:1 news:4 headline:2 daily:2 urban:5 camel:2 ferro:1 levisa:1 mayarí:1 holguín:1 province:1 decommission:2 seville:3 colourful:1 selection:1 canada:2 dutch:1 netherlands:1 donate:2 mid:1 despite:1 united:1 state:3 trade:1 embargo:1 american:1 style:1 yellow:1 school:1 common:1 sight:1 seven:1 key:1 line:1 city:2 camellos:2 dromedary:1 hump:1 trailer:2 haul:1 hundred:1 carry:2 phase:1 april:1 zhengzhou:1 upgrading:1 cng:1 power:1 decommissioned:1 bright:1 orange:1 still:1 display:1 name:1 transportes:1 urbanos:1 sevilla:2 former:1 owner:1 coat:1 arm:1 sign:1 gratitude:1 last:1 lot:1 deliver:1 entrega:1 autobus:1 tussam:1 la:1 habana:1 como:1 gesto:1 solidario:1 nota:1 prensa:1 ayuntamiento:1 july:1 receive:2 belarus:2 year:2 end:2 destine:1 ship:5 late:1 council:1 vice:1 president:1 carlos:1 lage:1 declare:1 would:1 praise:1 high:1 quality:1 waterways:1 cienfuegos:1 manzanillo:1 nuevitas:1 merchant:1 marine:1 grt:2 type:1 bulk:1 carrier:1 cargo:2 gas:1 tanker:2 petroleum:1 refrigerate:1 register:1 airline:5 besides:1 cubana:3 aviación:1 major:1 aero:3 caribbean:2 aerogaviota:1 european:1 russian:1 aircraft:1 aerotaxi:1 airports:1 paved:1 runway:2 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 gaviota:1 information:1 photo:1 antique:1 car:1 |@bigram km_electrify:1 sugar_plantation:1 narrow_gauge:1 iberian_peninsula:1 convertible_peso:1 expressway_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 santa_clara:1 pinar_del:1 autopista_del:1 san_antonio:1 del_sur:1 toll_road:1 soviet_union:2 de_transporte:1 camel_dromedary:1 coat_arm:1 vice_president:1 waterways_km:1 merchant_marine:1 ship_grt:1 grt_total:1 total_grt:1 grt_ship:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 de_aviación:1 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 |
2,553 | Columbus,_Ohio | Columbus is the capital and the largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio. It is the county seat of Franklin County, although parts of the city also extend into Delaware and Fairfield counties. Named for explorer Christopher Columbus, the city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and assumed the functions of state capital in 1816. The population was 711,470 at the 2000 census. In 2007, Columbus was the 15th largest city in the United States, with 747,755 residents, and was also the 32nd largest metropolitan area, the fourth largest city in the Midwest, and the third most populous capital in the U.S. According to the U.S. Census, the metropolitan area has a population of 1,754,337, and the Combined Statistical Area (which also includes Marion and Chillicothe) has a population of 1,982,252. Columbus is located within of half of the population of the United States. The city has a diverse economy based on education, insurance, health care, retail, and technology. Acknowledged by Money Magazine as the 8th best large city in the U.S. to inhabit, it is also recognized as an emerging global city. GaWC Research Bulletin 5, GaWC, Loughborough University, 28 July 1999 Residents of Columbus are usually referred to as Columbusites. History Evidence of ancient mound-building societies abounds in the region near the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. Mound Street, located in downtown Columbus, was so named because of its proximity to a large Native American burial mound. Numerous other earthworks were found throughout the area, including a surviving edifice on McKinley Avenue. Those ancient civilizations had long since faded into history when European explorers began moving into the region south of Lake Erie. Rather than an empty frontier, however, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee, and Mingo nations. These tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, resulting in years of bitter conflict. The decisive battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a young surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River. An admirer of Benjamin Franklin, Sullivant chose to name his new frontier village "Franklinton." Lentz, p. 33 Although the location was desirable in its proximity to navigable rivers, Sullivant was initially foiled when, in 1798, a large flood wiped out the newly formed settlement. Moore, p. 101 He persevered, and the village was rebuilt. 19th century After Ohio achieved statehood in 1803, political infighting among Ohio's more prominent leaders resulted in the state capital moving from Chillicothe to Zanesville and back again. The state legislature finally decided that a new capital city, located in the center of the state, was a necessary compromise. Several of Ohio's small towns and villages petitioned the legislature for the honor of becoming the state capital, but ultimately a coalition of land speculators, with Sullivant's support, made the most attractive offer to the Ohio General Assembly. Named in honor of Christopher Columbus, the capital city was founded on February 14, 1812, on the "High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto known as Wolf's Ridge." Lentz, pp. 41–43 At the time, this area was a dense forestland, used only as a hunting ground. Moore, p. 122 Old City Hall, completed in 1872 and burned in 1921 The Burough of Columbus [sic] was officially established on February 10, 1816. Moore, pp. 135–136 Nine people were elected to fill the various positions of Mayor, Treasurer, and others. Although the recent War of 1812 had brought prosperity to the area, the subsequent recession and conflicting claims to the land threatened the success of the new town. Early conditions were abysmal with frequent bouts of fevers and an outbreak of cholera in 1833. Moore, pp. 138–140 The National Road reached Columbus from Baltimore in 1831, which complemented the city's new link to the Ohio and Erie Canal and facilitated a population boom. Lentz, p. 58 A wave of immigrants from Europe resulted in the establishment of two ethnic enclaves on the outskirts of the city. A significant Irish population settled in the north along Naghten Street (presently Nationwide Boulevard), while the Germans took advantage of the cheap land to the south, creating a community that came to be known as Das Alte Südende (The Old South End). Columbus' German population is responsible for constructing numerous breweries, Trinity Lutheran Seminary, and Capital University. Lentz, pp. 63-64 With a population of 3500, Columbus was officially chartered as a city on March 3, 1834. The legislature carried out a special act on that day, which granted legislative authority to the city council and judicial authority to the mayor. Elections were held in April of that year, with voters choosing one John Brooks as the first mayor. Moore, p. 156 In 1850 the Columbus and Xenia Railroad became the first railroad to enter the city, followed by the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad in 1851. The two railroads built a joint Union Station on the east side of High Street just north of Naghten (then called North Public Lane). Rail traffic into Columbus increased—by 1875 Columbus was served by eight railroads, and a new, more elaborate station was built. The Great Southern Hotel, completed in 1897 On January 7, 1857, the Ohio Statehouse finally opened to the public after eighteen years of construction. Lentz, pp. 70–71 During the Civil War, Columbus was a major base for the volunteer Union Army that housed 26,000 troops and held up to 9,000 Confederate prisoners of war at Camp Chase located at what is now the Hilltop neighborhood of west Columbus. Over 2,000 Confederate soldiers remain buried at the site, making it one of the largest Confederate cemeteries in the North. Lentz, p. 78 North of Columbus, along the Delaware Road, the Regular Army established Camp Thomas, where the 18th U.S. Infantry was organized and trained. By virtue of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College was founded in 1870 on the former estate of William and Hannah Neil. Lentz, p.57 By the end of the 19th century, Columbus saw the rise of several major manufacturing businesses. The city became known as the "Buggy Capital of the World," thanks to the presence of some two dozen buggy factories, notably the Columbus Buggy Company, which was founded in 1875 by C.D. Firestone. The Columbus Consolidated Brewing Company also rose to prominence during this time, and it may have achieved even greater success were it not for the influence of the Anti-Saloon League, based in neighboring Westerville. Lentz, pp. 85–87 In the steel industry, a forward-thinking man named Samuel P. Bush presided over the Buckeye Steel Castings Company. Columbus was also a popular location for the organization of labor. In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor in Druid's Hall on S. Fourth Street, and in 1890 the United Mine Workers of America was founded at old City Hall. Lentz, pp. 91–92 20th century to the present Street arches returned to the Short North in late 2002 Columbus earned its nickname "The Arch City" because of the dozens of metal (formerly wooden) arches that spanned High Street at the turn of the twentieth century. The arches illuminated the thoroughfare and eventually became the means by which electric power was provided to the new streetcars. The arches were torn down and replaced with cluster lights in 1914, but were reconstructed in the Short North district in 2002 for their unique historical interest. Lentz, pp. 94–95 On March 25, 1913, a catastrophic flood devastated the neighborhood of Franklinton, leaving over ninety people dead and thousands of West Side residents homeless. To prevent future flooding, the Army Corps of Engineers recommended widening the Scioto River through downtown, constructing new bridges, and building a retaining wall along its banks. With the strength of the post-WWI economy, a construction boom occurred in the 1920s, resulting in a new Civic Center, the Ohio Theatre, the American Insurance Union Citadel, and, to the north, a massive new Ohio Stadium. Lentz, pp. 112–113 Although the American Professional Football Association was founded in Canton in 1920, its head offices moved to Columbus in 1921 and remained in the city until 1941. In 1922, the association's name was changed to the National Football League. The same year, Coats Steam Car set up shop in Columbus, only to move to Bowling Green and ultimately fail. The effects of the Great Depression were somewhat less severe in Columbus, as the city's diversified economy helped it fare marginally better than its Rust Belt neighbors. World War II brought a tremendous number of new jobs to the city, and with it another population surge. This time, the majority of new arrivals were migrants from the "extraordinarily depressed rural areas" of Appalachia, who would soon account for more than a third of Columbus' rising population. Lentz, pp.116–118 In 1948, the Town and Country Shopping Center opened in suburban Whitehall, and it is now regarded as one of the first modern shopping centers in the United States. Lentz, p. 122 Along with the construction of the interstate highway, it signaled the arrival of rapid suburban development in central Ohio. In order to protect the city's tax base from this suburbanization, Columbus adopted a policy of linking sewer and water hookups to annexation to the city. Lentz, p. 129 By the early 1990s, Columbus had grown to become Ohio's largest city in both land area and in population. Efforts to revitalize Downtown Columbus have met with mixed results in recent decades. In the 1970s old landmarks such as Union Station and the Neil House Hotel were razed to construct high-rise offices and retail space such as the Huntington Center. Lentz, p. 135 Newer suburban developments at Tuttle Crossing, Easton, and Polaris have inhibited much of the anticipated downtown growth. Still, with the addition of the Arena District, as well as hundreds of downtown residential units, significant revitalization efforts are likely to continue in the downtown area. Geography Topography Skyline of Columbus, viewed from North Bank Park Aerial photo of Downtown Columbus, taken from the air According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 212.6 square miles (550.5 km²), of which, 210.3 square miles (544.6 km²) of it is land and 2.3 square miles (5.9 km²) of it (1.07%) is water. Unlike many other major US cities in the Midwest, Columbus continues to expand its reach by way of extensions and annexations, making it one of the fastest growing large cities in the nation, in terms of both geography and population, and probably the fastest in the Midwest. Unlike Cleveland and Cincinnati, the central cities in Ohio's two largest metropolitan areas, Columbus is ringed by relatively few suburbs; since the 1950s it has made annexation a condition for providing water and sewer service, to which it holds regional rights throughout a large portion of Central Ohio. This policy is credited with preserving Columbus' tax base in the face of the U.S.'s suburbanization and has contributed to its continued economic expansion, much like other cities pursuing similar policies such as San Antonio, Texas, which is similarly lacking in surrounding incorporated suburbs. The confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers occurs just west of downtown Columbus. Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metro area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek, and Darby Creek. Columbus is considered to have relatively flat topography thanks to a large glacier that covered most of Ohio during the Wisconsin Ice Age. However, there are sizable differences in elevation through the area, with the high point of Franklin County being 1132ft (345m) above Sea level near New Albany, and the low point being 670ft (207m) where the Scioto River leaves the county near Lockbourne. Numerous ravine areas near the rivers and creeks also help give some variety to the landscape. Tributaries to Alum Creek and the Olentangy River cut through shale, while tributaries to the Scioto River cut through limestone. Deciduous trees are common, including maple, oak, hickory, walnut, poplar, cottonwood, and of course, buckeye. Columbus is geographically very close to many major cities. It has a driving distance of less than four hours from Cincinnati, Cleveland, Detroit, Fort Wayne, Indianapolis, Lexington, Louisville, Pittsburgh, and Toledo. Likewise, Chicago, Milwaukee, Nashville, New York City, and Philadelphia are all within a day's drive of the city. Climate The region is dominated by a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa), characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters. The hottest temperature ever recorded in Columbus was 106 °F (41 °C), which occurred twice during the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s — once on July 21, 1934, and again two years later, on July 14, 1936. Records for Columbus. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2008-11-16. The coldest temperature ever recorded was –22°F (–30°C), occurring on January 19, 1994. Columbus is subject to Severe weather typical to the Midwestern United States. Tornadoes are possible from the spring to the fall, the most recent of which occurred on October 11, 2006 and caused F2 damage. Floods, blizzards, and severe thunderstorms can also occur from time to time. Cityscape Overview mapColumbus also has a number of distinctive neighborhoods within the metro area. The Short North, situated just north of downtown, is rich with art galleries, dining, pubs, and specialty shops. A number of large, ornate Victorian homes are located nearby, and together they comprise Victorian Village. Just to the west is Harrison West and across the Olentangy River is Grandview Heights. To the south, German Village is known for its quaint 19th century brick cottages, and it holds the distinction as the largest privately funded historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. Immediately west is the Brewery District, formerly an entertainment district which has seen a decrease in bars and an increase in residential and office development. To the east of Downtown north of Broad St. is King-Lincoln Bronzeville, or just "King-Lincoln", which was the cultural and commercial hub of the African-American community. South of Broad and also east of King Lincoln is Olde Towne East, which was a well-to-do streetcar neighborhood consisting of grand homes in a wide variety of architectural styles. Most of these neighborhoods have all undergone gentrification on a large scale. Franklinton, sometimes known as "the Bottoms," is the neighborhood immediately west of downtown. It gets its colorful nickname due to the fact that much of the land lies below the level of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and a floodwall is required to contain the rivers and protect the area from devastating floods. Just to the west of Franklinton is a group of smaller neighborhoods commonly referred to as "The Hilltop." At the north end of downtown is a new development/neighborhood, the Arena District. Centered around the Nationwide Arena, the district has many pubs, restaurants, and residential projects, most notably the new 20-story Condominiums at North Bank Park tower. The Lifestyle Communities Pavilion is also an anchor for the district and the recently-completed Huntington Ballpark has become the new home of the Columbus Clippers baseball team. There are also the Heritage Districts, which include the Driving Park, Livingston Park and Old Oaks areas on the near east side of the city, home to a part of the city's large black population. The University area is populated by a high concentration of students during the school year (approximately 60,000) and features many old homes which have been converted to apartments for student use. The stretch of High Street that runs through the campus area caters to the student body with its abundance of bars, sandwich shops, music stores, and bookstores. Located between OSU and Worthington is Clintonville, where a mix of middle class homes can be found alongside beautiful old stone and brick-faced houses nestled among rolling hills. Further west of downtown, San Margherita is a community formed by Italian immigrants who arrived at the turn of the 20th century. Columbus has its own city park system, and there is a metropolitan area parks system as well. Reservoirs and parks on the major streams offer recreational opportunities. The Scioto and Olentangy river corridors are becoming connected as greenways with bike paths, and the Scioto Mile project is enhancing the riverfront in the heart of downtown. Transportation The city's street plan originates downtown and extends into the old-growth neighborhoods, following a grid pattern with the intersection of High Street (running north–south) and Broad Street (running east–west) at its center. North-South streets run twelve degrees west of due North, parallel to High Street; the Avenues (vis. Fifth Avenue, Sixth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, etc.) run east–west. Moore, p. 127 The address system begins its numbering at the intersection of Broad and High, with numbers increasing in magnitude with distance from Broad or High. Numbered Avenues begin with First Avenue, about 1¼ mile north of Broad Street, and increase in number as one progresses northward. Numbered Streets begin with Second Street, which is two blocks west of High Street, and Third Street, which is a block east of High Street, then progress eastward from there. Even-numbered addresses are on the north and east sides of streets, putting odd addresses on the south and west sides of streets. A difference of 700 house numbers means a distance of about one mile (along the same street). For example, 351 W 5th Avenue is approximately one-half mile west of High Street on the south side of Fifth Avenue. Buildings along north–south streets are numbered in a similar manner: the building number indicates the approximate distance from Broad Street, the prefixes ‘N’ and ‘S’ indicate whether that distance is to measured to the north or south of Broad Street and the street number itself indicates how far the street is from the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and High. Locations of numbered Streets and AvenuesThis street numbering system does not hold true over a large area. The area served by numbered Avenues runs from about Marble Cliff to South Linden to the Airport, and the area served by numbered Streets covers Downtown and nearby neighborhoods to the east and south, with only a few exceptions. There are quite few intersections between numbered Streets and Avenues. Furthermore, named Streets and Avenues can have any orientation. For example, while all of the numbered avenues run east–west, perpendicular to High Street, many named, non-numbered avenues run north–south, parallel to High. The same is true of many named streets: while the numbered streets in the city run north–south, perpendicular to Broad Street, many named, non-numbered streets run east–west, perpendicular to High Street. The addressing system, however, covers nearly all of Franklin County, with only a few older suburbs retaining self-centered address systems. The address scale of 700 per mile results in addresses approaching, but not usually reaching, 10,000 at the county's borders. Other major, local roads in Columbus could include Main Street, Morse Road, Dublin-Granville Road (SR-161), Cleveland Avenue/Westerville Road (SR-3), Olentangy River Road, Riverside Drive, Sunbury Road, Fifth Avenue and Livingston Avenue. The eastern junction of I-70 and I-71 as they split apart leaving downtown ColumbusColumbus is bisected by two major Interstate Highways, Interstate 70 running east–west, and Interstate 71 running north to roughly southwest. The two Interstates combine downtown for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) in an area locally known as "The Split", which is a major traffic congestion point within Columbus, especially during rush hour. U.S. Highway 40, aka National Road, runs east–west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street to the west. It is also widely recognized as the nation's first highway. U.S. Highway 23 runs roughly north–south, while U.S. Highway 33 runs northwest-to-southeast. The Interstate 270 Outerbelt encircles the vast majority of the city, while the newly redesigned Innerbelt consists of the Interstate 670 spur on the north side (which continues to the east past the Airport and to the west where it merges with I-70), State Route 315 on the west side, the I-70/71 split on the south side, and I-71 on the east. Due to its central location within Ohio and abundance of outbound roadways, nearly all of the state's destinations are within a 2-hour drive of Columbus. The area has several airports, most notably Port Columbus International Airport on the east side of the city. Port Columbus provides service to a few foreign and dozens of domestic destinations, including all the major hubs. Port Columbus was a hub for discount carrier Skybus Airlines and is for NetJets, the world's largest fractional ownership carrier. Rickenbacker International Airport, in southern Franklin County, is a major cargo facility and is important to the Ohio Air National Guard. OSU Don Scott Airport and Bolton Field are significant general-aviation facilities in the Columbus area. Columbus used to have a major train station downtown called Union Station, most notably as a stop along Amtrak's National Limited train service until 1977. The station itself was razed in 1979, and the Greater Columbus Convention Center now stands in its place. The station was also a stop along the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad and the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad. Columbus is now the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. without passenger rail service, after Phoenix introduced a light-rail system in December 2008; however studies are underway towards reintroducing passenger rail service to Columbus via the Ohio Hub project. A previous plan for a streetcar has been morphed into a plan for light rail service between downtown and the Polaris area. Columbus maintains a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA). Bicycling as transportation is steadily increasing in Columbus with its relatively flat terrain, intact urban neighborhoods, large student population, off-road bike paths, and recent moves by the City to make Columbus one of the top cycling cities in the nation with the 2012 Bicentennial Bikeways Plan as well as a move toward a Complete Streets policy. Grassroots efforts such as Bike To Work Week, Consider Biking, Yay Bikes, Third Hand Bicycle Co-op, and Cranksters, a local radio program focused on urban cycling, and the city's cycling culture have also contributed to the mushrooming of cycling as transportation. Columbus also hosts urban cycling "off-shots" with messenger-style "alleycat" races as well as unorganized group rides, a monthly Critical Mass ride, bicycle polo, art showings, movie nights, and a variety of bicycle-friendly businesses and events throughout the year. All this despite Columbus' lack of on-road cycling lanes and regular inclement weather through half the year. Bicycle commuters make up likely 1% of Columbus' total commuters with the highest concentrations in the near north corridor between downtown and the Clintonville neighborhood. Demographics City of Columbus census results Year Population % Change Rank1840 6,048 N/A 701850 17,882 195.7 371860 18,554 3.8 491870 31,274 68.6 421880 51,647 65.1 331890 88,150 70.7 301900 125,560 42.4 281910 181,511 44.6 291920 237,031 30.6 281930 290,564 22.6 281940 306,087 5.3 261950 375,901 22.8 281960 471,316 25.4 281970 539,677 14.5 211980 564,871 4.7 191990 632,910 12.0 162000 711,470 12.4 152006 733,203 3.2 152007 est 747,755 1.4 15 According to the 2007 American Community Survey, the city's population was 67.5% White (63.3% non-Hispanic-White alone), 27.8% Black or African American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 4.5% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.7% from some other race and 2.2% from two or more races. 4.0% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the census of 2000, there were 711,470 people, 301,534 households, and 165,240 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,383.6 people per square mile (1,306.4/km²). There were 327,175 housing units at an average density of 1,556.0/sq mi (600.8/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 67.93% White, 24.47% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 3.44% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.17% from other races, and 2.65% from two or more races. 2.46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The top 5 largest ancestries include German (19.4%), Irish (11.7%), English (7.9%), American (7.2%), Italian (5.0%). There were 301,534 households out of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.1% were married couples living together, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.2% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 3.01. The age distribution is 24.2% under the age of 18, 14.0% from 18 to 24, 35.1% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $37,897, and the median income for a family was $47,391. Males had a median income of $35,138 versus $28,705 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,450. About 10.8% of families and 14.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.7% of those under age 18 and 10.9% of those age 65 or over. The Columbus metropolitan area has experienced several waves of immigration in the 20th century, including groups from Vietnam, Russia, Somalia, and ongoing immigration from Mexico and other Latin American countries. Many other countries of origin are represented as well, with much of this related to the international draw of The Ohio State University. As is the case in much of America, there is less assimilation going on than compartmentalization, with large monoethnic neighborhoods developing. This influx is putting pressure on all of the social services institutions, notably the public schools and the public health system. Due to its demographics, which include a mix of races and a wide range of incomes, as well as urban, suburban, and nearby rural areas, Columbus has been considered to be a "typical" American city, and has been used as a test market for new products by retail and restaurant chains. However, newer studies suggest that Columbus may no longer accurately mirror the U.S. population as a whole. Economy Columbus has a generally strong and diverse economy, ranking in the top 10 overall in the United States, and the best in Ohio, according to Policom Corp. As Columbus is the state capital, there is a large government presence in the city. Including city, county, state, and federal employers, government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Columbus. One of the larger processing centers of the Defense Finance and Accounting Service (DFAS) is located in Columbus. With approximately 100,000 college students in the Metropolitan Area, there are a large number of people employed within higher education institutions. Large organizations include The Ohio State University, Franklin University and Columbus State Community College, as well as numerous other smaller colleges and schools. The Fortune 500 company Cardinal Health has its headquarters in the Columbus suburb of Dublin, and is currently under an expansion which will double their employment. Columbus is home to five insurance companies. Nationwide Insurance has its international headquarters downtown in a large, multi-building complex that dominates the northern end of the downtown area. The other insurance companies in the city are Motorists Insurance, Grange Insurance, Safe Auto Insurance, and State Auto Insurance. Huntington Bancshares Inc. has its headquarters in the downtown area. Bank One was headquartered in Columbus until 1998, and J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., which acquired Bank One in 2004, continues to maintain a major presence in Columbus, with a large mortgage servicing unit in the city. National City Bank, KeyBank, Heartland Bank, Charter One Bank, U.S. Bank, Citigroup, Fifth Third Bank, and Commerce National Bank all maintain a presence in Columbus. Chemical Abstracts Service is located just north of the OSU campus. The Battelle Memorial Institute, a major research and development facility, is located just to the south of said campus. These two institutions make the city one of the world's leading centers for scientific information distribution. The Ross Products Division of Abbott Laboratories and Ashland Inc. both have large facilities in the Columbus area. McGraw-Hill has large offices within Columbus as well. Limited Brands (formerly known as The Limited, Inc.) is located on the east side of the city and is the parent company of the retail stores Victoria's Secret, and Bath & Body Works, among others. Limited Too is also based in the area. Express retail stores are also headquartered in Columbus and were formerly part of Limited Brands. Retail Ventures is headquartered in the capital city. They operate stores under the DSW, Filene's Basement, American Signature, Rooms today and Value City banners. Abercrombie & Fitch, parent company of Hollister Co. (whose first store opened in Easton Town Center in 2000), Ruehl No.925, and Abercrombie Kids, is also based in Columbus, Ohio. Three fast food chains are based in Columbus: Charley's Grilled Subs, Steak Escape, and White Castle. Cameron Mitchell Restaurants, Bob Evans Restaurants, Max & Erma's, Damon's Grill, and Donatos Pizza are also based in the city. Wendy's operated its first store downtown as both a museum and a restaurant until March 2007 when the establishment was closed due to low revenue. The company is presently headquartered outside the city in nearby Dublin. Asian frozen food manufacturer and ex-destination tiki restaurant Kahiki Foods is located on the East side of Columbus. Worthington Industries, a large steel-processing company, is primarily located on the north side near Worthington. Columbus Steel Castings, formerly Buckeye Steel Castings, operates North America's largest steel foundry on the south side of the city. Historically, Port Columbus International Airport was once home to a North American Aviation factory (later North American/Rockwell). Aircraft built in Columbus include the North American F-86 Sabre, A-5 Vigilante, OV-10 Bronco, T-2 Buckeye (named after the state tree, and Ohio State University's mascot), and components for the B-1 bomber, as well as numerous missiles and guidance systems. Budweiser has a major brewery located on the north side, while Hexion Specialty Chemicals (formerly part of Borden, Inc.) is located downtown. The Ross Products Division of Abbott Laboratories, makers of Ensure nutritional drink and Similac infant formula, is headquartered in Columbus, with over 7,000 employees. UPS has a large distribution center on the west side of the city. Columbus was also home to Skybus Airlines, a discount carrier which began flying in May 2007. Home. Skybus Airlines. February 7, 2006. Retrieved on May 20, 2009. and ceased operations on April 5, 2008. Technology Many technology companies either call Columbus home or have significant operations in the area. American Electric Power (AEP) has its headquarters in downtown Columbus. The Internet Service Provider CompuServe still has its roots in Columbus, although it has been owned by AOL since 1998. Sterling Commerce, a B2B software company, has its headquarters on the Northwest side. Mettler Toledo, a manufacturer of precision scales and scientific equipment is based in the area known as Polaris. Microsoft also has an office at Polaris. Columbus is also home to many highly innovative Interactive Agencies as well, including Blue Diesel, Resource Interactive and Fourth Floor Interactive which are located throughout the city and it's suburbs. DOmedia, a company who offers a database of alternative media opportunities to help agencies and media owners to connect more efficiently, can also be found in the capital city. There is a strong push toward gaining more research and technology companies in the city. The multi-jurisdictional 315 Research + Technology Corridor was set up in 2006 to promote the area nationally and internationally, 315 Research + Technology Corridor Official Website in hopes of achieving something similar to Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. TechColumbus was also created in 2002 to help accelerate and support the growth of Central Ohio's tech economy – to make the most of its technology assets. Law and government City Hall. The government is administered by a mayor and a seven-member unicameral council elected in two classes every two years to four-year terms. The mayor appoints the director of safety and the director of public service. The people elect the auditor, municipal court clerk, municipal court judges and city attorney. A charter commission, elected in 1913, submitted, in May, 1914, a new charter offering a modified Federal form, with a number of progressive features, such as nonpartisan ballot, preferential voting, recall of elected officials, the referendum, and a small council elected at large. The charter was adopted, effective January 1, 1916. The current mayor of Columbus is Michael B. Coleman. Crime The City of Columbus is policed by a Municipal Police Department, the Columbus Division of Police. According to Morgan Quitno, in 2006 Columbus was the 9th most dangerous out of 32 cities with a population of 500,000 or more, though it has never been ranked among top 25 overall. This ranking is based on crime statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as weighted by Morgan Quitno's methodology. According to FBI statistics for 2005, Columbus had 102 reported murders and 6,111 total reported violent crimes of all types. A crime incident map, updated daily, is available for Columbus, Ohio including crime location, type and detailed information. Education Colleges and universities West Stands of Ohio Stadium Columbus is the home of two public colleges: The Ohio State University, the largest college campus in the United States and Columbus State Community College. Private institutions located in Columbus include the Columbus College of Art and Design, DeVry University, Ohio Institute of Health Careers, and Franklin University, as well as the religious schools Mount Carmel College of Nursing, Ohio Dominican University, Pontifical College Josephinum, and Trinity Lutheran Seminary. Three major suburban schools also have an influence on Columbus' educational landscape: Bexley's Capital University, Westerville's Otterbein College, and Delaware's Ohio Wesleyan University. Primary and secondary schools Columbus City Schools (CCS), formerly Columbus Public Schools, is the largest district in Ohio, with 55,000 pupils. CCS operates 142 elementary, middle, and high schools, including a number of alternative schools. The suburbs operate their own districts as well, typically serving students in one or more townships, with districts sometimes crossing municipal boundaries. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus also operates numerous parochial elementary and high schools. The second largest school district in the area is South-Western City Schools, which encompasses southwestern Franklin County. There are also four top rated private schools in the area, The Wellington School, The Columbus Academy, Saint Charles Preparatory and Columbus School for Girls. Some sources claim that the first kindergarten in the United States was established here by Louisa Frankenberg, a former student of Friedrich Fröbel. Frankenberg immigrated to the city in 1838. In addition, Indianola Junior High School became the nation's first junior high in 1909, helping to bridge the difficult transition from elementary to high school at a time when only 48% of students continued their education after the 9th grade. Ohio History Central Libraries The Columbus Metropolitan Library has been serving residents of Central Ohio since 1873. With a collection of 3 million items, the system has 22 locations throughout the area. This library is one of the most-used library systems in the country and is consistently among the top-ranked large city libraries according to "Hennen’s American Public Library Ratings." The CML was rated the number one library system in the nation in 2008, 2005, and 1999. It has been in the top four every year since 1999, when the rankings were first published in American Libraries magazine. Culture Landmarks The Ohio Statehouse Columbus is home to several notable buildings, including the Greek-Revival State Capitol, the art-deco Ohio Judicial Center and the Peter Eisenman-designed Wexner Center and Greater Columbus Convention Center. Other buildings of interest include the Rhodes State Office Tower, LeVeque Tower, and One Nationwide Plaza. The Ohio Statehouse construction began in 1839 on a 10 acre (40,000-m²) plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners. This plot formed Capitol Square, which was not part of the original layout of the city. Built of Columbus limestone from the Marble Cliff Quarry Co., the Statehouse stands on foundations 18 feet (5 m) deep, laid by prison labor gangs rumored to have been comprised largely of masons jailed for minor infractions. The Statehouse features a central recessed porch with a colonnade of a forthright and primitive Greek Doric mode. A broad and low central pediment supports the windowed astylar drum under an invisibly low saucer dome that lights the interior rotunda. Unlike many U.S. state capitol buildings, the Ohio State Capitol owes little to the architecture of the national Capitol. During the long course of the Statehouse's 22 years of construction, seven architects were employed. Relations between the legislature and the architects were not always cordial: Nathan B. Kelly, who introduced heating and an ingenious system of natural forced ventilation, was dismissed because the commissioners found his designs too lavish for the original intentions of the committee. The Statehouse was opened to the legislature and the public in 1857 and finally completed in 1861. It is located at the intersection of Broad and High Streets in downtown Columbus. Founded in 1975, The Jefferson Center for Learning and the Arts is a campus of nonprofit organizations and a center for research, publications, and seminars on nonprofit leadership and governance. Located at the eastern edge of downtown Columbus, Ohio, The Jefferson Center has restored eleven turn-of-the-century homes, including the childhood residence of James Thurber. These locations are used for nonprofits in human services, education and the arts. The center recently obtained a twelfth property to renovate. A to-scale replica of the Santa Maria is found on the Scioto Riverfront. It was installed in 1992 to commemorate the 500-year anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus' namesake. Within the Driving Park heritage district lies the original home of Eddie Rickenbacker the famous WWI fighter pilot ace. Current reconstruction of the home is underway. Established in 1848, Green Lawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in the Midwestern United States. Museums Columbus Museum of Art The Columbus Museum of Art opened in 1931, and has a collection focusing on European and American art up to early modernism. The Wexner Center for the Arts, a contemporary art gallery and research facility, is located on the Campus of the Ohio State University. Also on campus is the Ohio State University Athletics Hall of Fame, located in the Jerome Schottenstein Center (home of the OSU basketball and men's ice hockey teams), as well as the Jack Nicklaus museum next door. Located in Franklin Park, the Franklin Park Conservatory is a botanical garden which opened in 1895. Franklin Park Conservatory - Mission & History Renovated in 1992, it was home to the horticultural festival AmeriFlora '92. In 2004, it was loaned a large collection of Dale Chihuly glass sculpture, which was subsequently purchased and is now a permanent collection. COSI, (Center of Science and Industry), is a large science museum. The present building, the former Central High School, was completed in November 1999, opposite downtown on the west bank of the Scioto River. The Ohio Historical Society is headquartered in Columbus, with its flagship museum, the 250,000-square-foot (23,000-m²) Ohio Historical Center, located 4 miles (6 km) north of downtown. Along with the museum is Ohio Village, a replica of a village around the time of the American Civil War. The Kelton House Museum and Garden is a museum devoted to Victorian life. Built in 1852, it was home to three generations of the Kelton Family and was a documented station on the Underground Railroad. Parks and outdoor attractions Big Darby Creek The Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District includes Inniswood Metro Gardens, a collection of public gardens; Highbanks Metro Park; Battelle-Darby Creek Metro Park; as well as many others. The Big Darby Creek in the southwestern part of town is considered to be especially significant for its beauty and ecological diversity. Clintonville is home to Whetstone Park, which includes the Park of Roses, a beautiful rose garden. The Chadwick Arboretum is located on the OSU campus, and features a large and varied collection of plants. Downtown, the famous painting Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte is represented in topiary at Columbus's Old Deaf School Park. Also near downtown, a new Metro Park on the Whittier Peninsula is scheduled to open in 2008. The park will include a large Audubon nature center focused on the excellent bird watching that the area is known for. The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium is world renowned for its collections that include lowland gorillas, manatees, Siberian tigers, cheetahs, and kangaroos. Its director emeritus, Jack Hanna, frequently appears on national television, including on The Tonight Show and The Late Show with David Letterman. Also in the zoo complex is the Zoombezi Bay water park and amusement park. Named a "Great Garden City" by Organic Gardening magazine (June/July 2006 issue), there are over 60 community gardens, as well as many farmers markets featuring local foods. Performing arts Palace Theatre Southern Theatre Columbus is the home of many renowned performing arts institutions, including Opera Columbus, BalletMet, the Columbus Symphony Orchestra, the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra, the Contemporary American Theatre Company (CATCO), Shadowbox Cabaret and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra. Throughout the summer, the Actors' Theatre offers free performances of Shakespearean plays in an open-air amphitheatre located in German Village. The Columbus Gay Men's Chorus is also a vibrant part of the arts community, and showcases the city's diversity. There are numerous large concert venues in Columbus, including arenas such as Nationwide Arena, Value City Arena, and Germain Amphitheatre. The Lifestyle Communities Pavilion (the LC for short) (formerly the PromoWest Pavilion), Veterans Memorial auditorium, and the Newport Music Hall round out the city's music performance spaces. Recently, funding has been allocated to renovate the Lincoln Theatre, which was formerly a center for Black culture in Columbus. Not far from the Lincoln Theatre is the King Arts Complex, which hosts various cultural events. The city also has a number of theatres downtown, including the historic Palace Theatre, the Ohio Theatre, the Southern Theatre, and the Riffe Center which houses The Capitol Theatre as well as two studio theatres. Additionally, there is the large Arena Grand movie theatre adjacent to Nationwide Arena. Much of the growth in entertainment capacity in Columbus has been recent. The construction of the Crew Stadium, Nationwide Arena, Value City Arena, the Greater Columbus Convention Center, and the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion are all projects completed since 1990. Columbus's Somali diaspora population has also become home to a growing film industry, earning the city the nickname "Somaliwood". Sports Nationwide Arena Sold out crowd to see Columbus's NHL team, the Columbus Blue Jackets Columbus is home to The Ohio State Buckeyes college football team. The team is a member of the NCAA's Big Ten Conference, and plays home games at Ohio Stadium. The OSU-Michigan football game is the final game of the regular season and is played in November each year, alternating between Columbus and Ann Arbor, Michigan. ESPN has recognized the OSU-Michigan rivalry as the greatest rivalry in all of sports in the USA. Moreover, "Buckeye fever" permeates Columbus culture year-round and forms a major part of Columbus's cultural identity. During the winter months, the Buckeyes basketball team is also a major sporting attraction. Cooper Stadium, home to the Columbus Clippers from 1977-2008Columbus has professional sports teams in hockey, association football (soccer), arena football, and minor league baseball. The Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League and Columbus Destroyers of the Arena Football League both play at Nationwide Arena. The Columbus Crew of Major League Soccer play at their own stadium, Columbus Crew Stadium, which was the first Soccer-specific stadium built in the United States, and has played host to many events, including world cup qualifiers and the US national team. The Crew were one of the original members of the MLS, and have recently won their first MLS Cup in 2008. The Columbus Clippers, Triple A affiliate of the Cleveland Indians (formerly a long-time affiliate of the New York Yankees through 2006, and the Washington Nationals through 2008), previously hosting their games at Cooper Stadium but have completed construction on a new ballpark in the Arena District named Huntington Park, scheduled to open in April, 2009. From 1985 to 1988, Columbus hosted major league auto racing, with the IMSA Columbus Ford Dealers 500. Columbus hosts the annual Arnold Classic fitness expo and competition in late February. Hosted by Arnold Schwarzenegger , the event has grown to eight Olympic sports and 12,000 athletes competing in 20 world-class events. The annual All American Quarter Horse Congress, the largest single breed horse show in the world, is held at the Ohio Expo Center each October. Fairs and festivals Annual festivities in Columbus include the Ohio State Fair—one of the largest state fairs in the country— as well as the Columbus Arts Festival and the Jazz and Ribs Festival, both of which occur on the downtown riverfront. ComFest (short for "Community Festival") is an immense three-day music festival, the largest un-commercial festival in the US, in Goodale Park (just north of downtown Columbus and adjacent to the Short North) with art vendors and live musicians on multiple stages, hundreds of local social and political organizations, body painting and beer. Often coinciding with the weekend of ComFest (though not directly connected to it) is the large Gay Pride Parade, reflective of the sizeable gay population in Columbus. Another notable festival is the JuneteenthOhio Festival, held each year at Franklin Park, Father's Day weekend. Juneteenth commemorates June 19, 1865 when General Gordon Granger arrived and read Order Number 3 in Galveston, Texas, the last state in the Union, to be notified that all African and Black Native Americans were free. JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, started 19 years ago by Mustafaa Shabazz. The festival is three full days of music, food, dance, entertainment by local and national recording artist. The festival holds a Father's Day celebration, honoring fathers in the area. Hot Times festival, held annually in Columbus's historic Olde Towne East neighborhood – a celebration of music, arts, food, and diversity. In late January the largest winter anime convention in North America, Ohayocon, plays host to thousands of fans of Japanese culture each year from the Greater Columbus Convention Center. Around the Fourth of July, Columbus hosts Red, White, and Boom, the largest fireworks display in the Midwest on the Scioto riverfront downtown to crowds of over 500,000 people, as well as the popular Doo Dah Parade, a nonsensical satire of ordinary parades. During Memorial Day Weekend, Columbus holds the popular Asian Festival in Franklin Park. Hundreds of restaurants, vendors, and companies open up booths, traditional music and martial arts are performed, and cultural exhibits are set up. In recent years, attendees have numbered over 100,000. Marcon, one of the oldest and largest Science Fiction conventions in the country, is held over the Memorial Day weekend downtown. During the first weekend in June, the bars of Columbus's trendy North Market District play host to Park Street Festival. The event attracts thousands of visitors from the surrounding neighborhoods and beyond, creating a massive party both inside the bars and on the street. Also in June, the Park of Roses in Clintonville holds its annual "Rose Festival" featuring of blooming roses. Festival Latino is held in June and celebrates Latino culture with music, food and activities. This free event is held downtown and draws over 300,000. Also in June is the historic Juneteenth Celebration in Franklin Park. It commemorates the announcement of the abolition of slavery in Texas. The holiday originated in Galveston, Texas; for more than a century, the state of Texas was the primary home of Juneteenth celebrations. The weekend celebration draws out many community activists, organizations and families in the Franklin Park area. The Jazz and Rib Fest is a free downtown event held each July featuring jazz artists and rib vendors from around the country. The Origins Game Fair is held at the Greater Columbus Convention Center in late June/early July, featuring board games, card games, miniatures games and role-playing games from all over the world. The Short North is host to the monthly "Gallery Hop", which attracts hundreds to the neighborhood's art galleries (which all open their doors to the public until late at night) and street musicians. The Hilltop Bean Dinner is an annual event held on Columbus' West Side that celebrates the city's Civil War heritage near the historic Camp Chase Cemetery. At the end of September, German Village throws an annual Oktoberfest celebration that features authentic German food, beer, music, and crafts. Columbus also hosts many conventions in the Greater Columbus Convention Center, a pastel-colored deconstructivist building on the north edge of downtown that resembles jumbled blocks, or a train yard from overhead. The convention center was designed by famed architect Peter Eisenman, who also designed the aforementioned Wexner Center. Completed in 1993, the convention center now is . Media The Columbus Dispatch building in 2008. Columbus's sole remaining daily newspaper is the Columbus Dispatch; its erstwhile main competitor, the Columbus Citizen-Journal, ceased publication on December 31, 1985. There are also a number of weekly newspapers, including neighborhood/suburb specific papers such as Suburban News Publications which serves 23 suburbs and Columbus; The Daily Reporter, central Ohio's only daily business and legal newspaper; UWeekly which serves the OSU community; ThisWeek; and "alternative" arts/culture/politics-oriented papers such as The Other Paper and aLIVE (formerly the independent Columbus Alive, and now owned by the Columbus Dispatch). C Magazine, CityScene, and Columbus Monthly are the city's magazines. The city's business community is also served by Columbus Business First, a weekly business publication that is part of the Charlotte-based American City Business Journals, which have business papers in cities across the U.S. Among Columbus's radio stations are WTVN (610) and WBNS (1460), both among the oldest AM stations in the country; WOSU (820 AM) and WOSU-FM (89.7 FM), operated by The Ohio State University; WCBE (90.5 FM), a National Public Radio affiliate run by the Columbus Board of Education; WCOL (92.3 FM), a country music station; WLVQ (96.3 FM), a long-running classic-rock station; WWCD (101.1 FM), Columbus's locally-owned alternative rock station; WUFM (88.7 FM) "Radio U", WRKZ (99.7 FM) "The Rock", a modern rock station, WNCI (97.9 FM); WBNS-FM (97.1 FM) a sportsradio station, WJZA (103.5 and 104.3 FM) a local smooth jazz radio station,WCVO (104.9 FM) a contemporary Christian radio station, WCKX (107.5 FM) an Urban, hip hop and R&B station. Columbus's television stations include WCMH 4 (NBC), WSYX 6 (ABC), WBNS 10 (CBS), WTTE 28 (Fox), WOSU 34 (PBS), WSFJ 51 (TBN), and WWHO 53 (The CW). Columbus was also the birthplace of the Pinwheel Network in 1979. The channel then turned into the world-famous Nickelodeon cable network in 1981 and now is the global force in children's television. International relations Sister cities Columbus has ten sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International. Columbus established its first Sister City relationship in 1955 with Genoa, Italy. To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa a bronze statue of Christopher Columbus. The statue, sculpted by artist Edoardo Alfieri, overlooks Broad Street in front of Columbus City Hall. Ahmedabad, India, Dresden, Germany {{cite web|url=http://www.dresden.de/en/02/11/c_03.php|title=Dresden - Partner Cities|publisher=© 2008 Landeshauptstadt Dresden|accessdate=2008-12-29}} Genoa, Italy Hefei, the People's Republic of China Herzliya, Israel Kumasi, Ghana Odense, Denmark Seville, Spain Tainan City, Taiwan (ROC) Zapopan, Mexico References External links Official city website Experience Columbus Columbus Convention and Visitor Bureau My Columbus: Rediscover "The Discovery City" Columbus History through Postcards be-x-old:Калюмбус | Columbus,_Ohio |@lemmatized columbus:183 capital:13 large:55 city:97 u:18 state:42 ohio:51 county:11 seat:1 franklin:16 although:5 part:9 also:42 extend:2 delaware:4 fairfield:1 name:13 explorer:2 christopher:3 found:9 confluence:3 scioto:14 olentangy:8 river:16 assume:1 function:1 population:24 census:5 united:13 resident:4 metropolitan:9 area:44 fourth:4 midwest:4 third:5 populous:1 accord:7 combined:1 statistical:1 include:33 marion:1 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2,554 | George,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach | George the Pious (; 4 March 1484 – 27 December 1543) was a Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach from the House of Hohenzollern. Biography Early life He was born in Ansbach, the third of eight sons of Margrave Frederick the Elder and his wife Sophie Jagiello, daughter of Casimir IV of Poland and Elisabeth of Habsburg. Through his mother, he was related to the royal court in Buda. He entered the service of his uncle, King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary, living at his court from 1506. The king received him as an adopted son, entrusted him in 1515 with the duchy of Oppeln, and in 1516 made him member of the tutelary government instituted for Hungary, and tutor of his son Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia. Territories and influence At the court of Hungary there were two parties arrayed against each other: the Magyar party under the leadership of Zápolyas and the German party under the leadership of George of Brandenburg, whose authority was increased by the acquisition of the duchies of Ratibor and Oppeln by hereditary treaties with their respective dukes and of the territories of Oderberg, Beuthen, and Tarnowitz as pledges from the king of Bohemia, who could not redeem his debts. By the further appropriation of the duchy of Jägerndorf, George came into possession of all Upper Silesia. As the owner and mortgagee of these territories he prepared the way for the introduction of the Protestant Reformation, here as well as in his native Franconia. At an earlier time than any other German prince and any other member of the Hohenzollern line, even before his younger brother Albert, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, he turned his eyes and heart to the new faith proceeding from Wittenberg. Conversion The first reformatory writings began the work of winning him over to the evangelical cause. Martin Luther's powerful testimony of faith at the Diet of Worms in 1521 made an indelible impression upon his mind, and the vigorous sermons of evangelical preachers in the pulpits of St. Lawrence and St. Sebald in Nuremberg, during the diet there in 1522, deepened the impression. The study of Luther's translation of the New Testament, which appeared in 1522, established his faith on personal conviction. Moreover, he entered into correspondence with Luther, discussing with him the most important problems of faith, and in 1524 he met him personally during the negotiations concerning his brother Albert's secularization of the Teutonic Order's eastern Prussian lands into a secular duchy. After the accession of King Louis II, George was aided in his reforming efforts by Queen Maria, a sister of Charles V and Ferdinand I, who was favorably inclined toward the new doctrine. As the adviser of the young king, George firmly advocated the cause of the new gospel against the influences and intrigues of his clerical opponents and successfully prevented their violent measures. His relationship with Duke Frederick II of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau, and with Duke Charles I of Münsterberg-Oels, who had both admitted the Reformation into their countries, contributed not a little to the expansion of the gospel in his own territories. But it was his own personal influence, energy, and practical spirit that introduced the new doctrine and founded a new evangelical and churchly life. He made efforts to secure preachers of the new gospel from Hungary, Silesia, and Franconia, and tried to introduce the church order of Brandenburg-Nuremberg, which had already found acceptance in the Franconian territories. Reformation in Franconia In the hereditary lands of Franconia, where with his older brother Casimir he had assumed the regency in place of their father, he encountered greater difficulties, although the popular spirit was inclined toward the Reformation. Owing to his marriage with a Bavarian princess and to his military command in the imperial service, his brother was allied more closely with the old church and resisted the new reforming efforts. But the pressure of the estates of the land soon compelled him to allow preaching according to Luther's doctrine, although he ensured retention of the old church ceremonies, even of those that were contrary to the new faith. George protested against such half-measures and showed his dissatisfaction with the half-hearted resolutions of the state assembly of October 1526. It was only after the death of his brother that as sole ruler he could successfully undertake and carry out reformation in the Franconian territories, with the assistance of councillors such as Johann von Schwarzenberg and through the new resolutions of the state assembly of Ansbach (1528). At the same time George maintained his correspondence with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon, discussing such questions as the evangelization of monasteries, the use of monastic property for evangelical purposes, and especially the foundation of lower schools for the people and of higher schools for the education of talented young men for the service of church and state. He tried to gain, by his continued correspondence with Luther and other reformers such as Urbanus Rhegius, efficient men for the preaching of the gospel and for the organization of the evangelical church. Hand in hand with the Council of Nuremberg he worked for the institution of a church visitation on the model of that of electoral Saxony, from which after repeated revisions and emendations the excellent church order of Brandenburg-Nuremberg of 1533 was developed. After its introduction in his territories in Franconia and Nuremberg, it was also introduced in his dominions in Upper Silesia. Influence beyond his territories George's influence manifested itself also in the development of the German Reformation as a whole. When a union of the evangelicals in upper and lower Germany was contemplated as a means of improved defense against the retaliatory measures of the Roman Catholic Church, George had a meeting with Elector John of Saxony at Schleitz in 1529, where they agreed on certain articles of faith and confession to be drawn up by Luther; the commission was executed in the seventeen articles of Schwabach on the basis of the fifteen theses of the Marburg Colloquy. But neither at the Convention of Schwabach nor at that of Schmalkalden did George approve armed resistance against the emperor and his party, even in self-defense. He opposed the emperor energetically at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when the emperor demanded the prohibition of evangelical preaching. King Ferdinand made George the most alluring offers of Silesian possessions if he would support the emperor, but he strongly rejected them. Next to the elector of Saxony, he stands foremost among the princes who defended the reformed faith. After the death of his cousin, Joachim I, who was a strict Romanist, he assisted his sons in the introduction of the Reformation in the territories of Brandenburg. He took part in the religious colloquy of Regensburg in 1541 where Elector Joachim II made a last attempt to bridge the differences between the Romanists and evangelicals and with his nephew requested Luther's cooperation. The Diet of Regensburg was the last religious meeting which he attended. Family and children George had a son named George Frederick, who became Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Regent of the Duchy of Prussia. A daughter of George was Anna Maria of Brandenburg-Ansbach who married Christoph, Duke of Wurttemberg. Another daughter Sabine of Brandenburg-Ansbach married John George, Elector of Brandenburg. Ancestry References | George,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg-Ansbach |@lemmatized george:15 pious:1 march:1 december:1 margrave:3 brandenburg:9 ansbach:6 house:1 hohenzollern:2 biography:1 early:2 life:2 bear:1 third:1 eight:1 son:5 frederick:3 elder:1 wife:1 sophie:1 jagiello:1 daughter:3 casimir:2 iv:1 poland:1 elisabeth:1 habsburg:1 mother:1 relate:1 royal:1 court:3 buda:1 enter:2 service:3 uncle:1 king:6 vladislaus:1 ii:5 bohemia:3 hungary:5 live:1 receive:1 adopted:1 entrust:1 duchy:5 oppeln:2 make:5 member:2 tutelary:1 government:1 institute:1 tutor:1 louis:2 territory:9 influence:5 two:1 party:4 array:1 magyar:1 leadership:2 zápolyas:1 german:3 whose:1 authority:1 increase:1 acquisition:1 ratibor:1 hereditary:2 treaty:1 respective:1 duke:4 oderberg:1 beuthen:1 tarnowitz:1 pledge:1 could:2 redeem:1 debt:1 appropriation:1 jägerndorf:1 come:1 possession:2 upper:3 silesia:3 owner:1 mortgagee:1 prepare:1 way:1 introduction:3 protestant:1 reformation:7 well:1 native:1 franconia:5 time:2 prince:2 line:1 even:3 younger:1 brother:5 albert:2 grand:1 master:1 teutonic:2 order:4 turn:1 eye:1 heart:1 new:10 faith:7 proceeding:1 wittenberg:1 conversion:1 first:1 reformatory:1 writing:1 begin:1 work:2 win:1 evangelical:6 cause:2 martin:1 luther:8 powerful:1 testimony:1 diet:4 worm:1 indelible:1 impression:2 upon:1 mind:1 vigorous:1 sermon:1 preacher:2 pulpit:1 st:2 lawrence:1 sebald:1 nuremberg:5 deepen:1 study:1 translation:1 testament:1 appear:1 establish:1 personal:2 conviction:1 moreover:1 correspondence:3 discuss:2 important:1 problem:1 meet:1 personally:1 negotiation:1 concern:1 secularization:1 eastern:1 prussian:1 land:3 secular:1 accession:1 aid:1 reforming:2 effort:3 queen:1 maria:2 sister:1 charles:2 v:1 ferdinand:2 favorably:1 inclined:1 toward:2 doctrine:3 adviser:1 young:2 firmly:1 advocate:1 gospel:4 intrigue:1 clerical:1 opponent:1 successfully:2 prevent:1 violent:1 measure:3 relationship:1 liegnitz:1 brieg:1 wohlau:1 münsterberg:1 oels:1 admit:1 country:1 contribute:1 little:1 expansion:1 energy:1 practical:1 spirit:2 introduce:3 found:1 churchly:1 secure:1 try:2 church:8 already:1 find:1 acceptance:1 franconian:2 old:3 assume:1 regency:1 place:1 father:1 encounter:1 great:1 difficulty:1 although:2 popular:1 incline:1 owe:1 marriage:1 bavarian:1 princess:1 military:1 command:1 imperial:1 ally:1 closely:1 resist:1 pressure:1 estate:1 soon:1 compel:1 allow:1 preach:1 accord:1 ensure:1 retention:1 ceremony:1 contrary:1 protest:1 half:2 show:1 dissatisfaction:1 hearted:1 resolution:2 state:3 assembly:2 october:1 death:2 sole:1 ruler:1 undertake:1 carry:1 assistance:1 councillor:1 johann:1 von:1 schwarzenberg:1 maintain:1 philipp:1 melanchthon:1 question:1 evangelization:1 monastery:1 use:1 monastic:1 property:1 purpose:1 especially:1 foundation:1 low:2 school:2 people:1 high:1 education:1 talented:1 men:2 gain:1 continued:1 reformer:1 urbanus:1 rhegius:1 efficient:1 preaching:2 organization:1 hand:2 council:1 institution:1 visitation:1 model:1 electoral:1 saxony:3 repeat:1 revision:1 emendation:1 excellent:1 develop:1 also:2 dominion:1 beyond:1 manifest:1 development:1 whole:1 union:1 evangelicals:2 germany:1 contemplate:1 mean:1 improved:1 defense:2 retaliatory:1 roman:1 catholic:1 meeting:2 elector:4 john:2 schleitz:1 agree:1 certain:1 article:2 confession:1 draw:1 commission:1 execute:1 seventeen:1 schwabach:2 basis:1 fifteen:1 thesis:1 marburg:1 colloquy:2 neither:1 convention:1 schmalkalden:1 approve:1 arm:1 resistance:1 emperor:4 self:1 oppose:1 energetically:1 augsburg:1 demand:1 prohibition:1 alluring:1 offer:1 silesian:1 would:1 support:1 strongly:1 reject:1 next:1 stand:1 foremost:1 among:1 defend:1 reform:1 cousin:1 joachim:2 strict:1 romanist:1 assist:1 take:1 part:1 religious:2 regensburg:2 last:2 attempt:1 bridge:1 difference:1 romanists:1 nephew:1 request:1 cooperation:1 attend:1 family:1 child:1 name:1 become:1 regent:1 prussia:1 anna:1 marry:2 christoph:1 wurttemberg:1 another:1 sabine:1 ancestry:1 reference:1 |@bigram margrave_brandenburg:2 brandenburg_ansbach:4 vladislaus_ii:1 adopted_son:1 upper_silesia:2 protestant_reformation:1 younger_brother:1 martin_luther:1 philipp_melanchthon:1 preaching_gospel:1 marburg_colloquy:1 diet_augsburg:1 elector_saxony:1 duchy_prussia:1 anna_maria:1 elector_brandenburg:1 |
2,555 | Adaptive_expectations | In economics, adaptive expectations means that people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. For example, if inflation has been higher than expected in the past, people would revise expectations for the future. One simple version of adaptive expectations is stated in the following equation, where is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; and is this year's actual rate of inflation: With is between 0 and 1, this says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an "error-adjustment" term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations. This error-adjustment is also called "partial adjustment." The theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal: where equals actual inflation years in the past. Thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average of all past inflation, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in the past. Once a forecasting error is made by agents, due to a stochastic shock, they will be unable to correctly forecast the price level again even if the price level experiences no further shocks since they only ever incorporate part of their errors. The backward nature of expectation formulation and the resultant systematic errors made by agents (see Cobweb model) was unsatisfactory to economists such as John Muth, who was pivotal in the development of an alternative model of how expectations are formed, called rational expectations. This has largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumption of optimality of expectations is consistent with economic theory. References George W. Evans and Seppo Honkapohja (2001), Learning and Expectations in Macroeconomics. Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-04921. See also Rational Expectations Policy Ineffectiveness Proposition Self-fulfilling prophecy Problem of induction | Adaptive_expectations |@lemmatized economics:1 adaptive:4 expectation:17 mean:1 people:2 form:2 happen:2 future:3 base:1 past:6 example:1 inflation:9 high:1 expect:4 would:1 revise:1 one:1 simple:1 version:1 state:1 following:1 equation:1 next:1 year:5 rate:3 currently:1 last:1 actual:3 say:1 current:4 reflect:2 error:5 adjustment:3 term:1 raise:1 lower:1 accord:1 gap:1 previous:2 also:2 call:2 partial:1 theory:3 apply:1 period:1 inflationary:1 equal:2 thus:1 weighted:1 average:1 weight:1 get:1 small:2 move:1 far:1 forecasting:1 make:2 agent:2 due:1 stochastic:1 shock:2 unable:1 correctly:1 forecast:1 price:2 level:2 even:1 experience:1 since:2 ever:1 incorporate:1 part:1 backward:1 nature:1 formulation:1 resultant:1 systematic:1 see:2 cobweb:1 model:2 unsatisfactory:1 economist:1 john:1 muth:1 pivotal:1 development:1 alternative:1 rational:2 largely:1 replace:1 macroeconomic:1 assumption:1 optimality:1 consistent:1 economic:1 reference:1 george:1 w:1 evans:1 seppo:1 honkapohja:1 learning:1 macroeconomics:1 princeton:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 policy:1 ineffectiveness:1 proposition:1 self:1 fulfil:1 prophecy:1 problem:1 induction:1 |@bigram adaptive_expectation:4 weighted_average:1 fulfil_prophecy:1 |
2,556 | Chastity | Allegory of chastity by Hans Memling. Chastity is sexual behavior of a man or woman acceptable to the ethical norms and guidelines of a culture, civilization, or religion. In the western world, the term has become closely associated (and is often used interchangeably) with sexual abstinence, especially before marriage. However, the term remains applicable to persons in all states, single or married, clerical or lay, and has implications beyond sexual temperance. In Catholic morality, chastity is placed opposite the deadly sin of lust, and is classified as one of seven virtues. Etymology The words "chaste" and "chastity" stem from the Latin adjective castus meaning "pure". The words entered the English language around the middle of the 13th century; at that time they meant slightly different things. "Chaste" meant "virtuous or pure from unlawful sexual intercourse" (referring to extramarital sex), Chaste at etymonline.com podictionary.com while "chastity" meant "virginity". Chastity at etymonline.com It was not until the late 16th century that the two words came to have the same basic meaning as a related adjective and noun. In Abrahamic religions In some Jewish, Christian and Islamic religious beliefs, acts of sexual nature are restricted to the context of marriage. For unmarried persons therefore, chastity is identified with sexual abstinence. Sexual acts outside or apart from marriage, such as adultery, fornication and prostitution, are considered sinful. In the context of marriage, the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship which excludes the possibility of sexual intimacy with other persons. Chastity therefore involves marital fidelity. Within marriage, several practices are variedly considered unchaste, such as sexual intimacy during or shortly after menstruation or childbirth. After marriage, a third form of chastity, often called "vidual chastity", is expected of a woman while she is in mourning for her late husband. For example, Jeremy Taylor defined 5 rules in Holy Living (1650), including abstaining from marrying "so long as she is with child by her former husband" and "within the year of mourning". The particular ethical system may not prescribe each of these. For example, within the scope of Christian ethic, Roman Catholics view sex within marriage as chaste, but prohibit the use of artificial contraception as an offense against chastity, seeing contraception as contrary to God's will and design of human sexuality. Many Anglican churches allow for artificial contraception, seeing the restriction of family size as possibly not contrary to God's will. A stricter view is held by the Shakers, who prohibit marriage (and indeed sexual intercourse under any circumstances) as a violation of chastity. Some Christian denominations, such as the Roman Catholic Church, have set up various rules regarding clerical celibacy, while others, such as Lutheran and Anglican churches, allow clergy to marry or even favour it. In Christian traditions, celibacy is required of monastics—monks, nuns and friars—even in a rare system of double cloisters, in which husbands could enter the (men's) monastery while their wives entered a (women's) sister monastery. Vows of chastity can also be taken by laypersons, either as part of an organised religious life (such as Roman Catholic Beguines and Beghards) or on an individual basis, as a voluntary act of devotion and/or as part of an ascetic lifestyle, often devoted to contemplation. The voluntary aspect has led it to being included among the counsels of perfection. Eastern religions Hinduism: Hinduism's view on premarital sex is rooted in its concept of the stages of life. The first of these stages, known as brahmacharya, roughly translates as chastity. Celibacy is considered to be the appropriate behavior for both male and female students during this stage, which precedes the stage of the married householder. Many Sadhus (Hindu monks) are also celibate as part of their ascetic discipline. At the same time, it should be noted that prior to the arrival and spread of Islam in India, Hinduism was, by and large, a religion that celebrated the practice of sexuality within the context of marriage, producing famous manuals on the art of lovemaking such as the Kama Sutra. In classical Hinduism, sexual intercourse was seen as a sacred act. Jainism: Although the Digambara followers of Jainism are celibate monks, most Jains belong to the Shevtambara sect, which allows spouses and children. The general Jain code of ethics requires that one do no harm to any living being in thought, action, or word. Adultery is clearly a violation of a moral agreement with one's spouse, and therefore forbidden, and fornication too is seen as a violation of the state of chastity. Buddhism: The teachings of Buddhism include the noble eightfold path, involving a prohibition against sexual misconduct. All Theravada and most Mahayana Buddhist orders of monks and nuns are expected to be celibate, and the violation of this state is considered to produce very negative karmic consequences. The Vajrayana orders allow exceptions to this rule as an upaya (skill in means) in achieving higher stages of enlightenment. These orders may permit monks and nuns to marry and practice Tantric sex between them. Promiscuous and unskillful relations tainted by lust would be against the dharma. See also Seven virtues Chastity Belt References External links Catechism of the Catholic Church (III.2.I) Early Shaker Writings Relating to Sexual Abstinence Catholic Encyclopedia: Chastity | Chastity |@lemmatized allegory:1 chastity:17 han:1 memling:1 sexual:13 behavior:2 man:1 woman:3 acceptable:1 ethical:2 norm:1 guideline:1 culture:1 civilization:1 religion:4 western:1 world:1 term:2 become:1 closely:1 associated:1 often:3 use:2 interchangeably:1 abstinence:3 especially:1 marriage:9 however:1 remain:1 applicable:1 person:3 state:3 single:1 married:2 clerical:2 lay:1 implication:1 beyond:1 temperance:1 catholic:6 morality:1 place:1 opposite:1 deadly:1 sin:1 lust:2 classify:1 one:3 seven:2 virtue:2 etymology:1 word:4 chaste:4 stem:1 latin:1 adjective:2 castus:1 meaning:2 pure:2 enter:3 english:1 language:1 around:1 middle:1 century:2 time:2 mean:4 slightly:1 different:1 thing:1 virtuous:1 unlawful:1 intercourse:3 refer:1 extramarital:1 sex:4 etymonline:2 com:3 podictionary:1 virginity:1 late:2 two:1 come:1 basic:1 related:1 noun:1 abrahamic:1 jewish:1 christian:4 islamic:1 religious:2 belief:1 act:4 nature:1 restrict:1 context:3 unmarried:1 therefore:3 identify:1 outside:1 apart:1 adultery:2 fornication:2 prostitution:1 consider:4 sinful:1 spouse:3 commit:1 lifelong:1 relationship:1 exclude:1 possibility:1 intimacy:2 involve:2 marital:1 fidelity:1 within:5 several:1 practice:3 variedly:1 unchaste:1 shortly:1 menstruation:1 childbirth:1 third:1 form:1 call:1 vidual:1 expect:2 mourn:2 husband:3 example:2 jeremy:1 taylor:1 define:1 rule:3 holy:1 living:1 include:3 abstain:1 marry:3 long:1 child:2 former:1 year:1 particular:1 system:2 may:2 prescribe:1 scope:1 ethic:2 roman:3 view:3 prohibit:2 artificial:2 contraception:3 offense:1 see:5 contrary:2 god:2 design:1 human:1 sexuality:2 many:2 anglican:2 church:4 allow:4 restriction:1 family:1 size:1 possibly:1 stricter:1 hold:1 shaker:2 indeed:1 circumstance:1 violation:4 denomination:1 set:1 various:1 regard:1 celibacy:3 others:1 lutheran:1 clergy:1 even:2 favour:1 tradition:1 require:2 monastic:1 monk:5 nun:3 friar:1 rare:1 double:1 cloister:1 could:1 men:1 monastery:2 wife:1 sister:1 vow:1 also:3 take:1 layperson:1 either:1 part:3 organise:1 life:2 beguine:1 beghards:1 individual:1 basis:1 voluntary:2 devotion:1 ascetic:2 lifestyle:1 devote:1 contemplation:1 aspect:1 lead:1 among:1 counsel:1 perfection:1 eastern:1 hinduism:4 premarital:1 root:1 concept:1 stage:5 first:1 know:1 brahmacharya:1 roughly:1 translate:1 appropriate:1 male:1 female:1 student:1 precede:1 householder:1 sadhu:1 hindu:1 celibate:3 discipline:1 note:1 prior:1 arrival:1 spread:1 islam:1 india:1 large:1 celebrate:1 produce:2 famous:1 manual:1 art:1 lovemaking:1 kama:1 sutra:1 classical:1 sacred:1 jainism:2 although:1 digambara:1 follower:1 jains:1 belong:1 shevtambara:1 sect:1 general:1 jain:1 code:1 harm:1 live:1 thought:1 action:1 clearly:1 moral:1 agreement:1 forbidden:1 buddhism:2 teaching:1 noble:1 eightfold:1 path:1 prohibition:1 misconduct:1 theravada:1 mahayana:1 buddhist:1 order:3 negative:1 karmic:1 consequence:1 vajrayana:1 exception:1 upaya:1 skill:1 achieve:1 high:1 enlightenment:1 permit:1 tantric:1 promiscuous:1 unskillful:1 relation:1 taint:1 would:1 dharma:1 belt:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 catechism:1 iii:1 early:1 writing:1 relate:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram sexual_abstinence:3 deadly_sin:1 sexual_intercourse:3 extramarital_sex:1 etymonline_com:2 abrahamic_religion:1 jeremy_taylor:1 artificial_contraception:2 clerical_celibacy:1 monk_nun:3 vow_chastity:1 hinduism_hinduism:1 male_female:1 kama_sutra:1 noble_eightfold:1 eightfold_path:1 sexual_misconduct:1 mahayana_buddhist:1 external_link:1 catechism_catholic:1 |
2,557 | Transport_in_Ghana | Geographic Map of Ghana Transport in Ghana is accomplished by road, rail, air and water. Ghana's transportation and communications networks are centered in the southern regions, especially the areas in which gold, cocoa, and timber are produced. The northern and central areas are connected through a major road system; some areas, however, remain relatively isolated. Clark, Nancy L. "Transportation and Telecommunications". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> The deterioration of the country's transportation and communications networks has been blamed for impeding the distribution of economic inputs and food as well as the transport of crucial exports. Consequently, the first priority of the ERP was to repair physical infrastructure. Under the program's first phase (1983-86), the government allocated US$1.5 billion, or 36 percent of total investment, for that purpose and an additional US$222 million in 1987 for road and rail rehabilitation. In 1991 the Ghanaian government allocated 27 percent of its budget for various road schemes. Foreign donor support helped to increase the number of new vehicle registrations from 8,000 in 1984 to almost 20,000 in 1989. The distribution of vehicles was skewed, however, because, by 1988, more than half of all vehicles were in Accra, which contained approximately 7 percent of the country's population. Furthermore, most new vehicles are intended for private use rather than for hauling goods and people, a reflection of income disparities. Transportation is especially difficult in eastern regions, near the coast, and in the vast, underdeveloped northern regions, where vehicles are scarce. At any one time, moreover, a large percentage of intercity buses and Accra city buses are out of service. Railways The railway system in Ghana has historically been confined to the plains south of the barrier range on mountains north of the city of Kumasi. However, the narrow gauge railway (1.067 metre), totalling 935 kilometres, is presently undergoing major rehabilitation and inroads to the interior are now being made. In Ghana, most of the lines are single tracked, and in 1997 it was estimated that 32 kilometres were double tracked. Kumasi Railway Station in Accra Railway links with adjacent countries Due in a change of gauge, there is no continuous international railservice in Ghana. Burkina Faso - no - break-of-gauge 1067 mm/1000 mm Togo - no - break-of-gauge 1067 mm/1000 mm Ivory Coast - no - break-of-gauge 1067 mm/1000 mm Rail expansion initiatives In 2005 the Minister of Ports, Harbours and Railways announced plans to extend the railway system to facilitate economic development. To begin, $5 million was sought from the African Development Bank (ADB) for feasibility studies. Possible projects at the time included extending a line from Ejisu to Nkoranza and Techiman; a line from Tamale to Bolgatanga and Paga to Burkina Faso; a line from Wenchi, Bole to Wa and Hamile and also to Burkina Faso, and a line to Yendi where there are iron ore deposits. OTAL - Ghana http://www.modernghana.com/GhanaHome//report_content/doc9.doc Over the next two years, there were various studies Korean rail study visit, August 2006 and in 2007, work began. Kampac to build extension Ghana Railways Engine No. 1670 in Kumasi In March 2007, a Private Public Partnership was proposed to rehabilitate the Eastern Railway from Accra to Ejisu and Kumasi, with an extension from Ejisu via Mampong, Nkoranza, Tamale, Bolgatanga and Paga, with a branch from Tamale to Yendi and Sheini. The extension starts at Kumasi and will cost $1.6b. GhanaNewsToday.Com: For All The News On Ghana From Ghana There was another proposal in September 2007 to extend the Western Railway from Awaso via Techiman, Bole, Sawla, Wa to Hamile. Rail Gazette International September 2007 p. 523 In February 2008 the Ghana General News reported that the Ministry of Harbours and Railways and the Ghana Railway Corporation (GRC) expected to complete a new commuter line linking Accra and Tema by June 2008. The formation was complete from Sakumono to the SSNIT flats near Tema. Diesel multiple-unit trainsets will be imported for use on the line. Railways Africa - ACCRA-TEMA ON TRACK Construction of sleeper plant for the far north line was also initiated in 2008. Ghana news - Railpage Australia Forums (Africa) Service pending These towns are proposed to be served by rail: Ejisu Kintampo Paga - near Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire borders. Hamile - far northwest corner (Contracts were made for railway extensions in July 2007.) Boankra Inland Port (under construction) MPHRGH Gauge conversion Korean engineers studying the building of new lines in February 2007 were also to consider conversion to standard gauge. Shirley's Studio: Korean rail engineers head to Ghana Ghana News :: Trains go North ::: Breaking News | News in Ghana | news The Statesman : Special Reports : The transformation of Ghana's rail National Union of Rail, Maritime & Transport Workers (RMT): UAE group signs Ghana rail deal http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2006/papers/ts47/ts47_04_fiatornu_0796.pdf http://www.otal.com/ghana/ Highways The Adome Bridge crosses the Volta River. In 1997 it was estimated that there was a total of 39,409 kilometres of highways in Ghana of which 11,653 kilometres are paved (including 30 km of expressways). the remaining 27,756 kilometres were unpaved. International highways The Trans-West African Coastal Highway, part of the Trans-African Highway network crosses Ghana, connecting it to Abidjan, (Côte d'Ivoire), Lomé, (Togo) as well as Benin and Nigeria. Eventually the highway will connect to another seven ECOWAS nations to the west. A paved highway also connects Ghana north to landlocked Burkina Faso, where it joins another highway in the Trans-African network, the Trans-Sahelian Highway. Ferries and waterways The Volta, Ankobra, and Tano rivers provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters; Lake Volta provides 1,125 kilometres of arterial and feeder waterway. There are ferries on Lake Volta at Yeji and Kwadjokrom. Marine transport Seaports and harbors There are ports on the Atlantic Ocean at Takoradi and Tema. Merchant marine There are six ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /. This includes two petroleum tankers and four refrigerated cargo vessels (1999 estimates). Aviation On July 4, 1958, the Ghanaian government established Ghana Airways (GA) to replace the former African Airways Corporation. By the mid-1990s, GA operated international scheduled passenger and cargo service to numerous European, Middle Eastern, and African destinations, including London, Düsseldorf, Rome, Abidjan, Dakar, Lagos, Lomé, and Johannesburg. The airline also operates direct service to New York. The GA fleet includes two Fokker 28s, one McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and one McDonnel Douglas DC-9. Since the late 1980s, GA has received overhaul and maintenance service from, among others, Swissair, Field Aircraft Services, and Fokker Aviation. Historically, the airline has suffered from chronic financial problems and thus has had difficulties meeting its foreign debt obligations. Additionally, GA has been unable to purchase new aircraft to bolster its domestic and regional routes.<ref name=aviation>Clark, Nancy L. "Civil Aviation". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Ghana has twelve airports, six with hard surfaced runways. The most important are Kotoka International Airport at Accra and airports at Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi, and Tamale that serve domestic air traffic. In 1990, the government spent US$12 million to improve Accra's facilities. Workmen resurfaced the runway, upgraded the lighting system, and built a new freight terminal. Construction crews also extended and upgraded the terminal building at Kumasi. In early 1991, the government announced further plans to improve Accra's international airport. The main runway was upgraded, improvements were made in freight landing and infrastructure, and the terminal building and the airport's navigational aids were upgraded. Airports - with paved runways Kotoka International Airport total: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 2 See also Ghana List of airports in Ghana References External links Railway News - Ghana | Transport_in_Ghana |@lemmatized geographic:1 map:1 ghana:29 transport:4 accomplish:1 road:4 rail:10 air:2 water:1 transportation:4 communication:2 network:4 center:1 southern:1 region:3 especially:2 area:3 gold:1 cocoa:1 timber:1 produce:1 northern:2 central:1 connect:4 major:2 system:4 however:3 remain:2 relatively:1 isolated:1 clark:2 nancy:2 l:2 telecommunication:1 country:5 study:6 la:2 verle:2 berry:2 editor:2 library:2 congress:2 federal:2 research:2 division:2 november:2 article:2 incorporate:2 text:2 source:2 public:3 domain:2 ref:2 deterioration:1 blame:1 impede:1 distribution:2 economic:2 input:1 food:1 well:2 crucial:1 export:1 consequently:1 first:2 priority:1 erp:1 repair:1 physical:1 infrastructure:2 program:1 phase:1 government:5 allocate:2 u:3 billion:1 percent:3 total:6 investment:1 purpose:1 additional:1 million:3 rehabilitation:2 ghanaian:2 budget:1 various:2 scheme:1 foreign:2 donor:1 support:1 help:1 increase:1 number:1 new:7 vehicle:5 registration:1 almost:1 skew:1 half:1 accra:9 contain:1 approximately:1 population:1 furthermore:1 intend:1 private:2 use:2 rather:1 haul:1 good:1 people:1 reflection:1 income:1 disparity:1 difficult:1 eastern:3 near:3 coast:2 vast:1 underdeveloped:1 scarce:1 one:3 time:2 moreover:1 large:1 percentage:1 intercity:1 bus:2 city:2 service:6 railways:1 railway:14 historically:2 confine:1 plain:1 south:1 barrier:1 range:1 mountain:1 north:4 kumasi:7 narrow:1 gauge:7 metre:1 kilometre:6 presently:1 undergoing:1 inroad:1 interior:1 make:3 line:9 single:1 track:3 estimate:3 double:1 station:1 link:3 adjacent:1 due:1 change:1 continuous:1 international:7 railservice:1 burkina:5 faso:5 break:4 mm:6 togo:2 ivory:1 expansion:1 initiative:1 minister:1 port:3 harbour:2 announce:2 plan:2 extend:4 facilitate:1 development:2 begin:2 seek:1 african:6 bank:1 adb:1 feasibility:1 possible:1 project:1 include:5 ejisu:4 nkoranza:2 techiman:2 tamale:4 bolgatanga:2 paga:3 wenchi:1 bole:2 wa:2 hamile:3 also:7 yendi:2 iron:1 ore:1 deposit:1 otal:2 http:3 www:3 modernghana:1 com:3 ghanahome:1 doc:1 next:1 two:3 year:1 korean:3 visit:1 august:1 work:1 kampac:1 build:2 extension:4 engine:1 march:1 partnership:1 propose:2 rehabilitate:1 via:2 mampong:1 branch:1 sheini:1 start:1 cost:1 ghananewstoday:1 news:8 another:3 proposal:1 september:2 western:1 awaso:1 sawla:1 gazette:1 p:1 february:2 general:1 report:2 ministry:1 corporation:2 grc:1 expect:1 complete:2 commuter:1 tema:4 june:1 formation:1 sakumono:1 ssnit:1 flat:1 diesel:1 multiple:1 unit:1 trainsets:1 import:1 africa:2 construction:3 sleeper:1 plant:1 far:3 initiate:1 railpage:1 australia:1 forum:1 pending:1 town:1 serve:2 kintampo:1 côte:2 ivoire:2 border:1 northwest:1 corner:1 contract:1 july:2 boankra:1 inland:1 mphrgh:1 conversion:2 engineer:2 building:3 consider:1 standard:1 shirley:1 studio:1 head:1 train:1 go:1 statesman:1 special:1 transformation:1 national:1 union:1 maritime:1 worker:1 rmt:1 uae:1 group:1 sign:1 deal:1 fig:1 net:1 pub:1 paper:1 pdf:1 highways:2 adome:1 bridge:1 cross:2 volta:4 river:2 highway:7 pave:1 km:2 expressway:1 unpaved:2 trans:4 west:2 coastal:1 part:1 abidjan:2 lomé:2 benin:1 nigeria:1 eventually:1 seven:1 ecowas:1 nation:1 paved:2 landlocked:1 join:1 sahelian:1 ferry:2 waterways:1 ankobra:1 tano:1 provide:2 perennial:1 navigation:1 launch:1 lighter:1 lake:2 arterial:1 feeder:1 waterway:1 yeji:1 kwadjokrom:1 marine:2 seaport:1 harbor:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 takoradi:2 merchant:1 six:2 ship:1 volume:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 four:1 refrigerate:1 cargo:2 vessel:1 aviation:4 establish:1 airway:2 ga:5 replace:1 former:1 mid:1 operate:2 scheduled:1 passenger:1 numerous:1 european:1 middle:1 destination:1 london:1 düsseldorf:1 rome:1 dakar:1 lagos:1 johannesburg:1 airline:2 direct:1 york:1 fleet:1 fokker:2 mcdonnell:1 douglas:2 dc:2 mcdonnel:1 since:1 late:1 receive:1 overhaul:1 maintenance:1 among:1 others:1 swissair:1 field:1 aircraft:2 suffer:1 chronic:1 financial:1 problem:1 thus:1 difficulty:1 meet:1 debt:1 obligation:1 additionally:1 unable:1 purchase:1 bolster:1 domestic:2 regional:1 route:1 name:1 civil:1 twelve:1 airport:9 hard:1 surface:1 runway:5 important:1 kotoka:2 sekondi:1 traffic:1 spend:1 improve:2 facility:1 workman:1 resurface:1 upgrade:4 lighting:1 freight:2 terminal:3 crew:1 early:1 main:1 improvement:1 landing:1 navigational:1 aid:1 est:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram la_verle:2 verle_berry:2 intercity_bus:1 narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 burkina_faso:5 mm_mm:3 iron_ore:1 ore_deposit:1 http_www:3 faso_côte:1 côte_ivoire:2 abidjan_côte:1 benin_nigeria:1 paved_highway:1 tano_river:1 seaport_harbor:1 atlantic_ocean:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 mcdonnell_douglas:1 douglas_dc:2 airport_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 |
2,558 | Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning | Knowledge representation is an area in artificial intelligence that is concerned with how to formally "think", that is, how to use a symbol system to represent "a domain of discourse" - that which can be talked about, along with functions that may or may not be within the domain of discourse that allow inference (formalized reasoning) about the objects within the domain of discourse to occur. Generally speaking, some kind of logic is used both to supply a formal semantics of how reasoning functions apply to symbols in the domain of discourse, as well as to supply (depending on the particulars of the logic), operators such as quantifiers, modal operators, etc. that, along with an interpretation theory, give meaning to the sentences in the logic. When we design a knowledge representation (and a knowledge representation system to interpret sentences in the logic in order to derive inferences from them) we have to make trades across a number of design spaces, described in the following sections. The single most important decision to be made, however is the expressivity of the KR. The more expressive, the easier (and more compact) it is to "say something". However, more expressive languages are harder to automatically derive inferences from. An example of a less expressive KR would be propositional logic. An example of a more expressive KR would be autoepistemic temporal modal logic. Less expressive KRs may be both complete and consistent (formally less expressive than set theory). More expressive KRs may be neither complete nor consistent. The key problem is to find a KR (and a supporting reasoning system) that can make the inferences your application needs in time, that is, within the resource constraints appropriate to the problem at hand. This tension between the kinds of inferences an application "needs" and what counts as "in time" along with the cost to generate the representation itself makes knowledge representation engineering interesting. Overview There are representation techniques such as frames, rules and semantic networks which have originated from theories of human information processing. Since knowledge is used to achieve intelligent behavior, the fundamental goal of knowledge representation is to represent knowledge in a manner as to facilitate inferencing (i.e. drawing conclusions) from knowledge. Some issues that arise in knowledge representation from an AI perspective are: How do people represent knowledge? What is the nature of knowledge and how do we represent it? Should a representation scheme deal with a particular domain or should it be general purpose? How expressive is a representation scheme or formal language? Should the scheme be declarative or procedural? There has been very little top-down discussion of the knowledge representation (KR) issues and research in this area is a well aged quiltwork. There are well known problems such as "spreading activation" (this is a problem in navigating a network of nodes), "subsumption" (this is concerned with selective inheritance; e.g. an ATV can be thought of as a specialization of a car but it inherits only particular characteristics) and "classification." For example a tomato could be classified both as a fruit and a vegetable. In the field of artificial intelligence, problem solving can be simplified by an appropriate choice of knowledge representation. Representing knowledge in some ways makes certain problems easier to solve. For example, it is easier to divide numbers represented in Hindu-Arabic numerals than numbers represented as Roman numerals. History of knowledge representation In computer science, particularly artificial intelligence, a number of representations have been devised to structure information. KR is most commonly used to refer to representations intended for processing by modern computers, and in particular, for representations consisting of explicit objects (the class of all elephants, or Clyde a certain individual), and of assertions or claims about them ('Clyde is an elephant', or 'all elephants are grey'). Representing knowledge in such explicit form enables computers to draw conclusions from knowledge already stored ('Clyde is grey'). Many KR methods were tried in the 1970s and early 1980s, such as heuristic question-answering, neural networks, theorem proving, and expert systems, with varying success. Medical diagnosis (e.g., Mycin) was a major application area, as were games such as chess. In the 1980s formal computer knowledge representation languages and systems arose. Major projects attempted to encode wide bodies of general knowledge; for example the "Cyc" project (still ongoing) went through a large encyclopedia, encoding not the information itself, but the information a reader would need in order to understand the encyclopedia: naive physics; notions of time, causality, motivation; commonplace objects and classes of objects. Through such work, the difficulty of KR came to be better appreciated. In computational linguistics, meanwhile, much larger databases of language information were being built, and these, along with great increases in computer speed and capacity, made deeper KR more feasible. Several programming languages have been developed that are oriented to KR. Prolog developed in 1972, Timeline: A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence, AAAI but popularized much later, represents propositions and basic logic, and can derive conclusions from known premises. KL-ONE (1980s) is more specifically aimed at knowledge representation itself. In 1995, the Dublin Core standard of metadata was conceived. In the electronic document world, languages were being developed to represent the structure of documents, such as SGML (from which HTML descended) and later XML. These facilitated information retrieval and data mining efforts, which have in recent years begun to relate to knowledge representation. Development of the Semantic Web, has included development of XML-based knowledge representation languages and standards, including RDF, RDF Schema, Topic Maps, DARPA Agent Markup Language (DAML), Ontology Inference Layer (OIL), and Web Ontology Language (OWL). Topics in Knowledge representation Language and notation Some people think it would be best to represent knowledge in the same way that it is represented in the human mind, or to represent knowledge in the form of human language. Psycholinguistics is investigating how the human mind stores and manipulates language. Other branches of cognitive science examine how human memory stores sounds, sights, smells, emotions, procedures, and abstract ideas. Science has not yet completely described the internal mechanisms of the brain to the point where they can simply be replicated by computer programmers. Various artificial languages and notations have been proposed for representing knowledge. They are typically based on logic and mathematics, and have easily parsed grammars to ease machine processing. They usually fall into the broad domain of ontologies. Ontology languages After CycL, a number of ontology languages have been developed. Most are declarative languages, and are either frame languages, or are based on first-order logic. Most of these languages only define an upper ontology with generic concepts, whereas the domain concepts are not part of the language definition. Gellish English is an example of an ontological language that includes a full engineering English Dictionary. Links and structures While hyperlinks have come into widespread use, the closely related semantic link is not yet widely used. The mathematical table has been used since Babylonian times. More recently, these tables have been used to represent the outcomes of logic operations, such as truth tables, which were used to study and model Boolean logic, for example. Spreadsheets are yet another tabular representation of knowledge. Other knowledge representations are trees, by means of which the connections among fundamental concepts and derivative concepts can be shown. Visual representations are relatively new in the field of knowledge management but give the user a way to visualise how one thought or idea is connected to other ideas enabling the possibility of moving from one thought to another in order to locate required information. The approach is not without its competitors. Other visual search tools are built by Convera Corporation, Entopia, Inc., EPeople Inc., and Inxight Software Inc. Notation The recent fashion in knowledge representation languages is to use XML as the low-level syntax. This tends to make the output of these KR languages easy for machines to parse, at the expense of human readability and often space-efficiency. First-order predicate calculus is commonly used as a mathematical basis for these systems, to avoid excessive complexity. However, even simple systems based on this simple logic can be used to represent data that is well beyond the processing capability of current computer systems: see computability for reasons. Examples of notations: DATR is an example for representing lexical knowledge RDF is a simple notation for representing relationships between and among objects Storage and manipulation One problem in knowledge representation consists of how to store and manipulate knowledge in an information system in a formal way so that it may be used by mechanisms to accomplish a given task. Examples of applications are expert systems, machine translation systems, computer-aided maintenance systems and information retrieval systems (including database front-ends). Semantic networks may be used to represent knowledge. Each node represents a concept and arcs are used to define relations between the concepts. One of the most expressive and comprehensively described knowledge representation paradigms along the lines of semantic networks is MultiNet (an acronym for Multilayered Extended Semantic Networks). From the 1960s, the knowledge frame or just frame has been used. Each frame has its own name and a set of attributes, or slots which contain values; for instance, the frame for house might contain a color slot, number of floors slot, etc. Using frames for expert systems is an application of object-oriented programming, with inheritance of features described by the "is-a" link. However, there has been no small amount of inconsistency in the usage of the "is-a" link: Ronald J. Brachman wrote a paper titled "What IS-A is and isn't", wherein 29 different semantics were found in projects whose knowledge representation schemes involved an "is-a" link. Other links include the "has-part" link. Frame structures are well-suited for the representation of schematic knowledge and stereotypical cognitive patterns. The elements of such schematic patterns are weighted unequally, attributing higher weights to the more typical elements of a schema. A pattern is activated by certain expectations: If a person sees a big bird, he or she will classify it rather as a sea eagle than a golden eagle, assuming that his or her "sea-scheme" is currently activated and his "land-scheme" is not. Frame representations are object-centered in the same sense as semantic networks are: All the facts and properties connected with a concept are located in one place - there is no need for costly search processes in the database. A behavioral script is a type of frame that describes what happens temporally; the usual example given is that of describing going to a restaurant. The steps include waiting to be seated, receiving a menu, ordering, etc. The different solutions can be arranged in a so-called semantic spectrum with respect to their semantic expressivity. References Further reading Ronald J. Brachman; What IS-A is and isn't. An Analysis of Taxonomic Links in Semantic Networks; IEEE Computer, 16 (10); October 1983 Ronald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Morgan Kaufmann, 2004 ISBN 978-1-55860-932-7 Ronald J. Brachman, Hector J. Levesque (eds) Readings in Knowledge Representation, Morgan Kaufmann, 1985, ISBN 0-934613-01-X Randall Davis, Howard Shrobe, and Peter Szolovits; What Is a Knowledge Representation? AI Magazine, 14(1):17-33,1993 Ronald Fagin,Joseph Y. Halpern,Yoram Moses,Moshe Y. Vardi Reasoning About Knowledge, MIT Press, 1995, ISBN 0-262-06162-7 Jean-Luc Hainaut, Jean-Marc Hick, Vincent Englebert, Jean Henrard, Didier Roland: Understanding Implementations of IS-A Relations. ER 1996: 42-57 Hermann Helbig: Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 2006 Arthur B. Markman: Knowledge Representation Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998 John F. Sowa: Knowledge Representation: Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations. Brooks/Cole: New York, 2000 Adrian Walker, Michael McCord, John F. Sowa, and Walter G. Wilson: Knowledge Systems and Prolog, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1990 See also see also: :Category:Knowledge representation Artificial Intelligence Computability logic Cyc Description logic Formal logic Knowledge base Knowledge discovery Knowledge management Knowledge representation system Knowledge retrieval Metadata Morphological analysis MultiNet, Multilayered Extended Semantic Networks Ontology Protege (software), open source system Scientific modeling Semantic network Semantic parameterization Semantic Web Technoscience Topic Maps see also Wikiversity: Theory-based Semantics External links What is a Knowledge Representation? by Randall Davis and others Introduction to Description Logics course by Enrico Franconi, Faculty of Computer Science, Free University of Bolzano, Italy DATR Lexical knowledge representation language Loom Project Home Page Description Logic in Practice: A CLASSIC Application The Rule Markup Initiative Schemas Nelements KOS - a generic 3d knowledge 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2,559 | Frederick_Copleston | Frederick Charles Copleston, SJ, CBE (10 April 1907, Taunton, Somerset, England – 3 February 1994, London, England) was a Jesuit priest and historian of philosophy. Biography Copleston's family was Anglican (his uncle, Reginald Stephen Copleston, was a bishop of Calcutta), but he converted to Roman Catholicism while a pupil at Marlborough College, and became a Jesuit in 1930. He studied and later lectured at Heythrop College and, seeing the poor standard of philosophical teaching in seminaries, he was author of an influential nine-volume History of Philosophy (1946-75), which is highly respected. Radio debates He is well known for debating the existence of God with Bertrand Russell in a celebrated 1948 BBC broadcast; the following year he debated logical positivism and the meaningfulness of religious language with his friend the analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer. Works One of Copleston's most significant contributions to modern philosophy was his work on the theories of St Thomas Aquinas. He attempted to clarify Aquinas' Five Ways (in the Summa Theologica) by making a distinction between in fieri causes and in esse causes. By doing so Copleston makes clear that Aquinas wanted to put forth the concept of an omnipresent God rather than a being that could have disappeared after setting the chain of cause and effect into motion. Later Life From 1952, Copleston spent some of his teaching time at the Gregorian University in Rome, continuing to lecture at Heythrop until it joined the University of London system in 1970, whereupon he became the College Principal. After officially retiring in 1974 he continued to lecture overseas, especially at Santa Clara University in California. He was appointed a member of the British Academy in 1970 and CBE in 1993. Quotes Even if the actual systems of philosophy which have appeared in the philosophical thought of a given culture are historically conditioned, there may be ways of thought exemplified by past systems which remain a feature of a people's mentality or cultural outlook. If one refuses to sit down and make a move, you cannot be checkmated (in relation to Russell's stubborn belief about the existence of the universe). Bibliography A History of Philosophy, vols. 1-9. IMAGE BOOKS 1993-1994 (Volume I: Greece and Rome: From the Pre-Socratics to Plotinus) (Volume II: Medieval Philosophy: From Augustine to Duns Scotus) (Volume III: Late Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy: Ockham, Francis Bacon, and the Beginning of the Modern World) (Volume IV: Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Leibniz) (Volume V: Modern Philosophy: The British Philosophers from Hobbes to Hume) (Volume VI: Modern Philosophy: From the French Enlightenment to Kant) (Volume VII: Modern Philosophy: From the Post-Kantian Idealist to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche) (Volume VIII: Modern Philosophy: Empiricism, Idealism, and Pragmatism in Britain and America) (Volume IX: Modern Philosophy: From the French Revolution to Sartre, Camus, and Levi-Strauss) Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism, 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975.) Aquinas. Penguin, 1955. Contemporary Philosophy: Studies of Logical Positivism and Existentialism. Continuum, 1956. Philosophies and Cultures. Oxford University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-19-213960-6 Religion and the One: Philosophies East and West Search Press, 1982. ISBN 0-85532-510-0 External links The BBC debate Frederick Copleston on Arthur Schopenhauer | Frederick_Copleston |@lemmatized frederick:2 charles:1 copleston:7 sj:1 cbe:2 april:1 taunton:1 somerset:1 england:2 february:1 london:3 jesuit:2 priest:1 historian:1 philosophy:16 biography:1 family:1 anglican:1 uncle:1 reginald:1 stephen:1 bishop:1 calcutta:1 convert:1 roman:1 catholicism:1 pupil:1 marlborough:1 college:3 become:2 study:2 later:1 lecture:3 heythrop:2 see:1 poor:1 standard:1 philosophical:2 teaching:2 seminary:1 author:1 influential:1 nine:1 volume:10 history:2 highly:1 respect:1 radio:1 debate:4 well:1 know:1 existence:2 god:2 bertrand:1 russell:2 celebrated:1 bbc:2 broadcast:1 following:1 year:1 logical:2 positivism:2 meaningfulness:1 religious:1 language:1 friend:1 analytic:1 philosopher:3 j:1 ayer:1 work:2 one:3 significant:1 contribution:1 modern:8 theory:1 st:1 thomas:1 aquinas:4 attempt:1 clarify:1 five:1 way:2 summa:1 theologica:1 make:3 distinction:1 fieri:1 cause:3 esse:1 clear:1 want:1 put:1 forth:1 concept:1 omnipresent:1 rather:1 could:1 disappear:1 set:1 chain:1 effect:1 motion:1 late:2 life:1 spend:1 time:1 gregorian:1 university:4 rome:2 continue:2 join:1 system:3 whereupon:1 principal:1 officially:1 retire:1 overseas:1 especially:1 santa:1 clara:1 california:1 appoint:1 member:1 british:2 academy:1 quote:1 even:1 actual:1 appear:1 thought:2 give:1 culture:2 historically:1 condition:1 may:1 exemplify:1 past:1 remain:1 feature:1 people:1 mentality:1 cultural:1 outlook:1 refuse:1 sit:1 move:1 cannot:1 checkmate:1 relation:1 stubborn:1 belief:1 universe:1 bibliography:1 vols:1 image:1 book:1 greece:1 pre:1 socratics:1 plotinus:1 ii:1 medieval:2 augustine:1 dun:1 scotus:1 iii:1 renaissance:1 ockham:1 francis:1 bacon:1 beginning:1 world:1 iv:1 descartes:1 leibniz:1 v:1 hobbes:1 hume:1 vi:1 french:2 enlightenment:1 kant:1 vii:1 post:1 kantian:1 idealist:1 marx:1 kierkegaard:1 nietzsche:1 viii:1 empiricism:1 idealism:1 pragmatism:1 britain:1 america:1 ix:1 revolution:1 sartre:1 camus:1 levi:1 strauss:1 schopenhauer:2 pessimism:1 reprint:1 search:2 press:3 penguin:1 contemporary:1 existentialism:1 continuum:1 oxford:1 isbn:2 religion:1 east:1 west:1 external:1 link:1 arthur:1 |@bigram jesuit_priest:1 roman_catholicism:1 bertrand_russell:1 logical_positivism:2 thomas_aquinas:1 summa_theologica:1 santa_clara:1 pre_socratics:1 dun_scotus:1 francis_bacon:1 levi_strauss:1 external_link:1 arthur_schopenhauer:1 |
2,560 | Masada | Masada (Hebrew מצדה, pronounced Metzada, from מצודה, metzuda, "fortress") is the name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel on top of an isolated rock plateau, or large mesa, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert overlooking the Dead Sea. After the First Jewish-Roman War (also known as the Great Jewish Revolt) a siege of the fortress by troops of the Roman Empire led to the mass suicide of Jewish rebels, who preferred death to surrender. Geography The cliffs on the east edge of Masada are about 1,300 feet (400 m) high and the cliffs on the west are about 300 feet (90 m) high; the natural approaches to the cliff top are very difficult. The top of the plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about 1,800 feet (550 m) by 900 feet (275 m). There was a casemate wall around the top of the plateau totaling 4,300 feet (1.3 km) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) thick, with many towers, and the fortress included storehouses, barracks, an armory, the palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates. History According to Josephus, a first-century Jewish Roman historian, Herod the Great fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. In 66 CE, at the beginning of the First Jewish-Roman War against the Roman Empire, a group of Jewish extremists called the Sicarii overcame the Roman garrison of Masada. After the destruction of the Temple, the Jewish rebels and their families fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountain top, using it as a base for raiding Roman settlements. JVL Masada The works of Josephus are the sole record of events that took place during the siege. According to modern interpretations of Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist splinter group of the Zealots who were equally antagonistic to both Romans and other Jewish groups. Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. The Masada Myth: Scholar presents evidence that the heroes of the Jewish Great Revolt were not heroes at all, The Bible and Interpretation The Zealots (according to Josephus), in contrast to the Sicarii, carried the main burden of the rebellion, which opposed Roman rule of Judea (as the Roman province of Iudaea, its Latinized name). The Sicarii on Masada were commanded by Elazar ben Ya'ir (who may have been the same person as Eleazar ben Simon), and in 70 CE they were joined by additional Sicarii and their families that were expelled from Jerusalem by the Jewish population with whom the Sicarii were in conflict shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. Archaeology indicates that they modified some of the structures they found there; this includes a building which was modified to function as a synagogue facing Jerusalem (in fact, the building may originally have been one), although it did not contain a mikvah or the benches found in other early synagogues. Kloppenborg, John. Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-Roman World. Routledge, 1996, p. 101. Remains of two mikvahs were found elsewhere on Masada. Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada, just outside the circumvallation wall In 72, the Roman governor of Iudaea Lucius Flavius Silva marched against Masada with the Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to the fortress. After failed attempts to breach the wall, they built a circumvallation wall and then a rampart against the western face of the plateau, using thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth. Josephus does not record any attempts by the Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges against Jewish fortresses. He did record a raid on a nearby Jewish settlement called Ein-Gedi during the siege, where the Sicarii killed 700 of its inhabitants. Some historians also believe that Romans may have used Jewish slaves to build the rampart. According to Dan Gill, Gill, Dan. "A natural spur at Masada", Nature 364, pp.569-570 (12 August 1993); DOI 10.1038/364569a0 geological observations in the early 1990s revealed that the high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock that required a ramp only high built atop it in order to reach the Masada defenses. This discovery would diminish both the scope of the construction and of the conflict between the Sicarii and Romans, relative to the previous perspective in which the ramp was an epic feat of construction. The ramp seen from above The rampart was complete in the spring of 73, after approximately two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16. When they entered the fortress, however, the Romans discovered that its 960 inhabitants had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide rather than face certain capture, defeat, slavery or execution by their enemies. The account of the siege of Masada was related to Josephus by two women who survived the suicide by hiding inside a cistern along with five children, and repeated Eleazar ben Ya'ir's exhortations to his followers, prior to the mass suicide, verbatim to the Romans. Because Judaism strongly discourages suicide, Josephus reported that the defenders had drawn lots and killed each other in turn, down to the last man, who would be the only one to actually take his own life. Josephus says that Eleazar ordered his men to destroy everything except the foodstuffs to show that the defenders retained the ability to live, and so chose the time of their death over slavery but archaeological excavations have shown that storerooms which contained their provisions were burnt, though whether this was by Romans or Jews is unclear. Josephus also reported that the Romans found arms sufficient for ten thousand men as well as iron, brass and lead which casts further doubt on the accuracy of the account, especially when considering Josephus' predilection for exaggeration. Historians also point out the parallels between the incidents at Jotapata and Masada such as Eleazar's second speech corresponding to the speech which Josephus himself delivered at Jotapata under similar circumstances and the transference of the lottery motif from the former to the latter. Though whether Josephus added Eleazar's speech in his own name at Jotapata or vice versa is also unclear. The Credibility of Josephus, comparing Josephus' account with archaeological evidence Masada today Thermal baths on Masada The site of Masada was identified in 1842 and extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin. While a hike up the Snake Path on the eastern side of the mountain (access via the Dead Sea Highway) is considered part of the "Masada experience," a cable car operates at the site for those who wish to avoid the physical exertion. Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site has remained largely untouched by humans or nature during the past two millennia. The Roman ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall-paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eleven barracks for the Roman soldiers just outside this wall. Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to have enough water for such a long time. Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription me'aser cohen (tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls; parts of Deuteronomy 33-34 and parts of Ezekiel 35-38 (including the vision of the "dry bones"), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci fragments were found of the books of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, and Sirach, as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. In the area in front of the northern palace, eleven small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Yair" and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. It has been suggested that the other ten names are those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus. Archaeologist Yigael Yadin's excavations uncovered the skeletal remains of 28 people at Masada. The remains of a male 20-22 years of age, a female 17-18 and a child approximately 12 years old, were found in the palace. The remains of 25 people were found in a cave at the base of the cliff. Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the Revolt. All the remains were reburied at Masada with full military honours on July 7, 1969. The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the 5th and 6th centuries, have also been excavated on the top of Masada. Cable car heading down from Masada The Masada story was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, in order to stop Erwin Rommel's expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein. The Chief of Staff of the Israel Defence Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, initiated the practice of holding the swearing-in ceremony of soldiers who have completed their Tironut (IDF basic training) on top of Masada. The ceremony ends with the declaration: "Masada shall not fall again." The soldiers climb the Snake Path at night and are sworn in with torches lighting the background. Dan Bitan, Mesada the Symbol and the Legend, the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, 1960, Yad Ben Zvi Twice weekly (on Tuesday and Thursday) from April to October, a sound and light show on the history of Masada is performed, with light effects and background music, in the Masada amphitheatre. Masada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. An audio-visual light show is presented nightly on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman ramp path). In 2007, a new museum opened at the site in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting. A 2,000-year-old seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s has been successfully germinated to become a date plant, the oldest known such germination. Bibliography Avi-Yonah, M.; et al., Israel Exploration Journal 7, 1957, 1–160 (excavation report Masada) Yadin, Yigael. Masada, London 1966 Yadin, Yigael. Israel Exploration Journal 15, 1965 (excavation report Masada) Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking In Israel, University of Wisconsin Press (December 8, 1995) Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and the Myth of Masada, Humanity Books (June 2002) See also Jewish-Roman Wars Knanaya Siege of Jerusalem Gamla Zealotry Masada (miniseries) — a 1981 TV miniseries based on the Masada siege events Numantia, where the Arevaci preferred suicide over surrendering to the Romans, has a similar meaning in Spanish culture. Masada2000 Dance of Zalongo Media References External links "Yadin photographs & footage of the excavations" Masada by Google Maps Online works of Josephus MASADA - FACT AND FICTION. A 23 minute video documentary, produced by the multimedia unit of Hebrew University. Nachman Ben-Yehooda on the construction of The Myth of Masada Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and The Myth of Masada Masada in the Jewish Encyclopedia The credibility of Josephus LIVIUS article on Jewish Wars World Heritage Sites page Israel National Parks Authority page Masada entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Masada photos Panoramic photos of Metzadah Extensive photo gallery of Masada ruins "3D Masada" | Masada |@lemmatized masada:46 hebrew:2 מצדה:1 pronounce:1 metzada:1 מצודה:1 metzuda:1 fortress:8 name:5 site:6 ancient:2 palace:5 fortification:1 south:1 district:1 israel:6 top:7 isolated:1 rock:1 plateau:4 large:1 mesa:1 eastern:2 edge:2 judean:2 desert:2 overlook:1 dead:3 sea:3 first:3 jewish:17 roman:27 war:4 also:8 know:2 great:3 revolt:4 siege:9 troop:1 empire:2 lead:4 mass:3 suicide:6 rebel:4 prefer:2 death:2 surrender:2 geography:1 cliff:5 east:1 foot:8 high:5 west:1 natural:3 approach:1 difficult:1 flat:1 rhomboid:1 shape:1 casemate:1 wall:8 around:2 total:1 km:1 long:2 thick:1 many:2 tower:1 include:3 storehouse:2 barrack:2 armory:1 cistern:2 refill:1 rainwater:1 three:2 narrow:1 wind:1 path:4 fortify:1 gate:1 history:2 accord:4 josephus:17 century:2 historian:3 herod:2 fortified:1 bce:1 refuge:1 event:3 ce:2 beginning:1 group:3 extremist:2 call:2 sicarii:9 overcome:1 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2,561 | Naïve_realism | Naïve realism argues we perceive the world directly Naïve realism, also known as direct realism or common sense realism, is a common sense theory of perception. "Naïve realism claims that the world is pretty much as common sense would have it. All objects are composed of matter, they occupy space, and have properties such as size, shape, texture, smell, taste and colour. These properties are usually perceived correctly. So, when we look at and touch things we see and feel those things directly, and so perceive them as they really are. Objects continue to obey the laws of physics and retain all their properties whether or not there is anyone present to observe them doing so." Naïve Realism, Theory of Knowledge.com. In contrast, indirect or representative realism claims that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world, as objects are hidden behind a "veil of perception". Idealism, on the other hand, asserts that no world exists apart from mind-dependent ideas. Naïve realism proposes no physical theory of experience and does not identify experience with the experience of quantum phenomena or with the twin retinal images. This lack of supervenience of experience on the physical world means that naïve realism is not a physical theory. Michaels, Claire & Carello, Claudia. (1981). Direct Perception. Prentice-Hall. Theory The naïve realist theory may be characterized as the acceptance of the following 5 beliefs: "There exists a world of material objects. Statements about these objects can be known to be true through sense-experience. These objects exist not only when they are being perceived but also when they are not perceived. The objects of perception are largely perception-independent. These objects are also able to retain properties of the types we perceive them as having, even when they are not being perceived. Their properties are perception-independent. By means of our senses, we perceive the world directly, and pretty much as it is. In the main, our claims to have knowledge of it are justified." Naïve Realism, University of Reading. "Naïve realism is distinct from scientific realism. Scientific realism states the universe really contains just those properties which feature in a scientific description of it, and so does not contain properties like colour per se, but merely objects that reflect certain wavelengths owing to their microscopic surface texture. The naïve realist, on the other hand, would say that objects really do possess the colours we perceive them to have. An example of a scientific realist is John Locke, who held the world only contains the primary qualities that feature in a corpuscularian scientific account of the world (see corpuscular theory), and that other properties were entirely subjective, depending for their existence upon some perceiver who can observe the objects." "The debate over the nature of conscious experience is confounded by the deeper epistemological question of whether the world we see around us is the real world itself, or merely an internal perceptual copy of that world generated by neural processes in our brain. In other words this is the question of direct realism, also known as naïve realism, as opposed to indirect realism, or representationalism." Lehar, Steve. (2000). The Function of Conscious Experience: An Analogical Paradigm of Perception and Behavior, Consciousness and Cognition. In contrast, "Representationalism is the philosophical position that the world we see in conscious experience is not the real world itself, but merely a miniature virtual-reality replica of that world in an internal representation. Representationalism is also known (in psychology) as Indirect Perception, and (in philosophy) as Indirect Realism, or Epistemological Dualism." Lehar, Steve. Representationalism "Of all the branches of human knowledge, philosophy might be expected to be the best inoculated against the naïve realist error, since the issue of the epistemology of conscious experience is a central focus of philosophy. However, modern philosophy is just as rife with naïve realists as are modern psychology and neuroscience. As in psychology there is a recurring pattern of the occasional visionary who points out the fallacy of the naïve view, interspersed with long periods of enthusiastic support for the latest naïve inspired view, although again the issue is generally not addressed directly but only peripherally, as it is hidden in the details of various theories." Lehar, Steve. (2000). Naïve Realism in Contemporary Philosophy, The Function of Conscious Experience. Arguments for and against naïve realism "Although this issue is not much discussed in contemporary psychology, it is an old debate that has resurfaced several times, but the continued failure to reach consensus on this issue continues to bedevil the debate on the functional role of conscious experience. The reason for the continued confusion is that both direct and indirect realism are frankly incredible, although each is incredible for different reasons." Problems with naïve realism "The direct realist view (Gibson, 1972) is incredible because it suggests that we can have experience of objects out in the world directly, beyond the sensory surface, as if bypassing the chain of sensory processing. For example if light from this paper is transduced by your retina into a neural signal which is transmitted from your eye to your brain, then the very first aspect of the paper that you can possibly experience is the information at the retinal surface, or the perceptual representation that it stimulates in your brain. The physical paper itself lies beyond the sensory surface and therefore must be beyond your direct experience. But the perceptual experience of the page stubbornly appears out in the world itself instead of in your brain, in apparent violation of everything we know about the causal chain of vision. The difficulty with the concept of direct perception is most clearly seen when considering how an artificial vision system could be endowed with such external perception. Although a sensor may record an external quantity in an internal register or variable in a computer, from the internal perspective of the software running on that computer, only the internal value of that variable can be "seen", or can possibly influence the operation of that software. In exactly analogous manner the pattern of electrochemical activity that corresponds to our conscious experience can take a form that reflects the properties of external objects, but our consciousness is necessarily confined to the experience of those internal effigies of external objects, rather than of external objects themselves. Unless the principle of direct perception can be demonstrated in a simple artificial sensory system, this explanation remains as mysterious as the property of consciousness it is supposed to explain." Problems with representative realism "The indirect realist view is also incredible, for it suggests that the solid stable structure of the world that we perceive to surround us is merely a pattern of energy in the physical brain. In other words, the world that appears to be external to our head is actually inside our head. This could only mean that the head we have come to know as our own is not our true physical head, but is merely a miniature perceptual copy of our head inside a perceptual copy of the world, all of which is completely contained within our true physical skull. Stated from the internal phenomenal perspective, out beyond the farthest things you can perceive in all directions, i.e. above the dome of the sky and below the earth under your feet, or beyond the walls, floor, and ceiling of the room you perceive around you, beyond those perceived surfaces is the inner surface of your true physical skull encompassing all that you perceive, and beyond that skull is an unimaginably immense external world, of which the world you see around you is merely a miniature virtual reality replica. The external world and its phenomenal replica cannot be spatially superimposed, for one is inside your physical head, and the other is outside. Therefore the vivid spatial structure of this page that you perceive here in your hands is itself a pattern of activation within your physical brain, and the real paper of which it is a copy is out beyond your direct experience. Although this statement can only be true in a topological, rather than a strict topographical sense, this insight emphasizes the indisputable fact that no aspect of the external world can possibly appear in consciousness except by being represented explicitly in the brain. The existential vertigo occasioned by this concept of perception is so disorienting that only a handful of researchers have seriously entertained this notion or pursued its implications to its logical conclusion. (Kant 1781/1991, Koffka 1935, Köhler 1971 p. 125, Russell 1927 pp 137-143, Smythies 1989, 1994, Harrison 1989, Hoffman 1998)" "The key to this problem of fitting a spacious world into our brains is to notice that our experience is a 'view' of a spacious world. Things are separated by angles relative to an observation point. The separation of things by angles at a point means that we do not have a sense of depth that operates in the same way as our sense of things being separated in horizontal and vertical directions. Our sense of depth is based upon cues rather than an actual experience of the space between things. As an example, the stars in a planetarium appear incredibly distant even though they are on the ceiling of a room and would appear just as distant if viewed through virtual reality goggles. Visual depth in particular is a set of inferences, not an actual experience of the space between things in a radial direction outward from the observation point. This means that the things that are the spacious world of experience could be as small as just a few cubic millimetres of brain tissue!" Green, Alex. (2003). The Empirical Description of Conscious Experience, The Science and Philosophy of Consciousness. "If there is anything to be learned from the long history of the epistemological debate, it is that the issue is by no means simple or trivial, and that whatever is ultimately determined to be the truth of epistemology, we can be sure that it will do considerable violence to our common-sense view of things. This however is nothing new in science, for many of the greatest discoveries of science seemed initially to be so incredible that it took decades or even centuries before they were generally accepted. But accepted they were, eventually, and the reason why they were accepted was not because they had become any less incredible. In science, irrefutable evidence triumphs over incredibility, and this is exactly what gives science the power to discover unexpected or incredible truth." The Argument from Illusion Illusion creates a problem for naïve realists as it suggests our senses are falliable, perceiving things that aren't there. In this illusion, the lines are horizontal, despite how they appear. This argument was "first offered in a more or less fully explicit form in Berkeley (1713)." Epistemological Problems of Perception, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It is also referred to as the problem of conflicting appearances (e.g. Myles Burnyeat's article Conflicting Appearances). The basic outline of the argument goes as follows: "[W]e should remember that the following considerations are also part of informed commonsense. A. What we perceive is often dependent on our organs of perception and their condition. If we had compound eyes, as flies do, we would receive information about the visual world in a completely different form. If we had jaundice, things would look yellow. If we had other sense organs altogether, like infra-red detectors or echo-location devices, things might appear to us in ways which we can’t even imagine. (Let’s call this ‘perceptual variability’). B. Even our current perceptual apparatus is obviously not infallible. We are all familiar with perceptual illusions of various sorts. A major sub-classification of such illusions relates to whether the sensory organs are malfunctioning (as in jaundice) or whether they habitually misrepresent objects to us even in full working order (e.g. the Müller-Lyer illusion). C. Sometimes these perceptual illusions extend to cases where we think we perceive things which in fact aren’t there at all (rather than just misperceiving the properties of things which are there to be perceived). This is a more radical case of perceptual error than simple illusion. (Call it ‘hallucination’ or ‘perceptual delusion’)." Illusions are present in nature. Rainbows are an example of a perceptual delusion. "For, unlike an architectural arch, a rainbow recedes as we approach it, never to be reached." Gregory, Richard. (2003). Delusions. Perception. 32, pp. 257-261. "The basic claim is that in cases of illusion or hallucination, the object that is immediately experienced or given has qualities that no public physical object in that situation has and so must be distinct from any such object. And in cases of perceptual relativity, since objects with different qualities are experienced from each of the different perspectives or under each of the relevant conditions, at most one of these various immediately experienced or given objects could be the physical object itself; it is then further argued that since there is no apparent experiential basis for regarding one out of any such set of related perceptual experiences as the one in which the relevant physical object is itself immediately experienced, the most reasonable conclusion is that the immediately experienced or given object is always distinct from the physical object. (Or, significantly more weakly, that there is no way to identify which, if any, of the immediately experienced objects is the physical object itself, so that the evidential force of the experience is in this respect the same in all cases, and it is epistemologically as though physical objects were never given, whether or not that is in fact the case.)" "The naïve realist theory of perception is not threatened by these facts [A,B & C] as they stand, for they are accommodated by that theory by virtue its very vagueness (or ‘open-texture’). The theory just isn’t specific or detailed enough to be refuted by the (actually very rare) occurrence of these cases." "The cogency of this argument has been challenged in a number of different ways, of which the most important are the following. First, it has been questioned whether there is any reason to suppose that in cases of these kinds there must be some object present that actually has the experienced qualities, which would then seemingly have to be something like a sense-datum. Why couldn't it be that the perceiver is simply in a state of seeming to experience such an object without any object actually being present? (See the discussion below of the adverbial theory.) Second, it has been argued that in cases of illusion and perceptual relativity at least, there is after all an object present, namely the relevant physical object, which is simply misperceived, for the most part in readily explainable ways. Why, it is asked, is there any need to suppose that an additional object is also involved? Third, the last part of the perceptual relativity version of the argument has been challenged, both (i) by questioning whether it is really true that there is no experiential difference between veridical and non-veridical perception; and (ii) by arguing that even if sense-data are experienced in non-veridical cases and even if the difference between veridical and non-veridical cases is, as claimed, experientially indiscernible, there is still no reason to think that sense-data are the immediate objects of experience in veridical cases. Fourth, various puzzling questions have been raised about the nature of sense-data: Do they exist through time or are they momentary? Can they exist when not being perceived? Are they public or private? Can they be themselves misperceived? Do they exist in minds or are they extra-mental, even if not physical? On the basis of the intractability of these questions, it has been argued that the conclusion of the argument from illusion is clearly unacceptable or even ultimately unintelligible, even in the absence of a clear diagnosis of exactly where and how it goes wrong." The argument from the scientific account of perception "The main aspects of that account that are cited in this connection are: (i) the fact that the character of the resulting experience and of the physical object that it seems to present can be altered in major ways by changes in the conditions of perception or the condition of the relevant sense-organs and the resulting neurophysiological processes, with no change in the external physical object (if any) that initiates this process and that may seem to be depicted by the experience that results; (ii) the related fact that any process that terminates with the same sensory and neural results will yield the same perceptual experience, no matter what the physical object (if any) that initiated the process may have been like; and (iii) the fact that the causal process that intervenes between the external object and the perceptual experience takes at least a small amount of time, so that the character of the experience reflects (at most) an earlier stage of that object rather than the one actually existing at that moment. In extreme cases, as in observations of astronomical objects, the external object may have ceased to exist long before the experience occurs. These facts are claimed to point inexorably to the conclusion that the direct or immediate object of such an experience, the object that is given, is an entity produced at the end of this causal process and is thus distinct from the physical object, if any, that initiates the process." The Adverbial Theory of naïve realism In the above argument from the scientific account of perception, "[i]t is difficult to resist the conclusion that there is a fundamental distinction between the external object, if any, that initiates the perceptual process and the perceptual experience that eventually results. This perceptual dualism thus raises inevitably the issue of how and even whether the object can be known on the basis of the experience. What can and has been resisted, by the adverbial theory in particular, is the idea that this dualism is a dualism of objects, with perceptual experience being a more direct experience of objects of a different sort, sense-data." Perceptual dualism implies, "both an act of awareness (or apprehension) and an object (the sense-datum) which that act apprehends or is an awareness of. The fundamental idea of the adverbial theory, in contrast, is that there is no need for such objects and the problems that they bring with them (such as whether they are physical or mental or somehow neither). Instead, it is suggested, merely the occurrence of a mental act or mental state with its own intrinsic character is enough to account for the character of immediate experience." "According to the adverbial theory, what happens when, for example, I immediately experience a silver elliptical shape (as when viewing a coin from an angle) is that I am in a certain specific state of sensing or sensory awareness or of being appeared to: I sense in a certain manner or am appeared to in a certain way, and it is that specific manner of sensing or way of being appeared to that accounts for the specific content of my immediate experience... The essential point here is that when I sense or am appeared to silver-elliptical-ly, there need be nothing more going on than that I am in a certain distinctive sort of experiential state. In particular, there need be no object or entity of any sort that is literally silver and elliptical — not in the material world, not in my mind, and not even in the realm (if there is such a realm) of things that are neither physical nor mental." Sense-datum and adverbial theories "The sense-datum theory accounts more straightforwardly for the character of immediate experience. I experience a silver and elliptical shape because an object or entity that literally has that color and shape is directly before my mind. But both the nature of these entities and (as we will see further below) the way in which they are related to the mind are difficult to understand." "The adverbial theory, on the other hand, has the advantage of being metaphysically simpler and of avoiding difficult issues about the nature of sense-data. The problem with it is that we seem to have no real understanding of the nature of the states in question or of how exactly they account for the character of immediate experience." Quantum physics and naïve realism "Scientific realism in classical (i.e. pre-quantum) physics has remained compatible with the naïve realism of everyday thinking on the whole; whereas it has proven impossible to find any consistent way to visualize the world underlying quantum theory in terms of our pictures in the everyday world. The general conclusion is that in quantum theory naïve realism, although necessary at the level of observations, fails at the microscopic level." Gomatam, Ravi. (2007). Physics and Commonsense - Reassessing the connection in the light of the quantum theory, arXiv.org. Experiments such as the Stern–Gerlach experiment and quantum phenomena such as complementarity lead quantum physicists to conclude that "[w]e have no satisfactory reason for ascribing objective existence to physical quantities as distinguished from the numbers obtained when we make the measurements which we correlate with them. There is no real reason for supposing that a particle has at every moment a definite, but unknown, position which may be revealed by a measurement of the right kind... On the contrary, we get into a maze of contradiction as soon as we inject into quantum mechanics such concepts as carried over from the language and philosophy of our ancestors... It would be more exact if we spoke of 'making measurements' of this, that, or the other type instead of saying that we measure this, that, or the other 'physical quantity'." Kemble E. C. in Peres Asher, (1993). Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods, Springer 1993 p. 17 ISBN 978-0792325499. " "[W]e have to give up the idea of realism to a far greater extent than most physicists believe today." (Anton Zeilinger)... By realism, he means the idea that objects have specific features and properties — that a ball is red, that a book contains the works of Shakespeare, or that an electron has a particular spin... for objects governed by the laws of quantum mechanics, like photons and electrons, it may make no sense to think of them as having well defined characteristics. Instead, what we see may depend on how we look." Ball, Philip. (2007). Physicists bid farewell to reality? Quantum mechanics just got even stranger, Nature, April 18, 2007. These conclusions do not only apply to microscopic systems such as particles and atoms. "Quantum mechanics is increasingly applied to larger and larger objects. Even a one-ton bar proposed to detect gravity waves must be analysed quantum mechanically. In cosmology, a wavefunction for the whole universe is written to study the Big Bang. It gets harder today to nonchalantly accept the realm in which the quantum rules apply as somehow not being physically real, 'Quantum mechanics forces us to abandon naïve realism'." Rosenblum, Bruce & Kuttner, Fred. (2006). Quantum Enigma: Physics Encounters Consciousness, Oxford University Press US. p. 112. ISBN 978-0195175592. Virtual reality and naïve realism "Virtual realism" Heim, Michael. (2000). Virtual Realism, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0195138740. is closely related to the above theories. In the research paper The reality of virtual reality it is proposed that, "virtuality is itself a bonafide mode of reality, and that 'virtual reality' must be understood as 'things, agents and events that exist in cyberspace'. These proposals resolve the incoherences found in the ordinary uses of these terms... "virtual reality", though based on recent information technology, does not refer to mere technological equipment or purely mental entities, or to some fake environment as opposed to the real world, but that it is an ontological mode of existence which leads to an expansion of our ordinary world." (Requires login)Yoh, Myeung-Sook. (2001). The reality of virtual reality, Virtual Systems and Multimedia. pp. 666-674. "The emergence of teleoperation and virtual environments has greatly increased interest in "synthetic experience", a mode of experience made possible by both these newer technologies and earlier ones, such as telecommunication and sensory prosthetics... understanding synthetic experience must begin by recognizing the fallacy of naïve realism and with the recognition that the phenomenology of synthetic experience is continuous with that of ordinary experience." Loomis, Jack. (1993). Understanding Synthetic Experience Must Begin with the Analysis of Ordinary Perceptual Experience, IEEE 1993 Symposium on Research Frontiers in Virtual Reality, 54-57. See also Confirmation holism Critical realism Instrumentalism Objectivism Philosophy of mind Philosophy of perception Representative realism Scientific materialism Scientific realism Scottish School of Common Sense References Further reading Nelson, Quee. (2007). The Slightest Philosophy Dog's Ear Publishing. ISBN 978-1598583786 External links Theory of knowledge: Naïve Realism Naïve Realism and the Argument from Illusion The Function of Conscious Experience Representationalism Naïve Realism in Contemporary Philosophy The Science and Philosophy of Consciousness Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Epistemological Problems of Perception Physics and Commonsense: Reassessing the connection in the light of quantum theory Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods Nature Journal: Physicists bid farewell to reality? 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2,562 | Ernst_Mayr | Ernst Walter Mayr (July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany – February 3, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts U.S.), was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary biologists. He was also a renowned taxonomist, tropical explorer, ornithologist, historian of science, and naturalist. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the modern evolutionary synthesis of Mendelian genetics, systematics, and Darwinian evolution, and to the development of the biological species concept. Neither Darwin nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the species problem: how multiple species could evolve from a single common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for the concept species. In his book Systematics and the Origin of Species (1942) he wrote that a species is not just a group of morphologically similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When populations of organisms get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by genetic drift and natural selection over a period of time, and thereby evolve into new species. The most significant and rapid genetic reorganization occurs in extremely small populations that have been isolated (as on islands). His theory of peripatric speciation (a more precise form of allopatric speciation which he advanced) based on his work on birds, is still considered a leading mode of speciation, and was the theoretical underpinning for the theory of punctuated equilibrium. Mayr is generally credited with inventing the modern philosophy of biology, particularly of evolutionary biology, which he distinguished from physics, for its introduction of (natural) history into science. Biography Mayr was the second son of Helene Pusinelli and Dr. Otto Mayr. His father was a jurist (District Prosecuting Attorney at Würzburg) Haffer 2007:12 but took an interest in natural history and took the children out on field trips. He learnt all the local birds in Würzburg from his elder brother Otto. He also had access to a natural history magazine for amateurs, Kosmos. His father died just before he was thirteen. The family then moved to Dresden and he studied at the Staatsgymnasium (“Royal Gymnasium” until 1918) in Dresden-Neustadt and completed his high school education there. In April 1922, while still in high school, he joined the newly founded Saxony Ornithologists’ Association. Here he met Rudolf Zimmermann who was his ornithological mentor during this time. He passed his high school examination (Abitur), in February 1923, and Mayr's mother rewarded him with a pair of binoculars. Haffer 2007:22 On 23 March 1923 on the lakes of Moritzburg, the Frauenteich, he spotted what he identified as a Red-crested Pochard. The species had not been seen in Saxony since 1845 and the local club argued about the identity. Raimund Schelcher (1891–1979) of the club then suggested that Mayr visit his classmate Erwin Stresemann on his way to Greifswald where Mayr was to begin his medical studies. After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic. Stresemann was very impressed and suggested that Mayr could work as a volunteer between semesters in the ornithological section of the museum. Mayr wrote about this event It was as if someone had given me the key to heaven. He entered the University of Greifswald in 1923 and, according to Mayr himself, "took the medical curriculum (to satisfy a family tradition)." Mayr & Provine, 1998:p. 413 Mayr was endlessly interested in ornithology and "chose Greifswald at the Baltic for my studies for no other reason than that...it was situated in the ornithologically most interesting area." Although he ostensibly planned to become a physician, he was "first and foremost an ornithologist." During the first semester break Stresemann gave him a test to identify treecreepers and Mayr was able to identify most of the specimens correctly. Stresemann declared that Mayr 'was a born systematist'. Haffer 2007:23 In 1925 Stresemann suggested that he give up his medical studies and join the Berlin Museum with the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics on the condition that he completed his doctoral studies in 16 months. Mayr completed his doctorate in ornithology at the University of Berlin under Dr. Carl Zimmer, who was a full professor (Ordentlicher Professor), on 24 June 1926 at the age of 21. On 1 July he accepted the position offered to him at the Museum for a monthly salary of 330.54 Reichsmark. Haffer 2007:35 At the International Zoological Congress at Budapest in 1927, Mayr was introduced by Stresemann to banker and naturalist Walter Rothschild, who asked him to undertake an expedition to New Guinea on behalf of himself and the American Museum of Natural History in New York. In New Guinea Mayr collected several thousands bird skins (he named 26 new bird species during his lifetime) and, in the process also named 38 new orchid species. During his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Seas Expedition to the Solomon Islands. He returned to Germany in 1930 and in 1931 he accepted a curatorial position at the American Museum of Natural History, where he played the important role of brokering and acquiring the Walter Rothschild collection of bird skins, which was being sold in order to pay off a blackmailer. During his time at the museum he produced numerous publications on bird taxonomy, and in 1942 his first book, Systematics and the Origin of Species, which completed the evolutionary synthesis started by Darwin. After Mayr was appointed at the American Museum of Natural History, he influenced American ornithological research by cultivating mentoring relationships with young birdwatchers. Mayr organized a monthly seminar under the auspices of the Linnean Society of New York. This society, under the influence of J. A. Allen, Frank Chapman and Jonathan Dwight concentrated on taxonomy and later became a clearing house for bird banding and sight records. There were a group of eight young birdwatchers from the Bronx and later became the Bronx County Bird Club and they were led by Ludlow Griscom. Mayr was surprised at the differences between American and German Birding Societies. He noted that the German society was "far more scientific, far more interested in life histories and breeding bird species, as well as in reports on recent literature." Mayr also encouraged his Linnaean Society seminar participants to take up a specific research project of their own. "Everyone should have a problem" was the way one Bronx County Bird Club member recalled Mayr's refrain. One of Mayr's seminar participants was Joseph Hickey and under Mayr's influence went on to write A Guide to Birdwatching (1943). Hickey remembered later –"Mayr was our age and invited on all our field trips. The heckling of this German foreigner was tremendous, but he gave tit for tat, and any modern picture of Dr E. Mayr as a very formal person does not square with my memory of the 1930s. He held his own." Mayr's said of his own involvement with the local birdwatchers: "In those early years in New York when I was a stranger in a big city, it was the companionship and later friendship which I was offered in the Linnean Society that was the most important thing in my life." Barrow, Mark V. 1998. A Passion for Birds: American Ornithology after Audubon. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-04402-3 Mayr also greatly influenced Margaret Morse Nice. Mayr encouraged her to correspond with the European ornithologists of the time, and helped her in her landmark study on Song Sparrows. Nice wrote to Joseph Grinnell in 1932 trying to get foreign literature reviewed in the Condor: "Too many American ornithologists have despised the study of the living bird; the magazines and books that deal with the subject abound in careless statements, anthropomorphic interpretations, repetition of ancient errors, and sweeping conclusions from a pitiful array of facts. ... in Europe the study of the living bird is taken seriously. We could learn a great deal from their writing." Mayr ensured that Nice could publish her two volume Studies in the Life History of the Song Sparrow, finding her a publisher, and her book was reviewed by Aldo Leopold, Grinnell, Jean Delacour. Nice dedicated her book to "My Friend Ernst Mayr." Mayr joined the faculty of Harvard University in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970. He retired in 1975 as emeritus professor of zoology, showered with honors. Following his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals—more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65. Even as a centenarian, he continued to write books. On his 100th birthday, he was interviewed by Scientific American magazine. He received awards including the National Medal of Science, the Balzan Prize, the Sarton Medal of the History of Science Society, the International Prize for Biology, the Loye and Alden Miller Research Award, and the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science. In 1939 he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. He was awarded the Linnean Society of London's prestigious Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958. He was never awarded a Nobel Prize, but he noted that there is no Prize for evolutionary biology, and that Darwin would not have received one, either. Mayr did win a 1999 Craford Prize. That prize honors basic research in fields that do not qualify for Nobel Prizes and is administered by the same organization as the Nobel Prize. Mayr was co-author of six global reviews of bird species new to science (listed below). He was also an atheist, stating "there is nothing that supports the idea of a personal God". Shermer, M. and Sulloway, F.J. 2000. "The grand old man of evolution" Skeptic 8 (1): 76-82. Mayr's ideas As a traditionally trained biologist with little mathematical experience, Mayr was often highly critical of early mathematical approaches to evolution such as those of J.B.S. Haldane, famously calling in 1959 such approaches "beanbag genetics". He maintained that factors such as reproductive isolation had to be taken into account. In a similar fashion, Mayr was also quite critical of molecular evolutionary studies such as those of Carl Woese. In many of his writings, Mayr rejected reductionism in evolutionary biology, arguing that evolutionary pressures act on the whole organism, not on single genes, and that genes can have different effects depending on the other genes present. He advocated a study of the whole genome rather than of isolated genes only. Current molecular studies in evolution and speciation indicate that although allopatric speciation seems to be the norm in groups (possibly those with greater mobility) such as the birds, there are numerous cases of sympatric speciation in many invertebrates (especially in the insects). After articulating the biological species concept in 1942, Mayr played a central role in the species problem debate over what was the best species concept. He staunchly defended the biological species concept against the many definitions of "species" that others proposed. Mayr was an outspoken defender of the scientific method, and one known to sharply critique science on the edge. As a notable recent example, he criticized the search for aliens as conducted by fellow Harvard professor Paul Horowitz as being a waste of university and student resources, for its inability to address and answer a scientific question. Mayr rejected the idea of a gene-centered view of evolution and starkly but politely criticized Richard Dawkins' ideas: Mayr insisted throughout his career that the gene as the target of selection cannot and should not be considered a valid idea in modern evolutionary thought. “The idea that a few people have about the gene being the target of selection is completely impractical; a gene is never visible to natural selection, and in the genotype, it is always in the context with other genes, and the interaction with those other genes make a particular gene either more favorable or less favorable. In fact, Dobzhanksy, for instance, worked quite a bit on so-called lethal chromosomes which are highly successful in one combination, and lethal in another. Therefore people like Dawkins in England who still think the gene is the target of selection are evidently wrong. In the 30's and 40's, it was widely accepted that genes were the target of selection, because that was the only way they could be made accessible to mathematics, but now we know that it is really the whole genotype of the individual, not the gene. Except for that slight revision, the basic Darwinian theory hasn't changed in the last 50 years.” See also Philosophy of biology Biosemiotics Species Problem Bibliography Books Global reviews of species new to science Zimmer, J. T. & E. Mayr (1943) New species of birds described from 1938 to 1941 The Auk Vol. 60 pp. 249-262 Mayr, E. (1957) New species of birds described from 1941 to 1955 Journal for Ornithology Vol. 98 pp. 22-35 Mayr, E. (1971) New species of birds described from 1956 to 1965 Jour. f. Ornith. Vol. 112 pp. 302-316 Mayr, E. & F. Vuilleumier (1983) New species of birds described from 1966 to 1975 Jour. f. Ornith. Vol. 124 pp. 217-232 Vuilleumier, F. & E. Mayr (1987) New species of birds described from 1976 to 1980 Jour. f. Ornith. Vol. 128 pp. 137-150 Vuilleumier, François, Mary LeCroy & Ernst Mayr (1992) New species of birds described from 1981 to 1990 Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club Vol. 112A pp. 267-309 Other notable publications 1923 "Die Kolbenente (Nyroca rufina) auf dem Durchzuge in Sachsen". Ornithologische Monatsberichte 31:135-136 1923 "Der Zwergfliegenschnäpper bei Greifswald". Ornithologische Monatsberichte 31:136 1926 "Die Ausbreitung des Girlitz (Serinus canaria serinus L.) Ein Beitrag zur Tiergeographie". J. für Ornithologie 74:571-671 1927 "Die Schneefinken (Gattungen Montifringilla und Leucosticte)" J. für Ornithologie 75:596-619 1929 with W Meise. Zeitschriftenverzeichnis des Museums für Naturkunde Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin 14:1-187 1930 (by Ernst Hartert) "List of birds collected by Ernst Mayr". Ornithologische Monatsberichte 36:27-128 1930 "My Dutch New Guinea Expedition". 1928. Ornithologische Monatsberichte 36:20-26 1931 Die Vögel des Saruwaged und Herzoggebirges (NO Neuginea) Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin 17:639-723 1931 "Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. XII Notes on Halcyon chloris and some of its subspecies". American Museum Novitates no 469 1932 "A tenderfoot explorer in New Guinea" Natural History 32:83-97 1935 "Bernard Altum and the territory theory". Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New York 45, 46:24-38 1940 "Speciation phenomena in birds". American Naturalist 74:249-278 1941 "Borders and subdivision of the Polynesian region as based on our knowledge of the distribution of birds". Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress 4:191-195 1941 "The origin and history of the bird fauna of Polynesia". Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress 4:197-216 1943 "A journey to the Solomons". Natural History 52:30-37,48 1944 "Wallace's Line in the light of recent zoogeographics studies". Quarterly Review of Biology 19:1-14 1944 "The birds of Timor and Sumba". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83:123-194 1944 "Timor and the colonization of Australia by birds". Emu 44:113-130 1946 "History of the North American bird fauna" Wilson Bulletin 58:3-41 1946 "The naturalist in Leidy's time and today". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 98:271-276 1947 "Ecological factors in speciation". Evolution 1:263-288 1948 "The new Sanford Hall". Natural History 57:248-254 1950 The role of the antennae in the mating behavior of female Drosophila. Evolution 4:149-154 1951 Introduction and Conclusion. Pages 85,255-258 in The problem of land connections across the South Atlantic with special reference to the Mesozoic. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 99:79-258 1951 with Dean Amadon, "A classification of recent birds". American Museum Novitates no. 1496 1953 with E G Linsley and R L Usinger. Methods and Principles of Systematica Zoology. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1954 "Changes in genetic environment and evolution". Pages 157-180 in Evolution as a Process (J Huxley, A C Hardy and E B Ford Eds) Allen and Unwin. London 1955 "Karl Jordan's contribution to current concepts in systematics and evolution". Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 107:45-66 1956 with C B Rosen. "Geographic variation and hybridization in populations of Bahama snails (Cerion)". American Museum Novitates no 1806. 1957 "Species concepts and definitions". Pages 371-388 in The Species Problem (E. Mayr ed). AAAS, Washington DC. 1959 "The emergence of evolutionary novelties". Pages 349-380 in The Evolution of Life: Evolution after Darwin, vol 1 (S. Tax, ed) University of Chicago. 1959 "Darwin and the evolutionary theory in Biology". Pages 1-10 in Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal (B J Meggers, Ed) The Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington DC. 1959 "Agassiz, Darwin, and Evolution". Harvard Library Bulletin. 13:165-194 1961 "Cause and effect in biology: Kinds of causes, predictability, and teleology are viewed by a practicing biologist". Science 134:1501-1506 1962 "Accident or design: The paradox of evolution". Pages 1-14 in The Evolution of Living Organisms (G W Leeper, Ed) Melbourne University Press. 1964 Introduction, Bibliography and Subject Pages vii-xxviii, 491-513 in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, by Charles Darwin. A Facsimile of the First Edition. Harvard University Press. 1965 Comments. In Proceedings of the Boston Colloguium for the Philosophy of Science, 1962-1964. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 2:151-156 1969 Discussion: Footnotes on the philosophy of biology. Philosophy of Science 36:197-202 1972 Continental drift and the history of the Australian bird fauna. Emu 72:26-28 1972 Geography and ecology as faunal determinants. Pages 549-561 in Proceedings XVth International Ornithological Congress (K H Voous, Ed) E J Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands. 1972 Lamarck revisited. Journal of the History of Biology. 5:55-94 1974 Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis. Boston studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91-117 1978 Tenure: A sacred cow? Science 199:1293 1980 How I became a Darwinian, Pages 413-423 in The Evolutionary Synthesis (E Mayr and W Provine, Eds) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1980 with W B Provine, Eds. The Evolutionary Synthesis. Harvard University Press. 1981 Evolutionary biology. Pages 147-162 in The Joys of Research (W. Shripshire Jr, Ed.) Smithsonian Institution Press. 1984 Evolution and ethics. Pages 35-46 in Darwin, Mars and Freud: Their influence on Moral Theory (A L Caplan and B Jennings, Eds.) Plenum Press, New York. 1985. Darwin's five theories of evolution. In D. Kohn, ed., The Darwinian Heritage, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 755-772. 1985. How biology differs from the physical sciences. In D. J. Depew and B H Weber, eds., Evolution at a Crossroads: The New Biology and the New Philosophy of Science, Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, pp. 43-63. 1988. The why and how of species. Biology and Philosophy 3:431-441 1992. The idea of teleology. Journal of the History of Ideas 53:117-135 1994. with W.J. Bock. Provisional classifications v. standard avian sequences: heuristics and communication in ornithology. Ibis 136:12-18 1996. What is a species, and what is not? Philosophy of Science 63 (June): 262-277. 1996. The autonomy of biology: the position of biology among the sciences. Quarterly Review of Biology 71:97-106 1997. The objects of selection Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (March): 2091-94. 1999. Darwin's influence on modern thought Crafoord Prize lecture, September 23, 1999. 2000. Biology in the Twenty-First Century Bioscience 50 (Oct. 2000): 895-897. 2001. The philosophical foundations of Darwinism Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 145:488-495 2002. with Walter J Bock. Classifications and other ordering systems. Zeitschrift Zool. Syst. Evolut-Forsch. 40:1-25 Notes References Coyne, Jerry. 2005. Ernst Mayr (1904-2005). Science 307:1212-1213. Diamond, Jared. 2005. Obituary: Ernst Mayr (1904−2005). Nature 433:700-701. Haffer, Jürgen 2007. Ornithology, Evolution, and Philosophy: The Life and Science of Ernst Mayr 1904–2005. Springer. Milner, Richard. 1990. The Encyclopedia of Evolution Facts on File, New York. ISBN 0-8160-1472-8 Schilthuizen, Menno. 2001. Frogs, Flies, and Dandelions: Speciation-The Evolution of New Species. Oxford ISBN 0-19-850393-8 Kutschera, Ulrich. 2006. Dogma, not faith, is the barrier to scientific enquiry Nature 443, 26. Mayr, E. & William B. Provine (Eds) 1998. The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology. Harvard University Press. Meyer, Axel On the Importance of Being Ernst Mayr PLoS Biology Vol. 3, No. 5, e152 DOI:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030152 External links "80 Years of Watching the Evolutionary Scenery" - by Ernst Mayr, Science. Mayr on Eldredge and Gould's punctuated equilibria. 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2,563 | Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party | The European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party is a liberal party, mainly active in the European Union, composed of 55 national parties from across Europe. Having developed from a loose confederation of national political parties in the 1970s, the ELDR is now a recognised European political party incorporated as a non-profit association under Belgian law. Despite this legal status, the ELDR Party has yet to achieve significant grassroots involvement and retains much of the character of a mere confederation of national political parties. As of 2006, the ELDR is the third-largest political party represented in EU institutions, with 74 MEPs and 9 members of the European Commission. The Party is politically represented in the European Parliament by the ALDE Group, formed in conjunction with the centrist European Democratic Party, which is dominated by ELDR MEPs and led by Graham Watson, a British Liberal Democrat and former leader of the separate ELDR Parliamentary Group. The youth wing of the ELDR Party is the European Liberal Youth (LYMEC), which is predominantly based upon youth and student liberal organisations from across Europe but also contains a small number of individual members. LYMEC is led by a Franco-Belgian politician Aloys Rigaut (MR, Belgium), who was elected to a two-year term as LYMEC President in May 2008, and has a collective membership of over 200,000 young liberal Europeans. Leadership The leadership of the ELDR Party is Annemie Neyts, a Flemish MEP for the Belgian VLD and spokesperson on Foreign affairs, security and defense for the ALDE group. Neyts was elected for a two-year term of office at the meeting of the ELDR Party Congress held in Bratislava in September 2005, defeating former Dutch foreign minister Jozias van Aartsen, parliamentary leader of the Dutch VVD. She was re-elected for a two-year term at the ELDR Congress in Berlin in 2007. In her mission statement for the party presidency, Annemie Neyts declared: “The most fundamental tenets of ELDR, liberalism, the spread of freedom, democracy and economic development by virtue of integration into the EU and the EU herself are being questioned as seldom before. The need for a strong, well-articulated, future-oriented answer from ELDR, the European political party that embodies liberalism has never been greater. I intend to spend a large amount of my time helping ELDR meet the huge challenges it is faced with.” Former President of Liberal International between 1999 and 2005, Annemie Neyts was Belgian State secretary for Foreign Affairs in 2000-2001 and Deputy Minister for foreign Affairs in charge of European Affairs, International trade and Agriculture between 2001 and 2003. She was previously a Minister for the Brussels region and Member of Parliament in Belgium. Structure Bureau The day to day management of the ELDR Party is handled by the Bureau, the members of which are: President Annemie Neyts MEP (OpenVLD, Belgium): ELDR Party President Vice-Presidents Jeannette Baljeu (VVD, Netherlands) Sharon Bowles MEP (Lib Dem, UK) Wilfried Derksen (D66, Netherlands) Johannes Lebech MEP (RV, Denmark) Markus Löning MP (FDP, Germany) Kristiina Ojuland MP (Estonian Reform Party, Estonia) Vesna Pusić MP (HNS, Croatia) Treasurer David Griffiths (Lib Dem, UK) ALDE group leaders Graham Watson MEP (Lib Dem, UK): ALDE Group Leader, European Parliament Matyas Eörsi MP (SZDSZ, Hungary): ALDE Group Leader, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Flo Clucas (Lib Dem, UK): ALDE Group Leader, EU Committee of the Regions Other party officials Willy De Clercq MEP (VLD, Belgium): Honorary President Federica Sabbati (Italy): ELDR Party Secretary-General Alexander Beels (VVD, Netherlands): ALDE Group Secretary-General Aloys Rigaut (MR, Belgium): President, European Liberal Youth (LYMEC) ELDR Congress The ELDR Congress is the sovereign body of the ELDR corporation, usually meeting on an annual basis, and as such its primary purposes are to: Elect members of the ELDR Bureau Debate, and adopt, resolutions on matters of policy; Adopt the ELDR Party's electoral manifesto for European Parliament elections Make amendments to the ELDR Party Statutes The voting members of the ELDR Congress number around 600-700, and are composed of: Members of the ELDR Council A number of representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of European Parliament elections, 2 representatives nominated by each of the Affiliate Parties, and 10 representatives nominated by the European Liberal Youth. In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Congress, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members: ELDR members of the European Parliament, ELDR members of the EU Committee of the Regions, One delegate nominated by each of the liberal democrat groupings in other European parliamentary assemblies, and One delegate nominated by Liberal International ELDR Council The ELDR Council acts as the ELDR Party's de facto executive committee, meeting in between meetings of the ELDR Congress, and is empowered to: Approve the budget of the ELDR Party; Approve ELDR membership applications; and Speak and act on behalf of the ELDR Party in between meetings of the ELDR Congress. The voting members of the ELDR Council number around 100-150 members and are composed of: Voting members of the Bureau, Two or more representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of European Parliament elections, and One representative nominated by each of the Affiliate Parties, and One representative nominated by the European Liberal Youth In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Council, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members: Non-voting members of the Bureau, One representative nominated by each of the liberal democrat groups in European parliamentary assemblies (including the European Parliament and the Committee of the Regions), and One representative nominated by Liberal International ELDR Political Leaders' Meeting In addition to the formal structure of the ELDR Party, there are convened at least two Political Leaders' Meetings a year in order to exchange views on the items on the agenda of the European Council and more general views on the European political situation. The members of the Political Leaders' Meeting are: The President and Vice-Presidents of the ELDR Party ELDR Members of the European Commission ELDR Heads of Government The political leaders of ELDR Member Parties Other ELDR Ministers The President of the European Liberal Youth Leaders 1978-1981: Gaston Thorn 1981-1985: Willy De Clercq 1985-1990: Colette Flesch 1990-1995: Willy De Clercq 1995-2000: Uffe Ellemann-Jensen 2000-2005: Werner Hoyer 2005-: Annemie Neyts-Uyttebroeck History of pan-European liberalism Pan-European liberalism has a long history dating back to the foundation of Liberal International in April 1947. In March 1976, the Federation of Liberal and Democrat Parties in Europe was established, which gradually evolved into the ELDR Party with a matching group in the European Parliament, At an extraordinary Congress in Brussels held on April 30 2004 the day before the enlargement of the European Union, the ELDR Party incorporated itself under Belgian law and later became a European political party. The ELDR Europarty allied with the EDP Europarty in 2004 to form the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, with a matching group in the European Parliament. European Commissioners ELDR Member Parties contribute 9 out of the 27 members of the European Commission: Siim Kallas (ERP, Estonia): Vice-President (Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti-Fraud) Mariann Fischer Boel (Venstre, Denmark): Agriculture and Rural Development Neelie Kroes (VVD, Netherlands): Competition Louis Michel (MR, Belgium): Development and Humanitarian Aid Olli Rehn (Keskusta, Finland): Enlargement Meglena Kuneva (National Movement for Stability and Progress, Bulgaria): Consumer protection Androula Vassiliou (United Democrats (Cyprus),Cyprus): Health Janez Potočnik (LDS, Slovenia): Science and Research Leonard Orban (Romania): Multilingualism Member parties Proportion of ELDR MEPs per country Liberal Forum (Liberales Forum) Flemish Liberals and Democrats (Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten) Reformist Movement (Mouvement Réformateur) Movement for Rights and Freedoms (Dvizhenie za prava i svobodi) National Movement for Stability and Progress (formerly National Movement for Simeon II) (Nacionalno dviženie za stabilnost i vǎzhod) United Democrats (Ενωμένοι Δημοκράτες) The Social Liberal Party (Det Radikale Venstre) The Liberal Party (Venstre) Centre Party of Estonia (Eesti Keskerakond ) Estonian Reform Party (Eesti Reformierakond) Centre Party of Finland (Suomen Keskusta) Swedish People's Party (Svenska Folkpartiet) Civic Alliance for Democracy in Europe Radical Party of the Left Free Democratic Party (Freie Demokratische Partei) Alliance of Free Democrats (Szabad Demokraták Szövetsége) Fianna Fáil Progressive Democrats (An Páirtí Daonlathach) – to be disbanded in 2009 European Republican Movement (Movimento Repubblicani Europei) Italian Radicals (Radicali Italiani) Italian Republican Party (Partito Repubblicano Italiano) Italy of Values (Italia dei Valori) Latvian Way (Latvijas Ceļš) Liberal and Centre Union (Liberalų ir centro sąjunga) New Union Social Liberals (Naujoji sąjunga (socialliberalai)) Lithuanian Republic Liberal movement (Lietuvos Respublikos liberalu sajudis) Democratic Party (Luxembourg) (Demokratesch Partei) (Democratic Party) Democrats 66 (Democraten 66) People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie) Democratic Party - demokraci.pl (Partia Demokratyczna - demokraci.pl) National Liberal Party (Partidul Naţional Liberal) Alliance of the New Citizen (Aliancia Nového Občana) Free Forum (Slobodné fórum) – observer Liberal Democracy of Slovenia (Liberalna demokracija Slovenije) Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya) Mallorcan Union (Unió Mallorquina) Liberal Democratic Centre (Centro Democratico Liberal) – observer Centre Party (Centerpartiet) Liberal People's Party (Folkpartiet Liberalerna) Liberal Democrats Alliance Party of Northern Ireland Outside the EU Liberal Party of Andorra (Partit Liberal d'Andorra) Müsavat Party Liberal Democratic Party (Liberalno Demokratska Stranka) Croatian People's Party-Liberal Democrats (Hrvatska Narodna Stranka - Liberalni Demokrati) Croatian Social Liberal Party (Hrvatska socijalno liberalna stranka) Istrian Democratic Assembly (Istarski demokratski sabor/Dieta Democratica Istriana) Liberal Party of Macedonia (Liberalna Partija na Makedonija) Liberal Democratic Party (Liberalno-Demokratska Partija) Liberal Party (Venstre) People's Democratic Union (Народно-демократический союз) Yabloko (Российская демократическая партия "Яблоко") Liberals of Serbia (Либерали Србије, Liberali Srbije) Liberal Democratic Party (Либерално-демократска партија, Liberalno-demokratska partija) Free Democratic Party of Switzerland (Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei der Schweiz/Parti radical-démocratique suisse/Partito liberale radicale svizzero/Partida liberaldemocrata svizra) See also Political parties of the world Liberal International European Liberal Youth External links European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR) official site European Liberal Youth (LYMEC) | Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party 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2,564 | British_Virgin_Islands | The British Virgin Islands (BVI) is a British overseas territory, located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico. The islands make up part of the Virgin Islands archipelago, the remaining islands constituting the U.S. Virgin Islands. Technically the name of the Territory is simply the "Virgin Islands", but in practice since 1917 they have been almost universally referred to as the "British Virgin Islands" to distinguish the islands from the American Territory. British Virgin Islands government publications had traditionally continued to commence with "The Territory of the Virgin Islands", but recently, more and more legislation now simply refers to the Territory as the British Virgin Islands. The Interpretation Act (Cap 136) (1985) defines the "Territory" as simply the "Virgin Islands"; but the Insolvency Act, 2003 defines a "foreign company" as 'a body corporate that is incorporated, registered or formed outside the British Virgin Islands.' To add to the regional confusion, the Puerto Rican islands of Culebra, Vieques and surrounding islands began referring to themselves as the "Spanish Virgin Islands" as part of a tourism drive in the early 2000s. The British Virgin Islands consist of the main islands of Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada and Jost Van Dyke, along with over fifty other smaller islands and cays. Approximately fifteen of the islands are inhabited. The largest island, Tortola, is approximately 20 km (approx. 12 mi) long and 5 km (approx. 3 mi) wide. The islands have a total population of about 22,000, of whom approximately 18,000 live on Tortola. Road Town, the capital, is situated on Tortola. History The Virgin Islands were first settled by the Arawak from South America around 100 BC (though there is some evidence of Amerindian presence on the islands as far back as 1500 BC). Wilson, Samuel M. ed. The Indigenous People of the Caribbean. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997. ISBN 0813016924 The Arawaks inhabited the islands until the fifteenth century when they were displaced by the more aggressive Caribs, a tribe from the Lesser Antilles islands, after whom the Caribbean Sea is named. The first European sighting of the Virgin Islands was by Christopher Columbus in 1493 on his second voyage to the Americas. Columbus gave them the fanciful name Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Vírgenes (Saint Ursula and her 11,000 Virgins), shortened to Las Vírgenes (The Virgins), after the legend of Saint Ursula. The Spanish Empire claimed the islands by discovery in the early sixteenth century, but never settled them, and subsequent years saw the English, Dutch, French, Spanish and Danish all jostling for control of the region, which became a notorious haunt for pirates. There is no record of any native Amerindian population in the British Virgin Islands during this period, although the native population on nearby St. Croix was decimated. The Dutch established a permanent settlement on the island of Tortola by 1648. In 1672, the English captured Tortola from the Dutch, and the British annexation of Anegada and Virgin Gorda followed in 1680. Meanwhile, over the period 1672–1733, the Danish gained control of the nearby islands of St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix. The ruins of St Phillip's Church, Tortola, one of the more important historical ruins in the Territory. The British islands were considered principally a strategic possession, but were planted when economic conditions were particularly favourable. The British introduced sugar cane which was to become the main crop and source of foreign trade, and slaves were brought from Africa to work on the sugar cane plantations. The islands prospered economically until the middle of the 1800s, when a combination of the abolition of slavery in the Territory, a series of disastrous hurricanes, and the growth in the sugar beet crop in Europe and the United States In the United Kingdom, a major market for sugar from the Territory, the Sugar Duties Act 1846 also created a considerable downward effect on the price of Caribbean sugar cane. significantly reduced sugar cane production and led to a period of economic decline. In 1917, the United States purchased St. John, St. Thomas and St. Croix from Denmark for US$25 million, renaming them the United States Virgin Islands. The British Virgin Islands were administered variously as part of the British Leeward Islands or with St. Kitts and Nevis, with an Administrator representing the British Government on the Islands. Separate colony status was gained for the Islands in 1960 and the Islands became autonomous in 1967. Since the 1960s, the islands have diversified away from their traditionally agriculture-based economy towards tourism and financial services, becoming one of the wealthiest areas in the Caribbean. Geography Map of British Virgin Islands Scenery of Tortola. The British Virgin Islands comprise around sixty tropical Caribbean islands, ranging in size from the largest, Tortola 20 km (approx. 12 mi) long and 5 km (approx. 3 mi) wide, to tiny uninhabited islets. They are located in the Virgin Islands archipelago, a few miles east of the U.S. Virgin Islands. The North Atlantic Ocean lies to the north of the islands, and the Caribbean Sea lies to the south. Most of the islands are volcanic in origin and have a hilly, rugged terrain. Anegada is geologically distinct from the rest of the group and is a flat island composed of limestone and coral. In addition to the four main islands of Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, and Jost Van Dyke, other islands include: See also Islands of the British Virgin Islands. Climate The British Virgin Islands enjoy a tropical climate, moderated by trade winds. Temperatures vary little throughout the year. In the capital, Road Town, typical daily maxima are around 32 °C (90 °F) in the summer and 29 °C (84 °F) in the winter. Typical daily minima are around 24 °C (75 °F) in the summer and 21 °C (70 °F) in the winter. Rainfall averages about 1150 mm (45 in) per year, higher in the hills and lower on the coast. Rainfall can be quite variable, but the wettest months on average are September to November and the driest months on average are February and March. Hurricanes occasionally hit the islands, with the hurricane season running from June to November. Politics Legislative Council building in Road Town. The High Court sits upstairs. Executive authority in British Virgin Islands is invested in The Queen and is exercised on her behalf by the Governor of the British Virgin Islands. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom. A new constitution was adopted in 2007 (the Virgin Islands Constitution Order, 2007 Virgin Islands Constitution Order 2007 ) and came into force when the Legislative Council was dissolved for the 2007 general election. The Head of Government under the new constitution is the Premier (prior to the new constitution the office was referred to as Chief Minister), who is elected in a general election along with the other members of the ruling government as well as the members of the opposition. An Executive Council is nominated by the Premier and appointed by the Governor. There is a unicameral Legislative Council made up of 13 seats. The current Governor is David Pearey (since 2006). The current Premier is Ralph T. O'Neal (since 22 August 2007). Subdivisions Economy Road Town, Tortola, British Virgin Islands The British Virgin Islands enjoys one of the more prosperous economies of the Caribbean region, with a per capita GDP of around $38,500 (2004 est.) CIA. Economy: British Virgin Islands. The World Factbook, CIA publications, 19 December. 2006. Retrieved 25 December. 2006. In the British Virgin Islands it has long been fashionable to talk about the "twin pillars" of the Territory's economy – tourism and financial services. Politically, tourism is the more important of the two, as it employs a greater number of people within the Territory, and a larger proportion of the businesses in the tourist industry are locally owned, as are a number of the highly tourism-dependent sole traders (e.g. taxi drivers and street vendors). Economically, however, financial services are by far the more important. Nearly 50% of the Government's revenue comes directly from licence fees for offshore companies, and considerable further sums are raised directly or indirectly from payroll taxes relating to salaries paid within the trust industry sector (which tend to be higher on average than those paid in the tourism sector). Tourism accounts for 45% of national income. The islands are a popular destination for U.S. citizens, with around 350,000 tourists visiting annually (1997 figures). Tourists frequent the numerous white sand beaches, visit The Baths on Virgin Gorda, snorkel the coral reefs near Anegada, or experience the well-known bars of Jost Van Dyke. The BVI are known as one of the world's greatest sailing destinations, and charter sailboats are a very popular way to visit less accessible islands. Every year since 1972 the BVI has hosted the Spring Regatta, which is a seven-day collection of sailing races throughout the islands. A substantial number of the tourists who visit the BVI are cruise ship passengers, although they produce far lower revenue per head than charter boat tourists and hotel based tourists. They are nonetheless important to the substantial (and politically important) taxi driving community. Substantial revenues are also generated by the registration of offshore companies. As of 2004, over 550,000 companies were so registered. In 2000 KPMG reported in its survey of offshore jurisdictions for the United Kingdom government that over 41% of the world's offshore companies were formed in the British Virgin Islands. Since 2001, financial services in the British Virgin Islands have been regulated by the independent Financial Services Commission. While at one time the BVI was well regarded as a good domicile for captive insurance services, this changed beginning in recent years with the change of insurance regulators in 2007 and the government's increasing pressure to hire only locals ("belongers") in the insurance industry. Work permits for non-belongers, while always difficult to obtain, became even more so. Because of the lack of qualified local talent in the insurance area and the marked decline in the level of government services in the area, there has been a marked exodus of insurers from the BVI beginning in 2008. Other Caribbean jurisdictions picked up the slack (e.g., Anguilla) along with several U.S. states that became possible jurisdictions for alternative risk planning. Agriculture and industry account for only a small proportion of the islands' GDP. Agricultural produce includes fruit, vegetables, sugar cane, livestock and poultry, and industries include rum distillation, construction and boatbuilding. Since 1959, the official currency of the British Virgin Islands has been the US dollar, also used by the United States Virgin Islands. The British Virgin Islands are a major target for drug traffickers, who use the area as a gateway to the United States. According to the Foreign & Commonwealth Office, drug trafficking is "potentially the most serious threat to stability in the BVI". British Virgin Islands Country Profile, Foreign & Commonwealth Office Demographics The population of the Islands is around 21,730 in 2003. The majority of the population (83%) are Afro-Caribbean, descended from the slaves brought to the islands by the British. Other large ethnic groups include those of British and other European origin. The 1999 census reports: 83.36% Black 7.28% White* 5.38% Mixed 3.14% East Indian 0.84% Others The islands are predominantly Protestant Christian (86%). The largest individual Christian denominations are Methodist (33%), Anglican (17%), and Catholic (10%). Transport There are of roads. The main airport (Terrance B. Lettsome International Airport, also known as Beef Island Airport) is located on Beef Island, which lies off the eastern tip of Tortola and is accessible by the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge. Virgin Gorda and Anegada have their own smaller airports. The main harbour is in Road Town. There are also ferries that operate within the British Virgin Islands and to the neighbouring United States Virgin Islands. As in the UK, cars in the British Virgin Islands drive on the left side of the road. The roads are often quite steep and winding, and ruts can be a problem when it rains. Education The British Virgin Islands operates several government schools as well as private schools. There is also a community college, Hamilton Lavity Stoutt Community College, that is located on the eastern end of Tortola. This college was named after the late Honourable Lavity Stoutt (Chief Minister). British Virgin Islands Schools, BVI Government website Sport Because of its location and climate the British Virgin Islands has long been a haven for sailing enthusiasts. Sailing is regarded as one of the foremost sports in all of the BVI. Calm waters along with steady breezes culminate to make some of the best sailing conditions in the Caribbean (some say the world). Many sailing events are held in the waters of this country. The largest of which is a weeklong series of sailing races called the Spring Regatta. This is the premier sailing event of the Caribbean. With several races hosted each day. Boats include everything from full-size mono-hull yachts to dinghies. Captains and their crews come from all around the globe to attend these races. The Spring Regatta is part race, part party, part festival. There are races, games, and music during the day, and some crazy partying at night. The Spring Regatta is normally held on the first week of April, annually. Culture Language The primary language is English, with a quick creole accent. Music The traditional music of the British Virgin Islands is called fungi after the local cornmeal dish with the same name, often made with okra. The special sound of fungi is due to a unique local fusion between African and European music. It functions as a medium of local history and folklore and is therefore a cherished cultural form of expression that is part of the curriculum in BVI schools. The fungi bands, also called "scratch bands", use instruments ranging from calabash, washboard, bongos and ukulele, to more traditional western instruments like keyboard, banjo, guitar, bass, triangle and saxophone. Apart from being a form of festive dance music, fungi often contains humorous social commentaries, as well as BVI oral history. Penn, Dexter J.A. Music of the British Virgin Islands: Fungi. Retrieved 13 January 2008. See also References External links Official sites and overviews The Government of the British Virgin Islands (official government site) The Government of the BVI, London Office — Official government site British Virgin Islands: Nature's Little Secrets — Official site of the British Virgin Islands Tourist Board British Virgin Islands Most Informative Tourism Guide — online Tourism Guide of the BVI BVI Welcome Tourist Guide — Bi-monthly tourism publication The British Virgin Islands Ports Authority — Official site National Parks Trust of the British Virgin Islands — Official site British Virgin Islands Financial Services Commission — Official site Festivals and Events An overview of BVI Events BVI's Annual Festivals News and media BVI Platinum News — First Daily Online News, Weather & More of the British Virgin Islands Web Directory British Virgin Islands News BVI News — Daily News (Online) of the British Virgin Islands The Island Sun — Weekly newspaper of the British Virgin Islands The 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2,565 | Berlin_Wall | For the chess position, see Ruy Lopez#Berlin Defence. View in 1986 from the west side of graffiti art on the wall's infamous "death strip" Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow The Berlin Wall () was a physical barrier completely encircling West Berlin, separating it from the German Democratic Republic (GDR) (East Germany), including East Berlin. The longer inner German border demarcated the border between East and West Germany. Both borders came to symbolize the Iron Curtain between Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc. The wall separated East Germany from West Germany for more than a quarter-century, from the day construction began on 13 August 1961 until the Wall was opened on 9 November 1989. Freedom! - TIME During this period, at least 98 people were confirmed killed trying to cross the Wall into West Berlin, according to official figures. However, a prominent victims' group claims that more than 200 people were killed trying to flee from East to West Berlin. Forschungsprojekt „Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer, 1961-1989“: BILANZ (Stand: 7. August 2008) (in German) The East German government issued shooting orders to border guards dealing with defectors, though such orders are not the same as shoot to kill orders which GDR officials denied ever issuing. When the East German government announced on 9 November 1989, after several weeks of civil unrest, that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin, crowds of East Germans climbed onto and crossed the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, parts of the wall were chipped away by a euphoric public and by souvenir hunters; industrial equipment was later used to remove almost all of the rest of it. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which was formally concluded on 3 October 1990. Background Occupation zone borders in Germany as of February 21, 1947. The territories east of the Oder-Neisse line, under Polish and Soviet administration/annexation are not shown. Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone. After the end of World War II in Europe, what remained of Nazi Germany west of the Oder-Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones (per the Potsdam Agreement), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the Americans, British, French and Soviets. The capital, Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city lying deep inside the Soviet zone. Although the occupying powers originally intended to jointly govern Germany within its postwar borders, the advent of Cold War tensions caused the French, British and American zones to be formed into the Federal Republic of Germany (and West Berlin) in 1949, excluding the Soviet zone, which then formed the German Democratic Republic (including East Berlin). Divergence of the two German states West Germany, known in German as the Bundesrepublik Deutschland or FRG (Federal Republic of Germany), developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy ("Soziale Marktwirtschaft" in German) and a democratic parliamentary government. Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 20-year "economic miracle" ("Wirtschaftswunder"). Across the inner-German border, East Germany, known in Germany as the Deutsche Demokratische Republik (German Democratic Republic), established an authoritarian government with a Soviet-style planned economy. As West Germany's economy grew and its standard of living continually improved, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany. Emigration westward in the early 1950s After Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave. Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany, the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 197,000 in 1950, 165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953. Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Familie und Frauen, Statistik Spätaussiedler Dezember 2007, p.3 (in German) One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization with the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953. 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953. Erection of the Inner-German Border By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany. The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states that had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural—especially between where no prior border existed between East and West Germany. Up until 1952, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places. On April 1, 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions Stalin's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin [so as to stop] free movement of Western agents" in the GDR. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable". He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border – and not just any border, but a dangerous one ... The Germans will guard the line of defense with their lives." Consequently, the Inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected. The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted. This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR, and also a flashpoint for tension between the superpowers--the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1955, the Soviets passed a law transferring control over civilian access in Berlin to East Germany, which officially abdicated them for direct responsibility of matters therein, while passing control to a regime not recognized in the west. When large numbers of East Germans then defected under the guise of "visits", the new East German state essentially eliminated all travel to the west in 1956. Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately, does not always turn out in favor of the Democratic [East] Berlin." The Berlin emigration loophole With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952, the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West. Paul Maddrell, Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961, p. 56. Oxford University Press, 2006 East Germany introduced a new passport law on December 11, 1957 that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany, while drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60% to well over 90% by the end of 1958. Those actually caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and even subway train access to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective. The Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which East Bloc citizens could still escape. The 3.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population. Brain drain The emigrants tended to be young and well educated, leading to the brain drain feared by officials in East Germany. Yuri Andropov, then the CPSU Director on Relations with Communist and Workers Parties of Socialist Countries, wrote an urgent letter on August 28, 1958, to the Central Committee about the significant 50% increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees. Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material. He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase." By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61% of its population of working age, compared to 70.5% before the war. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals -- engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers. The direct cost of manpower losses has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion, with East German party leader Walter Ulbricht later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses. In addition, the drain of East Germany's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment. Volker Rolf Berghahn, Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century, p. 227. Cambridge University Press, 1987 The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the Soviet imperial frontier was imperative. Construction begins, 1961 East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, November 20, 1961. On 15 June 1961, two months before the construction of the Berlin Wall started, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and GDR State Council chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference, "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one has the intention of erecting a wall!). It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context. The record of a telephone call between Nikita Khrushchev and Ulbricht on August 1, 1961, suggests that it was Khrushchev from whom the initiative for the construction of the wall came. Wiegrefe, Klaus. "Wir lassen euch jetzt ein, zwei Wochen Zeit", Spiegel Online - einestages, May 2009. Record of the conversation. On Saturday, 12 August 1961, the leaders of the GDR attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin, at which time Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall. At midnight, the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and by Sunday morning, 13 August 1961, the border with West Berlin was closed. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles, and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 miles) around the three western sectors and the 43 km (27 miles) which actually divided West and East Berlin. The barrier was built slightly inside East Berlin or East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point, and was later built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on August 15. During the construction of the Wall, NVA and KdA soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, chain fences, walls, minefields, and other obstacles were installed along the length of the inner-German border between East and West Germany. Immediate effects Due to the closure of the East-West sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs; West Berlin became an isolated enclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. US President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on June 26, 1963 From the East-Side 1968 the "Baby Wall" with flowers was the nearest point for visitors. John F. Kennedy had acknowledged in a speech on July 25, 1961, that the United States could hope to defend only West Berliners and West Germans; to attempt to stand up for East Germans would result only in an embarrassing downfall. Accordingly, the administration made polite protests at length via the usual channels, but without fervour, even though it was a violation of the postwar Potsdam Agreements, which gave the United Kingdom, France and the United States a say over the administration of the whole of Berlin. Indeed, a few months after the barbed wire was erected, the U.S. government informed the Soviet government that it accepted the Wall as "a fact of international life" and would not challenge it by force. U.S. and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin, which had appeared to be the best option the GDR and Soviet powers had at their disposal, but were surprised how long it had taken for a move of this kind. They also saw the wall as an end to concerns about a GDR/Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin; the wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus the possibility of a military conflict over Berlin decreased. Taylor, Frederick. The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 - 9 November 1989. Bloomsbury 2006 The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-Fascist protective rampart" ("antifaschistischer Schutzwall") intended to dissuade aggression from the West Goethe-Institut - Topics - German-German History Goethe-Institut . Another official justification was the activities of western agents in Eastern Europe "Die Regierungen der Warschauer Vertragsstaaten wenden sich an die Volkskammer und an die Regierung der DDR mit dem Vorschlag, an der Westberliner Grenze eine solche Ordnung einzuführen, durch die der Wühltätigkeit gegen die Länder des sozialistischen Lagers zuverlässig der Weg verlegt und ringsum das ganze Gebiet West-Berlins eine verlässliche Bewachung gewährleistet wird." Die Welt: Berlin wird geteilt . A yet different explanation was that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. Most of these positions were, however, viewed with skepticism even in East Germany, even more so since most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany travelling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East Neues Deutschland: Normales Leben in Berlin, Aug. 14th, 1961 . The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it, and the view that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering West Berlin or fleeing was widely accepted. An East German propaganda booklet published in 1955 outlined the seriousness of 'flight from the republic' to SED party agitators: Secondary response It was clear both that West German morale needed lifting and that there was a serious potential threat to the viability of West Berlin. If West Berlin fell after all the efforts of the Berlin Airlift, how could any of America's other allies rely on it? On the other hand, in the face of any serious Soviet threat, an enclave like West Berlin could not be defended except with nuclear weapons. First Strike Options and the Berlin Crisis, September 1961 As such, it was vitally important for the Americans to show the Soviets a display of strength and also placate West German and French pressure for a more serious response. Accordingly, General Lucius D. Clay, an anti-communist who was known to have a firm attitude towards the Soviets, was sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank as Kennedy's special advisor. He and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday August 19. They arrived in a city defended by what would soon be known as the "Berlin Brigade", which then consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Battle Groups of the 6th Infantry, with Company F, 40th Armor. The battle groups were "pentatomic" (a flatter command structure with five battle groups instead of the old three regiments with three battalions, and also equipped with tactical nuclear weapons), with 1,362 officers and men each. On August 16, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on August 19, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Col. Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted. On Sunday morning, lead elements arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men divided into five march units and left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German/East German border, U.S. personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 km (~100 miles) long, and covered 177 km (~110 miles) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear, with VoPos (East German police) watching from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along. The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin to an adoring crowd. At 04:00 on August 21, Lyndon Johnson left a visibly reassured West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin by autobahn to demonstrate Allied rights. The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: in spite of discontent with the wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated, and the economy in the GDR began to grow. However, the Wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers used it in propaganda as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after the shootings of would-be defectors (which were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany). Layout and modifications Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989) The Berlin Wall was more than long. In June 1962, a second, parallel fence some farther into East German territory was built. The houses contained between the fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated, thus establishing the No Man's Land that later became known as The Death Strip. The No Man's Land was covered with raked gravel, rendering footprints easy to notice thus enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task; it offered no cover; most important, it offered clear fields of fire for the wall guards. Through the years, the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions: Wire fence (1961) Improved wire fence (1962–1965) Concrete wall (1965–1975) Grenzmauer 75 (Border Wall 75) (1975–1989) The "fourth-generation wall", known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12.11" (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975 Facts of Berlin Wall - History of Berlin Wall and completed about 1980, http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each high and wide, and cost 16,155,000 East German Marks or about 3,638,000 United States Dollars. Fourth Generation of Berlin Wall - History of Berlin Wall The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. It was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, barbed wire, dogs on long lines, "fakir beds" (Bed of Nails) under balconies hanging over the "death strip", over 116 watchtowers, " The Berlin wall : History of Berlin Wall : Facts " and 20 bunkers. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. The layout came to resemble the inner-German border in most technical aspects, except the Berlin Wall had no landmines and no Spring-guns According to Hagen Koch, former Stasi-officer, in Geert Mak's documentary In Europa, episode 1961 - DDR, January 25, 2009 . Surrounding municipalities Besides the sector-sector boundary within Berlin itself, the wall also separated West Berlin from the present-day state of Brandenburg. The following present-day municipalities, listed in counter-clockwise direction, share a border with former West Berlin: Oberhavel : Mühlenbecker Land (partially), Glienicke/Nordbahn, Hohen Neuendorf, Hennigsdorf Havelland : Schönwalde-Glien, Falkensee, Dallgow-Döberitz Potsdam (Urban district) Potsdam-Mittelmark : Stahnsdorf, Kleinmachnow, Teltow Teltow-Fläming : Großbeeren, Blankenfelde-Mahlow Dahme-Spreewald : Schönefeld (partially) Official crossings and usage There were eight border crossings between East and West Berlin, which allowed visits by West Berliners, West Germans, Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin, provided that they held the necessary permits. Those crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße, also known as Checkpoint Charlie, which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners. Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin's exclaves (see Steinstücken). The famous You Are Leaving sign at the end of the American sector. Four autobahns connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being the Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn (Checkpoint Alpha), and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo) in southwestern Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat using canals and rivers. Non-German Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the S-Bahn and U-Bahn, were divided with it. Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three Western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called Geisterbahnhöfe, or ghost stations) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross. Who could cross West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could in general visit East Germany. Usually this involved application of a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all. All crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (Passierscheinregelung). Similar very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966. In 1971, with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits. East Berliners and East Germans could at first not travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being: Old age pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1964 Visits of relatives for important family matters People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons (e.g. artists, truck drivers etc.) However, each visit had to be applied for individually and approval was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travellers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (Begrüßungsgeld, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin, to help alleviate this situation. Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition on visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country. Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls; likewise Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border, since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin, as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin, including entry into, exit from, and presence within East Berlin; the Allies held that only the Soviet Union, and not the GDR, had authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases. For this reason, elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin. Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the Military Liaison Missions accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, located in Potsdam. Allied personnel were restricted by policy when traveling by land to the following routes: Transit between West Germany and West Berlin: Road: the Helmstedt-Berlin autobahn (A2) (Checkpoints Alpha and Bravo respectively). Soviet military personnel manned these checkpoints and processed Allied personnel for travel between the two points. Military personnel were required to be in uniform when travelling in this manner. Rail: Western Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces were forbidden from using commercial train service between West Germany and West Berlin, due to the fact of GDR passport and customs controls when using them. Instead, the Allied forces operated a series of official (duty) trains that travelled between their respective duty stations in West Germany and West Berlin. When transiting the GDR, the trains would follow the route between Helmstedt and Griebnitzsee, just outside of West Berlin. In addition to persons travelling on official business, authorized personnel could also use the duty trains for personal travel on a space-available basis. The trains travelled only at night, and as with transit by car, Soviet military personnel handled the processing of duty train travellers. Entry into and exit from East Berlin: Checkpoint Charlie (as a pedestrian or riding in a vehicle) As with military personnel, special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR, again with the intent to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin, in order not to jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all of Berlin. Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers, not formally affiliated with the Allied forces, were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin. Regarding travel to East Berlin, such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city, in addition to Checkpoint Charlie. In these instances, such travellers, unlike Allied personnel, had to submit to East German border controls. Escape attempts NVA officer Conrad Schumann defecting to West Berlin during the wall early days in 1961. During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes to West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the wall or as a result of the wall's existence has been disputed. The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt, Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum's founder, estimated the death toll to be well above 200 Chronik der Mauer: Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer (in German) , while an ongoing historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research (ZZF) in Potsdam has confirmed 136 deaths. http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Index/id/593792 Center for Contemporary Historical Research (Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam e.V) in German Guards were told by East German authorities that people attempting to cross the wall were criminals and needed to be shot: "Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used", they said. Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line but these ended as the wall was fortified. In order to solve these simple escape attempts, East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the wall to be occupied and any building near the wall had to have their windows boarded up. On August 15, 1961, Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin. Memorial to the Victims with prophetic graffiti, 1982 Later successful escape attempts included long tunnels, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires, flying ultralights, and in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of escape, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and wind screen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They simply lay flat and kept driving forward. This issue was rectified with zig-zagging roads at checkpoints. The sewer system preceded the wall, and some people escaped through the sewers, in a number of cases with assistance from the Girmann student group. An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger, who landed a Zlin Z 42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an East German youth military training organization, at RAF Gatow. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by RAF airmen such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under the registration D-EWOH. If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, they could not be rescued for fear of triggering engaging fire from the 'Grepos', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, like in the most notorious failed attempt, that of Peter Fechter (aged 18). He was shot and bled to death in full view of the Western media, on August 17, 1962. Fechter's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places, and provide medical care for possible “would-be escapers”. Taylor, Frederick . The Berlin Wall: A World Divided 1961-1989. London: Harper Perennial, 2006. The last person to be shot while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on February 6, 1989. Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall! |United States President Ronald Reagan delivers a speech at the Berlin Wall in June 1987 calling for Mikhail Gorbachev to “Tear Down This Wall!” A seminal moment in the years preceding the fall of the wall was Ronald Reagan's speech at the Brandenburg Gate on June 12, 1987. While commemorating the 750th anniversary of the founding of the city of Berlin, Reagan challenged Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev to liberate the Soviet bloc nations, saying The Fall, 1989 Germans begin standing on top of the wall, 1989; it would begin being physically torn apart in the upcoming days. On August 23, 1989, Hungary removed its physical border defences with Austria, and in September more than 13,000 East German tourists in Hungary escaped to Austria. This set up a chain of events. The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to Budapest. These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany. The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary, but allowed those already there to return. This triggered a similar incident in neighboring Czechoslovakia. On this occasion, the East German authorities allowed them to leave, providing that they used a train which transited East Germany on the way. This was followed by mass demonstrations within East Germany itself. (See Monday demonstrations in East Germany.) The longtime leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, resigned on October 18, 1989, and was replaced by Egon Krenz a few days later. Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the wall would stand for a "hundred more years" if the conditions which had caused its construction did not change. Protest demonstrations broke out all over East Germany in September 1989. Initially, they were of people wanting to leave to the West, chanting "Wir wollen raus!" ("We want out!"). Then protestors began to chant "Wir bleiben hier", ("We're staying here!"). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "Peaceful Revolution" of late 1989. By November 4, the protests had swelled significantly, with a million people gathered that day in Alexanderplatz in East Berlin(Henslin, 07). Meanwhile the wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West had increased and had found its way through Czechoslovakia, tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the communist Czechoslovak government. In order to ease the complications, the politburo led by Krenz decided on November 9, to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including West Berlin. On the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private travel. The new regulations were to take effect on November 10. Günter Schabowski, the Party Secretary for Propaganda, had the task of announcing this; however he had been on vacation prior to this decision and had not been fully updated. Shortly before a press conference on November 9, he was handed a note that said that East Berliners would be allowed to cross the border with proper permission but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. However, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference and when asked when the regulations would come into effect, he assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied "As far as I know effective immediately, without delay". After further questions from journalists he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings towards West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then. Walking through Checkpoint Charlie, 10 November 1989 Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard Schabowski's statement live on East German television and flooded the checkpoints in the Wall demanding entry into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors, but it became clear that there was no one among the East German authorities who would dare to take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so there was no way for the vastly outnumbered soldiers to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. In face of the growing crowd, the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking. Ecstatic East Berliners were soon greeted by West Berliners on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. November 9 is thus considered the date the Wall fell. In the days and weeks that followed, people came to the wall with sledgehammers in order to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts of it in the process. These people were nicknamed "Mauerspechte" (wall woodpeckers). A crane removing a section of the Berlin Wall near Brandenburg Gate on December 21, 1989 The East German regime announced the opening of ten new border crossings the following weekend, including some in symbolic locations (Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, Bernauer Straße). Crowds on both sides waited there for hours, cheering at the bulldozers who took parts of the Wall away to reinstate old roads. Photos and television footage of these events is sometimes mislabelled "dismantling of the Wall", even though it was merely the construction of new crossings. New border crossings continued to be opened through the middle of 1990, including the Brandenburg Gate on December 22, 1989. West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel starting December 23. Until then they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance, and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between November 9 and December 23, East Germans could travel "more freely" than Westerners. Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990 Technically the Wall remained guarded for some time after November 9, though at a decreasing intensity. In the first months, the East German military even tried to repair some of the damages done by the "wall peckers". Gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorized" border crossing through the holes. On June 13, 1990, the official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military began in Bernauer Straße. On July 1, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. The dismantling continued to be carried out by military units (after unification under the Bundeswehr) and lasted until November 1991. Only a few short sections and watchtowers were left standing as memorials. Short section of Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz, March 2009 The fall of the Wall was the first step toward German reunification, which was formally concluded on October 3, 1990. Celebrations On December 25, 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy" (Freude) changed to "Freedom" (Freiheit) in the text sung. The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. This is the publisher's catalogue entry for a DVD of Bernstein's Christmas 1989 "Ode to Freedom" concert. David Hasselhoff sang during the fall of the Berlin wall. Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall in Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull, Levon Helm, Rick Danko and Van Morrison. David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom", which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall. Over the years there has been repeatedly a controversial debate whether November 9 would have made a suitable German national holiday, often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany like Werner Schulz . Besides the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution November 9 is also the date of the end of the Revolution of 1848 and the date of the declaration of the first German republic, the Weimar Republic, in 1918. However, November 9 is also the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of 1938 and, therefore, October 3 was chosen instead. Part of this decision was that the East German government wanted to conclude reunification before East Germany could celebrate a 41st anniversary on October 7, 1990. 20th Anniversary Celebrations On November 9, 2009, Berlin will celebrate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall with a "Festival of Freedom", during which over 1,000 foam domino tiles over 8 feet tall will be stacked along the former route of the wall in the city center and toppled. In the United States, the German Embassy is coordinating a public diplomacy campaign with the motto "Freedom Without Walls" to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The campaign is focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students, and students at over 20 universities will participate in "Freedom Without Walls" events in late 2009. Legacy Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost everywhere. Three long sections are still standing: an 80-meter (263 ft) piece of the first (westernmost) wall at the site of the former Gestapo headquarter half way between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz; a longer section of the second (easternmost) wall along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke nicknamed East Side Gallery; and a third section with hints of the full installation, but partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Some other isolated fragments and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city. None still accurately represent the Wall's original appearance. They are badly damaged by souvenir seekers, as fragments of the Wall were taken and sold around the world. Appearing both with and without certificates of authenticity, these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops. Today, the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along the tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first" wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system. Museum Fifteen years after the fall, a private museum rebuilt a 200-metre (656 ft) section close to Checkpoint Charlie, although not in the location of the original wall. They also raised more than 1,000 crosses in memory of those who died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005. Cultural differences Even now, some years after reunification, there is still talk in Germany of cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially Ossis and Wessis), sometimes described as Mauer im Kopf (The wall in the head). A September 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished that East Germany and West Germany were again cut off by the Berlin Wall. Fulton, Missouri A unique piece of the wall is in the small town of Fulton, Missouri at Westminster College. The college was the site of the famous Iron Curtain speech given by Winston Churchill near the beginning of the cold war. A piece of artwork made out of a section of the wall was created by the granddaughter of Churchill and placed on the school grounds at the Winston Churchill Memorial and Library. See also Berlin border crossings Brandenburg Gate Der Tunnel, a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel Diplomatic incident of October 1961 – See Checkpoint Charlie Eastern Bloc List of Berlin Wall portions List of walls Operation Gold Ostalgie Panmunjeom, the Korean equivalent of the wall and the last standing front of the Cold War after the fall of the wall. Removal of Hungary's border fence Schießbefehl Solidarity Movement Tear down this wall The Berlin Wall (arcade game) The Wall - Live in Berlin, a rock opera/concert by Roger Waters after "The real wall" was torn down. A huge "new wall" made out of bricks was made, then demolished at the end. Notes References Taylor, Frederick. The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 - 9 November 1989. Bloomsbury 2006 External links Freedom Without Walls: German Missions in the United States Looking Back at the Fall of the Berlin Wall - official homepage in English Chronicle of the Wall Most comprehensive multi-media source of information on this topic The Berlin Wall Original reports and pictures from The Times The Berlin Wall Official Website Berlin.de Chronik der Mauer Chronicle of the Wall in German Information Berlin Wall and East-Berlin (in German) Retracing the Berlin Wall Bernauer Straße Memorial website Information on the East German border system (in German) Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade) Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade JFK speech clarifying limits of American protection "Berlin 1969" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations. Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files) Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s Berlin Life: A concise but thorough history of the wall Berlin Wall: Past and Present The Lives of Others official website Important Berlin Wall Dates The Lost Border: Photographs of the Iron Curtain Dossier: The Fall of the Wall – New Perspectives on 1989 Freedom Without Walls, 20th Anniversary Public Diplomacy Campaign by the German Embassy Washington Images and personal accounts Comprehensive Gallery (1961 to 1990) from the website Chronicle of the Wall Gallery of annotated photographs of the Berlin Wall Virtual e-Tours "The Wall" Shockwave Player required Photos of the Berlin Wall by Georges Rosset Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999 Borders: spotting the past along Berlin death strip. 2007 BW photo gallery. Berlin Wall Pieces for Sale Berlin Wall Panorama of the East Side Gallery One Day In Berlin: Tracing The Wall Berlin Wall Online, Chronicle of the Berlin Wall history includes an archive of photographs and texts Personal Account of the Fall of the Berlin Wall Berlin Wall, Past and Present, Descriptions, Videos, Images of Berlin Wall - Personal Accounts of November 9, 1989 at www.Germany.info Photos of the Berlin Wall 1962-1990 (German text) A large number of collected images in the Flickr Berlin Wall group | Berlin_Wall |@lemmatized chess:1 position:4 see:7 ruy:1 lopez:1 berlin:175 defence:2 view:4 west:113 side:9 graffiti:4 art:1 wall:149 infamous:2 death:10 strip:5 satellite:1 image:4 location:5 mark:8 yellow:1 physical:3 barrier:4 completely:1 encircle:1 separate:4 german:118 democratic:5 republic:8 gdr:20 east:152 germany:75 include:16 long:8 inner:7 border:58 demarcate:1 come:7 symbolize:1 iron:3 curtain:3 western:23 europe:4 eastern:12 bloc:8 quarter:1 century:2 day:16 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2,566 | IBM_PC_keyboard | The IBM PC keyboard and its derivative computer keyboards are standardized. However, during the 20 years of the PC architecture being constantly updated, several types of keyboards have been developed. Keyboard layouts The PC keyboard changed over the years, often at the launch of new PC versions. 83-key PC/XT – original left-hand side function key (F key) columns, F1 through F10; electronically not compatible with the later keyboard types 84-key PC/AT – additional <SysRq>, i.e. System Request; numerical block clearly separated from main keyboard; added indicator LEDs for Caps/Scroll/Num lock 101-key "Enhanced" – additional navigation and control keys; 12 F keys in separate row along top, grouped F1-4, F5-8, and F9-12 102-key "Enhanced" – additional key to the right of the left Shift key for European layouts 106-key "Enhanced" – additional 5 keys for input in Asian languages 104-key "Windows" – Windows key (×2) and Menu key added 105-key as above, but for European layouts 109-key as above, but for Asian layouts 107-key "Enhanced" – additional Power management keys Advertised "multimedia keyboards" may offer additional buttons to the 104 or 107 "standard" keys, often providing volume control, media player buttons, and miscellaneous user-configurable short-cuts, e.g. for e-mail client, web browser, etc. 104-key "Windows" keyboard This keyboard layout, with its bottom row Windows keys and Menu key, was introduced for use with the Microsoft Windows 95 operating system in the USA. The corresponding keyboards for European and Asian markets have 105 and 109 keys, respectively. Most modern PCs, including those not running a version of Windows, are now delivered with this type of keyboard. Users of non-Windows operating systems often have the option of re-mapping the Menu and Windows keys to other functions. Standard key meanings The PC keyboard with its various keys has a long history of evolution reaching back to teletypewriters. In addition to the 'old' standard keys, the PC keyboard has accumulated several special keys over the years. Some of the additions have been inspired by the opportunity or requirement for improving user productivity with general office application software, while other slightly more general keyboard additions have become the factory standards after being introduced by certain operating system or GUI software vendors such as Microsoft. See also: modifier key From mechanical typewriters Shift selects the upper character, or select upper case of letters. The Shift key in typewriters was attached to a lever that moved the character types so that the uppercase characters could be printed in the paper. Unlike mechanical typewriters, PC keyboards do not capitalize all letters properly when both shift keys are engaged simultaneously. Caps Lock selects upper case, or if shift is pressed, lower case of letters. In mechanical typewriters, it worked like the Shift key, but also used a lock to keep the Shift key depressed. The lock was released by pressing the Shift key. Enter wraps to the next line or activates the default or selected option. ASCII keyboards were labeled CR or Return. Typewriters used a lever that would return the cylinder with the paper to the start of the line. From Teletype keyboards Ctrl shifts the value of letters and numbers from the ASCII graphics range, down into the ASCII control characters. For example, CTRL-S is XOFF (stops many programs as they print to screen) CTRL-Q is XON (resume printing stopped by CTRL-S). Esc produces an ASCII escape character. It may be used to exit menus or modes. Tab produces an ASCII tab character. Moves to the next tab stop. ~ is the tilde, an accent backspaced and printed over other letters for non-English languages. Nowadays the key does not produce a backspaceable character and is used for 'not' or 'circa'. ` is a grave accent or backtick, also formerly backspaced over letters to write non-English languages; on some systems it is used as an opening quote. The single quote ' is normally used for an acute accent. ^ is a circumflex, another accent for non-English languages. Also used to indicate exponentiation where superscript is not available. * is an asterisk, used to indicate a note, or multiplication. _ is an underscore, backspaced and overprinted to add emphasis. | is a vertical bar, originally used as a typographic separator for optical character recognition. Many character sets break it in the middle so it cannot be confused with the numeral "1" or the letter "l" (in most EBCDIC codepages, vertical bar and divided vertical bar are separate characters). This character is often known as a "pipe" or a "fencepost." Invented for the PC The Windows key (also known as the super key) is a quick way to open the Start menu in Windows' standard Explorer shell, and can usually be configured to behave similarly in other graphical user interfaces, for Windows and other operating systems. The menu key brings up a context menu, similar to right-clicking. Function keys are the numbered keys, use varies by program, but F1 is often "help." Arrow keys move on the screen. When shifted, they select items. Home moves to the start of text, usually the left side of the screen. End moves to the end of text, usually the right-most edge of the current line. PgUp and PgDn move through the document by pages. Delete deletes the character after the screen position, or the selected items. Insert toggles between "insertion" and "overwrite" mode. Print screen originally printed a text image of the screen; nowadays often takes a screenshot. In combination with Alt, it produces a different keycode, SysRq. Num lock toggles between states for the numeric keypad. When off, it acts as arrow and navigational keys. When on, it is a 10-key pad similar to a standard calculator. Preferences vary so much that a favorite default for this key can often be configured in the BIOS configuration. Its continued existence on keyboards that separate out the arrow keys has mostly historical reasons. Scroll lock is little-used. On modern software, typing text usually causes earlier text to scroll off the top of the screen or window. Some old programs could disable this and restart at the top of the window when scroll lock was pressed. The advantage is that the entire screen full of text does not shift, making it easier to read. It was also used to lock the cursor on its line and scroll the work area under it. On spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel, it locks the cell pointer on the current cell, allowing the user to use the arrow keys to move the view window around without moving the cell pointer. On some consoles (such as the Linux console), it prevents scrolling of messages until another key combination is pressed. Pause pauses either output or processing. In combination with Control, it produces a different keycode, for Break. Ctrl-Break traditionally stopped programs in DOS. Ctrl-Break is also used to halt execution of the debugger in some programming environments such as Microsoft Visual Studio. In combination with the Windows key, it brings up the System Properties window in Microsoft Windows environments. Alt shifts the letters and numbers into the range above hex 0x80 where the international characters and special characters exist in the PC's standard character set. Alt plus a number typed on the numeric pad produces special characters, see Windows Alt keycodes. AltGr works like the Ctrl+Alt key combination, often used in combination with other keys to print special characters like the backslash on non-English keyboards. Fn may be present on compact keyboards such as those built into laptop computers. When depressed in combination with other keys, it either enables the user to access key functions that do not have dedicated keys on the compact keyboard (such as the numeric block), or it controls hardware functions such as switching between the built-in screen and an external display, changing screen brightness, or changing speaker volume. These alternate meanings are usually indicated with text or symbols of a different color printed on the key, with the 'Fn' key text having that same color. Turbo on some keyboards. It is usually on the right side of the right Shift key. When depressed in combination with a Function key it sets the key repeat rate. Belkin International. Knowledge Base Article 3532 Connectors There are three types of connector used to connect a PC keyboard to the main system unit. All three are mechanically different from each other, but the first two are electrically identical (except for XT keyboards, which used a connector mechanically identical to the later AT connector, but not electrically compatible with it). The three connector types are listed below in chronological order: 5-pin DIN (DIN 41524) "AT" connector. 6-pin Mini-DIN (DIN 45322) "PS/2" connector. 4-pin USB connector. See also Apple Keyboard Notes External links IBM.com keyboard page Key re-mapping software:- SharpKeys: free KeyTweak: free AutoHotkey: free | IBM_PC_keyboard |@lemmatized ibm:2 pc:13 keyboard:27 derivative:1 computer:2 standardize:1 however:1 year:3 architecture:1 constantly:1 update:1 several:2 type:8 develop:1 layouts:1 change:3 often:8 launch:1 new:1 version:2 key:60 xt:2 original:1 leave:1 hand:1 side:3 function:6 f:2 column:1 electronically:1 compatible:2 late:1 additional:6 sysrq:2 e:3 system:8 request:1 numerical:1 block:2 clearly:1 separate:4 main:2 add:3 indicator:1 led:1 cap:2 scroll:6 num:2 lock:9 enhance:4 navigation:1 control:5 row:2 along:1 top:3 group:1 right:5 left:2 shift:13 european:3 layout:4 input:1 asian:3 language:4 window:15 menu:7 power:1 management:1 advertise:1 multimedia:1 may:3 offer:1 button:2 standard:7 provide:1 volume:2 medium:1 player:1 miscellaneous:1 user:6 configurable:1 short:1 cut:1 g:1 mail:1 client:1 web:1 browser:1 etc:1 bottom:1 windows:3 introduce:2 use:18 microsoft:5 operate:4 usa:1 corresponding:1 market:1 respectively:1 modern:2 include:1 run:1 deliver:1 non:5 option:2 map:1 meaning:2 various:1 long:1 history:1 evolution:1 reach:1 back:1 teletypewriter:1 addition:3 old:2 accumulate:1 special:4 inspire:1 opportunity:1 requirement:1 improve:1 productivity:1 general:2 office:1 application:1 software:4 slightly:1 become:1 factory:1 certain:1 gui:1 vendor:1 see:3 also:8 modifier:1 mechanical:3 typewriter:5 select:5 upper:3 character:17 case:3 letter:8 attach:1 lever:2 move:8 uppercase:1 could:2 print:8 paper:2 unlike:1 capitalize:1 properly:1 engage:1 simultaneously:1 selects:1 press:4 low:1 work:3 like:3 keep:1 depress:3 release:1 enter:1 wrap:1 next:2 line:4 activate:1 default:2 ascii:5 label:1 cr:1 return:2 would:1 cylinder:1 start:3 teletype:1 ctrl:7 value:1 number:3 graphic:1 range:2 example:1 xoff:1 stop:4 many:2 program:5 screen:10 q:1 xon:1 resume:1 esc:1 produce:6 escape:1 exit:1 mode:2 tab:3 tilde:1 accent:4 backspace:3 english:4 nowadays:2 backspaceable:1 circa:1 grave:1 backtick:1 formerly:1 write:1 opening:1 quote:2 single:1 normally:1 acute:1 circumflex:1 another:2 indicate:3 exponentiation:1 superscript:1 available:1 asterisk:1 note:2 multiplication:1 underscore:1 overprint:1 emphasis:1 vertical:3 bar:3 originally:2 typographic:1 separator:1 optical:1 recognition:1 set:3 break:4 middle:1 cannot:1 confuse:1 numeral:1 l:1 ebcdic:1 codepages:1 divide:1 know:2 pipe:1 fencepost:1 invent:1 super:1 quick:1 way:1 open:1 explorer:1 shell:1 usually:6 configure:2 behave:1 similarly:1 graphical:1 interface:1 bring:2 context:1 similar:2 clicking:1 numbered:1 varies:1 help:1 arrow:4 item:2 home:1 text:8 end:2 edge:1 current:2 pgup:1 pgdn:1 document:1 page:2 delete:2 position:1 insert:1 toggle:2 insertion:1 overwrite:1 image:1 take:1 screenshot:1 combination:8 alt:5 different:4 keycode:2 state:1 numeric:3 keypad:1 act:1 navigational:1 pad:2 calculator:1 preference:1 vary:1 much:1 favorite:1 bios:1 configuration:1 continued:1 existence:1 mostly:1 historical:1 reason:1 little:1 cause:1 early:1 disable:1 restart:1 advantage:1 entire:1 full:1 make:1 easy:1 read:1 cursor:1 area:1 spreadsheet:1 excel:1 cell:3 pointer:2 allow:1 view:1 around:1 without:1 console:2 linux:1 prevent:1 message:1 pause:2 either:2 output:1 processing:1 traditionally:1 halt:1 execution:1 debugger:1 environment:2 visual:1 studio:1 property:1 hex:1 international:2 exist:1 plus:1 keycodes:1 altgr:1 backslash:1 fn:2 present:1 compact:2 build:2 laptop:1 enable:1 access:1 dedicate:1 hardware:1 switch:1 external:2 display:1 brightness:1 speaker:1 alternate:1 symbol:1 color:2 turbo:1 repeat:1 rate:1 belkin:1 knowledge:1 base:1 article:1 connector:8 three:3 connect:1 unit:1 mechanically:2 first:1 two:1 electrically:2 identical:2 except:1 later:1 list:1 chronological:1 order:1 pin:3 din:4 mini:1 p:1 usb:1 apple:1 link:1 com:1 mapping:1 sharpkeys:1 free:3 keytweak:1 autohotkey:1 |@bigram ibm_pc:1 keyboard_layouts:1 pc_xt:1 web_browser:1 keyboard_layout:1 microsoft_window:2 grave_accent:1 acute_accent:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 numeric_keypad:1 microsoft_excel:1 pin_din:1 din_connector:1 usb_connector:1 external_link:1 |
2,567 | Lithuania | Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania () is a country in Northern Europe, the southernmost of the three Baltic states. Situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, it shares borders with Latvia to the north, Belarus to the southeast, Poland, and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad to the southwest. Lithuania is a member of NATO and of the European Union. Its population is 3.4 million. Its capital and the largest city is Vilnius. This year (2009) Vilnius is European Capital of Culture. During the 14th century, Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569 Poland and Lithuania formed a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory. In the wake of the First World War, Lithuania's Act of Independence was signed on February 16, 1918, declaring the re-establishment of a sovereign state. Starting in 1940, Lithuania was occupied first by the Soviet Union then Nazi Germany. As World War II neared its end in 1944 and the Nazis retreated, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. On March 11, 1990, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to declare its renewed independence. Present-day Lithuania has one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. Lithuania became a full member of the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007. In 2009, Lithuania celebrated the millennium of its name. History The first written mention of Lithuania is found in a medieval German manuscript, the Quedlinburg Chronicle, on 14 February 1009. The Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas in 1236, and neighbouring countries referred to it as "the state of Lithuania." The official coronation of Mindaugas as King of Lithuania was on July 6, 1253, and the official recognition of Lithuanian statehood as the Kingdom of Lithuania. Tomas Baranauskas. Lietuvos karalystei — 750 (750 years for Kingdom of Lithuania). 2001. During the early period of Vytautas the Great (1316–1430), the state occupied the territories of present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia. Paul Magocsi. History of the Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996. p.128 By the end of the fourteenth century, Lithuania was the largest country in Europe, and was also the only remaining pagan state. Robert Bideleux. A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge, 1998. p.122 The Grand Duchy of Lithuania stretched across a substantial part of Europe, from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Lithuanian nobility, city dwellers and peasants accepted Christianity in 1386, following Poland's offer of its crown to Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Grand Duke Jogaila was crowned King of Poland on February 2, 1386. Lithuania and Poland were joined into a personal union, as both countries were ruled by the same House of Gediminas branch, the Jagiellon dynasty. In 1401, the formal union was dissolved as a result of disputes over legal terminology, and Vytautas, the cousin of Jogaila, became the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Thanks to close cooperation, the armies of Poland and Lithuania achieved a great victory over the Teutonic Knights in 1410 at the Battle of Grunwald, one of the largest battles of medieval Europe. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: .v. 17, 1998 p.545 R. Fawn Ideology and National Identity in Post-communist Foreign Policies. p. 186] A royal crown had been bestowed upon Vytautas in 1429 by Sigismund, the Holy Roman Emperor, but Polish magnates prevented his coronation by seizing the crown as it was being brought to him. New attempts were made to send a crown, but a month later Vytautas died as the result of an accident. As a result of the growing centralised power of the Grand Principality of Moscow, in 1569, Lithuania and Poland formally united into a single state called the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a member of the Commonwealth, Lithuania retained its institutions, including a separate army, currency and statutory law which was digested in three Statutes of Lithuania. Stone, Daniel. The Polish-Lithuanian state: 1386–1795. University of Washington Press, 2001. p. 63 In 1795, the joint state was dissolved by the third Partition of the Commonwealth, which forfeited its lands to Russia, Prussia and Austria, under duress. Over ninety percent of Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire and the remainder into Prussia. Between 1868 and 1914, approximately 635,000 people, almost 20% of the population, left Lithuania. Lithuanian Americans After a century of occupation, Lithuania re-established its independence on February 16, 1918. The official government from July through November 1918 was quickly replaced by a republican government. From the outset, the newly independent Lithuania's foreign policy was dominated by territorial disputes with Poland (over the Vilnius region and the Suvalkai region) and with Germany (over the Klaipėda region or Memelland). The Lithuanian constitution (first draft presented on November 2, 1918) designated Vilnius as the nation's capital, even though the city itself lay within Polish occupied territory as a result of a general election. In 1931, according to polish census, Poles and Jews made up a majority of the population of Vilnius, with a small Lithuanian minority of only 0.8%. In the Klaipėda Region census of 1925, over 41% of the population declared themselves German. Das Memelgebiet im Überblick In 1920 the capital was relocated to Kaunas, which was officially designated the provisional capital of Lithuania. (See History of Vilnius for more details.) L. Donskis. Identity and Freedom: mapping nationalism and social criticism in twentieth-century Lithuania. Routledge (UK), 2002 p. 23. In March 1939 the city of Klaipėda () was ceded back to Germany by Lithuanian authorities, after German ultimatum and international pressure (citation needed). In June 1940, Stalin's Soviet Union occupied and annexed Lithuania in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. I. Žiemele. Baltic Yearbook of International Law, 2001. 2002, Vol.1 p.10 K. Dawisha, B. Parrott. The Consolidation of Democracy in East-Central Europe. 1997 p. 293. A year later it was occupied, after the implementation of Operation Barbarossa, by Germany. During the German occupation groups of Lithuanian men served in the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force and other Lithuanian self-defence units, in conjunction with the German occupation authorities. These Lithuanian pro-German units fought Soviet partisans as well as the Armia Krajowa Polish resistance forces. After the retreat of the German armed forces, Lithuania was once again occupied by the Soviet Union in 1944. On 1948 May 22-23 the NKVD launched a huge roundup named "Operation spring", in which 36,932 men, women, and children were arrested and deported, in thirty two convoys, within a 48 hour period. Black Book of Communism. Harvard University Ress, 1999, p,235-236 From 1944 to 1952 approximately 100,000 Lithuanians participated in partisan fights against the Soviet system, and against the Red Army. More than twenty thousand partisans (Lithuanian partisans (1944–1953)) were killed in those battles and many more were arrested and deported to Siberian GULAGs. Lithuanian historians view this period as a war of independence against the Soviet Union. During the Soviet and Nazi occupations between 1940 and 1944, Lithuania lost over 780,000 residents. Among them were around 190,000 Lithuanian Jews Lithuania: Back to the Future. Retrieved 2009-02-11 (91% of the pre-war Jewish community), one of the highest total mortality rates of the Holocaust. An estimated 120,000 to 300,000 US Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs, August 2006 were killed by Soviets or exiled to Siberia, while others had been sent to German forced labour camps or chose to emigrate to western countries. Forty-six years of Soviet occupation ended with the advent of perestroika and glasnost in the late 1980s. Lithuania, led by Sąjūdis, an anti-communist and anti-Soviet independence movement, proclaimed its renewed independence on March 11, 1990. Lithuania was the first Soviet republic to do so, though Soviet forces unsuccessfully tried to suppress this secession. The Red Army attacked the Vilnius TV Tower on the night of January 13, 1991, an act that resulted in the death of 13 Lithuanian civilians. BBC Story The last Red Army troops left Lithuania on August 31, 1993 — even earlier than they departed from East Germany. On February 4, 1991, Iceland became the first country to recognize Lithuanian independence. Sweden was the first to open an embassy in the country. The United States of America never recognized the Soviet claim to Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. Russia currently refuses to recognize the occupation of Lithuania, claiming that Lithuanians decided to join the Soviet Union voluntarily, although Russia signed a treaty with Lithuania before the disintegration of the USSR which acknowledged Lithuania's forced loss of sovereignty at the hands of the Soviets, thereby recognizing the occupation. Lithuania joined the United Nations on September 17, 1991, and on May 31, 2001, it became the 141st member of the World Trade Organization. Since 1988, Lithuania has sought closer ties with the West, and so on January 4, 1994, it became the first of the Baltic states to apply for NATO membership. On March 29, 2004, it became a NATO member, and on May 1, 2004, Lithuania joined the European Union. Politics Since Lithuania declared independence on March 11, 1990, it has maintained strong democratic traditions. In the first general elections after the independence on October 25, 1992, 56.75% of the total number of voters supported the new constitution. Nuo 1991 m. iki šiol paskelbtų referendumų rezultatai (Results from Refrenda 1991-Present), Microsoft Word Document, Seimas. Accessed June 4, 2006. There were heavy debates concerning the constitution, especially the role of the president. Drawing from the interwar experiences, many different proposals were made ranging from a strong parliamentary government to a presidential system similar to the one in the United States. A separate referendum was held on May 23, 1992 to gauge public opinion on the matter and 41% of all the eligible voters supported the restoration of the President of Lithuania. Eventually a semi-presidential system was agreed upon. Lina Kulikauskienė, Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija (Constitution of Lithuania), Native History, CD, 2002. ISBN 9986-9216-7-8 The Lithuanian head of state is the President, elected directly for a five-year term, serving a maximum of two consecutive terms. The post of president is largely ceremonial; main policy functions however include foreign affairs and national security policy. The president is also the military commander-in-chief. The President, with the approval of the parliamentary body, the Seimas, also appoints the prime minister and on the latter's nomination, appoints the rest of the cabinet, as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts. The judges of the Constitutional Court (Konstitucinis Teismas), who serve nine-year terms, are appointed by the President (three judges), the Chairman of the Seimas (three judges) and the Chairman of the Supreme Court (three judges). The unicameral Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas, has 141 members who are elected to four-year terms. 71 of the members of this legislative body are elected in single constituencies, and the other 70 are elected in a nationwide vote by proportional representation. A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be represented in the Seimas. Geography Lithuania is situated in Northern Europe. It has around 99 kilometres (61.5 mi) of sandy coastline, of which only about 38 kilometres (24 mi) face the open Baltic Sea and which is the shortest among the Baltic Sea countries; the rest of the coast is sheltered by the Curonian sand peninsula. Lithuania's major warm-water port, Klaipėda, lies at the narrow mouth of the Curonian Lagoon (Lithuanian: Kuršių marios), a shallow lagoon extending south to Kaliningrad. The main river, the Neman River, and some of its tributaries carry international shipping vessels. The Lithuanian landscape has been smoothed by glaciers. The highest areas are the moraines in the western uplands and eastern highlands, none of which are higher than 300 metres (1,000 ft) above sea level, with the maximum elevation being Aukštojas Hill at 294 metres (964 ft). The terrain features numerous lakes, Lake Vištytis for example, and wetlands; a mixed forest zone covers nearly 33% of the country. The climate lies between maritime and continental, with wet, moderate winters and summers. According to one geographical computation method, Lithuania's capital, Vilnius, lies only a few kilometres south of the geographical centre of Europe. Phytogeographically, Lithuania is shared between the Central European and Eastern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Lithuania can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Central European mixed forests and Sarmatic mixed forests. Lithuania consists of the following historical and cultural regions: Aukštaitija — literally, the "Highlands" Samogitia (Lithuanian: Žemaitija) — literally, the "Lowlands" Dzūkija (Lithuanian: Dzūkija or Dainava) Suvalkija (Lithuanian: Suvalkija or Sūduva) Lithuania Minor also known as "Prussian Lithuania" — (Lithuanian: Mažoji Lietuva or Prūsų Lietuva). The region was part of Prussia from the Middle Ages until 1945. Most of it today is part of Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast). Climate The country's climate, which ranges between maritime and continental, is relatively mild. Average temperatures on the coast are -2.5 °C in January and 16 °C in July. In Vilnius the average temperatures are -6 °C in January and 16 °C in July. Simply speaking, 20 °C is frequent at summer day and 14 °C at night. Temperatures can reach 30 or 35 °C in summer. Some winters can be very cold. -20 °C occurs almost every winter. Winter extremes are -34 °C in the seaside and -43°C in the east of Lithuania. The average annual precipitation is 800 millimeters on the coast, 900 mm in Samogitia highlands and 600 millimeters in the eastern part of the country. Snow occurs every year, it can be snowing from October to April. In some years sleet can fall in September or May. The growing season lasts 202 days in the western part of the country and 169 days in the eastern part. Severe storms are rare in the eastern part of Lithuania and common in the seaside. The longest measured temperature records from the Baltic area cover about 250 years. The data show that there were warm periods during the latter half of the 18th century, and that the 19th century was a relatively cool period. An early 20th century warming culminated in the 1930s, followed by a smaller cooling that lasted until the 1960s. A warming trend has persisted since then. Climate trends in the Baltic Lithuania experienced a drought in 2002, causing forest and peat bog fires. Effects of 2002 drought in Lithuania The country suffered along with the rest of Northwestern Europe during a heat wave in the summer of 2006. Reported extreme temperatures in Lithuania by month are following: www.meteo.lt: Records of Lithuanian climate Extreme temperatures in Lithuania (°C) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Highest Temperatures +12,6 +16,5 +21,8 +28,8 +34 +35 +37,5 +36 +32 +26 +18 +15,6 Lowest Temperatures -40,5 -42,9 -37,5 -23,0 -6,8 -2,8 +0,9 -2,9 -6,3 -19,5 -23 -34 State division The current administrative division was established in 1994 and modified in 2000 to meet the requirements of the European Union. Lithuania has a three-tier administrative division: the country is divided into 10 counties (Lithuanian: singular — apskritis, plural — apskritys) that are further subdivided into 60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular — savivaldybė, plural — savivaldybės) which consist of over 500 elderates (Lithuanian: singular — seniūnija, plural — seniūnijos). The counties are ruled by county governors (Lithuanian: apskrities viršininkas) appointed by the central government. They ensure that the municipalities adhere to the laws of Lithuania and the constitution. County government oversees local governments and their implementation of the national laws, programs and policies. Lietuvos Respublikos apskrities valdymo įstatymas (Republic of Lithuania Law on County Governing), Seimas law database, December 15, 1994, Law no. I-707. Accessed June 3, 2006. Lithuania is divided into 10 counties. Municipalities are the most important unit. Some municipalities are historically called "district municipalities", and thus are often shortened to "district"; others are called "city municipalities", sometimes shortened to "city". Each municipality has its own elected government. In the past, the election of municipality councils occurred once every three years, but it now takes place every four years. The council elects the mayor of the municipality and other required personnel. The municipality councils also appoint elders to govern the elderates. There is currently a proposal for direct election of mayors and elders, however that would require an amendment to the constitution. Justinas Vanagas, Seimo prioritetai šią sesiją – tiesioginiai mero rinkimai, gyventojų nuosavybė ir euras (Seimas Priorities this session: direct election of mayors, property of residents, and euro), Delfi.lt, September 5, 2005. Accessed June 3, 2006. Lithuania is divided into 60 municipalities. Elderates are the smallest units and they do not play a role in national politics. They were created so that people could receive necessary services close to their homes; for example, in rural areas the elderates register births and deaths. They are most active in the social sector: they identify needy individuals or families and distribute welfare or organise other forms of relief. Lietuvos Respublikos vietos savivaldos įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymas (Republic of Lithuania Law on Amending the Law on Local Self-Governing), Seimas law database, October 12, 2000, Law no. VIII-2018. Accessed June 3, 2006. Lithuania is divided into more than 500 elderates. The current system of administrative division receives frequent criticism for being too bureaucratic and ineffective. Significant complaints have been made about the number of counties, since they do not have much power. One proposal is to create four lands, a new administrative unit, the boundaries of which would be determined by the ethnographic regions of Lithuania. The benefit would be that the lands would follow natural boundaries, rather than being defined by bureaucrats or politicians. Dr. Žilvytis Bernardas Šaknys Lietuvos Respublikos administracinio teritorinio suskirstymo perspektyvos: etnografiniai kultūriniai regionai (Perspectives of Republic of Lithuania Administrative Subdivision: Ethnographic — Cultural Regions), The Council for the Protection of Ethnic Culture, Seimas, December 12, 2002. Accessed June 4, 2006. Another of the proposed solutions involves reducing the number of counties so that there would be five in total, each based in one of the five largest cities with populations of over 100,000. Dr. Antanas Tyla, Pastabos dėl Apskričių valdymo reformos koncepcijos (Notes on Conception of County Governing Reform), The Council for the Protection of Ethnic Culture, Seimas, May 16, 2001. Accessed June 4, 2006. Others complain that elderates have no real power and receive too little attention; they could potentially become local initiative communities which could tackle many rural problems. Indrė Makaraitytė, Europos Sąjungos pinigai kaimo neišgelbės (Money from the European Union Will Not Save the Rural Areas), Atgimimas, Delfi.lt, December 16, 2004. Accessed June 4, 2006. Economy In 2003, before joining the European Union, Lithuania had the highest economic growth rate amongst all candidate and member countries, reaching 8.8% in the third quarter. In 2004 — 7.3%; 2005 — 7.6%; 2006 — 7.4%; 2007 — 8.8%, 2008 Q1 — 7.0% growth in GDP reflects the impressive economic development. Department of Statistics to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Change of GDP, 2002-2006 Most of the trade Lithuania conducts is within the European Union. It is a member of the World Trade Organization, and the European Union. By UN classification, Lithuania is a country with a high average income. The country boasts a well developed modern infrastructure of railways, airports and four-lane highways. As of October 2008, an unemployment rate is 4.7%. According to officially published figures, EU membership fueled a booming economy, increased outsourcing into the country, and boosted the tourism sector. The litas, the national currency, has been pegged to the Euro since February 2, 2002 at the rate of EUR 1.00 = LTL 3.4528, Lietuvos Bankas and Lithuania is expecting to switch to the Euro on January 1, 2013. There is gradual but consistent shift towards a knowledge-based economy with special emphasis on biotechnology (industrial and diagnostic) – major biotechnology producers in the Baltic countries are concentrated in Lithuania – as well as laser equipment. Also mechatronics and information technology (IT) are seen as prospective knowledge-based economy directions in Lithuania. Lithuania has a flat tax rate rather than a progressive scheme. Lithuanian income levels are lower than in the older EU Member States, with per capita GDP in 2007 at 60% of the EU average. Lower wages have been a factor that in 2004 fueled emigration to wealthier EU countries, something that has been made legally possible as a result of accession to the European Union. In 2006, personal income tax was reduced to 27% and a reduction to 24% was made in October 2007. Income tax reduction and 19.1% annual wage growth Lithuanian News is starting to make an impact with some emigrants gradually beginning to come back. Lithuanian News The latest official data show emigration in early 2006 to be 30% lower than the previous year, with 3,483 people leaving in four months. Corporate tax rate is one of the lowest in the European Union at 15%. The government offers special incentives for investments into the high-technology sectors and high value-added products. Lithuania has the highest rating of Baltic states in the Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality of life index. Education According to Invest in Lithuania, Lithuania has twice as many people with higher education than the EU-15 average and the proportion is the highest in the Baltic. Also, 90% of Lithuanians speak at least one foreign language and half of the population speaks two foreign languages, mostly Russian and English or Polish. Invest in Lithuania Vilnius University is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the largest university in Lithuania. Kaunas University of Technology is the largest technical university in the Baltic States and the second largest university in Lithuania. Other universities include Kaunas University of Medicine, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre,Vilnius Pedagogical University, Vytautas Magnus University, and Mykolas Romeris University. Infrastructure Klaipėda port is the only port in Lithuania. Vilnius International Airport is the largest airport. It served 2 million passengers in 2008. Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant is a Soviet-era nuclear station. Unit #1 was closed in December 2004, as a condition of Lithuania's entry into the European Union; the plant is similar to the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in its lack of a robust containment structure. The remaining unit, as of 2006, supplied about 70% of Lithuania's electrical demand. Unit #2 is tentatively scheduled for closure in 2009. Proposals have been made to construct another nuclear power plant in Lithuania. According to the study carried out by Speedtest.net, Lithuania has the fastest internet upload speed in the world and fourth by download speed. Demographics Ethnic composition The population of Lithuania stands at 3.3662 million, 84.6% of whom are ethnic Lithuanians who speak Lithuanian which is the official language of the country. Several sizable minorities exist, such as Poles (6.3%), Russians (5.1%), and Belarusians (1.1%). Department of Statistics to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Population by ethnicity, census. Updated in 2007. Poles are the largest minority, concentrated in southeast Lithuania (the Vilnius region). Russians are the second largest minority, concentrated mostly in two cities. They constitute sizeable minorities in Vilnius (14%) and Klaipėda (28%), and a majority in the town of Visaginas (52%). About 3,000 Roma live in Lithuania, mostly in Vilnius, Kaunas, and Panevėžys; their organizations are supported by the National Minority and Emigration Department. Lithuanian Security and Foreign Policy. According to the Lithuanian population census of 2001, about 84% of the country's population speak Lithuanian as their native language, 8.2% are the native speakers of Russian, 5.8% - of Polish. More than 60% are fluent in Russian, while only about 16% say they can speak English. According to the Eurobarometer survey conducted in 2005, 80% of Lithuanians can speak Russian and 32% can speak English. Most Lithuanian schools teach English as a first foreign language, but students may also study German, or, in some schools, French. Schools where Russian and Polish are the primary languages of education exist in the areas populated by these minorities. Health and welfare As of 2007 Lithuanian life expectancy at birth was 65 years for males and 77 for females - the largest gender difference and the lowest male life expectancy in the European Union. As of 2008 The infant mortality rate was 5.9 per 1,000 births. Statistics Lithuania. The annual population growth rate increased by 0.3% in 2007. Less than 2% of the population live beneath the poverty line, and the adult literacy rate is 99.6%. WHO statistical database. At 38.6 people per 100,000, Lithuania has seen a dramatic rise in suicides in recent years, and now records the highest suicide rate in the world. See List of countries by suicide rate. Lithuania also has the highest homicide rate in the EU. More people are killed in Lithuania than anywhere in the EU Largest cities 2008 data City Region Population Density* (/km²) Area (km²) Vilnius East 401 Kaunas Middle 157 Klaipėda West 98 Šiauliai North 81 Panevėžys North 52 Alytus South 40 Marijampolė South 21 Mažeikiai North 14 Jonava Middle n/d Utena East 15,1 Kėdainiai Middle 44 Religion In 2005 79% of Lithuanians belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. Department of Statistics to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Population by Religious Confession, census . Updated in 2005. The Church has been the majority denomination since the Christianisation of Lithuania in the end of fourteenth century and beginning of fifteenth century. Some priests actively led the resistance against the Communist regime (symbolised by the Hill of Crosses). Church attendance has increased since the end of the Soviet Union and the country has a high level of religious practice. In the 16th century, Protestantism started to spread from Western Europe. A united reformed church organization in Lithuania's church province can be counted from the year 1557 at the Synod in Vilnius on December 14 of that year. From that year the Synod met regularly forming all the church provinces of The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, at first from two and later growing to six districts and representative district synods. The abbreviated name for the church is in Latin, Unitas Lithuaniae or in Polish, Jednota Litewska (Lithuanian church provincial union). It sent its representatives to the General Polish/Lithuanian Synods; however in its administration it was in fact a self-governing Church. The first Superintendent was Simonas Zacijus (Szymon Zacjusz, approx 1507-1591). In 1565 the anti- Trinitarian Lithuanian Brotherhood who rejected the learning of the Trinity separated from UL. The UL parish network covered nearly all of The Grand Duchy. Its district centers were Vilnius, Kedainai, Biržai, Slucke, Kojdanove and Zabludove later Izabeline. In the first half of 20th century Lutheran Protestant church had around 200,000 members, 9% of total population, although Lutheranism has declined since 1945. Small Protestant communities are dispersed throughout the northern and western parts of the country. Believers and clergy suffered greatly during the Soviet occupation, with many killed, tortured or deported to Siberia. Various Protestant churches have established missions in Lithuania since 1990. United Methodists evangelize in Lithuania with ads, brochures 4.9% are Eastern Orthodox (mainly among the Russian minority), 1.9% are Protestant and 9.5% have no religion. The country also has minority communities of Judaism, Islam, and Karaism which make up another 1.6% of the population. Lithuania was historically home to a large and influential Jewish community that was almost entirely eliminated during the Holocaust. The first noticeable presence of Islam in Lithuania began in the 14th century. From this time it was primarily associated with the Lipka Tatars (also known as Lithuanian Tatars), many of whom settled in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth while continuing their traditions and religious beliefs. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 12% said that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force" , 36% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 49% of Lithuanian citizens responded that "they believe there is a God". Culture Art and museums Several museums exist in Lithuania. The Lithuanian Art Museum was founded in 1933 and is the largest museum of art preservation and display in Lithuania. History of the Lithuanian Art Museum. Lithuanian Art Museum. Retrieved on October 10, 2008. Among other important museums are Palanga Amber Museum, there amber pieces comprise a major part of the museum. Lithuania's art community is famous for Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875-1911). Čiurlionis was an nationally renowned musician and artist in Lithuania, usually regared as the most prominent Lithuanian artist. After Čiurlionis's death, the 2420 Čiurlionis asteroid honors his achievements after being discovered in 1975. Under Čiurlionis name is opened museum in Kaunas as well. A future museum, Vilnius Guggenheim Hermitage Museum, will present exhibitions of new media art, parts of the New York City anthology film archive, and Fluxus art. The museum is scheduled to open in 2011. Literature A wealth of Lithuanian literature was written in Latin, the main scholarly language in the Middle Ages. One of the first instance of such, was the edicts of Lithuanian King Mindaugas. Letters of Gediminas is another important monuments of Lithuanian Latin writings. Lithuanian literary works in Lithuanian language were first published in the 16th century. In 1547 Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book The Simple Words of Catechism, which marks the beginning of printed Lithuanian literature. He was followed by Mikalojus Daukša in Lithuania Propria with his Katechizmas. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Lithuanian literature was primarily religious. Development of the old Lithuanian literature (14th - 18th centuries) ends with Kristijonas Donelaitis, one of the most prominent authors of the Age of Enlightenment. Donelaitis poem "The Seasons" is a national epos and is a cornerstone of Lithuanian fiction literature. Institute of Lithuanian Scientific Society.Lithuanian Classic Literature. Retrieved on 2009-02-16 Lithuanian literature of the first half of the 19th century with its mix of Classicism, Sentimentalism, and Romanticism features is represented by Antanas Strazdas, Dionizas Poška, Silvestras Valiūnas, Maironis, Simonas Stanevičius, Simonas Daukantas, and Antanas Baranauskas. During Tsarist annexation of Lithuania, Lithuanian press ban was implemented, which lead to a formation of the Knygnešiai (Book smugglers) movement. 20th century Lithuanian literature is represented by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Antanas Vienuolis, Bernardas Brazdžionis, Vytautas Mačernis and others. Music Lithuanian musical tradition traces its history to pagan times, connected with neolithic corded ware culture. Lithuanian folk music is archaic, evolved for ritual purposes. Lithuanian mythology Symbols of Lithuania Sports Among all the sports personalities of Lithuania, the most popular individual known to the Western world is basketball player Žydrūnas Ilgauskas who plays as center for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the NBA. Another popular individual is professional ice hockey player Darius Kasparaitis who played for the New York Islanders, Pittsburgh Penguins, Colorado Avalanche, and New York Rangers of the NHL. See also Foreign relations of Lithuania Lithuania national football team Lithuania national basketball team Lithuania national rugby union team Lithuania national cricket team Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic Lithuanians Military of Lithuania Notes and references External links Government Prezidentas (in Lithuanian) Official presidential site Seimas (in Lithuanian) Official parliamentary site Vyriausybė (in Lithuanian and English) Official governmental site Chief of State and Cabinet Members Statistics Official site of Department of Statistics General information Lithuania from UCB Libraries GovPubs Lietuva.lt - Official Internet Gates to Lithuania Maps of Lithuania on Maps.lt Travel Lithuanian State Department of Tourism www.travel.lt - The Official Lithuanian Travel Guide be-x-old:Летува | Lithuania |@lemmatized lithuania:126 officially:3 republic:10 country:28 northern:4 europe:12 southernmost:1 three:7 baltic:13 state:20 situate:2 along:2 southeastern:1 shore:1 sea:5 share:2 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2,568 | Embroidery | Embroidery is the art or handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as metal strips, pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. A characteristic of embroidery is that the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest work—chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, cross stitch—remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today. Machine embroidery, arising in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, mimics hand embroidery, especially in the use of chain stitches, but the "satin stitch" and hemming stitches of machine work rely on the use of multiple threads and resemble hand work in their appearance, not their construction. Origins Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garment. Rows of even, round chain stitches are used both for outline and to fill in color. From a 4th century BC, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, Hubei province, China. The origins of embroidery are lost in time, but examples survive from ancient Egypt, Iron Age Northern Europe and Zhou Dynasty China. Examples of surviving Chinese chain stitch embroidery worked in silk thread have been dated to the Warring States period (5th-3rd century BC). Gillow and Bryan 1999, p. 178 The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery. Gillow and Bryan 1999, p. 12 In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 CE, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and whipstitching, but it is uncertain whether this work simply reinforces the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery. Coatsworth, Elizabeth: "Stitches in Time: Establishing a History of Anglo-Saxon Embroidery", in Netherton and Owen-Crocker 2005, p. 2 The remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted: Elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items have been a mark of wealth and status in many cultures including ancient Persia, India, China, Japan, Byzantium, and medieval and Baroque Europe. Traditional folk techniques are passed from generation to generation in cultures as diverse as northern Vietnam, Mexico, and eastern Europe. Professional workshops and guilds arose in medieval England. The output of these workshops, called Opus Anglicanum or "English work," was famous throughout Europe. Levey and King 1993, p. 12 The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the latter half of the 19th century. Classification Embroidery can be classified according to whether the design is stitched on top of or through the foundation fabric, and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. In free embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery. Cross-stitch counted-thread embroidery. Tea-cloth, Hungary, mid-20th century Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics although non-evenweave linen is used as well. Examples include needlepoint and some forms of blackwork embroidery. In canvas work threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric. Traditional canvas work such as bargello is a counted-thread technique. Gillow and Bryan 1999, p. 198 Since the 19th century, printed and hand painted canvases where the painted or printed image serves as color-guide have eliminated the need for counting threads. These are particularly suited to pictorial rather than geometric designs deriving from the Berlin wool work craze of the early 19th century. Embroiderers' Guild 1984, p. 54 Berman 2000 Readers Digest 1979, p. 112-115 In drawn thread work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric. These techniques are the progenitors of needlelace. When created in white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework. Readers Digest 1979, pp. 74-91 Materials Phulkari from the Punjab region of India. Phulkari embroidery, popular since at least the 15th century, is traditionally done on hand-spun cotton cloth with simple darning stitches using silk floss. The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place. Wool, linen, and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn. Today, embroidery thread is manufactured in cotton, rayon, and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool, linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/organza blend ribbon, most commonly to create floral motifs. van Niekerk 2006 Surface embroidery techniques such as chain stitch and couching or laid-work are the most economical of expensive yarns; couching is generally used for goldwork. Canvas work techniques, in which large amounts of yarn are buried on the back of the work, use more materials but provide a sturdier and more substantial finished textile. In both canvas work and surface embroidery an embroidery hoop or frame can be used to stretch the material and ensure even stitching tension that prevents pattern distortion. Modern canvas work tends to follow very symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs developing from repetition of one or only a few similar stitches in a variety of thread hues. Many forms of surface embroidery, by contrast, are distinguished by a wide range of different stitching patterns used in a single piece of work. Readers Digest 1979, pp. 1-19, 112-117 Machine Commercial machine embroidery in chain stitch on a voile curtain, China, early 21st century. Much contemporary embroidery is stitched with a computerized embroidery machine using patterns "digitized" with embroidery software. In machine embroidery, different types of "fills" add texture and design to the finished work. Machine embroidery is used to add logos and monograms to business shirts or jackets, gifts, and team apparel as well as to decorate household linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics that mimic the elaborate hand embroidery of the past. Notes References External links | Embroidery |@lemmatized embroidery:37 art:2 handicraft:1 decorate:2 fabric:14 material:5 needle:1 thread:15 yarn:6 may:1 also:1 incorporate:1 metal:1 strip:1 pearl:1 bead:1 quill:1 sequin:1 characteristic:1 basic:2 technique:8 stitch:30 early:4 work:19 chain:6 buttonhole:2 blanket:1 run:2 satin:2 cross:2 remain:1 fundamental:1 hand:6 today:2 machine:8 arise:2 stage:1 industrial:1 revolution:1 mimic:2 especially:1 use:15 hem:1 rely:1 multiple:1 resemble:1 appearance:1 construction:1 origins:1 detail:1 embroidered:1 silk:7 gauze:1 ritual:1 garment:2 row:1 even:3 round:1 outline:1 fill:2 color:3 century:8 bc:2 zhou:2 era:1 tomb:1 mashan:1 hubei:1 province:1 china:4 origin:1 lose:1 time:2 example:4 survive:2 ancient:2 egypt:1 iron:1 age:1 northern:2 europe:4 dynasty:1 chinese:2 date:1 war:1 state:1 period:2 gillow:3 bryan:3 p:7 process:1 tailor:2 patch:1 mend:1 reinforce:3 cloth:4 foster:1 development:1 sew:2 decorative:2 possibility:1 lead:1 migration:1 sweden:1 roughly:1 ce:1 edge:1 band:1 trim:1 back:2 stem:1 whipstitching:1 uncertain:1 whether:2 simply:1 seam:1 interpret:1 coatsworth:1 elizabeth:1 establish:1 history:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 netherton:1 owen:1 crocker:1 remarkable:1 stability:1 note:2 elaborately:1 embroider:1 clothing:1 religious:1 object:1 household:2 item:1 mark:1 wealth:1 status:1 many:2 culture:2 include:3 persia:1 india:2 japan:1 byzantium:1 medieval:2 baroque:1 traditional:5 folk:1 pass:1 generation:2 diverse:1 vietnam:1 mexico:1 eastern:2 professional:1 workshop:2 guild:2 england:1 output:1 call:1 opus:1 anglicanum:1 english:1 famous:1 throughout:1 levey:1 king:1 manufacture:2 make:2 st:1 gallen:1 switzerland:1 flourish:1 latter:1 half:1 classification:1 classify:1 accord:1 design:5 top:1 foundation:6 relationship:1 placement:1 free:1 apply:1 without:1 regard:1 weave:2 underlie:1 crewel:1 japanese:1 count:5 tea:1 hungary:1 mid:1 pattern:6 create:5 predetermined:1 number:1 easily:1 canvas:7 aida:1 specially:1 woven:1 cotton:4 linen:6 although:1 non:1 evenweave:1 well:3 needlepoint:1 form:2 blackwork:1 mesh:1 dense:1 completely:1 cover:1 bargello:1 counted:1 since:2 print:2 paint:2 image:1 serf:1 guide:1 eliminate:1 need:1 particularly:1 suit:1 pictorial:1 rather:1 geometric:1 derive:1 berlin:1 wool:3 craze:1 embroiderer:1 berman:1 reader:3 digest:3 drawn:1 cutwork:1 deform:1 cut:1 away:1 hole:1 embellish:1 often:1 progenitor:1 needlelace:1 white:2 collectively:1 refer:1 whitework:1 pp:2 phulkari:2 punjab:1 region:1 popular:1 least:1 traditionally:1 spun:1 simple:1 darn:1 floss:1 vary:1 place:2 thousand:1 year:1 rayon:1 novelty:1 ribbon:3 narrow:1 organza:1 blend:1 commonly:1 floral:1 motif:1 van:1 niekerk:1 surface:3 couching:1 lay:1 economical:1 expensive:1 couch:1 generally:1 goldwork:1 large:1 amount:1 bury:1 provide:1 sturdy:1 substantial:1 finish:2 textile:1 hoop:1 frame:1 stretch:1 ensure:1 tension:1 prevent:1 distortion:1 modern:1 tend:1 follow:1 symmetrical:1 develop:1 repetition:1 one:1 similar:1 variety:1 hue:1 contrast:1 distinguish:1 wide:1 range:1 different:2 single:1 piece:1 commercial:1 voile:1 curtain:1 much:1 contemporary:1 computerized:1 digitize:1 software:1 type:1 add:2 texture:1 logo:1 monogram:1 business:1 shirt:1 jacket:1 gift:1 team:1 apparel:1 drapery:1 decorator:1 elaborate:1 past:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram zhou_dynasty:1 anglo_saxon:1 st_gallen:1 cotton_linen:1 paint_canvas:1 reader_digest:3 external_link:1 |
2,569 | Catatonia | Catatonia is a syndrome of psychic and motoric disturbances. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum first described it in 1874: Die Katatonie oder das Spannungirresein (Catatonia or Tension Insanity). In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) it is not recognized as a separate disorder, but is associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other mental disorders, as well as drug abuse and/or overdose. It may also be seen in many medical disorders including infections (such as encephalitis), autoimmune disorders, focal neurologic lesions (including strokes), metabolic disturbances and abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal. It can be an adverse reaction to prescribed medication. It bears similarity to conditions such as encephalitis lethargica and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. There are a variety of treatments available, and depending on the case, one or more drugs may be used, including antipsychotics and benzodiazepines. Clinical features Patients with catatonia may experience an extreme loss of motor skills or even constant hyperactive motor activity. Catatonic patients will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli. Patients with catatonic excitement can die of exhaustion if not treated. Patients may also show stereotyped, repetitive movements. They may show specific types of movement such as waxy flexibility, in which they maintain positions after being placed in them by someone else, or gegenhalten (lit. "counterhold"), in which they resist movement in proportion to the force applied by the examiner. They may repeat meaningless phrases or speak only to repeat what the examiner says. While catatonia is only identified as a form of schizophrenia in present psychiatric classifications, it is increasingly recognized as a syndrome with many faces. It appears as the Kahlbaum syndrome (retarded catatonia), malignant catatonia (neuroleptic malignant syndrome, toxic serotonin syndrome), and excited forms (delirious mania, catatonic excitement, oneirophrenia). Fink M, Taylor MA: CATATONIA: A Clinician's Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment, Cambridge U Press, 2003" It has also been recognized as grafted on to autistic spectrum disorders. Dhossche D et al.: Catatonia in Autism Spectrum Disorders, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006 Diagnostic criteria According to the DSM-IV, the "With catatonic features" specifier can be applied if the clinical picture is dominated by at least two of the following: motor immobility as evidenced by catalepsy (including waxy flexibility) or stupor excessive motor activity (purposeless, not influenced by external stimuli) extreme negativism (motiveless resistance to all instructions or maintenance of a rigid posture against attempts to be moved) or mutism peculiarities of voluntary movement as evidenced by posturing, stereotyped movements, prominent mannerisms, or prominent grimacing echolalia or echopraxia Subtypes Stupor is a motionless, apathetic state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external stimuli. Motor activity is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state make little or no eye contact with others and may be mute and rigid. One might remain in one position for a long period of time, and then go directly to another position immediately after the first position. Catatonic excitement is a state of constant purposeless agitation and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive, although the activity seems to lack purpose. Fink and Taylor developed a catatonia rating scale to identify the syndrome. A diagnosis is verified by a benzodiazepine or barbiturate test. The diagnosis is validated by the quick response to either benzodizepines or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). While useful in the past, barbiturates are no longer commonly used in psychiatry; thus the option of either benzodiazepines or ECT. Treatment Initial treatment is aimed at providing relief from the catatonic state. Benzodiazepines are the first line of treatment, and high doses are often required. A test dose of 1–2 mg of intramuscular lorazepam will often result in marked improvement within half an hour. In France, zolpidem has also been used in diagnosis, and response may occur within the same time period. Ultimately the underlying cause needs to be treated. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment for catatonia as well as for most of the underlying causes (e.g. psychosis, mania, depression). Antipsychotics should be used with care as they can worsen catatonia and are the cause of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a dangerous condition that can mimic catatonia and requires immediate discontinuation of the antipsychotic. A version known as "catatonia-like deterioration" occurs in 17% of autistic adults. This form is made worse by antipsychotics. Unlike catatonic stupors, this deterioration happens very gradually. The only way to cure it is to keep the patient constantly active and the activities must have an end goal or they will not work. Stress must be reduced by not pressurising, keeping life predictable and by limiting choice as making choices is very stressful for catatonics. References Caroff, Stanley N, MD (Editor); Mann, Stephen C (Editor); Francis, Andrew (Editor); Fricchioni, Gregory L, MD (Editor);Catatonia: From Psychopathology to Neurobiology; American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. 2004 | Catatonia |@lemmatized catatonia:14 syndrome:8 psychic:1 motoric:1 disturbance:2 karl:1 ludwig:1 kahlbaum:2 first:3 describe:1 die:2 katatonie:1 oder:1 da:1 spannungirresein:1 tension:1 insanity:1 current:1 diagnostic:2 statistical:1 manual:1 mental:2 disorder:9 publish:1 american:2 psychiatric:4 association:1 dsm:2 iv:2 recognize:3 separate:1 associate:1 condition:3 schizophrenia:2 catatonic:8 type:2 bipolar:1 post:1 traumatic:1 stress:2 depression:2 well:2 drug:2 abuse:1 overdose:1 may:8 also:4 see:1 many:2 medical:1 include:4 infection:1 encephalitis:2 autoimmune:1 focal:1 neurologic:1 lesion:1 stroke:1 metabolic:1 abrupt:1 overly:1 rapid:1 benzodiazepine:5 withdrawal:1 adverse:1 reaction:1 prescribe:1 medication:1 bear:1 similarity:1 lethargica:1 neuroleptic:3 malignant:4 variety:1 treatment:6 available:1 depend:1 case:1 one:4 use:4 antipsychotic:4 clinical:2 feature:2 patient:5 experience:1 extreme:2 loss:1 motor:5 skill:1 even:1 constant:2 hyperactive:2 activity:5 sometimes:1 hold:1 rigid:3 pose:1 hour:2 ignore:1 external:3 stimulus:3 excitement:3 exhaustion:1 treat:2 show:2 stereotype:2 repetitive:1 movement:5 specific:1 waxy:2 flexibility:2 maintain:1 position:4 place:1 someone:1 else:1 gegenhalten:1 lit:1 counterhold:1 resist:1 proportion:1 force:1 apply:2 examiner:2 repeat:2 meaningless:1 phrase:1 speak:1 say:1 identify:2 form:3 present:1 classification:1 increasingly:1 face:1 appear:1 retard:1 toxic:1 serotonin:1 excite:1 delirious:1 mania:2 oneirophrenia:1 fink:2 taylor:2 clinician:1 guide:1 diagnosis:4 cambridge:1 u:1 press:1 graft:1 autistic:2 spectrum:2 dhossche:1 et:1 al:1 autism:1 elsevier:1 amsterdam:1 criterion:1 accord:1 specifier:1 picture:1 dominate:1 least:1 two:1 following:1 immobility:1 evidence:2 catalepsy:1 stupor:3 excessive:1 purposeless:2 influence:1 negativism:1 motiveless:1 resistance:1 instruction:1 maintenance:1 posture:1 attempt:1 move:1 mutism:1 peculiarity:1 voluntary:1 posturing:1 prominent:2 mannerism:1 grimace:1 echolalia:1 echopraxia:1 subtypes:1 motionless:1 apathetic:1 state:5 oblivious:1 react:1 nearly:1 non:1 existent:1 individual:2 make:3 little:1 eye:1 contact:1 others:1 mute:1 might:1 remain:1 long:1 period:2 time:2 go:1 directly:1 another:1 immediately:1 agitation:1 excitation:1 extremely:1 although:1 seem:1 lack:1 purpose:1 develop:1 rating:1 scale:1 verify:1 barbiturate:2 test:2 validate:1 quick:1 response:2 either:2 benzodizepines:1 electroconvulsive:2 therapy:2 ect:3 useful:1 past:1 longer:1 commonly:1 psychiatry:1 thus:1 option:1 initial:1 aim:1 provide:1 relief:1 line:1 high:1 dos:1 often:2 require:2 dose:1 mg:1 intramuscular:1 lorazepam:1 result:1 marked:1 improvement:1 within:2 half:1 france:1 zolpidem:1 occur:2 ultimately:1 underlying:2 cause:3 need:1 effective:1 e:1 g:1 psychosis:1 care:1 worsen:1 dangerous:1 mimic:1 immediate:1 discontinuation:1 version:1 know:1 like:1 deterioration:2 adult:1 bad:1 unlike:1 happen:1 gradually:1 way:1 cure:1 keep:2 constantly:1 active:1 must:2 end:1 goal:1 work:1 reduce:1 pressurise:1 life:1 predictable:1 limit:1 choice:2 stressful:1 catatonics:1 reference:1 caroff:1 stanley:1 n:1 md:2 editor:4 mann:1 stephen:1 c:1 francis:1 andrew:1 fricchioni:1 gregory:1 l:1 psychopathology:1 neurobiology:1 publishing:1 inc:1 |@bigram oder_da:1 diagnostic_statistical:1 mental_disorder:2 dsm_iv:2 bipolar_disorder:1 post_traumatic:1 traumatic_stress:1 autoimmune_disorder:1 focal_neurologic:1 benzodiazepine_withdrawal:1 prescribe_medication:1 neuroleptic_malignant:3 malignant_syndrome:3 someone_else:1 serotonin_syndrome:1 et_al:1 autism_spectrum:1 elsevier_amsterdam:1 diagnostic_criterion:1 non_existent:1 benzodiazepine_barbiturate:1 electroconvulsive_therapy:2 therapy_ect:2 dose_mg:1 marked_improvement:1 mania_depression:1 |
2,570 | History_of_Nepal | The History of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास) is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors, India and China. Even though Nepal's heart land was independent through most of its long history, its territorial boundaries have varied greatly over time and internal mosaic of kingdoms restructured often: right from the period of Mahajanapadas, through Greater Nepal to the British Raj. Due to the arrival of disparate settler groups from outside through the ages, it is now a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-lingual country. Its population is predominantly Hindu with significant presence of Buddhists, who were in majority at one time in the past. Nepal was split in three kingdoms from the 15th to 18th century, when it was unified under a monarchy. The national language of Nepal is called 'Nepali', a name given - long after unification of Nepal - to the language called Khas Kura. Nepal experienced a failed struggle for democracy in the 20th century. During the 1990s and until 2008, the country was in civil strife. A peace treaty was signed in 2008 and elections were held in the same year. Many of the ills of Nepal have been blamed on the royal family of Nepal. In a historical vote for the election of the constituent assembly, Nepalis voted to oust monarchy in Nepal. In June 2008, Nepalis ousted the royal household. Nepal was formally known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, when it became a federal republic. Toponymy The word Nepal is derived from Nepa (नेपा:); the old name of Kathmandu valley was Nepa in Nepal Bhasa, the language of Newars, who were the early inhabitants of the valley, long before the unification of Nepal. The fact that Nepal Sambat, one of the three main calendars of Nepal, existed long before the unification of Nepal proves this historical fact. Other toponym theories include: - "Nepal" may be derived from the Sanskrit nipalaya, which means "at the foot of the mountains" or "abode at the foot", a reference to its location in relation to the Himalayas. Thus, it may be an Eastern equivalent of the European toponym "Piedmont." It has also been suggested that the name comes from the Tibetan niyampal, which means "holy land". A third theory suggests that Nepal came from combounding the words NE, which means wool, and PAL, which means a tented house; long time ago, Nepal used to produce a lot of wool and the houses were used to store the wool - hence the word NE-PAL. The name, Nepal, is also supposed to be derived from the Sanskrit word "NEP"(नेप), with the suffix "AL" (आल) added to it; though still under controversy, NEP were the people who use to be cow herders - the GOPALS (गोपाल) - who came to the Nepal valley for the first time from the Ganges plain of India. According to Nepali scholar Rishikesh Shaha, the ancient chronicles report that, a sage (muni) named Ne became the protector (pāla) of this land and the founder of its first ruling dynasty. The name of the country, Ne-pāla, therefore originally meant the land 'protected by Ne.' Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), pp. 6-7. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8. Early ages Prehistory Neolithic tools found in the Kathmandu Valley indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of Kirant ethnicity lived in Nepal more than 2,500 years ago. Legends and Ancient times Though very little is known about the early history of Nepal, legends and documented references, like the following, reach back to the first millennium BCE: The epic Ramayana, which dates from an era before the Mahabharata, states that Mithila, currently known as Janakpur in Nepal, is the birth place of the highly revered princess Sita, the virtuous queen of Hindu divine king Lord Rama. Also, the presence of historical sites, e.g. Valmiki ashram, indicates the presence of Sanatana (ancient) Hindu culture in Nepal at that period. The epic Mahabharata mentions the Kiratas among the inhabitants of Nepal. Kirati king Yalambar had the dubious honor of being slain in the battle of the Mahabharata, in which gods and mortals fought alongside each other. Legend credits him with meeting Indra, the lord of heaven, who ventured into the Valley in human guise. According to some of the chronicles the successors of Ne were the gopālavaṃśi or "Cowherd family", whose names often end in -gupta and are said to have ruled for some 491 years. They are said to have been followed by the mahaiṣapālavaṃśa or "Buffalo-herder Dynasty", established by an Indian Rajput named Bhul Singh. Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), p. 7. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8. inscriptions found on archeological stoneworks, which list mostly the dates and commissioners of these constructions, also communicate royal edicts, religious mantras or historical notes sometimes and, through the corroboration of local myths with such evidence, a people prior to the Licchavi have been identified, known as the Kirata. Kirat Period Nepal's recorded history began with the Kiratis, who arrived in the 7th or 8th century BCE from the east to Kathmandu valley. Little is known about them, other than their deftness as sheep farmers and fondness for carrying long knives. The Kirats ruled for about 1225 years (800 BCE-300 CE), their reign had a total of 29 kings during that time. Their first and best remembered king was Yalambar, who finds a reference in the epic Mahabharata. In the chronicle of Bansawali William Kirk Patrick mentions that the Kirat rule existed from about 900 BCE to 300 CE. During this long period altogether 29 Kirat Kings ruled over the country. The 29 Kirat Kings were; Yalamba- First Kirat King 1. Yalambar 2. Pari 3. Skandhar 4. Balamba 5. Hriti 6. Humati 7. Jitedasti 8. Galinja 9. Oysgja 10. Suyarma 11. Papa 12. Bunka 13. Swawnanda 14. Sthunko 15. Jinghri 16. Nane 17. Luka 18. Thor 19. Thoko 20. Verma 21. Guja 22. Pushkar 23. Keshu 24. Suja 25. Sansa 26. Gunam 27. Khimbu 28. Paruka 29. Gasti The 1st Kirat King Yalambar laid the foundation of the Kirat dynasty after defeating the last ruler of Abhir dynasty. When Kirats occupied the valley, they made Matatirtha their capital. The Kirat kingdom during the rule of Yalambar had extended to Tista in the East and Trisidi in the West. It is said Yalambar had gone to witness the battle of Mahabharata between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. He was so brave and powerful that Lord Krishna beheaded him prior to the battle suspecting he might fight for the Kauravas. The 7th Kirat King 'Jitedasti' During the rule of 7th Kirat King Jitedasti, Lord Gautam Buddha had visited the valley with his several disciples. He visited holy places of Swayambhu, Guheswari etc and preached his religious gospels. Kirats of the valley refused to follow his doctrine but welcomed Lord Buddha and his disciples. The 14th Kiirat King 'Sthunko' During the rule of 14th Kirat King Sthunko, the Indian Emperor Ashok came to the Kathmandu Valley with his daughter princess Charumati. During his stay in the valley, he had built four stupas in four directions and one in the centre of Patan. He had arranged his daughter Charumati's marriage with a local young prince named Devpal. Prince Devpal and his consort Charumati lived at Chabahil near Pashupati area. Later Charumati had built the stupas of Devpatan after the death of her husband in his memory. Charumati who had later on become a nun herself also got erected a convent where she resided and practiced Lord Buddha's doctrine. The 15th Kirat king 'Jinghri' During the rule of 15th Kirat King Jinghri, another religious doctrine Jainism was being preached by Mahavir Jain in India. In this regard, Bhadrabhau, a disciple of Mahavir Jain came to Nepal. But comparatively, Jainism could not gain popularity like Buddhism in Nepal. The 28th Kirat King 'Paruka' During the rule of 28th Kirat King Paruka, the Sombanshi ruler attacked his regime many times from the west. Although he successfully repelled their attacks, he was forced to move to Shankhamul from gokarna. He had built a royal palace called "Patuka" there for him. The 'Patuka' palace is no more to be seen now except its ruins in the form of mound. Patuka had changed Shankhamul into a beautiful town. The 29th Kirat King 'Gasti' The last King of the Kirat dynasty was Gasti. He proved to be a weak ruler and was overthrown by the Sombanshi ruler Nimisha. It brought to the end of the powerful Kirat dynasty that had lasted for about 1225 years. After their defeat, Kirats moved to the Eastern hills of Nepal and settled down divided into small principalities. Their settlements were divided into three regions, i.e. 'Wallokirat' that lied to the East of the Kathmandu, 'Majkirat' or Central Kirat region and 'Pallokirat' that lied to the far East of the Kathmandu valley. These regions are still heavily populated by Kirats. Birth of Buddha Maya Devi Temple in Lumbini, Nepal. One of the earliest confederations of South Asia was that of the Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilvastu, Nepal.Born to the Shakya king Sudhodhan was SiddharthaGautama Buddha, Siddharta Gautama (563–483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one").After finding enlighment Loard Gautam Buddha returned to his home place Kapilvastu now part of Nepal to teach his wife Yesodhara what he had learned. But by 260 BCE, most of North India and southern Nepal were ruled by the Maurya Empire. Buddha and his disciple Ananda visited the Kathmandu Valley and stayed for a time in Patan. Although not all of Nepal was under Maurya occupation, there is evidence of at least the influence of Maurya Emperor Ashoka the Great, the legendary Buddhist proselytiser and ruler from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka was a visitor to Kathmandu in this period and, as a follower of Buddhism, he visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha, and erected 4 stupas in Kathmandu. His daughter married a local prince and further spread the religion. The remains of a Buddhist convent have been found in the Kathmandu Valley. Licchavi rule It is unclear when exactly the Licchavi kingdom began. From the findings at the ancient capital of Handigaun, it appears that Licchavi rulers were in power on two occasions: from about 200 CE to the 5th century, and from about 750 to 1200 CE. Amatya, Shaphalya. (1993). "Archaeology Shrouded in Mystery." The Rising Nepal, Sunday, Oct., 31, 1993 Archaeological evidence for the Licchavi period mainly consists of stonework inscriptions, reckoned on two separate, consecutive eras; the former era evidence, in the Åšaka or Saka era, has an epoch corresponding to 78 CE, whereas the latter, of Aṃshuvarmā or Manadeva-II's era, reckons from 576 CE. In between, in the fourth century CE, the country fell under the influence of Indian Gupta Empire - considered to be a golden period of Hinduism in India - whose cultural diffusion is evident, despite their lack of direct control of Nepal. First Licchavi rule evidence: A well-preserved life-sized sandstone sculpture of a king named Jaya Varman, discovered in Maligaon in the eastern part of Kathmandu, contains an inscription dating it to the 'samvat' year 107, which most probably is in the Shaka era and is, therefore, from 185 CE; this dating is also supported by the style of the sculpture which is clearly Kushan in origin. It is unclear whether Jaya Varman was a Licchavi or a pre-Licchavi monarch. However, most scholars are agreed that, Licchavi rule of the Kathmandu valley must have begun in the first or second century CE. "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varman, A.D. 185." Kathmandu, Nepal. Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. Shaha, Rishikesh. Ancient and Medieval Nepal (1992), p. 11. Manohar Publications, New Delhi. ISBN 81-85425-69-8. Second Licchavi rule evidence: Two known dated inscriptions, both Licchavi, are a broken pillar inscription from Pashupati dated 381 (459 CE), and the Changu Narayana pillar inscription of King Manadeva in 386 (464 CE). "A Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varman, A.D. 185." Kathmandu, Nepal. Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop. There is a good and quite detailed description of the kingdom of Nepal in the account of the renowned Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk, Xuanzang, dating from c. 645 CE. Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, pp. 219-220. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8 Watters, Thomas. 1904-5. On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629-645), pp. 83-85. Reprint: Mushiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi. 1973. The Licchavi rulers arranged for the documentation of information on politics, society, and the economy in the region. Most of the Licchavi records—written in Sanskrit—are deeds reporting donations to religious foundations, predominantly Hindu temples; and the last such record was added in 733. Map of NepalThe Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century and was followed by a Malla dynasty, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. Thakuri rule By 879, the Licchavi era had petered out and was succeeded by the Thakuri dynasty. A grim period of instability and invasions often referred to as the 'Dark Ages' followed, but Kathmandu Valley's strategic location ensured the kingdom's survival and growth. Malla dynasty Several centuries later, the Thakuri king, Arideva, founded the Malla dynasty, kick-starting another renaissance of Nepali culture. Despite earthquakes, the occasional invasion, and frequent feuding between the independent city-states of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur, the dynasty flourished, reaching its zenith in the 15th century under Yaksha Malla. Chalukkya dynasty By the late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the occupation of the Chalukaya Empire of southern India. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised Hinduism instead of the prevailing Buddhism. Age of Principalities Three city-states After 15th century, the Kathmandu valley had lost its central control and was ruled as three city-states: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhadgaon. Many Nepalese architectural heritage such as temples, palaces including many UNESCO world heritage sites were built during the rule by Newar Kings. These include Kathmandu Old Palace (Kathmandu Durbar Square), Patan Palace (Patan Durbar Square), Bhaktapur Palace (Bhaktapur Durbar Square) etc. By this time, people living in and around Kathmandu Valley (irrespective of the ethnic origins) were called "Newars" (or "Nepa:mi" in "Newari" language meaning, the citizens of Nepal). Hindu and Buddhist temples in Patan, the capital of one of the three medieval Newar kingdoms. Magar Principalities Magars are martial people that first established their kingdom in present day western Nepal. They were animistic and shamanic in their religious practices. The Kham Magar of upper Karnali basin and their brethren of the mid-hills of Nepal had a flourishing and empirical kingdom. Much archaeological proof of their existence can be found in the western mid-hills of Nepal. Magar have a strong military and warrior tradition. However, their hospitality and concern for the fellow human being is also legendary. Two waves of immigrants became the undoing of the Magar empire. Firstly, the Khasas were welcomed and assimilated within Magar empire. Secondly, due to the advance of Muslim forces into the Gangetic plains of India, the Brahmins entered the Magar empire as refugees. These two groups were given sanctuary in the Magar empire. The latter group of refugees started to impose their view of Hinduism upon the Magars, while the former group were given the status of Chettri by the latter group in accordance with their view of Hinduism. This left the Magar people to be boxed into the third tier in their own kingdom. (The first being the Brahmins, the second being the newly elevated Chettri, previously the Khasas.) This meant that the one-time rulers of the Nepali mid-hills became the ruled upon. Thus starts the degradation of Magar empire. The introduction of Hinduism in itself became the cataclysmic event in the undoing of the Magar empire. History of Kirat In the mean time, History of Kirat covers much of the history and achievements of Kirant people of Eastern Nepal/Kiratdesh from ancient period until the Gorkha conquest in the eastern Nepal. History of Limbuwan History of Limbuwan shows the history and political development of the people of Limbuwan until their Unification with the Kingdom of Gorkha in 1774 AD. During King Prithivi Narayan Shah's unification of Nepal, the present day Nepal east of Arun and Koshi River was known as Pallo Kirant Limbuwan. It was divided into ten Limbu Kingdoms of which Morang Kingdom was the most powerful and had the central government, the Capital of Morang Kingdom of Limbuwan was Bijaypur, now Dharan. After the Limbuwan-Gorkha War and seeing the threat of the rising power of British East India Company, Kings and ministers of all the ten Limbu Kingdoms of Limbuwan gathered in Bijaypur, present day Dharan to agree upon Limbuwan-Gorkha treaty. This Treaty formally united ten Limbu Kingdoms into Gorkha Kingdom, but it also gave Limbuwan a full autonomy under Limbuwan Kipat System. Modern period: Gorkha rule The old king's palace on a hill in Gorkha After decades of rivalry between the medieval kingdoms, modern Nepal was created in the latter half of the 18th century, when Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, formed a unified country from a number of independent hill states. Prithvi Narayan Shah dedicated himself at an early age to the conquest of the Kathmandu valley and the creation of a single state, which he achieved in 1768. The country was frequently called the Gorkha Kingdom. It is a misconception that the Gurkhas took their name from the Gorkha region of Nepal. The region was given its name after the Gurkhas had established their control of these areas. Gurkha, also spelt as Gorkha, are people from Nepal who take their name from the legendary eighth century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath. Gurkhas claim descent from the Hindu Rajputs and Brahmins of Northern India, who entered modern Nepal from the west. After Shah's death, the Shah dynasty began to expand their kingdom into what is present day North India. Between 1788 and 1791, Nepal invaded Tibet and robbed Tashilhunpo Monastery of Shigatse. Alarmed, the Chinese emperor Qianlong dispatched a sizeable army that forced the Nepalese to retreat and pay heavy reparations. After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed. Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Company - over the princely states bordering Nepal and India - eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16), in which Nepal suffered a complete rout. The unequal Treaty of Sugauli was signed in 1816, ceding large parts of the Nepali territories of Terrai and Sikkim, (nearly onethird of the country), to the British, in exchange for Nepalese autonomy. As the territories were not restored to Nepal by the British, at the time of granting freedom to the people of British India, these have become a part of the Republic of India, although Sikkim was annexed by India later. Rana Administration Rani (Queen) of Nepal surrounded by her Ladies-in-Waiting, 1920 Factionalism among the royal family led to a period of instability after the war. In 1846, Queen Rajendralakshmi plotted to overthrow Jang Bahadur, a fast-rising military leader of Indian Rajput ancestry, who was presenting a threat to her power. The plot was uncovered and the queen had several hundred princes and chieftains executed after an armed clash between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen. This came to be known as the Kot Massacre. However, Bahadur emerged victorious eventually and founded the Rana dynasty; the monarch was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary, held by a Rana. The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the British colonial era, but it also impeded the country's economic development and modernisation. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, and later in both World Wars. 20th century In 1923 Britain and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal and India (which was under British Rule at that time) negotiated and ended up exchanging some of the cities. Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924. Tucci, Giuseppe. (1952). Journey to Mustang, 1952. Trans. by Diana Fussell. 1st Italian edition, 1953; 1st English edition, 1977. 2nd edition revised, 2003, p. 22. Bibliotheca Himalayica. ISBN 99933-0-378-X (South Asia); 974-524-024-9 (Outside of South Asia). Democratic Reform Popular dissatisfaction against the family rule of the Ranas had started emerging from among the few educated people, who had studied in various Indian schools and colleges, and also from within the Ranas, many of whom were marginalised within the Ruling Rana hierarchy. Many of these Nepalese in exile had actively taken part in the Indian Independence struggle and wanted to liberate Nepal as well from the internal autocratic Rana occupation. The political parties like The Prajaparishad and Nepali Congress were already formed in exile by the leaders like B.P. Koirala, Ganesh Man Singh, Subarna Sumsher Rana, Krishna Prasad Bhattarai,Girija Prasad Koirala and many other patriotic minded Nepalis, who wanted to stage both the military and popular political movement in Nepal, to overthrow the autocratic Rana Regime. Among the prominent martyrs to die for the cause, executed at the hands of the Ranas, were Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Shukraraj Shastri, Gangalal Shrestha and Dasharath Chand. This turmoil culminated in King Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fleeing from his "palace prison" in 1950, to newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This eventually ended in the return of the Shah family to power and the appointment of a non-Rana as prime minister. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model. In early 1959, Tribhuvan's son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala, formed a government and served as prime minister. After years of power wrangling between the Kings (Tribhuvan and Mahendra) and the government, Mahendra dissolved the democratic experiment in 1960 Royal Coup by King Mahendra Declaring parliamentary democracy a failure, King Mahendra carried out a royal coup 18 months later, in 1962. He dismissed the elected Koirala government, declared that a "partyless" panchayat system would govern Nepal and promulgated another new constitution on December 16, 1962. Subsequently, the elected Prime Minister, Members of Parliament and hundreds of democratic activists were arrested. (In fact, this trend of arrest of political activists and democratic supporters continued for the entire 30 year period of partyless Panchayati System under King Mahendra and then his son, King Birendra). The new constitution had established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils) which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government, closer to Nepalese traditions. As a pyramidal structure, progressing from village assemblies to a Rastriya Panchayat (National Parliament), the panchayat system constitutionalised the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the Cabinet (Council of Ministers) and the Parliament. One-state-one-language became the national policy and all other languages suffered at the cost of the official language, "Nepali", which was the king's language. King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27 year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide on the nature of Nepal's government--either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the panchayat system won a narrow victory. The king carried out the promised reforms, including selection of the prime minister by the Rastriya Panchayat. People in rural areas had expected that their interests would be better represented after the adoption of parliamentary democracy in 1990. Nepali Congress with support of "Alliance of leftist parties" decided to launch a decisive movement agitational movement, Jana Andolan, which forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections in nearly 50 years. The Nepali Congress won 110 of the 205 seats and formed the first elected government in 32 years. Civil Strife In 1992, in a situation of economic crisis and chaos, with spiralling prices as a result of implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government, the radical left stepped up their political agitation. A Joint People's Agitation Committee was set up by the various groups. The organisers of the Committee were the Samyukta Janamorcha Nepal, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre), Communist Party of Nepal (Masal), the Nepal Communist League and the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist-Maoist). A general strike was called for April 6. Violent incidents began to occur on the evening ahead of the strike. The Joint People's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute 'lights out' in the capital, and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the 'lights out'. At dawn on April 6, clashes between strike activists and police, outside a police station in Pulchok (Patan), left two activists dead. Later in the day, a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces. As a result, riots broke out and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire; police opened fire at the crowd, killing several persons. The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 persons, including several on-lookers, had been killed in police firing. Hoftun, Martin, William Raeper and John Whelpton. People, politics and ideology: Democracy and Social Change in Nepal. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 1999. p. 189 When promised land reforms failed to appear, people in some districts started to organize to enact their own land reform, and to gain some power over their lives in the face of usurious landlords. However, this movement was repressed by the Nepali government, in "Operation Romeo" and "Operation Kilo Sera II" which took the lives of many of the leading activists of the struggle. As a result, many witnesses to this repression became radicalized. Nepalese Civil War In February 1996, one of the Maoist parties started a bid to replace the parliamentary monarchy with a so-called people's new democratic republic, through a Maoist revolutionary strategy known as the people's war, which led to the Nepalese Civil War. Led by Dr. Baburam Bhattarai and Pushpa Kamal Dahal (also known as "Prachanda"), the insurgency began in five districts in Nepal: Rolpa, Rukum, Jajarkot, Gorkha, and Sindhuli. The Maoists declared the existence of a provisional "people's government" at the district level in several locations. Meanwhile, on June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra went on a shooting-spree, assassinating 9 members of the royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, before shooting himself. Due to his survival he temporarily became king before dying of his wounds, after which Prince Gyanendra (Birendra's brother) inherited the throne as per tradition. Meanwhile, the Maoist rebellion escalated, and in October 2001 the king temporarily deposed the government and took complete control of it. A week later he reappointed another government, but the country was still very unstable: because of the civil war with the Maoists; the various clamouring political factions; the king's attempts to take more control of the government; and worries about the competence of Gyanendra's son and heir, Prince Paras. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On February 1, 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers, declaring a "state of emergency" to quash the Maoist movement. Politicians were placed under house arrest, phone and internet lines were cut, and freedom of the press was severely curtailed. The king's new regime made little progress in his stated aim to suppress the insurgents. Municipal elections in February 2006 were described by the European Union as "a backward step for democracy", as the major parties boycotted the election and some candidates were forced to run for office by the army. http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1699935,00.html In April 2006 strikes and street protests in Kathmandu forced the king to reinstate the parliament. A seven-party coalition resumed control of the government and stripped the king of most of his powers. As of 15 January 2007 Nepal was governed by an unicameral legislature under an interim constitution. On December 24, 2007, seven parties, including the former Maoist rebels and the ruling party, agreed to abolish monarchy and declare Nepal a Federal Republic.. Nepal votes to abolish monarchy In the elections held on April 10, 2008, the Maoists secured a simple majority, with the prospect of forming a government to rule the proposed 'Republic of Nepal'. Recent events On May 28, 2008 the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 years old monarchy. The motion for abolition of monarchy was carried by a huge majority; out of 564 members present in the assembly, 560 voted for the motion while 4 members voted against it. Nepalnews.com, news from Nepal as it happens Finally, on June 11, 2008 ex-king Gyanendra left the palace. Nepalnews.com, news from Nepal as it happens Ram Baran Yadav of Nepali Congress became the first president of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal on July 23, 2008. Similarly, Pushpa Kamal Dahal, popularly known as Prachanda, of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) was elected as the first Prime Minister on August 15, 2008 defeating Sher Bahadur Deuba of Nepali Congress. A chronology of key events Footnotes References Tiwari, Sudarshan Raj (2002). The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capital of Nepal. Himal Books. ISBN 99933-43-52-8. 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2,571 | Number_theory | Number theory is the branch of pure mathematics concerned with the properties of numbers in general, and integers in particular, as well as the wider classes of problems that arise from their study. Number theory may be subdivided into several fields, according to the methods used and the type of questions investigated. (See the list of number theory topics.) The term "arithmetic" is also used to refer to number theory. This is a somewhat older term, which is no longer as popular as it once was. Number theory used to be called the higher arithmetic, but this too is dropping out of use. Nevertheless, it still shows up in the names of mathematical fields (arithmetic functions, arithmetic of elliptic curves). When arranging the natural numbers in a spiral and emphasizing the prime numbers, an intriguing and not fully explained pattern is observed, called the Ulam spiral. Fields Elementary number theory In elementary number theory, integers are studied without use of techniques from other mathematical fields. Questions of divisibility, use of the Euclidean algorithm to compute greatest common divisors, integer factorizations into prime numbers, investigation of perfect numbers and congruences belong here. Several important discoveries of this field are Fermat's little theorem, Euler's theorem, the Chinese remainder theorem and the law of quadratic reciprocity. The properties of multiplicative functions such as the Möbius function and Euler's φ function, integer sequences, factorials, and Fibonacci numbers all also fall into this area. Many questions in number theory can be stated in elementary number theoretic terms, but they may require very deep consideration and new approaches outside the realm of elementary number theory to solve. Examples include: The Goldbach conjecture concerning the expression of even numbers as sums of two primes. Mihăilescu's theorem (formerly Catalan's conjecture) regarding successive integer powers. The twin prime conjecture about the infinitude of prime pairs. The Collatz conjecture concerning a simple iteration. Fermat's Last Theorem (stated in 1637, but not proven until 1994) concerning the impossibility of finding nonzero integers x, y, z such that for some integer n greater than 2. The theory of Diophantine equations has even been shown to be undecidable (see Hilbert's tenth problem). Analytic number theory Analytic number theory employs the machinery of calculus and complex analysis to tackle questions about integers. The prime number theorem (PNT) and the related Riemann hypothesis are examples. Waring's problem (representing a given integer as a sum of squares, cubes etc.), the twin prime conjecture (finding infinitely many prime pairs with difference 2) and Goldbach's conjecture (writing even integers as sums of two primes) are being attacked with analytical methods as well. Proofs of the transcendence of mathematical constants, such as or e, are also classified as analytical number theory. While statements about transcendental numbers may seem to be removed from the study of integers, they really study the possible values of polynomials with integer coefficients evaluated at, say, e; they are also closely linked to the field of Diophantine approximation, where one investigates "how well" a given real number may be approximated by a rational one. Algebraic number theory In algebraic number theory, the concept of a number is expanded to the algebraic numbers which are roots of polynomials with rational coefficients. These domains contain elements analogous to the integers, the so-called algebraic integers. In this setting, the familiar features of the integers (e.g. unique factorization) need not hold. The virtue of the machinery employed—Galois theory, group cohomology, class field theory, group representations and L-functions—is that it allows one to recover that order partly for this new class of numbers. Many number theoretic questions are best attacked by studying them modulo p for all primes p (see finite fields). This is called localization and it leads to the construction of the p-adic numbers; this field of study is called local analysis and it arises from algebraic number theory. Geometry of numbers The geometry of numbers incorporates some basic geometric concepts, such as lattices, into number-theoretic questions. It starts with Minkowski's theorem about lattice points in convex sets, and leads to basic proofs of the finiteness of the class number and Dirichlet's unit theorem, two fundamental theorems in algebraic number theory. Combinatorial number theory Combinatorial number theory deals with number theoretic problems which involve combinatorial ideas in their formulations or solutions. Paul Erdős is the main founder of this branch of number theory. Typical topics include covering system, zero-sum problems, various restricted sumsets, and arithmetic progressions in a set of integers. Algebraic or analytic methods are powerful in this field. See also arithmetic combinatorics. Computational number theory Computational number theory studies algorithms relevant in number theory. Fast algorithms for prime testing and integer factorization have important applications in cryptography. Arithmetic dynamics Arithmetic dynamics is a relatively new field that amalgamates two areas of mathematics, dynamical systems and number theory. Classically, discrete dynamics refers to the study of the iteration of self-maps of the complex plane or real line. Arithmetic dynamics is the study of the number-theoretic properties of integer, rational, -adic, and/or algebraic points under repeated application of a polynomial or rational function. Modular forms See modular forms. Arithmetic algebraic geometry See arithmetic geometry History Greek number theory Number theory was a favorite study among the Greek mathematicians of the late Hellenistic period (3rd century AD) in Alexandria, Egypt, who were aware of the Diophantine equation concept in numerous special cases. The first Greek mathematician to study these equations was Diophantus. Diophantus also looked for a method of finding integer solutions to linear indeterminate equations, equations that lack sufficient information to produce a single discrete set of answers. The equation is such an equation. Diophantus discovered that many indeterminate equations can be reduced to a form where a certain category of answers is known even though a specific answer is not. Classical Indian number theory Diophantine equations were extensively studied by mathematicians in medieval India, who were the first to systematically investigate methods for the determination of integral solutions of Diophantine equations. Aryabhata (499) gave the first explicit description of the general integral solution of the linear Diophantine equation , which occurs in his text Aryabhatiya. This kuttaka algorithm is considered to be one of the most significant contributions of Aryabhata in pure mathematics, which found solutions to Diophantine equations by means of continued fractions. The technique was applied by Aryabhata to give integral solutions of simulataneous linear Diophantine equations, a problem with important applications in astronomy. He also found the general solution to the indeterminate linear equation using this method. Brahmagupta in 628 handled more difficult Diophantine equations. He used the chakravala method to solve quadratic Diophantine equations, including forms of Pell's equation, such as . His Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta was translated into Arabic in 773 and was subsequently translated into Latin in 1126. The equation was later posed as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat. The general solution to this particular form of Pell's equation was found over 70 years later by Leonhard Euler, while the general solution to Pell's equation was found over 100 years later by Joseph Louis Lagrange in 1767. Meanwhile, many centuries ago, the general solution to Pell's equation was recorded by Bhaskara II in 1150, using a modified version of Brahmagupta's chakravala method, which he also used to find the general solution to other indeterminate quadratic equations and quadratic Diophantine equations. Bhaskara's chakravala method for finding the general solution to Pell's equation was much simpler than the method used by Lagrange over 600 years later. Bhaskara also found solutions to other indeterminate quadratic, cubic, quartic, and higher-order polynomial equations. Narayana Pandit further improved on the chakravala method and found more general solutions to other indeterminate quadratic and higher-order polynomial equations. Islamic number theory From the 9th century, Islamic mathematics had a keen interest in number theory. The first of these mathematicians was Thabit ibn Qurra, who discovered an algorithm which allowed pairs of amicable numbers to be found, that is two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other. In the 10th century, Al-Baghdadi looked at a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurra's method. In the 10th century, al-Haitham seems to have been the first to attempt to classify all even perfect numbers (numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors) as those of the form where is prime. Al-Haytham is also the first person to state Wilson's theorem, namely that if p is prime then is divisible by . It is unclear whether he knew how to prove this result. It is called Wilson's theorem because of a comment made by Edward Waring in 1770 that John Wilson had noticed the result. There is no evidence that Wilson knew how to prove it and most certainly Waring did not. Lagrange gave the first proof in 1771. Amicable numbers played a large role in Islamic mathematics. In the 13th century, Persian mathematician Al-Farisi gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorisation and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296, 18416 which have been attributed to Euler, but we know that these were known earlier than al-Farisi, perhaps even by Thabit ibn Qurra himself. In the 17th century, Muhammad Baqir Yazdi gave the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 still many years before Euler's contribution. Early European number theory Number theory began in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, with François Viète, Bachet de Meziriac, and especially Fermat, whose infinite descent method was the first general proof of diophantine questions. Fermat's Last Theorem was posed as a problem in 1637, a proof of which wasn't found until 1994. Fermat also posed the equation as a problem in 1657. In the eighteenth century, Euler and Lagrange made important contributions to number theory. Euler did some work on analytic number theory, and found a general solution to the equation . Lagrange found a solution to the more general Pell's equation. Euler and Lagrange solved these Pell equations by means of continued fractions, though this was more difficult than the Indian chakravala method. Beginnings of modern number theory Around the beginning of the nineteenth century books of Legendre (1798), and Gauss put together the first systematic theories in Europe. Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) may be said to begin the modern theory of numbers. The formulation of the theory of congruences starts with Gauss's Disquisitiones. He introduced the notation and explored most of the field. Chebyshev published in 1847 a work in Russian on the subject, and in France Serret popularised it. Besides summarizing previous work, Legendre stated the law of quadratic reciprocity. This law, discovered by induction and enunciated by Euler, was first proved by Legendre in his Théorie des Nombres (1798) for special cases. Independently of Euler and Legendre, Gauss discovered the law about 1795, and was the first to give a general proof. The following have also contributed to the subject: Cauchy; Dirichlet whose Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie is a classic; Jacobi, who introduced the Jacobi symbol; Liouville, Zeller(?), Eisenstein, Kummer, and Kronecker. The theory extends to include cubic and quartic reciprocity, (Gauss, Jacobi who first proved the law of cubic reciprocity, and Kummer). To Gauss is also due the representation of numbers by binary quadratic forms. Prime number theory A recurring and productive theme in number theory is the study of the distribution of prime numbers. Carl Friedrich Gauss conjectured the limit of the number of primes not exceeding a given number (the prime number theorem) as a teenager. Chebyshev (1850) gave useful bounds for the number of primes between two given limits. Riemann introduced complex analysis into the theory of the Riemann zeta function. This led to a relation between the zeros of the zeta function and the distribution of primes, eventually leading to a proof of prime number theorem independently by Hadamard and de la Vallée Poussin in 1896. However, an elementary proof was given later by Paul Erdős and Atle Selberg in 1949. Here elementary means that it does not use techniques of complex analysis; however, the proof is still very ingenious and difficult. The Riemann hypothesis, which would give much more accurate information, is still an open question. Nineteenth-century developments Cauchy, Poinsot (1845), and notably Hermite have added to the subject. In the theory of ternary forms, Eisenstein has been a leader, and to him and H. J. S. Smith is also due a noteworthy advance in the theory of forms in general. Smith gave a complete classification of ternary quadratic forms, and extended Gauss's researches concerning real quadratic forms to complex forms. The investigations concerning the representation of numbers by the sum of 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 squares were advanced by Eisenstein and the theory was completed by Smith. Dirichlet was the first to lecture upon the subject in a German university. Among his contributions is the extension of Fermat's Last Theorem: which Euler and Legendre had proven for (and therefore by implication, all multiples of 3 and 4), Dirichlet showing that . Among the later French writers are Borel; Poincaré, whose memoirs are numerous and valuable; Tannery, and Stieltjes. Among the leading contributors in Germany were Kronecker, Kummer, Schering, Bachmann, and Dedekind. In Austria Stolz's Vorlesungen über allgemeine Arithmetik (1885-86), and in England Mathews' Theory of Numbers (Part I, 1892) were scholarly general works. Genocchi, Sylvester, and J. W. L. Glaisher have also added to the theory. Late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century developments It was the time of major advancements in number theory due to the work of Axel Thue on diophantine equations, of David Hilbert in algebraic number theory (he also proved the Waring's prime number conjecture), and to the creation of geometric number theory by Hermann Minkowski, but also thanks to Adolf Hurwitz, Georgy F. Voronoy, Waclaw Sierpinski, Derrick Norman Lehmer and several others. Twentieth-century developments Major figures in twentieth-century number theory include Hermann Weyl, Nikolai Chebotaryov, Emil Artin, Erich Hecke, Helmut Hasse, Alexander Gelfond, Yuri Linnik, Paul Erdős, Gerd Faltings, G. H. Hardy, Edmund Landau, Louis Mordell, John Edensor Littlewood, Ivan Niven, Srinivasa Ramanujan, André Weil, Ivan Vinogradov, Atle Selberg, Carl Ludwig Siegel, Igor Shafarevich, John Tate, Robert Langlands, Goro Shimura, Kenkichi Iwasawa, Jean-Pierre Serre, Pierre Deligne, Enrico Bombieri, Alan Baker, Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, Bryan Birch, Vladimir Drinfeld, Laurent Lafforgue, Andrew Wiles, and Richard Taylor. Milestones in twentieth-century number theory include the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem by Andrew Wiles in 1994 and the proof of the related Taniyama–Shimura conjecture in 1999. Quotations "Mathematics is the queen of the sciences and number theory is the queen of mathematics." —Gauss Quoted in Gauss zum Gedächtniss (1856) by Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen "God invented the integers; all else is the work of man." —Kronecker "Die ganzen Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht, alles andere ist Menschenwerk" Heinrich Weber: Leopold Kronecker. Jahresberichte D.M.V 2 (1893) 5-31 Notes References Smith, David. History of Modern Mathematics (1906) (adapted public domain text) Dutta, Amartya Kumar (2002). 'Diophantine equations: The Kuttaka', Resonance - Journal of Science Education. O'Connor, John J. and Robertson, Edmund F. (2004). 'Arabic/Islamic mathematics', MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. O'Connor, John J. and Robertson, Edmund F. (2004). 'Index of Ancient Indian mathematics', MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. O'Connor, John J. and Robertson, Edmund F. (2004). 'Numbers and Number Theory Index', MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Important publications in number theory External links Number Theory Web A Computational Introduction to Number Theory and Algebra by Victor Shoup | Number_theory |@lemmatized number:86 theory:58 branch:2 pure:2 mathematics:13 concern:7 property:3 general:15 integer:20 particular:2 well:3 wider:1 class:4 problem:9 arise:2 study:13 may:5 subdivide:1 several:3 field:12 accord:1 method:15 use:12 type:1 question:8 investigate:3 see:6 list:1 topic:2 term:3 arithmetic:11 also:18 refer:1 somewhat:1 old:1 longer:1 popular:1 call:6 high:3 drop:1 nevertheless:1 still:4 show:3 name:1 mathematical:3 function:8 elliptic:1 curve:1 arrange:1 natural:1 spiral:2 emphasize:1 prime:21 intriguing:1 fully:1 explain:1 pattern:1 observe:1 ulam:1 elementary:6 without:1 technique:3 divisibility:1 euclidean:1 algorithm:4 compute:1 great:2 common:1 divisor:3 factorization:3 investigation:2 perfect:2 congruence:2 belong:1 important:6 discovery:1 fermat:8 little:1 theorem:17 euler:11 chinese:1 remainder:1 law:5 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2,572 | Mehmed_III | Mehmed III Adli (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثالث Meḥmed-i sālis, Turkish:III.Mehmet) (May 26, 1566 December 21/22, 1603) was born at Manisa Palace a son of Murad III, whom he succeeded as sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1595 until his death. His mother was his father's maternal relative Valide Sultan Safiye Sultan, originally named Sofia Baffo, a Venetian noblewoman. Mehmed III remains notorious even in Ottoman history for having nineteen of his brothers and half brothers murdered to secure power Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922, p.90. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521633281 Kinross, John Patrick. Ottoman Centuries, p.288. William Morrow & Co., 1977. ISBN 0688030939 . He also killed over twenty of his sisters as well. They were all strangled by his deaf-mutes. Mehmed III was an idle ruler, leaving government to his mother Safiye Sultan, the valide sultan Kinross, p.288 . The major event of his reign was the Austro-Ottoman War in Hungary (1593–1606). Ottoman defeats in the war caused Mehemed III to take personal command of the army, the first sultan to do so since Suleyman. Mehmed III's armies conquered Eger in 1596 and defeated the Habsburg and Transylvanian forces at the Battle of Keresztes Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, p.175. Basic Books, 2005. ISBN 0465023967 (Turkish for Battle of Hacova) during which the Sultan had to be dissuaded from fleeing the field halfway through the battle. The next year it was noted, "the doctors declared that the Sultan cannot leave for war on account of his bad health, produced by excesses of eating and drinking". Mehmed III's reign saw no major setbacks for the supposedly declining Ottoman Empire. He died at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. He married Valide Sultan Handan Sultan, originally named Helena (Eleni), a Greek, and the mother of Ahmed I and Mustafa I. References External links | Mehmed_III |@lemmatized mehmed:5 iii:8 adli:1 ottoman:9 turkish:3 محمد:1 ثالث:1 meḥmed:1 sālis:1 mehmet:1 may:1 december:1 bear:1 manisa:1 palace:2 son:1 murad:1 succeed:1 sultan:10 empire:4 death:1 mother:3 father:1 maternal:1 relative:1 valide:3 safiye:2 originally:2 name:2 sofia:1 baffo:1 venetian:1 noblewoman:1 remain:1 notorious:1 even:1 history:1 nineteen:1 brother:2 half:1 murder:1 secure:1 power:1 quataert:1 donald:1 p:4 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:3 kinross:2 john:1 patrick:1 century:1 william:1 morrow:1 co:1 also:1 kill:1 twenty:1 sister:1 well:1 strangle:1 deaf:1 mute:1 idle:1 ruler:1 leave:2 government:1 major:2 event:1 reign:2 austro:1 war:3 hungary:1 defeat:2 cause:1 mehemed:1 take:1 personal:1 command:1 army:2 first:1 since:1 suleyman:1 conquer:1 eger:1 habsburg:1 transylvanian:1 force:1 battle:3 keresztes:1 finkel:1 caroline:1 osman:1 dream:1 story:1 basic:1 book:1 hacova:1 dissuade:1 flee:1 field:1 halfway:1 next:1 year:1 note:1 doctor:1 declare:1 cannot:1 account:1 bad:1 health:1 produce:1 excess:1 eating:1 drinking:1 saw:1 setback:1 supposedly:1 decline:1 die:1 topkapi:1 istanbul:1 marry:1 handan:1 helena:1 eleni:1 greek:1 ahmed:1 mustafa:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:4 valide_sultan:3 william_morrow:1 deaf_mute:1 osman_dream:1 eating_drinking:1 topkapi_palace:1 palace_istanbul:1 external_link:1 |
2,573 | Demographics_of_Cape_Verde | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Cape Verde, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Two Cape Verdean children playing marbles. The Cape Verde archipelago was uninhabited when the Portuguese discovered it in 1456. African slaves were brought to the islands to work on Portuguese plantations. As a result, Cape Verdeans are mulattos, who have mixed African and European origins. European ancestors also include Spanish and Italian seamen who were granted land by the Portuguese Empire, followed by Portuguese settlers, exiles, and Portuguese Jews who were victims of the Inquisition. Many foreigners from other parts of the world settled Cape Verde as their permanent country. Most of them were Dutch, French, British (English), Arab and Jewish (from Lebanon and Morocco), Chinese (especially from Macau), American, and Brazilian (including people of Portuguese and African descent). All of these have been absorbed into the mestiço population. Survival in a country with few natural resources has historically induced Cape Verdeans to emigrate. In fact, of the more than 1 million people of Cape Verdean ancestry in the world, only a little more than one-third actually live on the islands. Some 500,000 people of Cape Verdean ancestry live in the United States, mainly in New England. Portugal, the Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, France, and Senegal. Cape Verdean populations also settled Spain, Germany, Canada, and other CPLP countries (Angola, Brazil and Guinea-Bissau). Since after independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Cape Verdean students continued to be admitted every year at Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese Government and the Cape Verdean Government. Although the official language is Portuguese, most Cape Verdeans speak Cape Verdean Creole (Crioulo in Portuguese, Kriolu or Kriol in Cape Verdean Creole). There is a rich repertoire of literature and songs in Creole. In religion, the majority follow Roman Catholic Christianity. There are also some Protestants, Bahá'ís and Muslims. Demographic statistics Demographics of Cape Verde, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. Population year World Gazeteer FAOSTAT UNDP (HDR) CIA ESA 1950 146000 ♠ 1955 169000 ♠ 1960 196000 ♠ 1965 229000 ♠ 1970 267000 ♠ 1971 272071 † 1975 299842 † ~300000 ♠ 278000 ♠ 1980 295703 † 289000 ♠ 289000 ♠ 1985 319000 ♠ 1990 341491 † 349000 ♠ 355000 ♠ 1995 401000 ♠ 2000 434812 ‡ 436000 ♠ 451000 ♠ 2003 463000 ♠ 2004 473000 ♠ 507000 ♠ 2005 475347 ♠‡ ~500000 ♠ 507000 ♠ 2006 420979 ♠ 2008 499362 ♦ 426998 ♠ 2010 567000 ♦ 2015 ~600000 ♦ 628000 ♦ 2020 690000 ♦ 2025 750000 ♦ 2030 808000 ♦ 2035 864000 ♦ 2040 916000 ♦ 2045 962000 ♦ 2050 1002000 ♦ ♠ = estimate ♦ = calculation † = secondary source ‡ = official source sources World Gazeteer: http://world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?geo=-58&men=gpro FAOSTAT: http://www.fao.org/statistics/yearbook/vol_1_1/xls/a01.xls CIA: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cv.html#People UNDP (HDR): http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_CPV.html ESA: World Population Prospects CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure (source: CIA World Factbook) 0-14 years: 37.9% (male 80,594/female 79,126) 15-64 years: 55.3% (male 113,450/female 119,423) 65 years and over: 6.7% (male 10,542/female 17,844) (2006 est.) Median age (source: CIA World Factbook) Total: 19.8 years Male: 19 years Female: 20.7 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate (source: NATO) 2.24% (2006 est.) Birth rate (source: NATO) 27.87 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate (source: NATO) 6.15 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate (source: CIA World Factbook) -11.91 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio (source: CIA World Factbook) At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.59 male(s)/female Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate (source: CIA World Factbook) Total: 46.52 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 51.63 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 41.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth (source: NATO) Total population: 70.93 years Male: 67.41 years Female: 74.15 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate (source: NATO) 3.47 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS (source: CIA World Factbook) Adult prevalence rate: 0.035% (2001 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 775 (2001) Deaths: 225 (as of 2001) Nationality (source: CIA World Factbook) Noun: Cape Verdean(s) Adjective: Cape Verdean Religions (source: CIA World Factbook) Roman Catholic; Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene), Buddhist 0.2% Languages (source: CIA World Factbook) Portuguese, Creole Literacy (source: CIA World Factbook) Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 76.6% Male: 85.8% Female: 69.2% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Cape_Verde |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:14 cape:17 verde:4 include:3 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 two:1 verdean:10 child:2 play:1 marble:1 archipelago:1 uninhabited:1 portuguese:11 discover:1 african:3 slave:1 bring:1 island:2 work:1 plantation:1 result:1 verdeans:3 mulatto:1 mix:1 european:2 origin:1 ancestor:1 also:3 spanish:1 italian:1 seaman:1 grant:1 land:1 empire:1 follow:2 settler:1 exile:1 jew:1 victim:1 inquisition:1 many:1 foreigner:1 part:1 world:19 settle:2 permanent:1 country:4 dutch:1 french:1 british:1 english:1 arab:1 jewish:1 lebanon:1 morocco:1 chinese:1 especially:1 macau:1 american:1 brazilian:1 people:5 descent:1 absorb:1 mestiço:1 survival:1 natural:1 resource:1 historically:1 induce:1 emigrate:1 fact:1 million:1 ancestry:2 little:1 one:1 third:1 actually:1 live:6 united:1 state:1 mainly:1 new:1 england:1 portugal:2 netherlands:1 italy:1 argentina:1 france:1 senegal:1 spain:1 germany:1 canada:1 cplp:1 angola:1 brazil:1 guinea:1 bissau:1 since:1 independence:1 number:2 student:1 continue:1 admit:1 every:1 year:15 high:1 school:1 polytechnical:1 institute:1 university:1 bilateral:1 agreement:1 government:2 although:1 official:2 language:2 speak:1 creole:4 crioulo:1 kriolu:1 kriol:1 rich:1 repertoire:1 literature:1 song:1 religion:2 majority:1 roman:2 catholic:2 christianity:1 protestant:2 bahá:1 ís:1 muslim:1 statistic:4 data:1 fao:2 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 gazeteer:2 faostat:2 undp:3 hdr:2 cia:15 esa:2 estimate:1 calculation:1 secondary:1 source:18 http:4 gazetteer:1 com:1 wg:1 php:1 geo:1 men:1 gpro:1 www:2 org:2 yearbook:1 xl:1 xls:1 gov:1 library:1 publication:1 factbook:13 geos:1 cv:1 html:2 hdrstats:1 prospect:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 age:3 structure:1 male:12 female:12 est:12 median:1 total:6 growth:1 rate:7 nato:5 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 mostly:1 church:1 nazarene:1 buddhist:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram cape_verde:4 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 cape_verdean:10 cape_verdeans:3 guinea_bissau:1 polytechnical_institute:1 bahá_ís:1 demographic_statistic:3 http_www:2 cia_gov:1 factbook_geos:1 undp_org:1 factbook_demographic:1 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 |
2,574 | Collegiate_shag | The Collegiate Shag (or "Shag") is a partner dance done primarily to upper tempo jazz music (usually 200+ beats per minute). It belongs to the swing family of American vernacular dances that arose in the 1920s, 30s, and 40s. Name "Shag" itself (when used in reference to American social dances) is a very broad term used to denote a number of swing dances that originated during the early part of the 20th century. Arthur Murray mentioned Shag in his 1937 book "Let's Dance" Let's Dance. Arthur Murray. 1937. Standard Brands Incorporated. page 27. No ISBN in this "booklet" which appears to have been sold by mail. "Can people really learn to dance from printed lessons?" . This article states that shag was known throughout the entire country under various names, like "Flea Hop". A New York writer sent to Tulsa, Oklahoma in late 1940/early 1941 noted an "...Oklahoma version of shag done to the Western Swing music of Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys at the Cain's Dancing Academy in Tulsa." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 198. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Today the term "Collegiate Shag" is most often used in reference to a kind of double shag (see explanation below) that is believed to have originated in New York during the 1930s. To call the dance "collegiate shag" would not have been common during the swing era. The addition of the word "collegiate" was supposedly a marketing ploy to attract 'college age' dancers to certain studios. And this name later became somewhat standard in the latter part of the 20th century (see swing revival), presumably because it helped to distinguish the dance from other contemporary dances that share the "shag" designation (e.g., Carolina Shag). History Shag has no clear historical record but is often assumed, as with many other swing dances, to have evolved from Foxtrot. In the late 19th century the term "shagger" was supposedly a nick-name for vaudeville performers , who were known to dance the Flea Hop. Later "shag" became a blanket term that signified a broad range of jitterbugging (swing dancing). In the 1930s there were arguably a hundred or more variations of the dance, which differed depending upon geographic region. These variations were later generalized into three categories: single, double, and triple shag. The different names are intended to denote the number of 'slow' (e.g., step, hop) steps performed during each basic. The slow steps were then followed by two 'quick' steps (e.g., step, step). The dance is still performed today (primarily double shag) by swing dance enthusiasts worldwide. Moves Described below is double shag, which uses a 'slow, slow, quick, quick' rhythm. The basic is six-count. Shag Position: the lead's left hand is held straight up overhead with his left elbow touching the follow's right elbow (her arm being fulling extended overhead as well). This was not always practiced, but it is understood to be one of the features that make collegiate shag unique. Some dancers prefer to hold the arms much lower, similar to conventional ballroom positioning. Follows usually mirror the lead's footwork in closed position. The shag basic is danced in a 'squared-up,' closed position (i.e., the lead and follow's shoulders/toes line up so the partners face one another directly). Note:Hop is defined as: a transfer/change of weight to the other foot while hopping (very minimal; almost more of a scoot than a literal hop). Step is defined as: a lift-and-plant motion on the same foot. Planted foot is the foot with the dancer's weight on it Basic: (from the lead's point-of-view) Beat 1: hop onto left foot, beat 2: step on left, beat 3: hop onto right foot, beat 4: step on right, beat 5: step onto left foot, and beat 6: step onto right foot. As mentioned above, this is often broken down verbally as "slow, slow; quick, quick" where the 'slows' cover two beats (or counts) each and the 'quicks' mark a single beat (or count) each. Hence, for the lead this would be two counts with the weight on the left leg while the right leg moves, two counts with weight on the right leg while the left leg moves, followed by a quick step onto the left and then a quick step onto the right Circle kicks: (like basic, but where the non-planted foot moves in a circle) Camel kicks: (done with the partners positioned side-by-side) the same movement as the basic but where the non-planted foot kicks on each slow, and where the quick-quicks are done with one foot behind the other (in tandem). Breaks: A step and hold action where the non-planted leg is extended fully and the planted leg is bent underneath the dancer for support (hop onto left, leaving out the step; hop onto right, leave out the step; step left and step right) Turns: the follow can be turned with an overhead, a free, or an Apache turn on the slows or the quicks-quicks (to do so on the quick-quick is considered more traditional) See also Swing (dance) Carolina shag St. Louis shag Dance move References | Collegiate_shag |@lemmatized collegiate:5 shag:21 partner:3 dance:20 primarily:2 upper:1 tempo:1 jazz:1 music:3 usually:2 beat:9 per:1 minute:1 belong:1 swing:9 family:1 american:2 vernacular:1 arise:1 name:5 use:4 reference:3 social:1 broad:2 term:4 denote:2 number:2 originate:2 early:2 part:2 century:3 arthur:2 murray:2 mention:2 book:1 let:2 standard:2 brand:1 incorporate:1 page:2 isbn:2 booklet:1 appear:1 sell:1 mail:1 people:1 really:1 learn:1 printed:1 lesson:1 article:1 state:1 know:2 throughout:1 entire:1 country:1 various:1 like:2 flea:2 hop:10 new:2 york:2 writer:1 send:1 tulsa:2 oklahoma:2 late:2 note:2 version:1 western:1 bob:2 texas:1 playboy:1 cain:1 academy:1 san:1 antonio:1 rise:1 life:1 charles:1 r:1 townsend:1 university:1 illinois:1 today:2 often:3 kind:1 double:4 see:3 explanation:1 believe:1 call:1 would:2 common:1 era:1 addition:1 word:1 supposedly:2 marketing:1 ploy:1 attract:1 college:1 age:1 dancer:4 certain:1 studio:1 later:3 become:2 somewhat:1 latter:1 revival:1 presumably:1 help:1 distinguish:1 contemporary:1 share:1 designation:1 e:4 g:3 carolina:2 history:1 clear:1 historical:1 record:1 assume:1 many:1 evolve:1 foxtrot:1 shagger:1 nick:1 vaudeville:1 performer:1 blanket:1 signify:1 range:1 jitterbugging:1 arguably:1 hundred:1 variation:2 differ:1 depend:1 upon:1 geographic:1 region:1 generalize:1 three:1 category:1 single:2 triple:1 different:1 intend:1 slow:7 step:18 perform:2 basic:6 follow:6 two:4 quick:14 still:1 enthusiast:1 worldwide:1 move:5 describe:1 rhythm:1 six:1 count:5 position:4 lead:5 leave:6 hand:1 hold:3 straight:1 overhead:3 left:6 elbow:2 touch:1 right:9 arm:2 full:1 extend:2 well:1 always:1 practice:1 understood:1 one:3 feature:1 make:1 unique:1 prefer:1 much:1 low:1 similar:1 conventional:1 ballroom:1 positioning:1 mirror:1 footwork:1 closed:1 square:1 close:1 shoulder:1 toe:1 line:1 face:1 another:1 directly:1 define:2 transfer:1 change:1 weight:4 foot:11 minimal:1 almost:1 scoot:1 literal:1 lift:1 plant:2 motion:1 planted:4 point:1 view:1 onto:8 break:2 verbally:1 slows:2 cover:1 mark:1 hence:1 leg:6 circle:2 kick:3 non:3 camel:1 side:2 movement:1 behind:1 tandem:1 action:1 fully:1 bent:1 underneath:1 support:1 turn:3 free:1 apache:1 consider:1 traditional:1 also:1 st:1 louis:1 |@bigram tulsa_oklahoma:1 san_antonio:1 marketing_ploy:1 |
2,575 | Denver_Broncos | The Denver Broncos are a professional American football team based in Denver, Colorado. They are currently a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) Western Division in the National Football League (NFL). The Broncos began play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League and joined the NFL as part of the AFL-NFL Merger. They play at Invesco Field at Mile High. Franchise history 1960–1998 The Denver Broncos were founded on August 14, 1959 when minor league baseball owner Bob Howsam was awarded an American Football League charter franchise. The Broncos won the first-ever American Football League game over the Boston Patriots, 13–10, on September 9, 1960. On August 5, 1967, they became the first ever AFL team to defeat an NFL team after beating the Detroit Lions, 13–7, in a preseason game. Overall the Broncos were not successful in the 1960s, compiling a record of 39–97–4 in the league. However, the Broncos first superstar was "Franchise" Floyd Little, (due to his signing in 1967 and his Pro Bowl efforts on and off the field, he was instrumental in keeping the team in Denver). Denver's franchise started out rough, managing its first winning season in 1973 after thirteen years of futility. They were the only original AFL team never to have played in the title game during the upstart league's 10-year history. Denver came close to losing its franchise in 1965, but a local ownership group took control that year and began to rebuild the team. Rookie coach Red Miller, along with the Orange Crush Defense (a nickname originating in the early '70's, also the name of a popular soda pop) and aging quarterback Craig Morton, promptly took the Broncos to their first playoff appearance in 1977 (and ultimately first Super Bowl, where they were defeated by the Dallas Cowboys, 27–10). Quarterback John Elway arrived in 1983. Originally drafted by the Baltimore Colts as the first pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of baseball (he was drafted by the New York Yankees to play center field and was also a pitching prospect), unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included Denver. Prior to Elway, Denver had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point. Elway would remain the quarterback through five Super Bowls, as he and the Broncos won two of them. He would also end his career as the MVP of Super Bowl XXXIII. He then went on the help the AFC win the Pro Bowl, his last NFL game. The Broncos lost Super Bowl XXI to the New York Giants, 39–20; Super Bowl XXII to the Washington Redskins, 42–10; and Super Bowl XXIV to the San Francisco 49ers, 55–10, the most lopsided scoring differential in Super Bowl history. In 1995, the Broncos debuted a new head coach, Mike Shanahan, and a new rookie running back, Terrell Davis. During the 1997 season, both would help guide the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, a 31–24 win over the defending Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII. Although Elway completed only 12 of 22 passing attempts, throwing one interception and no touchdowns (he did, however, have a rushing touchdown), Davis rushed for 157 yards and a Super Bowl-record three touchdowns to earn the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award - this while overcoming a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision. The Broncos repeated as Super Bowl champions the following season, defeating the Atlanta Falcons (led by Elway's longtime head coach Dan Reeves) in Super Bowl XXXIII, 34–19. Elway was named Super Bowl MVP, throwing for 336 yards and a touchdown (the touchdown pass being an 80-yard pass play to wide receiver Rod Smith). Elway also had a rushing touchdown. Overall, Denver has reached the Super Bowl six times, winning it in the 1997 and 1998 seasons. After Elway: 1999–2004 Elway retired following the 1998/1999 season. Since then, Denver has only had two losing seasons (1999, 2007). The team has made the playoffs as a wild card three times (2000, 2003, and 2004) and won the division once (2005). However, the Broncos have won only one playoff game since Elway's retirement. Prior to the 2005 season, they were plagued by late-season flops following early-season success. In both 2003 and 2004, they started the season 5–1 and ended 10–6. In 2005, the Broncos would have a much-improved season, going 13–3 and earning a bye week in the playoffs with the #2 seed in the AFC. They would finally win a playoff game without Elway, defeating the defending Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, 27–13, ending the Patriots' 10-game playoff winning streak. The following weekend, the Broncos hosted the AFC Championship and were defeated by the visiting Pittsburgh Steelers, 34–17. In the years since Elway's retirement, it has become obvious that the Denver fans and media expect Elway-like perfection from the quarterback position. Both Brian Griese and Jake Plummer have faced severe scrutiny in attempting to succeed Elway as the team’s quarterback. Elway’s jersey remains the most frequently worn at Invesco Field at Mile High, with the crowd generally voicing their loudest ovations when his name is mentioned or shown. Many members of the media have run stories and articles on the pressures that come with playing quarterback in Denver, as most fans believe no player will ever live up the standard set by Elway. Elway’s overwhelming popularity in Colorado is generally attributed to a number of factors, including the extensive length of time spent on the team at the league’s premier position, his leading of 4th quarter comebacks (Elway ranks 1st in NFL history), his community work throughout the state and retiring directly after two Super Bowl wins (the last of which being his final game of his career in which he was Super Bowl MVP). 2005 Invesco Field set up for Broncos game After losing their first game, 34–10, to the Miami Dolphins on September 11, the Broncos won five straight games, defeating the San Diego Chargers, 20–17, the Kansas City Chiefs, 30–10, the Jacksonville Jaguars, 20–7, the Washington Redskins, 21–19, and the two-time defending champion New England Patriots, 28–20, on October 16. Denver lost the next game to the New York Giants on October 23 by a final score of 24–23. The following week, the Broncos beat the defending NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles, 49–21, on October 30. In that game, the Broncos became the first team in NFL history to have two players, Mike Anderson and Tatum Bell, rush for over 100 yards and another player, Jake Plummer, pass for over 300 yards in a single game. Denver then beat the Oakland Raiders on November 13, 31–17. The next game, the Broncos defeated the New York Jets in Denver on November 20, 27–0. It was the first time the Broncos had shut out a team at home since the Carolina Panthers on November 9, 1997. Denver then went on to beat the Dallas Cowboys on Thanksgiving day, November 24, winning in overtime, 24–21, on a Jason Elam 24-yard game-winning field goal. One of the key plays prior to the field goal was a 55-yard run by Ron Dayne, who filled in for the injured Tatum Bell. Denver lost to the Chiefs in the next game, 31–27, on December 4, but won against the Baltimore Ravens the following week, 12–10. On December 17, the Broncos defeated the Buffalo Bills, 28–17. On Christmas Eve 2005, the Broncos clinched the AFC West division title, as they finished with a record 8–0 at Invesco Field by defeating the Oakland Raiders, 22–3. On December 31, 2005, the Broncos got season-win number 13 in a season-sweeping on the road against their division rivals, the Chargers, with a final score of 23–7. The Broncos entered the playoffs for the third consecutive year with the momentum of a four-game winning streak. Denver finished the regular season with a record of 13–3, tying them with the Seattle Seahawks for second best overall record in the league, behind the 14–2 Indianapolis Colts. Denver was seeded number two in the AFC behind the Colts. On January 14, 2006, the Broncos defeated the two-time defending champion New England Patriots, 27–13, in the divisional round - ending the Patriots chance of becoming the first NFL team ever to win three consecutive Super Bowl championships. The last team with a chance of winning three consecutive Super Bowls before the Patriots were the Broncos themselves. The Broncos' playoff run came to an end after losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship, 34–17, on January 22, 2006. Denver turned the ball over four times and were outscored in the first half, 24–3. The Steelers went on to win Super Bowl XL. 2006: Jay Cutler Arrives 2008 Denver Broncos offense including Selvin Young, Jay Cutler and Brandon Marshall In 2006, the Denver Broncos had high hopes among the league in being able to compete for the Super Bowl title. The Broncos defense started off the first five games of the season allowing only one touchdown, an NFL record, but struggled down the season stretch. Jake Plummer, the starting quarterback at the season's inception, led the team to a 7–2 record only to lose 2 straight and be replaced by rookie quarterback Jay Cutler, drafted in the first round out of Vanderbilt. Cutler's first game as a starter was a home game against the Seattle Seahawks on December 3, 2006. He threw for 143 yards, along with 2 touchdowns and 2 interceptions in a loss. Cutler would go on to lead Denver to two victories and three losses as a starter in the season. The most impressive win was in an away game over the Arizona Cardinals on December 17, 2006. During the game, Cutler launched a 68-yard touchdown to Javon Walker on the third play from scrimmage. The Broncos' season ended with an unexpected loss to the San Francisco 49ers, which eliminated the team from playoff contention. Cutler was knocked out of part of the game from a blow he took from a 49er defender, giving him a concussion. Hours after the season ending loss, on January 1, 2007, Broncos cornerback Darrent Williams was shot and killed around 1:59 a.m. on West 11th Avenue and Speer Boulevard in downtown Denver. He was in a Hummer H2 limousine. Former Broncos wide receiver Javon Walker was also in the limousine, but he was not injured. A mere 50 days after the fatal shooting, running back Damien Nash collapsed and died suddenly on February 24, 2007, following a charity basketball game in his hometown of St. Louis, Missouri. 2007 Denver Broncos entrance The Broncos traded running back Tatum Bell and offensive tackle George Foster to the Detroit Lions for former Pro Bowl cornerback Dre' Bly to compensate for the unfortunate loss of Williams. In addition to the trade for Bly, the Broncos had made a trade to the Miami Dolphins for Dan Wilkinson, only to have that trade voided because Wilkinson did not show up to Denver for his scheduled physical. Denver added running back Travis Henry, wide receiver Brandon Stokley, and tight end Daniel Graham through free agency. The team released linebacker Al Wilson during the month of April for health and salary cap reasons. Simeon Rice was also added to their roster with a one-year deal. The Broncos also resigned punter Todd Sauerbrun to help their special teams The first game of the season was on the road against the Buffalo Bills, which they won with a last second field goal kick by Jason Elam that put them up 15–14 as time expired. In game two, the Oakland Raiders seemed to claim victory on a Sebastian Janikowski field goal in overtime, but a last second time-out called by coach Mike Shanahan negated that kick, and the subsequent kick hit the field-goal post. Jay Cutler then marched the Broncos down the field, and Jason Elam kicked the game winning field goal for the second week in a row. In the seventh game of the season, the Broncos played and lost a Monday Night Football home game against the Green Bay Packers. There were 77,160 tickets distributed for the game, which is a franchise record. 76,645 fans attended the game. Suffering through several injuries to players such as Rod Smith, Tom Nalen, Ben Hamilton, Javon Walker, Jarvis Moss and Ebenezer Ekuban, the Broncos finished the season with a 7–9 record and missed the playoffs. 2008: The Shanahan era ends and Jay Cutler leaves Denver Broncos playing against the San Diego Chargers The Broncos won their first 3 games of the season against the Oakland Raiders,41-14, San Diego Chargers,39-38, and New Orleans Saints,34-32, before losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 33-19, in week 4. They went on to beat the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 16-13, before losing to the Jacksonville Jaguars, 24-17, the New England Patriots, 41-7, and after their bye week the Miami Dolphins, 26-17. Week 10 and 11 brought the Broncos 2 wins against the Cleveland Browns, 34-30, and the Atlanta Falcons, 24-20. However they lost against the Oakland Raiders, 31-10, the following week. They beat the New York Jets, 34-17, and the Kansas City Chiefs, 24-17. Week 15 started the disappointing string of losses that ended the Broncos attempts at the 2008 playoffs. They lost to the Carolina Panthers, 30-10, and then to the Buffalo Bills, 30-23. By week 17 the Broncos were still leading the AFC West, with a 8-7 record, and had promises of beating the San Diego Chargers, who had a 7-8 record. However on December 28, 2008 the Broncos lost to the San Diego Chargers leaving both teams at 8-8. They would be the first team in NFL history to enter the final three weeks of a regular season with a three-game lead and lose all three games. Based on the San Diego Chargers AFC West record of 5-1 to the Broncos 3-3, the San Diego Chargers clinched the AFC West. On December 30, 2008 Shanahan was fired as head coach and on January 11, Josh McDaniels was hired as the new Broncos coach. http://msn.foxsports.com/nfl/story/9008898/Shanahan-out-as-Broncos-coach-after-late-collapse Ending a turbulent transition period from Mike Shanahan to Josh McDaniels, on April 2, 2009, the team resorted to trading Pro Bowl QB Jay Cutler and a fifth round draft pick from the Broncos to the Chicago Bears for Kyle Orton, 2 first-round draft picks, and a third round pick. http://sports.yahoo.com/nfl/news;_ylt=ApaZ2ybARyMLkn_EyyFF8zRDubYF?slug=ap-broncos-cutler&prov=ap&type=lgns 2009 Rivalries Kansas City Chiefs First met in 1960 52-42 Kansas City leads series (Denver leads playoffs 1-0) Signature moment: Former 49ers quarterback Joe Montana finished his career in Kansas City, and led the Chiefs to a memorable comeback at Denver's Mile High Stadium. Signature moment: After suffering a defeat at the hands of the Chiefs in the regular season, Denver went on to beat Kansas City at Arrowhead Stadium in the playoffs, eventually winning Super Bowl XXXII. Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders First met in 1960 58-40-2 Oakland leads series (Playoffs tied 1-1) Signature moment: The Broncos beat the Raiders in 1977 to win their first AFC Championship. Signature moment: In the 1993 season finale, the Raiders scored an overtime victory against the Broncos to make the playoffs, setting up another game between the two in Los Angeles the following week. Outspoken Raiders' owner Al Davis commented before the playoff game that the Broncos were "scared to death of us". Despite the Broncos' protestations to the contrary, the Raiders made their owner's words stand up, winning 42-24. Signature moment: In 1995, former Raider coach Mike Shanahan, who was at the time in an ongoing contract dispute with Davis, became Denver's head coach, heightening an already contentious AFC West rivalry. Since Shanahan became head coach, The Broncos are 21–7 against Oakland. Signature moment: In 2007, as Raiders kicker Sebastian Janikowski kicked a field goal during overtime, Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan called a timeout right before Janikowski made it. After the timeout Janikowski again attempted the field goal but this time it hit the upright and was no good. San Diego Chargers First met in 1960 53-43-1 Denver leads series (No playoff matches) Signature moment: Dennis Smith blocks two consecutive field goal attempts - November 17, 1985 - San Diego takes the ball to the Broncos 24 in the first overtime possession. Dennis Smith blocks a Bob Thomas field goal attempt only to see the block brought back by a time-out Denver has mistakenly called. Thomas tries a second attempt and this try is also blocked by Smith and returned by Louis Wright for a 60 yard touchdown and the win. Stadium Stories, 156. Signature moment: September 14, 2008 - With 52 seconds remaining in the game, the Chargers were leading 38-31. The Broncos hiked the ball on 3rd & Goal from the Chargers 4 yard line. Jay Cutler began to roll out to the right and before he brought his arm forward he fumbled the ball, which was then recovered by Tim Dobbins of the Chargers. However, referee Ed Hochuli had blown the play dead as he believed it to be an incomplete pass, so the ball was returned to the Broncos at the 10 yard line (the spot where the ball hit the ground after the fumble). On the following 4th & Goal play, Jay Cutler completed a touchdown pass to rookie Eddie Royal, bringing the score to 38-37. Instead of kicking a PAT to tie the game and most likely send it to overtime, Coach Mike Shanahan opted for the 2-point conversion. Jay Cutler completed the conversion with another pass to Royal, giving the Broncos the controversial 39-38 win. However, San Diego would have their revenge with an emphatic win in Week 17 denying the Broncos a place in the playoffs. Cleveland Browns First met in 1971 19–5 Denver leads series (Denver leads playoffs 3–0) Signature moment: Over three playoffs in four years, Cleveland lost to Denver in the AFC Championship game. In January 1987, after the 1986 season, John Elway led "The Drive" to secure a tie in the waning moments at old Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos would go on to win in overtime. In January 1988, at Mile High Stadium, after the 1987 season, Cleveland nearly had its own comeback drive, but Earnest Byner's costly fumble at the goal line saved the day for Denver. The game after the 1989 season was not as close, easily won by the Broncos. Signature Moment: Entering 2008 the most recent Cleveland victory in the rivalry was on October 8, 1990 in Mile High Stadium. The Broncos led 29–20 in the fourth quarter but Bernie Kosar led a touchdown drive and then Jerry Kauric kicked a 30-yard field goal for a 30–29 Browns win. John Elway rushed in one touchdown but also threw two interceptions. Logos and uniforms Denver Broncos uniform combination Denver Broncos uniform: 1968-1996 Broncos logo (1968-1996). The horse in this logo continues to be used at the stadium today. Broncos Alternate logo (1997-Present) When the Broncos debuted in 1960, their original uniforms were vilified by the public. It consisted of brown helmets, brown pants (some had a satin sheen, some didn't), white and mustard yellow jerseys, and vertically striped socks. http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1434/660608396_8eb6da94e0.jpg The club eventually got rid of these jerseys two years later, and celebrated the occasion by holding a public bonfire to burn the striped socks. The team then unveiled a new logo featuring a bucking horse, and changed their team colors to orange, blue, and white. The 1962 uniform designed by Laura North-Allen, consisted of white pants, orange helmets, and either orange or white jerseys. In 1968, the Broncos debuted a design that became known as the "Orange Crush". Their logo was redesigned so that the horse was coming out of a "D". Also, the helmets were changed to blue, thin stripes were put onto the sleeves, and other minor modifications were added. From 1969 to 1971, and again from 1978 to 1979), the team wore orange pants with their white jerseys. The club then radically changed their logo and uniforms in 1997, a design that they continue to use to this day. The current logo is a profile of a horse's head. They wear "Broncos Navy Blue" jerseys instead of orange ones. This new uniform design also features a streak that runs down the sides of both the jerseys and the pants; it's orange on the blue jerseys and blue on the white jerseys. When they debuted, these uniforms were, again, vilified by the press and fans, until the Broncos won their first ever Super Bowl in the new design that same season. The team also introduced blue pants with orange stripes to be worn with blue jerseys. These pants are primarily worn for prime-time home games. An oddity of their pants are that the home white pants have an orange stripe, but the road white pants have a navy blue stripe. The team introduced blue pants in the mid-2000s. Although they were part of the uniform change in 1997 and most players wanted to wear them, the only player who vetoed wearing them was John Elway, thereby delaying their eventual introduction. The Broncos have also introduced an alternate orange jersey with a navy blue stripe going up the side. The jerseys were first used in 2002 against the Indianapolis Colts and last used in the 2008 game against the Kansas City Chiefs. The Denver Post reported on August 15, 2008, that the Broncos would wear their alternate orange jerseys for two games during the 2008 season: September 21 against the New Orleans Saints and December 7 against division rival Kansas City Chiefs. The article also noted that former head coach Mike Shanahan is not a big fan of the orange jerseys. Home field For most of their history they played in Mile High Stadium, which became one of the shrines of professional football for its record ongoing streak of sellouts. The AFL Broncos played at the University of Denver's Hilltop Stadium from time to time, including the first-ever victory of an AFL team over an NFL team: The Broncos beat the Detroit Lions on Aug. 5, 1967, in a preseason game. The team has sold out every home game (including post-season games) since the NFL merger in 1970, with the exception of two replacement games during the 1987 strike (but both were sold out before the strike). During home games, the attendance is announced to the crowd, along with the number of no-shows (the fans subsequently boo the no-shows). The stadium's legendary home-field advantage is regarded as one of the best in the NFL, especially during the post-season. The Broncos have had the best home record in pro football over the past 32 years (1974–2006, 191–65–1). Mile High Stadium was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with steel flooring instead of concrete, which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents. Since 2001, they have played at Invesco Field at Mile High, built next to the former site of the since demolished old Mile High Stadium. Sportswriter Woody Paige, along with many of Denver's fans, however, often refuse to call the new stadium by its full name, preferring to use Mile High Stadium because of its storied history and sentimental import. Additionally the Denver Post had an official policy of referring to the stadium as simply "Mile High Stadium" in protest, but dropped this policy in 2004. The Colorado altitude has also been attributed as part of the team's home success. The stadium displays multiple references to the stadium's location of 5,280 ft (1 mile) above sea level, including a prominent mural just outside the visiting team’s locker room. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers 7, John Elway, QB, (1983-98) Class of 2004 24, Willie Brown, CB, (1963-66) Class of 1984 (as an Oakland Raider) 33, Tony Dorsett, RB, (1988) Class of 1994 (as a Dallas Cowboy) 65, Gary Zimmerman, OT, (1993-1997) Class of 2008 Retired numbers John Elway – #7 Frank Tripucka – #18 Floyd Little – #44 Ring of Fame The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of INVESCO Field at Mile High, which honors the following: 23 Goose Gonsoulin, S, 1960-66, inducted 1984 44 Floyd Little, RB, 1967-75, inducted 1984 87 Lionel Taylor, WR, 1960-66, inducted 1984 87 Rich Jackson, DE, 1967-72, inducted 1984 Gerald Phipps, team owner, 1961-81, inducted 1985 12 Charley Johnson, QB, 1972-75, inducted 1986 18 Frank Tripucka, QB, 1960-63, inducted 1986 70 Paul Smith, DE, 1968-78, inducted 1986 36 Billy Thompson, S, 1969-81, inducted 1987 7 Craig Morton, QB, 1977-82, inducted 1988 15 Jim Turner, K, 1971-79, inducted 1988 25 Haven Moses, WR, 1972-81, inducted 1988 53 Randy Gradishar, LB, 1974-83, inducted 1989 57 Tom Jackson, LB, 1973-86, inducted 1992 20 Louis Wright, S, 1975-86, inducted 1993 7 John Elway, QB, 1983-98, inducted 1999 49 Dennis Smith, S, 1981-94, inducted 2001 77 Karl Mecklenburg, LB, 1983-95, inducted 2001 65 Gary Zimmerman, OT, 1993-97, inducted 2003 27 Steve Atwater, S, 1989-98, inducted 2005 30 Terrell Davis, RB, 1995-2001, inducted 2007 Colorado Sports Hall of Fame 23 Goose Gonsoulin, S, 1960-66 44 Floyd Little, RB, 1967-75 87 Lionel Taylor, WR, 1960-66 87 Rich Jackson, DE, 1967-72 Gerald Phipps, team owner, 1961-81 18 Frank Tripucka, QB, 1960-63 36 Billy Thompson, CB, 1969-81 7 Craig Morton, QB, 1977-82 25 Haven Moses, WR, 1972-81 53 Randy Gradishar, LB, 1976-83 57 Tom Jackson, LB, 1973-86 80 Rick Upchurch, WR, 1975-83 20 Louis Wright, S, 1975-86 Red Miller, Head Coach, 1977-80 Dan Reeves, Head Coach, 1981-92 7 John Elway, QB, 1983-98 77 Karl Mecklenburg, LB, 1983-94 84 Shannon Sharpe, TE, 1990-99, 2002-03 30 Terrell Davis, RB, 1995-2001 Coaches and Staff Head coaches Mike Shanahan Mike Shanahan held the Broncos head coaching position from 1995 until his firing after the 2008 season. Since the Shanahan era began, the Broncos have been known for having high-yardage running backs, and explosive offenses. Tuesday Morning Quarterback writer Gregg Easterbrook once mused that Denver’s helmets should have a label that says "Insert running back, gain 1,000 yards." To wit: Terrell Davis, Olandis Gary, Mike Anderson, Clinton Portis, Reuben Droughns and Tatum Bell have all posted 1000-yard rushing seasons in Denver with Davis breaking the 2,000 yard barrier in 1998. In 2005, Mike Anderson rushed for more than 1,000 yards for the first time in five seasons. Anderson's backfield mate, Tatum Bell, fell 79 yards short of 1,000 with 921 while missing a game to injury. Had Bell been able to gain 1,000 yards he and Anderson would have been the first two running backs in over 20 years to break 1,000 yards in a single season on the same team (Brandon Jacobs and Derrick Ward accomplished this feat in 2008 with the New York Giants). In the post-Elway years, Shanahan has taken the Broncos to the playoffs several times. The 2000 season ended with a Wild Card loss at the Baltimore Ravens. The 2003 and 2004 seasons ended with lopsided losses at the Indianapolis Colts, also in the Wild Card round. In the 2005 season, the Broncos defeated the New England Patriots in the divisional round and advanced to the AFC Championship game, losing at home to the Pittsburgh Steelers. Under Shanahan, the Broncos established a tradition in 1996 where the offensive linemen do not talk with the media as a form of bonding. This was evident during the player introductions for the starting lineup on nationally-televised prime time games as the linemen would not introduce themselves. How they were introduced has varied over the years as sometimes, another offensive player introduces them and during other times, the announcers introduce the offensive linemen. Due to a rule change within the NFL in 2007, this tradition came to an end. For the 2007 season each player is required to make himself available for media interviews. On Sunday Night Football game's against the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2007, and in 2008 against the San Diego Chargers the linemen introduced themselves. Current staff Radio and television , the Broncos' flagship radio station was KOA, 850AM, a 50,000-watt station owned by Clear Channel Communications. Dave Logan is the play-by-play announcer; he starred for the Colorado Buffaloes before beginning his NFL career, spent mostly with the Cleveland Browns. David Diaz-Infante is the color commentator. Preseason games not selected for airing on national television are shown on KCNC, channel 4, which is a CBS owned-and-operated station, as well as other CBS affiliates around the Rocky Mountain region. References http://www.denverpost.com/broncos/ci_10208381 External links Official Website http://www.profootballhof.com/history/team.jsp?franchise_id=10 Denver Broncos news | Denver_Broncos |@lemmatized denver:47 bronco:85 professional:2 american:5 football:12 team:35 base:2 colorado:5 currently:1 member:3 conference:1 afc:14 western:1 division:5 national:2 league:10 nfl:18 begin:5 play:17 charter:2 join:1 part:4 afl:5 merger:2 invesco:6 field:22 mile:13 high:14 franchise:6 history:9 found:1 august:3 minor:2 baseball:2 owner:5 bob:2 howsam:1 award:2 win:34 first:31 ever:6 game:54 boston:1 patriot:8 september:4 become:8 defeat:12 beat:10 detroit:3 lion:3 preseason:3 overall:3 successful:1 compile:1 record:15 however:8 superstar:1 floyd:4 little:4 due:2 signing:1 pro:6 bowl:29 effort:1 instrumental:1 keep:1 start:7 rough:1 manage:1 winning:1 season:45 thirteen:1 year:12 futility:1 original:2 never:1 title:3 upstart:1 come:5 close:2 lose:17 local:1 ownership:1 group:1 take:5 control:1 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2,576 | Metrication | A speedometer from an American car, showing the speed of the vehicle in miles per hour (outer, in white) and kilometres per hour (inner, in red) A speedometer from an Australian car, showing the speed of the vehicle only in kilometres per hour. Metrication (or metrification) refers to the introduction of the SI metric system as the international standard for physical measurements—a long-term series of independent and systematic conversions from the various separate local systems of weights and measures. Metrication began in France in the 1790s and spread widely during the following two centuries. Overview Only three countries (Burma (Myanmar), Liberia, and the United States) have yet to adopt the International System of Units as their official system of measurement. However, a number of other jurisdictions have laws mandating or permitting other systems of measurement in some or all contexts, such as the UK and Hong Kong. Conversely the three countries named above as "non-metric" have indirectly adopted metric measures to some degree through international trade and standardisation. Liberia and Myanmar are both substantially metric countries that trade internationally in metric units. Visitors to these places report that they also use metric units for most things internally with only a few exceptions like old petrol pumps calibrated in British Imperial gallons. Most countries have adopted the metric system officially over a transitional period where both units are used for a set period of time. Some countries such as Guyana, for example, have officially adopted the metric system, but have had some trouble over time implementing it. Antigua, also 'officially' metric, is moving toward total implementation of the metric system, but slower than expected. Other Caribbean countries such as Saint Lucia are officially metric but are still in the process toward full conversion. In the European Union, with the Units of Measure Directive, the European Council (of Ministers) sought to achieve a common system of weights and measures to further the aims of the European Single Market. Throughout the 1990s, the European Commission helped accelerate the process for member countries to complete their conversion process to metric. A part of the negotiations towards the Directive, the United Kingdom secured permanent exemptions for the mile and yard in road markings, and (with Ireland) for the pint of beer sold in pubs (see metrication in UK). In 2007, the European Commission also announced that (to facilitate trade with the United States) it was to abandon the requirement for metric-only labelling on packaged goods, and to allow dual metric-imperial marking to continue indefinitely. Other countries using the old imperial system completed metrication during the second half of the 20th century, the most recent being the Republic of Ireland, which finalised conversion in early 2005 after beginning in the 1970s. The United States and the United Kingdom have some active opposition to metrication. Other countries, like France and Japan, that once had significant popular opposition to metrication, now have complete acceptance of metrication. Before the metric system In medieval Europe, local laws on weights and measures were set by trade guilds on a city-by-city basis. For example, the ell or elle was a unit of length commonly used in Europe, but its value varied from 40.2 centimetres in one part of Germany to 70 centimetres in The Netherlands to 94.5 centimetres in Edinburgh. A survey of Switzerland in 1838 revealed that the foot had 37 different regional variations, the ell had 68, there were 83 different measures for dry grain and 70 for fluids, and 63 different measures for "dead weights". When Isaac Newton wrote Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687, he quoted his measurements in Parisian feet so readers could understand the size. Examples of efforts to have local intercity or national standards for measurements include the Scottish law of 1641, and the British standard Imperial unit system of 1845, which is still commonly used in the UK. At one time Imperial China had successfully standardised units for volume throughout its territory, but by 1936 official investigations uncovered 53 dimensions for the chi varying from 200 millimetres to 1250 millimetres; 32 dimensions of the cheng, between 500 millilitres and 8 litres; and 36 different tsin ranging from 300 grams to 2500 grams. However, revolutionary France was to produce the definitive International System of Units which has come to be used by most of the world today. The desire for a single international system of measurement derives from growing international trade and the need to apply common standards to goods. For a company to buy a product produced in another country, they need to ensure that the product will arrive as described. The medieval ell was abandoned in part because its value could not be standardised. It can be argued that the primary advantage of the International System of Units is simply that it is international, and the pressure on countries to conform to it grew as it became increasingly an international standard. SI is not the only example of international standardisation; several powerful international standardisation organisations exist for various industries, such as the International Organisation for Standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Commission, and the International Telecommunication Union. Forerunners of the metric system Decimal numbers are an essential part of the metric system. Although the Arabs used decimal numbers for mathematical computations, it was Simon Stevin who in 1585 first advocated the use of decimal numbers for everyday purposes in his booklet De Thiende (Dutch for 'the tenth'). He also declared that it would only be a matter of time before decimal numbers were used for currencies and measurements. His notation for decimal fractions was clumsy, but was overcome by the introduction of the decimal point, generally attributed to Bartholomaeus Pitiscus who used this notation in his trigonometrical tables (1595). In his Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language, published in 1668, John Wilkins proposed a system of measurement that was very similar in concept to today's metric system. He proposed retaining the second as the basic unit of time and proposed that the length of a pendulum which had a period of one second should be the base unit of length. This length, for which he proposed the name "standard", would have been 994 mm. His base unit of mass, which he proposed calling a "hundred", would have been the mass of a cubic standard of distilled rainwater. The names that he proposed for decimal multiples and subunits of his base units of measure were the names of units of measure that were in use at the time. In 1670, Gabriel Mouton published a proposal that was in essence similar to Wilkins' proposal, except that his base unit of length would have been 1/1000 of a minute of arc (about 2.04 m). He proposed calling this unit the virga. Rather than using different names for each unit of length, he proposed a series of names that had prefixes, rather like the prefixes found in SI. In 1790, Thomas Jefferson submitted a report to the United States Congress in which he proposed the adoption of a decimal system of coinage and of weights and measures. His proposed base unit of length was the foot which he suggested should be either 3/10 or 1/3 of the length of a pendulum that had a period of one second – that is 3/10 or 1/3 of the "standard" proposed by Wilkins over a century previously. His base unit of mass was to be the bushel, which would have been the mass of a cubic foot of water. Like Wilkins, the names that he proposed for multiples and subunits of his base units of measure were the names of units of measure that were in use at the time. Conversion process Countries by date of metrication The metric system was officially introduced in France in 1799. In the 19th century, the metric system was adopted by the following European countries: Netherlands (1820), Belgium (1820), Luxemburg (1820), Switzerland (1835), Spain (1850s), Italy (1861), Germany (1870, legally from 1 January 1872), Austria (1876, but the law was adopted in 1871). Denmark adopted the metric system in 1907. There are three common routes that nations take in converting from traditional measurement systems to the metric system. The first is a quick, so called "Big-Bang" route which was successfully used by India in the 1960s and several other nations including Australia and New Zealand since then. The second route is to phase in units over time and progressively outlaw traditional units. This method, favoured by some industrial nations, is slower and generally less successful. The final route is to redefine traditional units in metric terms. This method has been used successfully where traditional units were ill-defined and had regional variations. The first route, "Big-Bang", is to simultaneously outlaw the use of pre-metric measurement, metricise, reissue all government publications and laws, and change education systems to metric. India's changeover lasted from 1 April 1960, when metric measurements became legal, to 1 April 1962, when all other systems were banned. The Indian model was extremely successful and was copied over much of the developing world. The second possibility, and first phase-in route, is to pass a law permitting the use of metric units in parallel with traditional ones, followed by education of metric units, then progressively banning the use of the older measures. This has generally been a slow route to metric. The British Empire permitted the use of metric measures in 1873, but the changeover was not completed in most countries until the 1970s and 1980s when governments took an active role in the now-independent parts of the former empire, now Commonwealth. Japan, too, followed this route and did not complete the changeover for 70 years. In the United Kingdom, the process is still incomplete. By law, loose goods sold with reference to units of quantity have to be weighed and sold using the metric system. Until 11 September 11 2007, British law stated that non-metric labelling on packages would become illegal after December 2009, however the European Union has since granted the UK the right to use supplementary measures (imperial units alongside metric) indefinitely. See metrication in UK for details. A final possibility is to redefine traditional units in terms of metric values. These redefined "quasi-metric" units often stay in use long after metrication is said to have been completed. In fact, difficulties with metrication in revolutionary France convinced Napoleon to revert to this procedure, called mesures usuelles (usual measures); to some extent the names remain throughout Europe. In the Netherlands, 500 g is informally referred to as a pond (pound) and 100 g as an ons (ounce), and in Germany and France 500 g is informally referred to respectively as ein Pfund and une livre ("one pound"). "1 zeste de citron par livre (500g) de rhubarbe" In Denmark, the re-defined pund (500 g) is occasionally used, particularly among older people and (older) fruit growers, since these were originally paid according to the number of pounds of fruit produced. In Sweden and Norway a mil (Swedish mile) is informally equal to 10 km, and this has continued to be the predominantly used unit in conversation when referring to geographical distances. In the 19th century, Switzerland had a non-metric system completely based on metric terms (e.g. 1 fuss (foot) = 30 cm, 1 zoll (inch) = 3 cm, 1 linien (line) = 3 mm). China also followed this route of metrication, so while scientists in China know and use the kilogram, common people retain the jin, which now has a value of 500 g. It is difficult to judge the degree to which ordinary people change to using metric in their daily lives. In countries that have recently changed, older segments of the population tend to still use an older and more familiar system. Also, local variations abound in what exactly becomes metricated and what does not. In Canada, for example, ovens and cooking temperatures are usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit, and Canadians almost invariably use Fahrenheit for cooking; though this is not necessarily by choice but may instead be due to the overwhelming influence of the neighbouring and largely non-metricated United States; similarly, Canadians often use non-metric measurements in day-to-day discussions of height and weight, and for clothing sizes, which are invariably measured in inches, though driver's licences and other official government documents record weight and height only in metric. In the UK, which is still in the process of changing over completely, Fahrenheit is seldom encountered (except when some people talk about hot summer weather) while other metric units are often used in conjunction with older measurements, and road signs use miles rather than kilometres. Another example is "hard" and "soft" metric. Canada converted liquid dairy products to litres, 500 g and 250 g sizes, which caused some complaining at time of conversion, as a litre of milk is 35 imperial ounces, while the former imperial quart used in Canada was 40 ounces. This is a "hard" metric conversion. (An American quart is only 32 ounces - as reckoned in US customary units, also known as "Queen Ann's Measure" - the prevailing system in the British Empire at the time of the US Revolution). Conversely, butter in Canada is sold primarily in a 454 g package, which converts to one Imperial pound. This is considered "soft" metric. Such countries could be said to be "semi-metric". Exceptions As of 2007, in most countries of the world the metric system officially dominates; but traditional units are still used in many places and industries. For example, automobile tyre pressure is measured as psi in countries such as Brazil, Argentina, Australia and Chile which are otherwise completely metric. Office space is often rented in traditional units, such as square foot in Hong Kong, tsubo in Japan or pyoung in Korea. Traditional measurements are still used in some areas: e.g., in plumbing the diameters of pipes are still measured in inches in some countries (in the UK all new pipes are metric). Automotive wheel diameters are still set as whole inch measurements (although tyre widths are measured in millimetres) and dots per inch continues to be used in describing graphical resolution in the computer industry. Television and monitor screen diameters are still commonly cited in inches in many countries; however, in Australia and South Africa, centimetres are often used for television sets, whereas CRT computer monitors and all LCD monitors are measured in inches. The only exception to the metrication process in Ireland was the pint in bars, pubs, and clubs; although alcohol sold in any other location is in metric units (usually 330 ml (canned beer), 500 ml (bottled beer), 750 ml (wine), or 1 l (spirit)). In Australia, a pint of beer was redefined to 570 ml (see Australian beer glasses). In both metric and non-metric countries, racing bicycle frames are generally measured in centimetres, while mountain bicycle frames are measured in inches. An example of metrication of UK consumer products. Two of the four items are purely metric. Milk is often sold as "1.136 litres / 2 pints". The sausages are labelled "340 g / 12 oz" In some countries (such as Antigua, see above), the transition is still in progress. The Caribbean island nation of Saint Lucia announced metrication programs in 2005 to be compatible with CARICOM. In the United Kingdom, the metric system is compulsory in most, but not all, industries. In the UK, the metric system had been legal for nearly a century before metrication efforts began in earnest. The government had been making preparations for the conversion of the Imperial unit since the 1862 Select Committee on Weights and Measures recommended the conversion ] and the Weights and Measures Act of 1864 and the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1896 legalised the metric system. In 1965, with lobbying from British industries and the prospects of joining the European Community, the government set a 10 year target for full conversion and created the Metrication Board in 1969. Metrication did occur in many areas during this time period, including the re-surveying of Ordnance Survey maps in 1970, decimalisation of the currency in 1971, and teaching the metric system in schools. However, no date was set for making the use of the metric system compulsory, and the Metrication Board was abolished in 1980 following a change in government. The 1989 European Units of Measurement Directive (89/617/EEC) required all member states to make the metric system compulsory; however, the British negotiated certain derogations (delayed switchovers), including miles for road signs, and pints for draught beer, cider, and milk sales. (see Section 5(2) for exceptions) Advocacy groups such as the Metric Martyrs, the British Weights and Measures Association, and the Active Resistance to Metrication continue to resist the compulsory use of the metric system, on the grounds that some surveys have shown that a lot of British people do not think in metric terms and because physical repackaging into rounded metric numbers could lead to reducing the quantity of goods sold for the same price. It should, however, be noted that some items have been rounded up during metric changeover; for example, spirits were changed from 1/6 of a gill (23.7 ml) to 25 ml and the standard loaf from 14 ounces (396.9 g) to 400 g. United States A measuring cup, manufactured and sold in the U.S. (circa 1980) features graduations in both metric and U.S. Customary systems. Held in the right-hand, a person would have the metric graduations in front, facing them. As previously mentioned, the United States has been influenced by metric over time through international trade and standardisation. The use of the metric system was made legal as a system of measurement in 1866 U.S. Metric Association. Metric Act (Kasson Act) of 1866. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. and the United States was a founding member of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1875. U.S. Metric Association. Metric Convention of 1875. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. The system was officially adopted by the federal government in 1975 for use in the military and government agencies. U.S. Metric Association. Metric Conversion Act of 1975. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. In 1985, the metric system was made the preferred (but predominantly voluntary) system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce (see Metrication in the United States). It has remained voluntary for federal and state road signage to use metric units, despite attempts in the 1990s to make it a requirement. U.S. Metric Association. National Highway System Designation Act of 1995. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. A 1992 amendment to the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA), which took effect in 1994, required labels on federally regulated "consumer commodities" U.S. Metric Association. Sec. 1459. Definitions Fair Packaging and Labeling Act. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. to include both and U.S. customary units. An amendment that would allow (but not require) metric-only labels is currently under consideration, and all but two US states (New York and Alabama) have passed laws permitting metric-only labels for the products they regulate. Metric Methods, The rapid progress of adoption of permissible metric-only labelling at the state level. Retrieved on 27 August 2006. Likewise, Canada also legally allows for dual labelling of goods provided that the metric unit is listed first and that there is a distinction of whether a liquid measure is a U.S. or a Canadian (Imperial) unit. Today, the American public and much of the private business and industry still use U.S. customary units despite many years of informal or optional metrication. Zengerle, Jason (January/February 1999). Waits and Measures. Mother Jones. At least two states, Kentucky and California, have even moved towards demetrication of highway construction projects. Commonwealth of Kentucky (1998). Metric to English Conversion. State of California, Department of Transportation (2004). Metric to U.S. Customary Units (English) Transition. Air and sea transport Some industries have resisted metrication. Non-metric measures of speed in air and sea transport retain worldwide dominance. In these areas the nautical mile is used. The prime unit of speed for maritime and air navigation remains the knot (nautical mile per hour). The prime unit of measure for aviation (altitude) is usually estimated based on air pressure values and described in nominal feet rather than nominal metres. A vertical spacing of has become the standard measure for safety and clarity for purposes of air traffic control. The policies of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) relating to measurement are: there should be a single system of units throughout the world the single system should be SI the use of the foot for altitude is a permitted variation Consistent with ICAO policy, aviation has undergone a significant amount of metrication over the years; for example, runways are usually given in metres. The United States metricated the data interchange format (METAR) for temperature reports in 1996, but aviation end users (pilots and controllers) still typically prefer to view and discuss temperatures as Fahrenheit. Jarvi, A. W. (1996). Frequently Asked Questions about METAR/SPECI and TAF. National Weather Service. Retrieved on 2008-10-18 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrication&action=edit§ion=6. Metrication is also gradually taking place in cargo weights/dimensions and fuel volume/weight. Accidents and incidents Confusion over units during the process of metrication can sometimes lead to accidents. One of the most famous examples is the Gimli Glider, a Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel in Canada in 1983 due, in large part, to confusion at Air Canada during Canada's metrication. While not strictly an example of national metrication, the use of two different systems was a contributing factor in the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1998. NASA specified metric units in the contract. NASA and other organisations worked in metric units but one subcontractor, Lockheed Martin, provided thruster performance data to the team in pound force seconds instead of newton seconds. The spacecraft was intended to orbit Mars at about altitude but the incorrect data meant that it descended to about and probably burned up in the Martian atmosphere. Opposition As the birthplace of the metric system, France experienced a rough start to metrication. The traditional French measuring system was chaotic, with size of units differing in each small town, and often even within towns. Lyon had two different values of pound in general use, one of 14 ounces, and another of 15 ounces, the latter only being used for measuring silk. The revolutionary government, which saw the newly conceived metric system (commissioned by the previous king) as a good fit for its ideology of "pure reason", first attempted a quick conversion, legalising metric units in 1795 and, just four years later, banning the use of traditional units. Massive popular opposition led Napoleon, after he came to power, to roll back these reforms. He publicly denounced the previous government for "tormenting people with trifles". It appears that it was decimalisation that disturbed the people most — as, although Napoleon decreed that there should be "such fractions and multiples as were generally used", he redefined the old base units in metric terms. The original metric system was made law again in France in 1837. The introduction of metrication in Japan was met with some resistance in the 1920's, where opponents believed that the adoption of a foreign measuring system would have a bad influence on national sentiment, cause dislocations in public life and needless expense to the nation, prove disadvantageous to foreign trade, and hurt the national language and culture. In 1933, the government postponed first conversion stage by five years, and the second stage by ten years. The U.S. occupation resulted in a temporary conversion to U.S. customary units. The post-war manufacturing boom required an international standard measurement system and the issue was pursued again in the 1950s and 1960s. The metrication process was completed in 1969. Some traditional units are used for measurements of sake and the area of land and apartments. Nevertheless, local units had been defined in terms of metric units (e.g., 1 shaku = 10/33 metre) as early as 1891. For the measurement of sake, 10 Japanese cups (180 millilitres each) equal 1 shō (traditional flask size of 1.8 litre capacity). Rice cookers are typically sold as having capacities such as 5 cups or 10 cups. (Note that the traditional Japanese cup is 180 millilitres while the American cup is 237 millilitres. Conversion for US cup can be found in NIST (1995) Guide to SI Units Appendix B8 ) Few countries have experienced significant popular opposition to metrication. Australia successfully converted to the metric system from 1970 to 1988, replacing Imperial Units of measurement that were inherited from the British Empire. Some, such as 19th century European countries, Russia, India and China, converted before most of their populations were literate, so the initial conversion affected few people. For others, such as Ireland, the previous system (i.e., imperial) was seen as foreign. Metrication in the United Kingdom is opposed by some who espouse the traditional or Imperial units of measurement. See also Conversion of units Metric clothes sizes (EN 13402) Preferred numbers Metric yardstick Language reform Metrication in the United States Metrication in the United Kingdom Anti-metrication Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States Notes External links A timeline of the metric system and its use discusses progress of metrication in several countries Websites supporting metrication Go Metric! Metrication action site Go Metric America IEEE-SA Standards Board Implementation Plan for the IEEE Metric Policy Metrication.US Metric Usage and Policy, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory U.S. Metric Association The Metrication Board of Ireland EngNet Metric Conversion Chart The UK Metric Association campaigns for a total metric switchover in the UK Timeline of metric system in UK Metrication matters provides resources to support your metrication program. One Metre: Metric in Canada Online Metric Conversion Application Canadian Metric Association Books supporting metrication Metric Signs Ahead (UKMA) (2005) by Robin Paice (ISBN 0955235123) A Very British Mess (UKMA) (2004) by Robin Paice (ISBN 0750310146) Websites opposing metrication British Weights and Measures Association Books opposing metrication The General Rule by Vivian Linacre (ISBN 1906069018) About the Size of It by Warwick Cairns (ISBN 0230016286) . | Metrication |@lemmatized speedometer:2 american:4 car:2 show:3 speed:4 vehicle:2 mile:7 per:5 hour:4 outer:1 white:1 kilometres:1 inner:1 red:1 australian:2 kilometre:2 metrication:47 metrification:1 refers:1 introduction:3 si:5 metric:111 system:60 international:18 standard:12 physical:2 measurement:23 long:2 term:7 series:2 independent:2 systematic:1 conversion:20 various:2 separate:1 local:5 weight:17 measure:39 begin:3 france:8 spread:1 widely:1 following:2 two:6 century:7 overview:1 three:3 country:25 burma:1 myanmar:2 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2,577 | Combinatorics | Combinatorics is a branch of pure mathematics concerning the study of discrete (and usually finite) objects. It is related to many other areas of mathematics, such as algebra, probability theory, ergodic theory and geometry, as well as to applied subjects in computer science and statistical physics. Aspects of combinatorics include "counting" the objects satisfying certain criteria (enumerative combinatorics), deciding when the criteria can be met, and constructing and analyzing objects meeting the criteria (as in combinatorial designs and matroid theory), finding "largest", "smallest", or "optimal" objects (extremal combinatorics and combinatorial optimization), and finding algebraic structures these objects may have (algebraic combinatorics). Combinatorics is as much about problem solving as theory building, though it has developed powerful theoretical methods, especially since the later twentieth century. One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which also has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain estimates on the number of elements of certain sets. A mathematician who studies combinatorics is often referred to as a combinatorialist or combinatorist. History of combinatorics An example of bell ringing (with six bells and two ringers). Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results have appeared throughout the ancient world. In 6th century BC, physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26-1 possibilities. Roman historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BC) and Hipparchus (2nd century BC) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder numbers. R.P. Stanley, "Hipparchus, Plutarch, Schröder, and Hough", Amer. Math. Monthly 104 (1997), no. 4, 344-350. L. Habsieger, M. Kazarian, S. Lando, On the second number of Plutarch, Amer. Math. Monthly 105 (1998), no. 5, 446. In the Ostomachion, Archimedes (3rd century BC) calculates the number of solutions of a certain tiling puzzle. In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. Notably, an Indian mathematician Mahavira (c. 850) provided the general formulae for the number of permutations and combinations. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (c. 1140) established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321. History of Combinatorics, chapter in a textbook. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations. During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In the modern times, the works by J. J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) laid the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an explosion of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem. Enumerative combinatorics Five binary trees on three vertices, an example of Catalan numbers. Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics, and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic combinatorics Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, the analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining the asymptotic formulae. Partition theory A plane partition. Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis, analytic number theory, and has connections with statistical mechanics. Graph theory Petersen graph. Graphs are basic objects in combinatorics. The questions range from counting (e.g. the number of graphs on n vertices with k edges) to structural (e.g. which graphs contain Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic questions (e.g. given a graph G and two numbers x and y, does the Tutte polynomial TG(x,y) have a combinatorial interpretation?). It should be noted that while there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, these two are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. 2-Digit MSC Comparison, by Daniel P. Sanders. Design theory Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one one oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics. Order theory Hasse diagram of the powerset of {x,y,z} ordered by inclusion. Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras. Matroid theory Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of the order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics. Extremal combinatorics Extremal combinatorics studies extremal questions on set systems. The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on 2n vertices is a complete bipartite graph Kn,n. Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer f(n) exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate. Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle. Probabilistic combinatorics Self-avoiding walk in a square grid graph. In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph. For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find), simply by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time. Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneer work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. However, with the growth of applications to analysis of algorithms in computer science, as well as classical probability, additive and probabilistic number theory, the area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics. Algebraic combinatorics Young diagram of a partition (5,4,1). Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Within the last decade or so, algebraic combinatorics came to be seen more expansively as the area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. One of the fastest developing subfields within algebraic combinatorics is combinatorial commutative algebra. Combinatorics on words Construction of a Thue-Morse infinite word. Combinatorics on words is an area of combinatorics which studies formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best known result in the field. Geometric combinatorics |An icosahedron. Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry, in particular polyhedral combinatorics. It asks, e.g. how many faces of each dimension can a convex polytope have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope. Topological combinatorics |Splitting a necklace with two cuts. Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. Arithmetic combinatorics Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive combinatorics refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems. Infinitary combinatorics Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Gian-Carlo Rota used the name continuous combinatorics Continuous and profinite combinatorics to describe probability and measure theory, since there are many analogies between counting and measure. Related fields Kissing spheres are connected to both coding theory and discrete geometry. Combinatorial optimization Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory. Coding theory Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory. Discrete and computational geometry Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry. Combinatorics and dynamical systems Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example graph dynamical system. Combinatorics and physics There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand. Phylogenetics Phylogenetics is an area of mathematical biology that deals with the reconstruction and analysis of phylogenetic (evolutionary) trees and networks based on inherited characteristics. The main graph concepts are trees, X-trees and maximum parsimony trees. See also Combinadic Combinatorial auction Combinatorial chemistry Combinatorial data analysis Combinatorial game theory Discrepancy theory Factoradic List of combinatorics topics List of combinatorists List of publications in mathematics Musical set theory Umbral calculus Notes References Bjorner, A. and Stanley, R.P., A Combinatorial Miscellany Graham, R.L., Groetschel M., and Lovász L., eds. (1996). Handbook of Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2. Elsevier (North-Holland), Amsterdam, and MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 0-262-07169-X. Lindner, Charles C. and Christopher A. Rodger (eds.) Design Theory, CRC-Press; 1st. edition (October 31, 1997). ISBN 0-8493-3986-3. van Lint, J.H., and Wilson, R.M. (2001). A Course in Combinatorics, 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80340-3. Stanley, Richard P. (1997, 1999). Enumerative Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55309-1, ISBN 0-521-56069-1. Combinatorial Analysis – an article in Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Riordan, John (1958). An Introduction to Combinatorial Analysis, Wiley & Sons, New York (republished). External links Combinatorics, a MathWorld article with many references. Combinatorics, from a MathPages.com portal. The Hyperbook of Combinatorics, a collection of math articles links. The Two Cultures of Mathematics by W. T. 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2,578 | Homeland | A homeland (rel. country of origin and native land) is the concept of the territory (cultural geography) to which an ethnic group holds a long history and a deep cultural association with —the country in which a particular national identity began. As a common noun, it simply connotes the country of one's origin. When used as a proper noun, the word, as well as its cognates in other languages (ie. Heimatland in German) often have ethnic nationalist connotations: Fatherland, Motherland, Mother country, each having some distinct interpretation according to nationality or historical usage. Homeland defense in 1887: the French Third Republic embodied as a Gallic warrior by Émile Boisseau (Place d'Ajaccio, Paris) Various meanings In German, homeland is translated as "Heimatland", and this was a term used by the Nazis to refer to the more common German term "Vaterland" ("Fatherland"). It was also the name of a strongly pro-Nazi magazine edited by Wilhelm Weiss during the rise of the Nazi party in Germany. The Soviet Union created homelands for some minorities in the 1920s, including the Volga German ASSR and the Jewish Autonomous Oblast. In the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later abolished and their inhabitants deported to either Siberia or the Kazakh SSR. In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created soon after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, as a means to centralize response to various threats. The term is rarely used by common United States citizens to refer to their country, which made the chosen name sound odd to many. In a June 2002 column, Republican consultant and speechwriter Peggy Noonan expressed the hope that the Bush administration would change the name of the department, writing that, "The name Homeland Security grates on a lot of people, understandably. Homeland isn't really an American word, it's not something we used to say or say now". In the apartheid era in South Africa, the concept was given a different meaning. The white government had designated approximately 13% of its territory for black tribal settlement. Whites and other non-blacks were restricted from owning land or settling in those areas. After 1948 they were gradually granted an increasing level of "home-rule". From 1976 several of these regions were granted independence. Four of them were declared independent nations by South Africa, but were unrecognized as independent countries by any other nation besides each other and South Africa. The territories set aside for the African inhabitants were also known as bantustans. See also Homeland security Separatism Secession List of ethnic groups Diaspora politics Fatherland Motherland Bantustan Sources | Homeland |@lemmatized homeland:9 rel:1 country:6 origin:2 native:1 land:2 concept:2 territory:3 cultural:2 geography:1 ethnic:3 group:2 hold:1 long:1 history:1 deep:1 association:1 particular:1 national:1 identity:1 begin:1 common:3 noun:2 simply:1 connote:1 one:1 use:4 proper:1 word:2 well:1 cognate:1 language:1 ie:1 heimatland:2 german:5 often:1 nationalist:1 connotation:1 fatherland:3 motherland:2 mother:1 distinct:1 interpretation:1 accord:1 nationality:1 historical:1 usage:1 defense:1 french:1 third:1 republic:1 embody:1 gallic:1 warrior:1 émile:1 boisseau:1 place:1 ajaccio:1 paris:1 various:2 meaning:2 translate:1 term:3 nazi:3 refer:2 vaterland:1 also:3 name:4 strongly:1 pro:1 magazine:1 edit:1 wilhelm:1 wei:1 rise:1 party:1 germany:1 soviet:1 union:1 create:2 minority:1 include:1 volga:2 assr:2 jewish:1 autonomous:1 oblast:1 case:1 later:1 abolish:1 inhabitant:2 deport:1 either:1 siberia:1 kazakh:1 ssr:1 united:2 state:2 department:2 security:3 soon:1 september:1 terrorist:1 attack:1 mean:1 centralize:1 response:1 threat:1 rarely:1 citizen:1 make:1 chosen:1 sound:1 odd:1 many:1 june:1 column:1 republican:1 consultant:1 speechwriter:1 peggy:1 noonan:1 express:1 hope:1 bush:1 administration:1 would:1 change:1 write:1 grate:1 lot:1 people:1 understandably:1 really:1 american:1 something:1 say:2 apartheid:1 era:1 south:3 africa:3 give:1 different:1 white:2 government:1 designate:1 approximately:1 black:2 tribal:1 settlement:1 non:1 restrict:1 settling:1 area:1 gradually:1 grant:2 increase:1 level:1 home:1 rule:1 several:1 region:1 independence:1 four:1 declare:1 independent:2 nation:2 unrecognized:1 besides:1 set:1 aside:1 african:1 know:1 bantustans:1 see:1 separatism:1 secession:1 list:1 diaspora:1 politics:1 bantustan:1 source:1 |@bigram soviet_union:1 autonomous_oblast:1 kazakh_ssr:1 |
2,579 | KL-ONE | KL-ONE is a well known knowledge representation system in the tradition of semantic networks and frames; that is, it is a frame language. The system is an attempt to overcome semantic indistinctness in semantic network representations and to explicitly represent conceptual information as a structured inheritance network. There is a whole family of KL-ONE-like systems. Frames in KL-ONE are called concepts. These form hierarchies using subsume-relations; in the KL-ONE terminology a super class is said to subsume its subclasses. Multiple inheritance is allowed. Actually a concept is said to be well-formed only if it inherits from more than one other concept. All concepts, except the top concept Thing, must have at least one super class. In KL-ONE descriptions are separated into two basic classes of concepts: primitive and defined. Primitives are domain concepts that are not fully defined. This means that given all the properties of a concept, this is not sufficient to classify it. They may also be viewed as incomplete definitions. Using the same view, defined concepts are complete definitions. Given the properties of a concept, these are necessary and sufficient conditions to classify the concept. The slot-concept is called roles and the values of the roles are role-fillers. There are several different types of roles to be used in different situations. The most common and important role type is the generic RoleSet that captures the fact that the role may be filled with more than one filler. See also Ontology language References R.J. Brachman and J. Schmolze, "An Overview of the KL-ONE Knowledge Representation System", Cognitive Sci 9(2), 1985. | KL-ONE |@lemmatized kl:6 one:9 well:2 know:1 knowledge:2 representation:3 system:4 tradition:1 semantic:3 network:3 frame:3 language:2 attempt:1 overcome:1 indistinctness:1 explicitly:1 represent:1 conceptual:1 information:1 structured:1 inheritance:2 whole:1 family:1 like:1 call:2 concept:12 form:2 hierarchy:1 use:3 subsume:2 relation:1 terminology:1 super:2 class:3 say:2 subclass:1 multiple:1 allow:1 actually:1 inherit:1 except:1 top:1 thing:1 must:1 least:1 description:1 separate:1 two:1 basic:1 primitive:2 define:3 domain:1 fully:1 mean:1 give:2 property:2 sufficient:2 classify:2 may:2 also:2 view:2 incomplete:1 definition:2 complete:1 necessary:1 condition:1 slot:1 role:6 value:1 filler:2 several:1 different:2 type:2 situation:1 common:1 important:1 generic:1 roleset:1 capture:1 fact:1 fill:1 see:1 ontology:1 reference:1 r:1 j:2 brachman:1 schmolze:1 overview:1 cognitive:1 sci:1 |@bigram j_brachman:1 |
2,580 | Oberlin_College | Oberlin College is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. It was founded in 1833 by Presbyterian ministers, and is home to the Oberlin Conservatory of Music, making it the only top-ranked liberal arts college (#20 according to US News & World Report Best Colleges 2009 ) with a top-ranked conservatory. The school is noteworthy for its early admission of African-Americans (1834) The decision to admit people of African lineage came after a Trustee debate over whether to welcome abolitionist preachers from Lane Seminary. http://www.oberlin.edu/newserv/04jan/laneDebates.html and women (1833) Oberlin was the first coed college in the United States of America. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/naw/nawstime.html into the academy. A study found that more 1999-2003 Oberlin College alumni receive doctorates than do alumni from any other liberal arts college in the country. Oberlin College's motto is "Learning and Labor." While its school colors are often casually referred to as "crimson and gold," they are actually cardinal red and mikado yellow. Those colors were formally designated for the college by a faculty committee in 1889 and were drawn from the family coat of arms of John Frederick Oberlin Oberlin College . They remain in the official registry of school colors maintained by the American Council on Education. Oberlin is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and The Five Colleges of Ohio consortium. History The Oberlin campus in 1909 Both the college and the town of Oberlin were founded in 1833 by a pair of Presbyterian ministers, John Shipherd and Philo P. Stewart. http://www.cityofoberlin.com/Administration/community.html The ministers named their project after Jean-Frédéric Oberlin, an Alsatian minister whom they both admired. Oberlin attained prominence because of the influence of its second president, the evangelist Charles Finney, after whom one of the College's chapels and performance spaces is named. Its first president was Asa Mahan (1800-1889), who served as such from 1835-1850. The college was built on 500 acres (2 km²) of land specifically donated by the previous owner, who lived in Connecticut. Shipherd and Stewart's vision was for both a religious community and school. For a more detailed history of the founding of the town and the college, see Oberlin, Ohio. Oberlin has long been associated with progressive causes. Its founders bragged that "Oberlin is peculiar in that which is good." Oberlin was the first college in the United States to regularly admit African-American students (1835) after a casting vote by Rev. John Keep. It is also the oldest continuously operating coeducational institution, since having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg (Fairchild), Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, and Elizabeth Prall. All but Kellogg graduated. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21, 1965 for its significance in admitting African-Americans and women. The college had some difficult beginnings, Rev. Keep and William Dawes were sent to England to raise funds for the college in 1839-40. The culture of English antislavery, 1780-1860, David Turley, p192, 1991, ISBN 0415020085, accessed April 2009 One historian called Oberlin, "the town that started the Civil War" due to its reputation as a hotbed of abolitionism. Brandt, Nat (1990). The town that started the Civil War. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0243-X. Oberlin was a key stop along the Underground Railroad, station number 99. In 1858, both students and faculty were involved in the controversial Oberlin-Wellington Rescue of a fugitive slave, which received national press coverage. Two participants in this raid, Lewis Sheridan Leary and John Anthony Copeland, along with another Oberlin resident, Shields Green, also participated in John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry. This heritage was commemorated on campus by the 1977 installation of sculptor Cameron Armstrong's "Underground Railroad Monument" (a railroad track rising from the ground toward the sky) Underground Railroad Monument and monuments to the Oberlin-Wellington Rescue Oberlin-Wellington Rescue Monument and the Harper's Ferry Raid Harper's Ferry Memorial . Introduction of co-ed dormitories In 1970, Oberlin made the cover of Life Magazine as one of the first colleges in the country to have co-ed dormitories. College web site Historian Geoffrey Blodgett, a professor and graduate of Oberlin, pointed out that campus dorms were a cause of anger among students during the 1960s. Students reacted vocally against the new dorms of the 1950s and 1960s (Dascomb, East, North and South), calling them expedient "slabs" of "sleeping and feeding space," Blodgett, Geoffrey (May 11, 1995). "The Grand March of Oberlin campus plans". Oberlin Observer. Vol. 16 No. 17 Sec. Observations. (web archive: http://www.oberlin.edu/observer/observer16.17/observations.html) and this protest soon took on other controversies, including the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War. Dascomb went from being the impetus for protest to the vehicle of social change in 1967 when it was transformed into a co-ed dorm during winter term of 1969. Hebrew House, as it was known, was set up as winter term project to operate similar to an Israeli kibbutz. The experiment was a success, and now all but one of Oberlin College's dormitories are coed. The Baldwin Cottage is open only to women and transgender students. College web site Academics Of Oberlin's 2,800 or so students, roughly 2,200 are enrolled in the College of Arts & Sciences, a little over 400 in the Conservatory of Music, and the remaining 150 or so in both College and Conservatory under the five-year Double Degree program. College of Arts & Sciences Peters Hall, home of the language departments. The College of Arts & Sciences offers over 45 majors, minors and concentrations. Based on students graduating with a given major, its most popular majors over the last ten years have been (in order) English, Biology, History, Politics and Environmental Studies. The College's science programs are considered strong for a smaller liberal arts college, especially Chemistry and Neuroscience. Conservatory of Music Conservatory of Music at Oberlin College The top-ranked Oberlin Conservatory of Music is located on the Oberlin College campus. Conservatory admission is rigorous, with over 1400 applicants worldwide auditioning for 120 seats. As a result, the quality of Oberlin's artistic community is high. Students benefit from over 500 performances yearly, most free of charge, with concerts and recitals almost daily. Allen Memorial Art Museum and Mudd Library The Allen Memorial Art Museum, with over 12,000 holdings, was the first college art museum west of the Alleghenies and is held on par with those at Princeton, Harvard, and Yale. Short Tour: Allen Art Museum The Oberlin College Library System is one of the largest undergraduate library systems in the nation, containing over 1.3 million volumes and 1,800 print subscriptions in five separate facilities (Main Library, Art Library, Conservatory of Music Library, Science Library and Carnegie Storage), a large Special Collections department with strengths in Oberliniana and anti-slavery material, and 52 staff. In addition to the breadth of its holdings, it is recognized for its quality: the library received the Association of College and Research Libraries Award for Excellence in 2002, and in 2006 Director of Libraries Ray English was named the ALA's "Academic/Research Librarian of the Year". In the summer of 2007 the main level of the main library in the Seeley G. Mudd Learning Center was converted into an Academic Commons. OhioLINK consortium Oberlin students and faculty benefit by Oberlin's membership in the OhioLINK consortium, providing access to 12,000+ commercially licensed online journals, 130 databases, 18,000+ ebooks and is rapidly growing digital media collections. The OhioLINK Central Catalog represents the library holdings of 87 libraries in the state, including the State Library of Ohio, plus the Center for Research Libraries. The collection is nearing 10 million unique records representing 27.5 million holdings in the system, and undergraduates account for the larger percentage of OhioLINK online borrowing - the process by which any enrolled student can readily request the loan of books and other items from any other library in the system. Experimental College The college's "Experimental College" or ExCo program, a student-run department, allows any student or interested person to teach their own class for a limited amount of college credit. ExCo classes by definition focus on material not covered by existing departments or faculty. Many courses supplement conventional disciplines, from languages and areas of cinema or literature, to musical ensembles, martial arts and forms of dancing. Other ExCos cover an array of topics, in the past ranging from Aquariums Fall 2002 Exco course listing to Wilderness Skills. Spring 2003 Exco course listing to Hacky Sack Due to the nature of ExCo, while some staple courses are continued for years, the overall number and selection of classes offered varies dramatically from semester to semester. EXCO Committee) Winter Term Another aspect of Oberlin's academics is the Winter Term during the month of January. This term was created to allow students to do something outside the regular course offerings of the college. Students may work alone or in groups, either on or off campus, and may design their own project or pick from a list of projects and internships set up by the college each year. Projects range from serious academic research with co-authorship in scientific journals, to humanitarian projects, to making avant-garde films about historic Chicago neighborhoods, to learning how to bartend. A full-credit project is suggested to involve five to six hours per weekday. Office of Winter Term Campus culture Student Cooperative Association The Oberlin Student Cooperative Association, or OSCA, is a non-profit corporation that houses 175 students and feeds 630 students in multiple sites. Its budget is nearly $2 million, making it the third-largest of its kind in North America, and by far the largest relative to the size of the institution whose students it serves. OSCA is entirely student-run, with all participating students working as cooks, buyers, administrators, organizers. Every participant is required to do at least one hour per week of cleaning, ensuring that no one is valued above others. Most decisions within OSCA are made by consensus. Oberlin bans all fraternities and sororities, making the co-ops the largest student-organized social system at the college. Political activism Students passing through the Memorial Arch in front of Peters Hall. The arch is dedicated to the memory of missionaries from Oberlin who were killed in the Boxer Rebellion. Oberlin students have a reputation for being radically liberal or progressive. The college was ranked among the Princeton Review's''' list of "Colleges with a Consciense" in 2005. Colleges with a conscience Recent activism among the student body has resulted in a campus-wide ban on sales of Coca-Cola products Taylor, Samantha (November 19, 2004). "College set to ban Coca-Cola". Oberlin Review (web link: http://www.oberlin.edu/stupub/ocreview/2004/11/19/news/article1.html) and a vote of no confidence in the college's president at the time, Nancy S. Dye, in May 2005. Keating, Josh (May 13, 2005). Students vote 'no-confidence' in Nancy Dye. Oberlin Review This vote, as well as similar actions by the faculty, likely played a role in her resignation in September 2006. Oberlin is also known for its positive attitude towards sexuality and gender expression. Oberlin was ranked among the 20 friendliest campuses for LGBT students in The Advocate's College Guide for LGBT Students. The Advocate College Guide for LGBT Students is the best ever road map to gay-friendly campuses. Even if we do say so ourselves. The school hosts a Sexual Information Center, where students may receive STI tests, free or heavily discounted condoms and lubricant, and counseling on sexual issues. Oberlin sponsors a Safer Sex Night, originally started in the 1980s as a response to the AIDS crisis, as well as the Drag Ball, which marks Transgender Awareness week. Both these events are well-attended by students, although they draw criticism from social conservatives nationwide. A sampling of the school's past commencement speakers reflects its reputation for embracing diversity, ranging from Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Jesse L. Jackson to figures as varied as Pete Seeger and Robert Frost; even Adlai Stevenson appeared, a month prior to his death. Music In addition to the Conservatory, Oberlin has myriad musical opportunities available for amateur musicians and students in the college. The Oberlin Gilbert and Sullivan Players (OGASP) perform one Gilbert and Sullivan operetta each semester. The entirely student-run Oberlin College Marching Band (OCMB), founded in 1998, performs at various sporting events including football games, women's rugby, and pep rallies throughout the year. There are a number of a cappella groups, including the Obertones (all-male),Nothing But Treble (all-female), and the Offbeats (co-ed jazz). In addition, students in the college can form chamber groups and receive coaching through the conservatory. Student composers also provide a demand for musicians to perform their work. The college radio station WOBC-FM, and the party circuit (including the popular on-campus venue, The 'Sco) contribute to the campus music scene. Many alumni have pursued careers in popular and indie music, including members of the bands The Mars Volta, Come, Deerhoof, Liz Phair, Josh Ritter, Songs: Ohia, The Sea and Cake, Tortoise, Trans Am, Sleepytime Gorilla Museum, and the Yeah Yeah Yeahs. Due in part to both this and the school's proximity to Cleveland, the college attracts touring artists with a frequency nearly unparalleled among institutions of its size. Oberlin College is also home to the steel drum ensemble Oberlin Steel, which has performed at venues including Central Park, New York's Lincoln Center, and the Lincoln Memorial. Art Rental Oberlin's museum has a unique art rental program. At the beginning of every semester students camp out in front of the north gate of the college's Allen Memorial Art Museum to get first pick of original etchings, lithographs and paintings by artists including Renoir, Warhol, Dalí, and Picasso. For five dollars per semester, students can hang these works on their dorm room walls. The program was started in the 1940s by Ellen Johnson, a professor of art at Oberlin, in order to "develop the aesthetic sensibilities of students and encourage ordered thinking and discrimination in other areas of their lives." Angell, Sue (September 26, 2005). "Art Rental Still Going Strong After 60 Years". OBERLIN Online: News and Features. (web link: http://oberlin.edu/news-info/05sep/art.html) Sustainability Oberlin College has demonstrated its commitment to the pursuit of sustainability on a number of fronts. An estimated 50% of the school's electricity needs are met using sustainable energy sources. Oberlin's innovative Center For Environmental Studies, a building the Department of Energy labeled as one of the “milestone” buildings of the 20th century, incorporates a 4,600 square foot (425 square meter) photovoltaic array, the biggest of its kind in Ohio. The school utilizes hybrid and electric vehicles for various purposes, offers financial support to a local transit company providing public transportation to the school, and has been home to the Oberlin Bike Co-op, a cooperatively run bicycle center, since 1986. Each of the residence halls also monitors and displays real time and historic power and water use. Some dorms also have orbs which display a color depending on how real time energy use compares to the average historic energy use. The school's Campus Committee on Shareholder responsibility provides students, faculty, and staff with the opportunity to make suggestions and decisions on proxy votes. In 2007, Oberlin received a grade of “B+” from the Sustainable Endowments Institute's annual College Sustainability Report Card, and was featured among schools as a “Campus Sustainability Leader”. "College Sustainability Report Card 2008" Sustainable Endowments Institute. Retrieved on July 20, 2008. In 2008, Oberlin received an "A-" on the annual College Sustainability Report Card. "College Sustainability Report Card 2009" Sustainable Endowments Institute. Retrieved on October 1, 2008. It was also listed as the school with the greenest conscience by Plenty in their green campuses ratings. "Green Campuses 3.0" Plenty. Retrieved on October 1, 2008. The Experimental College (ExCo) program at 3,000-student Oberlin College allows students to teach topics of interest that are normally not covered in the standard curriculum, giving them the opportunity to be on the other side of the blackboard. There is a course about Peak Oil http://www.energybulletin.net/node/13448 . Publications The newspaper of record is The Oberlin Review. There is also an "alternative" student-run newspaper called The Grape, and a newspaper pertaining to interests of students of color called In Solidarity. The College produces a quarterly alumni magazine http://www.oberlin/edu/oam while the Conservatory publishes its own magazine once a year. Athletics The school's varsity sports teams are the Yeomen and Yeowomen. They participate in the NCAA's Division III and the North Coast Athletic Conference. Oberlin's football team was the first team coached by legendary coach John Heisman, who led the team to a 7–0 record in 1892. Oberlin is the last college in Ohio to beat Ohio State (winning 7-6 in 1921). Though in modern times the football team was more famous for losing streaks of 40 games (1992–1996) and 44 games (1997–2001), the Yeomen have enjoyed limited success in recent years. The college also hosts several club sports teams, including the Oberlin Ultimate team. Oberlin Ultimate was founded in 1976 and is often among the top 10 teams in its region. Recently, leaders of the Athletic Department and various club sports have spoken out in favor of increased institutional support for the teams, requesting that the College provide access to professional sports trainers and team transportation. Football Oberlin played its first football game in 1891, going 2 and 2 that season. In 1892, they were coached by John Heisman; Oberlin went 7 and 0, beating Ohio State twice by scores of 40-0 and 50-0. They outscored opponents 262 to 30. Oberlin was one of the founding members of the Ohio Athletic Conference in 1902, along with Case, Kenyon College, Ohio State, Ohio Wesleyan University and Western Reserve. The league commonly was known as the "Big Six." Ohio State joined the Big Ten in 1913 Ohio State Buckeyes football team. Ohio State's all-time highest margin of victory was a 128-0 thrashing of Oberlin in 1916. Oberlin is the last in-state school to defeat Ohio State. The Yeomen upset the Buckeyes 7-6 at Ohio Field in Columbus in 1921. The Oberlin teams of 1994 to 2000 have been rated the fifth worst college football team of all time by ESPN.com's Page 2. In 1994, Oberlin lost all nine games of its season scoring only ten points and giving up 358 points. In 1995, the Yeomen were outscored 469 to 72. In August 1996, Sports Illustrated featured Oberlin in its annual College Football Preview as the worst team in Division III. After four winless seasons from 1993 to 1996, Oberlin opened its 1997 season with an 18-17 victory over Thiel College sparking post-game jubilation with fans rushing the field. The victory garnered national attention as ESPN featured it on SportsCenter. Oberlin would not win again for years. Swarthmore College and Oberlin scheduled a 1999 matchup, with both schools nursing long losing streaks, just so one of them could end their streak. Oberlin lost 42-6 and continued a 44-game losing streak, ending it with a 53-22 victory over Kenyon College at home in October 2001. Page2 Staff. "Worst college football teams of all time". ESPN.com's Page2. (web link: http://espn.go.com/page2/s/list/colfootball/teams/worst.html) 2008 Oberlin College Football Media Guide (web link:http://www.goyeo.com/documents/2008/8/4/2008_football_media_guide.pdf?id=357 , pages 39-40) Since then the team has enjoyed modest success, staying competitive in most games and going 5-5 (with better than .500 records in conference) in 2003, 2006, and 2007. In March 2008, Chris Schubert, a former wide receiver for Oberlin was invited to a mini camp hosted by the Cleveland Browns. He did not make the roster but in November 2008, was signed by the Mahoning Valley Thunder of the AF2. He scored a touchdown in his first game for the Thunder. Rugby Oberlin has both men's and women's rugby teams, the Gruffs and the Rhinos, respectively. The women's rugby team defeated Ohio State University 14-0 in Spring 2008 and won the Teapot Dome Tournament. Ultimate Oberlin has both a men's and a women's Ultimate team, known as the Flying Horsecows and the Preying Manti The Preying Manti respectively. The Horsecows have made trips to College Nationals in 1992, 1995, 1997, and 1999. The Manti qualified for Nationals for the first time in 1997. Both teams also maintain a tradition of emphasizing the spirit of Ultimate. Recently, the Flying Horsecows, after having an unsuccessful 2006-2007 season, hired a coach to work them into shape, and succeeded in advancing to the Regional championship tournament http://upa.org/college/top25history/2008-top25-open.shtml . Notable alumni Oberlin has graduated three Nobel Laureates, including neuropsychologist Roger Wolcott Sperry; and six MacArthur Fellows. Alumni have achieved success in a variety of fields and include the the youngest mayor of Washington, D.C. Adrian Fenty; Ben & Jerry's co-founder Jerry Greenfield; physicist Robert Millikan, who measured the charge of an electron; Willard Van Orman Quine, the influential American analytic philosopher and logician; Moses Fleetwood Walker, the first African-American major league baseball player; James McBride, author of The Color of Water, which spent over two years on the New York Times bestseller list; William F. Schulz, former executive director of Amnesty International; Tony- and Emmy-winning directors Julie Taymor and James Burrows; Ishmael Beah, author of A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier; Alison Bechdel, a lesbian cartoonist; H. H. Kung, a premier of China; Michelle Malkin, a prominent conservative blogger; Ed Helms, star of The Office and The Daily Show; Dr. D.A. Henderson, who led the WHO campaign to eradicate smallpox; Tom Frieden recently named director of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as well as many musicians, playwrights, novelists, and activists and commentators spanning the political spectrum. In popular culture In Toni Morrison's debut novel The Bluest Eye, she described a town "which boasted an affinity with Oberlin, the underground railroad station, just thirteen miles away." In Morrison's novel Beloved, and in the 1998 movie, Kimberly Elise's character Denver exclaims, "She says I might go to Oberlin!" as Oberlin was the first college to admit African-American students. Robert Downey Jr.'s character Roger Baron in the 1989 film True Believer attended Oberlin College. Oberlin was mentioned in the popular 2004 American movie Eurotrip as the school that the main character attends at the end of the film. It is a joke referring the fact that the plot of the movie has the main character trying to find a girl in Berlin, Germany only to be united with her at the college in Ohio, which sounds like "Oh Berlin." Humorously, the campus portrayed in the movie bears little resemblance to the actual Oberlin campus, including a lake that is conspicuously absent in real life. An episode of the popular television sit-com, Dharma & Greg, mentions Oberlin as a prospective college choice for the yet to be born grandchild of Dharma's hippie parents. The protagonist in H.P. Lovecraft's horror short story The Shadow Over Innsmouth spends his senior year at Oberlin. Oberlin features prominently in the novels The Color of Light and Boys and Girls Together by William Goldman, an alumnus of the college. Oberlin is parodied and renamed Accidental College in alumnus Gary Shteyngart's 2006 novel Absurdistan. The protagonist of alumna Alison Bechdel's 2006 memoir Fun Home attends Oberlin College. Rich Orloff's play Vietnam 101: The War on Campus depicts the turmoil that occurred on the Oberlin Campus in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the Vietnam War. THE PLAYS OF RICH ORLOFF - Vietnam 101: The War On Campus The character J.D. Lutz from the American television comedy 30 Rock went to Oberlin. In the October 18, 2000 episode of The West Wing, Congressional candidate Tom Jordan is described as a graduate of Oberlin College. The character attended an all-white fraternity. However, Oberlin College has not allowed its students to join fraternities since its founding in 1833. The character Tim Haspel from Showtime's The L Word left Los Angeles to coach the swim team at Oberlin. In the "D-Girl" episode of The Sopranos, Meadow mentions Oberlin as the college that Anthony Jr.'s English teacher graduated from. In Philip Roth's novel Exit Ghost, he writes of an acquaintance, whose children, at his insistence, all attend Wellesley, "Imagine, four daughters and not a single one of them saying, 'But I'd rather go to Barnard, I'd rather go to Oberlin." Oberlin Conservatory of Music is the setting for the feature film "Ivory" (2009). In "Carnal Knowledge," the February 2, 2009 episode of the hit CW show "Gossip Girl," Blair says with snotty resentment, "Turns out I can still apply to Oberlin..." after she is expelled from her prestigious Upper East Side private school, destroying her chances at her dream school, Yale. In John Katz's Death by Station'', private investigator Kit Deleeuw is interviewing a high school student who tells him, "I am going to Oberlin next Fall." In Greg Mottola's film Adventureland, the protagonist, James Brennan, is a recent Oberlin graduate from the class of 1987. References External links Official website Oberwiki, the Oberlin wiki | Oberlin_College |@lemmatized oberlin:110 college:87 private:3 liberal:5 art:19 ohio:18 found:5 presbyterian:2 minister:4 home:6 conservatory:13 music:10 make:9 top:4 ranked:3 accord:1 u:2 news:4 world:1 report:5 best:2 school:20 noteworthy:1 early:1 admission:2 african:6 american:9 decision:3 admit:5 people:1 lineage:1 come:2 trustee:1 debate:1 whether:1 welcome:1 abolitionist:1 preacher:1 lane:1 seminary:1 http:11 www:7 edu:5 newserv:1 lanedebates:1 html:7 woman:9 first:13 coed:2 united:3 state:13 america:2 loc:1 gov:1 ammem:1 naw:1 nawstime:1 academy:1 study:3 find:2 alumnus:8 receive:7 doctorate:1 country:2 motto:1 learn:3 labor:1 color:7 often:2 casually:1 refer:2 crimson:1 gold:1 actually:1 cardinal:1 red:1 mikado:1 yellow:1 formally:1 designate:1 faculty:6 committee:3 draw:2 family:1 coat:1 arm:1 john:8 frederick:1 remain:2 official:2 registry:1 maintain:2 council:1 education:1 member:3 great:1 lake:2 association:4 five:5 consortium:3 history:3 campus:20 town:5 pair:1 shipherd:2 philo:1 p:2 stewart:2 cityofoberlin:1 com:6 administration:1 community:3 name:4 project:7 jean:1 frédéric:1 alsatian:1 admire:1 attain:1 prominence:1 influence:1 second:1 president:3 evangelist:1 charles:1 finney:1 one:12 chapel:1 performance:2 space:2 asa:1 mahan:1 serve:2 build:1 acre:1 land:1 specifically:1 donate:1 previous:1 owner:1 live:1 connecticut:1 vision:1 religious:1 detailed:1 founding:2 see:1 long:3 associate:1 progressive:2 cause:2 founder:2 brag:1 peculiar:1 good:2 regularly:1 student:47 casting:1 vote:5 rev:2 keep:2 also:11 old:1 continuously:1 operate:2 coeducational:1 institution:3 since:4 four:4 enter:1 full:2 mary:3 kellogg:2 fairchild:1 caroline:1 rudd:1 hosford:1 elizabeth:1 prall:1 graduate:7 list:7 national:5 historic:4 landmark:1 december:1 significance:1 difficult:1 beginning:2 william:3 dawes:1 send:1 england:1 raise:1 fund:1 culture:3 english:4 antislavery:1 david:1 turley:1 isbn:2 access:3 april:1 historian:2 call:4 start:4 civil:3 war:6 due:3 reputation:3 hotbed:1 abolitionism:1 brandt:1 nat:1 syracuse:1 university:3 press:2 x:1 key:1 stop:1 along:3 underground:4 railroad:5 station:4 number:4 involve:2 controversial:1 wellington:3 rescue:3 fugitive:1 slave:1 coverage:1 two:2 participant:2 raid:3 lewis:1 sheridan:1 leary:1 anthony:2 copeland:1 another:2 resident:1 shield:1 green:4 participate:3 brown:2 harper:3 ferry:3 heritage:1 commemorate:1 installation:1 sculptor:1 cameron:1 armstrong:1 monument:4 track:1 rise:1 ground:1 toward:1 sky:1 memorial:6 introduction:1 co:8 ed:5 dormitory:3 cover:4 life:3 magazine:3 web:7 site:3 geoffrey:2 blodgett:2 professor:2 point:3 dorm:5 anger:1 among:7 react:1 vocally:1 new:3 dascomb:2 east:2 north:4 south:1 expedient:1 slab:1 sleep:1 feed:2 may:6 grand:1 march:3 plan:1 observer:2 vol:1 sec:1 observation:2 archive:1 protest:2 soon:1 take:1 controversy:1 include:12 right:1 movement:1 vietnam:4 go:12 impetus:1 vehicle:2 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2,581 | Politics_of_Grenada | Politics of Grenada takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Grenada is an independent country and Commonwealth Realm. It is a parliamentary democracy whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Grenada is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law. Grenada is governed under a parliamentary system based on the British model; it has a governor general, a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral Parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate. Citizens enjoy a wide range of civil and political rights guaranteed by the constitution. Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. Citizens exercise this right through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage. Grenada has two significant political parties, both moderate: the New National Party (conservative) and the National Democratic Congress (liberal). Minor parties include the left-of-center Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM, organized by the pro-Bishop survivors of the October 1983 anti-Bishop coup) and the populist GULP of former Prime Minister Gairy. At the November 2003 election, the NNP government of Prime Minister Keith Mitchell was narrowly re-elected. At the July 2008 election, Mitchell's NNP lost its parliamentary majority to the NDC and Tillman Thomas formed a government Security in Grenada is maintained by the 650 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which included an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard. The U.S. Army and the U.S. Coast Guard provide periodic training and material support for the SSU and the coast guard. Executive branch As head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is represented in Grenada by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. The leader of the majority party serves as Prime Minister and head of government. The cabinet consists of members, including the Prime Minister and ministers of executive departments. They answer politically to the House of Assembly. The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judicial commission. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court. |Queen |Elizabeth II | |6 February 1952 |- |Governor-General |Carlyle Glean | |27 November 2008 |- |Prime Minister |Tillman Thomas |NDC |9 July 2008 |} Legislative branch The Parliament has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 15 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies. The Senate has 13 appointed members, 10 appointed by the government and three by the leader of the opposition). Political parties and elections Judicial branch West Indies Associate States Supreme Court (an associate judge resides in Grenada) Administrative divisions 6 parishes and 1 dependency*; Carriacou and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick International organization participation ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO | Politics_of_Grenada |@lemmatized politics:1 grenada:10 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:4 representative:3 democratic:2 monarchy:1 whereby:1 prime:9 minister:10 head:3 government:8 multi:1 party:6 system:3 independent:2 country:1 commonwealth:1 realm:1 democracy:1 whose:1 political:4 legal:1 tradition:1 closely:1 follow:1 united:2 kingdom:2 executive:4 power:2 exercise:2 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:3 constitutional:1 safeguard:1 include:4 freedom:1 speech:1 press:1 worship:1 movement:2 association:1 member:7 eastern:1 caribbean:1 court:4 judiciary:1 legislature:1 jurisprudence:1 base:2 english:1 common:1 law:1 govern:1 british:1 model:1 governor:5 general:5 cabinet:3 bicameral:1 elect:3 house:3 appoint:4 senate:2 citizen:3 enjoy:1 wide:1 range:1 civil:1 right:3 guarantee:1 constitution:2 provide:2 change:1 peacefully:1 periodic:2 free:1 fair:1 election:4 hold:1 basis:1 universal:1 suffrage:1 two:2 significant:1 moderate:1 new:1 national:2 conservative:1 congress:1 liberal:1 minor:1 left:1 center:1 maurice:1 bishop:3 patriotic:1 mbpm:1 organize:1 pro:1 survivor:1 october:1 anti:1 coup:1 populist:1 gulp:1 former:1 gairy:1 november:2 nnp:2 keith:1 mitchell:2 narrowly:1 july:2 lose:1 majority:2 ndc:2 tillman:2 thomas:2 form:1 security:1 maintain:1 royal:1 police:1 force:1 rgpf:1 paramilitary:1 special:1 service:1 unit:1 ssu:2 coast:3 guard:3 u:2 army:1 training:1 material:1 support:1 branch:3 state:2 queen:2 elizabeth:2 ii:2 represent:1 act:1 advice:3 leader:3 serf:2 consist:1 department:1 answer:1 politically:1 assembly:1 chief:1 justice:2 supreme:2 opposition:2 appoints:1 judicial:2 commission:1 privy:1 council:1 high:1 appellate:1 february:1 carlyle:1 glean:1 chamber:1 five:1 year:1 term:1 single:1 seat:1 constituency:1 three:1 west:1 indie:1 associate:2 judge:1 resides:1 administrative:1 division:1 parish:1 dependency:1 carriacou:1 petit:1 martinique:1 saint:6 andrew:1 david:1 george:1 john:1 mark:1 patrick:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 c:1 caricom:1 cdb:1 eclac:1 fao:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 subscriber:1 itu:1 laes:1 nam:1 oas:1 oecs:1 opanal:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wipo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 |@bigram prime_minister:9 commonwealth_realm:1 parliamentary_democracy:1 judiciary_independent:1 bicameral_parliament:1 universal_suffrage:1 queen_elizabeth:2 supreme_court:2 privy_council:1 appellate_court:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 west_indie:1 participation_acp:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iso:1 itu_laes:1 nam_oas:1 opanal_opcw:1 opcw_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wipo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 |
2,582 | Endocrine_system | Major endocrine glands. (Male on the left, female on the right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes The endocrine system is a system of glands that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, and tissue function and also plays a part in determining mood. The field of study that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of internal medicine. Function The endocrine system is an information signal system much like the nervous system. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body, for example the testis, release into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones regulate many functions of an organism, including mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism. Types of signaling The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system. Endocrine The endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemical messages called hormones A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. Also controls metabolism in our body system. Autocrine Other signaling can target the same cell. Paracrine Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby. Juxtacrine Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent. Role in disease Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by dysregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the testis (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation. Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones. Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis. Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones This is a table of the glands of the endocrine system, and their secreted hormones. Hypothalamus Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary (primarily) Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary. Growth hormone-releasing hormone GHRH Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus Release GH from anterior pituitary Corticotropin-releasing hormone CRH Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Release ACTH from anterior pituitary Oxytocin Magnocellular neurosecretory cells Contraction of cervix and vagina Involved in orgasm, trust between people. and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness). release breast milk Vasopressin ADH or AVP Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water in the nephrons of the kidney, thus increasing water reabsorbtion. Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone SS or GHIH Neuroendocrine cells of the Periventricular nucleus Inhibit release of GH and TSH from anterior pituitary Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine PIH or DA Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus Inhibit release of prolactin and TSH from anterior pituitary Prolactin-releasing hormone PRH Release prolactin from anterior pituitary Pineal body (epiphysis) Secreted hormone From cells Effect Melatonin (Primarily) Pinealocytes antioxidant and causes drowsiness Dimethyltryptamine Speculated role in mystical and dream experiences Pituitary gland (hypophysis) Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Growth hormone GH Somatotropes stimulates growth and cell reproduction Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liverProlactin PRL Lactotropes milk production in mammary glands sexual gratification after sexual acts Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin ACTH Corticotropes synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone MSH Corticotropes lipolysis and steroidogenesis, stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin TSH Thyrotropes stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Follicle-stimulating hormone FSH Gonadotropes In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary. In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes Luteinizing hormone LH Gonadotropes In female: ovulation In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis) Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Oxytocin Magnocellular neurosecretory cells this hormone causes the uterus to contract during child-birth and also causes the mammary glands to release milk during breastfeeding. Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone AVP or ADH Parvocellular neurosecretory neuronss retention of water in kidneys moderate vasoconstriction Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored. Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia) Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Melanocyte-stimulating hormone MSH Melanotroph melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair. Thyroid Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells EffectTriiodothyronine T3 Thyroid epithelial cell potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine T4 Thyroid epithelial cells || less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines, affect protein synthesis, often functions as a prohormone |- ! Calcitonin | || Parafollicular cells Construct bone reduce blood Ca2+ Parathyroid Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Parathyroid hormone PTH Parathyroid chief cell increase blood Ca2+: indirectly stimulate osteoclasts Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney activate vitamin D (Slightly) decrease blood phosphate: decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones activate vitamin D Heart Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Atrial-natriuretic peptide ANP Cardiac myocytes Reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats Brain natriuretic peptide BNP Cardiac myocytes (To a lesser degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats Striated muscle Secreted hormone From cells Effect Thrombopoietin Myocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets Skin Secreted hormone From cells Effect Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3) Inactive form of Vitamin D3 Adipose tissue Secreted hormone From cells EffectLeptin (Primarily)Adipocytes decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism. Estrogens (mainly Estrone) Adipocytes Stomach Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Gastrin (Primarily) G cells Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells Ghrelin P/D1 cells Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland Neuropeptide Y NPY increased food intake and decreased physical activity Somatostatin D cells Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine. Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin Histamine ECL cells stimulate gastric acid secretion Endothelin X cells Smooth muscle contraction of stomach Duodenum Secreted hormone From cells Effect SecretinS cells Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice CholecystokininI cells Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant Liver Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily) IGF Hepatocytes insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development Angiotensinogen and angiotensin Hepatocytes vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen. Thrombopoietin Hepatocytes stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets Pancreas Secreted hormone From cells Effect Insulin (Primarily) β Islet cells Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects Glucagon (Also Primarily) α Islet cells glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver increases blood glucose level Somatostatinδ Islet cells Inhibit release of insulin Inhibit release of glucagon Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas. Pancreatic polypeptide PP cells Unknown Kidney Secreted hormone From cells Effect Renin (Primarily) Juxtaglomerular cells Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen Erythropoietin (EPO) Extraglomerular mesangial cells Stimulate erythrocyte production Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) Active form of vitamin D3 Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets Adrenal glands Adrenal cortex Secreted hormone From cells Effect Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol) zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells Stimulation of gluconeogenesis Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone) Zona glomerulosa cells Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily) Potassium and H+ secretion in kidney. Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone) Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells Virilization, anabolic Adrenal medulla Secreted hormone From cells Effect Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily) Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion) Suppress immune system Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) Chromaffin cells Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Increase skeletal muscle readiness. Dopamine Chromaffin cells Increase heart rate and blood pressure Enkephalin Chromaffin cells Regulate pain Testes Secreted hormone From cells Effect Androgens (chiefly testosterone) Leydig cells Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair. Estradiol Sertoli cells Prevent apoptosis of germ cells Inhibin Sertoli cells Inhibit production of FSH Ovary These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum. Secreted hormone From cells Effect Progesterone Granulosa cells, theca cells Support pregnancy Placental Hormones : Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen Androstenedione Theca cells Substrate for estrogen Estrogens (mainly estradiol) Granulosa cells Structural: Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism (burn fat) Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers Hormonal Therapy (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.) Lung function: Promote lung function by supporting alveoli. Inhibin Granulosa cells Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary Placenta (when pregnant) Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Progesterone (Primarily) Support pregnancy: Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily) Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen Human chorionic gonadotropin HCG Syncytiotrophoblast promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo. Human placental lactogen HPL Syncytiotrophoblast increase production of insulin and IGF-1 increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance Inhibin Fetal Trophoblasts suppress FSH Uterus (when pregnant) Secreted hormone Abbreviation From cells Effect Prolactin PRL Decidual cells milk production in mammary glands Relaxin Decidual cells Unclear in humans and animals See also Releasing hormones Neuroendocrinology Nervous system Endocrine disruptor Major systems of the human body Endocrine disease Endocrinology References ^ External links UC Berkeley anatomy lecture on the endocrine system | Endocrine_system |@lemmatized major:2 endocrine:25 gland:32 male:3 left:1 female:4 right:1 pineal:2 pituitary:18 thyroid:13 thymus:1 adrenal:8 pancreas:5 ovary:3 testes:1 system:19 involve:3 release:27 extracellular:1 signal:12 molecule:1 know:1 hormone:60 instrumental:1 regulate:9 metabolism:5 growth:20 development:3 puberty:1 tissue:7 function:9 also:8 play:1 part:1 determine:1 mood:2 field:2 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unclear:1 animal:1 see:1 neuroendocrinology:1 disruptor:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 anatomy:1 lecture:1 |@bigram endocrine_gland:8 pineal_gland:1 pituitary_gland:3 gland_thyroid:2 thyroid_gland:2 adrenal_gland:3 hypothalamic_pituitary:1 pituitary_adrenal:1 adrenal_axis:1 salivary_gland:1 sweat_gland:1 gastrointestinal_tract:3 diabetes_mellitus:2 renal_failure:1 secondary_tertiary:1 thyroid_hormone:3 estrogen_receptor:1 breast_cancer:2 gland_secrete:2 secrete_hormone:23 hormone_abbreviation:11 thyroid_stimulate:2 stimulate_hormone:5 anterior_pituitary:11 breast_milk:1 collect_duct:1 mammary_gland:3 adrenocorticotropic_hormone:1 follicle_stimulate:1 hormone_secrete:1 epithelial_cell:2 basal_metabolic:2 parathyroid_hormone:1 adipose_tissue:3 gastric_acid:2 vasoactive_intestinal:1 smooth_muscle:5 muscle_contraction:2 liver_pancreas:1 digestive_enzyme:1 adrenal_cortex:2 renin_angiotensin:1 calcium_phosphate:1 zona_fasciculata:2 zona_reticularis:2 glucose_uptake:1 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2,583 | Etiology | Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. The word is derived from the Greek , aitiologia, "giving a reason for" (, aitia, "cause"; and , -logia). The word is most commonly used in medical and philosophical theories, where it is used to refer to the study of why things occur, or even the reasons behind the way that things act, and is used in philosophy, physics, psychology, government, medicine, theology and biology in reference to the causes of various phenomena. An etiological myth is a myth intended to explain a name or create a mythic history for a place or family. Medicine Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first person to use a microscope to view bacteria. In medicine in particular, the term refers to the causes of diseases or pathologies. Discusses several examples of the medical usage of the term etiology in the context of cleft lips and explains methods used to study causation. The first ideas about microorganisms were those of the Ancient Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a 1st century BC book titled On Agriculture. Varro On Agriculture 1,xii Loeb Contemporary medieval thinking on the etiology of disease was influenced by Galen and Hippocrates. Maimonides: an early but accurate view on the treatment of hemorrhoids -- Magrill and Sekaran 83 (979): 352 -- Postgraduate Medical Journal Medieval European doctors generally held the view that disease was related to the air and adopted a miasmatic approach to disease etiology. Case study: the history and ethics clean air In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna discovered that they are caused by contagion that can spread through bodily contact or through water and soil. George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan. He also stated that bodily secretion is contaminated by foul foreign earthly bodies before being infected. Ibrahim B. Syed, Ph.D. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", Journal of the Islamic Medical Association 2, p. 2-9. Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was the first physician to provide a scientific etiology for the inflammatory diseases of the ear, and the first to clearly discuss the causes of stridor. Prof. Dr. Mostafa Shehata, "The Ear, Nose and Throat in Islamic Medicine", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2003 (1): 2-5 [4]. Through his dissections, he proved that the skin disease scabies was caused by a parasite, a discovery which upset the Galenic theory of humorism, and he was able to successfully remove the parasite from a patient's body without any purging or bleeding. Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia. When the Black Death reached al-Andalus in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima proposed that infectious diseases are caused by microscopic particles which enter the human body. Another Andalusian physician, Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374), wrote a treatise called On the Plague, stating that the contagion could spread via garments, vessels and earrings. Etiological discovery in medicine has a history in Robert Koch's demonstration that the tubercle bacillus (Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex) causes the disease tuberculosis, Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax, and Vibrio cholerae causes cholera. This line of thinking and evidence is summarized in Koch's postulates. But proof of causation in infectious diseases is limited to individual cases that provide experimental evidence of etiology. In epidemiology, several lines of evidence together are required to infer causation. Sir Austin Bradford-Hill demonstrated a causal relationship between smoking and lung cancer, and summarized the line of reasoning in the epidemiological criteria for causation. Dr. Al Evans, a US epidemiologist, synthesized his predecessors' ideas in proposing the Unified Concept of Causation. Further thinking in epidemiology was required to distinguish causation from association or statistical correlation. Events may occur together simply due to chance, bias or confounding, instead of one event being caused by the other. It is also important to know which event is the cause. Careful sampling and measurement are more important than sophisticated statistical analysis to determine causation. Experimental evidence, involving interventions (providing or removing the supposed cause), gives the most compelling evidence of etiology. Etiology is sometimes a part of a chain of causation. An etiological agent of disease may require an independent co-factor, and be subject to a promoter (increases expression) to cause disease. An example of all the above, which was recognized late, is that peptic ulcer disease may be induced by stress, requires the presence of acid secretion in the stomach, and has primary etiology in Helicobacter pylori infection. Many chronic diseases of unknown cause may be studied in this framework to explain multiple epidemiological associations or risk factors which may or may not be causally related, and to seek the actual etiology. Some diseases, such as diabetes or hepatitis, are syndromically defined, by their signs and symptoms, but include different conditions with different etiologies. Conversely, one etiology, such as Epstein-Barr virus, may in different circumstances produce different diseases, such as mononucleosis, or nasopharyngeal carcinoma, or Burkitt's lymphoma. Mythology An etiological myth, or origin myth, is a myth intended to explain the origins of cult practices, natural phenomena, proper names and the like. For example, the name Delphi and its associated deity, Apollon Delphinios, are explained in the Homeric Hymn which tells of how Apollo carried Cretans over the sea in the shape of a dolphin (delphis) to make them his priests. While Delphi is actually related to the word delphys ("womb"), many etiological myths are similarly based on folk etymology (the term "Amazon", for example). In the Aeneid (published circa 17 BC), Vergil claims the descent of Augustus Caesar's Julian clan from the hero Aeneas through his son Ascanius, also called Julus. Other examples of etiological myths come from the Bible, such as the setting of the rainbow in the heavens as a sign of God's covenant with Noah (Genesis 9); or the story of Lot's wife in Genesis 19 (specifically 26) to explain why there are pillars of salt in the area of the Dead Sea. The story of Prometheus' sacrifice-trick in Hesiod's Theogony relates how Prometheus tricked Zeus into choosing the bones and fat of the first sacrificial animal rather than the meat to justify why, after a sacrifice, the Greeks offered the bones wrapped in fat to the gods while keeping the meat for themselves. See also Eschatology Geomythology Just-so story (comparable to etiological myth) References External links | Etiology |@lemmatized etiology:12 alternatively:1 aetiology:1 aitiology:1 study:5 causation:9 word:3 derive:1 greek:2 aitiologia:1 give:2 reason:3 aitia:1 cause:15 logion:1 commonly:1 use:5 medical:4 philosophical:1 theory:2 refer:1 thing:2 occur:2 even:1 behind:1 way:1 act:1 philosophy:1 physic:1 psychology:1 government:1 medicine:9 theology:1 biology:1 reference:2 various:1 phenomenon:2 etiological:7 myth:8 intend:2 explain:6 name:3 create:1 mythic:1 history:5 place:1 family:1 antonie:1 van:1 leeuwenhoek:1 first:5 person:1 microscope:1 view:3 bacteria:1 particular:1 term:3 refers:1 disease:15 pathology:1 discus:1 several:2 example:5 usage:1 context:1 cleft:1 lip:1 method:1 idea:2 microorganism:1 ancient:1 roman:1 scholar:1 marcus:1 terentius:1 varro:2 century:2 bc:2 book:1 title:1 agriculture:2 xii:1 loeb:1 contemporary:1 medieval:2 think:1 influence:1 galen:1 hippocrates:1 maimonides:1 early:1 accurate:1 treatment:1 hemorrhoid:1 magrill:1 sekaran:1 postgraduate:1 journal:3 european:1 doctor:1 generally:1 hold:1 relate:4 air:2 adopt:1 miasmatic:1 approach:1 case:2 ethic:1 clean:1 canon:1 avicenna:1 discover:1 contagion:2 spread:2 bodily:2 contact:1 water:1 soil:1 george:1 sarton:1 introduction:1 science:2 cf:1 dr:4 zahoor:1 z:1 haq:1 quotation:1 famous:1 historian:1 cyberistan:1 also:4 state:2 secretion:2 contaminate:1 foul:1 foreign:1 earthly:1 body:3 infect:1 ibrahim:1 b:1 syed:1 ph:1 islamic:5 year:1 ahead:1 time:1 association:3 p:1 ibn:3 zuhr:1 avenzoar:1 physician:2 provide:3 scientific:1 inflammatory:1 ear:2 clearly:1 discuss:1 stridor:1 prof:1 mostafa:1 shehata:1 nose:1 throat:1 international:1 society:1 dissection:1 prove:1 skin:1 scabies:1 parasite:2 discovery:2 upset:1 galenic:1 humorism:1 able:1 successfully:1 remove:2 patient:1 without:1 purging:1 bleeding:1 hutchinson:1 encyclopedia:1 black:1 death:1 reach:1 al:3 andalus:1 khatima:1 propose:2 infectious:2 microscopic:1 particle:1 enter:1 human:1 another:1 andalusian:1 khatib:1 write:1 treatise:1 call:2 plague:1 could:1 via:1 garment:1 vessel:1 earring:1 robert:1 koch:2 demonstration:1 tubercle:1 bacillus:2 mycobacterium:1 tuberculosis:2 complex:1 anthracis:1 anthrax:1 vibrio:1 cholerae:1 cholera:1 line:3 thinking:2 evidence:5 summarize:2 postulate:1 proof:1 limit:1 individual:1 experimental:2 epidemiology:2 together:2 require:4 infer:1 sir:1 austin:1 bradford:1 hill:1 demonstrate:1 causal:1 relationship:1 smoking:1 lung:1 cancer:1 epidemiological:2 criterion:1 evans:1 u:1 epidemiologist:1 synthesize:1 predecessor:1 unified:1 concept:1 distinguish:1 statistical:2 correlation:1 event:3 may:7 simply:1 due:1 chance:1 bias:1 confounding:1 instead:1 one:2 important:2 know:1 careful:1 sampling:1 measurement:1 sophisticated:1 analysis:1 determine:1 involve:1 intervention:1 suppose:1 compelling:1 sometimes:1 part:1 chain:1 agent:1 independent:1 co:1 factor:2 subject:1 promoter:1 increase:1 expression:1 recognize:1 late:1 peptic:1 ulcer:1 induce:1 stress:1 presence:1 acid:1 stomach:1 primary:1 helicobacter:1 pylorus:1 infection:1 many:2 chronic:1 unknown:1 framework:1 multiple:1 risk:1 causally:1 seek:1 actual:1 diabetes:1 hepatitis:1 syndromically:1 define:1 sign:2 symptom:1 include:1 different:4 condition:1 conversely:1 epstein:1 barr:1 virus:1 circumstance:1 produce:1 mononucleosis:1 nasopharyngeal:1 carcinoma:1 burkitt:1 lymphoma:1 mythology:1 origin:2 cult:1 practice:1 natural:1 proper:1 like:1 delphi:3 associated:1 deity:1 apollon:1 delphinios:1 homeric:1 hymn:1 tell:1 apollo:1 carry:1 cretan:1 sea:2 shape:1 dolphin:1 make:1 priest:1 actually:1 delphys:1 womb:1 similarly:1 base:1 folk:1 etymology:1 amazon:1 aeneid:1 publish:1 circa:1 vergil:1 claim:1 descent:1 augustus:1 caesar:1 julian:1 clan:1 hero:1 aeneas:1 son:1 ascanius:1 julus:1 come:1 bible:1 setting:1 rainbow:1 heaven:1 god:2 covenant:1 noah:1 genesis:2 story:3 lot:1 wife:1 specifically:1 pillar:1 salt:1 area:1 dead:1 prometheus:2 sacrifice:2 trick:1 hesiod:1 theogony:1 tricked:1 zeus:1 choose:1 bone:2 fat:2 sacrificial:1 animal:1 rather:1 meat:2 justify:1 offer:1 wrap:1 keep:1 see:1 eschatology:1 geomythology:1 comparable:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram etiological_myth:5 antonie_van:1 van_leeuwenhoek:1 marcus_terentius:1 terentius_varro:1 george_sarton:1 sarton_introduction:1 dr_zahoor:1 zahoor_dr:1 z_haq:1 haq_quotation:1 science_cyberistan:1 ibn_zuhr:1 prof_dr:1 ear_nose:1 nose_throat:1 theory_humorism:1 al_andalus:1 infectious_disease:2 mycobacterium_tuberculosis:1 bacillus_anthracis:1 koch_postulate:1 lung_cancer:1 peptic_ulcer:1 epstein_barr:1 barr_virus:1 homeric_hymn:1 folk_etymology:1 hesiod_theogony:1 external_link:1 |
2,584 | Forge | A blacksmith's coal forge Wooden smithy in Opole, Upper Silesia A forge is the workplace of a smith or a blacksmith. A forge is sometimes referred to as a smithy. The basic smithy contains a forge, also known as a hearth, for heating metals. The forge heats the workpiece to a malleable temperature or to the point where work hardening no longer occurs. The workpiece is transported to and from the forge using tongs. The tongs are also used to hold the workpiece on the smithy's anvil while the smith works it with a hammer. Finally the workpiece is transported to the slack tub, which rapidly cools the workpiece in a large body of water. The slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge. Types of forges Coal/coke/charcoal forge Standard coal forge A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealing, and drawing temper as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: 1) amount of air, 2) volume of fuel, and 3) shape of the fuel/fire. A forge fire for hot working of metal Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge: Tuyere -- a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire Bellows or blower -- a means for forcing air into the tuyere Firepot or hearth -- a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening. During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes more fuel and burns hotter. A typical Scottish smithy at Auchentiber, North Ayrshire, Scotland. A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire. In a typical, but by no means universal, coal forge, a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'back draft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal), the fire is handled differently. Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above, to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it. Gas forge A forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials, preferably a hard castable refractory ceramic. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect. Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick. The primary advantage of a gas forge is ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces;. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a well designed gas forge is hot enough for any task. Finery forge A finery forge is a water-powered mill where pig iron is refined into wrought iron. Forging equipment Anvil The anvil serves as a work bench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be beaten is placed. Anvils are made of cast or wrought iron with a tool steel face welded on or of a single piece of cast or forged tool steel. The flat top has two holes; the wider is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy fits. The smaller hole is called the punch hole, used as clearance when punching holes in hot metal. Chisel Chisels are made of high carbon steel whose cross-section is an octagon. They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with cold chisels. Peat Oberon's School of Blacksmithing: The cold chisel you will make on our 'Make your own tools' course Tongs Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are made in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. Fuller Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is placed on the bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer. The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. Hardy The hardy is a cutting tool similar to the chisel. It is used as a chisel or hammer for cutting both hot and cold metals. It has a square shank that fits into the hardy hole in the anvil, with the cutting edge facing upwards. The metal to be cut is placed on the cutting edge and struck with a hammer. Types of Forging Drop Forging Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide; Todd, Allen, Alting Drop forging is a process used to shape metal into complex shapes by dropping heated metal into a punch and die which compresses to gradually change the shape of the metal. Process The process of drop forming is very simple. The workpiece is placed into a die and punch, then the impact of a ram on the punch causes the heated material, which is very malleable, to conform to the shape of the punch and die cavities. Typically only one ram is needed to completely form the part. The extra space between the die and punch is called the flash. It acts as a relief valve for the extreme pressure produced by the closing of the die halves but is eventually trimmed off of the finished part. Equipment The equipment used in the drop forming process is commonly known as a power drop hammer. These may be powered by air, hydraulics, or mechanics. Depending on how the machine is powered, the mass of the ram, and the drop height, the striking force can be anywhere from 11,000 to 425,000 pounds. The tools that are used, dies and punches, come in many different shapes and sizes, as well as materials. Examples of these shapes are flat and v-shaped which are used for open-die forging, and single or multiple-impression dies used for closed die-forging. The designs for the dies have many aspects to them that must be considered. They all must be properly aligned, they must be designed so the metal and the flash will flow properly and fill all the grooves, and special considerations must be made for supporting webs and ribs and the parting line location. The materials must also be selected carefully. Some factors that go into the material selection are cost, their ability to harden, their ability to withstand high pressures, hot abrasion, heat cracking, and other such things. The most common materials used for the tools are carbon steel and, in some cases, stainless steel. Workpiece Materials The materials that are used most commonly in drop forging are aluminum, copper, nickel, mild steel, stainless steel, and magnesium. Mild steel is the best choice, and magnesium generally performs pretty poorly as a drop forging material. Gallery See also Clinker (waste) Solar forge References External links Forging Magazine - All issues available online free of charge. Smithery. Technical characteristics Art smithery The ERC/NSM: A metal forming research organization at The Ohio State University,USA Glossary of Forging Terms and Definitions Benefits of the Forging Process Brigham Young University - Drop Forging Animation of Forging Firetongs Pictures of a large forge at work Video of a ring being forged by a silversmith — With permission from The Devil's Workshop http://nail-forging.blogspot.com/ How to forge nails] Russian Forging | Forge |@lemmatized blacksmith:5 coal:13 forge:51 wooden:1 smithy:5 opole:1 upper:1 silesia:1 workplace:1 smith:5 sometimes:1 refer:1 basic:2 contain:2 also:8 know:2 hearth:6 heat:9 metal:18 workpiece:7 malleable:3 temperature:1 point:1 work:8 harden:4 longer:1 occur:1 transport:2 use:22 tongs:4 hold:2 anvil:6 hammer:6 finally:1 slack:2 tub:2 rapidly:1 cool:1 large:5 body:2 water:3 provide:1 control:3 fire:24 type:7 coke:10 charcoal:4 standard:1 typically:4 bituminous:1 industrial:1 fuel:11 design:7 vary:2 time:1 whether:1 remain:1 essentially:1 fireplace:1 allow:1 introduce:1 may:3 bring:2 state:2 metallurgical:1 effect:2 anneal:1 draw:1 temper:2 example:2 three:1 way:2 amount:2 air:11 volume:1 shape:15 hot:12 working:1 thousand:1 year:1 forging:8 device:1 evolve:1 one:3 form:4 another:1 essential:1 feature:1 tuyere:6 pipe:2 force:3 bellow:2 blower:3 mean:2 firepot:4 place:7 burn:6 opening:1 operation:2 ignite:2 source:1 move:1 fan:1 introduces:1 additional:2 consume:1 hotter:1 typical:2 scottish:1 auchentiber:1 north:1 ayrshire:1 scotland:1 balance:1 suit:2 particular:1 kind:1 often:2 involve:1 adjust:2 maintain:2 universal:1 center:1 flat:3 enter:2 bottom:3 core:1 ball:1 heart:4 surround:2 layer:3 around:1 unburnt:1 transitional:1 transform:1 ring:2 horseshoe:1 raw:2 usually:2 keep:2 damp:1 tightly:1 pack:1 directly:1 cooks:1 first:1 necessary:1 increase:2 flow:2 well:3 feeding:1 deepen:1 length:1 width:1 accommodate:2 different:3 major:1 variation:1 describe:2 back:2 draft:1 pot:1 horizontally:1 wall:1 since:1 need:2 convert:1 handle:2 differently:1 individual:1 specialized:1 application:1 foster:1 development:1 variety:1 simpler:1 construction:2 hole:8 ground:1 lead:1 gas:7 propane:2 natural:1 common:3 efficient:1 cylindrical:1 chamber:3 burner:4 tube:1 mount:1 right:1 angle:1 line:2 refractory:2 material:9 preferably:1 hard:1 castable:1 ceramic:1 mix:1 tip:1 protrude:1 short:1 lining:1 pressure:3 therefore:2 mechanical:1 take:1 advantage:2 venturi:1 size:2 big:1 several:1 atmospheric:1 build:1 coffee:1 utilize:1 cheap:1 simple:3 torch:1 small:3 even:1 carve:1 single:3 soft:2 firebrick:1 primary:1 ease:1 particularly:1 novice:1 operate:1 compare:1 produce:3 clean:1 consistent:1 less:1 versatile:1 cannot:2 reshape:1 unusually:1 shaped:1 piece:3 difficult:1 section:2 misconception:1 enough:2 enable:1 welding:1 task:1 finery:2 power:4 mill:1 pig:1 iron:3 refine:1 wrought:2 equipment:3 serf:1 bench:1 beat:1 make:7 cast:2 tool:7 steel:8 face:1 weld:1 top:4 two:2 wider:1 call:3 hardy:6 square:3 shank:3 fit:3 punch:8 clearance:1 chisel:11 high:2 carbon:2 whose:1 cross:1 octagon:1 cut:6 edge:3 head:1 leave:1 crack:1 cold:6 thin:1 substitute:1 peat:1 oberon:1 school:1 blacksmithing:1 course:1 securely:1 mouth:1 various:2 gripping:1 fuller:6 groove:2 hollow:1 pair:1 struck:2 finish:1 round:1 corner:1 stretch:1 spread:1 similar:1 facing:1 upwards:1 cutting:1 drop:10 manufacturing:1 process:6 reference:2 guide:1 todd:1 allen:1 alting:1 complex:1 die:7 compress:1 gradually:1 change:1 forming:2 impact:1 ram:3 cause:1 heated:1 conform:1 cavity:1 completely:1 part:2 extra:1 space:1 flash:2 act:1 relief:1 valve:1 extreme:1 closing:1 half:1 eventually:1 trim:1 finished:1 commonly:2 hydraulics:1 mechanic:1 depend:1 machine:1 mass:1 height:1 striking:1 anywhere:1 pound:1 dy:3 come:1 many:2 v:1 open:1 multiple:1 impression:1 closed:1 aspect:1 must:5 consider:1 properly:2 align:1 fill:1 special:1 consideration:1 support:1 web:1 rib:1 parting:1 location:1 select:1 carefully:1 factor:1 go:1 selection:1 cost:1 ability:2 withstand:1 abrasion:1 cracking:1 thing:1 case:1 stainless:2 aluminum:1 copper:1 nickel:1 mild:2 magnesium:2 best:1 choice:1 generally:1 perform:1 pretty:1 poorly:1 gallery:1 see:1 clinker:1 waste:1 solar:1 external:1 link:1 magazine:1 issue:1 available:1 online:1 free:1 charge:1 smithery:2 technical:1 characteristic:1 art:1 erc:1 nsm:1 research:1 organization:1 ohio:1 university:2 usa:1 glossary:1 term:1 definition:1 benefit:1 brigham:1 young:1 animation:1 firetongs:1 picture:1 video:1 silversmith:1 permission:1 devil:1 workshop:1 http:1 nail:2 blogspot:1 com:1 russian:1 |@bigram upper_silesia:1 bituminous_coal:1 ayrshire_scotland:1 tightly_pack:1 venturi_effect:1 finery_forge:2 wrought_iron:2 cold_chisel:4 cutting_edge:1 stainless_steel:2 copper_nickel:1 external_link:1 brigham_young:1 blogspot_com:1 |
2,585 | Mishnah | The Mishnah or Mishna (, "repetition", from the verb shanah , or "to study and review") is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism, and the first major redaction into written form of Jewish oral traditions, called the Oral Torah. The word "Mishnah" also means "Secondary" (derived from the adj. שני), and the Greek name Deuterosis means "repetition". It is thus named for being both the one written authority (codex) secondary (only) to the Tanakh as a basis for the passing of judgement, a source and a tool for creating laws, and the first of many books to complement the Bible in a certain aspect. The Mishnah does so by presenting actual cases being brought to judgement, usually presents the debate on the matter as it was, and relays the judgement which was given by a wise and notable rabbi, based on the rules, Mitzvot, and spirit of the "Torah" which guided his sentencing, thus bringing to every-day reality the rules and the practice or adherence of the "mitzvot" as presented in the Bible. In other words, the Mishnah teaches strictly by example and is case-based, though associative in structure, it aimed to cover all aspects of human living, set an example in its own for future judgements and, most importantly, demonstrate pragmatic exercise of the biblical laws, which was much needed at the time when the Second Temple was destroyed. The Mishnah reflects debates between 70-200 CE by the group of rabbinic sages known as the Tannaim The plural term (singular tanna) for the Rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah; the period of the Tannaim is also referred to as the Mishnaic period and followed the Zugot ("pairs"), preceding the period of the Amoraim. The root tanna (תנא) is the Aramaic equivalent for the Hebrew root shanah (שנה), which also is the root-word of Mishnah. The verb shanah (שנה) literally means "to repeat [what one was taught]" and is used to mean "to learn". and redacted about 200 CE by Judah haNasi when, according to the Talmud, the persecution of the Jews and the passage of time raised the possibility that the details of the oral traditions would be forgotten. The oral traditions that are the subject of the Mishnah go back to earlier, Pharisaic times. The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, but merely the collection of existing traditions. The Mishnah is considered to be the first important work of Rabbinic Judaism The list of joyful days known as Megillat Taanit is older, but according to the Talmud it is no longer in force. and is a major source of later rabbinic religious thought. Rabbinic commentaries on the Mishnah over the next three centuries Recorded mostly in Aramaic. were redacted as the Gemara. Structure The Mishnah consists of six orders (, singular ), each containing 7-12 tractates (, singular ; lit. "web"), 63 in total. Each is divided into chapters (, singular ) and then paragraphs or verses (, singular ). The Mishnah is also called Shas (an acronym for Shisha Sedarim - the "six orders"). The term Shas is also used to refer to a complete Talmud, which follows the structure of the Mishnah. The Mishnah orders its content by subject matter, instead of by biblical context, and discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the Midrash. It includes a much broader selection of halakhic subjects than the Midrash. The six orders are: Zeraim ("Seeds"), dealing with prayer and blessings, tithes and agricultural laws (11 tractates) Moed ("Festival"), pertaining to the laws of the Sabbath and the Festivals (12 tractates) Nashim ("Women"), concerning marriage and divorce, some forms of oaths and the laws of the nazirite (7 tractates) Nezikin ("Damages"), dealing with civil and criminal law, the functioning of the courts and oaths (10 tractates) Kodashim ("Holy things"), regarding sacrificial rites, the Temple, and the dietary laws (11 tractates) and Tohorot ("Purities"), pertaining to the laws of purity and impurity, including the impurity of the dead, the laws of food purity and bodily purity (12 tractates). In each order (with the exception of Zeraim), tractates are arranged from biggest (in number of chapters) to smallest. The word Mishnah can also indicate a single paragraph or verse of the work itself, ie. the smallest unit of structure in the Mishnah. The Babylonian Talmud (Hagiga 14a) states that there were either six-hundred or seven-hundred orders of the Mishnah. Hillel the Elder organized them into six orders to make it easier to remember. The historical accuracy of this tradition is disputed. There is also a tradition that Ezra the scribe dictated from memory not only the 24 books of the Tanakh but 60 esoteric books. It is not known whether this is a reference to the Mishnah, but there is a case for saying that the Mishnah does consist of 60 tractates. (The current total is 63, but Makkot was originally part of Sanhedrin, and Bava Kamma, Bava Metzia and Bava Batra may be regarded as subdivisions of a single tractate Nezikin.) Interestingly, Reuvein Margolies posits that there were originally seven orders of Mishnah. He cites a Gaonic tradition on the existence of a seventh order. The missing order contained the laws of Sta"m (scribal practice) and Berachot (blessings). Authorship The Mishnah does not claim to be the development of new laws, but merely the collection of existing oral laws, traditions and traditional wisdom. The rabbis who contributed to the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim, of whom approximately 120 are known. The period during which the Mishnah was assembled spanned about 170 years, and five generations. Most of the Mishnah is related without attribution (). This usually indicates that many sages taught so, or that Judah haNasi (often called "Rebbi") who redacted the Mishna together with his academy/court ruled so. The halakhic ruling usually follows that view. Sometimes, however, it appears to be the opinion of a single sage, and the view of the sages collectively ({{lang-he|חכמים, hachamim) is given separately. The Talmud records a tradition that unattributed statements of the law represent the views of Rabbi Meir (Sanhedrin 86a), which supports the theory (recorded by Rav Sherira Gaon in his famous Iggeret) that he was the author of an earlier collection. For this reason, the few passages that actually say "this is the view of Rabbi Meir" represent cases where the author intended to present Rabbi Meir's view as a "minority opinion" not representing the accepted law. Rebbi is credited with publishing the Mishnah, though there have been a few edits since his time (for example, those passages that cite him or his grandson, Rabbi Yehuda Nesi'ah; in addition, the Mishnah at the end of Tractate Sotah refers to the period after Rebbi's death, which could not have been written by Rebbi himself). According to the Epistle of Sherira Gaon, after the tremendous upheaval caused by the destruction of the Temple and the Bar Kochba revolt, the Oral Torah was in danger of being forgotten. It was for this reason that Rebbi chose to redact the Mishnah. One must also note that in addition to redacting the Mishnah, Rebbi and his court also ruled on which opinions should be followed, though the rulings do not always appear in the text. As he went through the tractates, the Mishnah was set forth, but throughout his life some parts were updated as new information came to light. Because of the proliferation of earlier versions, it was deemed too hard to retract anything already released, and therefore a second version of certain laws were released. The Talmud refers to these differing versions as Mishnah Rishonah ("First Mishnah") and Mishnah Acharonah ("Last Mishnah"). David Zvi Hoffman suggests that Mishnah Rishonah actually refers to texts from earlier Sages upon which Rebbi based his Mishnah. One theory is that the present Mishnah was based on an earlier collection by Rabbi Meir. There are also references to the "Mishnah of Rabbi Akiva", though this may simply mean his teachings in general. This theory was held by David Zvi Hoffman, and is repeated in the introduction to Herbert Danby's Mishnah translation. It is possible that Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Meir established the divisions and order of subjects in the Mishnah, but this would make them the authors of a school curriculum rather than of a book. Authorities are divided on whether Rebbi recorded the Mishnah in writing or established it as an oral text for memorisation. The most important early account of its composition, the Epistle of Sherira Gaon, is ambiguous on the point, though the "Spanish" recension leans to the theory that the Mishnah was written. However, the Talmud records that, in every study session, there was a person called the tanna appointed to recite the Mishnah passage under discussion. This may indicate that, even if the Mishnah was reduced to writing, it was not available on general distribution. Context Oral law Before the publication of the Mishnah, Jewish scholarship was predominantly oral. Rabbis expounded on and debated the Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible, without the benefit of written works (other than the Biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes (), for example of court decisions. The oral traditions were far from monolithic, and varied among various schools, the most famous of which were the House of Shammai and the House of Hillel. The end of the Jewish commonwealth in the year 70 CE resulted in an upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. The Rabbis were faced with the new reality of Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy. It is during this period that Rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing. See, Strack, Hermann, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, Jewish Publication Society, 1945. pp.11-12. "[The Oral Law] was handed down by word of mouth during a long period...The first attempts to write down the traditional matter, there is reason to believe, date from the first half of the second post-Christian century." Strack theorizes that the growth of a Christian canon (the New Testament) was a factor that influenced the Rabbis to record the oral law in writing. The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Law into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated. See, for example, Grayzel, A History of the Jews, Penguin Books, 1984, p. 193. The earliest recorded oral law may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Torah. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant by about the year 200 CE, when Rebbi Judah haNasi redacted the Mishnah. In general, all opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Mishnah and subsequently the Talmud. In modern times, "the law" takes on a different meaning than discussed in the Mishnah and Talmud. "The law" in Judaism refers primarily to biblical law, given to the Israelites by God through Moses, as well as interpretations of the meaning and application of those rules. Thus, "the Law" is understood to be the religious teachings and rules given by God. Yet, since religion was infused in every area of life, rules for governing society, resolution of disputes, and enforcing safety and public order were also governed by the religious law, leading to an overlap of religion and modern conceptions of law. Relationship with the Hebrew Bible Rabbinic Judaism holds that the oral tradition was received by Moses at Mount Sinai in parallel with the Five Books of Moses, the (written) Torah (Torah she-bi-khtav), and that these together have always been the basis of Jewish law (halakha). The "Written Law" consists of the "Five Books of Moses," the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, and not the Bible as a whole. When Nevi'im [נביאים] ("Prophets") and Ketuvim [כתובים] ("Writings"), are added to the Torah, the expanded volume is called the Tanakh. It is this collection of books that Christianity knows as The Old Testament. According to the Rabbinic view, the Oral Law (Torah she-be'al-peh) was also given to Moses at Sinai, and is the exposition of the Written Law as relayed by the scholarly and other religious leaders of each generation. This Oral Law is authoritative in practical terms, as the traditions of the Oral Law are considered as the necessary basis for the interpretation, and often for the reading, of the Written Law. Thus, Jewish law and custom is based not only on a literal reading of the Torah, or the rest of the Tanakh, but on the combined oral and written traditions. Notably, the Mishnah does not cite a written scriptural basis for its laws: since it is said that the Oral Law was given simultaneously with the Written Law, the Oral Law codified in the Mishnah does not derive directly from the Written Law of the Torah. This is in contrast with the Midrash halakha, works in which the sources of the traditionally received laws are identified in the Tanakh, often by linking a verse to a halakha. These Midrashim often predate the Mishnah. By 200 CE, much of the Oral Law was edited together into the Mishnah, and published by Rabbi Judah haNasi. Over the next four centuries this material underwent analysis and debate, known as Gemara ("completion"), in what were at that time the world's two major Jewish communities, in the land of Israel and in the Babylonian Empire. These debates eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the Talmud: the Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) for the compilation in Israel, and Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) for the compilation undertaken in Babylon. Competing oral laws and acceptance It is unclear, according to J. Sussman (Mehqerei Talmud III), whether there was any writing connected to the Oral Law, or whether it was entirely oral. Over time, different traditions of the Oral Law came into being, raising debates about what the laws or their rulings were. According to the Mevo Hatalmud many rulings were given about specific things that could have been taken out of context or where a ruling was revisited but the second ruling was not as popularly known. To correct this, Rabbi Yehuda haNasi took up the redaction of the Mishnah. If something was already there with no conflict, he used it without changes in language, he reordered and ruled on where there was conflict, and clarified where context was not given. The idea was not do this at his own discretion, but rather to examine the tradition as far back as he could, and only supplement as required. Some Jews did not accept the written codification of the oral law at all; known as Karaites, they comprised a significant portion of the world Jewish population in the 10th and 11th Centuries CE, and remain extant, though they currently number in the thousands. Mishnah Study Omissions A number of important laws are not elaborated upon in the Mishnah. These include the laws of tzitzit, tefillin (phylacteries), mezuzah, the holiday of Hanukkah, and the laws of gerim (converts). These were later discussed in the minor tractates. Rabbi Nissim Gaon in his Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud writes that many of these laws were so well known that it was unnecessary for Rabbi to discuss them. Reuvain Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, Rabbi could not have included discussion of Hanukkah which commemorates the Jewish revolt against the Syrian-Greeks (the Romans would not have tolerated this overt nationalism). Similarly, there were then several decrees in place aimed at suppressing outward signs of national identity, including decrees against wearing tefillin and tzitzit; as Conversion to Judaism was against Roman law, Rabbi would not have discussed this. David Zvi Hoffman suggests that there existed ancient texts in the form of the present day Shulchan Aruch that discussed the basic laws of day to day living and it was therefore not necessary to focus on these laws in the Mishnah. Textual variants The earliest printed edition of the Mishnah was published in Naples ("the Napoli edition"). There have been many subsequent editions, including the late nineteenth century Vilna edition, which is the basis of the editions now used by the religious public. As well as being printed on its own, the Mishnah is included in all editions of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. Each paragraph is printed on its own, and followed by the relevant Gemara discussion. However, that discussion itself often cites the Mishnah line by line. While the text printed in paragraph form has generally been standardized to follow the Vilna edition, the text cited line by line often preserves important variants, which sometimes reflect the readings of older manuscripts. The nearest approach to a critical edition is that of Hanoch Albeck. There is also an edition by Yosef Qafih of the Mishnah together with the commentary of Maimonides, which compares the base text used by Maimonides with the Napoli and Vilna editions and other sources. Oral traditions and pronunciation The Mishnah was and still is traditionally studied through recitation (out loud). Many medieval manuscripts of the Mishnah are vowelized, and some of these contain partial Tiberian cantillation. Jewish communities around the world preserved local melodies for chanting the Mishnah, and distinctive ways of pronouncing its words. Most vowelized editions of the Mishnah today reflect standard Ashkenazic vowelization, and often contain mistakes. The Albeck edition of the Mishnah was vowelized by Hanokh Yellin, who made careful eclectic use of both medieval manuscripts and current oral traditions of pronunciation from Jewish communities all over the world. The Albeck edition includes an introduction by Yellin detailing his eclectic method. Two institutes at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem have collected major oral archives which hold (among other things) extensive recordings of Jews chanting the Mishnah using a variety of melodies and many different kinds of pronunciation. These institutes are the Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center and the National Voice Archives (the Phonoteca at the Jewish National and University Library). See below for external links. Commentaries In 1168, Maimonides published a comprehensive commentary on the Mishnah. It was written in transliterated Arabic (using Hebrew letters) and was one of the first commentaries of its kind. In it, "Rambam" condenses the associated Talmudical debates, and offers his conclusions in a number of undecided issues. Of particular significance are the various introductory sections - as well as the introduction to the work itself - these are widely quoted in other works on the Mishnah, and on the Oral law in general. Perhaps the most famous is his introduction to the tenth chapter of tractate Sanhedrin where he enumerates the thirteen fundamental beliefs of Judaism. Rabbi Samson of Sens (France) was, apart from Maimonides, one of the few rabbis of the early medieval era to compose a Mishnah commentary. It is printed in many editions of the Mishnah. Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro (15th century) wrote one of the most popular Mishnah commentaries. He draws on Maimonides' work but also offers Talmudical material (in effect a summary of the Talmudic discussion) largely following the commentary of Rashi. In addition to its role as a commentary on the Mishnah, this work is often referenced by students of Talmud as a review-text, and is often referred to as "the Bartanura" or "the Ra'V". After the Maharal of Prague had initiated organised Mishnah study (Chevrath ha-Mishnayoth), Yomtov Lipman Heller (who is often believed to be his pupil but came to Prague already as a mature scholar) wrote a commentary called Tosafoth Yom Tov. In the introduction Heller says that his aim is to make additions (tosafoth) to Bertinoro’s commentary. The glosses are sometimes quite detailed and analytic. That is why it is sometimes compared to the Tosafoth - discussions of Babylonian gemara by French and German scholars of 12-13th C. In many compact Mishnah printings, a condensed version of his commentary, titled Ikar Tosafoth Yom Tov, is featured. Other Acharonim who have written Mishna commentaries: Rabbi Solomon Luria (the Maharshal) The Vilna Gaon (Shenoth Eliyahu) Rabbi Akiva Eiger A prominent commentary from the 19th century is Tifereth Yisrael by Rabbi Yisrael Lipschutz. It is subdivided into two parts, one more general and the other more analytical, titled Yachin and Boaz respectively (after two large pillars in the Temple in Jerusalem). Although Rabbi Lipschutz has faced some controversy in certain Hasidic circles, he was greatly respected by such sages as Rabbi Akiva Eiger, whom he frequently cites, and is widely accepted in the Yeshiva world. The commentary by Rabbi Pinhas Kehati, which is written in Modern Israeli Hebrew and based on classical and contemporary works, has become popular in the late Twentieth Century. The commentary is designed to make the Mishnah widely accessible to a wide spectrum of learners of all ages and all levels of experience in Torah study. It is popularly referred to as "The Kehati". Each tractate is introduced with an overview of its contents, including historical and legal background material, and each Mishnah is prefaced by a thematic introduction. The current version of this edition is printed with the Bartenura commentary as well as Kehati's. The above-mentioned edition edited by Hanokh Albeck and vocalized by Hanokh Yellin (1952-59) includes the former's extensive commentary on each Mishnah, as well as introductions to each tractate (Masekhet) and order (Seder.) This commentary tends to focus on the meaning of the mishnayot themselves, without as much reliance on the Gemara's interpretation and is, therefore, considered valuable as a tool for the study of Mishnah as an independent work. It is currently out of print. As an historical source Both the Mishnah and Talmud contain little serious biographical studies of the people discussed therein, and the same tractate will conflate the points of view of many different people. Yet, sketchy biographies of the Mishnaic sages can often be constructed with historical detail from Talmudic and Midrashic sources. Many modern historical scholars have focused on the timing and the formation of the Mishnah. A vital question is whether it is composed of sources which date from its editor's lifetime, and to what extent is it composed of earlier, or later sources. Are Mishnaic disputes distinguishable along theological or communal lines, and in what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early Judaism? Can these early sources be identified, and if so, how? In response to these questions, modern scholars have adopted a number of different approaches. Some scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Mishnah (and later, in the Talmud.) Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of Louis Jacobs, Baruch M. Bokser, Shaye J. D. Cohen, Steven D. Fraade. Some scholars hold that the Mishnah and Talmud have been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified to some extent because each era of history and each distinct geographical region has its own unique feature, which one can trace and analyze. Thus, the questions above may be analyzed. See, for example, the works of Goodblatt, Lee Levine, David C. Kraemer and Robert Goldenberg. Some scholars hold that many or most of the statements and events described in the Mishnah and Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, Avraham Goldberg and Dov Zlotnick. Professor Lawrence Shiffman proves that many of the specific, detailed arguments of the Pharisees already existed in 150 BCE (or earlier) - as documented in the Dead Sea Scroll MMT. Notes See also Tannaim Midrash Talmud Tosefta Beraita Minor Tractates Jewish commentaries on the Bible References English Translations Philip Blackman. Mishnayoth. The Judaica Press, Ltd., 2000 (ISBN 0-910818-00-X). Available online for free download in PDF format at HebrewBooks.org: Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodashim, Taharoth. Herbert Danby. The Mishnah. Oxford, 1933 (ISBN 0-19-815402-X). Jacob Neusner. The Mishnah: A New Translation. New Haven, reprint 1991 (ISBN 0-300-05022-4). Various editors. The Mishnah, a new translation with commentary Yad Avraham. New York: Mesorah publishers, since 1980s. Historical study Shalom Carmy (Ed.) Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations Jason Aronson, Inc. Shaye J.D. Cohen, "Patriarchs and Scholarchs", Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 48 (1981), pp. 57-87 Steven D. Fraade, "The Early Rabbinic Sage," in The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East, ed. John G. Gammie and Leo G. Perdue (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1990), pp. 417-23 Robert Goldenberg The Sabbath-Law of Rabbi Meir (Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1978) John W McGinley 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly ISBN 0-595-40488-X Jacob Neusner Making the Classics in Judaism (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), pp. 1-13 and 19-44 Jacob Neusner Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishnah (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), pp. 14-22. Gary Porton, The Traditions of Rabbi Ishmael (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1982), vol. 4, pp. 212-25 Dov Zlotnick, The Iron Pillar Mishnah (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 1988), pp. 8-9 Reuvain Margolies, Yesod Ha-Mishnah V'Arichatah (Heb.) David Tzvi Hoffman, Mishnah Rishonah U'flugta D'tanna'e (Heb) Recitation Frank Alvarez-Pereyre, La Transmission Orale de la Mishna. Une methode d'analyse appliquee a la tradition d'Alep: Jerusalem 1990 External links Wikimedia projects Wikisource's Open Mishna Project is developing Mishnah texts, commentaries, and translations. The project is currently available in four languages: Hebrew (the largest collection), English, French and Portuguese. Other electronic texts Learn Mishna in Someone's Memory - Create a Shloshim Mishnah list online Mishna on Demand - Custom PDF versions of any section of the Mishnah in Hebrew. Mechon Mamre - Hebrew text of the Mishnah according to Maimonides' version (based on the manuscript of his Mishnah commentary in his own handwriting). The Structured Mishnah - Hebrew text according to the Albeck edition (without vowels) with special formatting. Online Treasury of Talmudic Manuscripts, Jewish National and University Library in Hebrew. Mishnah study & the Daily Mishnah Aaron Ahrend, "Mishna Study and Study Groups in Modern Times" in JSIJ 3: 2004 (Hebrew). Available online here (Word & PDF). The Daily Mishna - uses the Kehati commentary (in English translation). Mishna Yomit - One Mishna per day. (Note: this study-cycle follows a different schedule than the regular one; contains extensive archives in English). Mishna of the Daf - a new Mishna study cycle that parallels the progress of the Daf Yomi. Kehati Mishna a program of two Mishnayos per day. Currently inactive, but archives contain the complete text of Kehati in English for Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, and about half of Kodashim. Dafyomireview - custom learning and review programs for mishnayos Audio lectures The "Master Torah" Mishnah Ba'al Peh Program by Meir Pogrow. The "All Mishnah" archive includes audio lectures in English on the entire Mishnah, in MP3 format for free download. Rav Avraham Kosman - Slabodka on the Mishna & Talmud in English - Produced in Israel Mishna Audio - given by Rabbi Chaim Brown Shlit"a in English Rav Grossman on the Mishna in English produced in Los Angeles Oral Traditions (chanting and pronunciation of the Mishnah) Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center (Hebrew University) The National Sound Archives at the Hebrew University (catalogue not currently online). 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2,586 | Hypertext | Hypertext is text, displayed on a computer, with references (hyperlinks) to other text that the reader can immediately follow, usually by a mouse click or keypress sequence. Apart from running text, hypertext may contain tables, images and other presentational devices. Any of these can be hyperlinks; other means of interaction may also be present, e.g. a bubble with text may appear when the mouse hovers somewhere, a video clip may be started and stopped, or a form may be filled out and submitted. The most extensive example of hypertext today is the World Wide Web. Etymology The prefix hyper- (comes from the Greek prefix "υπερ-" and means "over" or "beyond") signifies the overcoming of the old linear constraints of written text. The term "hypertext" is often used where the term "hypermedia" might seem appropriate. In 1992, author Ted Nelson - who coined both terms in 1965 - wrote: By now the word "hypertext" has become generally accepted for branching and responding text, but the corresponding word "hypermedia", meaning complexes of branching and responding graphics, movies and sound - as well as text - is much less used. Instead they use the strange term "interactive multimedia" - four syllables longer, and not expressing the idea that it extends hypertext. Types and uses of hypertext Hypertext documents can either be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamic (continually changing in response to user input). Static hypertext can be used to cross-reference collections of data in documents, software applications, or books on CDs. A well-constructed system can also incorporate other user-interface conventions, such as menus and command lines. Hypertext can develop very complex and dynamic systems of linking and cross-referencing. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the World Wide Web (first deployed in 1992) and later added to the Internet (developed/tested c.1977). History Early precursors to hypertext Recorders of information have long looked for ways to categorize and compile it. Early on, experiments existed with various methods for arranging layers of annotations around a document. The most famous example of this is the Talmud. Other reference works (for example dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.) also developed a precursor to hypertext, consisting of setting certain words in small capital letters, indicating that an entry existed for that term within the same reference work. Sometimes the term would be preceded by an index, ☞like this, or an arrow, ➧like this. Later, several scholars entered the scene who believed that humanity was drowning in information, causing foolish decisions and duplicating efforts among scientists. These scholars proposed or developed proto-hypertext systems predating electronic computer technology. For example, in the early 20th century, two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on labor-intensive, brute force methods. Paul Otlet proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle, in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on index cards. In the 1930s, H.G. Wells proposed the creation of a World Brain. Michael Buckland summarized the very advanced pre-World War II development of microfilm based on rapid retrieval devices, specifically the microfilm based workstation proposed by Leonard Townsend in 1938 and the microfilm and photoelectronic based selector, patented by Emanuel Goldberg in 1931. Buckland, Michael K. "Emanuel Goldberg, Electronic Document Retrieval, And Vannevar Bush's Memex", 1992 Buckland concluded: "The pre-war information retrieval specialists of continental Europe, the 'documentalists,' largely disregarded by post-war information retrieval specialists, had ideas that were considerably more advanced than is now generally realized." But, like the manual index card model, these microfilm devices provided rapid retrieval based on pre-coded indices and classification schemes published as part of the microfilm record without including the link model which distinguishes the modern concept of hypertext from content or category based information retrieval. The Memex All major histories of what we now call hypertext start in 1945, when Vannevar Bush wrote an article in The Atlantic Monthly called "As We May Think", about a futuristic device he called a Memex. He described the device as an electromechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of microfilms, able to display books, writings, or any document from a library. The Memex would also be able to create 'trails' of linked and branching sets of pages, combining pages from the published microfilm library with personal annotations or additions captured on a microfilm recorder. Bush's vision was based on extensions of 1945 technology - microfilm recording and retrieval in this case. However, the modern story of hypertext starts with the Memex because "As We May Think" directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, Ted Nelson and Douglas Engelbart. The invention of hypertext Ted Nelson coined the words "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1965 and worked with Andries van Dam to develop the Hypertext Editing System in 1968 at Brown University. Engelbart had begun working on his NLS system in 1962 at Stanford Research Institute, although delays in obtaining funding, personnel, and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968. In December of that year, Engelbart demonstrated a hypertext interface to the public for the first time, in what has come to be known as "The Mother of All Demos". Funding for NLS slowed after 1974. Influential work in the following decade included NoteCards at Xerox PARC and ZOG at Carnegie Mellon. ZOG started in 1972 as an artificial intelligence research project under the supervision of Allen Newell, and pioneered the "frame" or "card" model of hypertext. ZOG was deployed in 1982 on the U.S.S. Carl Vinson and later commercialized as Knowledge Management System. Two other influential hypertext projects from the early 1980s were Ben Shneiderman's The Interactive Encyclopedia System (TIES) at the University of Maryland (1983) and Intermedia at Brown University (1984). Applications The first hypermedia application was the Aspen Movie Map in 1977. In 1980, Tim Berners-Lee created ENQUIRE, an early hypertext database system somewhat like a wiki. The early 1980s also saw a number of experimental hypertext and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later integrated into the Web. Guide was the first hypertext system for personal computers. In August 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard for the Macintosh line at the MacWorld convention. Its impact, combined with interest in Peter J. Brown's GUIDE (marketed by OWL and released earlier that year) and Brown University's Intermedia, led to broad interest in and enthusiasm for hypertext and new media. The first ACM Hypertext academic conference took place in November 1987, in Chapel Hill NC. Meanwhile Nelson, who had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades, along with the commercial success of HyperCard, stirred Autodesk to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project continued at Autodesk for four years, but no product was released. Hypertext and the World Wide Web In the late 1980s, Berners-Lee, then a scientist at CERN, invented the World Wide Web to meet the demand for automatic information-sharing among scientists working in different universities and institutes all over the world. In 1992, Lynx was born as an early Internet web browser. Its ability to provide hypertext links within documents that could reach into documents anywhere on the Internet began the creation of the web on the Internet. Early in 1993, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois released the first version of their Mosaic web browser to supplement the two existing web browsers: one that ran only on NeXTSTEP and one that was only minimally user-friendly. Because it could display and link graphics as well as text, Mosaic quickly became the replacement for Lynx. Mosaic ran in the X Window System environment, which was then popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interactions. It allowed images WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Re: proposed new tag: IMG as well as text to anchor hypertext links. It also incorporated other protocols intended to coordinate information across the Internet, such as Gopher. WWW-Talk Jan-Mar 1993: Support for CSO and gopher type 2 After the release of web browsers for both the PC and Macintosh environments, traffic on the World Wide Web quickly exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994. Thus, all earlier hypertext systems were overshadowed by the success of the web, even though it originally lacked many features of those earlier systems, such as an easy way to edit what you were reading, typed links, backlinks, transclusion, and source tracking. In 1995, Ward Cunningham made the first wiki available, making the web more hypertextual by adding easy editing, and (within a single wiki) backlinks and limited source tracking. It also added the innovation of making it possible to link to pages that did not yet exist. Wiki developers continue to implement novel features as well as those developed or imagined in the early explorations of hypertext but not included in the original web. The Firefox Add-On Hyperwords which has been developed in cooperation with Doug Engelbart Hyperwords Advisory Board and Ted Nelson Hyperwords Advisory Board gives Web surfers the ability to issue many commands on any text on the web, not only pre-written links - a return to what users could do 40 years earlier with Doug Engelbart's NLS. Implementations Besides the already mentioned Project Xanadu, Hypertext Editing System, NLS, HyperCard, and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy early implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets: FRESS — A 1970s multi-user successor to the Hypertext Editing System. Electronic Document System — An early 1980s text and graphic editor for interactive hypertexts such as equipment repair manuals and computer-aided instruction. Information Presentation Facility — Used to display online help in IBM operating systems. Intermedia — A mid-1980s program for group web-authoring and information sharing. Storyspace — A mid-1980s program for hypertext narrative. Texinfo — The GNU help system. XML with the XLink extension — A newer hypertext markup language that extends and expands capabilities introduced by HTML. MediaWiki, the system that powers Wikipedia, and other wiki implementations — Relatively recent programs aiming to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers. Adobe's Portable Document Format — A widely used publication format for electronic documents including links. Windows Help PaperKiller - A document editor specifically designed for hypertext. Started in 1996 as IPer (educational project for ED-Media 1997). Amigaguide - released on Amiga Workbench 1990. Academic conferences Among the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annual ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia ( ACM SIGWEB Hypertext Conference page). Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by IW3C2, include many papers of interest. There is a list on the web with links to all conferences in the series. Hypertext fiction See main article Hypertext fiction Hypertext writing has developed its own style of fiction, coinciding with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, Storyspace and Intermedia became available in the 1990s. Storyspace 2.0, a professional level hypertext development tool, is available from Eastgate Systems, which has also published many notable works of electronic literature, including Michael Joyce's afternoon, a story, Shelley Jackson's Patchwork Girl, Stuart Moulthrop's Victory Garden, and Judy Malloy's its name was Penelope. Other works include Julio Cortázar's Rayuela and Milorad Pavić's Dictionary of the Khazars. An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally-networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text. Critics of hypertext claim that it inhibits the old, linear, reader experience by creating several different tracks to read on, and that this in turn contributes to a postmodernist fragmentation of worlds. In some cases, hypertext can be more a problem to get appealing stories than a tool to develop creativity. Biblumliteraria However, they do see value in its ability to present several different views on the same subject in a simple way. The Game of Reading an Electronic Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . This echoes the arguments of 'medium theorists' like Marshall McLuhan who look at the social and psychological impacts of the media. New media can become so dominant in public culture that they effectively create a "paradigm shift" (Lelia Green, 2001:15) as people have shifted their perceptions, understanding of the world and ways of interacting with the world and each other in relation to new technologies and media. So hypertext signifies a change from linear, structured and hierarchical forms of representing and understanding the world into fractured, decentralized and changeable media based on the technological concept of hypertext links. Critics and theorists Jay David Bolter Robert Coover J. Yellowlees Douglas N. Katherine Hayles Michael Joyce George Landow Lev Manovich Stuart Moulthrop Ted Nelson See also Timeline of hypertext technology HTML (HyperText Markup Language) Hypotext Hyperwords References External links Hypertext: Behind the Hype Reviving Advanced Hypertext (whether and how concepts from hypertext research can be used on the Web) History Historical Overview of Hypertext The first use of hypertext (?) - TIFF image A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology Hypertext Conferences Ed-Media World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, and Telecommunications The ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia Hypertext Fiction The Shaping of Hypertextual Narrative (by Sergio Cicconi) Electronic Literature Organization (for more on hypertext literature) Dichtung Digital. Journal for Digital Aesthetics. (Texts in English and German). Editor Roberto Simanowski. Eastgate catalog (catalog of historically significant Hypertext fiction, nonfiction and poetry) be-x-old:Гіпэртэкст | Hypertext |@lemmatized hypertext:69 text:13 display:4 computer:6 reference:5 hyperlink:2 reader:3 immediately:1 follow:1 usually:1 mouse:2 click:1 keypress:1 sequence:1 apart:1 run:3 may:7 contain:2 table:1 image:3 presentational:1 device:5 mean:2 interaction:3 also:9 present:2 e:1 g:2 bubble:1 appear:1 hovers:1 somewhere:1 video:1 clip:1 start:5 stop:1 form:2 fill:1 submit:1 extensive:2 example:4 today:1 world:15 wide:7 web:23 etymology:1 prefix:2 hyper:1 come:2 greek:1 υπερ:1 beyond:1 signifies:2 overcoming:1 old:3 linear:3 constraint:1 write:5 term:6 often:1 use:10 hypermedia:8 might:1 seem:1 appropriate:1 author:2 ted:5 nelson:6 coin:2 word:4 become:4 generally:3 accept:1 branching:2 respond:2 corresponding:1 meaning:4 complex:2 graphic:3 movie:2 sound:1 well:6 much:1 less:1 instead:1 strange:1 interactive:3 multimedia:2 four:2 syllable:1 longer:1 express:1 idea:3 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2,587 | Foreign_relations_of_Kenya | Despite internal tensions in Sudan and Ethiopia, Kenya has maintained good relations with its northern neighbours. Recent relations with Uganda and Tanzania have improved as the three countries work for mutual economic benefit. The lack of a cohesive government in Somalia prevents normal contact with that country. Kenya serves as the major host for refugees from turmoil in Somalia. Kenya maintains a moderate profile in Third World politics. Its relations with Western countries are generally friendly, although current political and economic instabilities are often blamed on Western pressures. Kenya serves as a major host for refugees from Somalia and Sudan and currently has troops in three United Nations peacekeeping operations. International disputes The administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary. Kenya's status as a hub for the international illicit drug trade has led to somewhat strained relations with both Western countries and its regional neighbours. There is widespread harvesting of small, wild plots of cannabis and qat (khat). Kenya is a transit country for South Asian heroin destined for Europe and, sometimes, North America. Indian methaqualone also transits en route to South Africa. See also Diplomatic missions of Kenya List of diplomatic missions in Kenya Kenya-United States relations External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs Permanent Mission of Kenya to the United Nations United States Embassy in Nairobi,Kenya | Foreign_relations_of_Kenya |@lemmatized despite:1 internal:1 tension:1 sudan:3 ethiopia:1 kenya:11 maintain:2 good:1 relation:5 northern:1 neighbour:2 recent:1 uganda:1 tanzania:1 improve:1 three:2 country:5 work:1 mutual:1 economic:2 benefit:1 lack:1 cohesive:1 government:1 somalia:3 prevents:1 normal:1 contact:1 serf:2 major:2 host:2 refugee:2 turmoil:1 moderate:1 profile:1 third:1 world:1 politics:1 western:3 generally:1 friendly:1 although:1 current:1 political:1 instability:1 often:1 blame:1 pressure:1 currently:1 troop:1 united:4 nation:2 peacekeeping:1 operation:1 international:3 dispute:1 administrative:1 boundary:2 coincide:1 status:1 hub:1 illicit:1 drug:1 trade:1 lead:1 somewhat:1 strained:1 regional:1 widespread:1 harvesting:1 small:1 wild:1 plot:1 cannabis:1 qat:1 khat:1 transit:2 south:2 asian:1 heroin:1 destine:1 europe:1 sometimes:1 north:1 america:1 indian:1 methaqualone:1 also:2 en:1 route:1 africa:1 see:1 diplomatic:2 mission:3 list:1 state:2 external:1 link:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 permanent:1 embassy:1 nairobi:1 |@bigram uganda_tanzania:1 somalia_sudan:1 illicit_drug:1 strained_relation:1 en_route:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1 foreign_affair:1 nairobi_kenya:1 |
2,588 | Aspartame | Aspartame (or APM) ( or ) is the name for an artificial, non-saccharide sweetener. Aspartame is the methyl ester of a phenylalanine/aspartic acid dipeptide. It has been the subject of controversy since its initial approval in 1974. Marketing This sweetener is marketed under a number of trademark names, including Equal, NutraSweet, and Canderel, and is an ingredient of approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide, including (but not limited to) diet sodas and other soft drinks, instant breakfasts, breath mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, gelatine desserts, juices, laxatives, multivitamins, milk drinks, pharmaceutical drugs and supplements, shake mixes, tabletop sweeteners, teas, instant coffees, topping mixes, wine coolers and yogurt. It is provided as a table condiment in some countries. It is also used in some brands of chewable vitamin supplements and common in many sugar-free chewing gums and has now been found in some chewing gums that are not sugar free. However, aspartame is not always suitable for baking because it often breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness. In the European Union, it is also known under the E number (additive code) E951. Aspartame is also one of the sugar substitutes used by people with diabetes. Because sucralose, unlike aspartame, retains its sweetness after being heated, it has become more popular as an ingredient. This, along with differences in marketing and changing consumer preferences, has caused aspartame to lose market share to sucralose. Chemistry Aspartame is the methyl ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid and L-phenylalanine. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by hydrolysis. Under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in the free amino acids. In certain markets aspartame is manufactured using a genetically modified variation of E. coli. The Independent, Sunday, 20 June 1999 Method for production of L-phenylalanine by recombinant E. coli ATCC 67460 Properties and use Aspartame is an artificial sweetener. It is 180 times sweeter than sugar in typical concentrations, without the high energy value of sugar. While aspartame, like other peptides, has a caloric value of 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram, the quantity of aspartame needed to produce a sweet taste is so small that its caloric contribution is negligible, which makes it a popular sweetener for those trying to avoid calories from sugar. The taste of aspartame is not identical to that of sugar: the sweetness of aspartame has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar. Blends of aspartame with acesulfame potassium—usually listed in ingredients as acesulfame K—are alleged to taste more like sugar, and to be sweeter than either substitute used alone. Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze (break down) into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener, and prone to degradation in products hosting a high-pH, as required for a long shelf life. The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in maltodextrin. The stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its half-life is nearly 300 days. At pH 7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable. In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin. In products such as powdered beverages, the amine in aspartame can undergo a Maillard reaction with the aldehyde groups present in certain aroma compounds. The ensuing loss of both flavor and sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an acetal. Some claim that aspartame leaves an odd after-taste to some people, while some describe it as a non-flavor or something such as a watery after-taste. Discovery and approval Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for G.D. Searle & Company. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame in the course of producing an anti-ulcer drug candidate. He discovered its sweet taste serendipitously when he licked his finger, which had accidentally become contaminated with aspartame. Citing: Mazur, R.H. (1984). Discovery of aspartame. In Aspartame: Physiology and Biochemistry (L. D. Stegink and L. J. Filer Jr., Eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 3–9. Following initial safety testing, two activists against food additives asserted these tests had indicated aspartame may cause cancer in rats; as a result, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) did not approve its use as a food additive in the United States for many years. Andrew Cockburn, Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy, Simon and Schuster 2007, pp. 63-64 In 1980, the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and brain cancer. The PBOI concluded that aspartame does not cause brain damage, but it recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about cancer in laboratory rats. A U.S. FDA task force teams investigated allegations of errors in the pre-approval research conducted by the manufacturer and found only minor discrepancies that did not affect the study outcomes. Testimony of Dr. Adrian Gross, Former FDA Investigator to the U.S. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources, November 3, 1987. Hearing title: "NutraSweet Health and Safety Concerns." Document # Y 4.L 11/4:S.HR6.100, page 430-439. Citing data from a Japanese study that had not been available to the members of the PBOI, FDA Statement on Aspartame, November 18, 1996 and after seeking advice from an expert panel that found fault with statistical analyses underlying the PBOI's hesitation, FDA commissioner Hayes approved aspartame for use in dry goods. Food Additive Approval Process Followed for Aspartame, Food and Drug Administration, June 1987 In 1983, the FDA further approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages, and for use in other beverages, baked goods, and confections in 1993. In 1996, the FDA removed all restrictions from aspartame allowing it to be used in all foods. In 1985, Monsanto bought G.D. Searle—and the aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, the NutraSweet Company. On May 25 2000, Monsanto sold it to J.W. Childs Equity Partners II L.P. J.W. Childs Equity Partners II, L.P, Food & Drink Weekly, June 5, 2000 The U.S. patent on aspartame expired in 1992. Since then, the company has competed for market share with other manufacturers, including Ajinomoto, Merisant and the Holland Sweetener Company. The latter stopped making the chemical in late 2006 because "global aspartame markets are facing structural oversupply, which has caused worldwide strong price erosion over the last five years", making the business "persistently unprofitable". html b1?release id=115447 Several European Union countries approved aspartame in the 1980s, with EU-wide approval in 1994. The European Commission Scientific Committee on Food reviewed subsequent safety studies and reaffirmed the approval in 2002. The European Food Safety Authority reported in 2006 that the previously established Adequate Daily Intake was appropriate, after reviewing yet another set of studies. EFSA ::. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) related to a new long-term carcinogenicity study on aspartame Metabolism Upon ingestion, aspartame breaks down into natural residual components, including aspartic acid, phenylalanine, methanol, and further breakdown products including formaldehyde, formic acid, and a diketopiperazine. High levels of the naturally-occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine are a health hazard to those born with phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare inherited disease that prevents phenylalanine from being properly metabolized. Since individuals with PKU must consider aspartame as an additional source of phenylalanine, foods containing aspartame sold in the United States must state "Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine" on their product labels. In the UK, foods that contain aspartame must list the chemical among the product's ingredients and carry the warning "Contains a source of phenylalanine" – this is usually at the foot of the list of ingredients. Manufacturers should print '"with sweetener(s)" on the label close to the main product name' on foods that contain "sweeteners such as aspartame" or "with sugar and sweetener(s)" on "foods that contain both sugar and sweetener". "This labelling is a legal requirement", says the country's Food Standards Agency. Aspartame - Labelling, UK Food Standards Agency, 18 July 2006. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. Health concerns The artificial sweetener aspartame has been the subject of controversy regarding its safety since its initial approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1974. Some scientific studies, combined with allegations of conflicts of interest in the sweetener's FDA approval process, have been the focus of vocal activism, conspiracy theories and hoaxes regarding postulated risks of aspartame. - the Nancy Markle chain email. A 2007 safety evaluation found that the weight of existing scientific evidence indicates that aspartame is safe at current levels of consumption as a non-nutritive sweetener. The sources and claims of many alleged aspartame dangers and conspiracies have been the subject of critical examination. In 1987, the U.S. Government Accountability Office concluded that the food additive approval process had been followed for aspartame. GAO 1987. "Food Additive Approval Process Followed for Aspartame" United States General Accounting Office, GAO/HRD-87-46, June 18, 1987 GAO 1986. "Six Former HHS Employees' Involvement in Aspartame's Approval." United States General Accounting Office, GAO/HRD-86-109BR, July 1986. Based on government research reviews and recommendations from advisory bodies such as the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, aspartame has been found to be safe for human consumption by more than ninety countries worldwide. Health Canada: Food Standards Australia New Zealand: In 1999, FDA scientists described the safety of aspartame as "clear cut" and stated that the product is "one of the most thoroughly tested and studied food additives the agency has ever approved." References be-x-old:Аспартам | Aspartame |@lemmatized aspartame:56 apm:1 name:3 artificial:3 non:3 saccharide:1 sweetener:15 methyl:2 ester:2 phenylalanine:9 aspartic:3 acid:8 dipeptide:2 subject:3 controversy:2 since:4 initial:3 approval:11 marketing:2 market:5 number:2 trademark:1 include:5 equal:1 nutrasweet:3 canderel:1 ingredient:5 approximately:1 consumer:2 food:25 beverage:5 sell:3 worldwide:3 limited:1 diet:1 sodas:1 soft:2 drink:4 instant:2 breakfast:1 breath:1 mint:1 cereal:1 sugar:12 free:4 chewing:3 gum:3 cocoa:1 mix:3 frozen:1 dessert:2 gelatine:1 juice:1 laxative:1 multivitamin:1 milk:1 pharmaceutical:1 drug:5 supplement:2 shake:1 tabletop:1 tea:1 coffee:1 top:1 wine:1 cooler:1 yogurt:1 provide:1 table:1 condiment:1 country:4 also:4 use:10 brand:1 chewable:1 vitamin:1 common:1 many:4 find:5 however:2 always:1 suitable:1 bake:2 often:1 break:3 heat:2 lose:2 much:1 sweetness:4 european:5 union:2 know:1 e:3 additive:8 code:1 one:2 substitute:2 people:2 diabetes:1 sucralose:2 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2,589 | Mining | Chuquicamata, Chile, site of the largest circumference and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world. Break time underground, Colorado, ca. 1900 Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt and potash. Any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any non-renewable resource (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, or even water). Mining of stone and metal has been done since pre-historic times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once the mine is closed. The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine is closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of mining operations. Safety has long been a concern as well, though modern practices have improved safety in mines significantly. Mining today is able to profitably and safely recover minerals with little negative impact to the environment. History Prehistoric mining Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel. Since the beginning of civilization people have used stone, ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to create flint tools. Hartman, Howard L. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration Inc, 1992, p3. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts and galleries. The mines at Grimes Graves are especially famous, and like most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000 BC-ca 3000 BC). Other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest known mine on archaeological record is the "Lion Cave" in Swaziland. At this site, which by radiocarbon dating proves the mine to be about 43,000 years old, paleolithic humans mined mineral hematite, which contained iron and was ground to produce the red pigment ochre. Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources - Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern," Retrieved August 27, 2007, . Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance." Republic of South Africa: Author. Retrieved August 27, 2007, . Mines of a similar age in Hungary and are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools. Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi. Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-59. At first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2,613 and 2,494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghara in order "to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself." Shaw, I. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 108. Quarries for turqoise and copper were also found at "Wadi Hamamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites" on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, and the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt, and are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus. He mentions that fire-setting was one method used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of earliest known maps. They crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust. Ancient Greece and Rome Agricola, author of De Re Metallica Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines Mining in Europe has a very long pedigree, examples including the silver mines of Laurium, which helped support the Greek city state of Athens. However, it is the Romans who developed large scale mining methods, especially the use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts. The water was used for a variety of purposes, including using it to remove overburden and rock debris, called hydraulic mining, as well as washing comminuted or crushed ores, and driving simple machinery. They used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of ore, especially a now obsolete form of mining known as hushing. It involved building numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead where it was stored in large reservoirs and tanks. When a full tank was opened, the wave of water sluiced away the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold veins. The rock was then attacked by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of water. The thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed, aided by further streams of water from the overhead tanks. They used similar methods to work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines. The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long aqueducts were built to tap local rivers and to sluice the deposits. Spain was one of the most important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empire were exploited. They used reverse overshot water-wheels for dewatering their deep mines such as those at Rio Tinto. In Great Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia , The Independent, 20 Jan. 2007: The end of a Celtic tradition: the last gold miner in Wales but when the Romans came, the scale of the operations changed dramatically. The Romans needed what Britain possessed, especially gold, silver, tin and lead. Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out the veins, and drove adits through barren rock to drain the stopes. The same adits were also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used. At other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using several kinds of machine, especially reverse overshot water-wheels. These were used extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16 such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about . They were worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales. The Romans in Britain: mining Medieval Europe Mining in the Medieval period is best known through the work De Re Metallica (1556) of Georg Agricola, who described many different mining methods then used in German and Saxon mines. Use of water power in the form of water mills was extensive; they were employed in crushing ore, raising ore from shafts and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows. Black powder was first used in mining in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Banská Štiavnica,Slovakia) in 1627. Heiss, A.G. & Oeggl, K. (2008). Analysis of the fuel wood used in Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper mining sites of the Schwaz and Brixlegg area (Tyrol, Austria). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 17(2):211-221, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, . This allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore veins, which was much faster than fire setting. In 1762, the world's first mining academy was established in the same town. North and South America Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S. in 1905. In North America there are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along Lake Superior. Lankton, L. (1991). Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 5-6. West, G.A. (1970). Copper: its mining and use by the aborigines of the Lake Superior region. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. "Indians availed themselves of this copper starting at least 5000 years ago," and copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade network have been discovered. In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and traded. While the early French explorers that encountered the sites made no use of the metals due to the difficulties in transporting it, the copper was eventually traded throughout the continent along major river routes. In Manitoba, Canada, there also are ancient quartz mines near Waddy Lake and surrounding regions. Bruno, L. & Heaman, L.M. (2004). Structural controls on hypozonal oroganic gold mineralization in the La Rouge Domain, Trans-Hudson Orogen, Saskatchewan. The Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol. 41, Issue 12, pp. 1453-1471. In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons" Vaden, H.E. & Prevost. G. (2002). Politics of Latin America: The Power Game. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 34. mostly from mines in Central and South America. Turquoise dated at 700 A.D. was mined in pre-Columbian America; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, estimates are that "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt Chalchihuitl using stone tools before 1700." Maynard, S.R., Lisenbee, A.L. & Rogers, J. (2002). Preliminary Geologic Map of the Picture Rock 7.5 - Minute Quadrangle Sante Fe County, Central New Mexico. New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Open-File Report DM-49. The Cerrillos Hills Park Coalition, (2000). Cerrillos Hills Historic Park Vision Statement. Public documents: Author. Retrieved August 27, 2007, . Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th century. As with the California Gold Rush in the mid 1800s, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, was a driving factor in the Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. With the exploration of the West, mining camps were established and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new nation;" Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient West that preceded them. Boorstin, D.J. (1965). The Americans: The National Experience. New York: Vintage Books, pp. 78-81. Aided by railroads, many traveled West for work opportunities in mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns. Mining methods and procedures Steps of mine development The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of the ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to find and then define the extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to estimate the size and grade of the deposit. This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, technical and financial risks and robustness of the project. This is when the mining company makes the decision to develop the mine or to walk away from the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity requirements and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way through to reclamation. Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create access to the ore body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built and any necessary equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation begins to make the land used by the mine suitable for future use. Mining techniques A minecart toilet, used in Bisbee, Arizona. Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface mining and sub-surface (underground) mining. Mining targets are divided into two general categories of materials: placer deposits, consisting of valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated materials; and lode deposits, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods. Processing of placer ore material consists of gravity-dependent methods of separation, such as sluice boxes. Only minor shaking or washing may be necessary to disaggregate (unclump) the sands or gravels before processing. Processing of ore from a lode mine, whether it is a surface or subsurface mine, requires that the rock ore be crushed and pulverized before extraction of the valuable minerals begins. After lode ore is crushed, recovery of the valuable minerals is done by one, or a combination of several, mechanical and chemical techniques. Some mining, including much of the uranium mining being done today, is done by less-common methods, such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface nor underground. The extraction of target minerals by this teqhnique requires that they be soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and uranium oxide which dissolve in water. http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf27.html http://www.kazatomprom.kz/cgi-bin/index.cgi?p27&version=en Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface vegetation, dirt, and if necessary, layers of bedrock in order to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining include; Open-pit mining which consists of recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground, quarrying or gathering building materials from an open pit mine, strip mining which consists of stripping surface layers off to reveal ore/seams underneath, and Mountaintop removal, commonly associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore deposits at depth. Most (but not all) placer deposits, because of their shallowly-buried nature, are mined by surface methods. Landfill mining finally are sites where landfills are excavated and processed. Landfill Mining Landfill Mining, Preserving Resources through Integrated Sustainable Management of Waste, Technical Brief from the World Resource Foundation Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, the extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit. Drift mining utilizes horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts and shaft mining consists of vertical access shafts. Other methods include shrinkage stope mining which is mining upward creating a sloping underground room, long wall mining which is grinding a long ore surface underground and room and pillar which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining which is removing the pillars which support rooms, allowing the room to cave in, loosening more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include Hard rock mining which is mining of hard materials, bore hole mining, drift and fill mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving and block caving Machinery Gold-bearing gravels are shoveled into a trommel at the Blue Ribbon placer mine, Alaska. Heavy machinery is needed in mining for exploration and development, to remove and stockpile overburden, to break and remove rocks of various hardness and toughness, to process the ore and for reclamation efforts after the mine is closed. Bulldozers, drills, explosives and trucks are all necessary for excavating the land. In the case of placer mining, unconsolidated gravel, or alluvium, is fed into machinery consisting of a hopper and a shaking screen or trommel which frees the desired minerals from the waste gravel. The minerals are then concentrated using sluices or jigs. Large drills are used to sink shafts, excavate stopes and obtain samples for analysis. Trams are used to transport miners, minerals and waste. Lifts carry miners into and out of mines, as well as moving rock and ore out, and machinery in and out of underground mines. Huge trucks, shovels and cranes are employed in surface mining to move large quantities of overburden and ore. Processing plants can utilize large crushers, mills, reactors, roasters and other equipment to consolidate the mineral-rich material and extract the desired compounds and metals from the ore. Extractive metallurgy The science of extractive metallurgy is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the extraction of valuable metals from their ores, especially through chemical or mechanical means. Mineral processing (or mineral dressing) is a specialized area in the science of metallurgy that studies the mechanical means of crushing, grinding, and washing that enable the separation (extractive metallurgy) of valuable metals or minerals from their gangue (waste material). Since most metals are present in ores as oxides or sulfides, the metal needs to be reduced to its metallic form. This can be accomplished through chemical means such as smelting or through electrolytic reduction, as in the case of aluminum. Geometallurgy combines the geologic sciences with extractive metallurgy and mining. Environmental effects House in Gladbeck, Germany, with fissures caused by gravity erosion due to mining Environmental issues can include erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil. Logging of forests and debris dumping Besides creating environmental damage, the contamination resulting from leakage of chemicals also affect the health of the local population. Poisoning by mines Mining companies in some countries are required to follow environmental and rehabilitation codes, ensuring the area mined is returned to close to its original state. Some mining methods may have significant environmental and public health effects. Iron hydroxide precipitate stains a stream receiving acid drainage from surface coal mining. Mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and ground water if protective measures are not taken. The result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemicals, such as arsenic, sulfuric acid, and mercury over a significant area of surface or subsurface. Gold mining causing mercury pollution Runoff of mere soil or rock debris -although non-toxic- also devestates the surrounding vegetation. The dumping of the runoff in surface waters or in forests is the worst otion here. Submarine tailings disposal is regarded as a better option (if the soil is pumped to a great depth. Soild diposal options Mere land storage and refilling of the mine after it has been depleted is offcourse even better; if no forests need to be cleared for the storage of the debris. There is potential for massive contamination of the area surrounding mines due to the various chemicals used in the mining process as well as the potentially damaging compounds and metals removed from the ground with the ore. Large amounts of water produced from mine drainage, mine cooling, aqueous extraction and other mining processes increases the potential for these chemicals to contaminate ground and surface water. In well-regulated mines, hydrologists and geologists take careful measurements of water and soil to exclude any type of water contamination that could be caused by the mine's operations. The reducing or eliminating of environmental degredation is enforced in modern American mining by federal and state law, by restricting operators to meet standards for protecting surface and ground water from contamination. This is best done trough the use of non-toxic extraction processes as Bioleaching. If the project site besomes nonetheless polluted, mitigation techniques such as acid mine drainage (AMD) need to be performed. The five principal technologies used to monitor and control water flow at mine sites are diversion systems, containment ponds, groundwater pumping systems, subsurface drainage systems, and subsurface barriers. In the case of AMD, contaminated water is generally pumped to a treatment facility that neutralizes the contaminants. First International Conference on Mining Impacts to Human and Natural Environments (March 15, 2008) Some examples of areas affected by acid mine drainage are the Berkeley Pit, and the Wheal Jane Mines. Dissolution and transport of metals and heavy metals by run-off and ground water is another example of environmental problems with mining, such as the Britannia Mine, a former copper mine near Vancouver, British Columbia. Tar Creek, an abandoned mining area in Picher, Oklahoma that is now an Environmental Protection Agency superfund site, also suffers from heavy metal contamination. Water in the mine containing dissolved heavy metals such as lead and cadmium leaked into local groundwater, contaminating it. Ottawa County, Oklahoma Hazardous Waste Sites Long-term storage of tailings and dust can lead to additional problems, as they can be easily blown off site by wind, as occurred at Scouriotissa, an abandoned copper mine in Cyprus. Erosion of exposed hillsides, mine dumps, tailings dams and resultant siltation of drainages, creeks and rivers can significantly impact the surrounding areas, a prime example being the giant Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea. In areas of wilderness mining may cause destruction and disturbance of ecosystems and habitats, and in areas of farming it may disturb or destroy productive grazing and croplands. In urbanised environments mining may produce noise pollution, dust pollution and visual pollution. To ensure completion of reclamation, or restoring mine land for future use, many governments and regulatory authorities around the world require that mining companies post a bond to be held in escrow until productivity of reclaimed land has been convincingly demonstrated, although if cleanup procedures are more expensive than the size of the bond, the bond may simply be abandoned. Since 1978 the mining industry has reclaimed more than 2 million acres (8,000 km²) of land in the United States alone. This reclaimed land has renewed vegetation and wildlife in previous mining lands and can even be used for farming and ranching. For further reading on reclamation of former mining sites, please see Restoration ecology. Mining industry While exploration and mining can sometimes be conducted by individual entrepreneurs or small business, most modern-day mines are large enterprises requiring large amounts of capital to establish. Consequently, the mining sector of the industry is dominated by large, often multinational, mostly publicly-listed companies. See Mining Companies for a list. However, what is referred to as the 'mining industry' is actually two sectors, one specializing in exploration for new resources, the other specializing in mining those resources. The exploration sector is typically made up of individuals and small mineral resource companies dependent on public investment. The mining sector is typically large and multi-national companies sustained by mineral production from their mining operations. In addition to these two sectors, various other industries such as equipment manufacture, environmental testing and metallurgy analysis also rely on and support the mining industry throughout the world. Corporate classifications Mining companies can be classified based on their size and financial capabilities: Major companies are considered to have an adjusted annual non-ferrous mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own. Intermediate companies have at least $50 million in annual nonferrous revenue but less than $500 million. Junior companies rely on equity financing as their principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also be upcoming producers that do not have a revenue of US$50 million. Safety Danger sign at an old Arizona mine. Safety has long been a controversial issue in the mining business especially with sub-surface mining. While mining today is substantially safer than it was in the previous decades, mining accidents are often very high profile, such as the Quecreek Mine Rescue saving 9 trapped Pennsylvania coal miners in 2002. Mining ventilation is a significant safety concern for many miners. Poor ventilation of the mines causes exposure to harmful gases, heat and dust inside sub-surface mines. These can cause harmful physiological effects, including death. The concentration of methane and other airborne contaminants underground can generally be controlled by dilution (ventilation), capture before entering the host air stream (methane drainage), or isolation (seals and stoppings). Ignited methane gas is a common source of explosions in coal mines, or, the more violent coal dust explosions. Gases in mines can also poison the workers or displace the oxygen in the mine, causing asphixiation. High temperatures and humidity may result in heat-related illnesses, including heat stroke which can be fatal. Dusts can cause lung problems, including silicosis, asbestosis and pneumoconiosis (also known as miners lung or black lung disease). A ventilation system is set up to force a stream of air through the working areas of the mine. The air circulation necessary for the effective ventilation of a mine is generated by one or more large mine fans, usually located above ground. Air flows in one direction only, making circuits through the mine such that each main work area constantly receives a supply of fresh air. Since mining entails removing dirt and rock from its natural location creating large empty pits, rooms and tunnels, cave-ins are a major concern within mines. Modern techniques for timbering and bracing walls and ceilings within sub-surface mines have reduced the number of fatalities due to cave-ins, but accidents still occur. The presence of heavy equipment in confined spaces also poses a risk to miners, and in spite of modern improvements to safety practices, mining remains dangerous throughout the world. Abandoned mines Abandoned mine in Nevada. There are upwards of 560,000 abandoned mines on public and privately owned lands in the United States alone. Kertes, N., (March, 1996). US abandoned mine count still a mystery - General Accounting Office report. American Metal Market, Retrieved August 27, 2007, People, Land, and Water (March, 2007). KEEP OUT! Old Mines Are Dangerous. Office of Surface Mining: U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved Aug, 27, 2007, Abandoned mines pose a threat to anyone who may attempt to explore them without proper knowledge and safety training. Old mines are often dangerous and can contain deadly gases. Since weather may have eroded the earth and rock surrounding it, the entrance to an old mine in particular can be very dangerous. Old mine workings, caves, etc. are commonly hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air, a condition in mines known as blackdamp. Records As of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is TauTona in Carletonville, South Africa at 3.9 kilometers , replacing Savuka Mine in the North West Province of South Africa at 3,774 meters . East Rand Mine in Boksburg, South Africa briefly held the record at 3,585 meters, and the first mine declared the deepest in the world was also TauTona when it was at 3,581 meters. The deepest mine in Europe is Pyhäsalmi Mine in Pyhäjärvi, Finland at 1,444 meters. The second deepest mine in Europe is Boulby Mine England at 1,400 meters (shaft depth 1,100 meters) The deepest open pit mine in the world is Bingham Canyon Mine in Bingham Canyon, Utah, United States at over 1,200 meters. The largest and second deepest open pit copper mine in the world is Chuquicamata in Chuquicamata, Chile at 900 meters, 940,600 tons of copper and 17,700 tons of molybdenum produced annually. The largest underground mine: El Teniente, in Rancagua, Chile, 2,400 kilometers of underground drifts, 418,000 tons of copper yearly. The deepest borehole in the world is Kola Superdeep Borehole at 12,262 meters. This, however, is not a matter of mining but rather related to scientific drilling. See also List of basic mining topics List of uranium mines Landfill mining Canadian Mining Hall of Fame References Ali, Saleem H. (2003). Mining, the Environment and Indigenous Development Conflicts. Tucson AZ: University of Arizona Press. Bhattacharya Jayanta (2003) Principles of Mine Planning, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, India. 454 pages Morrison, Tom (1992) Hardrock Gold: A Miner's Tale (ISBN 0-8061-2442-3) Even-Zohar, Chaim (2007) From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry (ISBN 0953733610) Geobacter Project: Gold mines may owe their origins to bacteria (in PDF format) Garrett, Dennis Alaska Placer Mining External links Glossary of terms Introduction to Mining What is mining? 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2,590 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Dominican_Republic | The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the Inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals. The Dominican Republic maintains official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as “Taiwan”) instead of the People's Republic of China. The Dominican Republic and Cuba recently established consular relations, and there is contact in fields such as commerce, culture, and sports. Although Dominican relations with its closest neighbor, the Republic of Haiti, have never been extensive, there are signs this would have changed with the government of President Hipólito Mejía. Growing immigration from and political instability in Haiti have forced the Dominican Republic to take a closer look at relations with its neighbor both country-to-country and in international fora. There is a sizeable Haitian migrant community in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican Republic belongs to the United Nations and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labour Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization. It also is a member of the OAS, World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the Inter-American Development Bank, Central American Integration System, and ACP Group. The Dominican Republic has very strong ties and relations with Puerto Rico. Although a United States Commonwealth, the island is the Dominican Republic's largest trading partner. While relations between the islands have had difficulties, mainly due the huge exodus of illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic due to the nation's history of economic woes, the islands still, with the assistance of the United States Coast Guard and the Dominican Navy have worked hard to reduce the number of Dominicans crossing the Mona Passage in recent years. Puerto Rico is home to an estimated 500,000 Dominicans, and the Dominican Republic maintains consulates in the cities of San Juan and Mayagüez. Relations with the United States The U.S. has a strong interest in a democratic, stable, and economically healthy Dominican Republic. The country's standing as the largest Caribbean economy, second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, with large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States and other smaller Caribbean nations make the Dominican Republic an important partner in hemispheric affairs. The Embassy estimates that 100,000 U.S. citizens live in the Dominican Republic; many are dual nationals. An important element of the relationship between the two countries is the fact that more than 1 million individuals of Dominican origin reside in the United States, most of them in the metropolitan Northeast and some in Florida. U.S. relations with the Dominican Republic are excellent, and the U.S. has been an outspoken supporter of that country's democratic and economic development. The Dominican Government has been supportive of many U.S. initiatives in the United Nations and related agencies. The two governments cooperate in the fight against the traffic in illegal substances. The Dominican Republic has worked closely with U.S. law enforcement officials on issues such as the extradition of fugitives and measures to hinder illegal migration. The United States supports the Fernández administration's efforts to improve Dominican competitiveness, to attract foreign private investment, to fight corruption, and to modernize the tax system. Bilateral trade is important to both countries. U.S. firms, mostly manufacturers of apparel, footwear, and light electronics, as well as U.S. energy companies, account for much of the foreign private investment in the Dominican Republic. Exports from the United States, including those from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, to the Dominican Republic in 2005 totaled $5.3 billion, up 11% from the previous year. The Dominican Republic exported $4.5 billion to the United States in 2006, equaling some 75% of its export revenues. The Dominican Republic is the 47th-largest commercial partner of the U.S. The U.S. Embassy works closely with U.S. business firms and Dominican trade groups, both of which can take advantage of the new opportunities in this growing market. At the same time, the Embassy is working with the Dominican Government to resolve a range of ongoing commercial and investment disputes. The Embassy counsels U.S. firms through its Country Commercial Guide and informally via meetings with business persons planning to invest or already investing in the Dominican Republic. This is a challenging business environment for U.S. firms, especially for medium to smaller sized businesses. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) mission is focused on improving access of underserved populations to quality health care and combating HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis; promoting economic growth through policy reform, support for CAFTA-DR implementation, and technical assistance to small producers and tourism groups; environmental protection and policy reform initiatives; improved access to quality primary, public education and assistance to at-risk youth; a model rural electrification program; and improving participation in democratic processes, while strengthening the judiciary and combating corruption across all sectors. U.S. Department of State: Dominican Republic See also Diplomatic missions of the Dominican Republic List of diplomatic missions in the Dominican Republic References External links Dominican Secretary of State for Foreign Relations / Dominican Consulate in New York City / Dominican Embassy in London, United Kingdom // Dominican Embassy in Ottawa, Canada / Dominican Embassy in Paris France / Dominican Embassy in Washington, DC / Embassy of Brazil in Santo Domingo / Embassy of France in Santo Domingo / Embassy of Japan in Santo Domingo / Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Bilbao, Spain Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Lahore, Pakistan / Permanent Mission of the Dominican Republic to the United Nations / United States Embassy in Santo Domingo | Foreign_relations_of_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized dominican:41 republic:29 close:3 relationship:2 united:15 state:14 inter:2 american:3 system:3 accredit:1 diplomatic:3 mission:5 western:1 hemisphere:1 country:9 principal:1 european:1 capital:1 maintain:2 official:2 relation:9 china:2 commonly:1 know:1 taiwan:1 instead:1 people:1 cuba:1 recently:1 establish:1 consular:1 contact:1 field:1 commerce:1 culture:1 sport:1 although:2 neighbor:2 haiti:2 never:1 extensive:1 sign:1 would:1 change:1 government:4 president:1 hipólito:1 mejía:1 grow:2 immigration:1 political:1 instability:1 force:1 take:2 look:1 international:5 forum:1 sizeable:1 haitian:1 migrant:1 community:1 belongs:1 nation:5 many:3 specialize:1 relate:1 agency:4 include:2 world:4 bank:2 labour:1 organization:5 atomic:1 energy:2 civil:1 aviation:1 also:2 member:1 oas:1 trade:4 health:2 custom:1 development:3 central:1 integration:1 acp:1 group:3 strong:2 tie:1 puerto:3 rico:3 commonwealth:1 island:4 large:5 trading:1 partner:3 difficulty:1 mainly:1 due:2 huge:1 exodus:1 illegal:3 immigrant:1 history:1 economic:3 woe:1 still:1 assistance:3 coast:1 guard:1 navy:1 work:4 hard:1 reduce:1 number:1 cross:1 mona:1 passage:1 recent:1 year:2 home:1 estimate:2 consulate:4 city:2 san:1 juan:1 mayagüez:1 u:16 interest:1 democratic:3 stable:1 economically:1 healthy:1 standing:1 caribbean:2 economy:1 second:1 term:1 population:2 land:1 mass:1 bilateral:2 proximity:1 small:3 make:1 important:3 hemispheric:1 affair:1 embassy:12 citizen:1 live:1 dual:1 national:1 element:1 two:2 fact:1 million:1 individual:1 origin:1 reside:1 metropolitan:1 northeast:1 florida:1 excellent:1 outspoken:1 supporter:1 supportive:1 initiative:1 related:1 cooperate:1 fight:2 traffic:1 substance:1 closely:2 law:1 enforcement:1 issue:1 extradition:1 fugitive:1 measure:1 hinder:1 migration:1 support:2 fernández:1 administration:1 effort:1 improve:3 competitiveness:1 attract:1 foreign:3 private:2 investment:3 corruption:2 modernize:1 tax:1 firm:4 mostly:1 manufacturer:1 apparel:1 footwear:1 light:1 electronics:1 well:1 company:1 account:1 much:1 export:3 virgin:1 total:1 billion:2 previous:1 equal:1 revenue:1 commercial:3 business:4 advantage:1 new:2 opportunity:1 market:1 time:1 resolve:1 range:1 ongoing:1 dispute:1 counsel:1 guide:1 informally:1 via:1 meeting:1 person:1 plan:1 invest:2 already:1 challenge:1 environment:1 especially:1 medium:1 sized:1 usaid:1 focus:1 access:2 underserved:1 quality:2 care:1 combat:2 hiv:1 aid:1 tuberculosis:1 promote:1 growth:1 policy:2 reform:2 cafta:1 dr:1 implementation:1 technical:1 producer:1 tourism:1 environmental:1 protection:1 initiatives:1 improved:1 primary:1 public:1 education:1 risk:1 youth:1 model:1 rural:1 electrification:1 program:1 participation:1 process:1 strengthen:1 judiciary:1 across:1 sector:1 department:1 see:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 secretary:1 york:1 london:1 kingdom:1 ottawa:1 canada:1 paris:1 france:2 washington:1 dc:1 brazil:1 santo:4 domingo:4 japan:1 honorary:2 bilbao:1 spain:1 lahore:1 pakistan:1 permanent:1 |@bigram dominican_republic:26 diplomatic_mission:3 puerto_rico:3 trading_partner:1 illegal_immigrant:1 mona_passage:1 san_juan:1 hemispheric_affair:1 health_care:1 hiv_aid:1 external_link:1 washington_dc:1 santo_domingo:4 honorary_consulate:2 lahore_pakistan:1 |
2,591 | Ecuador | Ecuador (), officially the Republic of Ecuador (, ), literally, "Republic of the equator") is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, by Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America (with Chile) that does not have a border with Brazil. The country also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about west of the mainland. Ecuador straddles the equator, from which it takes its name, and has an area of . Its capital city is Quito; its largest city is Guayaquil. Half the population of the country lives in poverty. History Evidence of human cultures in Ecuador exists from c. 3500 B.C. Embassy of Ecuador in Japan Many civilizations rose throughout Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus (near present day Quito) and the Cañari (near present day Cuenca). Each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. After years of fiery resistance by the Cayambes and other tribes, as demonstrated by the battle of Yahuarcocha (Blood Lake) where thousands of resistance fighters were killed and thrown in the lake, the region fell to the Incan expansion and was assimilated loosely into the Incan empire. Inca Empire Through a succession of wars and marriages among the nations that inhabited the valley, the region became part of the Inca Empire in 1463. Atahualpa, one of the sons of the Inca emperor Huayna Capac, could not receive the crown of the empire since the emperor had another son, Huascar, born in the Incan capital Cusco. Upon Huayna Capac's death in 1525, the empire was divided in two: Atahualpa received the north, with his capital in Quito; Huascar received the south, with its capital in Cusco. In 1530, Atahualpa defeated Huascar and conquered the entire empire for the crown of Quito. However the emperor Atahualpa never ruled the empire, as he was fighting the Spanish at Cajamarca. Colonization In 1531, the Spanish conquistadors, under Francisco Pizarro, arrived to find an Inca empire torn by civil war. Atahualpa wanted to reestablish a unified Incan empire; the Spanish, however, had conquest intentions and established themselves in a fort in Cajamarca, captured Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca, and held him for ransom. The Incas filled one room with gold and two with silver to secure his release. Despite being surrounded and vastly outnumbered, the Spanish executed Atahualpa. To escape the confines of the fort, the Spaniards fired all their cannon and broke through the lines of the bewildered Incas. In subsequent years, the Spanish colonists became the new elite, centering their power in the vice-royalties of Nueva Granada and Lima. Disease decimated the indigenous population during the first decades of Spanish rule — a time when the natives also were forced into the encomienda labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a royal audiencia (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Vice-Royalty of Lima, and later the Vice-Royalty of Nueva Granada. Old downtown Quito, one of the first UNESCO World Heritage Sites. After nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito still was a small city of only 10,000 inhabitants. It was there, on August 10, 1809 (the national holiday), that the first call for independence from Spain was made in Latin America ("Primer Grito de la Independencia"), under the leadership of the city's criollos like Carlos Montúfar, Eugenio Espejo and Bishop Cuero y Caicedo. Quito's nickname, "Luz de América" ("Light of America"), comes from the idea that this first attempt produced the inspiration for the rest of Spanish America. Quito is also known as "La Cara de Dios" ("The Face of God") for its beauty. Independence On October 9, 1820, Guayaquil became the first city in Ecuador to gain its independence from Spain. On August 10, 1822, the rest of Ecuador gained its independence after Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spaniard Royalist forces at the Batalla de Pichincha (Battle of Pichincha) near Quito. Following the battle, Ecuador joined Simón Bolívar's Republic of Gran Colombia. Joined with modern day Colombia and Venezuela, only to become a republic in 1830. The 19th century for Ecuador was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The first president of Ecuador was the Venezuelan born Juan José Flores, who was ultimately deposed, followed by many authoritarian leaders such as Vicente Rocafuerte, José Joaquín de Olmedo, José María Urbina, Diego Noboa, Pedro José de Arteta, Manuel de Ascásubi and Flores's own son, Antonio Flores Jijón, among others. The conservative Gabriel Garcia Moreno unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for cocoa tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast. Liberal Revolution The coast-based Liberal Revolution of 1895 under Eloy Alfaro reduced the power of the clergy and the conservative land owners of the highlands, and this liberal wing retained power until the military "Julian Revolution" of 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by instability and emergence of populist politicians such as five-time President José María Velasco Ibarra. War with Peru Colonial city gates of Loja Control over territory in the Amazon basin led to a long-lasting dispute between Ecuador and Peru. In 1941, amid fast-growing tensions between the two countries, war broke out. Peru claimed that Ecuador's military presence in Peruvian-claimed territory was an invasion; Ecuador, for its part, claimed that Peru had invaded Ecuador. In July 1941, troops were mobilized in both countries. Peru had an army of 11,681 troops who faced a poorly supplied and inadequately armed Ecuadorian force of 2,300, of which only 1,300 were deployed in the southern provinces. Hostilities erupted on July 5, 1941, when Peruvian forces crossed the Zarumilla river at several locations, testing the strength and resolve of the Ecuadorian border troops. Finally, on July 23, 1941, the Peruvians launched a major invasion, crossing the Zarumilla river in force and advancing into the Ecuadorian province of El Oro. During the course of the war, Peru gained control over part of the disputed territory and some parts of the province of El Oro, and some parts of the province of Loja, demanding that the Ecuadorian government give up its territorial claims. The Peruvian Navy blocked the port of Guayaquil, almost cutting all supplies to the Ecuadorian troops. After a few weeks of war and under pressure by the United States and several Latin American nations, all fighting came to a stop. Ecuador and Peru came to an accord formalized in the Rio Protocol, signed on January 29, 1942, in favor of hemispheric unity against the Axis Powers in World War II. As a result of its victory, Peru was awarded the disputed territory. Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, construction of the Andean pipeline was completed. The pipeline brought oil from the east side of the Andes to the coast, making Ecuador South America's second largest oil exporter. The pipeline in southern Ecuador did nothing, however, to resolve tensions between Ecuador and Peru. The Rio Protocol failed to precisely resolve the border along a small river in the remote Cordellera del Cóndor region in southern Ecuador. This caused a long-simmering dispute between Ecuador and Peru, which ultimately led to fighting between the two countries; first a border skirmish in January-February 1981 known as the Paquisha Incident, and ultimately full-scale warfare in January 1995 where the Educadorian military shot down Peruvian aircraft and helicopters and Peruvian infantry marched into southern Ecuador. Each country blamed the other for the onset of hostilities, known as the Cenepa War. Sixto Durán Ballén, the Ecuadorian president, famously declared that he would not give up a single centimeter of Ecuador. Popular sentiment in Ecuador became strongly nationalistic against Peru: graffiti could be seen on the walls of Quito referring to Peru as the "Cain de Latinoamérica," a reference to the murder of Abel by his brother Cain in the Book of Genesis. Roos, Wilma and van Renterghem, Omer Ecuador, New York, 2000, p.5. Ecuador and Peru reached a tentative peace agreement in October 1998, which ended hostilities. Military governments (1972–1979) In 1972 a "revolutionary and nationalist" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'etat was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina, remaining in power until 1976 when he was removed by another military government. It was a military junta led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council had two other members as well, General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Leoro Franco. After the country stabilized, socially and economically, this Supreme Council proceeded to hold democratic elections and stepped down to hand presidential duties over to the new democratically elected president. Return to democracy Elections were held on April 29, 1979, under a new constitution. Jaime Roldós Aguilera was elected president, garnering over one million votes, the most in Ecuadorian history. He took office on August 10 as the first constitutionally elected president after nearly a decade of civilian and military dictatorships. In 1980 he founded the Partido Pueblo, Cambio y Democracia (People, Change and Democracy Party) after withdrawing from the Concentracion de Fuerzas Populares (Social Christian Party) and governed until May 24, 1981, when he died along with his wife and the minister of defense, Marco Subia Martinez, when his Air Force plane crashed in heavy rain near the Peruvian border. Many Ecuadorians believe that he was assassinated, given the multiple death threats levelled against him because of his reformist agenda and the sometimes contradictory accounts of the incident. Roldos was immediately succeeded by Vice President Osvaldo Hurtado who was followed in 1984 by León Febres Cordero from the Social Christian Party. Rodrigo Borja Cevallos of the Democratic Left (Izquierda Democrática or ID) party won the presidency in 1988, running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram (brother in law of Jaime Roldos and founder of the Ecuadorian Roldosist Party). His government was committed to improving human rights protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, "¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!" ("Alfaro Lives, Dammit!") named after Eloy Alfaro. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in 1990. The emergence of the indigenous population (approximately 25%) as an active constituency has added to the democratic volatility of the country in recent years. The population has been motivated by government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lower unemployment and provision of social services, and historical exploitation by the land-holding elite. Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by both the elite and leftist movements, has led to a deterioration of the executive office. The populace and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital, as illustrated by the most recent removal of President Lucio Gutiérrez from office by Congress in April 2005. Vice President Alfredo Palacio took his place and remained in office until the presidential election of 2006, in which Rafael Correa defeated Alvaro Noboa in a runoff election. With less than four percent of the poll to be counted (364,000 votes), Correa's lead was more than 950,000 Bloomberg Politics Ecuador's current elected president, Rafael Correa Ecuador is governed by a democratically elected President, for a four year term. Its current president Rafael Correa, exercises his power from the Palacio de Carondelet in Quito. The executive branch includes 25 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors (mayors, aldermen, and parish boards) are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recesses in July and December. There are 69 seven-member congressional committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for indefinite terms. Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the United Nations (and most of its specialized agencies) and a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and The Andean Community of Nations. Administrative divisions Ecuador is divided into 24 provinces (provincias), each with its own administrative capital: Map Key Province Capital</tr>1 Azuay Cuenca</tr>2 Bolívar Guaranda </tr>3 Cañar Azogues </tr>4 Carchi Tulcán </tr>5 Chimborazo Riobamba </tr>6 Cotopaxi Latacunga </tr>7 El Oro Machala </tr>8 Esmeraldas Esmeraldas</tr>9 Galápagos Puerto Baquerizo Moreno</tr>10 Guayas Guayaquil </tr>11 Imbabura Ibarra</tr>12 Loja Loja</tr> Map Key Province Capital</tr>13 Los Ríos Babahoyo </tr>14 Manabí Portoviejo </tr>15 Morona-Santiago Macas </tr>16 Napo Tena</tr>17 Orellana Puerto Francisco de Orellana</tr>18 Pastaza Puyo </tr>19 Pichincha Quito </tr>20 Santa Elena Santa Elena </tr>21 Santo Domingo Santo Domingo de Los Colorados </tr>22 Sucumbíos Nueva Loja </tr>23 Tungurahua Ambato</tr>24 Zamora-Chinchipe Zamora</tr> Map of Ecuador The provinces are divided into cantons, and further subdivided into parishes (parroquias). Geography Ecuador has three main geographic regions, plus an insular region in the Pacific Ocean: La Costa, or the coast, comprises the low-lying land in the western part of the country, including the Pacific coastline. La Sierra ("the highlands") is the high-altitude belt running north-south along the center of the country, its mountainous terrain dominated by the Andes mountain range. La Amazonía, also known as El Oriente ("the east"), comprises the Amazon rainforest areas in the eastern part of the country, accounting for just under half of the country's total surface area, though populated by less than 5% of the population. The Región Insular is the region comprising the Galápagos Islands, some 1,000 kilometers (620 mi) west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean. Ecuador's capital is Quito, which is in the province of Pichincha in the Sierra region. Its largest city is Guayaquil, in the Guayas Province. Cotopaxi, which is just south of Quito, features one of the world's highest active volcanoes. The top of Mount Chimborazo (6,310-m above sea level) is considered to be the most distant point from the center of the earth, given the ovoidal shape of the planet (wider at the equator). Climate Although the country is not particularly large, there is great variety in the climate, largely determined by altitude. The Pacific coastal area has a tropical climate, with a severe rainy season. The climate in the Andean highlands is temperate and relatively dry; and the Amazon basin on the eastern side of the mountains shares the climate of other rain forest zones. Because of its location at the equator, Ecuador experiences little variation in daylight hours during the course of a year. Galápagos turtle Biodiversity Ecuador is one of 18 megadiverse countries in the world according to Conservation International. Conservation Internation Site With 1,600 bird species (15% of the world's known bird species) in the continental area, and 38 more endemic in the Galápagos. In addition to 25,000 species of plants, the country has 106 endemic reptiles, 138 endemic amphibians, and 6,000 species of butterfly. The Galápagos Islands are well known as a region of distinct fauna, famous as the place of birth of Darwin's Theory of Evolution, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Unesco World Heritage Despite being on the UNESCO list, the Galapagos are endangered by a range of negative environmental effects, threatening the existence of this exotic ecosystem. Time Magazine Report Additionally, oil exploitation of the Amazon rain forest has led to the release of billions of gallons of untreated wastes, gas, and crude oil into the environment, contaminating ecosystems and causing detrimental health effects to indigenous peoples. San Sebastian, M. and Hurtig, A.K. "Oil Exploitation in the Amazon Basin of Ecuador: A Public Health Emergency." Pan American Journal of Public Health 15(3), 2004. Economy |World Trade Center Guayaquil. |Rep. del Salvador Avenue Skyline Quito. Ecuador's natural resources include petroleum, fish, shrimp, timber and gold. In addition, it has rich agriculture: bananas, flowers, coffee, cacao, sugar, tropical fruits, palm oil, palm hearts, rice, and corn. Background Note: Ecuador. US Department of State Fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market, with some exports to the Andean Common market. Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in a 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency, the sucre, in 1999, which helped precipitate a default on external loans later that year. On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. The formal adoption of the dollar, as opposed to merely pegging the sucre to the dollar as Argentina had done, theoretically meant that the return from seigniorage would accrue to the U.S. government. Subsequent protests related to the economic and financial crises led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency. However, the Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy. The government also entered into negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), culminating in the negotiation of a 12-month standby arrangement with the IMF. Additional policy initiatives include efforts to reduce the government's fiscal deficit and to implement structural reforms to strengthen the banking system and regain access to private capital markets. Buoyed by high oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000, with GDP rising 1.9% annually. However, 70% of the population was estimated to live below the poverty line that year, more than double the rate in 1995. On December 12, 2008, President Correa announced that his government would not make an interest payment due on the country's 2012 global bonds, triggering a default on the country's outstanding $3.9 billion of global bonds. Correa, who holds a graduate degree in economics, argued against complying with the debt payment, calling it "illegitimate." http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601086&sid=a9zPhOkWSVz4&refer=news Retrieved 24-12-2008 Demographics |Chimborazo volcano seen from a highway. Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse. The largest ethnic group (as of 2007) is the Mestizos, who are the mixed descendants of Spanish colonists and indigenous Indians and who constitute less than 55% of the population. Amerindians account for around 24% of the current population. Whites, mainly criollos, the unmixed descendants of early Spanish colonists, as well as immigrants from other European countries, account for about 16% of the population. The small Afro-Ecuadorian minority, including Mulattos and zambos, largely based in Esmeraldas and Imbabura provinces, make up 5% of the population. Immigration and emigration There are sizeable expatriate Ecuadorian communities in Spain, the United Kingdom (Ecuadorian Britons), and Italy, as well across Europe, the United States (Ecuadorian American), Canada, Chile, Venezuela, Mexico and Japan. Many people from other South American countries, especially Peru and Bolivia have moved to Ecuador in search of higher wages. There has been increased immigration from the Middle East, Asia (especially China and Japan), North America and Europe. There is a large community of Arab-Ecuadorians, numbering in the hundreds of thousands, mostly of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian origin, prominent in commerce and industry, and concentrated in the country's second city, the Pacific port of Guayaquil. Ecuador contains tiny communities of Italians, Jews, Armenians and Greek-Ecuadorians. The Ecuadorian Jews, who number less than 500, are mostly of German or Italian descent. There are 112,000 German speakers in Ecuador, mainly descendants of immigrants who arrived in the late 19th century. In recent years Ecuador has seen an influx of Colombians seeking refuge from the Colombian armed conflict. A small east Asian Latino community estimated at 2,500 mainly consists of those of Japanese and Chinese descent, whose ancestors arrived as miners, farm hands and fishermen in the late 19th century. Religion Basílica del Voto Nacional in old downtown Quito Approximately 95% of Ecuadorians are Roman Catholic, and 4% are Protestants. In the rural parts of Ecuador, indigenous beliefs and Catholicism are sometimes syncretized. Most festivals and annual parades are based on religious celebrations, many incorporating a mixture of rites and icons. The Jewish community of Ecuador, with domicile in Quito, has about 500 members. However, this number is decreasing because young people are emigrating to study in Israel or elsewhere abroad and not returning. Comunidad Judía del Ecuador There are some small percentages of Eastern Orthodox Christians, indigenous religions, Muslims, Buddhists and Bahá'í. Ecuador also has growing number of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Ecuador-LDS Newsroom Country Profile Population density |Las Peñas neighbourhood, emblematic district of Guayaquil. The majority of Ecuadorians live in the central provinces inland in the Andes mountains, or along the Pacific coast. The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains (El Oriente) remains sparsely populated and contains only about three percent of the population. City Populations 2008 Ecuador - City Population - Cities, Towns & Provinces Guayaquil 2,090,000 Quito 1,482,000 Cuenca 304,000 Machala 217,000 Santo Domingo de los Colorados 212,000 Portoviejo 195,000 Manta 193,000 Eloy Alfaro 184,000 Ambato 169,000 Riobamba 140,000 Nations Ecuador is a plurinational state. In addition to whites, blacks, and mestizos, many Ecuadorians belong to indigenous nations, principally: Achuar Awá Chachi Cofán Epera Huaorani Manta Quitu Secoya Shuar Siona Tsachila Zaparo Quechua Amazonian Quechua Cañari Cayambi Caranqui Chibuleo Huancavilca Natabuela Otavalo Panzaleo Puruhá Salasaca Saraguro Waranka Culture Ecuador's mainstream culture is defined by its mestizo majority and, like their ancestry, is a mixture of European and Amerindian influences infused with African elements inherited from enslaved ancestors. Ecuador's indigenous communities are integrated into the mainstream culture to varying degrees,<ref>http://www.south-images.com/photos-andes-ecuador.htm Photos Indigenous people of Ecuador</ref> but some may also practice their own autochthonous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the Amazon basin. Spanish is spoken as the first language by more than 90% of the population and as first and second language by more than 98%. One part of Ecuador's population can speak Amerindian languages, but just as a second language. Two percent of the population speaks only Amerindian languages because they have never attended school. The Panama hat is of Ecuadorian origin, and is known there as "Sombrero de paja toquilla", or a Jipijapa. It is made principally in Montecristi in the Province of Manabi. Its manufacture (particularly that of the Montecristi superfino) is considered a great craft. Notable people born in Ecuador include painters Tábara, Guayasamín, Kingman, Rendón, Arauz, Constanté, Viteri, Molinari, Maldonado, Gutierrez, Endara Crow, Villacís, Egas, Villafuerte and Faini; Enrique Espín Yépez composer, violinist and conductor; animator Mike Judge; poet and statesman José Joaquín de Olmedo y Maruri, scholar Benjamín Urrutia, world traveler Claudia Velasco, and tennis player Pancho Segura. Food Ecuadorian ceviche, made of shrimp, lemon and tomato sauce. The food in Ecuador is diverse, varying with altitude and associated agricultural conditions. Pork, chicken, beef, and cuy (guinea pig) are popular in the mountain regions and are served with a variety of grains (especially rice and corn or potatoes). A popular street food in mountain regions is hornado, consisting of potatoes served with roasted pig. Fanesca, a fish soup including several types of bean, is often eaten during Lent and Easter. During the week before the commemoration of the deceased or "día de los muertos", the fruit beverage "Colada Morada" is typical, accompanied by "Guaguas de Pan", which is stuffed bread shaped like children. The food is somewhat different in the southern mountain area, featuring typical Loja food such as "repe", a soup prepared with green bananas; "cecina", roasted pork; and "miel con quesillo" or "cuajada" as dessert. A wide variety of fresh fruit is available, particularly at lower altitudes, including granadilla, passionfruit, naranjilla, several types of bananas, uvilla, taxo, and tree tomato. Seafood is very popular at the coast, where prawns, shrimp and lobster are key parts of the diet. Plantain- and peanut-based dishes are the basis of most coastal meals, which are usually served in two courses. The first course is caldo soup, which may be aguado (a thin soup, usually with meat) or caldo de leche, a cream vegetable soup. The second course might include rice, a little meat or fish with a menestra (lentil stew), and salad or vegetables. Patacones (fried green plantains with cheese) are popular side dishes with coastal meals. Some of the typical dishes in the coastal region are: ceviche, pan de almidón, corviche, guatita, encebollado and empanadas; in the mountain region: hornado, fritada, humitas, tamales, llapingachos, lomo saltado, and churrasco. In the rainforest, a dietary staple is the yuca, elsewhere called cassava. The starchy root is peeled and boiled, fried, or used in a variety of other dishes. Many fruits are available in this region, including bananas, tree grapes, and peach palms. It's also used as a bread and has spread throughout the nation, most notably, to Quito where a company sells the native pan de yuca in a new sense; different types sold with frozen youghurt.Aguardiente, a sugar cane-based spirit, is probably the most popular national alcohol. Drinkable yogurt, available in many fruit flavors, is popular and is often consumed with pan de yuca, a light bread filled with cheese and eaten warm. Literature There are many contemporary Ecuadorian writers, including the novelist Jorge Enrique Adoum; the poet Jorge Carrera Andrade; the essayist Benjamín Carrión; the poet Fanny Carrión de Fierro; the novelist Enrique Gil Gilbert; the novelist Jorge Icaza (author of the novel Huasipungo, translated to many languages); the short story author Pablo Palacio; the novelist Alicia Yanez Cossio; the prominent author and essayist, Juan Montalvo, and U.S.-based, half Ecuadorian poet Emanuel Xavier. Art Estuardo Maldonado's, El Campo de Los Toros, Pastel and Ink on paper, 1960. The best known art tendencies from Ecuador belonged to the Escuela Quiteña, which developed from the 16th to 18th centuries, examples of which are on display in various old churches in Quito. Ecuadorian painters include: Oswaldo Guayasamín, Camilo Egas and Eduardo Kingman from the Indiginist Movement; and Manuel Rendon, Enrique Tábara, Aníbal Villacís and Estuardo Maldonado from the Informalist Movement. Film Museum of Anthropology and Contemporary Art (MAAC), near the breakwater in Guayaquil. The Ecuador Film Company was founded in Guayaquil, in 1924. During the early twenties to early thirties, Ecuador enjoyed its Cinema Golden Age Era. However, the production of motion pictures declined with the coming of sound.Beyond the Gates of Splendor (2002), directed by Jim Hanon, is a documentary about five missionaries killed by the Huaorani Indians in the 1950s. He recyclesEntre Marx y una Mujer Desnuda (Between Marx and a Nude Woman, 1995), by Ecuadorian Camilo Luzuriaga, provides a window into the life of young Ecuadorian leftists living in a country plagued by the remnants of feudal systems and coup d'etats. It is based on a novel by Jorge Enrique Adoum In addition to film, there are numerous books and novels based on Ecuador, including the science fiction novel by Rod Glenn, The King of America, and the science fiction novel Galápagos by Kurt Vonnegut. Sports Ecuador's Olympic related administrative building. The most popular sport in Ecuador, as in most South American countries, is football. Its best known professional teams include Barcelona S.C. and C.S. Emelec, from Guayaquil, Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito, Deportivo Quito and El Nacional (the Ecuadorian Armed Forces team) from Quito, Olmedo from Riobamba, and Deportivo Cuenca, from Cuenca. The matches of the Ecuador national football team are the most watched sports events in the country. In June 2007, FIFA adopted a resolution prohibiting international soccer games at or higher than 2,500 meters above sea level. Rafael Correa, and his presidential counterparts in Peru, Bolivia and Colombia, issued a joint letter of protest against this ruling. Ecuador qualified for the final rounds of both the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups. Ecuador finished ahead of Poland and Costa Rica to come in second to Germany in Group A in the 2006 World Cup. Futsal, often referred to as índor, is particularly popular for mass participation. There is considerable interest in tennis in the middle and upper classes in Ecuadorian society, and several Ecuadorian professional players have attained international fame, including Nicolas Lapentti, Francisco Segura and Andrés Gómez. Basketball has a high profile, while Ecuador's specialties include Ecuavolley, a three-person variation of volleyball. Bullfighting is practised at a professional level in Quito, during the annual festivities that commemorate the Spanish founding of the city, and also features in festivals in many smaller towns. Rugby union is found to some extent in Ecuador, and Quito has its own club. Quito Rugby Club Ecuador obtained its only Olympic gold medal in Atlanta's 1996 Olympic Games, through Jefferson Pérez, in the 20 km race-walk. Since 2005, Ecuador has held the Guayaquil Marathon, which is an international foot race. There is flourishing activity in non-traditional sports such as inline hockey, Capoeira, mountain biking, motorbiking, surfing, and paintball. Some costal resorts, particularly Montañita and Ayampe, have been developed as surfing centres. Ecuador also hosted the 2007 Youth World Championship for rock climbing, held in Ibarra, becoming the first country outside Europe or Asia to host the event. IFSC - International Federation of Sport Climbing Competition Calendar 2007 Education The public education system is free at the point of delivery, and attendance is mandatory from ages five to 14. Provision of public schools falls far below the levels needed, and class sizes are often very large, and families of limited means often find it necessary to pay for education. In rural areas, only 10% of the children go on to high school. The Ministry of Education states that the mean number of year completed as 6.7. Ecuador has 61 universities, many of which offer graduate degrees, although only 87% of the faculty in public universities possess graduate degrees. About 300 higher institutes offer two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training. Science and technology The public policies on science and technology in Ecuador are regulated by Senacyt (Secretaria Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia). Senacyt works alongside universities and private sector to promote applied research. The major focus of research has been in agriculture and environmental impact on raw material extraction. In 2007, Ecuador trained its first astronaut, Commander Ronnie Nader, and formed the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency (Agencia Espacial Civil Ecuatoriana, EXA). In 2008, EXA developed a plane capable of sustaining micro gravity flight, becoming the first country in Latin America in developing this kind of technology by their own means. One month later, they set the world record for the youngest human being in micro gravity, becoming the lead country in micro gravity aerospace research. The EXA manages the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Program and operates, jointly with the Ecuadorian Air Force, the Ecuadorian Micro Gravity Flight Program, the only such program in Latin America. Transportation Ecuador has a network of national highways maintained by the Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Comunicaciones (Ministry of Public Works and Communication). The Pan-American Highway connects the northern and southern portions of the country as well as connecting Ecuador with Colombia to the north and Peru to the south. The quality of roads, even on truck routes, is highly variable. There is an extensive network of intercity buses that use these mountain roads and highways. The most modern Ecuadorian Highway communicates Guayaquil with Salinas. The Interandean Railroad communicates Quito and Cotopaxi. See also List of Ecuador-related articles List of Ecuador-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Ecuador Outline of geography Outline of South America United Nations References External links Global Integrity Report: Ecuador has analysis of corruption and anti-corruption in Ecuador. 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2,592 | Greatest_common_divisor | In mathematics, the greatest common divisor (gcd), also known as the greatest common factor (gcf) or highest common factor (hcf), of two or more non-zero integers, is the largest positive integer that divides the numbers without a remainder. This notion can be extended to polynomials, see greatest common divisor of two polynomials. Overview The greatest common divisor of a and b is written as gcd(a, b), or sometimes simply as (a, b). For example, gcd(12, 18) = 6, gcd(−4, 14) = 2. Two numbers are called coprime or relatively prime if their greatest common divisor equals 1. For example, 9 and 28 are relatively prime. The greatest common divisor is useful for reducing fractions to be in lowest terms. For example, gcd(42, 56) = 14, therefore, Calculating the gcd Greatest common divisors can in principle be computed by determining the prime factorizations of the two numbers and comparing factors, as in the following example: to compute gcd(18, 84), we find the prime factorizations 18 = 2 · 32 and 84 = 22 · 3 · 7 and notice that the "overlap" of the two expressions is 2 · 3; so gcd(18, 84) = 6. In practice, this method is only feasible for small numbers; computing prime factorizations in general takes far too long. A much more efficient method is the Euclidean algorithm, which uses the division algorithm in combination with the observation that the gcd of two numbers also divides their difference: divide 84 by 18 to get a quotient of 4 and a remainder of 12. Then divide 18 by 12 to get a quotient of 1 and a remainder of 6. Then divide 12 by 6 to get a remainder of 0, which means that 6 is the gcd. The series of quotients generated by the Euclidean algorithm compose a continued fraction. If a and b are not both zero, the greatest common divisor of a and b can be computed by using least common multiple (lcm) of a and b: Keith Slavin has shown that for odd a ≥ 1: which is a function that can be evaluated for complex b and Wolfgang Schramm has shown that: is an entire function in the variable b for all positive integers a where is Ramanujan's sum . Marcelo Polezzi has shown that: for positive integers a and b. Donald Knuth proved the following reduction: for non-negative integers a and b, where a and b are not both zero. Properties Every common divisor of a and b is a divisor of gcd(a, b). gcd(a, b), where a and b are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and equivalently as the smallest positive integer d which can be written in the form d = a·p + b·q where p and q are integers. This expression is called Bézout's identity. Numbers p and q like this can be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm. gcd(a, 0) = |a|, for a ≠ 0, since any number is a divisor of 0, and the greatest divisor of a is |a|. This is usually used as the base case in the Euclidean algorithm. If a divides the product b·c, and gcd(a, b) = d, then a/d divides c. If m is a non-negative integer, then gcd(m·a, m·b) = m·gcd(a, b). If m is any integer, then gcd(a + m·b, b) = gcd(a, b). If m is a nonzero common divisor of a and b, then gcd(a/m, b/m) = gcd(a, b)/m. The gcd is a multiplicative function in the following sense: if a1 and a2 are relatively prime, then gcd(a1·a2, b) = gcd(a1, b)·gcd(a2, b). The gcd is a commutative function: gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, a). The gcd is an associative function: gcd(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(gcd(a, b), c). The gcd of three numbers can be computed as gcd(a, b, c) = gcd(gcd(a, b), c), or in some different way by applying commutativity and associativity. This can be extended to any number of numbers. gcd(a, b) is closely related to the least common multiple lcm(a, b): we have gcd(a, b)·lcm(a, b) = a·b. This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: one first computes the gcd with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the given numbers by their gcd. The following versions of distributivity hold true: gcd(a, lcm(b, c)) = lcm(gcd(a, b), gcd(a, c)) lcm(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(lcm(a, b), lcm(a, c)). It is useful to define gcd(0, 0) = 0 and lcm(0, 0) = 0 because then the natural numbers become a complete distributive lattice with gcd as meet and lcm as join operation. This extension of the definition is also compatible with the generalization for commutative rings given below. In a Cartesian coordinate system, gcd(a, b) can be interpreted as the number of points with integral coordinates on the straight line joining the points (0, 0) and (a, b), excluding (0, 0). Probabilities and expected value Let and be independently chosen at uniform random from the set . The limiting probability distribution, as , of is . This follows from the characterization of gcd(A, B) as the integer d such that and A/d and B/d are coprime. Clearly, the probability of two integers sharing a factor d is . Thus, the normalization constant is given by the limiting probability that two integers are coprime, which is , where is the Riemann zeta function. Further, the limiting probability that independently chosen integers are coprime is . (See coprime for a derivation.) Using this information, the expected value of the greatest common divisor function can be seen (informally) to not exist when . That is This last summation is the Harmonic series, which diverges. However, when , the expected value is well-defined, and by the above argument, it is For , this is approximately equal to 1.3684. For , it is approximately 1.1106. if all integers x are limited as then the results can be extended to where is the Hurwitz zeta function. if different 's are known for different then the lowest is taken. The gcd in commutative rings The greatest common divisor can more generally be defined for elements of an arbitrary commutative ring. If R is a commutative ring, and a and b are in R, then an element d of R is called a common divisor of a and b if it divides both a and b (that is, if there are elements x and y in R such that d·x = a and d·y = b). If d is a common divisor of a and b, and every common divisor of a and b divides d, then d is called a greatest common divisor of a and b. Note that with this definition, two elements a and b may very well have several greatest common divisors, or none at all. But if R is an integral domain then any two gcd's of a and b must be associate elements. Also, if R is a unique factorization domain, then any two elements have a gcd. If R is a Euclidean domain then a form of the Euclidean algorithm can be used to compute greatest common divisors. The following is an example of an integral domain with two elements that do not have a gcd: The elements and are two "maximal common divisors" (i.e. any common divisor which is a multiple of 2 is associated to 2, the same holds for ), but they are not associated, so there is no greatest common divisor of a and b. Corresponding to the Bezout property we may, in any commutative ring, consider the collection of elements of the form , where p and q range over the ring. This is the ideal generated by a and b, and is denoted simply . In a ring all of whose ideals are principal (a principal ideal domain or PID), this ideal will be identical with the set of multiples of some ring element d; then this d is a greatest common divisor of a and b. But the ideal can be useful even when there is no greatest common divisor of a and b. (Indeed, Ernst Kummer used this ideal as a replacement for a gcd in his treatment of Fermat's Last Theorem, although he envisioned it as the set of multiples of some hypothetical, or ideal, ring element d, whence the ring-theoretic term.) See also Least common multiple Lowest common denominator Binary GCD algorithm Euclidean algorithm Extended Euclidean algorithm Greatest common divisor of two polynomials References Further reading Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.2: The Greatest Common Divisor, pp.333–356. Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp.856–862. Saunders MacLane and Garrett Birkhoff. A Survey of Modern Algebra, Fourth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Co., 1977. ISBN 0-02-310070-2. 1–7: "The Euclidean Algorithm." External links greatest common divisor at Everything2.com Greatest Common Measure: The Last 2500 Years, by Alexander Stepanov Online GCD Calculator of a set of two or more integers Online HCF calculator Online gcd calculator HCF and LCM Calculator | Greatest_common_divisor |@lemmatized mathematics:1 great:21 common:34 divisor:29 gcd:57 also:5 know:2 factor:4 gcf:1 high:1 hcf:3 two:15 non:3 zero:4 integer:15 large:1 positive:4 divide:10 number:13 without:1 remainder:4 notion:1 extend:4 polynomial:3 see:4 overview:1 b:61 write:2 sometimes:1 simply:2 example:5 call:4 coprime:5 relatively:3 prime:6 equal:2 useful:3 reduce:1 fraction:2 low:3 term:2 therefore:1 calculate:1 principle:1 compute:9 determine:1 factorization:4 compare:1 following:5 find:1 notice:1 overlap:1 expression:2 practice:1 method:2 feasible:1 small:2 general:1 take:2 far:3 long:1 much:1 efficient:1 euclidean:9 algorithm:12 use:7 division:1 combination:1 observation:1 difference:1 get:3 quotient:3 mean:1 series:2 generate:2 compose:1 continued:1 least:4 multiple:7 lcm:11 keith:1 slavin:1 show:3 odd:1 function:8 evaluate:1 complex:1 wolfgang:1 schramm:1 entire:1 variable:1 ramanujan:1 sum:1 marcelo:1 polezzi:1 donald:2 knuth:2 prove:1 reduction:1 negative:2 property:2 every:2 may:3 define:4 alternatively:1 equivalently:1 form:3 p:4 q:4 bézout:1 identity:1 like:1 extended:1 since:1 usually:1 base:1 case:1 product:2 c:10 nonzero:1 multiplicative:1 sense:1 commutative:6 associative:1 three:1 different:3 way:1 apply:1 commutativity:1 associativity:1 closely:1 relate:1 formula:1 often:1 one:1 first:1 euclid:1 give:3 version:1 distributivity:1 hold:2 true:1 natural:1 become:1 complete:1 distributive:1 lattice:1 meet:1 join:2 operation:1 extension:1 definition:2 compatible:1 generalization:1 ring:10 cartesian:1 coordinate:2 system:1 interpret:1 point:2 integral:3 straight:1 line:1 exclude:1 probability:5 expect:1 value:3 let:1 independently:2 choose:2 uniform:1 random:1 set:4 limiting:1 distribution:1 follow:1 characterization:1 clearly:1 share:1 thus:1 normalization:1 constant:1 limit:3 riemann:1 zeta:2 derivation:1 information:1 expected:2 informally:1 exist:1 last:3 summation:1 harmonic:1 diverge:1 however:1 well:2 argument:1 approximately:2 x:3 result:1 hurwitz:1 generally:1 element:11 arbitrary:1 r:7 greatest:1 note:1 several:1 none:1 domain:5 must:1 associate:3 unique:1 maximal:1 e:2 correspond:1 bezout:1 consider:1 collection:1 range:1 ideal:7 denote:1 whose:1 principal:2 pid:1 identical:1 even:1 indeed:1 ernst:1 kummer:1 replacement:1 treatment:1 fermat:1 theorem:1 although:1 envision:1 hypothetical:1 whence:1 theoretic:1 denominator:1 binary:1 reference:1 read:1 art:1 computer:1 programming:1 volume:1 seminumerical:1 third:1 edition:3 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:3 section:2 pp:2 thomas:1 h:1 cormen:1 charles:1 leiserson:1 ronald:1 l:1 rivest:1 clifford:1 stein:1 introduction:1 algorithms:1 second:1 mit:1 press:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 saunders:1 maclane:1 garrett:1 birkhoff:1 survey:1 modern:1 algebra:1 fourth:1 macmillan:1 publish:1 co:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 measure:1 year:1 alexander:1 stepanov:1 online:3 calculator:4 |@bigram common_divisor:26 divisor_gcd:2 gcd_gcd:4 prime_factorization:3 euclidean_algorithm:8 quotient_remainder:2 continued_fraction:1 ramanujan_sum:1 donald_knuth:2 bézout_identity:1 extended_euclidean:1 commutativity_associativity:1 closely_relate:1 euclid_algorithm:1 gcd_lcm:3 commutative_ring:5 cartesian_coordinate:1 probability_distribution:1 integer_coprime:2 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:2 expected_value:2 unique_factorization:1 factorization_domain:1 ernst_kummer:1 volume_seminumerical:1 seminumerical_algorithm:1 addison_wesley:1 h_cormen:1 cormen_charles:1 e_leiserson:1 leiserson_ronald:1 l_rivest:1 rivest_clifford:1 clifford_stein:1 introduction_algorithms:1 mcgraw_hill:1 garrett_birkhoff:1 external_link:1 |
2,593 | Apollo_16 | Location of the Apollo 16 landing site Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the Apollo program, the fifth mission to land on the Moon and the first to land in the highlands area. The mission was launched on April 16, 1972, and concluded on April 27. It was a J-class mission, featuring a Lunar Rover and it brought back 94.7 kg of lunar samples. It included three lunar EVA: 7.2 hours, 7.4 hours, 5.7 hours and one trans-earth EVA of 1.4. The Apollo 16 subsatellite was launched from the CSM while it was in lunar orbit. The subsatellite carried out experiments on magnetic fields and solar particles. It was launched April 24, 1972 at 21:56:09 UTC and orbited the Moon for 34 days and 425 revolutions. It had a mass of and consisted of a central cylinder and three 1.5 m booms. En route to the moon, the Apollo 16 astronauts took several photos of Earth. One of which was with North America in the background, with much of the northern portion of the continent under extensive cloud cover. Despite a malfunction in the Command Module which almost aborted the lunar landing, Apollo 16 landed successfully in the Descartes Highlands on April 21. Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. John W. Young (4) - Commander T. Kenneth Mattingly Jr. (1) - Command Module Pilot Charles M. Duke Jr. (1) - Lunar Module Pilot Young and Duke served as the backup crew to Apollo 13; Mattingly was slated as the Apollo 13 command module pilot until being pulled from the mission due to his exposure to rubella by Duke. Backup crew Fred W. Haise, Jr - Commander Stuart A. Roosa - Command Module Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell - Lunar Module Pilot Although not officially announced, the original backup crew consisted of Fred Haise (CDR), William R. Pogue (CMP) and Gerald Carr (LMP) who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19. Donald K. Slayton, "Deke!" (New York: Forge, 1994), 262 However, after the widely expected cancellations of Apollo 18 and Apollo 19 were finalized in September 1970 it meant that this crew would not rotate to a lunar mission as planned. Subsequently, Roosa and Mitchell were recycled to serve as members of the backup crew after returning from Apollo 14 while Pogue and Carr were re-assigned to the Skylab program where they later flew on Skylab 4. Support crew Philip K. Chapman Anthony W. England Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr Robert F. Overmyer Mission parameters Mass: Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg LM mass: transposition and docking , separation for landing , ascent stage at lunar liftoff Earth orbits: 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return Lunar orbits: 64 Perigee: 166.7 km Apogee: 176.0 km Inclination: 32.542° Period: 87.85 min Perilune: 107.6 km Apolune: 315.4 km Inclination: 168° Period: 120 min Landing Site: 8.97301° S - 15.50019° E or 8° 58' 22.84" S - 15° 30' 0.68" E LM - CSM docking Undocked: April 20, 1972 - 18:07:31 UTC Docked: April 24, 1972 - 03:35:18 UTC EVAs Young and Duke - EVA 1 EVA 1 Start: April 21, 1972, 16:47:28 UTC EVA 1 End: April 21, 23:58:40 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 11 minutes, 02 seconds Young and Duke - EVA 2 EVA 2 Start: April 22, 1972, 16:33:35 UTC EVA 2 End: April 22, 23:56:44 UTC Duration: 7 hours, 23 minutes, 09 seconds Young and Duke - EVA 3 EVA 3 Start: April 23, 1972, 15:25:28 UTC EVA 3 End: April 23, 21:05:31 UTC Duration: 5 hours, 40 minutes, 03 seconds Mattingly (Duke - Stand up) - Transearth EVA 4 EVA 4 Start: April 25, 1972, 20:33:46 UTC EVA 4 End: April 25, 21:57:28 UTC Duration: 1 hour, 23 minutes, 42 seconds Mattingly's EVA was only the second trans-earth EVA ever and was used to bring in film from exterior cameras and conduct an experiment on microbial survival. The splashdown point was 0 deg 43 min S, 156 deg 13 min W, southeast of Christmas Island and from the recovery ship USS Ticonderoga. Mission highlights John Young jumps while saluting the American flag. (NASA) A malfunction in a backup yaw gimbal servo loop in the main propulsion system of the CSM Casper caused concerns about firing the engine to adjust the CSM's lunar orbit, and nearly caused the Moon landing to be scrubbed. After a delayed first landing attempt, it was determined that the malfunction presented relatively little risk, and Young and Duke (who were already undocked, and flying LM Orion when the problem occurred) were permitted to land on the Moon. However, the mission was shortened by a day (reducing the time in orbit around the Moon after the LM left the Moon and docked with the CSM), as a safety measure. Young and Duke spent three days exploring the Descartes highland region, while Mattingly circled overhead in Casper. This was the only one of the six Apollo landings to target the lunar highlands. The astronauts discovered that what was thought to have been a region of volcanism was actually a region full of impact-formed rocks (breccias). Their collection of returned specimens included an chunk that was the largest single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts Lunar Sample Facility Tour - Pristine Sample Laboratory Display Cabinet (nicknamed "Big Muley" after Bill Muehlberger, principal investigator for the mission's geology activities Apollo 16 Video Library ). The scientific results of Apollo 16 caused planetary geologists to revise previous interpretations of the lunar highlands, concluding that meteorite impacts were the dominant agent in shaping the moon's ancient surfaces. The Apollo 16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of eleven miles per hour (eighteen kilometers per hour), which still stands as the record speed for any wheeled vehicle on the Moon (listed as such in the Guinness Book of Records).John Young works at the LRV near the LM Orion (NASA) Spacecraft locations Mock-up of Orion on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center The Casper command module is currently at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center, in Huntsville, Alabama. The lunar module ascent stage separated 24 April 1972 but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site on the Moon is unknown.depiction of the plaque left on the Moon by Apollo 16 Charles Duke donated some flown items, including a lunar map, to Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw, Georgia. He also left a plastic-encased photo portrait of his family on the moon. Mission insignia Panoramic Assembly of Apollo 16 Plum and Flag Craters (moonpans.com) The circular patch featured an eagle with wings outstretched, perched atop a red, white, and blue shield, over a lunar surface. The vector symbol from the NASA logo was placed on top of the shield, and then across the shield were written the words APOLLO 16. The artwork was bordered in white, with a blue band carrying 16 stars and the crew names. There was a gold border. The patch was designed by NASA artist Barbara Matelski. Quotes "I mean, I haven't eaten this much citrus fruit in 20 years! And I'll tell you one thing, in another 12 fucking days, I ain't never eating any more," John Young, reacting to stomach problems caused by drinking extra orange juice (to prevent an electrolyte deficiency identified in the crew of Apollo 15). Chaikin, Andrew: "A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts", page 476. Penguin, 1998 Media John Young driving the Lunar Rover See also Extra-vehicular activity List of spacewalks Splashdown List of artificial objects on the Moon Google Moon References NASA NSSDC Master Catalog The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Lattimer, Dick (1985). 'All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Whispering Eagle Press. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. Apollo 16 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1972), 'Apollo 16 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription' External links ON THE MOON WITH APOLLO 16 A guidebook to the Descartes Region by Gene Simmons, NASA, 1972. Apollo 16 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica U.S. Space & Rocket Center Museum (location of Apollo 16 command module) (Part 1) NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission from the Internet Archive (Part 2) NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission from the Internet Archive Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas QTVR panoramas Apollo 16 Science Experiments Audio recording of Apollo 16 landing Apollo 16 television transmissions ApolloTV.net Video Interview with the Apollo 16 Astronauts (June 28, 1972) from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives. | Apollo_16 |@lemmatized location:3 apollo:36 landing:6 site:3 tenth:1 man:3 mission:14 program:3 fifth:1 land:6 moon:19 first:2 highland:5 area:1 launch:4 april:15 conclude:2 j:1 class:1 feature:2 lunar:20 rover:3 bring:2 back:1 kg:6 sample:3 include:4 three:3 eva:16 hour:9 one:6 trans:2 earth:4 subsatellite:2 csm:6 orbit:7 carry:2 experiment:3 magnetic:1 field:1 solar:1 particle:1 utc:11 day:4 revolution:1 mass:5 consist:2 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2,594 | Ciliate | The ciliates are a group of protists characterized by the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to flagella but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers with a different undulating pattern than flagella. Cilia occur in all members of the group (although the peculiar suctoria only have them for part of the life-cycle) and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. The term "in classification as a phylum. Ciliophora can be classified under Protista or Protozoa. The term "Ciliata" is also used, as a class. (However, this latter term can also refer to a type of fish.) Protista classification is rapidly evolving, and it is not rare to encounter these terms used to describe other hierarchical levels. Ciliates are one of the most important groups of protists, easily found wherever there is water — in lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, and soils. Ciliates have many ectosymbiotic and endosymbiotic members, as well as some obligate and opportunistic parasites. Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reach 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex protozoans in structure. Cell structure Cell structure of an ciliophora: 1-contractile vacuole, 2-digestive vacuole, 3-macronucleous, 4-micronucleous, 5-cytoprocto, 6-cytopharynx, 7-cytostome, 8-cilium. Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei: a small, diploid micronucleus (reproduction), and a large, polyploid macronucleus (general cell regulation). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. Division of the macronucleus occurs by amitosis, the segregation of the chromosomes is by a process whose mechanism is unknown. This process is by no means perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging. Periodically the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during conjugation. Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micronuclei and macronuclei. Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube. Feeding Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the oral groove (mouth) by modified oral cilia. This usually includes a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from polykinetids, groups of many cilia together with associated structures. The food is moved by the cilia through the mouth pore into the gullet, which forms food vacuoles. This varies considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles. Reproduction Ciliates can undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction occurs by binary fission. The micronucleus undergoes by mitosis and the macronucleus elongates and splits in half. Both new cells each obtain a copy of the micronucleus and macronucleus. Sexual reproduction involves conjugation, which involve two cells. After conjugation, the two cells divide, forming four new cells. Specialized structures In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the spirotrichs where they generally form bristles called cirri. More often body cilia are arranged in mono- and dikinetids, which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium. These are arranged into rows called kineties, which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell. The body and oral kinetids make up the infraciliature, an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and microtubules involved in coordinating the cilia. The infraciliature is one of the main component of the cell cortex. Another are the alveoli, small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a pellicle maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid. Numerous mitochondria and extrusomes are also generally present. The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates. These superficially dissimilar groups make up the alveolates. Fossil record Until recently, the oldest ciliate fossils known were tintinnids from the Ordovician Period. In 2007, Li et al. published a description of fossil ciliates from the Doushantuo Formation, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran Period. These included two types of tintinnids and a possible ancestral suctorian. Classification Phylum Ciliophora Class Karyorelictea Class Heterotrichea (e.g. Stentor) Stentor roeseli Class Spirotrichea Subclass Choreotrichia (e.g. Tintinnidium) Subclass Oligotrichia (e.g. Halteria) Subclass Stichotrichia (e.g. Stylonychia) Subclass Hypotrichia (e.g. Euplotes) Class Litostomatea Subclass Haptoria (e.g. Didinium) Subclass Trichostomatia (e.g. Balantidium) A trophozoite of Balantidium coli Class Phyllopharyngea Subclass Phyllopharyngia Subclass Rhynchodia Subclass Chonotrichia Subclass Suctoria (e.g. Podophrya) Class Nassophorea Class Colpodea (e.g. Colpoda) Class Prostomatea (e.g. Coleps) Class Oligohymenophorea Subclass Peniculia (e.g. Paramecium) Subclass Hymenostomatia (e.g. Tetrahymena) Subclass Scuticociliatia Subclass Peritrichia (e.g. Vorticella) Subclass Astromatia Subclass Apostomatia Class Plagiopylea References | Ciliate |@lemmatized ciliate:14 group:5 protist:2 characterize:1 presence:2 hair:1 like:1 organelle:1 call:3 cilium:10 identical:1 structure:7 flagella:1 typically:2 short:1 present:2 much:1 large:3 number:1 different:2 undulating:1 pattern:1 flagellum:1 occur:3 member:2 although:1 peculiar:1 suctoria:3 part:1 life:1 cycle:1 variously:1 use:3 swimming:1 crawling:1 attachment:1 feeding:1 sensation:1 term:4 classification:4 phylum:2 ciliophora:3 classify:1 protista:2 protozoa:3 ciliata:1 also:5 class:11 however:2 latter:2 refer:1 type:2 fish:1 rapidly:1 evolve:1 rare:1 encounter:1 describe:1 hierarchical:1 level:1 one:4 important:2 easily:1 find:1 wherever:1 water:2 lake:1 pond:1 ocean:1 river:1 soil:1 many:2 ectosymbiotic:1 endosymbiotic:1 well:1 obligate:1 opportunistic:1 parasite:1 tend:1 reach:2 mm:1 length:1 complex:1 protozoan:1 cell:16 contractile:3 vacuole:8 digestive:1 macronucleous:1 micronucleous:1 cytoprocto:1 cytopharynx:1 cytostome:1 unlike:1 eukaryote:1 two:6 sort:1 nucleus:1 small:4 diploid:1 micronucleus:4 reproduction:5 polyploid:1 macronucleus:4 general:1 regulation:1 generate:1 amplification:1 genome:1 heavy:1 editing:1 division:1 amitosis:1 segregation:1 chromosome:1 process:2 whose:1 mechanism:1 unknown:1 mean:1 perfect:1 generation:1 show:1 sign:1 age:1 periodically:1 macronuclei:2 must:1 regenerate:1 micronuclei:3 conjugation:3 line:1 undergo:2 meiosis:1 haploid:1 daughter:1 exchange:1 fuse:1 form:8 new:3 food:5 phagocytosis:1 follow:1 particular:2 path:1 content:1 digest:1 break:1 via:2 lysosome:1 substance:1 contains:1 enough:1 diffuse:1 membrane:3 anything:1 leave:1 time:1 cytoproct:1 anus:1 discharge:1 exocytosis:1 prominent:1 collect:1 expel:1 maintain:3 osmotic:1 pressure:1 function:1 ionic:1 balance:1 often:2 distinctive:1 star:1 shape:2 point:1 collecting:1 tube:1 feed:2 fee:3 organism:1 heterotrophic:1 bacteria:1 algae:1 detritus:1 sweep:1 oral:3 groove:1 mouth:3 modified:1 usually:1 include:5 series:1 membranelles:1 left:1 paroral:1 right:1 arise:1 polykinetids:2 together:1 associated:1 move:1 pore:1 gullet:1 vary:2 considerably:1 mouthless:1 absorption:1 others:1 predatory:1 several:1 specialized:2 tentacle:1 asexual:2 sexual:2 occurs:1 binary:1 fission:1 undergoes:1 mitosis:2 elongates:1 split:1 half:1 obtain:1 copy:1 involve:3 divide:1 four:1 body:4 instance:1 among:1 spirotrichs:1 generally:2 bristle:1 cirrus:1 arrange:2 mono:1 dikinetids:1 respectively:1 kinetosomes:1 basal:1 may:1 support:1 row:1 kineties:1 run:1 anterior:1 posterior:1 kinetids:1 make:2 infraciliature:2 organization:1 unique:1 various:2 fibril:1 microtubule:1 coordinate:1 main:1 component:1 cortex:1 another:1 alveolus:2 vesicle:1 pack:1 pellicle:1 flexible:1 rigid:1 numerous:1 mitochondrion:1 extrusomes:1 detail:1 indicate:1 close:1 relationship:1 apicomplexa:1 dinoflagellate:1 superficially:1 dissimilar:1 alveolates:1 fossil:3 record:1 recently:1 old:1 know:1 tintinnids:2 ordovician:1 period:2 li:1 et:1 al:1 publish:1 description:1 doushantuo:1 formation:1 million:1 year:1 ago:1 ediacaran:1 possible:1 ancestral:1 suctorian:1 karyorelictea:1 heterotrichea:1 e:13 g:13 stentor:2 roeseli:1 spirotrichea:1 subclass:16 choreotrichia:1 tintinnidium:1 oligotrichia:1 halteria:1 stichotrichia:1 stylonychia:1 hypotrichia:1 euplotes:1 litostomatea:1 haptoria:1 didinium:1 trichostomatia:1 balantidium:2 trophozoite:1 coli:1 phyllopharyngea:1 phyllopharyngia:1 rhynchodia:1 chonotrichia:1 podophrya:1 nassophorea:1 colpodea:1 colpoda:1 prostomatea:1 coleps:1 oligohymenophorea:1 peniculia:1 paramecium:1 hymenostomatia:1 tetrahymena:1 scuticociliatia:1 peritrichia:1 vorticella:1 astromatia:1 apostomatia:1 plagiopylea:1 reference:1 |@bigram contractile_vacuole:2 osmotic_pressure:1 sexual_reproduction:2 asexual_reproduction:1 anterior_posterior:1 et_al:1 |
2,595 | Chlorine | Chlorine (, from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' (khlôros, meaning 'pale green'), is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17 (formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb). As the chloride ion, which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most forms of life, including humans. In its common elemental form (Cl2 or "dichlorine") under standard conditions. Chlorine is a powerful oxidant and is used in bleaching and disinfectants. As a common disinfectant, chlorine compounds are used in swimming pools to keep them clean and sanitary. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing molecules have been implicated in the destruction of the ozone layer. Characteristics At standard temperature and pressure, two chlorine atoms form the diatomic molecule . This is a pale yellow-green gas that has its distinctive strong smell, the smell of bleach. The bonding between the two atoms is relatively weak (only of 242.580 ±0.004 kJ/mol) which makes the molecule highly reactive. Along with fluorine, bromine, iodine and astatine, chlorine is a member of the halogen series that forms the group 17 of the periodic table—the most reactive group of elements. It combines readily with nearly all elements. Compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, xenon, and krypton are known, but do not form by direct reaction of the elements. Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed. Chlorine, though very reactive, is not as extremely reactive as fluorine. Pure chlorine gas does, however, support combustion of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, although the carbon component tends to burn incompletely, with much of it remaining as soot. Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, 10th ed At 10 °C and atmospheric pressure, one liter of water dissolves 3.10 L of gaseous chlorine, and at 30 °C, 1 L of water dissolves only 1.77 liters of chlorine. Chlorine is a member of the salt-forming halogen series and is extracted from chlorides through oxidation often by electrolysis. With metals, it forms salts called chlorides. As the chloride ion, Cl−, it is also the most abundant dissolved ion in ocean water. Isotopes Chlorine has isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 32 to 40. There are two principal stable isotopes, 35Cl (75.77%) and 37Cl (24.23%), giving chlorine atoms in bulk an apparent atomic weight of 35.4527 g/mol. Trace amounts of radioactive 36Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about 7x10−13 to 1 with stable isotopes. 36Cl is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface environment, 36Cl is generated primarily as a result of neutron capture by 35Cl or muon capture by 40Ca. 36Cl decays to 36S and to 36Ar, with a combined half-life of 308,000 years. The half-life of this hydrophilic nonreactive isotope makes it suitable for geologic dating in the range of 60,000 to 1 million years. Additionally, large amounts of 36Cl were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of nuclear weapons between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of 36Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil and ground water, 36Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. 36Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments. Occurrence In nature, chlorine is found primarily as the chloride ion, a component of the salt that is deposited in the earth or dissolved in the oceans — about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride ions. Even higher concentrations of chloride are found in the Dead Sea and in underground brine deposits. Most chloride salts are soluble in water, thus, chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry climates or deep underground. Common chloride minerals include halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and carnallite (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate). Over 2000 naturally-occurring organic chlorine compounds are known. Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide, according to the following chemical equation: 2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH History The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times; archaeologists have found evidence that rock salt was used as early as 3000 BC and brine as early as 6000 BC. The first compound of chlorine synthesized was probably hydrochloric acid (as a solution), which was prepared by the Persian alchemist Rhazes around 900 AD. Around 1200 AD, aqua regia (a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid) began to be used to dissolve gold, and today this is still one of the few reagents that will dissolve gold. Upon dissolving gold in aqua regia, chlorine gas is released along with other nauseating and irritating gases, but this wasn't known until much more recently. Chlorine was first prepared and studied in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and therefore he is credited for its discovery. He called it "dephlogisticated muriatic acid air" since it was a gas (then called "airs") and it came from hydrochloric acid (then known as "muriatic acid"). However, he failed to establish chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid (see phlogiston theory). He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum. Regardless of what he thought, Scheele did isolate chlorine by reacting MnO2 with HCl: 4 HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2 H2O + Cl2 Scheele observed several of the properties of chlorine: the bleaching effect on litmus, the deadly effect on insects, the yellow green colour, and the smell similar to aqua regia. Claude Berthollet suggested that Scheele's dephlogisticated muratic acid air must be a combination of oxygen and an undiscovered element, muriaticum. In 1809 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muratic acid air by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum (and carbon dioxide). They did not succeed and published a report in which they considered the possibility that dephlogisticated muratic acid air is an element, but were not convinced. In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy tried the same experiment again, and concluded that it was an element, and not a compound. He named this new element as chlorine, from the Greek word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow. The name halogen, meaning salt producer, was originally defined for chlorine (in 1811 by Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger), and it was later applied to the rest of the elements in this family. In 1822, Michael Faraday liquefied chlorine for the first time. Chlorine was first used to bleach textiles in 1785. In 1826, silver chloride was used to produce photographic images for the first time. Chloroform was first used as an anesthetic in 1847. Chlorine was first used as a germicide to prevent the spread of puerperal fever in the maternity wards of Vienna General Hospital in Austria in 1847, and in 1850 by John Snow to disinfect the water supply in London after an outbreak of cholera. The US Department of Treasury called for all water to be disinfected with chlorine by 1918. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) was invented in 1912, initially without a purpose. Chlorine gas was first introduced as a weapon on April 22, 1915 at Ypres by the German Army, and the results of this weapon were disastrous because gas masks had not yet been invented. Production Gas extraction Chlorine gas Chlorine can be manufactured by electrolysis of a sodium chloride solution (brine). The production of chlorine results in the co-products caustic soda (sodium hydroxide, NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2). These two products, as well as chlorine itself, are highly reactive. Chlorine can also be produced by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium chloride, in which case the co-products are hydrogen and caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). There are three industrial methods for the extraction of chlorine by electrolysis of chloride solutions, all proceeding according to the following equations: Cathode: 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e− → H2 (g) Anode: 2 Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e− Overall process: 2 NaCl (or KCl) + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH (or KOH) Mercury cell electrolysis Mercury cell electrolysis, also known as the Castner-Kellner process, was the first method used at the end of the nineteenth century to produce chlorine on an industrial scale. Pauling, Linus, General Chemistry, 1970 ed., Dover publications The "rocking" cells used have been improved over the years. Today, in the "primary cell", titanium anodes (formerly graphite ones) are placed in a sodium (or potassium) chloride solution flowing over a liquid mercury cathode. When a potential difference is applied and current flows, chlorine is released at the titanium anode and sodium (or potassium) dissolves in the mercury cathode forming an amalgam. This flows continuously into a separate reactor ("denuder" or "secondary cell"), where it is usually converted back to mercury by reaction with water, producing hydrogen and sodium (or potassium) hydroxide at a commercially useful concentration (50% by weight). The mercury is then recycled to the primary cell. The mercury process is the least energy-efficient of the three main technologies (mercury, diaphragm and membrane) and there are also concerns about mercury emissions. It is estimated that there are still around 100 mercury-cell plants operating worldwide. In Japan, mercury-based chloralkali production was virtually phased out by 1987 (except for the last two potassium chloride units shut down in 2003). In the United States, there will be only five mercury plants remaining in operation by the end of 2008. In Europe, mercury cells accounted for 43% of capacity in 2006 and Western European producers have committed to closing or converting all remaining chloralkali mercury plants by 2020. Diaphragm cell electrolysis In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode. This technology was also developed at the end of the nineteenth century. There are several variants of this process: the Le Sueur cell (1893), the Hargreaves-Bird cell (1901), the Gibbs cell (1908), and the Townsend cell (1904). The cells vary in construction and placement of the diaphragm, with some having the diaphragm in direct contact with the cathode. The salt solution (brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced and the brine is partially depleted. As a result, diaphragm methods produce alkali that is quite dilute (about 12%) and of lower purity than do mercury cell methods. But diaphragm cells are not burdened with the problem of preventing mercury discharge into the environment. They also operate at a lower voltage, resulting in an energy savings over the mercury cell method, but large amounts of steam are required if the caustic has to be evaporated to the commercial concentration of 50%. Membrane cell electrolysis Development of this technology began in the 1970s. The electrolysis cell is divided into two "rooms" by a cation permeable membrane acting as an ion exchanger. Saturated sodium (or potassium) chloride solution is passed through the anode compartment, leaving at a lower concentration. Sodium (or potassium) hydroxide solution is circulated through the cathode compartment, exiting at a higher concentration. A portion of the concentrated sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is diverted as product, while the remainder is diluted with deionized water and passed through the electrolysis apparatus again. This method is more efficient than the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium (or potassium) hydroxide at about 32% concentration, but requires very pure brine. Other electrolytic processes Although a much lower production scale is involved, electrolytic diaphragm and membrane technologies are also used industrially to recover chlorine from hydrochloric acid solutions, producing hydrogen (but no caustic alkali) as a co-product. Furthermore, electrolysis of fused chloride salts (Downs process) also enables chlorine to be produced, in this case as a by-product of the manufacture of metallic sodium or magnesium. Other methods Before electrolytic methods were used for chlorine production, the direct oxidation of hydrogen chloride with oxygen or air was exercised in the Deacon process: 4 HCl + O2 → 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O This reaction is accomplished with the use of copper(II) chloride (CuCl2) as a catalyst and is performed at high temperature (about 400 °C). The amount of extracted chlorine is approximately 80%. Due to the extremely corrosive reaction mixture, industrial use of this method is difficult and several pilot trials failed in the past. Nevertheless, recent developments are promising. Recently Sumitomo patented a catalyst for the Deacon process using ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2). J. Catal. 255, 29 (2008) Another earlier process to produce chlorine was to heat brine with acid and manganese dioxide. 2 NaCl + 2H2SO4 + MnO2 → Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2 H2O + Cl2 Using this process, chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first to isolate chlorine in a laboratory. The manganese can be recovered by the Weldon process. In the latter half of the 19th century, prior to the adoption of electrolytic methods of chlorine production, there was substantial production of chlorine by these reactions to meet demand for bleach and bleaching powder for use by textile industries; by the 1880s the UK, as well as supporting its own (then not inconsiderable) domestic textile production was exporting 70,000 tons per year of bleaching powder. Reader W J Imperial Chemical Industries; A History Volume 1 The Forerunners 1870-1926 p102 Oxford University Press 1970 SBN 19 215937 2 citing L F Haber The Chemical Industry during the Nineteenth Century Oxford (Clarendon Press) 1958 This demand was met by capturing hydrochloric acid driven off as a gas during the production of alkali by the Leblanc process, oxidising this to chlorine (originally by reaction with manganese dioxide), later by direct oxidation by air using the Deacon process (in which case impurities capable of poisoning the catalyst had first to be removed), and subsequently absorbing the chlorine onto lime. Small amounts of chlorine gas can be made in the laboratory by putting concentrated hydrochloric acid in a flask with a side arm and rubber tubing attached. Manganese dioxide is then added and the flask stoppered. The reaction is not greatly exothermic. As chlorine is denser than air, it can be collected by placing the tube inside a flask where it will displace the air. Once full, the collecting flask can be stoppered. Another method for producing small amounts of chlorine gas in a lab is by adding concentrated hydrochloric acid (typically about 5M) to sodium hypochlorite or sodium chlorate solution. Industrial production Large-scale production of chlorine involves several steps and many pieces of equipment. The description below is typical of a membrane plant. The plant also simultaneously produces sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and hydrogen gas. A typical plant consists of brine production/treatment, cell operations, chlorine cooling & drying, chlorine compression & liquefaction, liquid chlorine storage & loading, caustic handling, evaporation, storage & loading and hydrogen handling. Brine Key to the production of chlorine is the operation of the brine saturation/treatment system. Maintaining a properly saturated solution with the correct purity is vital, especially for membrane cells. Many plants have a salt pile which is sprayed with recycled brine. Others have slurry tanks that are fed raw salt. The raw brine is partially or totally treated with sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and a flocculant to reduce calcium, magnesium and other impurities. The brine proceeds to a large clarifier or a filter where the impurities are removed. The total brine is additionally filtered before entering ion exchangers to further remove impurities. At several points in this process, the brine is tested for hardness and strength. After the ion exchangers, the brine is considered pure, and is transferred to storage tanks to be pumped into the cell room. Brine, fed to the cell line, is heated to the correct temperature to control exit brine temperatures according to the electrical load. Brine exiting the cell room must be treated to remove residual chlorine and control pH levels before being returned to the saturation stage. This can be accomplished via dechlorination towers with acid and sodium bisulfite addition. Failure to remove chlorine can result in damage to the cells. Brine should be monitored for accumulation of both chlorate anions and sulfate anions, and either have a treatment system in place, or purging of the brine loop to maintain safe levels, since chlorate anions can diffuse through the membranes and contaminate the caustic, while sulfate anions can damage the anode surface coating. Cell room The building that houses many electrolytic cells is usually called a cell room or cell house, although some plants are built outdoors. This building contains support structures for the cells, connections for supplying electrical power to the cells and piping for the fluids. Monitoring and control of the temperatures of the feed caustic and brine is done to control exit temperatures. Also monitored are the voltages of each cell which vary with the electrical load on the cell room that is used to control the rate of production. Monitoring and control of the pressures in the chlorine and hydrogen headers is also done via pressure control valves. Direct current is supplied via a rectified power source. Plant load is controlled by varying the current to the cells. As the current is increased, flow rates for brine and caustic and deionized water are increased, while lowering the feed temperatures. Cooling and drying Chlorine gas exiting the cell line must be cooled and dried since the exit gas can be over 80°C and contains moisture that allows chlorine gas to be corrosive to iron piping. Cooling the gas allows for a large amount of moisture from the brine to condense out of the gas stream. Cooling also improves the efficiency of both the compression and the liquefaction stage that follows. Chlorine exiting is ideally between 18°C and 25°C. After cooling the gas stream passes through a series of towers with counter flowing sulfuric acid. These towers progressively remove any remaining moisture from the chlorine gas. After exiting the drying towers the chlorine is filtered to remove any remaining sulfuric acid. Compression and liquefaction Several methods of compression may be used: liquid ring, reciprocating, or centrifugal. The chlorine gas is compressed at this stage and may be further cooled by inter- and after-coolers. After compression it flows to the liquefiers, where it is cooled enough to liquefy. Non condensible gases and remaining chlorine gas are vented off as part of the pressure control of the liquefaction systems. These gases are routed to a gas scrubber, producing sodium hypochlorite, or used in the production of hydrochloric acid (by combustion with hydrogen) or ethylene dichloride (by reaction with ethylene). Storage and loading Liquid chlorine is typically gravity-fed to storage tanks. It can be loaded into rail or road tankers via pumps or padded with compressed dry gas. Caustic handling, evaporation, storage and loading Caustic, fed to the cell room flows in a loop that is simultaneously bled off to storage with a part diluted with deionized water and returned to the cell line for strengthening within the cells. The caustic exiting the cell line must be monitored for strength, to maintain safe concentrations. Too strong or too weak a solution may damage the membranes. Membrane cells typically produce caustic in the range of 30% to 33% by weight. The feed caustic flow is heated at low electrical loads to control its exit temperature. Higher loads require the caustic to be cooled, to maintain correct exit temperatures. The caustic exiting to storage is pulled from a storage tank and may be diluted for sale to customers who require weak caustic or for use on site. Another stream may be pumped into a multiple effect evaporator set to produce commercial 50% caustic. Rail cars and tanker trucks are loaded at loading stations via pumps. Hydrogen handling Hydrogen produced may be vented unprocessed directly to the atmosphere or cooled, compressed and dried for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline, cylinders or trucks. Some possible uses include the manufacture of hydrochloric acid or hydrogen peroxide, as well as desulfurization of petroleum oils, or use as a fuel in boilers or fuel cells. In Porsgrunn the byproduct is used for the hydrogen fueling station at Hynor. Energy consumption Production of chlorine is extremely energy intensive. Energy consumption per unit weight of product is not far below that for iron and steel manufacture and greater than for the production of glass or cement. Since electricity is an indispensable raw material for the production of chlorine, the energy consumption corresponding to the electrochemical reaction cannot be reduced. Energy savings arise primarily through applying more efficient technologies and reducing ancillary energy use. Compounds See also Chlorine compounds For general references to the chloride ion (Cl−), including references to specific chlorides, see chloride. For other chlorine compounds see chlorate (ClO3−), chlorite (ClO2−), hypochlorite (ClO−), and perchlorate (ClO4−), and chloramine (NH2Cl). Other chlorine-containing compounds include: Fluorides: chlorine monofluoride (ClF), chlorine trifluoride (ClF3), chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5) Oxides: chlorine dioxide (ClO2), dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O), dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) Acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl), chloric acid (HClO3), and perchloric acid (HClO4) Oxidation states Oxidationstate Name Formula Example compounds −1 chlorides Cl− ionic chlorides, organic chlorides, hydrochloric acid 0 chlorine Cl2 elemental chlorine +1 hypochlorites ClO− sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite +3 chlorites ClO2− sodium chlorite +5 chlorates ClO3− sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, chloric acid +7 perchlorates ClO4− potassium perchlorate, perchloric acid, magnesium perchlorate organic perchlorates, ammonium perchlorate Chlorine exists in all odd numbered oxidation states from −1 to +7, as well as the elemental state of zero. Progressing through the states, hydrochloric acid can be oxidized using manganese dioxide, or hydrogen chloride gas oxidized catalytically by air to form elemental chlorine gas. The solubility of chlorine in water is increased if the water contains dissolved alkali hydroxide. This is due to disproportionation: Cl2 + 2OH− → Cl− + ClO− + H2O In hot concentrated alkali solution disproportionation continues: 2ClO− → Cl− + ClO2− ClO− + ClO2− → Cl− + ClO3− Sodium chlorate and potassium chlorate can be crystallized from solutions formed by the above reactions. If their crystals are heated, they undergo the final disproportionation step. 4ClO3− → Cl− + 3ClO4− This same progression from chloride to perchlorate can be accomplished by electrolysis. The anode reaction progression is: Cotton, F. Albert and Wilkinson, Geoffrey, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry 2nd ed. John Wiley & sons, p568 {| class="wikitable" align="left" ! Reaction !! Electrodepotential |- | align="center" | Cl− + 2OH− → ClO− + H2O + 2e− || +0.89 volts |- | align="center" | ClO− + 2OH− → ClO2− + H2O + 2e− || +0.67 volts |- | align="center" | ClO2− + 2OH− → ClO3− + H2O + 2e− || +0.33 volts |- | align="center" | ClO3− + 2OH− → ClO4− + H2O + 2e− || +0.35 volts |} Each step is accompanied at the cathode by 2H2O + 2e− → 2OH− + H2 −0.83 volts Applications and uses Production of industrial and consumer products Chlorine's principal applications are in the production of a wide range of industrial and consumer products. For example, it is used in making plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, etc. Purification and disinfection Chlorine is an important chemical for water purification (such as water treatment plants), in disinfectants, and in bleach. Chlorine in water is more than three times more effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an equivalent concentration of bromine, and is more than six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of iodine. Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming pools chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated. (See also chlorination) It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so alternative methods of adding chlorine are used. These include hypochlorite solutions, which gradually release chlorine into the water, and compounds like sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as "dichlor", and trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as "trichlor". These compounds are stable while solid and may be used in powdered, granular, or tablet form. When added in small amounts to pool water or industrial water systems, the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the rest of the molecule forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl) which acts as a general biocide killing germs, micro-organisms, algae, and so on. Chemistry Elemental chlorine is an oxidizer. It undergoes halogen substitution reactions with lower halide salts. For example, chlorine gas bubbled through a solution of bromide or iodide anions oxidizes them to bromine and iodine respectively. Like the other halogens, chlorine participates in free-radical substitution reactions with hydrogen-containing organic compounds. This reaction is often—but not invariably—non-regioselective, and hence, may result in a mixture of isomeric products. It is often difficult to control the degree of substitution as well, so multiple substitutions are common. If the different reaction products are easily separated, e.g. by distillation, substitutive free-radical chlorination (in some cases accompanied by concurrent thermal dehydrochlorination) may be a useful synthetic route. Industrial examples of this are the production of methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride from methane, allyl chloride from propylene, and trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene from 1,2-dichloroethane. Like the other halides, chlorine undergoes electrophilic additions reactions, most notably, the chlorination of alkenes and aromatic compounds with a Lewis acid catalyst. Organic chlorine compounds tend to be less reactive in nucleophilic substitution reactions than the corresponding bromine or iodine derivatives, but they tend to be cheaper. They may be activated for reaction by substituting with a tosylate group, or by the use of a catalytic amount of sodium iodide. Chlorine is used extensively in organic and inorganic chemistry as an oxidizing agent and in substitution reactions because chlorine often imparts many desired properties to an organic compound, due to its electronegativity. Chlorine compounds are used as intermediates in the production of a number of important commercial products that do not contain chlorine. Examples are: polycarbonates, polyurethanes, silicones, polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose and propylene oxide. Use as a weapon World War I Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by the soldiers it had a distinctive smell of a mixture between pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant which can be lethal. The damage done by chlorine gas can be prevented by a gas mask, or other filtration method, which makes the overall chance of death by chlorine gas much lower than those of other chemical weapons. It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben, who developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. It is alleged that Haber's role in the use of chlorine as a deadly weapon drove his wife, Clara Immerwahr, to suicide. After its first use, chlorine was utilized by both sides as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly gases phosgene and mustard gas. Iraq War Chlorine gas has also been used by insurgents against the local population and coalition forces in the Iraq War in the form of Chlorine bombs. On March 17, 2007, for example, three chlorine filled trucks were detonated in the Anbar province killing two and sickening over 350. Other chlorine bomb attacks resulted in higher death tolls, with more than 30 deaths on two separate occasions. Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the explosions rather than the effects of chlorine, since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere by the blast. The Iraqi authorities have tightened up security for chlorine, which is essential for providing safe drinking water for the population. Chlorine cracking Chlorine "attack" of an acetal resin plumbing joint. The element is widely used for purifying water owing to its powerful oxidising properties, especially potable water supplies and water used in swimming pools. Several catastrophic collapses of swimming pool ceilings have occurred owing to stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel rods used to suspend them. Some polymers are also sensitive to attack, including acetal resin and polybutene. Both materials were used in hot and cold water domestic supplies, and stress corrosion cracking caused widespread failures in the USA in the 1980s and '90s. One example shows an acetal joint in a water supply system, which when it fractured, caused substantial physical damage to computers in the labs below the supply. The cracks started at injection moulding defects in the joint and grew slowly until finally triggered. The fracture surface shows iron and calcium salts which were deposited in the leaking joint from the water supply before failure. Other uses Chlorine is used in the manufacture of numerous organic chlorine compounds, the most significant of which in terms of production volume are 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, intermediates in the production of PVC. Other particularly important organochlorines are methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, vinylidene chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, allyl chloride, epichlorohydrin, chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes and trichlorobenzenes. Chlorine is also used in the production of chlorates and in bromine extraction. Health effects Chlorine is a toxic gas that irritates the respiratory system. Because it is heavier than air, it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials. "Chlorine." MSDS. Issued on October 23, 1997; Revised on November 1, 1999 Chlorine is detectable in concentrations of as low as 1 ppm. Coughing and vomiting may occur at 30 ppm and lung damage at 60 ppm. About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep breaths of the gas. Breathing lower concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system, and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes. Chlorine's toxicity comes from its oxidizing power. When chlorine is inhaled at concentrations above 30ppm it begins to react with water and cells which change it into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO). When used at specified levels for water disinfection, although chlorine reaction with water itself usually doesn't represent a major concern for human health, other materials present in the water can generate disinfection by-products that can damage human health. See also Chloride Polymer degradation References External links Chlorine Institute - Trade association and lobby group representing the interests of the chlorine industry Chlorine Online - Chlorine Online is an information resource produced by Eurochlor - the business association of the European chlor-alkali industry Electrolytic production Computational Chemistry Wiki Chlorine Production Using Mercury, Environmental Considerations and Alternatives National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Chlorine Page WebElements.com — Chlorine | Chlorine |@lemmatized chlorine:135 greek:2 word:2 χλωρóς:1 khlôros:1 mean:3 pale:2 green:4 chemical:9 element:13 atomic:2 number:4 symbol:1 cl:10 halogen:6 find:5 periodic:2 table:2 group:5 formerly:2 vii:1 viia:1 viib:1 chloride:42 ion:9 part:3 common:6 salt:13 compound:21 abundant:2 nature:2 necessary:1 form:16 life:3 include:8 human:3 elemental:6 dichlorine:3 standard:2 condition:1 powerful:2 oxidant:1 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change:1 hclo:1 specified:1 represent:2 major:1 degradation:1 external:1 link:1 trade:1 association:2 lobby:1 interest:1 online:2 information:1 resource:1 eurochlor:1 business:1 chlor:1 computational:1 wiki:1 environmental:1 consideration:1 national:2 pollutant:1 inventory:1 occupational:1 safety:1 page:1 webelements:1 com:1 |@bigram periodic_table:2 chloride_ion:5 swim_pool:2 ozone_layer:1 diatomic_molecule:1 pale_yellow:1 kj_mol:1 bromine_iodine:3 iodine_astatine:1 merck_index:1 organic_compound:3 atmospheric_pressure:1 chlorine_chlorine:1 stable_isotope:2 cosmic_ray:1 nuclear_weapon:1 sodium_chloride:4 potassium_chloride:5 potassium_magnesium:1 magnesium_chloride:1 sodium_hydroxide:7 hydrochloric_acid:15 aqua_regia:3 nitric_acid:1 wilhelm_scheele:2 phlogiston_theory:1 gay_lussac:1 carbon_dioxide:1 sir_humphry:1 humphry_davy:1 michael_faraday:1 puerperal_fever:1 caustic_soda:2 hydroxide_naoh:1 caustic_potash:1 potassium_hydroxide:4 nineteenth_century:3 sodium_potassium:6 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2,596 | Hemicellulose | A hemicellulose can be any of several heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides) present in almost all plant cell walls along with cellulose. While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength. It is easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as myriad hemicellulase enzymes. Composition Hemicellulose contains many different sugar monomers. In contrast, cellulose contains only anhydrous glucose. For instance, besides glucose, sugar monomers in hemicellulose can include xylose, mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicelluloses contain most of the D-pentose sugars, and occasionally small amounts of L-sugars as well. Xylose is always the sugar monomer present in the largest amount, but mannuronic acid and galacturonic acid also tend to be present. Structural comparison to cellulose Unlike cellulose, hemicellulose (also a polysaccharide) consists of shorter chains - 500-3000 sugar units as opposed to 7,000 - 15,000 glucose molecules per polymer seen in cellulose. In addition, hemicellulose is a branched polymer, while cellulose is unbranched. Native structure Hemicelluloses are embedded in the cell walls of plants, sometimes in chains that form a 'ground' - they bind with pectin to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres. Applications As percent content of hemicellulose increases in animal feed, the voluntary feed intake decreases. Hemicelluloses include xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan, glucomannan, and xyloglucan. Hemicellulose is represented by the difference between neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF). Functions Microfibrils are cross-linked together by Hemicellulose homopolymers. Lignins assist and strengthen the attachment of Hemicelluloses to microfibrils. See also Cellulose Lignin Pectin | Hemicellulose |@lemmatized hemicellulose:9 several:1 heteropolymers:1 matrix:1 polysaccharide:2 present:3 almost:1 plant:2 cell:2 wall:2 along:1 cellulose:9 crystalline:1 strong:1 resistant:1 hydrolysis:1 random:1 amorphous:1 structure:2 little:1 strength:1 easily:1 hydrolyze:1 dilute:1 acid:4 base:1 well:2 myriad:1 hemicellulase:1 enzyme:1 composition:1 contains:2 many:1 different:1 sugar:6 monomer:3 contrast:1 anhydrous:1 glucose:3 instance:1 besides:1 include:2 xylose:2 mannose:1 galactose:1 rhamnose:1 arabinose:1 hemicelluloses:4 contain:1 pentose:1 occasionally:1 small:1 amount:2 l:1 always:1 large:1 mannuronic:1 galacturonic:1 also:3 tend:1 structural:1 comparison:1 unlike:1 consist:1 shorter:1 chain:2 unit:1 oppose:1 molecule:1 per:1 polymer:2 see:2 addition:1 branched:1 unbranched:1 native:1 embed:1 sometimes:1 form:2 ground:1 bind:1 pectin:2 network:1 cross:2 link:2 fibre:1 application:1 percent:1 content:1 increase:1 animal:1 feed:2 voluntary:1 intake:1 decrease:1 xylan:1 glucuronoxylan:1 arabinoxylan:1 glucomannan:1 xyloglucan:1 represent:1 difference:1 neutral:1 detergent:2 fiber:2 ndf:1 adf:1 function:1 microfibrils:2 together:1 homopolymers:1 lignin:2 assist:1 strengthen:1 attachment:1 |@bigram cellulose_cellulose:1 pentose_sugar:1 cellulose_hemicellulose:1 cellulose_lignin:1 |
2,597 | Cognate | Cognates in linguistics are words that have a common etymological origin. An example of cognates within the same language would be English shirt vs. skirt, the former from Old English scyrte, the latter loaned from Old Norse skyrta, both from the same Common Germanic *skurtjōn-. Words with this type of relationship within a single language are called doublets. Further cognates of the same word in other Germanic languages would include German Schürze and Dutch schort "apron". The word cognate derives from Latin cognatus "blood relative". <ref>from co (with) +gnatus, natus, past participle of nasci "to be born". Cassell's Latin Dictionary. The English word can also have a range of meaning "related by blood, having a common ancestor, or related by an analogous nature, character, or function". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition s.v. cognate.</ref> Characteristics of cognate words Cognates need not have the same meaning: dish (English) and Tisch ("table", German) and desco ("table", medieval Italian), or starve (English) and sterben ("die", German), or head (English) and chef ("chief, head", French), serve as examples as to how cognate terms may diverge in meaning as languages develop separately, eventually becoming false friends. Cognates across languages Examples of cognates in Indo-European languages are the words night (English), nuit (French), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch),nicht (Scots), natt (Swedish, Norwegian), nat (Danish), nátt (Faroese), nótt (Icelandic), noc (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, noch (Russian), нощ, nosht (Bulgarian), ніч, nich (Ukrainian), ноч, noch/noč (Belarusian), noć/ноћ (Croatian, Serbian), νύξ, nyx (Greek), nox (Latin), nakt- (Sanskrit), natë (Albanian), noche (Spanish), nos (Welsh), noite (Portuguese and Galician), notte (Italian), nit (Catalan), noapte (Romanian), and naktis (Lithuanian), all meaning "night" and derived from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) , "night". Another Indo-European example is star (English), str- (Sanskrit), Sitara/Tara(Hindi),astre or étoile (French), αστήρ (astēr) (Greek), stella (Latin, Italian), stea (Romanian and Venetian), stairno (Gothic), astl (Armenian), Stern (German), ster (Dutch and Afrikaans), starn (Scots), stjerne (Norwegian and Danish), stjarna (Icelandic), stjärna (Swedish), stjørna (Faroese), setare (Persian), stoorei (Pashto), seren (Welsh), steren (Cornish), estel (Catalan), estrella (Spanish) and Leonese, estrela (Portuguese and Galician) and estêre or stêrk (Kurdish), from the PIE , "star". The Hebrew shalom, the Arabic salaam and the Amharic selam ("peace") are also cognates, derived from Proto-Semitic *šalām-. The phrase for new year in Mon-Khmer languages are noticeable cognates, Khmer "chnam thmei", Mon "snam thme" and Vietnamese "năm mới". Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word milk is clearly a cognate of German Milch. On the other hand, French lait and Spanish leche (both meaning "milk") are less obviously cognates of Ancient Greek (genitive singular of , "milk") , a relationship more evidently seen through the intermediate Latin lac "milk", as well as the English word lactic and other terms borrowed from Latin. Cognates within the same language Cognates can exist within the same language. For example, English ward and guard (<PIE *wer-, "to perceive, watch out for") are cognates, as are shirt and skirt (<PIE *sker-, "to cut"). In some cases, such as "shirt" and "skirt", one of the cognate pairs has an ultimate source in another language related to English, while the other one is native, as happened with many loanwords from Old Norse (which was mutually intelligible with Old English) borrowed when the Vikings conquered part of England. Sometimes, both cognates come from other languages, often the same one but at different times. For example, the word chief comes from the Middle French chef, and its modern pronunciation preserves the Middle French consonant sound. The word chef was borrowed from the same source centuries later, by which time the consonant had changed to a "sh"-sound in French. Such words are said to be etymological twins. False cognates False cognates are words that are commonly thought to be related (have a common origin) whereas linguistic examination reveals they are unrelated. Thus, for example, on the basis of superficial similarities one might suppose that the Latin verb habere and German haben, both meaning 'to have', were cognates. However, an understanding of the way words in the two languages evolve from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots shows that they cannot be cognate (see for example Grimm's law). German haben (like English have) in fact comes from PIE *kap, 'to grasp', and its real cognate in Latin is capere, 'to seize, grasp, capture'. Latin habere, on the other hand, is from PIE *gʰabʰ, 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English give and German geben. The similarity of words between languages is not enough to demonstrate that the words are related to each other, in much the same way that facial resemblance does not imply a close genetic relationship between people. Over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sound completely. Thus, for example, English five and Sanskrit pança are cognates, while English over and Hebrew ′avar are not, and neither are English dog and Mbabaram dog. Contrast this with false friends, which frequently are'' cognate. References See also Cognate object Historical-comparative linguistics Paronym False friend | Cognate |@lemmatized cognate:28 linguistics:2 word:17 common:4 etymological:2 origin:2 example:9 within:4 language:14 would:2 english:19 shirt:3 v:2 skirt:3 former:1 old:4 scyrte:1 latter:1 loan:1 norse:2 skyrta:1 germanic:2 skurtjōn:1 type:1 relationship:3 single:1 call:1 doublet:1 include:1 german:9 schürze:1 dutch:3 schort:1 apron:1 derives:1 latin:9 cognatus:1 blood:2 relative:1 ref:2 co:1 gnatus:1 natus:1 past:1 participle:1 nasci:1 bear:1 cassell:1 dictionary:2 also:3 range:1 mean:3 relate:5 ancestor:1 analogous:1 nature:1 character:1 function:1 american:1 heritage:1 fourth:1 edition:1 characteristic:1 need:1 meaning:3 dish:1 tisch:1 table:2 desco:1 medieval:1 italian:3 starve:1 sterben:1 die:1 head:2 chef:3 chief:2 french:7 serve:1 examples:1 term:2 may:3 diverge:1 develop:1 separately:1 eventually:1 become:1 false:5 friend:3 across:1 indo:4 european:4 night:3 nuit:1 nacht:2 nicht:1 scots:2 natt:1 swedish:2 norwegian:2 nat:1 danish:2 nátt:1 faroese:2 nótt:1 icelandic:2 noc:1 czech:1 slovak:1 polish:1 ночь:1 noch:2 russian:1 нощ:1 nosht:1 bulgarian:1 ніч:1 nich:1 ukrainian:1 ноч:1 noč:1 belarusian:1 noć:1 ноћ:1 croatian:1 serbian:1 νύξ:1 nyx:1 greek:3 nox:1 nakt:1 sanskrit:3 natë:1 albanian:1 noche:1 spanish:3 welsh:2 noite:1 portuguese:2 galician:2 notte:1 nit:1 catalan:2 noapte:1 romanian:2 naktis:1 lithuanian:1 derive:2 proto:3 pie:7 another:2 star:2 str:1 sitara:1 tara:1 hindi:1 astre:1 étoile:1 αστήρ:1 astēr:1 stella:1 stea:1 venetian:1 stairno:1 gothic:1 astl:1 armenian:1 stern:1 ster:1 afrikaans:1 starn:1 stjerne:1 stjarna:1 stjärna:1 stjørna:1 setare:1 persian:1 stoorei:1 pashto:1 seren:1 steren:1 cornish:1 estel:1 estrella:1 leonese:1 estrela:1 estêre:1 stêrk:1 kurdish:1 hebrew:2 shalom:1 arabic:1 salaam:1 amharic:1 selam:1 peace:1 semitic:1 šalām:1 phrase:1 new:1 year:2 mon:2 khmer:2 noticeable:1 chnam:1 thmei:1 snam:1 thme:1 vietnamese:1 năm:1 mới:1 cognates:1 often:2 less:2 easily:1 recognise:1 authority:1 sometimes:2 differ:1 interpretation:1 evidence:1 milk:4 clearly:1 milch:1 hand:2 lait:1 leche:1 obviously:1 ancient:1 genitive:1 singular:1 evidently:1 see:3 intermediate:1 lac:1 well:1 lactic:1 borrow:3 exist:1 ward:1 guard:1 wer:1 perceive:1 watch:1 sker:1 cut:1 case:1 one:4 pair:1 ultimate:1 source:2 native:1 happen:1 many:1 loanword:1 mutually:1 intelligible:1 viking:1 conquer:1 part:1 england:1 come:3 different:1 time:2 middle:2 modern:1 pronunciation:1 preserve:1 consonant:2 sound:3 century:1 later:1 change:2 sh:1 say:1 twin:1 commonly:1 think:1 whereas:1 linguistic:1 examination:1 reveals:1 unrelated:1 thus:2 basis:1 superficial:1 similarity:2 might:1 suppose:1 verb:1 habere:2 haben:2 however:1 understanding:1 way:2 two:1 evolve:1 root:1 show:1 cannot:1 grimm:1 law:1 like:1 fact:1 kap:1 grasp:2 real:1 capere:1 seize:1 capture:1 gʰabʰ:1 give:2 receive:1 hence:1 geben:1 enough:1 demonstrate:1 much:1 facial:1 resemblance:1 imply:1 close:1 genetic:1 people:1 course:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 completely:1 five:1 pança:1 avar:1 neither:1 dog:2 mbabaram:1 contrast:1 frequently:1 reference:1 object:1 historical:1 comparative:1 paronym:1 |@bigram past_participle:1 indo_european:4 czech_slovak:1 croatian_serbian:1 portuguese_galician:2 proto_indo:2 proto_semitic:1 mon_khmer:1 genitive_singular:1 mutually_intelligible:1 false_cognate:2 superficial_similarity:1 hundred_thousand:1 comparative_linguistics:1 |
2,598 | Guinea-Bissau | The Republic of Guinea-Bissau (; ) is a country in western Africa, and one of the smallest states in continental Africa. It is bordered by Senegal to the north, and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west. Its size is nearly 37,000 km² with an estimated population of 1,600,000. Formerly the Portuguese colony of Portuguese Guinea, upon independence, the name of its capital, Bissau, was added to the country's name to prevent confusion with the Republic of Guinea. Guinea-Bissau's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world. History Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, part of the Mali Empire; parts of this kingdom persisted until the eighteenth century, while others were part of the Portuguese Empire. Portuguese Guinea was known also, from its main economic activity, as the Slave Coast. Reports on travels reaching this area can be tracked down to Venetian Alvise Cadamosto, Alvide da Ca' da Mosto, Luis Cadamosto, ( c. 1432 – July 18, 1488), travel of 1455, and the 1479 - 1480 travel by Flemish-French trader Eustache de la Fosse, Eustache Delafosse, and Diogo Cam, Diogo Cão, born circa 1450, who in the 1480s reached the Congo River, and reaching the lands of Bakongo, setting up thus the foundations of actual Angola, some 1200 km down the African Equatorial Coast from Guinea-Bissau. Although the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by the Portuguese, since the 16th century, the interior was not explored until the nineteenth century. The local African rulers in Guinea, who prospered greatly from the slave trade, had no interest in allowing the Europeans any further inland than the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took place. The Portuguese presence in Guinea was therefore largely limited to the port of Bissau and Cacheu. For a brief period in the 1790s the British attempted to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. But by the 19th century the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory, also up north in part of present South Senegal. An armed rebellion beginning in 1956 by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral gradually consolidated its hold on then Portuguese Guinea. Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its military control over large portions of the territory, aided by the jungle-like terrain, its easily-reached borderlines with neighbouring allies and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors and technicians. The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack. By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea. Independence was unilaterally declared on September 24, 1973. Recognition became universal following the April 25, 1974 socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal which overthrew Lisbon's Estado Novo regime. Independence Following independence local black soldiers that fought along with the Portuguese Army against the PAIGC guerrillas were slaughtered by the thousands. Some managed to escape and settled in Portugal or other African nations, one of the massacres occurred in the town of Bissorã. In 1980 the PAIGC admitted in its newspaper "Nó Pintcha" (dated November 29, 1980) that many were executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole and Mansabá. The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in 1994, but an army uprising in 1998 led to the president's ousting and the Guinea-Bissau Civil War. Elections were held again in 2000 and Kumba Ialá was elected president. In September 2003, a coup took place in which the military arrested Ialá on the charge of being "unable to solve the problems." After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in March 2004 . A mutiny of military factions in October 2004 resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces, and caused widespread unrest. The Vieira years Map of Guinea BissauIn June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá. Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country, but the election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1998 coup. Vieira was a candidate for one of the factions of the PAIGC. Vieira beat Malam Bacai Sanhá in a runoff election, but Sanhá refused initially to concede, claiming that the elections have been fraudulent in two constituencies, including the capital, Bissau. Despite reports that there had been an influx of arms in the weeks leading up to the election and reports of some "disturbances during campaigning" - including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen - foreign election monitors monitors labelled the election as "calm and organized". Viera's party, PAIGC, made further gains, to secure 67 of 100 seats, in parliamentary elections in November 2008. In November 2008, President Vieira's residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard but leaving the president unharmed. On March 2, 2009, however, Vieira was assassinated by what preliminary reports indicated to be a group of soldiers avenging the death of the head of joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Wai. Tagme died in an explosion on Sunday, March 1, 2009 in an assassination in which - according to some sources - Vieira could have been involved. Military leaders in the country have pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession. National Assembly Speaker Raimundo Pereira was appointed as an interim president until a nationwide election June 28, 2009. Já foi escolhida a data para a realização das eleições presidenciais entecipadas Politics Ministry of Justice, Bissau Guinea-Bissau is a republic. In the past, the government had been highly centralized, and multiparty governance has been in effect since mid-1991. The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. At the legislative level, there is a unicameral "Assembleia Nacional Popular" (National People's Assembly) made up of 100 members. They are popularly elected from multi-member constituencies to serve a four-year term. At the judicial level, there is a "Tribunal Supremo da Justiça" (Supreme Court) which consists of nine justices appointed by the president, they serve at the pleasure of the president. João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira became President of Guinea-Bissau in 2005. Vieira returned to power in 2005 after winning the presidential election only six years after being ousted from office during a civil war. Previously, he held power for 19 years after taking power in 1980 in a bloodless coup. In that action, he toppled the government of Luís Cabral. He was killed on March 2, 2009, possibly by soldiers in retaliation for the killing of the head of the joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Waie. Regions and sectors Guinea-Bissau is divided into 8 regions () and one autonomous sector (). These in turn are subdivided into thirty-seven sectors. The regions are: Geography Typical scenery in Guinea-Bissau Satellite image of Guinea-Bissau (2003) At 13,945 sq mi. (36,120 km²), Guinea-Bissau is larger in size to Taiwan, Belgium, or the US state of Maryland. This small, tropical country lies at a low altitude; its highest point is 984 feet (300 m). The interior is savanna, and the coastline is swampy plain. Its monsoon-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara. The Bijagos Archipelago extends out to sea. Major cities Cities in Guinea-Bissau Rank City Population Region1979 Census 2005 estimate 1 Bissau 109,214 388,028 Bissau 2 Bafatá 13,429 22,521 Bafatá 3 Gabú 7,803 14,430 Gabú 4 Bissorã N/A 12,688 Oio 5 Bolama 9,100 10,769 Bolama 6 Cacheu 7,600 10,490 Cacheu 7 Bubaque 8,400 9,941 Bolama 8 Catió 5,170 9,898 Tombali 9 Mansôa 5,390 7,821 Oio 10 Buba N/A 7,779 Quinara 11 Quebo N/A 7,072 Quinara 12 Canchungo 4,965 6,853 Cacheu 13 Farim 4,468 6,792 Oio 14 Quinhámel N/A 3,128 Biombo 15 Fulacunda N/A 1,327 Quinara Climate Guinea-Bissau is warm all year around and there is little temperature fluctuation; it averages 26.3°C (79.3°F). The average rainfall for Bissau is 2024 mm although this is almost entirely accounted for during the rainy season which falls between June and September/October. From December through April, the country experiences drought. Economy Guinea-Bissau's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world. Its Human Development Index is one of the lowest on earth. More than two-thirds of Guinea-Bissau's population lives below the poverty line. The economy depends mainly on agriculture; fish, cashew nuts and ground nuts are its major exports. A long period of political instability has resulted in depressed economic activity, deteriorating social conditions, and increased macroeconomic imbalances. Guinea-Bissau has started to show some economic advances after a pact of stability was signed by the main political parties of the country, leading to an IMF-backed structural reform program. The key challenges for the country in the period ahead would be to achieve fiscal discipline, rebuild public administration, improve the economic climate for private investment, and promote economic diversification. After becoming independent from Portugal in 1974 due to the Portuguese Colonial War and the Lisbon's Carnation Revolution, the exodous of the Portuguese civilian, military and political authorities brought tremendous damage to the country’s economic infrastructure, social order and standard of living. After several years of economic dowturn and political instability, in 1997, Guinea Bissau entered the CFA franc monetary system, bringing about some internal monetary stability. The civil war that took place in 1998 and 1999 and a military coup in September 2003 again disrupted economic activity, leaving a substantial part of the economic and social infrastructure in ruins and intensifying the already widespread poverty. Following the parliamentary elections in March 2004 and presidential elections in July 2005, the country is trying to recover from the long period of instability despite a still-fragile political situation. Bula, Guinea-Bissau Beginning around 2005, drug traffickers based in Latin America began to use Guinea-Bissau, along with several neighboring West African nations, as a transshipment point to Europe for cocaine. The nation was described by a United Nations official as being at risk for becoming a "narco-state". Guinea-Bissau is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). Gallery Demographics Crossing the river at low tide The population of Guinea-Bissau is ethnically diverse and has many distinct languages, customs, and social structures. Guinea-Bissauans can be divided into the following three ethnic groups: Fula and the Mandinka-speaking people, who comprise the largest portion of the population and are concentrated in the north and northeast; the Balanta and Papel people, who live in the southern coastal regions; and the Manjaco and Mancanha, who occupy the central and northern coastal areas. Most of the remainder are mestiços of mixed Portuguese and African descent, including a Cape Verdean minority. Portuguese natives comprise a very small percentage of Guinea-Bissauans. This deficit was directly caused by the exodus of Portuguese settlers that took place after Guinea-Bissau gained independence. The country has also a tiny Chinese population, including those of mixed Portuguese and Chinese ancestry from Macau, a former Asian Portuguese colony. Only 14% of the population speaks the official language Portuguese. 44% speak Kriol, a Portuguese-based creole language, and the remainder speaks native African languages. Most Portuguese and Mestiços speak one of the African languages and Kriol as second languages. French is also learned in schools, as the country is surrounded by French-speaking countries and is a full member of the Francophonie. Islam is the predominant religion, practiced by approximately 50 percent of the country's population. Guinea-Bissau is the only Lusophone nation with a Muslim majority, others are predominantly Christian. Most of Guinea-Bissau's Muslims belong to Sunni Islam. In addition to this, 40 percent hold Indigenous beliefs and 10 percent of the country's population belong to the Christian community. CIA the World Factbook Culture See also: List of writers from Guinea-Bissau, Music of Guinea-Bissau The music of Guinea-Bissau is usually associated with the polyrhythmic gumbe genre, the country's primary musical export. However, civil unrest and other factors have combined over the years to keep gumbe, and other genres, out of mainstream audiences, even in generally syncretist African countries. The calabash is the primary musical instrument of Guinea-Bissau, and is used in extremely swift and rhythmically complex dance music. Lyrics are almost always in Guinea-Bissau Creole, a Portuguese-based creole language, and are often humorous and topical, revolving around current events and controversies, especially AIDS. The word gumbe is sometimes used generically, to refer to any music of the country, although it most specifically refers to a unique style that fuses about ten of the country's folk music traditions. Tina and tinga are other popular genres, while extent folk traditions include ceremonial music used in funerals, initiations and other rituals, as well as Balanta brosca and kussundé, Mandinga djambadon and the kundere sound of the Bissagos Islands. Flora Gomes is an internationally renowned film director. His most famous film is "Nha Fala". See also Communications in Guinea-Bissau Foreign relations of Guinea-Bissau List of Guinea-Bissau-related topics Military of Guinea-Bissau Transport in Guinea-Bissau Scouting in Guinea-Bissau References Sources Richard Andrew Lobban, Jr. and Peter Karibe Mendy, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau, third edition (Scarecrow Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8108-3226-7 (includes extensive bibliography) External links Government Official government website Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Country Profile from BBC News Guinea-Bissau from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' News media news headline links from AllAfrica.com Tourism be-x-old:Ґвінэя-Бісаў | Guinea-Bissau |@lemmatized republic:4 guinea:49 bissau:45 country:22 western:1 africa:3 one:8 small:3 state:5 continental:1 border:1 senegal:2 north:3 south:2 east:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 west:2 size:2 nearly:1 estimated:1 population:9 formerly:1 portuguese:21 colony:3 upon:1 independence:6 name:2 capital:2 add:1 prevent:1 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2,599 | Gymnosphaerid | The gymnosphaerids (or Gymnosphaerida) are a small group of heliozoan protists found in marine environments. They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, supported by microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array arising from an amorphous central granule. Genera There are only three genera, each with a single species: Gymnosphaera albida, Hedraiophrys hovassei, and Actinocoryne contractilis. Gymnosphaera albida is free-living, usually benthic in shallow water. The cells are round and naked, around 70-100 μm in diameter, and resemble the unrelated Actinosphaerium. The outer cytoplasm, or ectoplasm, forms a distinct layer containing large vesicles. Hedraiophrys hovassei is larger and lives attached to algae and other objects. The cells have a conical base, and are covered with long siliceous spicules. The ectoplasm is distinct and frothy, and typically contains bacterial and algal endosymbionts. Actinocoryne contractilis is benthic. When feeding, it has a multinucleate base and a contractile stalk up to 150 μm in length, supporting a relatively small uninucleate head, where the central granule and axopods are located. It may move about in a headless amoeboid form. Reproduction is either by budding off the head or fragmentation of the headless form, producing small free-living cells similar to Gymnosphaera, which then attach themselves and regrow the stalk and base. Classification Gymnosphaerids were originally considered centrohelids, which also have microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array, but are set apart from the others by the structure of the central granule and the mitochondria, which have tubular cristae. The two groups have been treated as separate orders (Axoplasthelida and Centroplasthelida) in a common class, but this has lost support. Instead the gymnosphaerids may be allied with the desmothoracids, and on account of this have been placed in the Cercozoa, but this is somewhat tentative. References | Gymnosphaerid |@lemmatized gymnosphaerids:3 gymnosphaerida:1 small:3 group:2 heliozoan:1 protist:1 find:1 marine:1 environment:1 tend:1 roughly:1 spherical:1 radially:1 direct:1 axopods:2 support:3 microtubule:2 triangular:2 hexagonal:2 array:2 arise:1 amorphous:1 central:3 granule:3 genus:2 three:1 single:1 specie:1 gymnosphaera:3 albida:2 hedraiophrys:2 hovassei:2 actinocoryne:2 contractilis:2 free:2 living:2 usually:1 benthic:2 shallow:1 water:1 cell:3 round:1 naked:1 around:1 μm:2 diameter:1 resemble:1 unrelated:1 actinosphaerium:1 outer:1 cytoplasm:1 ectoplasm:2 form:3 distinct:2 layer:1 contain:2 large:2 vesicle:1 live:1 attach:2 algae:1 object:1 conical:1 base:3 cover:1 long:1 siliceous:1 spicule:1 frothy:1 typically:1 bacterial:1 algal:1 endosymbionts:1 feeding:1 multinucleate:1 contractile:1 stalk:2 length:1 relatively:1 uninucleate:1 head:2 locate:1 may:2 move:1 headless:2 amoeboid:1 reproduction:1 either:1 bud:1 fragmentation:1 produce:1 similar:1 regrow:1 classification:1 originally:1 consider:1 centrohelids:1 also:1 set:1 apart:1 others:1 structure:1 mitochondrion:1 tubular:1 cristae:1 two:1 treat:1 separate:1 order:1 axoplasthelida:1 centroplasthelida:1 common:1 class:1 lose:1 instead:1 ally:1 desmothoracids:1 account:1 place:1 cercozoa:1 somewhat:1 tentative:1 reference:1 |@bigram μm_diameter:1 |
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